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Afghanistan History
Afghanistan History
o Teispes
o Cyrus I
o Cambyses I (Kambiz) 600 B.C
o Cyrus the Great, Start of Achaemenid Empire, 559BC -
530BC
o Kambiz II, 530BC - 522BC
o Darius I the Great, 522BC - 486BC
o Xerxes I(Khashyar), 486BC - 465BC
o Artaxerxes I , 465BC - 425BC
o Xerxes II, 425BC - 424BC (45 days)
o Darius II, 423BC - 404BC
o Artaxerxes II, 404BC - 359BC
o Artaxerxes III, 359BC - 339BC
o Arses, 338BC - 336BC
o Darius III, 336BC - 330BC
o Dariusthe Great expands the Achaemenid empire to its
peak, when it takes most of Afghanistan., including Aria
(Herat), Bactriana(Balk, and present-day Mazar-i-Shariff),
Margiana (Merv), Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad and
Peshawar), Sattagydia (Ghazni to the Indus river), Arachosia
(Kandahar, and Quetta), and Drangiana (Sistan).
o The Persianempire was plagued by constant bitter and
bloody tribal revolts from Afghans living in Arachosia
(Kandahar, and Quetta)
323 BC - After Alexander's death the region at first was part of the Seleucid
empire. In the north, Bactria became independent, and the south was acquired
by the Maurya dynasty.
o Bactria expanded southward but fell (mid-2d cent. B.C.) to
the Parthians and rebellious tribes (notably the Saka).
o Buddhismwas introduced from the east by the Yüechi, who
founded the Kushan dynasty (early 2d cent. B.C.). Their
capital was Peshawar.
o The city, once called Purushapura, was the capital of the
ancient Greco-Buddhist center of Gandhara.
o The Kushans declined (3d cent. A.D.) and were supplanted
by the Sassanids, the Ephthalites, and the Turkish Tu-Kuie.
Phil-Hellenistic period
o Phraates V, 2BC - AD 4
o Orodes III, AD 4 - AD 7
o Vonones, AD 7 - AD 11
Anti-Hellenistic Period
o Artabanus II, 12 - 38
o Gotarzes II, 38 - 51
o Vardanes I, 39 - 45
o Vonones II, 51
o Vologases I, 51 - 78
o Vardanes II, 55 - 58
o Vologases II, 77 - 80
o Artabanus III, 80 - 81
o Pacorus, 78 - 105
400 Invasion of the White Huns. They destroy the Buddhist culture, and leave
most of the country in ruins
652 Arabs introduce Islam that was to influence the course of Afghanistan’s
history
1140 - 1215 Ghorid leaders from central Afghanistan capture and burn Ghazni,
then move on to conquer India.
Khans (Mongol)
1273 Marco Polo crosses Afghanistan on his voyage from Italy to China to
discover the “Silk Route”. Revolts and battles between smaller kingdoms mark
the next two centurie
Timurids
1504-1519 Moghul dynasty Babur shah, takes control of Kabul, Babar begins
to take control of Afghanistan. Babur, a descendant of Timur , used Kabul as the
base for his conquest of India and the establishment of the Mughal empire in the
16th cent.
1736 Persian King Nadir Shah occupies the south-west and later Kandahar;
assassinated in 1747.
1810 - 1826 Shah Mahmood and his brother Zaman Shah struggle for the
throne.
1826 - 1839 Dost Mohammad Khan takes Kabul, and establishes control.
During his rule the status of Afghanistan became an international problem, as
Britain and Russia contested for influence in central Asia. Aiming to control
access to the northern approaches to India, the British tried to replace Dost
Muhammad with a former emir, subordinate to them. This policy caused the first
Afghan War (1838–42) between the British and the Afghans. Dost Muhammad
was at first deposed but, after an Afghan revolt in Kabul, was restored. In 1857,
Dost Muhammad signed an alliance with the British. He died in 1863 and was
succeeded, after family fighting, by his third son, Sher Ali.
1843 - 1863 Dost Mohammad Khan comes back and occupies the royal throne.
After the annihilation of British troops, Afghanistan once again becomes
independent.
1863 - 1866 Sher Ali Dost Mohammad Khan's son , succeeds to the throne.
