USE of SITE-won CHalK foR THE ConSTRUCTIon of STEEP gEogRID REInfoRCED SoIl EmbanKmEnTS In THE SouTH of England, uK

Chaido Doulala-Rigby, Chief Civil Engineer, and John H. Dixon, Special Projects Engineer, both of Tensar International UK look at three examples of successfully re-using this highly variable material.
Chalk is a porous rock which can exist in highly variable states. When excavated and re-compacted, however, its engineering properties and behaviour can range from those of weak rock to those of soil, depending on the proportion of putty chalk formed as a result of breakdown of the natural material. In many chalk-rich areas of southern England, site-won chalk has been successfully used for years as the structural fill in both unreinforced and reinforced soil earthwork structures. This paper presents a summary of 3 reinforced soil structures with Tensar geogrids built with site-won chalk, including railway embankments for High Speed 1 (HS1) in the South of England.

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Based on the geological map of uK, chalk is found extensively over the south and south east of England, making chalk one of uKs major sources of earthworks materials. In the past 50 years much has been learnt about the engineering properties of chalk. The first Symposium in Chalk ever to be organized took place in 1965 and was organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers in the uK. This Symposium concluded that although chalk could be used as a competent founding stratum, its re-use in earthworks was rather doubtful. Since then, chalk fill has been successfully used in the construction of many earthworks including major embankments for railway, trunk roads and motorways. This paper will focus on the main features that need to be addressed for chalk fill that is destined to be used in embankments. The paper will also present three case studies where site won chalk was used for the construction of reinforced soils embankments utilizing Tensar geogrids.

SPECIfICaTIon of CHalK
There are two approaches to the specification of the use of chalk in earthworks: method specification that relies on strict controls on the maximum weight, number of passes and type of compaction plant, compaction layer thickness and methods of excavating and placing chalk. The main method specifications used for classification in the uK are either by greenwood (1993) in Table 5.5 of CIRIa or by Toombs and Snowdon (1997) in Table 5.6 of CIRIa end-product performance specification based on characterising the chalk in terms of its Idd and nMC to obtain a specified end product i.e. an upper limit of air voids after compaction, preferably less than 10%, based on trial compactions to identify appropriate plant The choice of the specification method depends predominantly on the size of the project and also on who is taking the risk. If the project is large enough then compaction trials, i.e. end product specification, will be economically justifiable. also if a project requires a high state of compaction in the fill and the risk is taken by the Contractor then an end-product specification is also preferable. Where method specification is chosen then construction control should include moisture content of the chalk fill, provided that the material classification and engineering characteristics have been correctly identified at site investigation stage. By classifying the chalk, the earthworks can be controlled and varied to suit the expected variations thereby minimising the amount of chalk wastage.

Chalk fill used in embankments

gEnERal
Chalk is generally viewed as a weak, calcareous rock. It is usually a white porous joined limestone having greatly varying strength. It has a natural moisture content varying typically from 8 to 36%. When excavated, some of the material breaks down into fines, forming putty chalk and some remains as relatively intact lumps. Excavation and compaction of chalk may break down the natural structure of chalk releasing some of the inherent water and generating fine material. If the amount of fines and released water, added to any free water found in the joints, is high enough the result could be a temporarily unstable fill material that could remain unstable for a period varying from days to weeks, before it dries up and recemented. When dealing with chalk fill, the principle areas that need to be addressed, as a minimum, are the following: Characterisation of chalk Specification of chalk fills Investigation of the sources of chalk Mechanical handling and compaction

