Piezoelectric Transducers—Strain Sensing and

Energy Harvesting (and Frequency Tuning)

Toshikazu Nishida
Interdisciplinary Microsystems Group
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Florida
nishida@ufl.edu
http://www.img.ufl.edu
 General Transducer System

Interface Electronics
Exposed

Signal Display and/or

Transducer Control Actuation
Processing Data System

Packaging-Protected

„ Modular Transducer System Design

¾ Transducer
™device that converts one form of energy to another
¾ Interface Electronics
¾ Packaging/System Integration

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 Transducer Classification
„ Broad Classification
¾ Energy-Conserving
¾ Non-energy Conserving
„ Specific Classification
¾ Linear versus nonlinear
¾ Reciprocal versus anti-reciprocal
¾ Direct versus indirect

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 Linear, Conservative, Transducers
„ Linear, energy-conserving, transducers
¾ Linear:
™linearization about a mean may be required
™necessary for hi-fidelity transduction of time-resolved
signal
¾ Energy-conserving: [Ref. Hunt, Electroacoustics, 1954]
™Electromechanical coupling methods can be broadly
classified according to whether the mechanical forces
are produced under the action of electric fields on
electric charges or by the interaction of magnetic
fields and electric currents.
¾ Five major electromechanical transducers

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 Linear, Conservative, Transducers
1) Electrodynamic: motor/generator action are produced by the current
in, or the motion of an electric conductor located in a fixed transverse
magnetic field (i.e., voice coil, solenoid, etc.).
2) Electrostatic: motor/generator action are produced by variations of
the mechanical stress by maintaining a potential difference between two or
more electrodes, one of which moves (i.e., condensor microphone, etc.).
3) Magnetic: motor/generator action are produced by variations of the
tractive force tending to close the air gap in a ferromagnetic circuit.
4) Piezoelectric: motor/generator action are produced by the direct and
converse piezoelectric effect - dielectric polarization gives rise to elastic
strain and vice versa (i.e., tweeters, etc.).
5) Magnetostrictive: motor/generator action are produced by the direct
and converse magnetostriction effect - magnetic polarization gives rise to
elastic strain and vice versa.
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Two-Port Model for Linear Conservative Transducer
„ General Two-Port Theory for L.C. Transducers:
¾ In general, represent by simple two-port networks expressed in either
the impedance form or the admittance form

¾ Z-representation:

V = Z EB I + TEM U
F = TME I + Z MOU
I U
or
+ Two-Port
+
V F ⎡V ⎤ ⎡ Z EB TEM ⎤ ⎡ I ⎤
⎢ F ⎥ = ⎢T
Element
- - ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ME Z MO ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣U ⎥⎦

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 Piezoelectric Effect

Prior to poling After poling

3 (z)

6
S33 = s33E T + d 33 E 1-D linear piezoelectric
4 2 (y)
5 D33 = d 33T + ε 33
T
E coupling equations
1 (x)
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 Piezoelectric Model

„ Piezoelectric element modeled as a two- CaD φ:1

port network
¾ CaDÆ short circuit acoustic compliance
¾ Ceb Æ blocked capacitance
¾ φ Æ electro-acoustic transduction factor
+ +
V
P Ceb
- -

−d A
φ=
C aD

(d )
2 dA = electro-acoustic piezoelectric charge
Ceb = Cef − A = Cef (1 − k 2
) modulus [C/N] or [m/V]
CaD
Cef = free capacitance
k = coupling factor

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 Strain Sensing

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 Sensing Application: Piezoelectric Microphone
„ Aeroacoustic applications
¾ Full scale (fly-over) or reduced-
scale testing (wind tunnels)
¾ Noise source localization with
arrays
™1000’s of mics
™Cost ($$$/channel)
¾ Harsh environments
™Outdoors
™Pressurized wind tunnels
„ MEMS potential
¾ Matched amplitude/phase
™Good for arrays
Ref: Bob Dougherty, “Phased Array Beamforming for
¾ Reduction in cost
Aeroacoustics,” AIAA Short Course, May 8-9, 1999
¾ Smaller size
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 Specifications - Aeroacoustic vs. Audio
„ Frequency Range
„ Upper Dynamic Range
¾ Audio
¾ Audio: ~ 115 - 120 dB
™ 20 Hz Æ 20 kHz
¾ Aeroacoustic : ~ 170 dB
¾ Aeroacoustic
™ Full scale: 45 Hz Æ 11.2 kHz
™ 1/nth scale: n*(Full scale)
– ¼ scale: 180 Hz Æ 44.8 kHz

