UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS

SEMESTER 2 SESI 2009/2010

TBU 3023: BIOLOGY II

TITLE

BIODIVERSITY PLANT AND ANIMAL EVOLUTION-

GROUP LECTURE: _B__ LECTURERS NAME:

DR. SHAKINAZ BT DESA

PREPARED BY: GROUPS MEMBER 1. NOOR SUMAYAH BT ISMAIL 2. NOR SHARLIDA BT MOHAMAD JALAILUDIN 3. RAJA NUR ARINAH BT RAJA ARIFF 4. NORHAMIDAH BT ROHANI NO.MATRIK D20091035088 D20091035098 D20091035107 D20091036643 NO/ IC 900110-11-5460 890515-03-5200 901128-03-5156 900914-11-5052

TARIKH SERAH: 29/03/2010

PLANT EVOLUTION
6) COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF NONVASCULAR, SEEDLESS VASCULAR AND SEED BEARING VASCULAR PLANTS.

SIMILARITIES

Taxonomists group all green plant in the Kingdom Plantae. Plants are multicellular eukaryotes. 1. They are photosynthetic autotrophs that utilize chlorophylls to trap light energy for the process of photosynthesis. 2. They have cellulose cell wall. 3. They reserve foods and the form of starch. 4. Most of them are non-motile, anchored to one place. 5. They have adaptations that reduce the loss of water by the cuticle protection and stomata. 6. All plants protect the embryo from desiccation and some protect their entire gametophyte generations.

BREIF DESCRIPTIONS OF PHYLA AND CLASSES KINGDOM PLANTAE Description Small terrestrial plants restricted to damp habitats. Gametophyte generation dominant. Sporophyte generation dependent on Phylum Bryophyta (lower plants) non vascular plant gametophyte generation. Water is needed for fertilization.

Classes: y Hornworts: embedded archegonia; sporophyte grows basally. y Hepaticae: Liverworts, no filamentous stage; gametophyte thallus with rhizoids.

Musci: Mosses, erect stem with leaflets with rhizoids.

Subphylum Filicinophyta (seedless vascular plants): differentiated into: leaves, stem, roots, Phylum Pteridophyta rhizome. Lignified tissue (wood) may be present. Water is still needed for fertilization. Subphylum Lycopodophyta: Clubmosses, heterosporous: big megaspores (ovules) and small microspores (pollen). Seed plants. Naked seeded bone in cones. Gametophyte very reduced, sporophyte is the dominant plant. Female gametophyte becomes a seed which contains a food store and protective coat. Water is no longer needed for fertilization. Gymnosperm (naked seeded plant) Phyla: y Coniferophyta (Pinus): nonmotile sperm (pollen tube delivers sperm into the ovum) y Cycadophyta (Cycas): pinnately compound leaves, stem short and unbranched (like a palm), circinnate vernation, motile sperm, pollen & ovules in stribili or megasporophylls, dioecious y Gingophyta (Ginko biloba): extinct in wild, motile sperm y Gnetophyta (Gnetum): unusual group including Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia Flowering plants. Seed protected by an ovary

which becomes a fruit. Gametophyte is reduced to a few cells, sporophyte is the dominant plant. Classes: Angiosperms (flowering plants) y Dicotyledons: Plants with two seed leaves. y Monocotyledons: Plants with one seed leaf.

Overview of the Plant Kingdom

Evolution of Roots, Stems, and Leaves

In general, plants are multicelled photosynthetic autotrophs & green in color and self-sustaining. Most of the gymnosperms and angiosperms have vascular tissues for transport of water and nutrients. Nonvascular plants, such as the bryophytes, have simple internal transport systems (no true roots, stems, or leaves). The ancestors of plants had evolved by 700 million years ago, but another 265 million years passed before simple stalked species appeared. Within another 60 million years, plants had radiated through much of the land.

Underground parts developed into root systems, specialized for absorption of water and minerals through extensive cylindrical tubes. Parts above ground developed into shoot systems, adapted for exploiting sunlight and absorbing carbon dioxide from the air. Vascular tissue became increasingly extensive: xylem for conducting water and minerals, phloem for products of photosynthesis. Extensive growth of stems and branches became possible due to the strengthening of cell walls afforded by deposits of lignin. Stems and leaves were covered by cuticle to minimize water loss; evaporation was controlled by opening and closing of stomata.

EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS AMONG PLANTS

From Haploid to Diploid Dominance

Evolution of Pollen and Seeds

The life cycle of simple aquatic plants is dominated by the haploid phase which produces gametes that are dependent on a watery environment to meet and fuse. The life cycle of complex land plants is dominated by the large, diploid sporophyte. y Cells within the sporophyte undergo meiosis to give rise to the haploid spores. The spore develops into the gametophyte, which produces the gametes.

The spores of some algae and simple vascular plants are all alike & endash; homosporous. In the gymnosperm and angiosperm lineages, the spores are differentiated into two types & endash; heterosporous. y The male gametophytes & endash, pollen grains & endash, are released from the parent plant to be carried by whatever means to the female gametophyte. The female gametophytes remain in the plant and are surrounded by protective tissues, eventually producing a seed.

Over time the sporophytes, while developing extensive root and shoot systems, began holding onto their spores and gametophytes &endash, protecting and nourishing them.

2) NON VASCULAR PLANTS

Definition Non-vascular plants are a general term for those plants without a vascular system (xylem and phloem). Although non-vascular plants lack these particular tissues, a number of nonvascular plants consist tissues specialized for internal transport of water. Non-vascular plants have no roots, stems, or leaves, since each of these structures is defined as containing vascular tissue.

Bryophytes Bryophytes are non-vascular plants.

Phylum Bryophytes (non vascular land plants)

Characteristic
Nonvascular , thallused body, no true root, steam and leaves, contain chlorophyll, lack vascular tissues,exhibit alternation of generation, gametophyte generation are dominant, sporophyte depend on gametophyte, attached to the substrate (ground, rock, or bark) by rhizoids.