InvESTIgaTIon of THE SoURCES of CHalK

In order to classify the chalk for use in earthworks, site investigations are needed to obtain information on its pre-excavated lithostratigraphy, tightness, frequency and style of fractures, the presence of voids and its mineral composition, i.e. the amount of clays and/or flints or other minerals present. Engineers often tend to treat chalk as a single material. In reality, the engineering behaviour of chalk strongly depends on the amount of clay particles presence. for example, in crushed white chalk with low percentage clay content (less than 10 to 15%) the undrained shear strength falls rapidly as moisture content increases reaching zero at about the liquid limit when all voids become saturated. Such chalks become impossible to traffic when undrained shear strength reduces to <50 kPa which occurs when moisture content of the fines exceeds (wl-5)%. However, for chalks with much higher clay content the critical moisture content can be as much as 20% below the liquid limit. If a chalk is extremely fractured or weathered, measurement of Idd or SMC of lumps, which are likely to be harder components, will not be representative of the bulk of material. The material should be given the classification pertaining to the weakest chalks. It is also important that flint presence within chalk is identified as it can affect the excavation and crushing of the chalk as well as the wear of rubber tyres of the compaction plant, thereby causing unaccounted inconvenience to the uninformed Contractor. lastly, the identification of karst features within the intact chalk source is important as unexpected karstic voids could lead to severe miscalculations as to the amount of available material.

CHaRaCTERISaTIon of CHalK
Chalk characterisation has evolved through the years. The early requirements focused around the chalk hardness that was arbitrarily related to porosity which in turn could be expressed in terms of saturation moisture content (SMC). SMC is one of the major indexes that is still used to date in conjunction with other properties such as chalk crushing value (CCV), intact dry density (Idd for assumed constant chalk particle density of 2.70Mg/m3) and natural moisture content (nMC or MC). Various studies (Croney 1977, Ingold and Parsons 1977, greenwood 1993, Toombs and Snowdon 1997) have looked into combinations of these properties together with intensive testing in conjunction with Transport Research laboratories (TRl) and developed best use practices based on years of observations of chalk behaviour on site under different types and methods of compaction. nowadays, the most common chalk classification in uK follows greenwoods flow diagram (greenwood 1993) that classifies any chalk in widely known classes (i.e. Ca, CB, CC, Cd) based on its Idd vs MC and specifies the method of compaction based on that classification. greenwoods classification is based on the widely accepted typical particle density of 2.70 for chalk. www.tensar.co.uk

mECHanICal HanDlIng anD ComPaCTIon

The most critical stage in chalk earthworks is its mechanical handling and compaction. Excavation methods in chalk depend on the class of chalk as well as whether earthworks are undertaken in summer or winter. The choice of excavation plant depends on the existing block size, style and tightness of the rock mass in the cut. low density chalk classes (CC to Cds, classification after greenwood 1993) can be excavated using face shovels. for unweathered or medium and high density chalk classes (CB and Ca, classification after greenwood 1993) with block sizes exceeding 500mm excavation normally requires loosening with rippers. Ideally low and medium density chalk shall not be stockpiled and multiple handled, but if it needs to, then each layer must receive light compaction to minimise air voids and must be sealed by two passes of a 2100kg roller at the end of each day. Transportation of chalk is usually carried out by dump tracks that deposit chalk at control points from where it is spread by tracked dozers into the required layer thicknesses. When high density blocky chalks arrive in the fill area sheeps-foot rollers can be used to reduce the block sizes before compaction. When it comes to compaction, the main site control tests during construction are the natural moisture content, with periodic measurement of the dry density of the intact chalk as a check of the classification. Moisture content is recommended as the principal method of control for chalk earthworks whether for method or end-product specification. a high frequency of in-situ density testing is also required to give reasonable confidence levels in the results and these days this can be efficiently carried out by nuclear methods. Moisture content should be measured at the point of excavation soon after it is excavated. Chalk fill can dry out rapidly on hot summer days and wet up significantly on rainy days and therefore appropriate measures should be taken to avoid either. Transportation and construction should cease with the onset of rain to avoid degradation of chalk into slurry. In hot summer days, re-wetting of dried out chalk must take place during compaction.

MC of less than 24% is generally found to produce stable, non-degradable compacted chalk fills Excessive compactive effort particularly on material with MC>25%, leads to undesirable, excessive production of putty chalk Typically, compaction plant for chalk fill can be a smooth-wheeled roller, a vibratory roller or a tamping roller whose weight dictates the layer thickness and number of passes necessary for adequate compaction. for example, for low and very-low-density chalk, the maximum weight of the vibratory roller is strictly restricted to a maximum 1800kg/m width. further guidance is given in CIRIa publications.

