..;<1-".

-:'

.-'

--.
128
SPREAD FOOTINGS' CHAP.

SEC.6-8 6 "'"

SETILEMENT OF FOOTINGS

129 (6-6)

S per cent of the applied contact pressure. These lines of equal pressure are bulb shaped and consequently are called pressure bulbs. The most commonly used pressure bulb is the one for 0.2q because in practical cases any stress less than 0.2q is often of little consequence. For circular and square footings the pressure bulb is about 1.5B wide and 1.5B deep, B being the width of the footing. The computation of vertical pressure by tl:J.eBoussinesq's equation is a laborious procedure and suitable only for research works. In practice a graphical solution by the Newmark influence chart, Fig. 6-11, is used. The solution is simple, expeditious and can be best illustrated by an example. In this example it is desired to determine the vertical pressure at a depth of 10 ft below point x due to a uniform contact pressure q = 4500 psf from a footing shown in Fig. 6-12. The first B' x 6' footino step is to draw a plan of the footing and the. location of point x on a transparent paper in such a scale that the distance AB shown on the influence chart is equal to the depth 10 ft. Then place the plan on top of the influence chart, so that point x lies at the origin of the chart, and count the number of influence areas /Point K occupied by the footing. An influence area is of an individual area bounded by two adjacent Fig.6-12 Example illustrating the use of the Newmark influence straight lines and two adjacent arcs. The vertical pressure at a depth of 10ft below point x chart. is equal to the number of influence areas (78) times the intensity of footing pressure (4500) times the influence valve (0.001) which equals 350 psf. Both the Boussinesq's equation and the Newmark influence chart are intended for the case of surface loading. If they are used for computing stresses in the soil due to a deep foundation, the computed stress would be greater than the actual value. where S

= s, + Sc + S$ = total settlement,

S, = immediateelastic settlement, Sc = settlementdue to consolidationof clay, S$= settlementdue to secondaryconsolidationof clay.

1. lmmediate settlement. Immediately upon application of load on the footing, elastic compression of the underlying soil takes place causing a settlement of the footing. This amount can be computed by elastic theory. However, it is usually very small and can be neglected for all practical purposes.
1.21
1.0'

~ 0.81

Z =thickness of clay layer

i3 = width of continuousfooting

""
0.2tL- -' - - ~ Continuous'footing

Circular footing

o
Pore pressurecoefficient

(,2

~
Fig. 6-13 Coefficient f3 for computing consolidation settlement. From Skempton and Bjerrum.

