Underbalanced drilling

The growing number of depleted reservoirs around the world and the increasing necessity to recover hydrocarbons more efficiently has been forcing the oil and gas industry to continuously improve its drilling technology. Currently, the combination of drilling techniques that were conceptualized more than 100 years ago, have with recent technological innovations ended up in specialized drilling techniques.

These techniques, when properly designed and executed, allow drilling a well more economically, safely, and successfully in almost any given environment. One such technique is called underbalanced drilling (UBD).

Introduction
Underbalanced drilling is the drilling process in which the wellbore pressure is intentionally designed to be lower than the pressure of the formation being drilled. This underbalanced pressure condition allows the reservoir fluids to enter the wellbore during drilling, thus preventing fluid loss and related causes of formation damage. As a result, special and additional equipment, and procedures are required before, during, and after a UBD operation.

In addition, to improving well productivity by preventing fluid loss and formation damage, underbalanced drilling offers several other significant benefits that are superior to conventional drilling techniques.
These include increased penetration rate and bit life, reduced probability of sticking the drillstring downhole, and improved formation evaluation.

Introduction

Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) comprises of methods to drill and safely manage annular pressures while drilling. By lowering the hydrostatic head you will prevent the build up of wall cake (filter cake) thus eliminating the invasion of drilling fluid and drilling solids that are normally forced into the formation this will help to improve the productivity of the reservoir while at the same time help to reduce drilling problems such as stuck pipe

The UBD pressure condition allows the reservoir fluids to enter the wellbore

Overbalanced

Well control is normally maintained with the use of weighted drilling fluids. These fluids increase the hydrostatic pressure created by the drilling fluid column so that it exceeds the pressure of the formation. The result, an overbalanced.

Conventional drilling where the formation pressure is controlled by the fluid weight

Reduced formation damage. A major problem with overbalanced drilling in sensitive reservoirs is a type of formation damage known as skin damage. Where unwanted solids and fluids enter the wellbore along with the chemicals intended to enhance drilling, they penetrate the productive zone and often clog the formations pores. Skin damage results, this reduces the overall productivity of the formation.

The degree of skin damage is referred to as the skin factor or skin effect. The more extensive the damage, the higher the skin factor. In many cases, a costly wellstimulation program is required; often the wells potential productivity is never fully realized

Overbalanced drilling

Underbalanced drilling

Underbalanced Drilling Concepts In underbalanced drilling, the concept of primary well control (containing the formation fluids by means of hydrostatic columns greater than the formation pressure) is replaced by the concept of flow control. In flow control the bottomhole pressure (BHP) and influx of formation fluids must be controlled. Therefore, in UBD operations the BHP must be maintained between two pressure boundaries, which delimit the underbalanced drilling pressure window. See illustrates Bottomhole Pressure

Formation pore pressure

UBD pressure window

Wellbore stability or flow rate and pressure capacity of the surface equipment

Reservoir influx

UBD pressure window in which the lower limit on BHP is determined by the borehole stability or the flow rate or pressure capacity of the surface equipment. Whereas, the formation pore pressure gives the upper limit on BHP.

Barriers

In UBD the closed surface control system, a single barrier, multiple flow path system approach is used to maximize safety and system redundancy. Conventional two barrier philosophies (overbalanced mud column plus BOP flange) are not possible during UBD and as such a single barrier must be accepted. The conventional BOP stack configuration remains unchanged and serves the same function as for conventional overbalanced drilling.
Courtesy NORTHLAND ENERGY RBOP

On top of the conventional BOP stack is a specialized devise, such as a rotating blow out preventer (RBOP) or a rotating control head (RCH), to contain annular pressure and divert returns to the surface control system

Conventional rotary rig must be adapted for UBD

In UBD, control of wellbore pressure is obtained by leading the well returns through an adjustable surface choke. Separation of drilling fluids, oil, gas, and solids is typically achieved by means of production type separation tanks. Therefore, the conventional rotary rig must be adapted for UBD such as:

The capacity to effect a seal around the kelly or drill pipe while concurrently rotating the drill string,
equipment to separate the four phases of the well returns (gas, oil, water, cuttings), a means of regulating well flow in order to maintain the desired level of underbalanced, a method of generating and introducing gas into the fluid system, storage facilities for the produced hydrocarbons must be available, and float valves have to be incorporated to prevent well flow up the drill string.

Kill Fluid

The liquid phase of the drilling fluid system will in general have sufficient density to serve as a kill fluid in case of emergency occurs. If the liquid phase does not have the appropriate density, a separate batch of specific kill fluid has to be available at the side.

Mainly, depending on the desired BHP, there is typically a choice of three basic fluid systems for UBD: single-phase liquid system, gasified liquid, and foam system.
Considerations for drilling fluid design for underbalanced operations differ from the conventional overbalanced method in a number of ways

Filter cake materials

Filter cake materials is typically not added because underbalanced prevents fluid loss. Further, filter cake materials is generally considered to be an impairing agent, weighting materials, which also are impairing agents, are not required for the purpose of primary well control.

The addition of viscosifiers are not necessary because the annular multiphase flow system creates high friction gradients or large apparent viscosity, which provides exceptional turbulent hole cleaning characteristics.

As a result, formation water, diesel, and reservoir crude are typically used as the liquid-phase of common UBD fluid systems, and nitrogen is usually injected when the formation pore pressure cannot tolerate a liquid hydrostatic head.

Cost UBD is a combined drilling and production operation, requiring drilling and production equipment and a multidisciplinary team makes the cost of UBD be 1.3 to 2.0 times the conventional. Therefore, the expected benefits in drilling performance must at least be sufficient to offset the additional costs associated with underbalanced drilling. These expected benefits are obtained by improving productivity by eliminating well impairment to a large extent in the following ways: higher production rate per well, which may result in higher income higher net preset value of produced hydrocarbons due to early start of production faster production rate, and increase recoverable hydrocarbons because UBD could make it possible to produce wells at economic flow rates down to lower depletion pressure. Consequently, the primary objective of UBD is to achieve near-zero skin damage and offer every interval of the reservoir an opportunity for production.

Problem Description Even though the underbalanced drilling technique has proven itself to be successful in minimizing some drilling operating problems and reducing drilling time, it has been recognized by the petroleum industry that its greatest advantage is to increase well productivity through the formation damage prevention during the drilling process. It is also being accepted that the success of an underbalanced drilling operation is function of the ability to maintain underbalanced conditions during the entire drilling process. Unfortunately, during jointed-pipe drilling, the surface injection must be interrupted every time a connection or trip is needed. This stopping of injection causes the disruption of steady state conditions.

Additionally, during a connection, when injection is stopped, the bottomhole pressure initially decreases due to the frictional pressure loss.
Then, during the connection time, due to buoyancy and inertial forces the gas phase continues moving upwards while the liquid phase flows backwards. This fluid separation forms liquid slugs in the annulus and inside the drillstring.

Regaining circulation,
Upon restarting injection and regaining circulation, frictional pressure is exerted on the bottom hole and the liquid slugs in the drillstring are pumped into the annulus thus increasing the hydrostatic pressure. Consequently, during a pipe connection a pressure spike is observed with a short period of sustaining higher bottomhole pressure that usually exposes the formation to overbalanced conditions. Since this phenomenon occurs each time a connection takes place, and the time between drilling and connections is insufficient to regain steady state conditions, UBD pipe connection operations trigger a bottomhole pressure fluctuation. Fig 1.03 shows actual annular bottomhole pressure fluctuations recorded while drilling the Mexican well. This well was jointed-pipe drilled from 2610 m (8563 ft) to 2779 m (9118 ft) 555 ft (169m) simultaneously injecting nitrogen and drilling fluid.

Typical BHP fluctuations observed during UBD.

Drill pipe connections.

Short trip to the casing shoe. Time (hours)

This well was jointed-pipe drilled from 2610 m (8563 ft) to 2779 m (9118 ft) 555 ft (169m) simultaneously injecting nitrogen and drilling fluid.

This is the typical bottomhole pressure behaviour observed in jointed-pipe UBD operations. Therefore, if these BHP fluctuations are not properly maintained below the formation pressure, the formation will be exposed to an overbalanced condition every time a connection or trip takes place.
These periods of overbalanced can ruin or reduce the advantages obtained after making the efforts and expenses to drill the well underbalanced. The major issue here is that, since the formation pressure is greater than the borehole pressure in a truly underbalanced operation, there is no impetus for the formation of any type of classic sealing filter cake on the surface of the rock.