STabIlISaTIon of CHalK fIll wITH lImE oR CEmEnT

Treatment of overwet bulk chalk fill with either cement or quicklime, typically 1-2% has been used extensively for chalk embankment construction in france. The principal objective is to reduce the moisture content of the material by the addition of lime or cement, thereby rendering an otherwise unacceptable material acceptable for re-use. lime-treated chalk was successfully used in the High Speed 1 (HS1) railway project, formerly known as Channel Tunnel Rail link (CTRl) where the exact lime admixture percentage required for the available chalk class was specified by site trials. The objective was to achieve an air voids content of less than 10% and an in-situ CBR value of 5% immediately after compaction. The case studies below summarise the use of chalk in reinforced soils embankments in the South of England utilising either pure site-won chalk or lime-stabilised chalk as reinforced fill.

Case studies
Chalk of adequate quality may be used in reinforced soil structures but a similar degree of care, as is necessary for general chalk earthworks, should be exercised. Chalk fill suitability for use as reinforced fill is restricted by a minimum intact lump dry density, Idd>1.55Mg/m3 (i.e. medium and/or high density chalk) and a maximum natural moisture content of up to 25%. Chalks with higher moisture contents can also be considered but in conjunction with a stabilisation agent like cement or lime that will reduce their moisture contents to acceptable levels, as illustrated in the case study below.

HIgH SPEED 1 (HS1) RaIlway EmbanKmEnTS, CTRl342, UK

The High Speed 1 (HS1) railway is Britains first true high-speed railway built at a cost of around 5.2bn. Completed in 2007, its 108km of high speed line links the Channel Tunnel to St Pancras, london. nearly 300,000m3 of surplus chalk was exported from HS1 project to nearby projects, forming a good example of waste minimisation and sustainable design and construction. Contract 342, located at Ebbsfleet in north West Kent and included construction of a new railway embankment, approximately 220m long to connect the existing local north Kent line to the new HS1 line.
figure 1. degradation of wet chalk fill into slurry

In summary, the basic principles of compacting chalk fill are: Crush the chalk to a well-graded material while minimising the production of putty chalk by selecting a roller weight appropriate to the Idd and MC of the chalk Compact the chalk in layer thicknesses commensurate with the effectiveness of the roller, i.e. 250mm to 300mm. an acceptable air void content of compacted chalk is typically in the order of 8-10%

locally the site was a marshland area covered with reed beds. The poor existing ground conditions, together with tight tolerance requirements dictated the need for a piled embankment. In order to limit encroachment on to the ecologically sensitive marshland and also minimise the number of piles, the embankment footprint was reduced by designing with Tensar geogrid reinforced steep slopes. The slopes were on average 8m in height with a 60 wraparound face, which retained a hessian lining and a seeded topsoil layer. The original design required approximately 37,000m3 of Class 6I/6J imported granular fill. However, there was a surplus of chalk available on site, albeit with a high moisture content (mc>28%) and low density. www.tensar.co.uk

for the chalk fill the requirement was a maximum air voids content of 10% together with a requirement for the top of the embankments to have a minimum reload modulus, Ev2, of 45 MPa. a value engineering exercise was therefore carried out by the contractor. This included trials to investigate stabilisation of the chalk by site rotavation with quicklime to dry the material. It was found that 2% lime achieved a mc of 23-28% and that compaction to a maximum 10% air voids was satisfactory to meet the design requirement, thereby fulfilling the adopted end-product performance specification in line with the Contract requirements. It should be noted that chemical stabilisation of chalk can generate very high levels of alkalinity (pH > 12.5) and when using soil reinforcement it should be manufactured from material that is inert to these environment, such as geogrids manufactured from high density polyethylene. In line with the environmental requirements, the project was successfully completed in time offering a sustainable solution with cost savings of approximately 700,000, resulted from the use of the Tensar geogrid reinforced with lime-stabilised chalk fill.

viewing points. The total amount of locally excavated chalk fill used was about 11,500m3, leading to approximate savings of about 175,000 compared with using an imported granular fill to construct the reinforced soil slopes.

figure 3. Plan and typical section of WWTW RSS.