„ Noise Floor
¾ Audio Audio Aeroacoustic
™ ~ 23 – 37 dBA
Pressure
Acoustic
™ Integrated, psycho-acoustic
weighted
¾ Aeroacoustic
™ ~ 28 - 40 dB Frequency
™ Narrow bin for spectral
measurement
™ 1 Hz bin @ 1 kHz
T. Nishida, University of Florida 11
 Microphone Choices
B&K 4135 Kulite MIC 062 SiSonic
Bandwidth 4 Hz - 100 kHz DC - 125 kHz 30Hz - 10 kHz
Noise Floor ~ 5 dB 100 dBA 37 dBA
Max SPL (10%) ~ 172 dB 194 dB ~ 124 dB
Size 6.35 mm 1.57 mm 3.75 mm x 4.75 mm
Cost O ($$$) O ($$) O(<$)
Type Capacitive Piezoresistive Capacitive

„ “Performance of B&K 4135, size of Kulite MIC-062, cost of SiSonic”

Ref: B&K Type 4938 Ref: Kulite Mic-062 Ref: SiSonic

Brüel & Kjær Kulite Semiconductor Products, Inc. Knowles Acoustics
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 Piezoelectric Microphone Structure

1.8 mm
Piezoelectric
Annular Electrode (Pt or Ti/Pt)
Silicon Ring
Diaphragm Piezoelectric (PZT)
Diaphragm (Si)
Bottom Top Package (Acrylic)
Electrode Electrode

T. Nishida, University of Florida 13

 Process Flow - Overview

a) e)

b) f)

c)
g)

d) h)

TiO2 PZT
Si Bottom Electrode - Ti/Pt
Buried Oxide (BOX) - SiO2 Photoresist
Top Electrode - Pt
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 Packaging & Experimental Setup
Experimental Setup
Microphone Package

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 Experimental Results-Linearity
Linear up to at least 169 dB
-2
10
μV V
Sens = 0.75 = − 122.5 dB re 1
Pa Pa
Output Voltage [V]

-4
10
R 2 = 0.9995
Taken at 1 kHz
w/ 1 Hz bin
-6
10
Data
Fit
-8
10
75 100 125 150 175
Input Acoustic Pressure [dB]

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Magnitude [dB re 1 V/Pa]
Experimental Results-Frequency Response

-120

-125

-130

-135

-140
101 102 103
Freq [Hz]
60
Phase [deg]

40

20

101 102 103

Freq [Hz]
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 Experimental Setup-Noise Floor
„ Setup
¾ Triple Faraday cage
¾ Single point ground

Faraday cages

SR785 Spectrum Analyzer

Sensor SR560 Low Noise Pre-amplifier

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 Experimental Results-Noise Floor

85
Corner frequency (6.7 Hz)
80
@ f = 1 kHz
Magnitude [dB re 20 μPa]

75 Noise Floor:
3.7 nV / Hz
70
Sensor Noise MDS:
65 47.8 dB / Hz

60 .
Fmin_avg = 12 nN

55
Ceb [ nF] Re [ M Ω ]
Setup Noise
50 13.9 1.7

45
1 10 100 1000 10000
Freq [Hz]

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 Magnitude [dB re 1 μm/V]
Experimental Results-Laser Vibrometry
-14

f res = 50.8 kHz Q = 5.4

-16
f 3dB = 49.3 kHz
-18

-20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Freq
. [kHz]
0
Phase [Deg]

-50

-100

-150

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Freq [kHz]
T. Nishida, University of Florida 20
 Benchmarking

Kulite MIC SiSonic UF Piezo ¼ Scale

B&K 4135
062 SP0102 Mic Mic
18 Hz –
4 Hz – DC – 10 Hz – 180 Hz –
Bandwidth 49 kHz
100 kHz 125 kHz 10 kHz 44.8 kHz
(theo.)
Noise Floor ~ 5 dB 100 dB (?) 35 dBA 47.8 dB 28 dB
Max SPL (10%) ~ 172 dB 194 dB (?) ~ 115 dB 169+ dB 170 dB
3.76 mm x 5 mm x
Size 6.35 mm 1.57 mm 3.8 mm
6.15 mm 5 mm
Cost O ($$$) O ($$) O(<$) ??? O(<$)

