History of Christianity

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c&pf,mefomoemonf at'D 1 &mpkwiG f a*s&q
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D m. Edik if Hawmfbmom/ ESihf at'D 380 wGif a&mrtifyg,m. Edik if H
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rmwdumm
(1) a,&_. b0wm (bDpD 6-4 rS at'D 29- 36)

(2) tapmydik ;f c&pf,mef (at'D 33- 325)
o (2-1) wynfah wmfrsm; toif;awmf
2-1 (u) a,&_tm; qnf;uyfu;dk uG,fjcif;
2-1 (2) tqH;k rowfaom *sL;omoem
2-1 (3) toif;awmf ud,
k fxnf (wynfah wmfrsm;acwf)
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(2-2) wynfah wmfrsm;vGeaf cwf toif;awmf

2-2 (1) Edik if aH wmfEySd fuGyrf _
2-2 (2) toif;awmf ud,
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f nf (wynfah wmfrsm;vGeaf cwf)
2-2 (3) tapmydik ;f c&pf,mef vufa&; rSww
f rf;rsm;
2-2 (4) a&S;OD; yk*K~d vfa&;tr$e;f wifr_rsm;
2-2 (5) tapmydik ;f tjyeftvSef ykwcf yf pGypf GJr_rsm;
2-2 (6) orRmusrf;pm jyXmef;pmtkyf
(3) a&mrtifyg,m toif;awmf (313-476)
o (3-1) c&pf,mefomoemtm; w&m;0ifjyXmef;jcif;
o (3-2) uGepf wefwed ;f onf *&dwf
o (3-3) oif;tkyq
f &mawmf ydik ef ,f
o (3-4) yky&
f [ef;rif;ae&mESifh xdyq
f ;Hk taetxm;
o (3-5) toif;awmfaygi;f pHk oHCm,em
o (3-6) Edu
k pf fe;D ESifh Edu
k fpfe;D acwfvGef zm;omrsm;
o (3-7) pD&ifpk ig;ck
o (3-8) bke;f }uD;&[ef; 0g'
(4) ta&S@taemuf wif;rmr_ jyif;xefvmjcif;
(5) tv,facwf tapmydik ;f umv toif;awmf (476-800)
o (5-1) jrpf&;dk wpfav#muf a'ocHvrl sdK;rsm;. ajymif;vJr_
5-1 (1) tdik ,
f mvefEiS fh tdik ;f &pf omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm;
5-1 (2) t*Fvdk-qufcq
f if;rsm; (t*Fvyd )f
5-1- (3) a[mfvefrsm;
5-1 (4) e,fomvefEiS fh a[mvefr[kwo
f nfh *smref
5-1 (5) puif'aD eAD;,m;
o (5-2) tv,facwf tapmydik ;f yky&
f [ef;cH,lrr_ sm;
o (5-3) wpfausmjh yef um&dkvif*D,ef
(6) tv,facwf jrifjh rwfaom toif;awmf (at'D 800-1499)
o (6-1)ta&S@yidk ;f /awmifyidk ;f qvmAfhrsm;. ajymif;vjr_
6-1 (1) *&dwf rd&
k mAD;,m; odk@ omoemjyK tzGJ@
6-1 (2) qmhAfEiS fh bla*;&D;,ef;wdk@. ajymif;vJr_
6-1 (3) &mhprf sm;. ajymif;vJr_
o (6-2) trsm;}udKufvdkuaf v#m qifajcrSm;tm; &_cH sonfh0g'
o (6-3) bke;f }u;D &[ef; jyKjyif ajymif;vJa&; v_y&
f mS ;r_
o (6-4) zke;f awmif;,mpum *d%
k ;f
o (6-5) bdou
d fay;jcif;qdik &f m tjiif;yGm;r_
o (6-6) olaumif;jyKjcif; (od'<dwifay;jcif;)
o (6-7) omoemjyK ppfyGJrsm; (u&l;qdw)f
o (6-8) tv,facwf yky&
f [ef;rif;rsm;qdik &f m jrifhrm;r_
o (6-9) tv,facwf 0dedp,
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o (6-10) wuUodkvaf usmif;rsm; ay:ayguv
f mjcif;
(7) ydw
k ,
D ef *dk%;f uGJjcif;
(8) ta&S@-taemuf *dk%;f uGJjcif;
(9) a[pDcsuf ydyuQ
(10) tusO;f cH acwf
o (10-1) taemufwidk ;f rSm ypfyg,jf cif;
o (10-2) atmfwrdk if tifyg,m vufatmuf bmomw&m; tcGit
fh a&;
o (10-3) cspm;r_rsm;
o (10-4) 'JAh &
f SDrm; Devshirmeh
(11) taemudwidk ;f *d%
k ;f
(12) wpfausmhjyef toif;awmfEiS fh tDwvD (at'D 1399- 1599)

(13) y&dw
k ufpfwifh jyKjyif ajymif;vJa&; (at'D 1521-1579)
o (13-1) rmwifvo
l m
o (13-2) =o&pf ZGi*f vD Ulrich Zwingli
o (13-3) *|ef uJvAf if John Calvin
o (13-4) t*Fvyd f jyKjyifajymif;vJa&;
(14) wefjyef jyKjyif ajymif;vJa&;
o (14-1) x&ifw
h f oHCm,em
(15) &SmazGawG@&Sdr_ acwf (at'D 1492-1769)
o (15-1) c&pf,mef omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm;
15-1 (1)uufovpf ruf&iS frsm;
15-1 (2) y&dw
k ufpfwifh udv
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(16) toif;awmfEiS fh ^m%fpOfawmf (at'D 1580- 1800)
o (16-1) *,fvv
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dk tr_
o (16-2) jyifopf awmfvSeaf &;
(17) jyefvnfE;dk uvmjcif; (at'D 1720-1906)
o (17-1) Ed;k =um;r_}uD;rsm;
o (17-2) rlvvufa[mif; jyefvnfxal xmifa&; 0g'D
(18) acwf+ydKif ordik ;f (at'D 1848 rS ,ckx)d
o (18-1) &k&mS ; tifyg,mtwGi;f &k&mS ;-atmfoadk 'gh toif;awmf
o (18-2) qdAk ,
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18-3 (4) =opwD;,m;rS 'd;k vf zwfpf
o (18-4) taemufEidk if rH sm;odk@ ajymif;a&$@vmolrsm;
(19) c&pf,mef oDt&dk DrS acwfopf OD;wnfcsuf
o (19-1) acwfopf0g'DEiS fh o[Zmw0g'D c&pf,mef
o (19-2) tajccH0g'D
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o (19-4) toif;awmfaygi;f pHk nD!w
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19-4 (2) y&dw
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(20) Edik if w
H um c&pf,mef0g'ESifh tem*gwf wd;k wufz@GH +zdK;r_
a,&_. b0wm (bDpD 66-4 rS at'D 2929-36)