1879 - Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan takes over until October 1879.
o Amir Muhammad Yaqub Khan gives up the following
Afghan territories to the British: Kurram, Khyber,
Michni, Pishin, and Sibi. Afghans lose these
territories permanently.
o Kabul occupied by British forces
o Battle of Maiwand
o July 1880, Afghan woman named Malalai carries the Afghan flag
forward after the soldiers carrying the flag were killed by the
British. She becomes a hero for her show of courage and valour.
o The British, shortly after the accession of the new
Amir, withdraw from Afghanistan, although they retain
the right to handle Afghanistan's foreign relations.
o Abdur Rahman establishes fixed borders and he
loses a lot of Afghan land.
o Nuristan converted to Islam.
o 1885- Russian forces seize the Panjdeh Oasis, a
piece of Afghan territory north of the Oxus River.
Afghans tried to retake it, but was finally forced to
allow the Russians to keep Panjdeh, and the
Russians promised to honor Afghan territorial integrity
in the future.
o 1893- The Durand line fixes borders of Afghanistan
with British India, splitting Afghan tribal areas, leaving
half of Afghans in what is now Pakistan.
o 1895 Afghanistan's northern border is fixed and
guaranteed by Russia
o 1901-- Abdur Rahman dies, his son Habibul
succeeds him.
1907- 1919 Habibullah Khan’s regime.Russia and Great Britain sign the
convention of St. Petersburg, Agreement reached between British and Russian
governments over the territorial integrity of Afghanistan
1930 - 1933 Nadir Khan takes the throne; his tribal army loots government
buildings and houses of wealthy citizens because the treasury was empty.
Habibullah Kalakani, along with his supporters, and a few supporters of
Amanullah Khan are killed by Nadir Khan. Now Nadir Khan establishes full
control.
1973 - 1978 Daoud Khan abolishes the monarchy, declares himself President.
The Republic of Afghanistan is established.
1992 April 15 The Mujahideen take Kabul and liberate Afghanistan, Najibullah
is protected by UN.
1996 - 2001 Mullah Omar Taliban militia force President Rabbani and his
government out of Kabul. After the capture of Kabul, the Taliban executed
Najibullah.
Ahmad Shah Durani also known as (Ahmad Shah Baba) is the founder of today's
Afghanistan. Pir Sabir Shah, the spiritual guide of the time, showered his praise
for the young Ahmad Shah by declaring him Dar-e-Durran (pearl of the pearls)
not because that he was a military giant but for his humanity a definite quality of
a statesman. He was the King of Afghanistan from 1747-1772 AD.
Key Data
Region: Asia
Area Total: 647,500 km2
Area Land: 647,500 km2
Coast Line: 0 km (Landlocked) km
Capital: Kabul
Climate: Dry to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers
Languages: Pashto, Pashtu or Pukhto number of Speakers in Afghanistan approximately 14
million and Dari (Farsi) is spoken by almost every ethnic division, they are Indo-European
languages and are the major two languages spoken in Afghanistan; other Indo-European, Indo-
Aryan languages, such as Balochi, Pashayi and Eastern Farsi, are also spoken; Turkic and Altaic
languages, such as Uzbek and Turkmen, are present; Tajiki is also used.
Currency: Afghani
Holiday: Independence Day, 19 August
Boundaries
Pakistan: 2,430km
Tajikistan: 1,206km
Iran: 936km
Turkmenistan: 744km
Uzbekistan: 137km
China: 76km
Ethnic Divisions
Pashtun: 52%
Tajiks: 21%
Hazara: 9%
Baloch: 7%
Uzbek 6%
Turkmen 2%
Qizilbash 1%
Other 1%
Religions
Sunni Muslim: 88%
Shi`a Muslim: 11%
Other (including Zoroastrian, Jewish, Hindu, Baha'i and Christian) 1%
Natural Regions
High mountains cover much of Afghanistan, with about one-half of the land over
2000 m (6600 ft) in elevation. Small glaciers and year-round snowfields are
common. The highest peak, Nowshak (Noshaq), rises 7485 m (24,557 ft) on the
northeast border and is a lower spur of the Tirich Mir peak in Pakistan. The Hindu
Kush range extends across the country in a southwesterly direction from the
Vakhan Corridor almost to the Iranian border. From the Hindu Kush, other lower
ranges radiate in all directions. Some of the major ranges include the Pamirs in
the upper northeast of the Vakhan Corridor, the Badakhshan Ranges in the
northeast, the Paropamisus Range in the north, and the Sefid Koh range, which
forms part of the frontier between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lowland areas are
concentrated in the south and west and include the Turkistan Plains, the Herat-
Ferah Lowlands of the extreme northwest, the Sistan Basin and Helmand River
valley of the southwest, and the Rigestan Desert of the south.