oJ!'"

~~~ a~ ~~~ ~
J o ~ !! o

~;g.g

~;g~ ~~~
8

~~

~9 ~u

.~..

6.8 Settlement of Footings

Footings on granular soils will not suffer detrimental settlement if tpe smaller value of the two allowable pressures given by Eqs. (6-1) and (6-2) is used. Footings on stiff clay, hard clay, and other firm soils generally require no settlement analysis if the design provides a minimum factor of safety of 3. Soft clay, compressible silt, and other weak soils will settle even under moderate pressure, and therefore settlement analysis is necessary. The total settlement of a footing on clay may be considered to consist of
three parts (Skempton and Bjerrum, 1957):

2. Settlement due to consolidation. The settlement caused by consolidation is due to the slow extrusion of water from the pores of the fine particles of clay. The amount of final consoli~ation settlement Sc can be calculated by the following equation:
Sc

= SofJ

(6-7)

wherep = the coefficient depending on the geometry of the footing and the
loading history of the clay. Values of fJ are shown in Fig. 6-13.

- ..

130

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.

SEC.

6-9

ECCENTRIC LOADING

131

So = settlement calculated by Terzaghi theory of consolidation;

where q (6-8)
,

= contact
=

pressure at a given point (x, y);

= m. iJpH =where m. Jp H Cc
1

vertical load ;

+ eo

H IOg10 Po

+
Po

iJp'

(3-4)

A x and y
Mx, My

= area of footing; = coordinates of

calculated;

the point at which the contact pressure is

= coefficient of = vertical stress

volume compressibility of the clay. This value is

determinedby consolidation test. .

due to load on footing. = thickness of the compressible clay. The clay thickness should be divided into several layers to obtain reasonably accurate settlement of a thick layer. Cc = compression index, also determined by consolidation test. Po = vertical effective pressure due to soil overburden. The computation of settlement due to consolidation is illustrated in the design example, sheet 2 DE 6. 3. Settlement due to secondary consolidation. When an undisturbed soil sample is tested in the consolidometer (Oi' oedometer) the rate of volume decrease checks very closely with the theory. However, when the sample is one hundred per cent consolidated (according to the theory of consolidation) the volume decrease does not stop according to the theory, but instead the sample continues to compress at a reduced and rather constant rate. The amount of consolidation that can be computed by the theory is called primary consolidation; whereas the slow consolidation that takes place afterwards is called secondary consolidation, Sec. 3-5. 6-9 Eccentric Loading Eccentric loading may result from a load applied off the center of the footing or from a concentric load plus a bending moment. For the purpose of determining the pressure under the footing the moment may be removed by shifting the vertical load to a fictitious location with an eccentricity e = momentJverticalload. In the analysis of an eccentrically loaded footing two separate problems are confronted: . 1. For the purpose of structural design, the pressure against the bottom of the footing, commonly called contact pressure, is assumed to have a planar distribution. When the load is applied within the kern of the footing area, common flexural formulae ar?"applicable. . .

= load

Q multiplied by eccentricity parallel to x and y axes, respectively;

Ix, Iy = moment of inertia of the footing area about the x and y axes, respectively. Equation (6-9) is valid when one of the following conditions exists: (a) The footing is symmetrical about x and y axes. (b) The footing is symmetrical about x axis and ey = O. (c) The footing is symmetrical about y axis and ex = O. For rectangular footings, Eq. (6-9) may be written in a simpler form:

q = Q 1 :f: 6~ :I::~
A

(6-9a)

q=- Q :I:: Mx -x+-y

A Iy

My

(6-9)

Ix

When ex, ey or eb' el exceed a certain limit, Eq. (6-9) or (6-9a) gives a negative value of q which indicates tension between the soil and bottom of footing. Unless the footing is weighted down by surcharge loads, the soil cannot be relied upon for bonding to the footing and offering tensile resistance. Therefore, the flexural formulae Eq. (6-9) and (6-9a) are applicable only when the load is applied within a limited area which is known as the kern and is shown shaded in Fig. 6-14(a). The proc;:~g,ureor determination f of soil pressure when the load is applied outside the kern is simple in principle but laborious. Cases for rectangular and Circillar footings have been worked out andlni'kerns are shown by shaded areas in Fig. 6-14 [(a) and (c)]. For footings of other shapes, the graphical method of successivetrials is probably the simplest for practical 'solutions (Roark, 1954). The graphical method, similar to any other method, is based on the assumption that the pressure varies linearly with the distance to the neutral axis from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum at the most remote point and on the requirement of statical equilibrium that the resultant of the soil pressure should lie on the line of action of the applied load Q. The procedure is as follows. Draw a trial neutral axis N-N, Fig. 6-14(b) and a line ab perpendicular to N-N, starting from point b which is most remote. The area between point band N-N is under compression while the area on the other side of N-N is unstressed. The intensity of stress at a given point varies in simple proportion with its perpendicular distance from N-N. The compression area is divided into several narrow strips of uniform width dy, running parallel to