bDpD 6-4 ckESpw
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pwifI omomemjyKjcif;ESifh ol@tm; tHhb,
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f nf/ (wefckd;jzifh) aq;ukay;Edik o
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S af om wynfah wmfrsm;udk pnf;&H;k jcif;rsm;udk pwifco
Jh nf
[k ,H=k unf=uayonf? at'D 33 ckESpw
f iG f ,k',
D tydik f a&mr+rdK@awmf0ef ydvwfrif;}u;D . trdef@jzifh
a*s&q
k vifY um;pifwifI uGyfrsucf cH &Jh ayonf? ol@tm; um;pifwif uGyfrsu+f yD;aemuf tkwf*l wpfck
wGif *loiG ;f o+*K[fcJhayonf?
c&pf,mefrsm;u c&pfawmfonf aoqH;k +yD; oH;k &ufaemufwiG f cE<mawmftm;jzifh jyefvnf &Sijf yefomG ;cJh
onf[k ,H=k unf=uI tkwf*al [mif;avmif; (empty tomb) ordik ;f onf ordik ;f qdik &f m tcsut
f vuf
wpfcjk zpfaeayonf? a,&_wynhfrsm;. tapmydik ;f umv vuf&mrsm;wGif rsm;pGmaom &Sijf yef x

ajrmufjcif; yHkaqmifr_ taxmuftxm;rsm; &SI
d a,&_. &Sijf yef xajrmufjcif;u c&pf,mefomoem
jzpfwnfvm&ef tajccHEiS fh wGe;f tm;rsm; jzpfayonf? ol@wynfah wmfrsm;u a,&_onf *vdvJESifh a*s&k
qvifY wynfah wmfrsm;ESifh rsuf0g;xifxif awG@qkH+yD; aumif;uifbo
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a,&_. b0wmESifh =o0g'awmfrsm; twGuf t"dutcsuftvufrsm;udk c&pf0if av;usrf; (r\J/
rmuk/ vkum/ a,m[ef) Y az:jyxm;ayI wrefawmf 0wKESifh &Siaf ygv.
k ay;pmrsm;wGiv
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i,f awG@&ayonf? c&pf,mefomoemwGif tay:v$ifq;kH ,H=k unfrr_ mS c&pf0ifusrf; rsm;rS a,&_.
aoqH;k jcif;/ &Sifjyefxajrmufjcif;onf vlom;wd@k . (tm'HESihf {0wdk@ usL;vGecf Jhaom) tjypfrsm;tm;
xm0& bk&m;ocifu ud,
k af wmf a,&_tm; paw;I tjypfav#maf y;jcif; jzpfonf[yk if?
c&pf,mefomoem
omoem a&S;OD;umv
umv (at'D 3333- 325)
at'D 1 &mpkwiG f *sL;bmom. *dk%;f wpfct
k jzpf *&d a&mrtifyg,m twGi;f ESihf tjyifodk@ pwifI
omomem jyef@ESaH om tcsdefEiS fh at'D 313 uGepf wefwED b
dk ,f onf *&dwf eef;wufvm+yD; c&pf,mef
wdk@tm; Edik if aH wmfvky}f uHru
_ mv tqH;k epfcsD (,ae@ wl& uDEikd if H tdpfepf) yxr oHCm,em txd
umvudk c&pf,mef omoem. a&S;OD;umv[k qdkEkdiaf yonf? udk yxrrsdK;quf wynfah wmfrsm;
toufxif&mS ; &Spd Of toif;awmfrsm; pkpnf;aom wynfah wmfrsm;acwf
;acwf ESifh oif;tkyf q&mawmf
rsm; }u;D xGm;vm+yD; bJhpaf &Smhyf (oif;tkyq
f &mawmf) e,frsm;udk bJhpaf &Smhyf (tkyx
f de;f ol) rsm;u
tkycf sLyfjcif; jzpfaom wynfah wmfrsm;vGeacwf
facwf [lI tydik ;f ESpfyidk ;f cGJEidk af yonf? odk@aomfvnf; wynfh
awmfrsm;vGeaf cwfudk uGefpwefwde;f / *&D*&dk DEiS fh ykyb
f dkeaD zhpf (2) vufxufxd =unfnKd av;pm;r_ t}uD;
tus,f tm;enf;cJhayonf? (wynfah wmfrsm; qdo
k nfudk c&pf,mef bmoma&; a0g[m& t& wrefawmfrsm;[k
ac:ayonf?)
wynfah wmfrsm; toif;awmf (Apostolic Church)

a&S;OD; toif;awmf[k ac:qdo
k nfh wynfah wmfrsm;. toif;awmfukd a,&_. wynfah wmfrsm;ESifh trsdK;
awmf taqGawmfrsm;u OD;aqmifcJhayonf? txl;omoemjyK tzGJ@ (rmuk 16;14) t& a,&_onf
ol. wynfah wmfrsm;tm; =o0'awmfrsm;udk urBmtESH@ jzef@csD=u&ef rdef@rSmcJo
h nf [l.? Tumv
twGuf tajccHusaom tcsut
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k srf;csurf sm;wGif
txl; omoemjyKtzGJ@rS toif;awmf. &mZ0iftm; ay;xm;ayonf/ (1; 3-11)? yifwufpu
f dk@pfEiS fh
a*s&q
k vif toif;awmf xlaxmifjcif; aygv.
k b0wmajymif;vnf;jcif;ESifh yxr&mpk. tv,fY
a&mrwGif axmifcsc&H jcif; (tus,cf sKyf) 28; 30-31) *sL;r[kwaf om vlrsKd ; rsm;qDo@kd omoemjyef@
xGuo
f mG ;jcif; jzpfayonf? odk@aomf wrefawmf 0wK ESifh ywfoufaom ordik ;f qdik &f mrSm tjiif;yGm;
bG,jf zpf+yD; / xdo
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yxrOD; c&pf,mefrsm;onf tpOfojzifh *sL;vlrsdK; pkrsm;rS odk@r[kwf *sL; omoem tjyKcHxm;&olrsm;rS
jzpf./ tjcm;wenf;tm;jzifh ajym&aomf a,&_onf *sL;vlrsdK; rsm;tm; w&m;a[majymI xdt
k xJrS
yxrqH;k wynfah wmfrsm;udk ac:,ljcif; jzpfay./ tapmqH;k aom taxmuftxm;rsm; tm;jzifh
wynfah wmfaygi;f 70 [kac:aom wifajrmufxm;onfh tDAif*svpfZm tkyfpk onf *sL;rsm;rS jzpfI
*sL;vlrsdK;EG,t
f m; cGJjyxm;jcif; r&Sad cs? *sL;r[kwaf om vlrsdK; pkrsm;. omoem ul;ajymif;jcif;onf olwdk@
twGuf c&pf,mefjzpf&ef wpfpw
d w
f pfyikd ;f tjzpf *sL;jzpf&ef vdck Jh oavm (tpOftm;jzifh ta&jym; vS;D
jzwfjcif;ESifh tpm;taomufqkdi&f m Oya'rsm;udk usio

