QUESTION ONE

i) ii)

C18H36O2 (s) + 26O2(g) H (combustion)

18CO2(g) + 18H2O(g) = *18*(Hf of CO2) + 18*(Hf of H2O)] - *1*(Hf of C18H36O2) + 26*(Hf of O2)] = [18*(-393.5 kJ/mol) + 18*(-241.82 kJ/mol)] - [1*(-948 kJ/mol) + 26*(0 kJ/mol)] = [(-7083 kJ/mol) + (-4352.76 kJ/mol)] - (-948 kJ/mol) = -10487.76 kJ/mol

iii)

We know that H (combustion) = heat released (q) / no. of moles of stearic acid (n). The n of stearic acid is: n = mass / MW = 1 g / (284.4790 g/mol) = 0.00352 mol q = (H combustion) * (n stearic acid) = (-10487.76 kJ/mol) * (0.00352 mol) = 36.92 kJ Converting that to kcal: 36.92 kJ (1 kcal / 4.1868 kJ) = 8.82 kcal

iv)

Not all fats in our diet have the same energy content. Some fatty acids have about 8.6 kcal/g whereas some longer chain fatty acids may have 9.6 kcal/g. However, for the sake of simplicity, we generally say that 1 gram of fat contains 9 calories (carbohydrates and protein contain 4 calories). Therefore 11.0 g of fat represents about 99.0 kcal nearly a hundred. Yes, it is consistent because 1 g of stearic acid is 8.82 kcal according to my calculation above which is nearly 9.

QUESTION TWO The dwindling supply of the worlds fuel for energy had lead to the environment pollution that can threaten the standard of living thing. This is due to the product of combustion of the fuel that bring negative effect to the environment for example gasoline and diesel that are mostly being used to generate energy at certain country. Therefore, many approaches must be taken to produce rational energy to cleaner fuel for example solar energy, fuel cell, and uses of propane to replace gasoline and diesel. Solar energy is the worlds largest energy sources. On a clear day about 1 kJ of solar energy reaches each square meter of earths surface every second. The effective use of solar energy will depend on the development of some means of storing the collected energy for use at a later time. Any practical means for doing this will almost certainly involved use of an endothermic chemical process that can later reserves to release heat. On such reaction is the following: CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

This reaction proceeds in the forward direction at high temperatures, which can be obtained in a solar furnace. The Co and H2 formed in the reaction could then be stored and allowed to react later, with the heat released being put to useful work The thermal energy released by the combustion of fuels can be converted to electrical energy. They may convert water to steam, which drives the turbine that in turn drives a generator. Typically, a maximum of only 40% of the energy from combustion is converted to electricity, the remainder lost as heat. the direct production of electricity from fuels by a voltaic cell could, in principle, yield a higher rate of conversion of the chemical energy of the reaction. Fuel cell is a voltaic cell that perform conversion using conventional fuels, such as H2 and CH4. Fuel cells are not battery because they are not selfcontained system. The fuel must be continuously supplied to generate electricity. The most promising fuel-cell system involves the reaction of H2(g) and O2(g) to form H2O liquid as the only product. These cell can generate electricity twice as efficiency as the internal combustion engine. Under acidic condition, the electrode reactions are Cathode: Anode: Overall equation: O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e2H2(g) O2(g) + 2H2(g) 2 H2O(l) 4H+ + 4eH2O(l)

The standard emf of an H2-O fuel cell is +1.23 V, reflecting the large driving force for the reaction of H2(g) and O2(g) to form H2O. The uses of propane as fuel for generate energy is a very suitable approaches in order to prevent from air pollution due to the combustion of the fuel. During the combustion of propane as follow the equation, the product of the combustion of propane is water and carbon dioxide if burnt in excess oxygen.

C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O + heat Propane + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water When not enough oxygen is present for complete combustion, incomplete combustion occurs when propane burns and forms water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and carbon.