Except for the river valleys and a few places in the lowlands where underground
fresh water makes irrigation possible, agriculture is difficult. Only about 15
percent of the land is suitable for farming. Moreover, a war with the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the 1980s and the subsequent civil war in
the 1990s left some of that land unusable because of neglect, the planting of
explosive mines, and other problems. In general, sheep and goat grazing make
up the main agricultural land use. In eastern and southeastern Afghanistan,
forest lands amounted to about 2 million hectares (about 5 million acres), or
about 4.5 percent of the country, before the war. The ravages of war, the scarcity
of fuel, and the need for firewood for cooking and heating have caused rapid
deforestation.
Because Afghanistan has so many high mountains, the passes through them
have been of profound importance in both the history of invasion of the country
and in commerce. In the 320s BC Alexander the Great invaded the country
through the Kushan Pass (about 4370 m/about 14,340 ft) in the west and left it to
the east through the low Khyber Pass (920 m/3018 ft) to invade India. These
same passes were used by the Mughal emperor Babur to conquer both
Afghanistan and India in the 1500s. The famous Salang Pass (about 3880
m/12,720 ft) and its Soviet-built tunnel in the central Hindu Kush was one of the
main routes the Soviets used to invade Afghanistan in 1979.
Rivers and Lakes
Many of Afghanistan's major rivers are fed by mountain streams. The Amu Darya
on the northern frontier has a number of significant tributaries that rise in the
eastern Hindu Kush. It is the only navigable river in Afghanistan, though ferry
boats can cross the deeper areas of other rivers. The Harirud River rises in
central Afghanistan and flows to the west and northwest to form part of the
border with Iran. The long Helmand River rises in the central Hindu Kush,
crosses the southwest of the country, and ends in Iran. It is used extensively for
irrigation and agriculture, although in recent years its water has experienced a
progressive build up of mineral salts, which has decreased its usefulness. Most
of the rivers end in inland seas, swamps, or salt flats; the Kabul River is an
exception. It flows east into Pakistan to join the Indus River, which empties into
the Indian Ocean.
Afghanistan's lakes are small in size and number, but include Lake Zarkol in the
Vakhan Corridor along the Tajikistan border, Shiveh in Badakhshan, and the
saline Lake Istadeh-ye Moqor, located south of Ghazni. The country also has a
few salt marshes at the limits of the Helmand drainage on the western border
with Iran. The most important dams and reservoirs in Afghanistan are the Kajaki
Reservoir on the Helmand, the Arghandab Dam on a tributary of the Helmand,
the Sardeh Dam on the Ghazni River, and the Kelagay Dam on the Darya-ye-
Qondoz tributary of the Amu Darya. Prior to the civil war, less than 10 percent of
the country's hydroelectric potential had been developed. After the war began,
hydroelectric production dropped off almost completely as turbines were
destroyed, floodgates blown open, and transmission lines brought down. By the
mid-1990s private diesel-fired generators were about all that remained of 75
years of electric development.
Plant & Animal Life
Plant life in Afghanistan is sparse but diverse. Common trees in the mountains
are evergreens, oaks, poplars, wild hazelnuts, almonds, and pistachios. The
plains of the north are largely dry, treeless steppes, and those of the
southwestern corner are nearly uninhabitable deserts. Common plants in the arid
regions include camel thorn, locoweed, spiny restharrow, mimosa, and
wormwood, a variety of sagebrush. The wild animals of Afghanistan include more
than 100 mammal species, some of which are nearing extinction. The most
seriously endangered are the goitered gazelle, leopard, snow leopard, markor
goat, and Bactrian deer. Other wild animals of Afghanistan include Marco Polo
sheep, urials, ibex, bears, wolves, foxes, hyenas, jackals, and mongooses. Wild
boar, hedgehogs, shrews, hares, mouse hares, bats, and various rodents also
occur. More than 380 bird species are found in Afghanistan, with more than 200
breeding there. Flamingo and other aquatic fowl breed in the lake areas south
and east of Ghazni. Ducks and partridges are also common, but all birds are
hunted widely and many are becoming uncommon, including the endangered
Siberian crane.