Evidently, this is advantageous with respect to prevention of formation damage and differential sticking, which may be associated with the influx of potentially damaging filtrate or mud solids into the formation, but it also means that the protective ability and presence of this filter cake as a barrier to fluid and solid invasion is negated.
Then, if the formation is abruptly or gradually (e.g. during a trip or during connections) exposed to a condition of periodic pulses of overbalanced pressure caused by the BHP fluctuations, very rapid and severe invasion of filtrate and associated solids may occur, causing even greater formation damage than that occurring when using a welldesigned conventional overbalanced drilling program. Fig schematically shows these conditions.

This problem is often compounded by the fact that very thin, low viscosity base fluid systems are usually used in most UBD operations

Schematic representations of fluids and solids loss in overbalanced Fluid invasion Solid invasion

Overbalanced drilling ineffective fluid loss control Fracture formations

Overbalanced drilling effective fluid loss control

Schematic representations of fluids and solids loss in underbalanced Fluid invasion Vugular System

Underbalanced drilling no mud or solid invading Matrix system

Underbalanced drilling effect o f overbalanced pressure pulse

Although in practices, borehole stability turns out not to be a major limitation, borehole instability can also be caused by the bottomhole pressure fluctuations because such BHP fluctuation can mechanically destabilize the formation.
Additionally, these BHP fluctuations cause that the returning rates of liquid and gas and wellhead pressures are unstable, too.

In practice, these unstable wellhead conditions are adverse for the good performance of the rotating head rubbers.

Attempted Solutions

The use of different drilling systems, such as snubbing and coiled tubing units, has been attempted as potential solutions to achieve 100% underbalanced conditions; however, their success has been limited to specific conditions. For example, the snubbing unit, which increases drilling time and cost when used, allows tripping with pressure but does not eliminate the bottomhole pressure fluctuation during connections. The coiled tubing unit eliminates both connection and tripping problems but cannot be used as a general underbalanced drilling rig because of its mechanical limitations and high cost. Different gas injection techniques (parasite tubing string or parasite casing string) have only partially reduced the bottomhole pressure fluctuation, but at a very high cost (additional gas injection, extra casing or tubing string, etc.). Also, when using parasite string configurations, the full hydrostatic column of fluid causes bit jetting and flushing effects.

There are also some new and emerging technologies that could be used to better manage the wellbore pressure. For example, a technology called the Closed Loop Continuous Circulation System enables a rig to make a drill pipe connection while maintaining continuous circulation. This prevents the drilling mud from developing gel strength and fluid separation; thereby reducing BHP fluctuations and potential reservoir damage upon pump restart after a connection. The Equivalent Circulation Density Reduction Tool utilizes a pump positioned in the drilling string, so that the pump remains in the cased section of the wellbore. This technology achieves a reduction in effective equivalent circulation density (ECD) across the open hole section and increases the ECD in the cased hole section where higher pressure can be more easily managed. These partially proven technologies are expensive, limiting their application to high productivity wells where the use of such technology is judged profitable. On the other hand, the use of new designs of UBD fluids, which use elastic fibershaped additives to temporarily plug the formation pores when instantaneous positive pressure difference is formed during UBD, has only experimentally shown that the formation damage can be reduced by 20% to 40% compared to conventional clay drilling fluids.

For all these reasons, the loss of underbalanced conditions during connections and trips is still a concern to be addressed by future technological developments in the petroleum industry. A downhole valve system (deployment valve) that is run as an integral part of the wells casing string will allow isolating the open hole from the cased hole during tripping and completion operations. Although this valve has not yet completely been accepted by the industry, it seems to be a practical solution for maintaining at least balanced condition during tripping and completion operations. A solution to ensure that wells are maintained underbalanced during pipe connections is to reduce the target bottomhole pressure low enough to accommodate any pressure fluctuation that may occur. Unfortunately, this would require higher gas injection rates and additional surface equipment to adequately handle the flow of formation fluids. Therefore, a preferable approach is to more fully understand the dynamics of gas and liquid flow behaviour during UBD operations and use this information to more effectively control the bottomhole pressure.

UBD also allows the drillbit to penetrate faster, reducing drilling time and thus drilling costs. On average, UBD doubles drilling speed although in some instances it can increase speed by up to 10 times. UBD is also sometimes used to increase the penetration rate in hard, nonhydrocarbon bearing rocks by drilling with air; however, this process can be hazardous when used to drill hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs. Another potential market for UBD is in areas where the formations are pressure depleted. Depletion not only leads to increased formation damage, but may completely halt drilling if circulation is lost which occurs when drilling fluid flows into a depleted zone or fracture. UBD allows new wells to be drilled into mature, low pressure reservoirs. A gas such as nitrogen is used to lighten the fluid to underbalance the well. Drilling under balanced can also reduce drill pipe sticking problems. This is commonly known as differential sticking and occurs when the wellbore pressure is greater than the reservoir pressure which can cause the drillpipe to be sucked against the reservoir. This can cause delays while trying to retrieve the equipment and sometimes forces operators to drill around the stuck pipe.

In horizontal wells, drilling and completion fluids contact the producing formation for longer periods and a much larger formation area is exposed than in conventional vertical wells. Consequently, the potential for formation damage from drilling fluids is magnified significantly. Formation damage can be minimized or prevented by UBD as drilling muds do not come in contact with the formation because the hydrostatic pressure is less than the reservoir pressure. UBD also reduces chip hold-down, allowing the bit to continuously cut new rock which is then swept away by the high energy, gasified, drilling fluid, compared to the overbalanced drilling technique where the old cuttings are pulverized and forced into the formation. UBD can eliminate expensive remedial work such as acidizing or fracing which is used to reverse formation damage.

While UBD can improve the productivity of some wells, it cannot affect the ability of a reservoir to transmit fluid. If productivity is restricted by formation damage then UBD can result in improved productivity. However, if the reservoir is tight and transmits hydrocarbons slowly, UBD may not be economically feasible since little or no productivity increases can be generated. As well, UBD is not expected to have a large impact on the total number of wells drilled, but will likely expand by replacing conventionally drilled wells. Although UBD is still in its infancy modern technology is now bringing it to the forefront an it is gaining popularity. Barriers for UBD include cost, hole instability, inexperienced personnel, limited equipment availability, unfamiliarity with lightweight fluids, and well-control concerns. Limited equipment availability will likely become a larger problem in the future as the demand for light-weight fluids increases. Canadian oil service companies are considered among the prime sources of UBD drilling expertise in the world and are recognized internationally among the leading providers of this technology.

Objectives;

The objectives of underbalanced drilling can be broken down into two main categories: Maximising hydrocarbon recovery Minimising drilling problems Advantages: Increased ROP. Decreased formation damage. Eliminate risk of differential sticking. Reduce risk of loss circulation. Less weight on bit required. Improved bit life. Tight hole problems may be reduced. (reactive formations) Reduced cutting size increases hole cleaning capability. Allowing the well to flow provides some revenue from production, which offsets a portion of the drilling costs,. Enabling drilling with real-time reservoir performance assessment, which lends to informed drilling decisions for enhanced recovery, and Provide flow rates which give critical information about the production potential in each encountered zone.

Disadvantages:

Wellbore stability. Wellbore consolidation.

Increased drilling costs depending on system used.

Compatibility with conventional MWD systems. Gravity drainage in horizontal wells.

Possible near wellbore mechanical damage.

Discontinuous underbalanced conditions. Generally higher risk with more inherent problems.

String weight is increased due to reduced buoyancy.

Possible excessive borehole erosion. Increased torque and drag experienced.

Enhanced recovery

Enhanced recovery Due to the increased productivity of an underbalanced drilled well combined with the ability to drill infill wells in depleted fields, the recovery of bypassed hydrocarbons is possible. This can extend life of a field significantly. The better productivity of the wells also leads to a lower drawdown on the well, which can in turn reduce water coning.

Drilling Problems

Differential sticking. The reduction or absence of several factors that would normally be associated with the conventional drilling method contribute to the reduction of some of the more common drilling problems, the absents of an differential created by the drilling fluid on the formation combined with the lack of any filter cake prevents the drillstring from becoming differentially stuck. No
Losses In general, a reduction of the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus reduces the fluid losses into a reservoir formation. In underbalanced drilling, the hydrostatic pressure is reduced to a level where losses do not occur.

Improved Penetration Rate The lowering of the overpressure over the formation pressure has a significant effect on penetration rate.
The reduction in the chip hold down effect also has a positive impact on bit life. The increased penetration rate combined with the effective cuttings removal from the face of the bit leads to a significant increase in bit life.