fh ;Hk jcif;jzifh cGJjcm;onf) qdo
k nfudk qufpyfr&d ef
cufcJaeayonf? a&mr ppfAv
dk f uGr;f rJvv
f pf. b0wmajymif;vnf;jcif;udk taxmuftxm;jyKI
&Siaf yw&k. tqH;k tjzwfrmS olw@kd onf xdo
k @kd (*sL;bmomuJo
h @kd ) jyKcJjh cif; r[kwf/ xdu
k pd o
P nf
a*s&q
k vif oHCm,em wGifrS jzpfvmjcif; [k qdk.? (Primacy of Simon Peter ESifh Biblical law in
Christianity for the modern debate wGif =unfy
h g?)
tapmydik ;f toif;awmfrsm;odk@ wynfhawmfrsm; aqmif=unf;vmonfh =o0g'awmfrsm;onf tcsdK@aom
*sL;bmoma&; tm%mydik frsm;ESifh ydyuQwiG ;f odk@ a&mufcaJh yonf? xdt
k csi;f t&monf wajz;wajz;ESifh
olwdk@tm; *sL;bk&m;ausmif; (qDeD*g; tcsdK@u qif;EGwfpf [k toHxu
G )f rsm;rS ESix
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k cf &H onf txd
OD;wnfcaJh yonf? (*srfe;D ,m; oHCm,em Council of Jamnia ud=k unfyh g)? wrefawmf0wKwGif &Sif
oawzef
oawzef ESifh *sdr;f onf *&dwf wdk@tm; tmZmenf rsm;tjzpf rSww
f rf; wifxm;ayonf? xd@k a=umifh
c&pf,mef taejzifh &AKeD *sL;rS oD;oef@ &yfwnf&ef vdt
k yfvmcJhayawmhonf? (List of events in
early Christianity ESifh Christianity and Judaism wGif=unfy
h g?) wrefawmf0wK (11; 26) uJo
h dk@
rSww
f rf; rsm; t& c&pf,mef [laomtrnfukd tEt
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k +f rdK@rS wynfah wmfrsm;u pwif cH,cl Jhayonf?
a,&_tm; qnf;uyfu;dk uG,jf cif;
aumif;aom od;k xde;f / a,&_ c&pf (3 &mpk)
wynfah wmf todik ;f t0dik f;. ,H=k unfjcif; tajctjrpfwiG f "rRa[mif; ESifh "rRopf c&pf0ifusr;f rsm; yg0if
cJo
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qH;k umv uyif xnfo
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f rf;xJwiG f rsm;pGmaom
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k cD &J@uyf f ESihf vD,eG frS td&meD;,mhpf wdk@ jzpf.?
Tud,
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h rf; "avh
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omoem. rSeu
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zcifrsm;[k vlord sm;=uI olwdk@. avhvmr_ukd yx&ufpw
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wlv,
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tapmydik ;f &kyyf mG ;rs

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txm;rsm;u a'oqdik &f m qif;wkrsm; tapmydik ;f uyif &So
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ausmif; uJo
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f ueftjzpf yHkrsm; a&;qGJc=Jh uaomfvnf;
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a&mufr_ tcsdK@ &Scd o
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vufrcHjcif;udk u|Ew
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c&pf,mef qif;wkrsm;rSm pmud[
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tapmydik ;f tjyeftvSef ykwcf yf pGypf GJrr_ sm;

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rsm;udk axmufjyv#uf tjyeftvSef ykwcf wfpGyfpJGjcif; rsm;tm; jiif;yg,x
f m;ayonf? orRmusrf;qdik &f m
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c&pf,mefrsm;onf t,lov
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cH&ayonf? a&S;OD;toif;awmfrS bJu
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d #if or&d;k
us zGiq
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c&pf,mefbufrS umuG,af &;om;ol/ atmfoakd 'gh (or&d;k us0g')D pma&;q&m *sD/ au/ csupf wmwef u
ol@ pmtkyw
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k m;onfrmS a,&_ (acwfrS t,l)ESifh "rRopfusrf;wd@k . tcsdefrS t,lrmS
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awmf. zmomrsm; jzpfaom tEt
d w
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k cD &ufyf/ *syfpw
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h nf [k axmufjyxm;ayonf?
(rdpm> ya&mfzuf tEcd &pf/ aemhpf Asm'dwu
f srf;rS eDcv
kd ikd w
f efpf/ tjypf. om;rsm;udk =unfhyg) a,&_uvnf;
rdpm> ya&mfzufrsm;ESifh pyfv#O;f I &Sirf muk 13;21-23 ESifh raumif;aomrsdK;aph (&Sifr\J 13;25-30? 13;
36-43) wGif olwdk@onf c&pf,mef omoemtm; rnfo@kd tzsuf taESmufjyKonfukd wifjycJah yonf?
tapmqH;k tjiif; yGm;r_rsm;wGif a,sb,
k tm;jzifh c&pfawmf qdak om obm0vnf; yg0ifae./ qdv
k dk
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[laom oDt&dk D aumufcsucf sr_rsm; yifjzpf.? Docetism a'gw
h ufcZf ifrsm;u a,&_. vlom;tjzpf
cH,rl o
_ nf yHak qmifr_r#om jzpf./ xdk@a=umifh vltjzpf 0ifpm;jcif;udk vufrcH[k vufuikd x
f m;.?
Arianism tm&if;rfepfZif rsm;u a,&_onf aorsdK; (vlom;) r[kwf/ bk&m;jzpfjcif; *k%fEiS v
fh nf;
rtyfpyf crnf;awmfb&k m;xuf edrhf. (&Siaf ,m[ef 14;28) [k vufuidk x
f m;=u.? Trinitarianism
oH;k yg;wpfql 0g'Drsm;u crnf;awmfb&k m;/ om;awmfb&k m;ESihf oef@&iS ;f aom 0dnm^fawmfonf vH;k 0
O\Hk wpfqw
l nf;om jzpfI toGio
f ;kH rsdK;jzifh jzpfwnf &S.
d [k vufuikd x
f m;ayonf? rsm;pGmaom tkyfpk
rsm;u trSew
f u,f jzpfwnfro
_ nf qef@usib
f uf tpdwftydik ;f tajcrlv ESprf sKd ;tm; yHak z: wnf&aSd e
onf? yHkrSet
f m;jzifh jrifEdkiaf omt&mtm; (&kyaf vmutm;) rdpm> tjzpf/ 0dnm^fawmf (emrfavmu) tm;
taumif;tjzpf jrifEdkio
f nf [laom ESpcf Gaom ,H=k unfcsufudk vufuidk x
f m;=u.? tjcm;aom tkyfpk
rsm;u &kyaf vmu emrfavmu ESpfcv
k ;kH tm; xm0&bk&m;u zefqif;xm;jcif; jzpfonf? xd@k a=umifh
ESpcf v
k ;Hk onf taumif;csn;f jzpfonf/ Ttcsi;f t&monf bk&m;ZmwdawmfESifh c&pfjzpfaom a,&_.
vlom;Zmwd obm0udk ud,
k fpm;jyKwifjyjcif; jzpfonf [k vufuidk x
f m;=uayonf?
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t=um; ,SuEf ,
G jf cif;rsm;onf tqufrjywfaom awmf0if tacstwif aqG;aEG; r_rsm; jzpfayonf?
c&pf,mef rsm;pGmu tenf;pk wdwdrsm;udk qef@usifI or&d;k us taetxm; wnf&rSd _ pkpnf;jcif;udk
todtrSwjf yKvdak om acwfopf bmoma&; t,ltq ynm&Sif Edu
k fpfeD c&d'f wnfaxmifcaJh om
=o0g'rsm;udk yHkrSeaf vhvm=uayonf? tjcm;aom okawoDrsm;u rSwcf sucf sonfwiG f tjcm;aom
t&mrsm; t=um; *sL;-c&pf,mef/ &Sifaygvk 0g' c&pf,mef/ *aemhpw
f ufpfEiS fh rmpDuGefEu
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z&D;pfpif bk&if &J@'fb'k f u at'D 716 ESifh 719 =um;umvwGif c&pf,mef yifrXme rsm;pGmtm; zsufq;D
ypf cJah omtcg 0Dvb
D a&mh'.
f vuf&mrS rsm;pGmwdk@ukd zsuo
f rd f;cHc&Jh ayonf? t*Fvyd f omoemjyK
bdek dazhpt
f m; 0Dvb
D a&mh'u
f dk uln&D ef apv$wcf Jh+yD; z&D;&Sm;Y toif;awmfrsm; jyefvnf xlaxmif& ef/
*smref. a&S; a[mif;vlrsdK;rsm;. a'orsm;wGif w&m;a'oem qufvufa[majym&ef apmifrcJah yonf?
bdek Dazhpo
f nf at'D 754 ckESpw
f iG f towfccH &Jh ayonf?
5-1 (5) puif'aD eAD;,m;