Habitat
Moist and sheltered places

Nutrition
Autotrophic

Example
Marchantia poly trichum

ANTHOCEROS

Bryophyta classification

1. Hepitace

Characteristic
The most familiar hepitace consist of a prostrate, flattened, ribbon-like or branching structure called a thallus, single-celled rhizoids, in leafy species the presence of deeply lobed or segmented leaves and the presence of leaves arranged in three ranks

Example

MOSCI

Characteristic
upright gamtophyte with stem and leaves, have a multicellular rhizoid, have single celled rhizoids, radial symmetry

Example
Moss polytrichum

NTHOCEROTAE

Characteristic
The Anthocerotae are readily distinguished from other bryophytes By certain characteristic features. The thallus is of homogeneous structure,with simple rhizoids and without ventral scales. Cavities occupied by blue-green algae are normally present. Antheridia are situated in chambers sunk in the thallus. Archegonia are also immersed and their jacket cells are indistinguishable from the surrounding tissue. The sporophyte is long and narrow,with a central columella of sterile tissue and a basal meristem. Its only protection is a basal collar (involucre) formed of tissue originating mainly in the thallus.

Example

3) SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

Seedless vascular plants

Introduction: Pteridophyta (te-ri-DA-fa-ta) as made from two Greek roots that mean winged (pteryz ); and plant (phyto ). The reference is to the wing-like appearance of the

compound leaves (fronds) that are characteristic of most ferns About 12, 000 species of ferns belong to the phylum Pteridophyta. The seedless vascular plants include whisk ferns, club mosses and horsetails. They have developed a vascular structure that permits the transport of water and nutrients but they do not reproduce by seeds. They are composed of xylem and phloem tissues but the vascular tissues composed only tracheids and sieve tubes. Xylem vessels and companion cells are absent

The seedless vascular plants (ferns and their allies) disperse their species by producing windblown spores. When the spores germinate, a large gametophyte develops is independent of the sporophyte for nutrition.

Spores production

Homosporous life cycle

Heterosporous life cycle

 All the spores produced are the same size  The gametophyte produced by the homosporus plant is bisexual  Eg: the ground moss or club mosses (Lycopodium)

 Happen when plant produces two different sized spores.  The megaspore which is larger and microspore the smaller spores  Heterosporous plants are considered a more advanced plants  Eg: the spike moss (Isoetes and Selaginella)

Lycopodium Isoetes

Homosporous life cycle

Ex: Ferns; all the spores are the same size

Hetorosporous life cycle

Ex: Selaginella; spores of two sizes

Let s more understanding...

ovules

pollen

These vascular plants are divided into subphyla; namely Lycopodophyta (club mosses) and the Filicinophyta (ferns Phylum Subphylum Characteristics y Examples

y Pteridophyta Lycopodophyta y

Leafy stems y - Club mosses, Lycopodium , Isoetes and Selaginella resemble moss gametophytes Reproductive structure clubshaped Sporophyte generation dominant Has roots, stems, and small leaves. Leaves are tiny, vascular system Most of club mosses live in tropics and subtropics as epiphytes, (plants that live on trees withouty harm) They are common in temperate woodlands

where they are called ground pine Typically, a branching rhizome sends up aerial stems less than 30 cm tall Sporangia are borne on the club-shaped strobili, terminal y clusters of leaves that bear sporangia

Strobilus

Filicinophyta

Leaf known as - Fern, Dryopteris, Equisetaceae (homosporous), fronds grow upward from rhizome Frond divided into pinnae attached to central stipe First of the vascular plants that have branching veins Equisetaceae of vascular tissues Spores produced Hanging in sporangia. sporongia Clusters of sporangia form sori usually found on the pinnae Ferns for

example can be found especially abundant in warm, moist tropical regions The main stem is underground. This thick underground stem is called a rhizome. It contains many starch-filled cells for storage The sporophyte generation is dominant. Asexual reproduction occurs through extensively spreading and branching rhizome.

4) GYMNOSPERMS GYMNOSPERMS- PLANT WITH NAKED SEED Vascular seed plants that have no ovaries

y y y

Most well known gymnosperms = conifers Gymnos mean naked while sperms mean seed. The production of seeds distinguishes the gymnosperms and the angiosperms from other members of the vascular plants. Together, the gymnosperms and angiosperms are called seed plants (Spermatophyta).

Gymnosperms include four groups of seed plants which are: 1. Pinophyta - Conifers 2. Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo 3. Cycadophyta - Cycads 4. Gnetophyta Gnetum

In each of these groups, the ovule is not completely enclosed by tissues of the sporophyte.

y 1. Pinophyta- Conifers  The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferae.  Woody plants,  The great majority being trees with just a few being shrubs.  Size of mature conifers varies from less than one meter (39 inches), to over 100 meters (328 feet).  Typical examples of conifers include cedars, cypresses, douglas firs, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.  The conifers are now accepted as comprising six to eight families, with a total of 65-70 genera and 600-650 species.  Species of conifers can be found growing naturally in almost all parts of the world, and are frequently dominant plants in their habitats.  Conifers are of immense economic value (the largest of the gymnosperms), primarily for timber and paper production. The wood of conifers is known as softwood.  The leaves of many conifers are long, thin, and needle-like.  Most of the Cupressaceae and some of the Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves.

 Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae, have broad, flat strapshaped leaves.  In the majority of conifers, the leaves are arranged spirally, exceptions being most of Cupressaceae and one genus in Podocarpaceae.  The leaves are often dark green in color, which may help absorb a maximum of energy from weak sunshine at high latitudes or under forest canopy shade.  Most conifers are monoecious (having unisexual reproductive units of both sexes appearing on the same plant).  Some are dioecious (having unisexual reproductive units occurring on different individuals) or subdioecious (a female plant may sometimes produce small numbers of male cones or vice versa).  All are wind-pollinated.

NORWAY SPRUCE

2. Ginkgophyta Ginkgo  The Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), commonly known as the Maidenhair Tree, is a unique tree with no close living relatives.  It is classified in its own division, the Ginkgophyta, comprising the single class Ginkgoopsida, order Ginkgoales, family Ginkgoaceae, genus Ginkgo, and just the one species, G. biloba.  It is one of the best known examples of a living fossil, with fossils recognizably related to modern Ginkgo from the Permian, dating back 270 million years.