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Frequency Tuning
Tuning and Energy Harvesting Application: Active Acoustic Liner

„ Aircraft noise is an ongoing environmental problem

„ Two main sources
P&W ADP Engine P&W 1992 Technology Engine
¾ Airframe noise Inlet

¾ Propulsion noise Aftfan

Combustor

Turbine

Jet

Total Airframe

Total Aircraft Noise

60 70 80 90 100 110
EPNdB

Comparison of the Approach Noise Levels for the Boeing

747-400 with Pratt & Whitney 1992 Technology Engines
and ADP Engines (NASA/TM-2005-212144, May 2005)

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 Active Acoustic Liner - Background
„ Aircraft engine duct liners
¾ Provide impedance boundary
conditions for engine duct
¾ Minimize the radiation of
noise from the duct
„ Existing liner technology
¾ Passive acoustic liner
¾ Active acoustic liner
„ Desirable traits of an
acoustic liner
¾ Tunable impedance, wide
bandwidth, robust, light-
weight, inexpensive, etc.

Ref. Rolls Royce, “The Jet Engine”, 1986.

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 Self-Powered, Wireless Acoustic Liner Concept

r rr

„ Acoustic liner
r
(
p′ ( r , t ) = p′ k , ω e )
i (ω t − k ⋅ r )

specifications U (n)
tunable
¾ Tunable Helmholtz energy
electromechanical reclamation
resonator for impedance liner cell module
modification n microphones

¾ Energy reclamation
module for self-powering
¾ Wireless control module
for remote tuning

controller & controller &

communications communications

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 Lumped Element Model for Conventional HR

„ Radiation impedance modeled as a piston in an infinite baffle

( ka ) ρ air c 8ka ρ air c ⎡ kg ⎤

2
⎡ kg ⎤ ≅
RaDrad ≅ , ka 1⎢ 4 ⎥ M aDrad , ka 1 ⎢ 4⎥
2 Aeff ⎣m s⎦ 3πω Aeff ⎣m ⎦

„ Plate parameters found from deflection curve, w ( r )

R2

∫ w(r ) 2π rdr
R2 2
⎛ w(r ) ⎞
M aD = ρ A 2π ∫ ⎜ ⎟ rdr ΔVol V →0

0 ⎝
ΔVol ⎠ CaD = = 0
R2 P V →0 P
ΔVol ∫ w(r ) P →0
2π rdr
dA = = 0

V P →0 V
T. Nishida, University of Florida 26
 Tunable Electromechanical Helmholtz Resonator

„ Electromechanical Helmholtz
resonator (EMHR)
¾ Piezoelectric composite backplate
(PZT-backplate) instead of
conventional solid-wall
¾ Shunt-loads across the PZT-
backplate
¾ EM DOFs possible

M aN RaN CaD RaDrad

Q '
φ :1 i
+
Q
P CaC P' CEB ZL
Z IN
M aD + M aDrad
−

T. Nishida, University of Florida Ref. APC International, Ltd. 27

 Tuning Performance of EMHR

¾ 2 DOF/3DOF: coupled
oscillator
¾ Short circuit and open
circuit define the
capacitive and
resistive tuning
− 9%
¾ Inductive tuning is not
limited to short-circuit
and open circuit
− >19%

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Energy Harvesting
 Meso Acoustic Energy Harvesting - Overview

Acoustic Energy Acoustic to Electrical Electrical Electrical Energy

Conversion Conditioning

Helmholtz Power
Resonator Converter
Circuit

PHR Pout
Pin Pout
Pin PHR

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 Meso Acoustic Energy Harvester – LEM
Neck
„ Electromechanical Helmholtz resonator
(EMHR)
¾ Piezoelectric composite backplate (PZT-
backplate) instead of conventional solid-wall Cavity
¾ Energy harvesting circuit across the PZT
output
„ Same equivalent circuit as tuning circuit
EH Circuit
PZT-backplate