Reduction of ECD

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) created by the flow rate and the friction of the wellbore wall and would normally account for between 4 to 6% of the pressure lose thought-out the circulating system, Also referred to as the (APL) Annular Pressure Lose While drilling deviated and horizontal well as the angel pick up so dose the friction pressure in the annuals This friction pressure acts on the bottom of the well and slowly increases the overpressure over the formation interval. The results is a reduction of ROP and an increases of potential losses. A reduction in the drilling fluid weight means a reduction in annular friction losses (Equivalent Circulating Density) allowing the reservoir energy to push fluids out of the hole. Due to some of the disadvantages of underbalanced drilling, cost and wellbore problems that may need a fluid to control the well is not drill all the way as an underbalanced well only the production formation

10 ppg 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 4300 psi 5200 psi

Formation Pressure = 5000 psi

Hydrostatic from 10 ppg drilling fluid. The well would be drill in a conventional drilling fluid = 5200 psi
Fp at 8020 ft = 3522 psi Fp at 8100 ft = 4169 psi By reducing the drilling fluid weight to 8.33 before drilling out the shoe we can drill underbalance 10000 feet without doing to much damage to the formation we could of course bring the fluid down much lower, see next slide

Section drilled underbalanced and would be drill from the last casing shoe point giving a draw down of 700 psi

5000 psi

Fluids

The key to the success is to use the correct fluids

Fresh Water Gel water Salt water Salt Saturated and native clay fluids Start to weight up 10.4 78 11.1 83 Saturated CaCL water

Oil mix Aerated Drilling fluids with back pressure Stable foam

10.0
8.34 6.95 62.4

75

52
90

12,0
Weighted system

Mist air 0 0 Pounds per cubic foot Pounds per Gallon 150 20

Four step to drilling (Fluid)

A four step process can be used to determine the options and requirements for a well to be drilled underbalanced.
1. Determine BHP requirements. 2. Identify the drilling fluid options. 3. Establish the well design & perform flow modelling. 4. Select the surface equipment. Bottom hole pressure requirements: By using the reservoir pressure we can select the fluid needed to drill underbalanced by selecting a fluid that will provides a hydrostatic pressure of around 100-200 psi below the initial reservoir pressure. Using this as a starting point we can then look at other aspects of the producing formation. If we are to use fluid will the ECD affect the operation, it is very possible that you may have to change out the system from a fluid to gas

Two-Phase Fluids

Compressible
Compressible fluid drilling is basically a drilling technique in which the more common circulating fluids, water or mud, are injected with or replaced by, highly compressible gases.

These gases perform some the same functions as a drilling fluid, i.e., cool the bit and clean the hole.
Applicability of compressible fluid drilling is limited to a specific set of lithological and pore pressure conditions, and where significant savings of rig time and money can be achieved, despite the need for additional equipment. Compressible fluid drilling includes: drilling with air, mist, foam stiff/stable and aerated mud.

Flow

It is generally accepted that the success of UBD operations is dependent on maintaining the wellbore pressure between the boundaries defined by the designed UBD pressure window.
Therefore, the ability to accurately predict wellbore pressure is critically important for both designing the UBD operation and predicting the effect of changes in the actual operation. During ordinary UBD operations with conventional rigs (jointed pipe drilling), drilling fluids (liquid or gasified liquid) are pumped down through the drillstring, through the bit, and then up the annulus.

Within the annulus, drilling fluids are mixed with rock cuttings and production fluids (gas, oil, or water).
Therefore, underbalanced hydraulic circulating systems are typically characterized by the complex flow of two or more phases (liquid mixture, gas mixture, and solid cuttings).

Considering that hydraulic properties between the injected and produced gases are relatively close compared to those of solid or liquid phases, it is assumed that injection gas and formation gas flow at the same speed.

For the same reason, injection liquid and formation liquids also are assumed to flow at the same speed in the wellbore annulus.
Moreover, taking into account that multiphase flow creates high friction gradients or large apparent viscosities, which provide exceptional turbulent hole cleaning characteristics, in UBD instead of using conventional mud rheology hole cleaning methods, annular velocity and apparent multiphase viscosity are used. Hence, it is considered that the liquid portion of the multiphase fluid provides the cuttings lifting capacity and that the cuttings travel at the liquid velocity. Bearing in mind these assumptions, the multiphase underbalanced hydraulic circulation system may be simplified to a two-phase flow system in which only a mixture of liquid and gas flows.

Two-phase Flow Concepts

When liquid and gas flow simultaneously in the wellbore, they tend to separate because of differences in density and flow at different velocities. Expansion of the highly compressible gas phase with decreasing pressure increases the in-situ volumetric flow rate of the gas. As a result, the gas and liquid phases normally do not travel at the same velocity.

This variation in the physical distribution of the phases in the fluid conduit causes the occurrence of a wide range of flow patterns.
Superficial velocity is the velocity that a phase would exhibit if it flowed through the total cross sectional area available for flow alone.

Slip flow occurs when the liquid and gas phases travel at different velocities. For upward flow, the less dense, more compressible, less viscous gas phase tends to flow at a higher velocity than the liquid phase.
However, for downward flow, the liquid often flows faster than the gas phase.

Liquid hold-up is defined as the fraction of a pipe cross-section or volume increment that is occupied by the liquid phase. The value of liquid hold-up varies from zero for single-phase gas flow to one for single-phase liquid flow. It is function of gas and liquid properties, flow pattern, and well geometry No-slip flow occurs when the liquid and gas phases travel at the same velocity. Thus, the No-slip liquid holdup is the fraction of pipe cross-section area that the liquid phase would occupy if the liquid and gas phases travelled at the same velocity. Actual or in-situ velocity is the velocity a phase exhibits when it flows along with the other phase. Therefore, the actual area through which the phase flows is reduced by the presence of the other phase. Thus Weighting factors are used when drilling fluid, oil, and water flow simultaneously, with or without gas. It is possible for slippage to occur between the oil and drilling fluid or water phase. This type of slippage is normally very small compared to the slippage that can occur between gas an any liquid. Assuming there is no slippage among liquid phases, the drilling fluid fraction in the liquid phase is calculated from

Two-phase flow patterns. Whenever two fluids with different flow properties flow simultaneously in a conduit, there is a wide range of possible flow patterns. The flow pattern that exists depends on the relative magnitudes of the forces that act on the fluids. Buoyancy, turbulence, inertia, and surface tension forces vary significantly with flow rates, wellbore geometry, and fluid properties of the phases. Consequently, several different two-phase flow patterns can exist in a given well as a result of the large pressure and temperature changes that occur along the flow path. Published work on flow patterns suggest that the most accepted flow patterns are: dispersed bubble, bubble, slug, churn, and annular.

Two-phase flow patterns

Dispersed bubble flow (DB): The gas is distributed as small discrete bubbles within a continuous liquid phase. The spherical shaped bubbles are the only ones observed in this flow pattern. Due to the high liquid velocities encountered in this flow pattern, the mixture flows at the same velocity with not slippage between the phases.

Bubble flow (B): The gas is distributed as small discrete bubbles within a continuous liquid phase, but in this case the discrete bubbles occurred in two different shapes; namely spherical and cap bubbles. The spherical bubbles are very small as compared to the cap bubbles that are relatively larger. These cap bubbles move faster than the liquid phase because of slippage.

Slug flow & Churn flow Slug flow (SL): Slug flow is characterized by a series of slug units. Each unit is composed of a gas pocket called a Taylor Bubble, a plug of liquid called a slug and a film of liquid around the Taylor bubble flowing downward relative to the Taylor bubble. The Taylor bubble is an axisymmetric, bullet-shaped gas pocket that occupies almost the entire cross section area of the pipe or annulus. The liquid slug, carrying distributed small gas bubbles, bridges the conduit and separates two consecutive Taylor bubbles. Churn flow (CH): Churn flow exists in upward flow only. It is a chaotic flow of gas and liquid in which the shape of both the Taylor bubbles and the liquid slugs are distorted. The continuity of the liquid in the liquid slug between successive Taylor bubbles is repeatedly destroyed by a high local gas phase concentration. As this happens, the liquid in the slug falls backward, accumulates, forms a temporary bridge and is again lifted upward by the gas. An alternating direction of motion in the liquid phase is typical of churn flow.

Annular flow

Annular flow (AN): The gas is a continuous phase flowing in the core of the pipe or annulus cross-section area. The liquid flows upward, both as a thin film along the walls and as dispersed droplets entrained in the core. Annular flow can exist throughout the entire range of inclinations. Based on the flow pattern definition, investigators determine experimentally and/or theoretically the region of existence for each of the flow patterns.