puif'aD eAD;,m;wGif tapmydik f; c&pf,mef omoem jyKjcif;udk b&DrefrS tmcDbJhpfa&Smhyf tefp*f g
Ansgar, Archbishop of Bremen ajrmufyidk ;f apwref. vufxufwiG f rS pwifcaJh yonf?
c&pf,mef buf,rd ;f *syfpw
f if bk&if [m&Jv'f f cvmhuf vufxuf at'D 820 ywf0ef;usifcef@u a'ocH
tmar; eD;,ef; rsdK;EG,f tefpf*gtm; bke;f awmf}u;D tzGJ@wpfcEk iS t

hf wl 'def;rwf *syw
f v
f efodk@ apv$wcf Jh
ayonf? aemuf (2) ESpt
f =um bk&if [m&Jvf't
f m; eef;csarmif;xkw+f yD;aemuf tefpf*gonf *smreDodk@
jyefvmcJI
h omoemjyKvyk fief;rSmvnf; wpfpw
d w
f pfa'or#om atmifjrifcJhayonf? tefpf*gonf ol@.
vufaxmuf a'opm&D &[ef; 0ufwfrmESit
hf wl qGD'ifEikd if H rmvm&if a&uefay:&Sd bD;,mcgodk@ at'D
829 wGio
f mG ;cJhayonf? xdak 'owGif at'D 831 Y bk&ifhydkif bmxde;f [m*D,m tygt0if bk&m;
ausmif; toif;i,fudk zGJ@Eidk cf Jhayonf? omoemajymif;vnf;jcif;rSm vGefpmG aES;auG;cJhayonf? odk@aomf
'de;f rwfrS pdef@uEk(wf) (4)ESifh aemfa0;rS tdv
k ufzf (1) wd@k uJho@kd aom rif;rsm;vufxuf aemufyidk ;f at'D
(1000) acwfumvwGif puif'DaeAD;,ef; e,frsm;onf c&pf,mef omoemwpfcw
k nf; jzifo
h m
jynfhEu
S af vawmhonf?
at'D 863 wGif uGefpwefwED b