M aN RaN CaD RaDrad

Q '
φ :1 i
+
Q
P CaC P' CEB ZL
Z IN
M aD + M aDrad
−

T. Nishida, University of Florida Ref. APC International, Ltd. 31

 Meso Acoustic Energy Harvester – Power vs Load
VLoad
iLoad
HR Output
• The HR is connected to a rectifier
Cbulk
bridge, bulk capacitor and load resistor.
RLoad • The HR is driven at the resonance
of the diaphragm.
• The bulk capacitor and load resistor
are both swept, the power at the load is
Load Power measured.
(VLoad)2/RLoad
Experimental Load Power vs. Resistance

1.5

1.2
Power (mW)

0.9

0.6

0.3

0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Resistance (ohms)
0 nF 1 nF 10 nF 100 nF 1000 nF
T. Nishida, University of Florida 32
 Meso Acoustic Energy Harvester – Setup
„ Acoustically excited Æ Plane Wave Tube (PWT)

Techron B&K Pulse System

Amplifier

Mic.1 Mic.2 Cavity

Mic. Energy
Harvesting
Δ Device (or
x1 Loads)
Incident Mic.

Piezoelectric backplate
Speaker PWT Helmholtz resonator

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 Meso Acoustic Energy Harvester – Results
Output Power vs. Incident Pressure

30
Output Power (mW)

25

20

15

10

0
130 135 140 145 150 155 160
Incident Pressure (dBSPL)
4.7mH Linear Regulator Direct Charging

T. Nishida, University of Florida 34

 Energy Harvesting
„ Advantages
¾ Simplifies deployment of a large numbers of wireless sensors
™Avoids need for routing or retrofitting wiring
™Eliminates maintenance costs of battery replacement

„ Challenges
¾ Ambient waste energy not necessarily dependable
¾ Harvestable energy scales down with decreasing volume
™Smaller size → less available energy

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 Energy Sources for Distributed Sensors
Source Power Density Energy * Denotes sources whose
(μW/cm3) Density fundamental metric is area.
(J/cm3)
Primary Battery 2880
Notes:
Secondary Battery 1080
a) Demonstrated from a 5°C
Ultra-Capacitor 50-100 temperature differential
Micro-fuel cell 3500
Heat Engine 3346 b) Assumes air velocity of 5m/s
Radioactive 0.52 1640 and 5% conversion efficiency
Solar (Outside) 15000*
c) Based on 1cm3 closed
Solar (Inside) 10*
volume of helium undergoing
Temperature 40*a a 10ºC temperature change
Human Power 330 once per day.
Air Flow 380b
Roundy, S., Wright, P. K., and Rabaey, J.,
Pressure Variation 17c Computer Communications, 26(11), pg1131-1144

VibrationsT. Nishida, University

300 of Florida 36
 Energy Harvesting Application
„ Locally-powered wireless hydrogen sensor
¾ Challenges addressed as follows:
(1) Ambient waste energy not necessarily dependable

⇒ Multiple sources
¾ Vibration
¾ Solar Liquid H2 storage tank at NASA
KSC, Photo: D. Wood
(2) Harvestable energy scales down with decreasing volume

⇒ Balancing power budget

¾ Power consumption (dissipation)
¾ Power generation

Carbon fiber reinforced H2

gas tank, Photo: Quantum
Technologies
T. Nishida, University of Florida 37
 Block Diagram of Self-powered Sensor System

Solar Cell
Energy
Energy Available
Reclamation
Storage Power
Circuit
Piezoelectric

Power Generation (Energy Harvester)

Sensor Microcontroller Transmitter

Power Dissipation (Loads)

T. Nishida, University of Florida 38

 H2 Sensor
„ Power considerations
¾ Conventional
™Pd-SiC Schottky diodes
– Require on-chip heater
¾ Nano-structure-based
™Pt-catalyst coated multiple-ZnO nanorod
– Room-temperature low-power operation (O(100 μW))
10
10~500 ppm 2H Air
8

|ΔR|/R (%)
6 Pt-ZnO nanowires
500ppm
250ppm
S D 4
Al/Pt/Au 100ppm
ZnO M-NRs
10ppm
2
Al2O3 Substrate