Climate
Most of Afghanistan has a subarctic mountain climate with dry and cold winters,
except for the lowlands, which have arid and semiarid climates. In the mountains
and a few of the valleys bordering Pakistan, a fringe effect of the Indian
monsoon, coming usually from the southeast, brings moist maritime tropical air in
summer. Afghanistan has clearly defined seasons; summers are hot and winters
can be bitterly cold. Summer temperatures as high as 49° C (120° F) have been
recorded in the northern valleys. Midwinter temperatures as low as -9° C (15° F)
are common around the 2000-m (6600-ft) level in the Hindu Kush. The climate in
the highlands varies with elevation. The coolest temperatures usually occur on
the heights of the mountains.
Temperatures often range greatly within a single day. Variations in temperature
during the day may range from freezing conditions at dawn to the upper 30°s C
(upper 90°s F) at noon. Most of the precipitation falls between the months of
October and April. The deserts receive less than 100 mm (4 in) of rain a year,
whereas the mountains receive more than 1000 mm (40 in) of precipitation,
mostly as snow. Frontal winds sweeping in from the west may bring large
sandstorms or dust storms, while the strong solar heating of the ground raises
large local whirlwinds.
Natural Resources
Despite a lengthy history of small-scale mining of gems, gold, copper, and coal,
systematic exploration of Afghanistan's mineral resources did not begin until the
1960s. In the 1970s Afghanistan was discovered to have a wide variety of
mineral resources, but only coal, iron ore, copper ore, and gemstones were
targeted for development. Natural gas fields are scattered throughout much of
Afghanistan. Recent analysis by the United States Geological Survey has
indicated significant unexploited oil reserves in the north as well. After their
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, the Soviets endeavored to export some of the
country's resources to the USSR. Natural gas, for example, was exported by
pipeline across the Amu Darya into the USSR in the 1980s. Ongoing hostilities,
however, severely hampered this effort and finally cut off the natural gas export.
By the mid-1990s there was little mineral or oil and gas extraction.
Environmental Issues
Afghanistan has long been a land of marginal environment-too dry and too cold
for much life. Thousands of years of environmental stress by the country's people
have dramatically altered the landscape and caused extensive environmental
destruction. Because the Afghan people lack the financial means to purchase
fuel, they must cut trees, uproot shrubs, and collect dung for burning. Domestic
animals overgraze the range. The result is extensive soil erosion by water and
wind. Long-term irrigation without flushing has added salt to much of the arable
land and destroyed its fertility. Polluted water supplies are common, except in the
high mountain regions where few people live permanently. Ancient writings and
archaeological evidence show that once rich areas of forest and grassland have
been reduced to stretches of barren rock and sand. The government of
Afghanistan began to recognize environmental problems in the 1970s with the
help of the United Nations and other international agencies. The pressures of the
war, however, have diverted attention from these issues and further aggravated
the country's environmental state.
People of Afghanistan
Afghanistan is comprised of a variety of ethnic groups called Afghans, the
overwhelming majority of whom are Muslim, usually either followers of Sunni or
Shia Islam. The people of Afghanistan are related to many of the ethnic groups in
Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan; the borders drawn
between these groups are arbitrary. For the most part, Afghans are farmers,
although a significant minority follows a nomadic lifestyle. In the years since the
Soviet invasion and the later civil war, a large number of Afghans have fled the
country and become refugees in neighboring nations, most typically in Iran and
Pakistan.
Economy
In the mid-1990s, after a decade of Soviet occupation, war, and economic
manipulation, followed by the ongoing civil war, the economy of Afghanistan was
in shambles. Even in the 1970s, prior to the war, Afghanistan had one of the
lowest standards of living in the world; things have declined since then, with the
production, trafficking, and movement of drugs and guns as a major hidden part
of the economy. As the war and its effects spread throughout the country in the
early 1980s, two separate economies emerged; the urban financial and industrial
facilities, tied especially to the Soviet Union, and the largely independent rural
subsistence economy. In 1990 annual income was estimated to be $714 per
person.
Over the centuries, Afghans have developed a number of different strategies to
earn a living from their difficult environment. Most Afghans are settled farmers,
herders, or both, depending upon ecological, economic, and political factors.