Gaseous Fluids

These are basically the gas systems. In initial underbalanced drilling operations air was used to drill. Today air drilling or dusting is still applied in hard rock drilling and in the drilling of water wells. The use of air in hydrocarbon bearing formations is not recommended as the combination of oxygen and natural gas may cause an explosive mixture. There are a number of reported cases where downhole fires have destroyed drillstring with the potential consequences of the rig burning down if the mixture gets to surface.

The experience with nitrogen in well servicing operations made nitrogen a first choice for underbalanced drilling operations. The use of so called cryogenic nitrogen or tanks of liquid nitrogen in drilling operations can be restricted, depending on the logistical issues involved, due to the large amount of nitrogen required for a drilling operation.
Another option is the use of natural gas, which if available has in some cases proved a worthy alternative in drilling operations. If a gas reservoir is being drilled underbalanced, a producing well or the export pipeline may well produce sufficient gas at the right pressure to drill. It avoids introduction of oxygen into the well and if available may provide a cheap drilling system.

Nitrogen Production Unit

The heart of the Nitrogen Production Unit (NPU) is the membrane fibre. To begin the process of N2 production, the NPU receives a feed stream of compressed air (at least 175 psi) then separates the oxygen from the compressed air. The air separation process is performed using the membrane modules that are contained within the NPU. Each module is constructed of millions of hollow polymeric fibres approximately the diameter of a human hair. The fibres are encased in an epoxy tube sheet to hold the membrane fibres inside the module. The compressed air passes through the bundle of fibres in each module of the NPU. The oxygen, water vapour and trace gases diffuse through the semi-permeable membrane fibre surface. The remaining dry nitrogen product is then boosted to the desired pressure.

On-Site Nitrogen Generator Systems

Air Compressor

Air Receiver

Moisture Separator

Dryer

Fine coalescing filter

Course coalescing filter

Heater

High Pressure Nitrogen Carbon filter Particulate filter Separation Modula Booster

Nitrogen
Water Air

Air

Oxygen and water vapours are fast Gases which quickly permeate the membrane allowing nitrogen to flow through the fibre bores as a product stream

Characteristics of air-drilling:

Fast penetration rates. Longer bit life. Greater footage per bit. Good cement jobs. Better production. Requires minimal water influx. Slugging can occur. Mud rings can occur in the presence of fluid ingress. Relies on annular velocity to remove cuttings from the well.

Mist Drilling a little history

Special techniques and products were developed in the 1950s and 1960s to improve UBD, such as mist drilling for lubrication of the drill string rotating heads for containment of the returning air and gas air hammers for faster penetration However, the pressure-containment equipment of this era still allowed leakage. Though leakage was manageable in tight reservoirs that would not flow rapidly, equipment could not keep up with the formation fluid in reservoirs with higher permeability and higher pressures. This challenge persisted throughout the 1970s. With the realization that blowouts were detrimental to the reservoir, rotary drilling with weighted fluids became the dominant practice for drilling wells.

During the 1980s, the UBD technique was used in reservoirs and hole sections that were depleted by pressure loss caused by production.

Mist Drilling

If gas systems are not suitable the addition of a small amount of liquid will initially form a mist system. The fluid added to the gas environment will disperse into fine droplets and form a mist system to drill with. Generally this technique has to be used in areas where some formation water exists, preventing the use of completely 'dry air' drilling. Used in special applications as hole cleaning is more difficult in mist drilling systems. Characteristics of mist-drilling: Similar to air drilling but with addition of liquid. Relies on annular velocity to remove cuttings from the well. Reduces formation of mud rings. High volumes required, 30%-40% more than dry air drilling. Pressures generally higher than dry air drilling. Incorrect air/gas-liquid ratio leads to slugging, with attendant pressure increase

Foam

Foam is a mass of bubbles created when a gas is dispersed into a liquid and the dispersion is stabilized by a surfactant Surfactants work at the interfaces between air and water to lower the surface tension. By lowering the surface tension, the surfactant holds gas bubbles in a ring of water, therefore lightening the water's weight, and enabling the pressures to effectively move the column. The use of foam is a highly attractive alternative for drilling depleted, lost circulation or gas zones. Due to its complexity, however, a foamed system requires special attention while designing field operations.

Foam drilling

If more liquid is added and a surfactant is added to the fluid stable foam is generated. Stable foam used for drilling has a texture like shaving foam. It is a very good drilling fluid with a high carrying capacity and a low density. One of the problems encountered with the conventional foam systems is that a stable foam is just that. The foam remains stable even once it returns to surface and this can cause problems on a rig if the foam cannot be broken down fast enough. In the old foam systems the amount of de-foamer had to be tested carefully so that the foam was broken down before any fluid left the separators. Especially in closed circulation drilling systems stable foam could cause problems with carry over. The more recently developed stable foam systems are simpler to break and the liquid can be re-foamed so that less foaming agent is required and a closed circulation system can be used. These systems generally rely on either a chemical method of breaking and making the foam or by utilising an increase and decrease of pH to make and break the foam. The foam quality at surface used for drilling is normally between 80% and 95%.

This means that of the fluid 80% to 95% is gas with the remainder being liquid. Due to the hydrostatic pressure of the annular column this ratio changes as the volume of gas is reduced. An average acceptable bottom-hole foam quality (FQ) is in the region of 50%-60%. Characteristics of foam-drilling: The extra fluid in the system reduces the influence of formation water. Very high carrying capacity. Reduced pump rates due to improved cuttings transport. Stable foam reduces slugging tendencies of the wellbore. The stable foam can withstand limited circulation stoppages without affecting the cuttings removal or ECD to a significant degree. Improved surface control and more stable downhole environment. Breaking down of the foam at surface needs to be addressed at the design stage. Increased surface equipment required.

Blooey Line

As the foam picks cuttings off the bottom of the well and returns through the annulus to the surface. The foam and cuttings blow out the side of the rig in a blooey line.
Although air drilling is faster and less expensive than mud drilling it has the disadvantages that it cannot control subsurface pressures and sometimes air mixes with subsurface gas, causing an explosive mixture. The blooey line is the discharge pipe from a well being drilled. The blooey line is used to conduct the air or gas used for circulation away from the rig to reduce the fire hazard as well as to transport the cuttings a suitable distance from the well. Flow Line to shakers and circulating system

blooey line to sump pit

For those of you that have never seen or been around a blooey line it must be securely anchored down

Gasified Systems
If a foam system is too light for the well, a gasified system can be used. In these systems liquid is gasified to reduce the density. There are a number of methods that can be used to gasify a liquid system. The use of gas and liquid as a circulation system in a well complicates the hydraulics programme. The ratio of gas and liquid must be carefully calculated to ensure that a stable circulation system is used. If too much gas is used slugging will occur. If not enough gas is used the required bottom hole pressure is exceed and the well becomes overbalanced. Characteristics of gasified-mud systems: Extra fluid in the system almost eliminates the influence of formation fluid unless incompatibilities occur. The mud properties can easily be identified prior to commencing the operation. Less gas is generally required. Slugging of the gas and fluid must be managed correctly.

Increased surface equipment required to store & clean the base fluid.
Velocities, especially at surface, are lower, reducing wear & erosion both downhole and to surface equipment.

Single phase fluids

The first approach, if possible, is normally to use a fluid system with a density low enough to provide an underbalanced condition. If water can be used then this is the first step to take. If water is too heavy, oil can be considered. It must be remembered that a well can be kicked off with a base oil system, but if the reservoir produces crude oil the circulation system will become crude oil since base oil cannot be separated from the crude. If a crude oil system is selected, the rig must be equipped to ensure that the crude can be degassed before it enters the enclosed pit system. On an offshore rig a fully enclosed, vented and nitrogen blanketed pit system must be used to ensure that no gas is released from the crude. The use of additives such as glass beads to lighten a fluid has been attempted but since the glass beads come out over the shakers, in the solids separation system or get crushed and damaged throughout the whole system, new beads need to be continuously added to the system. The addition of glass beads therefore is an expensive option and not very effective to lighten the fluid.

Gas lift systems

If a fluid requires to be reduced in density, the use of injection of gas into the fluid flow can be selected. This offers a choice into not only the gas used but also in the way the gas is used in the well. Normally natural gas or nitrogen is used as a lift gas although both CO2 and O2 can also be utilised. However, gasses containing oxygen are not recommended for two main reasons. The combination of oxygen and saline fluids (salty) with the high bottom hole temperatures cause severe corrosion to tubulars used in the well and drillstring and if during the drilling process carbohydrates enter the borehole (expected in an underbalanced environment), then a potentially explosive situation can arise, resulting in a downhole fire. A number of injection methods are available to reduce the hydrostatic pressure and these we will discussed next.