¾ Recent result: single Pt-coated ZnO nanorod 0 5 10 15

Time(min)
20 25 30

– 10x lower power and 3x faster response

Ref. Wang et al., Appl. Phys. A, 81, p. 1117, 2005.
T. Nishida, University of Florida 39
 Differential Hydrogen Detection
„ Wheatstone bridge
¾ Differential H2 signal
™Exposed m-ZnO vs. sealed m-ZnO
VDD

R2 R3
+
R Bias

R Bias

R1 -
VOUT
RG
+
Passivated ZnO
Exposed ZnO

R1

R2 R3
-
+
GND
GND

T. Nishida, University of Florida 40

 Controller Considerations
„ Selection factors Manufacturer and
Model
Active Current Standby Current Port
Leakage
¾ Active current TI MSP430F1122 14uA@32kHz, 4 low power modes 50nA
2.5uA@4kHz from 0.7uA to
¾ Standby current and 2.2V 0.1uA
¾ Wakeup time
Microchip 20uA@32kHz 1uA 1uA
¾ Port leakage PIC16F73

¾ ADC precision Motorola 812uA@1MHz 3 Stop modes: from 25nA

MC9S08G 4.3uA to 25nA

Acquire Atmel Atmega169 27uA@32kHz 5 Sleep modes, 1uA

SLEEP
Data
lowest is 0.2uA

EM Micro 9uA@32kHz 0.6uA standby NA

EM6617 0.1uA sleep

Transmit XEMICS 10uA@32kHz 1uA in hibernating NA

SLEEP
Data XE88LC01A mode
0.1uA in sleep mode

T. Nishida, University of Florida 41

 Modes of Operation
„ MSP430 configuration
¾ Minimum supply voltage (2.2V)
¾ 32 kHz external clock
¾ Interrupt-driven control, most of CPU shutdown to conserve power

„ Level monitoring
¾ Constantly monitors H2 sensor and only sends emergency RF pulse
above preset emergency threshold

„ Data transmitting
¾ Constantly monitors H2 sensor and sends data periodically, except if
sensor value exceeds preset emergency threshold

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 Wireless Transmission
„ Tradeoffs
¾ Low-level communication protocol
™Low overhead for transmitter
™High overhead for receiver
™Low functionality for multiple sensors, networking, etc.
¾ High-level communication protocol
™High overhead for transmitter
™Low overhead for receiver
™High functionality VDD

¾ Simple Colpitts oscillator

™On/Off Keying
™300 MHz
™Data shifted bit-by-bit from output port to input
GND

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 Power Budget
„ Controller/ transmitter
Event Average Power Length in Time
Initialization 3.07 mW 12.5ms
Sense Data 2.5 uW 0.3 ms per bit
Transmit 1 261 uW 0.5ms per bit
Transmit 0 2.5 uW 0.5ms per bit 20 m transmit distance w/
Remain Idle 2.5 uW Variable
quarter-wave antenna

„ H2 sensor
Hydrogen Level Resistance Average Power
0 ppm 1563 Ohms 84 uW
500 ppm 1500 Ohms 88.6 uW
„ Power generation target
¾ Vibration
¾ Solar

T. Nishida, University of Florida 44

 Mesoscale Piezo-Cantilever Power Generation
„ Piezoelectric cantilever

D1 D2 IBattery
PZT
D3 D4 +
Bimorph-4 C V Battery
-
A
R

™Piezo Systems, Inc. D220-A4-203YB (32 mm x 6.4 mm x 0.3 mm)

Power Delivered to Battery [uW]

displ.
sensor PZT composite 300
beam
Mm & Cms
displacement Clamp
plate 250
Proof
mass
voltage
200
Spectrum Analyzer
Imp.
acceleration
Head
150

100
SHAKER
Power Amplifier
50

OPTICAL TABLE
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

RMS Acceleration [/g]

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 Power Generation—Solar
„ Custom DC-DC converter designed and tested
¾ Maintains output voltage near optimal voltage for maximum output power
independent of load

L=100uH
vin 15 14 13 12 10 9 8 7 Vbattery
16 11 6
17 5
+ vds2 vds
18 4
Solar 19 3 Battery
Panel /Load

Converter
Cin NGate
NGate PGate
-
20 -PGate 2
- 21 1
Controller
Gnd
Small
Solar
Panel
+ Voc 22
Controller 40
23