'"' .

-'-

.
133

132

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.

SEC. 6-9

ECCENTRIC LOADING

r
L

---,
For II:!; % For II>

0.5

q=i(1:!:61J
q"",,=H3:~6,J
q i .. 0

mn 3(f-e}

distance of from edge of footing

at a

'0 ... ?;' :Q Nt--JC '1 I

1 ..

1/ 'i-e

I
"
g .... '0' .. .. .2 ..

(a) Rectangular footing, load on one of the center lines of footing.

N
qb

(b) General procedure.

w V
~qmo'
,

0.1

10.2

0.3

.p.4 of footing

0.5

Valuesof etlL

=longitudinal eccentricity/length
Solid curves give values of K

Ma~imum pressure Pma." K~Q/ BL Q = concentrated load on footing

Casem

P
D 1m";. D",LU+2R+3R2)

Fore:$i~4

=~[1:!:4fJ
}

A =1T,2

tl,:(
/

ca: I

Fore>14

qmo,= k%

k values are tabulated below k

[f$f
B eb e I
~L~'

~
~
B

mo, ) p" Q """ 8L(1+6ez/L+6~

1-

~
eb

I t I--L--J
G G

-e

~1 4(t+R+R2) =-..!f. A= MU+R+R2+R3)

P" R=N/M 60
P""" """

4U+R+R2)

'I, = 0.25 0.30 0.35 0040 0045 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.6~ 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.90

=2.00

2.20 2.43 2.70 3.10 3.55 4.22 4.92 5.90 7.20 9.20 13.0 80.0

Case D

(c) Circul~r footing.

~ B

~
Fig. 6-14 Pressure distribution used for stcuctural design of eccentrically loaded footings.

~ ~~
eb

"""

rPII\CII- KQ/BL

';'et

'.J

x and y fromchart

~
eb

LM(1+R+R2)

Case IV

"e

IP

~
. mo,

..~
8GH

(d) Rectangular footing, double eccentricity.

~
134
SPREAD FOOTINGS

-CHAP.

-~-

SEC. 6-10

INCLINED LOAD

135

N-N. The unit pressure acting on this strip is equal to (Y/ X)qb, where qbis the unit pressure at point b, and the total pressure is equal to (Y/ X)qbldy. The total pressure may be represented by the shaded strip with a length of (Y/ X)l. This shaded strip, if under a uniform pressure qb, carries the same load as the whole strip under the actual pressure (Y/ X)qb' Therefore, it may be called a transformed strip. All the transformed strips form a transformed area. If the location of the trial neutral axis N-N is correct, the centroid of the transformed area will coincide with the point of action of the load Q. For practical purposes, the centroid or center of gravity of the transformed area may be determined by cutting out a cardboard of the same shape and balancing the board on a pencil point. The cardboard will balance only when it is supported on the center of gravity. Severa.! such trials will enable the engineer to approach the'correct location of the neutral axis. 2. For determination of ultimate or allowable bearing capacity of an eccentrically loaded footing, the concept of useful width has been introduced. By this concept, the portion of the footing which is symmetrical about the load is considered useful and the other portion is simply assumed superfluous for the convenience of computation. If the eccentricities are e, and eb, as shown in Fig. 6-15, the useful widths are B - 2eb and L - 2e/, the equivalent area (B 2eb)(L 2e,) is considered as subjected to a central load for determination of bearing capacity. .

-1

Therefore, the reduction factor shown in Fig. 6-16 should be used for design purposes: First the bearing capacity of the footing is determined on the basis that the load is applied at the centroid of the footing. Then, this bearing capacity is corrected by multiplying with the factor shown in Fig. 6-16.

6-10 Inclined Load The conventional method of stability analysis of footings subjected to inclined loads is as follows: the inclinedload Q is resolvedinto a vertical
component Qv and a horizontal component QH' The stability of the footing against ultimate failure under.the vertical load is treated by the same principles for footings subjected to vertical Joad only, and the effect of the horizontal component is ignored. Then, the stability of the footing against the horizontal force is analysed by calculating the factor of safety against sliding which is defined as the ratio between the total horizontal resistance and the horizontal force. The total horizontal resistance in general consists of a passive resistance of soil, Pp,and a frictional resistance R, Fig. 6-17. The value of Ppcan be .., 2crH

' pp~"",D;"'-"."'~

:~:::~::'.~

::.

~
on the

eb

f-lb

I-ppH

j R=?~..~)= Pp -;: + R

lP -!
Coel. of Friction, f 0.55 0.45 0.35

___

2c T yH

I+- f?;:c ~ footing

area

N = total vertical force acting base of footing

2 u .2

Foetor of safety against sliding Granular soils Type of Soil Sand and/or grovel with less than 5% silt Sand and/or grovel with 5% or more silt
Eccentricity ratio e/B

L
LL

~ u

c:

Cohesive soils Type of Soil Very soft cloy Soft cloy Medium, stiff, and hard cloy Cohesive Strength c=psf 200 400 600 Unit Weight, ( pcf 110 120 125

" ... .. II:

Pp psf submerged dry or moist 210 :80 120 350 250 150

~:~
.

Sill or soils containing more than 30% silt

fig. 6-'5 Useful widths for deter-

mination of bearing capacity of

eccentrically loaded footing on . cohesivesoils.