 Ginkgos are medium-large deciduous trees, reaching 2035 m (65.6115 feet) tall (with some specimens in China being over 50 m (164 feet)), with an often angular crown and long, somewhat erratic branches.  They are usually deep-rooted and resistant to wind and snow damage.  Young trees are often tall and slender, and sparsely branched.  During autumn, the leaves turn a bright yellow, then fall, sometimes within a short space of time (115 days).  A combination of amazing disease resistance, insect-resistant wood, and the ability to form aerial roots and sprouts means that ginkgos are very long-lived, with some specimens claimed to be more than 2,500 years old; a 3,000 year-old.  The leaves are unique among seed plants, being fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the leaf blade, sometimes splitting.  The leaves are 5-10 cm (rarely to 15 cm) .  Male plants produce small pollen cones with sporophylls each bearing two microsporangia spirally arranged around a central axis.  Female plants do not produce cones. Two ovules are formed at the end of a stalk, and after pollination, one or both develop into seeds

Ginkgo seeds and leaves

3. Cycadophyta Cycads

 Cycadophyta are an ancient group of seed plants, dating back to the early Permian (280 million years ago) or possibly the Carboniferous (300-325 million years ago), consisting of 305 described species, 10-12 genera, and 2-3 families.  They are identified by their large crown of compound, palm-like leaves and short trunk. They are dioecious and commonly confused with palms or ferns .

- Leaves and male cone of Cycas Revoluta

4. Gnetophyta Gnetum  The plant division Gnetophyta or gnetophytes comprise three related families of woody plants.  The gnetophytes differ from other gymnosperms in having wood vessels as in the flowering plants  Gnetophyta contains only one class of living plants, class Gnetopsida. The class is divided into three orders, each containing a single family and genus: o Gnetales: Gnetaceae; Gnetum o Welwitschiales: Welwitschiaceae; Welwitschia o Ephedrales: Ephedraceae; Ephedra

 The Gnetales consist of a single genus, Gnetum, which are mostly woody climbers in tropical forests. However, the most well-known member of this group, Gnetum gnemon, is a tree. The seeds produced are used to produce a crispy snack known as 'Keropok Belinjau' in Malaysia and Indonesia. The Malay name for this plant is 'belinjau'.  The Welwitschiales comprise only one species, Welwitschia mirabilis. It grows only in the deserts of Namibia. The plant is strange in having only two large strap-like leaves for all its life. These grow continuously from the base, and are usually tattered at the ends from flapping in the winds.

 The Ephedrales consist of a single genus Ephedra, and are known as the jointfirs because they have long slender branches which bear tiny scale-like leaves at their nodes. Ephedra is reputed to have medicinal properties, but has recently been banned by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) due to harmful and potentially deadly side effects.

5) ANGIOSPERMS

 Angiosperms (angio, vessel, receptacle, container)- refers to the flowering plants  Angiosperms are so named because the seeds are enclosed within an ovary wall that forms a fruit  Have highly developed vascular tissues  Exhibits an alternation of generations life cyclehave two generation life cycle that includes the microgametophyte and megagametophyte  Angiosperms are heterosporous 1. Microspores- develops into microgametophyte 2. Megaspores- develops into megagametophyte  The alternation of generations that flowering plants undergo is modified in such a way that a sperm does not require an outside sources of water  Required agent of pollination (wind or an animal)
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves

Introduction

Class Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons can be distinguished in a number of ways Eg: in number of

flower leaves,

(petals), vascular

tissues, root pattern and embryo in seed

pollination and then fertilization.

Alternation of generations

Life cycle of monocot and dicot

General Differences Between Monocots and Dicot

There are some differences between two classes of angiosperms ( Class

Monocotyledons and Class Dicotyledons)

Characteristic s Flowers parts (petals)

Monocotyledons

Dicotyledons

3 or multiples of three. 5 Leaves Leaf shape: usually tapered Leaf venation: parallel

4 or 5 or multiple of 4 or

Leaf shape: broad Leaf venation: reticulated

Vascular tissues

Vascular bundle are scattered throughout stem Root pattern Fibrous and adventitious root

Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around stem Taproot

Embryo seed

in Has one cotyledons

Has two cotyledons

Number of furrows or pores in pollen Examples

Single monosulcate

Three- triporate

- Zea mays

Woody plant Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

ANIMAL EVOLUTION
All animal are multicellular and mitochondrial heterotrophs
ANIMALIA KINGDOM

They have multiple cells with mitochondria and they rely on other organisms for their nourishment). Most of animal ingest their food and than digest it in some kind of internal cavity.

i.SYMMETRY

Ancestral animal

Radial symmetry

Cnidarians

sponges

assymetry

Roundwarms

Flatwarms

biletaral symmetry Annelida chordates

Arthropods enchinoderm molluks

Asymmetrical

Animal have no patterns of symmetry

Radial symmetry

Body parts that are arranged around a central axis,likes Spokes of a wheel. The body has the general form of a short or tall cylinder with one main longitudinal axis divides the body into 2 like halves.Animals that exhibit radial symmetry tent to be sessile.

Bilateral symmetry

Body having a right and left, or complementary halves. Only one Plane of symmetry which divides an animal into mirrors images (Left and right) by a single plane that passes through the dorsal ventral midline of its body from the front (anterior) to the back (posterior) end.

ii. BODY LAYER AND CAVITY

The body has only two germ layers in the adults body, namely the outer ectoderm and inner endoderm. Thsese organism also acoelomates which mean they lack a body cavity which is lined by mesoderm .

Diploblastic

Example : poriferians and cnidarians

Triploblastic Acoelomate

The body has three germs layer in the adult body, namely the ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm lack coelom.