24
VrefH
Testing Schematic
Charge Pump
Enable_P
Override_N Override_P (Solar)
25
Enable_N
26 27 28 29 30 31 … 39

1.5mm

¾ High efficiency c-Si solar cells (IXYS Semiconductor XOD17-04B

T. Nishida, University of Florida 46

 System Integration and Test
„ Operation confirmed using mechanical shaker and external light
¾ Level monitoring mode
¾ Data transmission mode

„ Informal vibration application test ZnO H2 sensor

¾ Vacuum pump surface Self-powered

Controller/Tx

500 ppm H2
N2

Rx/laptop

T. Nishida, University of Florida 47

 Vibration Energy Harvesting Piezo Cantilever

„Modeling assumptions
¾Linear Euler-Bernoulli beam theory
¾Perfect bond assumption
¾Linear piezoelectric material and reciprocal system
 Electromechanical LEM
Blocked
Effective Effective Electrical
Mass of Compliance of Electromechanic Capacitance of
Beam Beam Transduction Factor piezoceramic

Mm
φ :1
Velocity Cms Rm I
U
Mechanical Ceb Current
damping of
beam
F V
Input Re Voltage
Force across the
piezoceramic
Dielectric loss
in the
piezoceramic

„ Lumped Element Modeling

¾ Analytical : provides scaling
¾ Circuit : enables complete electromechanical system simulation

T. Nishida, University of Florida 49

MEMS Energy Harvesting
 MEMS Piezoelectric Cantilever
Final structure (front view and top view) Not drawn to scale
Au Pt PZT
Ti/Pt
SiO2
Si
SiO2(BOx)

Cantilever Beams

Bond
pads

Proof
mass

Clamp

T. Nishida, University of Florida 51

 MEMS Piezo Cantilever Devices
SEM pictures of released devices
PZT-EH-07 Device Dimensions
PZT-EH-07 PZT-EH-09
Length of beam 1 mm 0.5 mm
Width of beam 1 mm 0.5 mm
Thickness of beam 12 μm 12 μm

Length of PZT 1 mm 0.5 mm

Width of PZT 1 mm 0.5 mm

Thickness of PZT 1 μm 1 μm
PZT-EH-09 Length of proof mass 2.5 mm 1.8 mm
Width of proof mass 4 mm 2.4 mm
Thickness of proof 500 μm 500 μm
mass

T. Nishida, University of Florida 52

 MEMS Piezo Generator - Array
„ Array of MEMS
piezo generators
„ Series and parallel
connection.

Power Processor

Output and Control

Pads
Resonant Energy Generator Array

T. Nishida, University of Florida 53

Summary
 Summary

„ Piezoelectric transducers offer potential benefits for low

power sensing and vibration/acoustic energy
harvesting
¾ Transducer may require for low power voltage/charge
amplifier

¾ Scaling down energy harvester decreases harvestable power

™Requires arrays, low power active converter

T. Nishida, University of Florida 55

 Acknowledgements
„ Former and current students
¾ Dr. Steve Horowitz
¾ Dr. Anurag Kasyap
¾ Mr. Fei Liu
¾ Mr. Robert Taylor
„ Collaborating faculty
¾ Prof. Mark Sheplak, MAE UF
¾ Prof. Lou Cattafesta, MAE UF
¾ Prof. Khai D. T. Ngo, ECE UF/ VTech
„ Support
¾ NASA Langley
¾ NASA Glenn (NAG 3-2930 monitored by Timothy Smith)

T. Nishida, University of Florida 56

 Interdisciplinary Microsystems Group
„ Interdepartmental Research Group in College of Engineering
¾ IMG initiated in 1998
¾ Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
™Mark Sheplak: (98) design, acoustics, fluid mechanics
™Lou Cattafesta: (99) flow control, acoustics, fluid mechanics
™Hugh Fan: (03) microfluidics, BioMEMS
¾ Electrical and Computer Engineering
™Toshi Nishida: (88) noise, strained silicon, energy havesting
™Huikai Xie: (02) CMOS-MEMS, photonics, bio-imaging
™David Arnold: (05) micromagnetics, micro-power systems

T. Nishida, University of Florida 57