fig. 6-16 Bearing capacity of eccentrically loaded footing. After AREA.

The values above may be used in small jobs. Backfill must be well compacted to insure the design passive pressure

fig. 6-'7 Conventional method of analysis of footings subjected to inclined loads.

The concept above simply means that the bearing capacity of a footing oel..cc;lses linearly with the eccentricity of load, as is shown by a straight line in Fig. 6-16. In cohesive soils, this linear relationship prevails, but in granular soils,however,the reductionis parabolicra~herthan linear,(Meyerhof,1953).
....

determined by the principles discussed in Chapter 4. However, for smaller projects, conservative values such as those shown in the figure may be used. It should be emphasized that high values of passive earth pressure Ppmay not be realized in granular soils unless it is backfilled and well compacted in layers.

1
134
SPREAD FOOTINGS CHAP.

- - ._,~.
6

SEC. -10 6

INCLINEDLOAD

135

N-N. The unit pressure acting on this strip is equal to (Y/ X)qb, where qbis the unit pressure at point b, and the total pressure is equal to (Y/ X)qbldy. The total pressure may be represented by the shaded strip with a length of (Y/ X)l. This shaded strip, if under a uniform pressure qb' carries the same load as the whole strip under the actual pressure (Y/ X)qb' Therefore, it may be called a transformed strip. All the transformed strips form a transformed area. If the location of the trial neutral axis N-N is correct, the centroid of the transformed area will coincide with the point of action of the load Q. For practical purposes, the centroid or center of gravity of the transformed area may be determined by cutting out a cardboard of the same shape and balancing the board on a pencil point. The cardboard will balance only when it is supported on the center of gravity. Several such trials will enable the engineer to approach the .correct location of the' neutral axis. 2. For determination of ultimate or allowable bearing capacity of an eccentricalIy loaded footing, the concept of useful width has been introduced. By this concept, the portion of the footing which is symmetrical about the load is considered useful and the other portion is simply assumed superfluous for the convenience of computation. If the eccentricities are e/ and eb' as shown in Fig. 6-15, the useful widths are B 2eband L - 2e" the equivalent area (B - 2eb)(L 2e/) is considered as subjected to a central load for determination of bearing capacity.

., \,
-1

Therefore, the reduction factor shown in Fig. 6-16 should be used for design purposes: First the bearing capacity of the footing is determined on the basis that the load is applied at the centroid of the footing. Then, this bearing capacity is corrected by multiplying with the factor shown in Fig. 6-16. 6-10 Inclined Load The conventional method of stability analysis of footings subjected to inclined loads is as folIows: the inclined load Q is resolved into a vertical component Q. and a horizontal component QH' The stability of the footing against ultimate failure under the vertical load is treated by the same principles for footings subjected to vertical :oad only, and the effect of the horizontal component is ignored. Then, the stability of the footing against the horizontal force is analysed by calculating the factor of safety against sliding which is defined as the ratio between the total horizontal resistance and the horizontal force. The total horizontal resistance in general consists of a passive resistance of soil, Pp,and a frictional resistance R, Fig. 6-17. The value of Ppcan be 2crH , ~:..:.:: 1 Pp I-ppH-j :o':.~'~.:':..."p :..":~ R=.,~. '-1,oh'-

lP --I
Coel. of Friction,

2~ i:' I-- fi';: C

1"

x looting area

N = total vertical force acting on the base of footing

Factor c: of safety against Granular sliding soils

= Pp-:;+R
Cohesive soils

~ u

'" .., .. 0::

Type of Soil Sand and/or gravel with less than 5% silt Sand and/or gravel with 5% or mare silt
Eccentricity ratio e/B

Pp psi submerged dry or moist 210 !80 120 350 250 150

Type of Soil Very soft clay Soft clay Medium, stiff, and hard clay

Cohesive Strength c=psf 200 400 600

Unit Weight, r pcf 110 120 125

0.55 0.45 0.35

Silt or soils containing more than 30% silt

Fig.6-15 Useful widths for determination of bearing capacity of eccentrically loaded footing on cohesivesoils.

Fig. 6-16 Bearing capacity of eccentrically loaded footing. After AREA.

The values above may be used in small jobs. Backfill must be well compacted to insure the design passive pressure

Fig. 6-17 Conventional method of analysis of footings subjected to inclined loads.

The concept above simply means that the bearing capacity of a footing oel.reJses linearly with the eccentricity of load, as is shown by a straight line in Fig. 6-16. In cohesive soils, this linear relationship prevails, but in granular soils,however,the reductionis parabolicra~herthan linear,(Meyerhof,1953).

determined by the principles discussed in Chapter 4. However, for smalIer projects, conservative values such as those shown in the figure may be used. It should be emphasized that high values of passive earth pressure Ppmay not be realized in granular soils unless it is backfilIed and welIcompacted in layers.