C3H8 + 3.5 O2 CO2 + CO + C + 4 H2O + heat Propane + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Carbon Monoxide + Carbon + Water Propane combustion is much cleaner than gasoline and diesel combustion. The presence of CC bonds, plus the multiple bonds of propylene and butylene, create organic exhausts besides carbon dioxide and water vapor during typical combustion. These bonds also cause propane to burn with a visible flame.

QUESTION THREE a) The plastic article must first coated with graphite paste in order to produce an inert electrode for electroplating. This is due to the properties of graphite which is inert to electrochemical reaction. Carbon and chromium electrode

b) c)

d)

Cr3+ + 3eCoulombs

Cr =Ampere x seconds =0.50 x 300 =150C

Moles e-

=150/96485 = 1.55 x10-3 mol e-

Mol Cr

= 1.55 x10-3 / 3 = 5.18 x 10-4 mol Cr

Mass Cr

= 5.18 x 10-4 x 51.9961 = 0.027g

e)

Because the element of the electrolyte used are not same as the element of the electrode

QUESTION FOUR A) Primary batteries or non-rechargeable batteries consist of dry cell, alkaline batteries, mercury and silver (button) batteries. The most common type of battery used today is the "dry cell" battery. There are many different types of batteries ranging from the relatively large "flashlight" batteries to the miniaturized versions used for wristwatches or calculators. Although they vary widely in composition and form, they all work on the sample principle. A "dry-cell" battery is essentially comprised of a metal electrode or graphite rod (elemental carbon) surrounded by a moist electrolyte paste enclosed in a metal cylinder. Half cell Overall equation : (cathode) 2 NH4+ + 2 MnO2 + 2e- ------> Mn2O3 + 2 NH3 + H2O (Anode ) Zn (s) ---------------> Zn+2 + 2e: 2 NH4+ + 2 MnO2 + Zn (s) ------> Mn2O3 + 2 NH3 + H2O + Zn+2

A common dry cell battery is the zinc-carbon battery, using a cell sometimes called the dry Leclanch cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts A dry cell is used for storing electricity. The advantages of dry cells are Inexpensive materials, Low cost, and available in a wide range of sizes including AAA, AA, C, D and 9Volt sizes. The disadvantages of dry cell are the basic zinc carbon battery has a lower energy density than the competing alkaline batteries, Poor low temperature performance. Do not function well in sub-zero temperatures, and Not rechargeable. The most common primary (nonrechargeable) battery is the alkaline battery. The anode of this battery consist of powdered zinc metal immobilized in a gel contact with a concentrated solution of KOH (hence the name alkaline battery). The cathode is a mixture of MnO2 solid and graphite, separated from the anode by a porous fabric. The battery is sealed in a steel can reduce the risk of leakage of the concentrated KOH. Cathode: Anode: Overall equation: 2MnO2(S) + 2H2O(l) + 2eZn(S) + OH-(aq) 2MnO2(S) + 2H2O(l) + Zn(S) 2MnO(OH)(S) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(S) + 2e2MnO(OH)(S) + OH-(aq) + Zn(OH)2(S)

The emf of the alkaline battery is 1.55 V at room temperature. The alkaline battery provides far superior performance over dry cell. An alkaline cell is used for storing electricity. The advantages of alkaline cell are the capacity of an alkaline battery is larger than an equal size Leclanch or zinc-chloride, alkaline batteries are the most suitable for applications where the current being drawn off is normally low such as in devices that do not require a lot of power during their use, and available in a wide range of sizes including AAA, AA, C, and D. The disadvantages of alkaline batteries are alkaline batteries have a high internal resistance, and Alkaline batteries kept in devices that are not used for a long time, can leak and thus completely ruin the device itself because of the corrosive nature of the leaked material.