Triploblastic pseudocoelomate

The body has three germs layer in adult body, namely the ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. The body cavity is incompletely lined by mesoderm. The organisms have body cavity called pseudocoel. Example : Roundworms

Triploblastic coelomate

The body has three layers namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm with an additional cavity called the coelom. The coelom is a body cavity that has two opening beginning with an anterior mouth and terminating in a posterior anus . Example : segmented worms

Annelids Arthropods

Chordates

Triploblastic Mollusks Echinoderms coelomate

Roundworms

triploblastic, pseudocoelomate

Flatworms

triploblastic, acoelomate

Cnidarians

diploblastic

Sponges

multicellular , no true tissues

Ancestral Animal

single cells

III.BODY DIRECTION

The kind of direction used to locate body structures permit precise description Forward end of the animal is the anterior end. The posterior end is opposite to the anterior region. Dorsal refers to back of animal The underside of an animal is the ventral side The sides of an animal (e.g. right-hand and left-hand)is known as lateral sides The point of attachment of a structure, such as the wing of an insect is the proximal end. And the unattached end is known as distal end

The Uniqueness Characteristics of Nine Main Phyla of Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Characteristic Example Sponges

porifera

y No true tissue ;possess choanocytes that ingest bacteria and tiny particles

Hydras

cnidaria

y Diploblastic y Unique stinging structure (cnidea) housed in cnidocyte; single opening into gastrovascular cavity Jellies

Flatworms y y y y Triploblastic Dorsoventrally flattened Unsegment acoelomates ; no digestive tract

platyhelminthes

Roundworm

nematoda

y Triploblastic y Cylindrical y Unsegmented pseudocoelomates with tapering ends y No circulatory system Segmented worms y Triploblastic y Coelomates with body wall and internal organ segment except digestive tract

annelida

Spider y y y y Triploblastic Coelomates with segmented body Jointed appendages Endoskeleton made of protein and chitin

artropoda

Snail y Triploblastic y Coelomates with muscular body foots y Visceral mass and mantle ;have hard shell made of calcium carbonate Clams

Mollusca

Squid
Sea star y Triploblastic y Coelmates with radial symmetry in adults y Unique water vascular system y endoskeleton Sea lilies

Echinodermata

Chordata

y triploblastic y coelmates with dorsal hollows nerve cord y post anal tail

Vertebrates

animal evolution
phylum: porifera/ sponges

kingdom animalia
phylum: cnidaria 1. Hydra 2. Obelia

simple invertebrates

2. Leucosolenia

example

1. sponges

Phylum sponges/sponges

CLASSIFICATION
Phylum Characteristics Habitat Nutrition : porifera : cellular level of organization : sessile, marine, fresh water : heterotrophic, feeding by collar cells (choanocytes) Example : sponges, Leucosolenia

Sponges

Leucosolenia

Sponges and Leucosolenia in deep sea...

CHARACTERISTICS

 Example of Porifera is sponges, Leucosolenia. Porifera as the name suggests has a body with pores, canals and chambers that serve for passage of water.  Sponges are the simplest form of multi-cellular animals, has no definite symmetry of body plan, it is the simplest type of metazoan organization (no true tissue; no germ layer). A sponge is a bottomdwelling creature which attaches itself to something solid (substratum) in a place where it can find enough food to grow.  The body is made up of a loose aggregation of cells; so there is not much communication between the cells.  Do not have mouth and anus. They depend on water currents carried through their unique canal systems to bring them food and O2 and carry away their body wastes.  Spongocoel (central cavity). The Osculum is the larger excurrent opening of the spongocoel.  The body is covered with epidermis (made up of flat pinocytes; interior surfaces lined with choanocytes which are the collar which line the spongocoel

How Do Sponges Reproduce? -Sponges reproduce: 1. asexually by budding and fragmentation. 2. Sexually by eggs and sperm -In the asexual reproduction: budding and regeneration followed by fragmentation take place. While in sexual reproduction, fusion of the gamete like sex cells occurs. -Sponges are mostly monoecious: having both female/ male sex cells withinnsame individual. Sperm (male sex cells) arise from transformation of choanocytes into motile sex- then fuse with female sex zygote flagellated larvais released into spongocoelescapes with the excurrent water through osculumlarvae settle on the substratum

Structure of sponges

REPRODUCTION OF SPONGES

Phylum Cnidaria

CLASSIFICATION Phylum : Cnidaria (Coelenterates) Characteristics : Diplobastic, radially symmetrical, true tissues but lack organs; simple nerve net in body wall, sexual and asexual reproduction, life cycle including separate polyp and medusa stages sessile (adult), free floating medusa Habitat : marine, fresh water Nutrition : heterotrophic (feeding by stinging cells-cnidoblast) Example : Hydra, Obelia

Introduction: y The phylum Cnidaria, formerly called Coelentrata, contains the hydra, sea anemones, corals and jellyfish are entirely aquatic; mostly marine. y Cnidarians have acoelamate body plan with two tissues layers surrounding a gastrovascular cavity (an outer epidermis and an inner feeding surface or gastrodermis) y Mesoglea (non-cellulara gelatinous material which differs in thickness and structure amongst types of cnidarians) y They are radially symmetrical animals, with one end of the body bearing the mouth and tentacles. y Cnidarians have a very simple body organization; cellstissues with specific functionsbut there are no organs; division of labor is instead achieved by having different adult body forms.

y y

There are two major morphological types; polyp and medusa. Cnidarians exhibit the phenomenon of polymorphism, i.e.; they exist as either sessile polyps or as floating medusa in their life cycle

y y

It has a primitive nervous system It has no excretory or respiratory systems

POLYP

MEDUSA

  

Are hydroid form, adapted for sedentary or sessile life It has a tubular body with mouth facing upwards and surrounded by tentacles The aboral end usually attached to a substratum (eg;rock) by a pedal disc or by skeletal secretion / by stolons (root-like outgrowths)

 Are the jellyfish form, free swimming and sexually mature form  It has bell-shaped or umbrella-shaped bodies  Radially symmetrical  The mouth is facing downward, tentacles at edge and one or more types of sense organs borne on rim umbrella  It provides dispersal mechanism so as not to compete with parents  motile

 

Immotile and lives singly or in colonies. Colonies of some species- for a certain function, e.g.: feeding, reproduction or defense