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.

SEC. 6-12

UPUFT OF FOOTINGS

137

tf

300 200

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1001 ~.c 50 '0 c o ~.. 20

~
I-B:
(Area

0,

=A)
I

Research in soil mechanics has extended the bearing capacity theory into the case of inclined loading (Meyerhof, 1953; Janbu, 1957). Janbu's analysis is a direct extension of Terzaghi theory with a factor Nh in addition to the Terzaghi bearing capacity factors Ne, Ny, and'Nq. 1 Q + NhQh - N c + N Y D + - NyyB A - e q 2 (6-10)

~
'h

0,+NhOh

=Nec+Nq)'D+ zN,yB
exceed

i7
0h cannot

Q, tan

1>

~..
c " cohesion </>"angle

of internalfriction

.0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.e 0.9 1.0 tan </> FI,. 6-18

The notations and values of Ne, Nq, Ny, and Nh are shown in Fig. 6-18. Meyerhof has calculated ultimate bearing capacity of footings subjected to inclined loading and published the results in graphical form. They have been constructed in convenient charts shown in Fig. 6-19. The load is assumed to apply vertically and the bearing capacity is determined by the normal procedure. Then it is corrected by the factor Ri shown in Fig. 6-19.

General formula for bearing 'capacity of continuous footing subjected to inclined load. After N. Janbu.

6-11 Footingson Slopes

' DaD Q

r::ffr1-!!!- Rq
B-1
q

!-B-I
bearing capacity factor, see charts below

~
r 4.:
q fl-R B-1
of horizontal

The bearingcapacityof footingson slopingground may be determinedby the followingequation (Meyerhof,1957):

q = cNcq + tYBNyq

. (6-11)

B'Y~ a:
footing

"

ultimate (or allowable) under vertical load

RI " reduction

The values of the bearing capacity factors Neqand Nyqfor continuous footings are shown in Fig. 6-20. These factors vary with the slope of the ground, the relative position of the footing and the angle of internal friction of the soil. Before construction of footings on sloping ground, the stability of the slope itself must be investigated. Footings should not be constructed on slopes which are unstable. They should also be avoided on slopes where slow creep of the superficial material takes place. The stability of a stable slope may be endangered by the addition of footings. 6-12 Uplift of Footings The resistance of a footing against uplift is derived from the weight of the footing and the weight of soil above it. For soil below ground water level the submerged weight should be used. As a footing is being uplifted, a prism of soil is carried by the footing, Fig. 6-21(a). The shape of the prism depends upon the characteristics of soil above the footing. Due to lack of conclusive data, no rational design rules have been developed. However, conventional method assuming a 60 degree prism, Fig. 6-21(a) may lead to unsafe results. For footings subjected to a small uplift, the method shown in Fig. 6-21(b) may be used. If a large number of footings are subjected to high uplift forces, some model tests or full-sized field pull-out tests may be economically justified.
1

c o '5 0.4 " '0 i 0.2

o
From AREA (a)

o
After

20

40

60

eo 90

Inclination of load to vertical aO "inclinationf foundation horizontal o to G. G. Meyerhof (b)

Fig. 6-19 Bearing capacity of footing subjected to inclined load: (a) horizontal foundation; (b) inclined foundation (after G. G. Meyerhof . and AREA).

..&
r

SEC. 6-13
STRUCTURAL DESIGN 0'F Foo11NGS

138

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.

139

Both cases: q cNcq+O.5yB N1'I Stability foetor: N. = yH/c c = cohesion r = unit weight of soil

Linear interpretation for intermediate depths:

D/B

D/B

= I; dash

=0;

solid

lines

lines

footing area, the unit pressure is equal to the total load divided by the footing area. In case of eccentric load, the pressure may be calculated by the procedure described in Sec. 6-9.
600

500~
400

"

"
'\

.,~

,,

Plitlcapacity =

W+ F

case

ft
D

--j;
F
''':'':'9 Varies with type and . characteristics of soil. Conventional assumption of 6 .. 60. may be unsafe in some cases

F=Pof (granular soils)

= cA (cohesive soils)

W = weight of soil plus footing

F = friction or cohesion

(b)
Po = total horiz. earth pressure at rest acting on the entire vertical surface = 0.4 x unit wt of soil f = coeff. of friction = 0.35 - 0.55 c = cohesion = 200-600P" A = total vertical surface above perimeter of footing

(0)

FI,; 6-21 Uplift capacity of footing: (a) probable minimum theoretical uplift.

uplift capacity; (b)

~' 'r ;::

6-13 Structural Designof Footings In practiceall individualand wall footingsate designedon the assumption that the distribution of the soil pressure against the bottom of the footing is straight-line or planar. When the load is applied at the centroid of the