kd JvfrS oif;tkyfq&mawmfu pdef@ pDa&;vfESihf pdef@ rufo'dk ;D ,mhpf
wdk@tm; qvmAufrsm;xHo@kd c&pf,mefomoemjyK&ef apv$wcf aJh yonf? olw@kd onf orRmusr;f
tm; qvmAdkepf bmompumjzifh jyefqckd aJh yonf?
(5(5-2) tv,f
tv,af cwf tapmydik ;f yky&f [ef;cH,rl r_ sm;
a&mr+rdK@awmfonf tv,facwf tapmydik ;f umvrS tDwmvD u|ef;qG,Yf jzpfymG ;cJhaom ppfyGJrsm;twGi;f
uaomif;ueif; jzpfjcif; ysupf ;D qH;k &_;H jcif; rsm; twGi;f wGif tr_ywfc&Jh ayonf? {u&mZfjynf&h iS f *syfpw
f if
(1) onf a*gw
h o
f pfcf vlrsdK;}uD;0g' tkycf sKyfjcif;udk qef@usifv#uf tDwvDtwGi;f tifyg,m csKyfuidk fr_
tm; jyefvnfwu
d scidk frmatmif &nfoefcaJh yonf? T0g'jzef@csDr_rmS tenf;ESifh trsm; atmifjrifr_
&&Scd I
Jh / tDwvDodk@ apmifh=unfEh idk &f ef tufpq
f mcsw
d f tifyg,mudk &mAifem;wGif xlaxmifcaJh yonf?
odk@aomf tifyg,m. =oZmv$r;f r_rmS twdik ;f twm wpf&yfr#om jzpfcaJh yonf? odk@aomf u|ef;qG, f
onf tm;enf;vnfjcif;/ xdk@aemuf vGe;f (rf)bwf'w
f kd@. usL;ausmf0ifa&mufjcif; rSm &ifu
h suv
f mjcif; ESifh
ppfyGJrsm;. tusdK; qufu a&mrtm; rdru
d ,
kd frdr&d yfwnfap&ef xm;&pfcJhayonf? xdk@a=umifh yky&f [ef;
rsm;onf tydv
k t
dk yfcsufrsm;tjzpf +rdK@awmftm; au|;arG;apmifha&Smuf&ef yky&f [ef; ydik f ajrrsm;Y
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k fysdK; a&; vkyjf cif;/ tjyeftvSef em;vnfr_ pmcsKyfrsm;csKyfjcif;/ vGef;(rf)bwf ppfrif;}u;D rsm;tm;
umuG,af &; p&dwaf =u;aiGrsm; ay;jcif; +rdK@awmftm; apmifha&Smuf&ef ppfom;rsm; iSm;&rf;jcif; rsm; vkyf
aqmif&ef olwdk@u,
dk o
f w
l dk@ zGJ@pnf;vmcHayonf? (+rdK@awmfqo
kd nfrmS yky&f [ef;rif;ESifh ol. yky&f [ef;
ud,
k x
f nf tzGJ@0ifrsm;aeonfh ae&mudk qdv
k I
kd / jynfot
l m;vH;k aeaom +rdK@udk rqdv
k dkay)? wpfppjzifh
tifyg,musq;Hk cef;ESifh taxmuftyHhrsm; ay;ydk@ru
_ sq;Hk cef; tusKd ;qufrsm;u yky&f [ef;rsm; tbdk@ tjcm;
aom axmufyHhr&_ &Sad &; vrf;a=umif;rsm;udk &SmazG&ef ta=umif;zefvmawmhonf? trsm;qH;k rSm
txl;ojzifh a[mfvefrsm;xHrS jzpfcJhayonf?
(5k if*,
D ef
(5-3) wpfausmjh yef um&dv
wpfausmjh yef um&dv
k if*,
D ef acwfumvrSm pmayESihf ,Ofaus;r_ &Sio
f efarG;bGm;vmonfh at'D 8 &mpk
aESmif;ydik ;f ESifh 9 &mpkrsm; twGi;f yif jzpfI csm;vfrde;f ESifh vl;0pf onf ydik ;f ,mhpf eef;oufrsm; twGi;f wGif
rsm;qH;k xGe;f um;cJayonf? xdu
k mvwGif pmay/ tEkynm/ Adou
k mynm/ w&m;pD&ifr_ynm/ 0wfjyK
qkawmif;onfh enf;ESifh emrfyidk f;qdik &f m avhvmr_rsm; wd;k wufcaJh yonf? TumwGif acwfopf
(t*Fvdyfpm) pmvH;k tao;wdk@. rlvtp umvdv
k if*,
D ef pmvH;k tao; (a&;om;r_) rsm;vnf; zGH@+zdK;
vma=umif; awG@&ayonf? yHkrSefr[kwaf om ajymif;vnf;r_rsm; jzpfvmrnfh vufwifbmom. pHESe;f
xm;r_onfvnf; zGH@+zdK; vmcJah yonf? (Medieval Latin ud=k unfyh g)? &H;k awmf (eef;awmf)ESifh
bkef;awmf}u;D rsm;. az:jyr_rsm;t=um; pmaytoH;k tESe;f qdik &f m jyoemrsm;udk ajz&Si;f &ef csm;vfrde;f
onf ausmif; rsm;udk wnfaxmifcI
Jh / ol@eef;awmfrS ausmif;rsm;onf Oa&my wcGifrS oDtadk 'gzh f/ aygvf
onf a'uef/ tifef*Jvb

f wf/ tuGv
D ;D eD,m;rS aygvv
f DemhpfESihf a,muf rS tmvful tifwdk@ uJo
h dk@aom
pmay avhvmolrsm;tm; qGJaqmifcaJh yonf?
(6) tv,facwf jrifrh m;csed f toif;awmf (at'D 800800-1499)

tv,facwf jrifhrm;csdeu
f mvonf csm;vfrde;f eef;wuf bduo
f u
d cf aH om at'D 800 rS 15 &mpk eD;yg;
uGe;f pwefwED dkbJvf usq;Hk onfh at'D 1453/ ESpw
f &mppfyJG tqH;k owfaom at'D 1453/ urBo pftm;
&SmazGawG@&Sdjcif; 1492 ESifh y&dw
k ufpw
f ifh jyKjyifajymif;vnf;jcif; at'D 1515 txd jzpfcaJh yonf?
(6(6-1)ta&S@yidk ;f / awmifyidk ;f qvmAfrh sm;. ajymif;vnf;r_
ruf &uf'f [dk@pfay:rS pdef@ pD&;D vf ESifh pdef@ rufo'dk ;D ,mhpf trSww
f & ausmufwidk f
at'D 800 xdwidk f Oa&my taemufyikd ;f tm; c&pf,mefrif; rsm; vH;k vH;k v#m;v#m; tkycf sKyfcJhaomfvnf;
Oa&my ta&S@yidk ;f wGif omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm; v_y&f mS ;ae&aom a'orsm; &Sad ecJah yonf? Oyrmtm;jzifh
pdef@ pD&;D vfEiS fh pdef@ rufodk';D ,mhpw
f dk@onf Oa&my ta&S@yikd f;rS qvmApfvlrsdK; rsm; xHodk@ omoemjyKrsm;
wd;k csJ@atmifjrifcI
Jh / orRu sr;f ESifh 0wfjyKqkawmif;rsm;udk qvmEdkApf bmomjzifh jyefqcdk Jah yonf? at'D
988 wGif udA.
f ESpjf cif; cHr_rS c&pf,mef omoemonfh uDAif &kpf (vlrsKd ;) rsm;xHodk@ jyef@ESH@omG ;
cJI
h ,lu &de;f / b,fvm&kpfESifh &k&mS ;wdk@wiG f c&pf,mefomoemudk xlaxmifEikd cf Jhayonf?
at'D 9 &mpkEiS fh 10 &mpktwGi;f wGif c&pf,mef omoemonf uDAif &kpf (vlrsdK;) rsm;tygt 0if Oa&my
ta&S@ydik ;f twGi;f odk@ twGi;f qufqaH &;rsm; }uD;rm;pGm jyKvkycf aJh yonf? qvmhAfrsm;tm; c&pf,mef
omoemjyKjcif; odk@r[kwf c&pf,mefr_ jyKjcif;udk bdik Zf efwikd frS avhvmr_ tm;taumif;qH;k xJrS wpfO;D jzpf
onfh oif;tkyq
f &mawmf zdk;wD;,mhpu
f taumiftxnf az:cJjh cif; jzpfayonf? rdak &;AD;,m; bk&if
&mwufpv
f mhAf.u rdak &AD;,ef; (vlrsKd ;) wd@k tm; olwkd@. ud,
k yf idk f bmompum;jzifh omoemjyK&ef
omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm;vdck siaf =umif; arwWm&yfcHcsut
f m; wkH@jyefonf taejzifh bdik Zf efwidk f {u&mZf
rdu
k u
f ,f (3) u pD;&D;vfEiS fh rufokd';D ,mhpw
f @kd tm; a&G;cs,cf aJh yonf? nDtpfuEdk SpOf ;D onf qvmEdkApf
wdik ;f &if; bmompum;udk ajymqd=k u+yD;/ orRusrf; pmESihf rsm;pGmaom bk&m;&Scd ;dk usrf;pmrsm;udk bmom
jyef cJhayonf? bmomjyeftm; olw@kd jyifqif+yD; tjcm;aom a'ocH bmompum;rsm;jzifh xyfqifh
ul;,lv#uf ujym;bmompum; (bHb
k mompum;) jzifh qvmEdkApf toif;awmfa[mif; pum;udk
zefw;D cJhayonf?
rufodk';D ,mhpo
f nf aemufyidk ;f wGif qmhAfrsm; bmomul;ajymif;&ef qufvuf vkyaf qmifcaJh yonf?
qvmEdkApf 0wfjyKqkawmif;enf;onf wdik ;f jynftm; *&d=oZmv$r;f rd;k r_tm; wefjyef aqmif&u
G rf _jyK&ef
enf;vrf;wpfcjk zpfonf[k &_jrifaom bla*;&D;,ef qm bd;k &pf. zdwaf c:r_a=umifh tcsdK@aom wynfh
awmfrsm;onf bl;a*;&D;,m;odk@ jyefvmcJhayonf? tcsdew
f kd twGi;f wGiyf if pD;&D;vf ESifh rufodk 'D;,mhpf.
wynfah wmfrsm;onf tem*gwf qvmhAf bl;a*;&D;,ef; bke;f awmf}uD;tm; *vm*dv
k ufwufcf tuQ&m
Glagolitic alphabet
twGi;f ESifh orRusr;f pmqdik &f m jyXmef;pmtkyw