How do Cnidarians feeding? y y Cnidarians are carnivorous. They have special cells known as cnidocytes. With stinging organelles, nematocytes. y Prey is caughtimmobilized and killed with nematocytes on the tentaclesprocess digestion: is initially extracellular then intracellular y It has only one enteron (digestive cavity) and one opening (a mouth, but no anus) y

How do Cnidarians reproduce? Reproduction by asexual budding and regeneration (in polyps) or sexual reproduction by production of gametes (in all medusae and some polyps)

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CNIDARIA

Phylum Class y Characteristics Example

Are the most primitive of -Solitary (individually)- Hydra the Cnidaria (marine) -Colonial Obelia (freshwater)

y Hydrozoa Cnidaria

Some of them undergo alternate of generation (asexual polyp generation alternate with a sexual medusa generation). However, polyp is the dominant stage

No mesenteries -Jellyfish, Aurelia

Scyphozoa

y y

All marine The medusa is the most prominent stage of the life cycle Jellyfish

Mesenteries in young polyp

Aurelia

-Sea anemones

Anthozoa

Occur as polyps, no medusa; each polyp generation builds on the skeletal remains of earlier generations

Large mesenteries

-Coral animals

HYDRA LIFE CYCLE

BILATERAL INVERTEBRATA I. FLATWORMS SIMPLE ORGAN SYSTEMS

 Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) are the simplest animals with a three layered embryo.  Bilateral and cephalized  The main groups are turbellarians, flukes and tapeworms.  Most turbellarians are marine but some live in fresh water.  All flukes and tapeworms are parasites.

STRUCTURE OF A FREE LIVING FLATWORM

STRUCTURE OF PLANARIAN- FREE LIVING TURBELLIANS

II. ANNELIDS- SEGMENTS GALORE

Bilateral worms with a coelom and a body that is impressively segmented inside and out.

Some examples of 12,000 species include polychaetes, oligochaetes such as earthworms and leeches.

y y

All segments bear chaetae (chitin reinforced bristles) except in leeches. Bristle shoved into marine sediments or soil give the worm traction to crawl or burrow.

1) Polychaetes

    

Have a variety of appendages sticking out of their head Fleshy, lobed structure along their body Some lobes handle food but most act like feet. Having feeding structure on head Have sucker at both ends.

2) Earthworm  Has many similar segments each contain a coelomic chamber  Running through one coelomic chamber after another is closed circulatory system  Gas exchange occur at the moist body surface  Scavengers that ingest soil then digest organic debris.  Most coelomic chamber have nephridium.  Each is a unit of an organ system that help control the composition and volume of coelomic fluid.  Has a rudimentary brain, a fused pair of ganglia that coordinates activities for the body.  Has a hydrostatic skeleton.  They are hermaphrodites.

III. Phylum mollusca

Class Gastropoda

Class Bivalia

Class cephalopoda

Characteristic of Mollusac:

triploblastic, coelomate, bilaterally

symmetrical, metametric unsegmented, usually with definite head and foot modified for locomotion, dorsal body walls forms the mantle, mantle cavity modified into golls or a lung, and secretes the shell, open circulatory system, gaseous exchanged by gills, lung, mantle, or body surface, efficient excretory system, metanephridia gather wastes from coeclom and discharged to mantle the cavity, nervous system of paired cerebral, pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia. Habitat : marine, fresh water and few terrestrial. Nutrition : heterotrophic, free-living , parasitic Example : snail,Achatina,Squid, sepia,clam, Anadara

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

1. Gastropoda

Characteristic body assymmetrical;usually in a coiled shell, head well developed with radula , a toothed feeding organ , foot large and flat, calcareous shell secrected by a fold of a dorsal body wall called the mantle.

Example y Snali y Achatina slugs

y sea slugs.

2. Cephalopoda

Characteristic shell reduced or absent, head well developed with eyes and radula,head with arm or tentacles, foot modified into a funnel , well developed nervous system.

Example : y squid, y sepia,

y octopuses, y chambered nautilus.

3. Bivalvia

Characteristic : body enclosed in two- lobed mantle,shell of two lateral valves of variable size and form with dorsal hinge, head much reduced but mouth with labial palps and sexes usually separate.

Example : y clam y y Anadara, mussels

y Oyster

IV. Roundworms

Phylum : Nematoda Characteristic : triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, pseudocoelmate, unsegmented, narrow body pointed at both ends, locomotion by contraction of longitudinal muscle fibres, has a mouth and an anus, sexes are separate, sexual reproduction, Habitat: marine, fresh water and terrestrial Nutrion : heterotrophic, free- living, many parasitic Example : roundwarm,Ascaris lumbricoides, pinworm, enterobius vermicularis,

whipworm,trichuris trichiura, hookworm,ancylostoma duodenale.

SPECTACULAR ARTHROPOD DIVERSITY

ARTHROPOD: y y y y y y Having most species in most habitat Fending off competition and threats Exploiting most food Producing most offspring Phylum Arthropoda Bilateral animal with a hardened, jointed external skeleton, a complete gut and a reduced coelom. y Some example of species:

i. ii. iii. iv.

Trilobites (extinct) Chelicerates spiders and close relatives Crustaceans lobsters, shrimp and crab Uniramians millipedes, centipedes, and insects.

Six key adaptation of arthropods: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Hardened exoskeleton Jointed appendages Highly modified segments Respiratory structures Sensory specializations Specialized stages of development

General characteristics
There are 5 extant classes of echinoderms. All echinoderms are marine habitat The echinoderms are unsegmented, triploblastic and coelomate organisms Adult with radial pentamerous symmetry characterized by five or more radiating areas However, larvae echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical There is no anterior or posterior, right or left, dorsal or ventral. Instead there is an oral and an aboral surface There is no head or brain. The sense organs are poorly developed but are arranged around periphery of the body facing in all directions Body wall- includes epidermis, connective tissue and peritoneum Abundant ossicles are found in the connective tissues and some of these extend from the surface as calcareous spines

The coelom is very well developed and includes large body spaces that contain the organs; coelom has a ciliated peritoneum and is the major fluid transport system Water vascular system is connected to tube feet ( tube feet are the major locomotory system) No conventional excretory system, nitrogenous waste are lost by diffusion and osmoregulation Respiration: via body surface or special gills, tube feet, papulae Reproduction: sexually and asexually.