By far the majority of footings are constructed of concrete, and .the design of such footings should follow the concrete codes. * The design criteria used in the current American practice are shown in Fig. 6-22. If a pedestal is so proportioned that its height is at least equal to twice its width beyond the face of column, Fig. 6-23, the critical sections for computing bending, bond, and shear stresses are as shown in Fig. 6-22, and there is no need to analyse the stresses in the pedestal. For pedestals having smaller depth/width ratio, the stresses in the pedestal must be ana lysed. The analysis ma.y be made on the assumption that the bond stress along the entire embedment of dowels below the top of the pedestal is uniformly distributed. Based on this assumption, the total stress acting on the bottom of the pedestal is equal to the total stress in the concrete of the column plus the amount of stress in the column vertical reinforcement transmitted through bond within the depth of the pedestal. Fig. 6-23 illustrates .the stresses acting on each element of the footing. The members in a steel grillage are designed as cantilever beams subjected to uniformly distributed soil pressure.
* American Concrete Institute, American Association of State Highway Officials, American Railroad Engineers Association, Canadian National Code, British Code of Practice, or the local building codes.

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP. 6

SEC. 6-14

FIXITY OF COLUMN BASE AND ROTATION OF FOOTING

141

\,
b ~

6-/4

Fixity of Column Base and Rotation of Footing

Bose It

b "4

Masonry wall
I

a
(0)

~
Total pressure acting on this area is resisted by section b-b (b)

r
"

t" 3 clear

"

Fig. 6-22 Criteria for design of concrete footings: (a) critical section (a-a) and load area for computing bond and bending stresses; (b) critical

section (b-b)and load area for computing shear stress.

"

Fi:= total stress on concrete in the column

T1L Lp
F

!:e F=Fc+F'L Fs = total stress in vertical bars of the column

Lp

L =length of bar embeddment

= height

at pedestal

fir. 6.23 Stresses in pedestaled footings.

The engineer is sometimes confronted with the question of whether the column bases should be fixed or free to rotate. At other times he is compelled to design the footings for a central load and a moment, and for a limited amount of rotation. Therefore an understanding of the rotation characteristics of the column base and the footing is essential. When the lower end of a column is subjected to a bendin~ m~~.~!!h the joint between the column and the footing must be strong-enough to transfer the stresses. In the case of concrete columns, this can be readily done by embedding the dowels in the footing, and the column may be considered fully fixed to the footing. The lower end of steel ~olumns may.J?~Lfix,~.Q.J9-1be. footings by meanu)Lanchor bolts. Wfieilihe 'anchor:bQit~ ~~e.r~ql,l![edto resist tension due .to column_u"..'-"" bending, -iileyare gener"allypretensioned io.-a _. . ...',.._. desi~90.m~nimum-st.r~ss.. Unless this stres"sisexceeded"from actual bending of the column, i"hereis no elongation of the anchor bolts. Again, the column bases may be considered as fixed to the fo~ting~..:.. either case, the rotation In of column base is caused only by the elastic deformation due to the greater compression at'the toe of the base, whic.his geperally small and insignificant. Iii the event when the anchor bolts are not pretensioned and_lhe.Jotation of the--base'is critical, reference is made to a paper by Salmon, Schenker, and Jolinston (1957). Regardless of the degree of fixity between the column base and the footing, a movement from the column will cause unsymmetrical soil pressure. The s~il pressure is assumed to have straight line or planar distribution, "Sec.6-9A. Unfortunately the pressure distribution is not likely to be planar and cannot be determined quantitatively. Therefore, the rotation of a footing acted by a moment or an eccentric loading can only be estimated on the basis of some simple computations guided by good engineering judgement. For example, small and shallow footings on sand are prone to rotation because the sand readily runs out from under the toe of the footing. If the footing is located at a greater depth, the sand is subjected to a confining pressure due to the weight of the overlying soil. The relative effect of the edge condition diminishes as the size of the footing increases. It becomes apparent that small and shallow footings on granuhu soils should not be relied upon for providing fi&ty t~.!!!e c~~~~~~~ Contrary to sand, clay and clayey soils resemble elastic material and are capable of resisting a concentrated stress at the edge. Furthermore, since .a .. -. large portion otthe settlement of footings on clay is due to consolidati~l), over"a long period of time bending moment acting only Ins~?rt durations would not cause significant rotation. '-As an example of the type of approach to this problem, the rotation of footings subjected to moment or eccentric load may be estimated by the

--

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.6

SEC. 6-15

CONSTRUCTION

143

following analysis. The toe of the footing will probably not settle more than the amount 81 which is the average settlement if the entire footing is subjected to the maximum toe pressure; the heel of the footing probably not more than the amount 82 which is the average settlement if the entire footing is subjected to the minimum pressure at the heel. The maximum and minimum pressures are computed on the assumption of straight line or planar distribution. The probable amount of rotation, therefore, is equal to or less than (81 8.;) divided by the width (or length) of the footing.