Drill pipe injection

Compressed gas is injected at the standpipe manifold where it mixes with the drilling fluid. The main advantage of drillstring injection is that no special downhole equipment is required in the well. The use of reliable non-return valves is required to prevent flow up the drillpipe. The gas rates used when drilling with drillpipe injection system are normally lower than with annular gas lift. Low bottom hole pressures can be achieved using this system. The disadvantages of this system include the need to stop pumping and bleed of any remaining trapped pressure in the drillstring every time a connection is made. This results in an increase in bottom hole pressure and it may be difficult to obtain a stable system and to avoid pressure spikes at the reservoir when using drillpipe injection.

The use of pulse type MWD

The use of pulse type MWD tools is only possible up to 20% gas by volume. If higher gas volumes are used the pulse system deployed on MWD transmission systems does no longer work. Special MWD tools such as electromagnetic may have to be used if high gas injection rates are required. These tools however do not work very well offshore or if significant amounts of evaporites are drilled. An alternative is to connect the MWD back to surface using electric cable. This technique has been used very successfully with coiled tubing as the drillstring. If drill pipe is to be used, wet connects can be utilised, however, the additional time consumed using this technique can be limiting. A further drawback for drillstring injection is the impregnation of the gas into any down hole rubber seals. Positive displacement motors (PDM's) are especially prone to fail when the rubber components get impregnated with the injection gas and then tripped back to surface.

Warnings

Once a trip is made the rubber can explode or swell as a result of the expanding gas not being able to disperse out of the stator sufficiently quickly.

This effect (explosive decompression) destroys not only motors but also affects any rubber seals used downhole, resulting in a high turnover of motors, which can be very costly to the drilling operation.
Special rubber compounds have been developed and the design of motors is changing to allow for this expansion and the majority of motor suppliers can now provide PDMs specifically designed for use in this kind of downhole environment. However, if drillpipe injection is considered, the use of all metal turbines should be considered depending on the operational demands.

Care must be taken at surface when breaking out the drilling assembly in the case that there is any high-pressure gas is trapped in the tool string.

Annular injection

Gas injection is not new, we have been lifting well for many year this way, so it should come as no surprise that with a few modifications it can be used for underbalanced drilling This is good method if a suitable casing or completion tubing scheme is installed in the well.

For a new wells, a liner should be set just above the target zone. The liner is then tied back to surface using a modified tubing hanger to suspend the tieback string. Gas is injected in the casing liner annulus, passes thought the pumping sub where it combines with the fluid and lightens the fluid column casing the drawdown required during the drilling operation.
Here we see a 7 inc liner set just above the zone of interest a tie back liner stabs into the top and extends back to the well head . The gas is is injected down the 7 inc * 9 5/8 annuals while the 6 inc hole is drilled

The tie back string is then pulled prior to installation of the final completion. With the advancement in to-days drilling technology and the improvement in drill trough tubing it is now possible in older well to leave a completion in place and use the incorporates gas lift mandrel pockets. They can be pulled then set to provide the correct bottom hole pressures during the drilling operation. If there is a drawback with this type of operation? It will be the hole size and tools required are restricted by the minimum ID of the completion.. However many well have been extended or have had multi lateral well drilled using this method.

Finished Job, the tie back liner has been removed leaving the reaming section that was cemented in to set any completion tools needed

Parasite strings

The main advantage of using an annulus to inject gas into the system is that gas is continued during connections this creating a more stable bottom hole pressure. Only a single-phase fluid is pumped down the drillstring. The advantage being conventional tools such as MWD can be run and operate under normal condition, which can have a positive affect on the operational cost of a project. Anther way of injecting gas is very similar to the annular method where the injection line is strapped onto the casing as it is run, it is called the Parasite system, but it is normally only used on vertical wells as the injection line would be ripped off. Normally two injection line are use and are coil tubing. however it is a very complicated system

When aerating through an annulus or through a parasite string it is possible to place your injection point too low. The higher the hydrostatic pressure at your injection point is the higher pressure you will have to compress your aerating medium. Beyond a certain pressure the aerating medium is so compressed that it does not displace enough drilling fluid to effectively lower the hydrostatic head on your formation. In other words if you inject too deep all you gain is compression pressure (which is not a "gain" at all). The weight of your drilling fluid determines how deep you can set your injection point for maximum aerating efficiency. Using gas lift mandrels you would need to make sure you aerating volume was not all entering the fluid returns too high up hole and thus not reducing your hydrostatic head on your formation enough. An engineer can tell you how deep is deep enough.

Selection of formations

For a variety of other reasons not all formations or fields are suited for underbalanced drilling,

Reservoirs that generally will not benefit from underbalanced drilling can come under the category
Cost can be a main factors, underbalanced drilling will often cost more than conventional drilling therefore wells in an area of very low cost conventional drilling are best drilled that way. Lose and unconsolidated formations. Wells with a low borehole stability and high fault ratios. Extremely low permeability formations . Wells that contain multiple zones of different pressures.

Surface Equipment

Understanding reservoir characteristics is a key to successful underbalanced drilling operations. Such information about near wellbore characteristics of the reservoir offer invaluable input into drilling and completion decisions. A number of approaches in separation technology have emerged recently. Separating the gas first and then deal with fluids and cuttings. Separating the solids in order to minimise erosion, then deal with the gas. It must also be understood that separation technology for underbalanced drilling may have to deal with as many a 5 or 6 phases. 1. Drilling Fluid 2. Cuttings

3. Gas
4. Oil 5. Condensate

6. Nitrogen

Closed in system To Flare

The surface equipment and separation system has to be tailored to the expected reservoir fluids. A separator for a dry gas field is different from a separator required for a heavy oil field.
Therefore separation system must be designed to handle the expected influx and it must be able to separated the drilling fluid from the return well flow so that this can be repumped

Oil Storage

Separator

Nitrogen Units

Choke & sample catcher

RBOP Kill Line BOP

Mud return line

Active pit

Mixing Pit

Sand traps

High Pressure Pumps

Rig Pumps

Mud tanks and mixing system

4 Stage Separator

12 inc gas line to flare boom

To oil storage tank To fluid cleaning system From Wellbore

Booster pump used to assist cleaning

Fluid and cutting sent back to the shakers and mixing pits

Gas Separators
12 inc line to flare 6 inc line to flare 4 inc line to flare Open bottom separator Water Pump to tanks Skimming Tank Water Pump to tanks Storage Tank Upper Rams Kill Line Share Rams Rotating Diverter Annular Preventer 4 inc line Buffer chamber Gas Separators Gas

Fluid

Lower Rams Choke Line

Choke manifold

Atmospheric system

Rotating Diverter (Rotating

Blowout Preventer 2000 psi)

Upper-tapered roller bearings

Quik Change packer assembly
Backed by

Inner packer Outer packer Lower-tapered roller bearings Annular pressure control and diversion

Canadian drilling contractor and service company Precision Drilling Corporation have long been recognised as a world leader of underbalanced drilling.
Here we see their latest contribution to safe drilling the rotating diverter. That now allows the rig to use the topdrive and other rig equipment

Courtesy

NORTHLAND ENERGY RBOP the 2,000-psi rate RBOP

5,000-psi rate RBOP

Auxiliary thrust bearing

Tandem seal array Quik Change packer assembly
Backed by

Upper-tapered roller bearings

Inner packer Outer packer Annular pressure control and diversion Lower-tapered roller bearings

Courtesy

NORTHLAND ENERGY RBOP the 5,000-psi rate RBOP

The RBOP provides unmatched protection: Redundant sealing system ensures a seal even if the primary wear element fails Dual pumps as well as surge chambers on the RBOP Fail-safe closure in the event of rig power loss Single-button maximum pressure closure Automatic alarms and maximum pressure closure for any user-defined control condition All of that safety, all of this performance: Allows annular flow diversion at full rated pressures Maintains dynamic and static pressure integrity Seals at high and low temperatures Generates low pipe drag (stripping/snubbing force) Drillpipe rotation and sliding capabilities Adjustable differential closing pressure Rig floor or remote operation Unit operates at preset .P based annular pressure

Equipment Rotating Head

With the well in a constant state of influx control of the annular flow is very important.
This is achieved by using a closed drilling system at surface to control the flow at surface. The BOP system remains closed at surface and flow and cuttings are directed through pressure control equipment so flowing pressure can be regulated.