ECHINODERMATA S ANIMAL

Sea cucumber

Brittle stars

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Phylum Class Characteristics y Star shaped, with arms not sharply marked off from central disc Asteroidea y Ambulacral groove open with tube feet on oral side y Tube feet often with suckers y Water vascular system- includes tube feet ; is used for Echinodermata y y locomotion and feeding Anus at the aboral Founded along: rocky, coastal bottoms, tidewater regions and deep water. y Cucumber-shaped with no arms y y Spine absent Microscope ossicles embedded in muscular body wall Holothuroidea y Ambulacral grooves closed y Tube feet with suckers y Gas exchange occurs -Sea cucumber -Holothuria Examples -Sea stars -Asterias

through the skin and tube feet y y Sexes are separate Founded; in intertidal muddy or sandy bottoms, usually where decaying marine vegetation accumulates (decomposers) y Five arms branching at base and bearing pinnules y Ciliated ambulacral grooves on oral surface with tentacle-like tube Crinoidea y feet Sexes are separate, gonads primitive y They are found in all seas except the Baltic and Black seas: y e.g., feather stars (prefer rocky bottoms, shallow tropical lagoons). Sea lilies (muddy sea bottom, deep water) y More or less globular -Sea urchins -Strongylocentrotus or disc-shaped with -Purpuratus -Sea lilies -feather stars, -Comantheria briareus

no arm y y movable spine Ambulacral grooves closed and covered by ossicle Echinoidea y Tube feet often with sucker y Have a compact body enclosed in an endoskeletal shell y Mouth is located at the centre of the oral side y Sexes are separateand both eggs and sperm are shed into the sea for external fertilization y Founded along rocky coastlines and in tide pools; sometimes in sandy regions and coral reefs y Star shaped, with arms sharply marked off from central disc Ophiuroidea y Ambulacral grooves closed y Tube feet without suckers and not for locomotion y Sexes usually separate y Some can reproduce -Brittle stars -Ophiura sp.

asexually by cleaving the disc y Founded in all oceans and at nearly all depths. Many are shallow- water, sedentary forms

Class Asteroidean: sea stars

Class Holothuroidea: sea cucumber

Class Crinoidea: Feather star

arm

Pinnule

cirrus Disc

Class Echinoidea: sea urchins

VERTEBRATA CLASSIFICATION OF FISH Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Subphylum Classes Vertebrata Agnatha - jawless fish such as the hagfish and lampreys Chrondrichthyes - fish whose skeleton is made of cartilage such as sharks, rays and skates Osteichthyes - fish whose skeleton is composed mostly of bone such as bass, perch, catfish, and flounder

CHARACTERISTICS

eye lateral line nostril

dorsal fin tail fin

mouth operculum ventral pelvic fin anus fin (reduced to a spine 3-spined stickleback - a small fresh-water fish inhabiting ponds and streams pectoral fin Fish are vertebrates - They have a vertebral column. In most cases their bodies are covered with overlapping scales. Called cold-blooded their temperature varies with that of their surroundings. Tropical fish will have warmer blood than fish in the North Sea. Reproduce by laying eggs which are usually fertilized externally (the male releases sperm over them as they escape from the body of the female). Fish breathe by passing a current of water over their gills. Many fish have a streamlined shape which allows relatively rapid movement through the water. Most fish swim by undulating movements of their body.

Nostril - a blindly ending sac with organs of smell.

Tail fin - imparts final thrust in swimming movements

Lateral line - a tube running the length of the body just below the skin. It is filled with a jelly like liquid and has sensory nerve endings. It is a sense organ which responds to changes in pressure, e.g. movements in the water

Dorsal and ventral fins - reduce rolling motion during swimming and help in turning movements

Pectoral and pelvic fins - help to steer and stabilise fish

Mouth - takes in food and allows a stream of water over the gills.

BREATHING

gill filament

gill bar

Head of herring with operculum cut away to reveal gills. There are usually 4 gills on each side

The thousands of fine branches on each filament expose a large surface area to the water. Blood circulates in the filament branches and is separated from the water by a thin epithelium so that oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse through easily.

Breathing current Water is taken in through the mouth, passes over the gills and is expelled via the operculum. Movements of the mouth floor and operculum create the current and the valves (skin flaps) maintain a one-way flow.
gills operculum gullet

mouth

Circulatory system The heart pumps blood forward in the ventral vessel and through the gill filaments where oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide expelled. The dorsal vessel carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.

skin flaps prevent return of water

Breathing current

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF FISH

Reproduction in Fish

y In most species of bony fishes, sperm and eggs develop in separate male and female individuals. y Fertilization is predominately external and, in some instances, internal. y Male/female characteristics may include size, coloration, external reproductive organs, head characteristics and body shape. y While reproduction in bony fishes is generally cyclic, various factors may influence bony fish breeding such as changes in the duration of sunlight, temperature changes, moon stages and presence of spawning areas. y Bony fishes show at least three types of embryonic development: egg layers (oviparous), egg retainers (ovoviviparous) and live bearing (viviparous). y Depending on the species, fish parents (male and/or female) may scatter, hide, guard or brood eggs. There is great variation in the development stage at which offspring are released from the parent fish. The number of offspring is inversely related to the chance a single egg has to reach maturity and reproduce. y In general, species whose eggs have little chance to reach maturity lay the most eggs. For the most part, many species give no care to their eggs or young.

AMPHIBIANS

LIFE CYCLE OF FROGS

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPHIBIANS
Class Amphibia = Amphibians Amphibians are cold-blooded, scaleless vertebrates that breathe air through lungs, and generally have four legs, spending at least some time on land. They possess permeable, moist skin, through which they absorb water. They lay shell-less eggs and undergo metamorphosis from larva to adult. Amphibians are important among vertebrates because they were the first tetrapods, the first four-legged vertebrates to live for extended periods on land.