6-15 Construction Footings are the simplest type of foundation in so far as the construction procedure is concerned. In addition to the normal exercise of precaution there are relatively few points that require special attention, namely: the inspection of subsoil conditions, the relative depth of footings, and the dewatering of the excavation when necessary. The construction of footings for buildings is usually started after the general grading work is completed at which time the ground is leveled to anelevation at, or 6 in. below; the bottom of the lowest floor slab. ,!~en the-a~~! is excavated by simple or power operated hand tools. The bottom of the excavation is ,carefully excavated to the required depih, the form work for the sides of footing is placed and held by stakes, and the reinforcemeni -is placed on cement block supports (and high chairs if top bars are used)~ Before placing the concret;:, anchor bolts or column dowels must be accurately secured on the form work. Short and straight dowels of small diameter may' be placed by hand immediately after the concrete is poured. The form work for the sides may not be necessary and the ~oncrete may be poured against the vertical sides of the excavation if the soil does not slough in. A. Inspection of subsoil conditions. Natural soil deposits are seldom truly uniform. An apparently uniform soil stratum often contains pockets or lenses of material having somewhat different engineering properties. It is impractical and almost impossible to ascertain the soil condition under each footing by ordinary soil boring program. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the engineer to evaluate the average soil condition based on the soil boring results, and often he has to make conservative generalizations. Before the foundation is finally constructed, he must check the actual conditions in the field. If the soil conditions at certain footin 10 II.!' are not as good as he
,

must be simple and expeditious. The soil conditions should be inspected after the excavation but before concreting. For clays or clayey soils, soil samples may be taken by a,hand aug~.!:.or hovei, and the approximate strength s maybe determined'by a simple portable unconfined compression tester or by a pocket siie penetrometer. In most cases, the shear strength can be estimated by the simple thumb test described in Table 1-2, Sec. I-8A. For sand or gravel, some simple penetration tests may be used for comparison of soil density at various locations. The penetration test may be simply the counting of blows required to drive a certain size reinforcing rod with a specific weight dropping a given height. (For example i in. diain rod driven by a 7 lb hammer falling 18 in.). Such tests should be, made first at locations where the soil density (and consequently the bearing capacity) is known from the soil borings or tests, and the results should be used as a basis for comparison. If further tests made at any other footing locations encounter smaller resistance, the adequacy of the soil for sustaining the design pressure must be carefully investigated by more accurate tests or load bearing t:sts. B. Relative depth of footings. Any adjacent footings should not be constructed at such different levels that the construction of the lower footing would. disturb the soil supporting the upper footing, and that the pressure from the upper footing would n<?tintroduce undue additional stress to the soil under the lower footing. This difficulty is generally avoided by keeping the difference in footing elevations not greater than one-half the clear distance between the footings. For this reason it is always a good practice to construct the lower footings first, and when necessary to construct the lower fo<;>tingt a a greater depth than contemplated, the elevation of the upper footing can be adjusted accordingly. Sometimes the adjacent footings must be constructed at largely different levels, for example, when a new basement is constructed adjacent to footings under an existing first floor. Sheeting may be used to retain the adjacent ground when excavation is made. The problem of footings at two different levels is illustrated in Fig. 6-24 where a wall footing at the first floor adjoins a basement wall. It is the commonpractice to l0wer the first floor footing in gradual steps down to the level of the basement footing as shown in Fig. 6-24(a). By so doing the natural state of the subsoil is considered unaltered. An al~ernative method is shown in Fig. 6-24(b). In order to construct the basement, an excavation larger than the basement floor must be made. After the basement wall is matured, the overexcavated area is backfilled with suitable soil. If the original soil is sand or gravel, and the backfill consists of the same material which is compacted in layers (6 to 9 in.) to a density equal to or greater than that of the original soil, the footing at the first floor may'be supported on the
,

-7~

i!~~~U.W~~, the footing m'ust e either lowered to a stratum having s~fficicjC bearing power or enlarged to reduce the pressure to suit the bearing.cap.!lciJy of the soil. The choice between these two methods depends upon the relative economy, the time, or other factors involved. 'The method for checking the soil conditions at the footing excavations