They are usually self-sufficient in foodstuffs and other necessities. Industry and
mining developed considerably in the 20th century, but local handicrafts are still
important. In 1956 the government launched the first of several five-year plans.
Irrigation efforts and development of a better road and telecommunications
network had top priority, with later efforts toward production of textiles, cement,
electricity, fertilizer, and grain storage facilities. Progress was made to develop
better trade with the outside world, especially toward Europe, the United States,
and Japan. Major nations aided Afghanistan in building roads, dams,
hydroelectricity facilities, airports, factories (including those for light machinery,
cement, and textiles), and irrigation networks for such crops as cotton, wheat,
barley, and rice. After the Soviet invasion in 1979, development aid from the West
ceased, and Afghanistan became economically dependent on the USSR. Fruits,
vegetables, fine carpets, and gemstones now constitute the majority of the export
market.
Labor
In 1993 the total labor force was estimated to be about 6.6 million. As recently as
1985, about 60 percent of the working population was engaged in agriculture or
animal husbandry, though this percentage may be higher today with the loss of
other kinds of employment because of war. Widespread unemployment and a
lack of skilled workers and administrators are among the most pressing labor
problems.
Agriculture
Only a very small share of Afghanistan's land (about 15 percent), mostly in
scattered valleys, is suitable for farming; about 6 percent of the land is actually
cultivated. At least two-thirds of this farmland requires irrigation. Water is drawn
from springs and rivers and is distributed through surface ditches and through
underground channels, or tunnels, which are excavated and maintained by a
series of vertical shafts. Such a tunnel is known as a karez or qanat. In 1987
about 26,600 sq km (10,300 sq mi) of farmland were irrigated.
Wheat is the most important crop, followed by barley, corn, and rice. Cotton is
another important and widely cultivated crop. Fruit and nuts are among
Afghanistan's most important exports. Afghanistan is noted for its unusually
sweet grapes and melons, grown mostly in the southwest, north of the Hindu
Kush, and in the fertile regions around Herat. Raisins are also an important
export. Other important fruits are apricots, cherries, figs, mulberries, and
pomegranates.
Handicrafts
Distinctive Afghan Rugs are made by Turkmen and some Uzbeks;
characteristically these have parallel rows of geometric figures on a dark red
ground, although many other patterns also exist. The Baluchi, well-known
producers of prayer rugs, also make carpets mainly of wool, using a blend of
dark colors. Camel hair and cotton are also used in some of these carpets. A
variety of beautiful embroideries are also made for bridal trousseaus (the cloth in
which the bride wraps her clothes and other personal possessions) and for sale.
Mining
Large natural gas deposits in northern Afghanistan were exploited jointly with the
USSR starting in 1967. In the 1980s large quantities of natural gas were exported
to the USSR, but that was terminated after the Soviet withdrawal in 1989. Oil has
been found to the north of the Hindu Kush in large reserves but it is unexploited,
primarily because of war. Afghanistan is the world's only source of high-grade
lapis lazuli and has major copper and iron deposits. However, most resources
have not been exploited.
Manufacturing
Industrial development increased substantially after World War II (1939-1945).
With the opening in 1965 of a large West German-built wool mill, woolen-textile
production more than doubled. Among the other factories located primarily in
Kabul are plants manufacturing textiles (the most important manufactured export
product) and footwear; government-operated cement plants; a fruit-processing
plant; a plant making coal briquettes; and several cotton gins. As with other
aspects of the economy, the war has been a major obstacle to industrial
expansion.
Energy
Almost half of the energy used in Afghanistan comes from firewood. Most of the
rest comes from gas, oil, and hydroelectricity. There are dams and hydroelectric
stations on the Kondoz, Kabul, Arghandab, and Helmand rivers. The dams also
store water for irrigation.
Foreign Trade
Afghanistan's chief exports are natural gas and dried fruit. Other exports include
carpets, fresh fruit, wool, and cotton. Afghanistan imports food, motor vehicles,
petroleum products, and textiles. Most of the foreign trade of Afghanistan is
controlled by the government or by government-controlled monopolies. The
USSR was Afghanistan's chief trading partner even before the 1979 Soviet
invasion, and this relationship intensified in the 1980s. The leading purchasers of
Afghan products, in addition to the USSR and the former Soviet republics, have
been Pakistan, Great Britain, Germany, and India. In 1991 exports amounted to
about $188.2 million, while imports cost $616.4 million.