Order Gymnophiona = Caecilians Caecilians are probably most atypical of all amphibians, for they lack legs, and thus superficially resemble large worms. They live throughout the world's tropical forests, burrowing through soil and freshwater sediment.

Order Caudata (Urodela) = Salamanders and newts Salamanders and newts are unique among modern amphibians in that they possess tails, as well as, usually, four legs of equal size. Most salamanders are truly amphibious, living on land and migrating to the water to breed; others are purely aquatic; still others are purely terrestrial. They live in temperate areas of the northern hemisphere, as well as the tropics of Central and South America.

Order Anura (Salientia) =Frogs and toads Frogs and toads are by far the most successful amphibians alive today, inhabiting nearly every freshwater environment in the world. They are characterized by squat bodies with long legs for jumping. Frogs are typically solitary, except during the breeding season, when they often gather in great numbers. Most frogs pass through a larval tadpole stage before they metamorphose into full-grown adults with lungs. In temperate environments, they hibernate through the winter.

Characteristics of Amphibians

Cold-Blooded Amphibians are cold-blooded or ectothermic animals. Unlike warm-blooded animals, which regulate their body temperature internally, amphibians derive heat from outside their body, for e.g. sunlight. Hence, the body temperature of amphibians depends upon their surroundings. They are active in warm environments and tend to become sluggish on exposure to cold temperatures.

Habitat . Amphibians start their life cycle underwater and move to land on the onset of their adulthood. They can adapt to a wide range of habitats, even man-made ones. The preferable habitats of amphibians are wet and damp areas such as wetlands, shallow ponds and marsh pools.

Nutrition Generally, amphibians are carnivorous. While in water, they consume a wide variety of fish, small reptiles, crustaceans and other amphibians. On land, amphibians feed on worms and insects like spiders and flies. Each of the amphibian species has a different feeding habit. For example, frogs feed on an insect by protruding its tongue; whereas, caecilians kill their prey with the help of sharp teeth.

Breeding Though, most amphibians breed in freshwater, there are some species that breed in moist places like burrows in the ground and among leaf litter or in wild habitats. The eggs are covered with a clear, jellylike substance that protects them from dessication. Most amphibians undergo metamorphosis, usually accompanied with an abrupt change in habitat and behavior. In case of some frog species, the eggs hatch into tadpoles that live underwater till adulthood; whereas in case of other frog species, the eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult frog and live in damp places.

REPTILES

Reptiles are often called cold-blooded because they can't regulate their own body temperature. Their body temperature depends on the external temperature. They will lay in the sun to heat their body, or hide in the ground, under a rock or in water to cool their body.

Lizards and snakes are the largest group of reptiles. Lizards are four legged animals with a long tail. Many lizards can shed their tail to escape from predators. They can then grow a new tail. Some lizards, such as the chameleon, can change colors to blend into their environment. This camouflage helps to protect them from predators.

Snakes don't have limbs. They move by slithering along the ground. Some snakes are poisonous, or venomous, such as the rattle snake, cobra, and eastern green mamba. They have fangs which bite into their prey and inject poison into the victim. Other snakes, such as the boa constrictor and the python kill their prey by crushing it.Most snakes can dislocate their jaw, allowing them to swallow prey much larger than themselves.

Crocodiles and alligators are large reptiles that spend much of their time on land and in water. They can walk on land using their webbed feet. They can also use their long tail to swim in water. Crocodiles feed on large animals they catch on land or in water. They have powerful jaws and teeth to tear apart their prey.

ANATOMY OF REPTILES

BIRDS

Classification:
y y y

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves example of order: o Order: Anseriformes (ducks, geese, screamers, swans, and waterfowl) o Order: Apodiformes (hummingbirds and swifts) o Order: Apterygiformes (kiwis)

Characteristics of birds

Birds share many characteristics with reptiles. Like reptiles, birds are vertebrates. Birds feet and legs are covered by thick scales like those that cover reptiles bodies. Also, bird eggs have an amniotic sac and a shell, just as reptile eggs do. Birds also have many unique characteristics. For example, bird eggs have harder shells than reptile eggs do. Birds have feathers and wings. They also have a horny beak instead of jaws with teeth. Also, birds can use heat from activity in their cells to maintain a constant body temperature.

Birds have hollow bones. So, birds have much lighter skeletons than other vertebrates do. The bones have thin cross supports that give strength, much like the cross supports of many bridges.

Birds possess distinct characteristics that make them one of the most distinguishable group of vertebrates. The following characteristics are unique to birds:
y y

feathers - provide insulation and enable flight; feathers are modifications of a bird's epidermis (outer skin) bills - birds do not possess teeth or the heavy jawbones seen in other vertebrates; instead, birds have a pair of toothless mandibles covered with a horny sheath of keratin (also called ramphotheca). furcula - also known as the 'wishbone', the furcula is a bone located in the bird's chest that prevents compression of the chest cavity during the downstroke of a wingbeat.

Birds also exhibit the following characteristics:

y y y y y y y y

Fused bones in pelvis, feet, hands, and head Lightweight bones (bones that are either hollow or spongy/strutted) No teeth or maxillary bones of the jaw (reduces anterior weight) Endothermic Possess a four-chambered heart and in general exhibit high metabolic rates Produce large, richly provisioned external eggs Adept navigational abilities in many species Extraordinary communication and song production

FOUR TYPES OF BIRDS

The ostrich is the largest living bird. It can reach a height of 2.5 m and a mass of 125 kg. An ostrichs two-toed feet look almost like hoofs. These birds can run up to about 60 km/h. Flightless Birds Not all birds fly. Most flightless birds do not have the large keel that anchors birds flight muscles. Instead of flying, some flightless birds run quickly to move around. Others are skilled swimmers. The kiwi is a small, chickensized bird from New Zealand. Kiwis sleep during the day. At night, they hunt for worms, caterpillars, and berries.

Unlike other flightless birds, penguins have a large keel and very strong flight muscles. Their wings have changed over time to become flippers. They flap these wings to fly underwater.