A mercury battery (also called mercuric oxide battery, or mercury cell) is a non-rechargeable electrochemical battery, a primary cell. Due to the content of mercury, and the resulting environmental concerns, the sale of mercury batteries is banned in many countries. Both ANSI and IEC have withdrawn standards for mercury batteries. Mercury batteries use either pure mercuric oxide or a mix of mercuric oxide with manganese dioxide as the cathode. Mercuric oxide is a non-conductor so some graphite is mixed with it; the graphite also helps prevent collection of mercury into large droplets. The anode is made of zinc and separated from the cathode with a layer of paper or other porous material soaked with electrolyte. During discharge, zinc oxidizes to zinc oxide and mercuric oxide gets reduced to elementary mercury. A little extra mercuric oxide is put into the cell to prevent evolution of hydrogen gas at the end of life. Mercury batteries are very similar to silver-oxide batteries. Cathode: Anode: Overall equation: HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2eZn(S) + 2OH-(aq) HgO(s) + Zn(S) Hg(l) + 2OH-(aq) ZnO(S) + H2O(l) + 2eHg(l) + ZnO(S)

There are no changes in the electrolyte's composition when the cell works. Such batteries provide 1.35 V of direct current. Mercury batteries were made in button types for watches and calculators, and in larger forms for other applications. The advantages of mercury battery are low cost, and available in button size that suitable for small electrical appliances. The disadvantages of mercury battery are produce low electrical energy than other type of battery, and the mercury that contain in the battery is very toxic an enriches in the environment and especially in the food chain.

B) A 12-V lead-acid automotive battery consist of six voltaic cell in series, each producing 2 V. the cathode of each cell consist of lead dioxide (PbO2) packed on a metal grid. The anode of each cell is composed of lead. Both electrodes are immersed in sulfuric acid. The electrode reaction that occur during discharge are Cathode: Anode: Overall equation: E0cell = PbO2(S) + HSO-(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2ePb(S) + HSO4-(aq) PbO2(S) + 2 HSO-(aq) + 2H+(aq) = PbSO4 (S) + 2H2O(l) (E0= +1.685) (E0= -0.356)

PbSO4 (S) + H+(aq) + 2e2PbSO4 (S) + 2H2O(l) +2.041 V

cathode - anode

(+1.685 V) - (-0.356 V) =

The reaction Pb and PbO2 serve as electrode. Because the reactant are solid, there is no need to separate the cell into anode and cathode compartments. The Pb and PbO2 cannot come into direct physical contact unless one electrode plate touches another. To keep the electrode from touching, wood or glass-fiber spacers are placed between them.

This type of batteries is used in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motor. The advantages of this cell are the ability to supply high surge current, rechargeable, and Low maintenance requirements no memory; no electrolyte to fill (Capable of high discharge rates). The disadvantages of lead acid batteries are cannot be stored in a discharged condition, low energy density poor weight-to-energy density limits use to stationary and wheeled applications, allow only a limited number of full discharge cycles well suited for standby applications that require only occasional deep discharges, and Environmentally unfriendly the electrolyte and the lead content can cause environmental damage. Lithium-ion battery or also known as Li-ion battery is very different from that of other battery. It is based on the ability of Li+ ions to be inserted into and removed from certain layered solid. For example, Li+ ions can be inserted reversibly into layer of graphite or some other carbon-based material, and the other is usually made of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). When the cell is charged, cobalt ions are oxidized, and Li+ ions migrate into the graphite. During discharge, when the battery is producing electricity for the use, the Li+ ions spontaneously migrate from the graphite anode to the cathode, enabling electrons to flow through the external circuit. reaction (with charging being forwards) is: The anode half reaction is: The overall reaction has its limits. Over discharge will supersaturate lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:

An Li-ion battery produce a maximum voltage of 3.7 V, considerably higher than alkaline battery. Lithium-Ion batteries can be used both in devices that need recharging, such as cell phones, and
in products whose batteries are difficult, expensive or impossible to recharge or replace, such as cardiac pacemakers. The advantages of this battery are lithium-ion batteries come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes so as to efficiently fit the devices they power, Lithium-ion batteries do not suffer from the memory effect, and Lithium-ion batteries are often much lighter than other energy-equivalent secondary batteries. The disadvantages of this batteries are The internal resistance of lithium-ion batteries is high, Li-ion batteries are not as durable as nickel metal hydride or nickel-cadmium designs and can be extremely dangerous if mistreated, and poor cycle life. Fuel cell is a voltaic cell that perform conversion using conventional fuels, such as H2 and CH4. Fuel cells are not battery because they are not self-contained system. The fuel must be continuously supplied to generate electricity. The most promising fuel-cell system involves the reaction of H2(g) and O2(g) to form H2O liquid as the only product. These cell can generate electricity twice as efficiency as the internal combustion engine. Under acidic condition, the electrode reactions are Cathode: Anode: Overall equation: O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e2H2(g) O2(g) + 2H2(g) 2 H2O(l) 4H+ + 4eH2O(l)

E0cell

cathode - anode

(+1.23 V) - (0.00 V)

+1.23 V

The standard emf of an H2-O fuel cell is +1.23 V, reflecting the large driving force for the reaction of H2(g) and O2(g) to form H2O. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. The advantages of fuel cell are can generate electricity twice as efficiency as the internal combustion engine, fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and produce cleaner by product that suitable for environment. The disadvantage of fuel cell is that the cost for a system is very high.

QUESTION FIVE

a)
b)

Neutron beams are neutral, not effected by electric or magnetic fields, as was gamma. Protons are positive and are repelled by protons in the nuclei of atoms, thus requiring more energy than a neutron (with are uncharged, so do not feel the repelling force) to penetrate the to the nucleus.

c)

Ionizing radiation occurs as either electromagnetic rays (such as X-rays and gamma rays) or particles (such as alpha and beta particles). It occurs naturally (example from the radioactive decay of natural radioactive substances such as radon gas and its decay products) but can also be produced artificially. Everyone receives some exposure to natural background radiation. Ionizing radiation is used in medicine (for diagnosis and treatment), industry (for measurement and other purposes as well as for producing electricity), research and teaching. The risk of developing cancer and hereditary defects from exposure to ionizing radiation, which increases slightly for children than adults due to their rapidly dividing cells and higher breathing rates. They are both forms of the same process, nuclear fission is usually referred to as the chain reaction created when two unstable masses are held in close proximity for a split second creating what is known as a critical mass, hugh amounts of energy are released. Radioactivity is the natural decaying of an atom that is unstable because of a large surplus of neutrons in its nucleus; radioactive energy is released as individual neutrons are ejected from the nucleus. The chain reaction does not always produce the same products, if it is split unevenly, possibly determined by how he neutron hit the nucleus. Nucleon= proton or neutron, nuclide = a specific nucleus, such as C-14. During beta decay an electron is sent out of the nucleus, this is formed by a neutron coming apart into a proton and an electron. Thus a proton is formed. Energy is released in radioactive decay.

d)

e)

QUESTION SIX

a)

If a change is forcing a reaction to the right, then the concentrations of reactants will drop, and products will increase. The equilibrium constant will not change, as it is a constant for a certain reaction at a certain temperature. The equilibrium constant will not change unless the temperature or pressure of the system changes. We obtain a general expression relating KP and KC .

b)

KP = KC(RT)n The quantity n is the change in the number of moles of gas in the chemical equation for the reaction. It equals the sum of coefficients of the gaseous product minus the sum of the coefficients of the gaseous reactants. n = (moles of gaseous product)-(moles of gaseous reactant) KP = Kc only when the same number of moles of gas appears on both sides of the balanced chemical equation, which means that n = 0. KP KC when n 0. c) When a numerical value Q is less than K means the concentration of products is too small and that of reactants too large.Thus,the reaction will achieve equilibrium by forming more products, it moves from left to right.
Equilibrium position is measured as Q, which is an instantaneous value. K is a constant for a reaction at standard temperature and pressure. Change the reactant concentration, and you change the equilibrium concentration of reactants and products, and change Q, but do not change K. i) Enzyme 1 ii)Enzyme 1 iii) The substance B and further cannot be produced. iv) Only if F produced, the substances of G, H and I will be produced and vice versa.

d)

e)