Choke

Chokes are throttling valves that allow operators to control the well stream. They are capable of withstanding erosion resulting from the very high velocities occurring at and immediately downstream from the orifice. On one side of the bypass, an adjustable choke allows more flexible control for wellbore cleanup rates. On the other side is a positive choke to give more accurate flow control for predetermined fluids for various Flow rates. By using the valving and adjustable choke, the operator can change the positive choke without having to stop operations or affect circulation The choke allows the operator control by enabling progressive manual, powered, or fixed control of the well stream by opening, closing, or selecting an orifice. There are normally to chokes line up to the well the underbalance choke and the rig choke

Site Layout

Cryogenic nitrogen Acquisition data system Four Phase Separator

Flow meter

Rotating blowout preventer

Design factors

A successful UBD application must be scrupulously designed prior to execution. This will allow optimizing the UBD surface equipment, the nitrogen and drilling fluid consumption, the storage capacity, and most important maintaining continuous UBD conditions during the whole drilling process.
Additionally, this will allow the rig personnel to be prepared for chronologically executing every single UBD operation so that all unnecessary interruptions to circulation can be avoided. Therefore, after deciding to drill a well underbalanced, the following design steps should be followed. Determine reservoir pore pressure, reservoir fracture pressure, wellbore stability pressure, formation properties such as rock composition, permeability, and porosity, reservoir fluid properties, representative flow test gas and oil data (production flow rates, flowing pressure and temperature), reservoir depth and thickness, well geometry, representative surface and formation temperatures, and maximum flow rate and pressure capacity of the available surface equipment.

Successful UBD operations rely on the knowledge of all these parameters. Therefore, all of them must be known with a reasonable degree of certainty. Since the UBD technique is almost always employed to drill development wells, fairly accurate information may be obtained from offset wells. Use a well deliverability program (calculation) to estimate potential reservoir influx during drilling. Using the above information, determine the maximum UBD pressure window as described Previously and plot it in a wellbore-reservoir interaction graphic. This graphic, formed by the reservoir inflow performance relationship (IPR) curve and the upper and lower pressure boundaries of the UBD pressure window, gives the maximum underbalanced pressure drawdown that could be induced under safe conditions to maintain 100% underbalanced conditions during the pipe connections and during drilling.

The reservoir pore pressure is the UBD pressure window upper boundary. On the other hand, the UBD pressure window lower boundary may be controlled either by the wellbore stability pressure or by the BHP at which the maximum flow rate capacity of the available surface equipment would be reached. However, some wells do not have significant stability problems and the maximum flow rate capacity of the available surface equipment is high enough to handle a large reservoir influx rate.

For those wells, the maximum underbalanced pressure drawdown or UBD pressure window lower boundary will be controlled by the BHP at which the hydrostatic pressure due to annulus fluids would be so small that choke pressure might exceed the maximum allowable wellhead pressure especially if flow from the well were reduced on shut in. Therefore, whichever of this limits gives the greatest BHP must be chosen as the lower pressure boundary.

The UBD hydraulic circulation system, which combines injection fluids with produced reservoir fluids, must be designed for a variety of possible conditions to determine the optimal circulation system. Therefore, use well geometry, possible drilling fluid properties, formation temperature, maximum allowable surface pressure, surface equipment capacity and the above information as computer program inputs to determine: The proper drilling fluid density and viscosity that will allow achieving the desired underbalanced conditions through the nitrogen injection before flow from the reservoir is observed. Maintaining constant drilling fluid density and viscosity, drilling fluid injection flow rate, and choke pressure and varying gas injection flow rate, will allow determining a hydrostatic-friction for the assumed constant conditions. .

After determining the appropriate drilling fluid properties and choke pressure at which underbalanced conditions can be induced, varying gas flow rate (produced plus injected gas), liquid (drilling fluid plus oil) flow rate, and choke pressure will allow computing possible combinations of these controllable parameters within the UBD pressure window, It is very important to design a drilling fluid density as close as possible to the equivalent pore pressure density so that it can be lowered to the desired equivalent circulation density by the nitrogen injection.

This will guarantee that underbalanced conditions will be achieved by the nitrogen injection before reservoir flow is initiated and minimize nitrogen consumption
As soon as the UBD pressure window, the drilling fluid properties, and the possible combinations of gas flow rate, liquid flow rate, and choke pressure have been established, determine the optimum combination sets of nitrogen and drilling fluid injection flow rates and choke pressures that will allow keeping the bottomhole pressures within the designed UBD pressure window.

These bottomhole pressures should be selected to maintain the reservoir influx and wellhead pressure within safe limits and guarantee continuous underbalanced conditions during drilling and pipe connection operations. Controlling the system with the choke is desirable because bottomhole pressure is much more responsive to choke pressure adjustments than to liquid or gas flow rate changes. When a gas flow rate change occurs, the time required for the BHP to stabilize at a new level was 69 minutes. From the time the injection rate changed at the standpipe. Even after the increased gas rate begins to enter the annulus, as much 50 minutes may be required before the BHP stabilizes.

On the other hand, when a choke pressure adjustment occurs, the BHP response is as short as seven minutes. Additionally, during actual UBD operations, changes in liquid and gas flow rates are typically made slowly so, actual adjustments in BHP may be even slower. Therefore, the following steps wise procedure is recommended for determining initial injection rates once underbalanced conditions are achieved. Determine a gas injection rate, which ensures that the circulation system operates on the frictiondominated side, so that adjustments in gas flow rates do not cause high BHP changes. Immediately after reservoir influx is identified, choke pressure and injection flow rates adjustments are necessary to control the bottomhole pressure reduction and reservoir influx, especially in the typical cases where the reservoir gas-oil-ratio (GOR) is higher than the injected gas-liquid-ratio.

Determine the optimal combination of nitrogen and drilling fluid injection flow rates and choke pressure that will maintain the bottomhole pressure and reservoir influx within the UBD operating window under pseudo steady state conditions. Since at this time the UBD hydraulic circulation system should be operating on the friction dominated side, gradually reduce or cease the nitrogen injection to the extent that reservoir gas replaces nitrogen in reducing the average fluid density in the annulus. Gradually increase the choke pressure to compensate for the reduced frictional pressure loses that will occur as the circulation is also gradually interrupted. During the connection time, maintain a controlled, continuous annular flow by using the reservoir energy through choke pressure adjustments. The choke pressure must be maintained lower than the maximum allowable wellhead pressure. For the typical high GOR well, this will require limiting the formation flow rate by gradually increasing the choke pressure to offset the loss of hydrostatic as reservoir fluids replace the drilling fluid.

To restart surface injection

To restart surface injection, reduce the choke pressure while progressively increasing drilling fluid injection until regaining previous underbalanced pseudosteady state flow conditions. The annular liquid velocity that ensures vertical transport of cuttings should be maintained during the simulation. This condition should especially be monitored at annular regions at which the cross-section area increased (e.g. above drill collars and change in casing diameter). Therefore, gas and liquid flow rates should be a function of the minimum allowable annular liquid velocity, which should be stated during the calculation of the wellborereservoir interaction curves. Considering that most of the time the circulating system should be operating on the friction dominated side and that two-phase flow is almost always turbulent, In UBD operations hole cleaning is normally not a concern

Making Connections

The proposed steps that should be followed during the execution of UBD operations to improve bottomhole pressure control during UBD pipe connections are given below. The specific rate and choke pressure adjustments would be based on the results from the underbalanced drilling flow control design stages above. The philosophy of this flow control procedure is mainly based on the ability of preserving steady state conditions throughout the entire drilling process. As stated, rig personnel who perform UBD operations must have very good drilling and well control skills. Therefore, it is very important to properly train the people that will carry out UBD operations. This will help not only to improve bottomhole pressure control during UBD pipe connections, but also to achieve successful UBD operations.

2. Set the intermediate casing as close as possible to the top of the hydrocarbonbearing formation.
This is a common practice in current UBD operations. Pipe used in casing and drill strings must be designed to work under multiphase flow conditions.

3. Before drilling out the float collar, cement, and casing shoe, install the rotating blowout preventer or rotating head and the additional surface equipment to drill underbalanced.
Also, displace the drilling fluid used in the previous stage for the one that will be used for drilling underbalanced.