f iG ;f odk@ jyifqifwnf aqmuf&ef
xdr;f ay;cJah yonf?

bla*;&D;,m;tm; oif;tkyfq&mydik f a'otjzpf uGefpwefwED b
kd JvfrS at'D 945 wGif w&m;0if tod
trSwf jyKay;cJah yonf? qmAD;,m;tm; 1345 ckESpw
f iG v
f nf;aumif; &k&mS ;tm; 1589 wGif vnf;aumif;
todtrSwf jyKcJhayonf? Twdik ;f jynfrsm;onf Tod@k owfrw
S af om tcsde@f ae@&uf rwdik frDS ESpfaygif;
rsm;pGm uyif bmomul;ajymif; +yD;om; jzpfayonf?
qvmhAf ta&S@buf/ awmifbufyikd ;f odk@ omoemjyKvkyfief; rSm }uD;pGmatmifjrifru
_ kd &cJah yonf?
tb,fa=umifq
h kdaomf omoemjyKrsm;onf rlvXmaewdik ;f &if;om; bmompum;rsm;udk a&mr bke;f
awmf}uD; rsm; vufcx
H m;onfh vufwifbmomxuf vnf;aumif;/ *&dbmomxuf vnf;aumif;
OD;pm;ay; oH;k pGJcjJh cif;a=umifh jzpfayonf?
6-1 (1) *&dwf rd&k mAD;,m; odk@ omoemjyK tzGJ@