The blue-footed booby is a tropical water bird. These birds have an elaborate courtship dance that includes raising their feet one at a time. The common loon can make very deep dives and remain underwater for several minutes while searching for fish.

Water Birds Many flying birds are also comfortable in the water. These water birds include cranes, ducks, geese, swans, pelicans, and loons. These birds usually have webbed feet for swimming or long legs for wading. Figure shows three different water birds. Water birds find food both in the water and on land. Many of these birds eat plants, invertebrates, or fish. Some water birds have a rounded, flat beak for eating plants or small invertebrates. Others have a long, sharp beak for catching fish. Male wood ducks have beautiful plumage to attract females. Like all ducks, they are strong swimmers Parrots have special feet for and flyers. perching and climbing. They open seeds and slice fruit with their strong, hooked beak.

Perching Birds Perching birds have special adaptations for resting on branches. Songbirds, such as robins, warblers, and sparrows, make up a large part of this group of birds. When a perching bird lands in a tree, its feet automatically close around a branch. If the bird falls asleep while it is perching, its feet will stay closed. The sleeping bird will not fall off the branch. Most tanagers are tropical birds, but the scarlet tanager spends the summer in North America. The male is red, but the female is a yellow green colour that blends into the trees.

Chickadees are lively, little birds that often visit garden feeders. They can dangle underneath a branch while hunting for insects, seeds, or fruits.

Birds of Prey Birds of prey hunt and eat other vertebrates. These birds may eat insects or other invertebrates in addition to mammals, fish, reptiles, and birds. Take a look at the birds in Figure. Birds of prey have sharp claws on their feet and a sharp, curved beak. These traits help Owls, such as this northern the birds catch and eat their prey. Birds of prey spotted owl, are the only also have very good vision. Most of them hunt birds of prey that hunt at during the day, as the osprey does. But most night. They have a strong owls hunt at night. sense of hearing to help them find their prey in the dark. Ospreys eat fish. They fly over the water and catch fish with their clawed feet.

The digestive system in birds is simple but efficient (enabling them to pass food through their system quickly to minimize the extra weight of undigested food and the time it takes to extract energy from their food). Food travels through the parts of a bird's digestive system in the following order before it is excreted:
y y y y

esophagus - narrow tube that carries food to the crop crop - a sack-like widening of the digestive tract where food can be stored temporarily proventriculus - the first chamber of a bird's stomach where food is broken down by digestive enzymes gizzard - the second chamber of a bird's stomach where food is ground up by muscular action and small stones or grit (ingested by the birds) intestines - tubes that continue to extract nutrients from food after it has passed through the gizzard

MAMMALS

Mammals have several unique characteristics that differentiate them from other animals. Most mammals have hair, or fur, covering their body. They are also capable of regulating their body temperature. The mammals metabolism controls heat production, and the sweat glands help cool the body. These allow the mammal to maintain a constant body temperature, regardless of the environmental temperature. One other difference is that mammals give birth to fully formed babies, and the female mammals produce milk to feed their young.

Exclusive Traits of Mammals There are a few characteristics that are exclusive to mammals, meaning only animals have these traits. But, in each case, there are some mammals that don't have these traits, which is why they're different from the characteristics of mammals (the mammal characteristics are seen in each and every mammal).
y

The vast majority of female mammals have a placenta, used to protect and nourish the offspring prior to birth. Marsupials and monotremes do not have a placenta.

In their lifetime, a mammal will not have more than two sets of teeth. Typically, mammals grow one set of teeth as juveniles, and then a new permanent set grows in as they near adulthood.

A mammal is warm blooded, meaning it has the ability to generate its own body heat and maintain a steady body temperature, despite ambient temperature changes.

Mammals also have a separation between their mouth and nasal cavity. Other animals, like reptiles do not have an upper palate; this allows the nasal cavity to remain open regardless of whether there is something inside the mouth.

1. Mammals produce milk to feed their young. Female mammals possess a modified sweat gland a mammary gland that is activated by hormonal changes that occur with pregnancy. In fact, this trait is what inspired the term mammal, a derivation of mammary. 2. Mammals all have one single bone comprising their lower jaw. In all other animals, more than one bone comprises the jaw. 3. All mammals have three tiny bones in the middle portion of the ear. 4. All mammals have a diaphragm. The mammal's diaphragm is a thin muscular wall that separates the upper and lower portions of the torso. 5. All mammals have fur or hair. Hair or fur is a characteristic that's only seen in mammals. All mammals develop fur or hair at some point during their development, though not all keep their fur or hair throughout their lifespan. 6. Mammals have a unique heart. The heart of a mammal is unique in that it has one primary artery leaving the heart bending to the left, whereas other animals either have multiple Categories of Mammals Within the class of animals considered mammals, there are three categories: eutheria, metatheria and prototheria. The three categories of mammals can be described as follows: 1. Eutheria - Eutheria are mammals possessing a placenta, like a human or dog. 2. Metatheria - Metatheria are also known as marsupials or pouch-bearing mammals like the kangaroo. 3. Prototheria - Prototheria are also known as monotremes or egg-laying mammals like the duckbill platypus.

Hair is a defining characteristic of mammals. An individual hair consists of a rod of cells that are reinforced by a protein known as keratin. Hair grows from skin cells called follicles. Hair can take on several different forms including fur, whiskers, spines, or horns. Hair serves numerous functions. It can provide insulation, protect the skin, serve as camouflage, and provide sensory feedback.

Hair *

Mammary Glands *
Mammary glands, like hair, are a uniquely mammalian trait. Though present in both males and females, mammary glands only fully develop in females. Mammary glands consist of ducts and glandular tissues that secrete milk through nipples. The milk provides the young with much needed protein, sugars, fat, vitamins, and salts.

y . y

Diaphram

The diaphram is a layer of muscle located at the base of the ribcage that separates the thoracic cavity from the adominal cavity in mammals. Mammals are not the only vertebrates to posess a diaphram, amphibians and reptiles also have diaphragms or diaphragm-like structures. It should be noted that the anatomy of the diaphram and its position vary among the different classes of vertebrates.

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