II; 6
SEC. 6-16
DESIGN EXAMPLE 145

144

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.

"-Wall-..

"--Wall......

According to Eq. (6-2) the medium-dense sand layer will settle 1 in. at a = 8600 Ib per sq ft. Since an allowable value of 5000 Ib per sq ft was used in design, the approximate settlement is equal to 5000/8600 = 0.58 in. The same procedure is used for settlemenl calculation for the loose sand layer. The consolidation settlement of the soft clay was computed by Eq. (3-4), with the values of eo and Cc determined by laboratory tests.
pressure q2
(b)

(a)

Fir. 6-24 Wall footings at different levels.

backfill. If there is any doubt of the bearing capacity of the backfill, the wall footing should be stepped down as shown in fig. 6-24(a) or else the wall itself should be designed to span between the basement wall and a point on the original ground at several feet from the excavation line. C. Dewatering. The excavation should be kept dry during the construction period because free water is objectionable for several reasons. In clay or clayey soils, free water tends to soften the upper portion of the soil and causes settlement of footings. The soil conditions under water cannot be readily inspected. Excavation in water is expensive and not satisfactory. Furthermore, the quality of concrete placed in water is questionable, particularly when the water is not stagnant. To avoid the difficulties mentioned above, excavations below ground
water level are kept dry by various methods discussed in Chapter

..-j

5.

6-16 Design Example On sheet 1, Plate DE 6, the column loads, walls loads, floor loads, and pertinent soil data are shown. On the right-hand side of the soil profile, results of the standard penetration tests are shown for the granular soils, and the unconfined compression strength qu' natural void ratio eo, and compression index Cc for the soft clay are also indicated.- The water level was 25 ft below the finished grade. The first step was to determine the bearing capacity of the upper sand layer. The N value was adjusted in accordance with Eq. (2-1). Because the adjusted value exceeds 2 times the test value (N') a reduction factor of 2 was used. This gives N = 28. The stress on the layer of loose sand was analysed by the approximate method discussed in Sec. 6-7. The total settlement of the footings consisted of three components, namely the settlement due to each of the three layers of soil above the hardpan. The hardpan itself contributes practically no settlement, as indicated by the local experience. The bedrock lies immediately under the hardpan.

144

SPREAD FOOTINGS

CHAP.

III:

. .I~

SEC. 6-16

DESIGN EXAMPLE

14S

~WolI-..

~-WolI......

According to Eq. (6-2) the medium-dense sand layer will settle 1 in. at a
q2 = 8600 lb per sq ft. Since an allowable value of 5000 lb per sq ft was used in design, the approximate settlement is equal to 5000/8600 = pressure

0.58 in. The same procedure is used for settlemeni calculation for the loose sand layer. The consolidation settlement of the soft clay was computed by Eq. (3-4), with the values of eo and Cc determined by laboratory tests.
(0)
(b)

FI,. 6-24 Wall footings at different levels.

backfill. If there is any doubt of the bearing capacity of the backfill, the wall footing should be stepped down as shown in fig. 6-24(a) or else the wall itself should be designed to span between the basement wall and a point on the original ground at several feet from the excavation line. C. Dewatering. The excavation should be kept dry during the construction period because free water is objectionable for several reasons. In clay or clayey soils, free water tends to soften the upper portion of the soil and causes settlement of footings. The soil conditions under water cannot be readily inspected. Excavation in water is expensive and not satisfactory. Furthermore, the quality of concrete placed in water is questionable, particularly when the water is not stagnant. To avoid the difficulties mentioned above, excavations below ground
water level are kept dry by various methods discussed in Chapter

..j

.'

5.

6-16 Design Example On sheet 1, Plate DE 6, the column loads, walls loads, floor loads, and pertinent soil data are shown. On the right-hand side of the soil profile, results of the standard penetration tests are shown for the granular soils, and the unconfined compression strength qu' natural void ratio eo, and compression index Cc for the soft clay are also indicated.- The water level was 25 ft below the finished grade. The first step was to determine the bearing capacity of the upper sand layer. The N value was adjusted in accordance with Eq. (2-1). Because the adjusted value exceeds 2 times the test value (N') a reduction factor of 2 was
used. This gives N

= 28.

The stress on the layer of loose sand was analysed by the approximate method discussed in Sec. 6-7. The total settlement of the footings consisted of three components, namely the settlement due to each of the three layers of soil above the hardpan. The hardpan itself contributes practically no settlement, as indicated by the local experience. The bedrock lies immediately under the hardpan.