*&dwfr&dk mAD;,m;. bk&ifvnf;jzpf/ xif&mS ;aom arSmfq&m}uD;vnf; jzpfaom &mhpw
f pfvmhAu
f bdik Zf ef
wdik t
f m; rd&k mAD;,ef; (vlrsdK;) rsm;tm; ud,
k yf ikd f bmompum;jzifh a[majymEdik faom "rRq&mrsm;
apv$waf y;yg& ef arwWm&yfccH Jh aomtcg/ bdik Zf efwikd f {u&mZf rdu
k u
f ,f (3) onf uGefpwefwdefEiS fh
rufodk';D ,mhpf nDt pfudk ESpaf ,mufukd a&G;cs,cf Jhayonf? olwdk@. rdcifrmS oufomavmedwf jrpf&;dk
a'orS qvmhAf vlrsdK;jzpfI nDt pfukdESpOf ;D rSm t&yfa'ooH;k qvmEdAk pf bmompum;udk u|rf;usifpGm
ajymEdik fayonf? omoemjyKtzGJ@onf csucf si;f vufiif;yif pD;&D;vpfcf pmaytuQ&mudk wDxiG cf I
Jh /
usr;f pmESifh bk&m;&Scd ;dk rsm;udk qvmEdkApf bmomodk@ jyefqckd aJh yonf? TqvmApf toH;k tESef;rS
qvmEdkApf toif;awmfa[mif;. rlvtajccH jzpfvmcJah yonf? aemufyidk ;f wGif rS qvmEdkApf toif;
awmf tjzpf qifu
h JjzpfvmI rS bHk bk&m;&Scd ;kd pm bmompmaytm; &k&mS ; atmfoadk 'gh toif;awmf
ESifh tjcm;aom qvmApf c&pf,mef toif;awmfrsm;u qufvuf oH;k pGJv#ufyif &Sad yonf? qvmhAf
ta&S@ydik ;f ESifh awmifyidk ;f odk@ omoemjyKaom tzGJ@rsm;rSm vufwif/ *&d pmayrsm;xuf a'ocH bmom
pmayrsm;udk toH;k jyKjcif;a=umifh t}uD;tus,f atmifjrifru
_ dk &&Sad yonf? *&dwf rd&k mAD;,m;wGifrl
uGefpwefwed fESifh rufodk';D ,mhpf wdk@onf taemufykdi;f odk@r[kwf toif;awmf. vufwifXmecGJudk ud,
k f
pm;jyKaom *smref omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm;ESihf yufyif;wd;k cJ&h ayonf? XmecGJrsm;rSm jrwfaom a&mr
tifyg,mtm; csm;vfrde;f rS xlaxmifjcif; jzpfa=umif; tom;ay; ud,
k fpm;jyKI bmompum; ,Ofaus;
r_ rsm;rSm wpfajy;nD wpfom;wnf; jzpf&ef (yifr vufwif udo
k m bHo
k ;kH &ef) w&m;0if vkyfaqmifay
onf? olwdk@onf vufwif bk&m;&Scd ;kd pmudo
k m oH;k I/ rd&k mAD;,m;ESifh qvmApfvlrsdK;wd@k onf olwdk@
ydik fqidk faom omoemjyK&m e,fajrrsm; jzpfonf[k owfrw
S x
f m;ayonf?
xdyq
f idk w
f ;dk r_ (ydyuQ) wd;k &ifv
h maomtcg nDaemifESpOf ;D rSm c&pf,mefrsm;t=um; toif;tyif;uGJ+yJr_
udk rvdv
k m;aoma=umifh yky&f [ef;rif;tm; awG@I omoemjyK e,frsm;Y omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm;t=um;
cdu
k &f efpum;rsm;r_rsm;rS a&Smif=uOf&eftwGuf oabmwlnrD u
_ kd &&ef a&mrodk@ c&D;xGucf aJh yonf?
uGefpwefonf a&mr&Sd bke;f }uD;ausmif; wpfausmif;od@k 0ifI/ ol. trnfudk pD&;D vf [k ajymif;cJhayonf?
xdek mrnfjzifh ol@tm; ,ae@ odaejcif; jzpfayonf? od@k aomf rsm;r=umrSD owif;ywfrsm;twGi;f olonf
xdak e&mYyif uG,v
f eG f tedpPa&mufcaJh yonf?
yky&f [ef;rif; tif'&D;,ef; (2) u rufokd';D ,mhpt
f m; qmrD,ef (,ck qmAD;,m; &Sd p&if; rfpum
rufx&dk Apfum) . tmcDbJhpfa&Smhyf bGJ@ukd cs;D jrichf JhI/ rd&k mAD;,m;ESifh yifEdke;D ,m; a'otm;vH;k tm; pD&if
csuyf dkicf iG fhEiS fh qvmEdkApf bmompum; bk&m;&Scd kd;pmrsm;udk w&m;0ifo;Hk pGJyidk fciG u
fh dk ay;tyf+yD; at'D
869 wGif jyefvnf apv$wcf aJh yonf? odk@aomf r=umrSDwiG f olw@kd naD emiftm; zdwfrEujyKcJhaom
rif;om; &mhpw
f pfvmhAf ewf&mG pHomG ;I/ ol@tm;qufco
H u
l rufodk';D ,mhpt
f m; axmufcHr_ rjyKawmhacs?
at'D 870 wGif a[mfv ef bk&if vl;0pfEiS fh ol. bJhpfa&Smhyfu &mhww
f pfqb
f Gef oHCm,emY rufodk
'D;,mhpt
f m; t&du
k t
f &mrS csI/ (2)ESpaf usmaf usmf axmifxJwiG f xm;cJah yonf? yky&f [ef;rif; *|ef (8)u
ol@tm; vGwaf jrmuf&ef apmifrcJhaomfvnf; qvmEdkApf bk&m;&Scd ;dk pmoH;k jcif;udk &yfwef@& ef trdef@csrSw f
cJah yonf?
at'D (878) wGif/ qvmEdkApf pmoH;k r_jzifh rdpm> tjzpf tr_ywfum rufo'dk ;D ,mhpt
f m; a&mrodk@ qifah c:
cJah yonf? Tt}udrw
f gif yky&f [ef;rif; *|eo
f nf av#mufvGJcsut
f m; em;vnfoabmaygu+f yD;/
rufodk';D ,mhpt
f m; tr_tm;vH;k udk yvyfay;v#uf jyefykd@ay;cJhonft
h jyif qvmEdkApfpmtm; toH;k jyK&ef
vnf; cGijfh yKcsuf ay;vdu
k af yonf? ol@tm; qufco
H nfh u,f&v
dk if*;D ,ef; bJhpaf &Smhyf 0pfcsde;f u
qvmEdkApf bk&m;&Scd ;dk pmrsm;udk okwo
f ifypfI/ rufokd';D ,mhpf. aemufvu
dk rf sm;udv
k nf; twif;t=uyf
armif;xkwcf aJh yonf? xkad emufvu
dk rf sm;pGmrSm qvmApf pum;ajym toif;awmftm; todtrSw f
jyKay;aom bla*;&D;,m; bk&if abm&pf (at'D 852-889) . xHY cdv
k =_H uonfukd awG@&ayonf?
xdt
k awmtwGi;f wGif yky&f [ef; rif; *|et
f m; qufco
H rl sm;rSm vufwifbmompum; wpfcw
k nf;udo
k m
owfrw
S o
f ;Hk pGaJ om rludk usio
fh ;Hk cJh+yD; onf aemuf &mpkrsm;xd usefaecJhayonf?
6-1 (2) qmhAEf ifSihf bla*&D;,ef;wdk@. ajymif;vJr_r_
rufodk';D ,mhpo
f nf qmhAfrsm;tm; bmomajymif;vJ& ef qufvuf aqmif&u
G cf aJh yonf? qvmApf
bk&m;&Scd ;dk pmrsm;rSm wdik ;f jynfodk@ *&d=oZmv$r;f rd;k vmr_ukd umuG,Ef dkif onf[k tjrif&Sdaom bl;a*;
&D;,m; bk&if qm abm&pf (1). zdw=f um;csuaf =umifh &Sif uvD;rifh/ bl;a*;&D;,ef; awmf0ifrsdK;EG,frS
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odk@ jyefomG ;cJah yonf? tcsdew
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f ;l rsm; jzpfonfh &d;k &m =o0g'wdk@tm; jyefvnf
twnfjyKjcif;rsm; vkycf Jhayonf? xd&k ;kd &mrsm;rSm oif;tkyfq&mrsm; ud,
k x
f nf (tzGJ@tpnf;)/ bke;f
awmf}uD; rsm; tcrf;tem;/ w&m;awmf 7 csuf/ taoG;awmf ajymif;vJjcif; (vlxu
k aygifrkHEiS hf pyspf0idk f
wdk@tm; v_'gef;=uaom tcrf;tem;wGif wd@k onf c&pfawmf. taoG;awmf tom;awmfrsm; tjzpf
pifppfajymif;vnf;oGm;onf[k ,H=k unfcsu)f / "gwaf wmf/ pHjyyk*~dKvfEiS fh olawmfpifrsm; (txl;ojzifh r,f
awmf rm&d) wdk@tm; txGt
f jrwfxm;jcif;/ u,fwifjcif;cH& &ef tvd@k imS ,Hk=unfcsuEf iS fh aumif;rGefpmG
usiafh qmifr_ ESpcf v
k ;Hk r&Sdrjzpf vdt
k yfjcif; / aumif;uifbYHk =um;cH pcef; wnf&jdS cif;/ yky&f [ef;ydik frsm;.
tmrcHcsuf (a&mif;&ef r[kw)f ponfjzifh jzpfayonf? wd@k tm;vnf; xdo
k C
H m,emrS xyfrH t
wnfjyKcJah yonf? wenf;tm;jzifh y&dw
k ufpw
f ifhrsm;. =o0g'qdik &f m jyKvJjcif;rsm;udk vH;k 0 todtrSwf
rjyK jiif; yg,v
f u
dk jf cif; jzpfayonf? ToHCm,emonf a0;vHoaD cgiaf om a'orsm;rS bke;f awmf}uD;
rsm;. ynm&nf wd;k wufru