4. Install the rotating head rubber and the nitrogen unit. If the well conditions allow, the rotating head rubber should be installed after drilling the casing shoe. Maintaining steady state conditions rigorously requires that the rotating head robber last during the entire drilling process. Since this is the equipment in the UBD system that is most likely to require replacement due to wear, we should wait to use it until it is strictly necessary. Therefore, it is recommended that the casing shoe be drilled before installing the rotating head rubber. This will be possible when the ECD is greater than the reservoir pressure equivalent density, but less than the fracture pressure equivalent density. 5. Divert the circulation path toward the UBD surface equipment and unload the well by simultaneously injecting nitrogen and drilling fluid until the designed two-phase steady state flow condition is reached. At first, this operation will require additional nitrogen consumption, but later on it will be compensated by the gas production if proper two-phase steady state flow conditions are established from the very beginning.

6 After unloading the well, increase the nitrogen injection flow rate, so that underbalanced conditions can be induced sometime after such nitrogen flow rate increment. 7. Meticulously monitor injection pressure, choke pressure, injection flow rates, drillstring weight, pit volumes, and especially well flow returns to identify the time at which reservoir influx occurs. 8. After inducing underbalanced condition, start manipulating the controllable parameters (choke pressure, drilling fluid and nitrogen injection flow rates) as designed. 9. After drilling the kelly down, preserve underbalanced conditions and maintain a steady state flow conditions by making the connection as follows:

9.1 While circulating the drilled cuttings out, slowly work the string to ensure that the open hole is in gauge. 9.2 Lift the length of the kelly and increase the choke pressure as designed while gradually cutting off the drilling fluid injection. The choke pressure manipulation should allow reservoir fluid flow increases by a rate approximately equal to the normal standpipe rate. 9.3 Make the connection. Since only drilling fluid was being injected before the connection, a conventional pipe connection procedure may be implemented. During the connection the bottomhole pressure and reservoir influx must be maintained under control by manipulating the choke pressure as designed. 9.4 To restart surface injection, choke pressure and drilling fluid injection must be carefully control so that continuous underbalanced conditions and low bottomhole pressure variation can be maintained

. Reduce the choke pressure while slowly increasing drilling fluid injection until regaining previous underbalanced flow conditions. The choke pressure manipulation should allow reservoir fluid flow decreases by a rate approximately equal to the normal standpipe rate. With this UBD flow control procedure, continuous reservoir, and therefore annulus flow will hopefully be maintained during both drilling and pipe connection operations. Consequently, fluid segregation which is the main cause of pressure spikes will no longer occur. As only drilling fluid was being injected before breaking the connection, continuous drilling fluid flow from the drillstring into the annulus is expected during the connection time due to the U-tube effect. Since a conventional pipe connection can be made, which takes less than two minutes when well coordinated, the bottomhole pressure fluctuation effects associated with connections due to segregation can furthered be mitigated.

BOP Testing considerations

Many articles have been written about new equipment, challenges and limitations, of current well contro1 equipment but none have addressed the most important elements of underbalanced drilling (UBD) well contro1 equipment or testing procedures.

The annular and ram preventer are the single most important pieces of equipment that protection of the drill crew, rig and environment.
In our rush to develop the underbalanced drilling technique, we have adapted thee blowout preventer (BOP) stack to our current needs. The impact of underbalanced drilling on blowout preventer operation and safety is critical. Here we will look at and address blowout preventer testing methods appropriate for underbalanced drilling.

BACKGROUND

Underbalanced drilling of horizontal wells, better known as flow drilling, was developed in the Pearsall Field of South Texas beginning in 1987.
The technique was conceived to allow drilling operations to continue with surface pressure on the casing while flowing oil, gas, cuttings and drilling fluids through special surface equipment.

Since that time this technology has been applied to a wide variety of formations and applications outside the Austin Chalk. Obviously, drilling stack pressure and flow control is an important part of the UBD process.

Conventional blowout preventers

Both ram and annular preventers were originally designed to shut-in a well and contain high pressure within the wellbore. Conventional circulation of the mud and rotation of the drill pipe must stop when the well is shut-in with the BOP's. Vertical reciprocation of the pipe to avoid sticking and circulation of the kick fluids through the choke line may be resumed after shutin of the well. Actual BOP use during the drilling of most wells is minimal. They are operated more in function testing prior to spud or drilling out of a casing shoe than for actual well control situations. Consequently, BOP's are designed for secure, high pressure containment of the wellbore for a low number of cycles. Historically, this has been the way the BOP stack has been used since the early days of the Oil Patch. There have been very few improvements in BOP design over the last-40 years. Elastomer rubber element quality and metallurgical advances dominated the BOP improvements that have occurred.

Rotating control devices (RCDs)

Virtually all of the drilling equipment used today was manufactured prior to the industry "downturn" in 1983. To the credit of the BOP manufacturers, the simple safety devices we call blowout preventers are still more than capable of performing as they were designed. With the advent of underbalanced drilling (UBD) a new "stack" element was developed which provided fluid control and rotation of the drill string. Rotating control heads (rotating heads) were originally designed for the drilling of geothermal wells. Rotating heads are designed to provide diversion of wellbore re~ fluids -and temporary protection of floor personnel. In addition to rotating heads, there are two rotating blowout preventers that act as fluid diverters. For the purposes of this subject, we will refer to the diverting element on top of the annular preventer as a rotating control device (RUD) and will be identify both the rotating contro1 head and rotating blowout preventer

RCDs were not designed for static shut-in of the wellbore. during a kick situation, assuming the flow line or choke line valves are not closed, the RCD should allow the driller enough time (approximately 30 seconds) to close the annular or ram preventers. The point of this "walk through history" is to note that we have changed drilling philosophies' changed and created RCDs, yet the BOP elements are unchanged. Stripping operations and the subsequent opening and closing of the annular and ram preventers are common place and have stretched the BOP equipment to its limits. As operators, we have not been too concerned about the rigorous operations the BOP's are subjected to because the pressures are below the rated working pressures of the BOP elements. We need to give more recognition to the number of opening and closing cycles that far exceed the design expectations of the manufacturers. BOP manufacturers have affirmed this aspect of BOP integrity by noting increased repair costs and decreased life expectancy.

BOP Testing

As a result of the increased cyclical loading and special operating requirements placed on BOP's during UBD operations specialized testing procedures should be implemented to improve drilling safety and efficiency. Accumulator usable fluid demand and conventional BOP function testing Conventional testing of the BOP stack typically begins with the setting of a test plug with a joint of pipe in the wellhead below the BOP's. Each element of the BOP should be individually pressure tested to a high and low pressure as determined by the drilling conditions anticipated. Choke and kill line valves, and the choke manifold, can also be tested during this test sequence. The accumulator performance must also be examined. The API Recommended Practice 53 (Third Edition) recommends BOP closing times, pressures, accumulator fluid volumes and pre charged pressures for the accumulator bottles. The fluid volumes, pre charge pressures and pressure regulators should be checked and adjusted prior to the spudding of each well. An accumulator closing time test can accurately measure accumulator functionality under normal well control situations.

Accumulator Test

One such accepted test is as follows:

1. Position the drill pipe tube in the annular preventer. 2. Record initial accumulator closing pressure. 3. Close off the accumulator pumps. 4. Turn all preventer control valves to closing position simultaneously. 5. Record the time for each preventer to close. 6. Record final accumulator pressure. 7. Open air pressure to accumulator pumps. 8. Turn preventer control Valves to open.

Report the accumulator test as follows:

1. Initial accumulator pressure (minimum for3m accumulator=1500psi)

2. Final accumulator pressure (minimum for 3m accumulator=1200psi)

3. Closing time - Annular 4. Clos1ng t1me - Top Rams 5. Closing time-middle Rams

6. Closing time- Bottom Rams

If hydraulically operated valves are included in this test, accumulator volumes should be adjusted to maintain minimum performance. Conventiona1 testing of BOP's has served our industry well, but may full short in an underbalanced drilling (UBD) situation It is possible that a BOP stack and its closing unit may satisfactorily pass a BOP function test and yet fail during UBD. The following two scenarios that will be presented could very well occur and have been created in recent in house testing. Both scenarios are potentially disastrous and will be discussed after this lesson.

Scenario 1

A horizontal, underbalance drilling project is ready for spud. The drilling rig moves on to the location. After drilling the surface hole and installing the wellhead, the BOP stack is nippled up and connected to the closing unit (accumulator).

The driller function tests the BOP stack successfully, pulls the test plug, and continues in the work of drilling the well.
The accumulator was not inspected for minimum pressures etc., as described in the API RP 53. The successful function test of the BOP stack fuelled the assumption that the BOP's and closing unit were adequate for the job.