HIgH SPEED 1 (HS1) RaIlway EmbanKmEnTS, CTRl 310, UK

High Speed 1 (HS1) railway also used part of the surplus excavated chalk fill to form steep reinforced soil bunds on Contract C310 in Essex. The project was carried out in 2005. In places, the local highway runs parallel to the trace for the new HS1 train line and it was necessary to build a bund between the two in order to prevent errant road vehicles straying on to the railway line.

figure 2. Constructing the 8m high railway embankment

bRIgHTon anD HovE wTw REInfoRCED SoIl EmbanKmEnT, bRIgHTon, UK

In 2010, Southern Water invested 300 million in a waste water treatment works (WWTW) to bring cleaner seas to Sussex. The challenge was to design the treatment works to blend into the downland setting, retaining views of the designated area of outstanding natural beauty. The geology of the area is chalk rich. The Client opted to hide the new WWTW by constructing high enough reinforced soil slopes (RSS) utilising the excavated chalk and Tensar geogrids. In addition, the actual waste water treatment facility, once complete, is to be enclosed with a grass-covered roof. The RSS formed a shoe horn shape around the WWTW. In order to blend with the local topography, the north and north-east RSS was formed with a 45 face whereas the south RSS was formed with 60 face. The total length of both RSS is 340m and the average height is about 4.5m, enough to hide the WWTW from the highest nearby
figure 3. Errant vehicle bund, HS1

for sustainability reasons the bund was constructed from local surplus chalk and faced with seeded topsoil. In order to fit this into the limited land corridor, the bund was built with both sides battered at 45. The bund is 2m high. Horizontal layers of primary Tensar uniaxial geogrid were placed at 0.5m vertical spacing and secondary geogrids were placed at 0.25m vertical spacing. Chalk fill was compacted at 0.25m lifts in between the Tensar geogrid layers to a max 10% air voids. The 45 side faces were simple and rapid to construct as they were only protected with a three-dimensional anti erosion mat that was simply anchored in toe and crest trenches. The total amount of locally excavated chalk fill used was about 1,500m3, offering substantial savings both in cost and Co2 compared with using imported granular fill to construct the reinforced soil bund.

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Conclusions
Chalk is a fascinating material from an engineering standpoint, although it has a reputation as a difficult material. Essentially a weak rock, it can appear to degenerate to a weak soil after intense weathering or mishandling, yet it can also re-cement over time. It requires careful site investigation and an understanding of its geological context. once properly identified and handled, it can produce earthworks with the strength of weak concrete. Chalk works very well with Tensar polymer geogrid reinforcement and when combined, it can provide a robust, cost effective, sustainable, environmental friendly and very low maintenance engineering solution.

References
Symposium on Chalk in Earthworks and Foundations, ICE, london 1965 S.H. Perry, Behaviour of fills from chalk and soft chalk/clay mixtures, Proceedings of the ICE Conference on Clay fills, 1979, pages 189-196 K. H. Head, Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume 1, Second Edition, london, 1992 J.R. greenwood, description, Classification and Specification of Chalk for use in Earthworks, Conference on Engineered fills, newcastle upon Tyne, Thomas Telford, 1993 J.a. lord, C.R.I. Clayton, R.n. Mortimore, Engineering in Chalk, CIRIa C574, london 2002. CIRIa PRoJECT REPoRT 11, Foundations in Chalk, CIRIa, January 1994 a. Phear, d. Patterson, C. Warren, Proceedings of the ICE Geotechnical Engineering, Volume 156, Issue 2, 2003, pages 63-73 Tensar International limited archives 2003, 2005, 2010

acknowledgments
The authors are sincerely grateful to the HS1 and Southern Water for allowing these projects to be published and their Tensar colleagues for all their valuable help and support in writing and editing this paper.

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