_ v
dk nf; tm;ay;cJah yonf? rDv if. oif;tkyq
f &m pde@f csm;vf abmf&kdr,
D dk
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f ;kH aom a'orSjzpfI tqifjh rifh *k%&f nf&v
Sd mcJjh cif;rSm Oyrm
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&SmazGawG@&Sdaom acwfonf c&pfwkdzm udv
k efbwfpf (1492) . a&a=umif;c&D; rS pwifcI
Jh / onf
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k edk D ruf&iS ;f v_y&f mS ;r_. trSwo
f nmvnf; jzpfayonf?
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omoemjyK tzGJ@rsm;
umodv
k pf ruf&iS ;f rsm;
&SmazGawG@&Sdaom acwftwGi;f wGif/ a&mr umodv
k pf toif;awmfonf urBmopfqo
D dk@ c&pf,mef
omoemtm; jzef@cs&D efEiS fh wdik ;f &if; rlv
l vlrsdK;rsm;tm; c&pf,mef omoemtwGi;f od@k ul;ajymif;ap&ef
twGuf omoemjyK ruf&iS ;f rsm;pGmudk xlaxmifcaJh yonf? wpfcsdew
f nf;wGi/f z&efppf ZmAD;,m; uJo
h dk@
omoemjyK ruf&iS ;f rsm;/ tvm;wl tjcm;aom a,Zl;wf/ =o*wfpwife,
D ef;/ z&efppfpuifEiS fh 'dkrDeu
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ruf&iS ;f rsm; apydk@caJh yonf? xdo
k moemjyK ruf&iS ;f rsm;rS wpfcsdK@rSm tifyg,mjynf&h iS frsm;ESifh yl;aygi;f
v#uf tjcm;olrsm;tm; ESdyu
f yG fr_rsm; &Scd Jhayonf? tjcm;aom ruf&iS ;f rsm; (w&kwjf ynfodk@ omoemjyK
aom rufw,
D dk &ufp.
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G jf cif;rsdK;jzifh csn;f uyfcaJh yonf?
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f ifh udv
k edk cD sJ@jcif;
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f ifhrsm;. txif&mS ;qH;k udv
k ekd cD sJ@jcif; rSm t*Fvef yl&w
D efrsm; Puritans . ajrmuf
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k dkeDrsm;onf a'ocH
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k t
f m; &Scd Jhay
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k w
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f ,
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a=umifh olwdk@onf olwdk@. tdrfruftwdik ;f yl&w
D efwkd@. udk,yf ikd f urBmopftm; xlaxmif&ef xGucf mG
vm cJjh cif; jzpfayonf?
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hH m;ay;r_a=umifh a&mr
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a&;& wdk@ qufpyfvmaom umv[k owfrw
S af vh&adS yonf?
at'D 1610 wGif *vDv,
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dk nf ol. =u,fwm&m wrefawmf Sidereus Nuncius pmtkyu
f dk yHkESdyf
xkwaf 0cJhayonf? wGif th=H oavmufaom pl; prf;r_jzpfonfh oljyKvkyaf om tEk=unfhrSeaf jymif;
topfudk az:jycJah yonf? ESit
fh jcm;aom &SmazGawG@&cdS surf sm;u tmumoa&;&m qdik &f m em;vnf
Edik fr_ cufcJaejcif; rsm;udk ajz&Si;f &ef taxmuftyHh jzpfcI
Jh / aumfyife;D uyfp.
f [Dv,
D pdk ifx&pf
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dk D uJo
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h nf?
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f mG ;vmjcif; r&Sb
d J A[djk yK&yfaeonf[k qdjk cif; rsm;onf rdpm> t,ljzpfonf[k qufvuf udik pf GJ
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jzpfaejcif; rsm;rSm rdpm> t,l[k em;vnf;xm;=uayonf? *vDv,
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f iG f t,lysurf t
_ wGuf jypf'%fjzpfaom axmif'%fudk
ay;cJah yonf? odk@aomf trSww
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f iG f yky&f [ef;rif;tm;
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`H idk &f m taxmuftxm;
rSm jynfph Hv
k aHk vmufr_ r&Scd Jhacs? (ol@ot
D &kd w
D iG f tmumoa&;&m tcsut
f vufrsm;ygaomfvnf;/ xdk
tcsuf tvufrsm;rSm urBm. a&G@v#m;aer_onf tjcm;aom axmufyhHr_rsm; r&Sad cs[k jzpfI/ p=u0Vm
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jyifopfawmfveS af &;
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f q/
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jyefvnfE;dk uGaom 0g' odk@r[kwf jyefvnfE;kd uolrsm;qdo
k nfrmS uJvAf ifepfrsm;ESifh 0ifpav,ef; wdk@.
jyefvnfE;dk ur_udk ud,
k fpm;jyKI/ Ed;k xr_}uD;[k ac:qdak yonf? ajrmuftar&duwGif tDAif*svu
D ,frsm;/
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rsm; v_y&f mS ;r_tm; jrifw
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fh kid af om olawmfpifw&m;rsm;udk
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ynm&Sif qpf'eD tD; tmvfpxGr;f Sydney E. Ahlstrom u onf Edik if w
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d t}udrf Ed;k xr_}uD;
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f iG f avmhtif*s,v
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movement tm; OD;aqmifca
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Charismatic
jyefvnf tpm;xd;k 0g'rD sm;

jyefvnftpm;xd;k 0g'Drsm;qdo
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d nfh trsdK;rsdK;aom v_y&f mS ;r_
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f efaom c&pf,mefrS vrf;vGJ
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k kypf krsm;onf jyefvnf wnfaqmuf
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k oif;tzGJ@rsm;rSm aemuf
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&k&S atmfoadk 'gh toif;awmfonf &k&t

S ifyg,mtwGi;f wGif txl;tcGi&fh ae&mY &Scd aJh yonf? atmf
odak 'gh0g'/ oufO;D qHyidk f0g'ESifh vlom;tusKd ;jyK0g' Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism [k
aemufydik ;f &k&t
S ifyg,mwGif aqmifyk't
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tkycf sKyfa&;qdik &f m ud,
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k &f u
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toif;awmftm; Zmbk&if.vlrsm;uJo
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l ak &m toif;awmfrsm;yg tm;vH;k onf
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