As the scenario develops, the driller is "making hole" in the horizontal section of a fractured carbonate formation. He is drilling with about 200 psi on the choke line.
All return flow of drilling fluid, oil, gas and cuttings are being diverted through the choke line by a low pressure (400 psi) rotating control device. Suddenly the bit penetrates a large fracture initiating a loss of returns. The fluid column on the annulus side of the drill string falls, allowing fractures in the target to flow oil and gas into the wellbore. The driller notes the loss of circulation, the increased penetration of the bit, a kick and a pressure increase at the surface.

As the pressure increases toward the upper limit of his rotating control device capacity, he must make the decision to close the annular preventer to protect the integrity of the rotating control device. The annular preventer is closed which traps pressure between the rotating control device and the annular preventer. For some reason the four-way control valve at the accumulator is moved to the "neutral" position isolating the annular preventer from the-accumulator. The four-way valve leaks in the neutral position thus allowing the closing pressure on the annular preventer to be lost. The annular preventer loses its seal on the pipe and the rotating control device is exposed to rising wellbore pressure. The loss of seal by the annular preventer is undetectable by the driller prior to catastrophic failure of the rotating control device. rotating control device. trapped pressure annular preventer

Scenario 2

The Rig was moved on to location from a previous job and is currently horizontal drilling in the target with a 3 ram stack and a high pressure (1500 psi) rotating control device installed on top of an annular preventer. The side outlet port for the rotating control device is blind flanged. The BOP stack was function tested successfully prior to drilling out of intermediate casing to enter the target. Examination of the accumulator and adjusting of the operating parameters was not done prior to function testing the BOP stack. The driller is drilling horizontally in a fractured carbonate. The bit position is approximately 2000, laterally from the surface location. Numerous fracture have been encountered with corresponding rising surface pressures and well control problems. Stripping in and out of the hole has been common place with this well. The closing pressure for the annular preventer was regulated to facilitate stripping operations. The closing pressure for the annular was not reset to minimum standards for well control after the last trip.

The surface pressure at the time of this incident was 400 psi with a corresponding gas flare of about 15 feet.

All the return flow was taken through the choke line. The drilling of another fracture and increasing surface pressure initiated the closing of the annular and top ram.
Pressure is now trapped between the annular and rotating control device and between the annular and top pipe rams. The drill pipe becomes stuck. While waiting for fishing tools the driller notices the accumulator pump is cycling on and off indicating a leak. In anticipation of a long wait, the driller moves the top ram and annular preventer four way valve to the neutral position, thus isolating those BOP elements from the accumulator pump.

Pending Blowout unknown situation ?

The pipe rams, with wellbore pressure below and some unknown pressure above, loses its seal due to a leaking "four way" valve. Wellbore pressure is now acting at the base of the annular preventer. The annular preventer also loses its seal due to trapped pressure above and insufficient accumulator closing pressure to maintain closure.

rotating control device.

trapped pressure annular preventer trapped pressure Closed Top Rams

The rotating control device is now being exposed to the rising wellbore pressure and with no indication that the rams are being bypassed a blowout may occur in this situation.

Closed Kill line while waiting on tools.

The initial drill pipe contact of the BOP rubber in any element requires an imposed closing pressure from the accumulator. The annular preventer requires much more force to deform the rubber to initiate first contact with the drill pipe or kelly than the rams. In fact, during stripping operations, it is common to need at least 600 psi closure pressure from the accumulator to initiate rubber contact. Once the rubber contacts the tubular member in the hole, a seal is initiated and wellbore pressure may assist in the closure of the annular preventer. This assumes there is a higher pressure beneath the annular rubber.

In Scenario 1, there is a differential pressure across the annular, but the greater pressure may occur above the annular preventer by the closing mechanism of the preventer. As the annular "donut" moves into position to contact the pipe, an initial seal is made, and the rubber continues to extrude around the pipe. This continued movement of the rubber after seal is made constricts the volume trapped between the annular and the RCD, thus increasing the pressure above the annular preventer. The smaller the volume between the annular preventer and the RCD, the higher the trapped pressure becomes.

rotating control device.

trapped pressure
annular preventer

There are two forces that affect the closing of the annular preventer. They are the imposed force supplied by the accumulator and the wellbore assist force. Trapped pressure above the annular may eliminate the wellbore assist part of the closing function. There are also two forces attempting to open the annular preventer when it is closed. They are the forces supplied by the trapped pressure above the preventer and the tendency for the rubber to return to its relaxed state. If the driller wishes to keep the annular preventer closed during well control events, he must insure that the two opening forces never exceed the two closing forces.

Scenario 2

In scenario 2, the same conditions exist for the ram preventers, although to a lesser degree. The closing of the rams will slightly increase the pressure in the volumetric space between the rams and annular. However, the magnitude of pressure increase should be less than between the annular and RCD. It should be noted however that pipe rams are closed to the initial seal with much less force and so may also be opened with much less force if closing pressure is lost. Rams may be moved into place around the drill pipe with no more pressure than that provided by a typical rig water pressure. Rams also require some extrusion of the rubber after initial contact with the pipe, thus there is an opening force equivalent to the memory of the rubber for its relaxed state. Please note that the rams do not have to completely open, but need only to lose their seal in a low differential state to cause a problem. Typically, pipe rams require a minimum differential pressure from below of 100 psi to energize the top seal on the ram.

Scenario 1 and 2 are illustrations of the level of comfort with BOP testing and operations in our industry.
For many years we have "survived" with conventional BOP testing using the annular preventer as the initial line of defence. Without the RCD mounted on top, the annular preventer always experiences a greater pressure below the annular and the wellbore assist function is active. With the installation of the RCD, the annular preventer may no longer be the initial line of defence, but in fact may be neutralized in its function. This section attempts to illustrate that the annular preventer can be neutralized during UBD operations.

Improvement in testing of the BOP's is required to preclude the occurrence of situations as discussed here.

UBD bop testing

The following procedures are suggestions and have not been approved by any industry regulatory body. They are not meant to cover all stack configurations and all wellsite scenarios. Each BOP stack configuration should be considered unique to the application in which it is used. Special considerations might be required for unique applications. The following test procedures assume that API 5G test guidelines have been adhered to and the BOP system has passed all of the initial tests to this point.

Testing procedure

1. Pick up a test joint and test plug. The test joint should be the same OD as the drill string that you intend to use while drilling with a high pressure rotating control device (RCD). The term "rotating control devices" encompass all rotating control heads and rotating blowout preventers. 1. With the rams and the annular preventer open, pressure up below the RCD to 100% of the manufacturers recommended static test pressure. 2. Note: A pressure gauge port should be installed in a blind flange to be attached to the flow line outlet of the RCD or to the flow line upstream of an HCR valve. The pressure on the RCD should be monitored for at least 2 minutes. 3. Close the annular preventer. Bleed the pressure below the annular preventer to something less (100 psi) than the RCD rotating test pressure. 4. Monitor the pressure below the annular for a change and compare it to the pressure trapped between the annular and RCD. The pressure below the annular preventer may decrease if a leak exists in any connection exposed to the test pressure or it may increase if the annular has lost its seal. 5. Visually check the accumulator for leaking 4-way valves in both the closed and neutral positions.

6. Open the annular preventer. Re pressure the stack below the RCD to maximum working pressure. 7. Close the upper pipe rams. 8. Pressure up below the top pipe rams to 100 psi greater than RCD rotating test pressure. 9. Monitor the pressure below and above the pipe rams. Loss of pressure below the rams indicates a loss of seal on either the ram "top seal" or the seal around the test pipe. If leakage occurs, inspect ram bore for wear. If wear is evident and the ram is not replaced, experiment with progressively higher pressures below the ram until the top seal is energized (500 psi should be enough). Do not exceed RCD maximum rotating pressure. Record the differential pressure required for ram seal for future reference. 10. Visually check the accumulator for leaking 4-way valves in the closed and neutral positions. 11. If we assume that a set of pipe rams is always installed below the top ram preventer, then any blind rams or pipe rams below the top rams may be tested conventionally.

Conclusions

Blowout Presenter's are capable of performing when used in a manner consistent with there design. However, several factors have compromised the integrity of blowout preventer operations in underbalanced drilling .
a) The industry depression of the last 15 years has virtually halted the manufacture of new BOP's. We are typically working with BOP's that are at least 15 years old.

b) UBD operations demand a higher number of function cycles leading to higher repair and maintenance costs.
c) Do not neglect shop inspection and scheduled BOP maintenance. d) Conventional BOP function testing is not adequate for UBD operations. The accumulator function test must receive additional attention The new API RP 53 (Third Edition) and API 5G guidelines must be adhered to relative to the closing unit (accumulator) function. e) Plan for the worst case and strive to avoid neutralizing the annular preventer function.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge the Signa Engineering Corp. staff for review and editing.