Currency and Banking
The unit of currency in Afghanistan is the afghani, which is divided into 100 puls.
Since 1981 the official rate of exchange has been fixed at 50 afghanis equal
U.S.$1. However, the actual market rate of the afghani has fluctuated, and in
1994 2400 afghanis equaled U.S.$1. Dramatic inflation (with rates of up to 57
percent), which has been taking place in Afghanistan since the Soviet invasion,
contributed to the drastic decrease in the purchasing power of the afghani from
1981 to 1994.
Afghanistan's central bank was founded in 1938 and is the largest bank in
Afghanistan. The central bank issues all notes, executes government loans, and
lends money to cities and to other banks. All private banks in Afghanistan were
nationalized in 1975, mostly because a lack of clear terms for borrowers and
lenders had made it difficult for people to use the country's credit resources. No
stock market or other modern form of economic development exists in
Afghanistan. Instead, archaic "money bazaars" exist to provide money-lending
and foreign exchange dealings.
On Monday Oct 7, 2002 Afghanistans interim government marked the first
anniversary of U.S. air strikes that brought it to power by issuing new banknotes,
aimed at reasserting central control over a war-ravaged economy.
Transportation
Travel within Afghanistan is severely limited by the rugged terrain. The country
has less than 25 km (less than 16 mi) of railroad track, all of which is for shipping
goods to and from Afghanistan and Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Petroleum
products are piped in from Uzbekistan to Bagram and from Turkmenistan to
Shindand. Natural gas used to be piped into the part of the USSR that is now
Uzbekistan through a 180-km (110-mi) pipeline, but was terminated immediately
after the war. Except for the Amu Darya, which has 1200 km (750 mi) of
navigable waters and handles vessels up to about 500 metric tons, the country's
narrow, fast-flowing rivers are nearly all unnavigable and are used chiefly for the
transportation of free-floating timber. Ports on the Amu Darya include Keleft,
Kheyrabad, and Shir Khan. There are about 21,000 km (about 13,000 mi) of
highways, about 13 percent are paved, 8 percent are gravel, and 79 percent are
dirt.
Kabul and Kandahar have international airports. There are 48 airports in the
country, about half of which have paved runways. The national airline is Ariana
Afghan Airlines; Bakhtar Afghan Airlines also provides some domestic service,
but it is nearly defunct because of the war.
Camels and other pack animals are used for conveying goods. Afghanistan
depends on neighboring countries for the shipment of goods to and from its
borders. Hostilities between Pakistan and Afghanistan have often led to the
closing of that border.
Communications
Telephone and telegraph networks link the major towns. In the early 1990s about
31,200 telephones were in use but there was only one public telephone in Kabul.
One international telephone link is maintained through Iran. The government
provides radio broadcasts in Pashto, Dari, and ten other languages on a handful
of AM and shortwave radio-broadcast stations. Many Afghans own transistor
radios, and loudspeaker systems in some villages carry the broadcasts to larger
audiences. The first Afghan television station, built with Japanese aid, went on
the air in Kabul in 1978. In the mid-1990s several television stations were run by
factions and local councils, providing only intermittent service.
The history of newspapers, magazines, and other publications in Afghanistan has
varied, depending upon the level of censorship in the ruling government. The first
printed newspaper was distributed in 1875, and two other small newspapers
were printed just after 1900. With the beginning of the reign of King Amanullah in
1919, the press flourished with the publication of more than 15 newspapers and
magazines. By the 1950s, 95 percent of the nation's printed materials came from
the government. The small remainder was produced by provincial hand-operated
presses. In 1962 the Kabul Times appeared as the first English-language paper.
Bakhtar News Agency subscribed to a variety of international press services and
its news bulletin was available as well. Following the 1978 coup the Kabul Times
was renamed the Kabul New Times and began publishing Communist rhetoric
that was reminiscent of the worst days of the Cold War. The newspaper was
highly confrontative and hostile to the West. In reaction to the suppression of the
free press, antiregime shabnamah (night letters) were secretly printed (primarily
in Kabul) with uncensored news and opinions. In the early 1990s Afghanistan
had more than 10 newspapers, but by the mid-1990s this number had dropped
off as the suppression of Afghanistan's media increased.