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Sem -II

CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS OF DATA

DR.SHINEY CHIB PROFESSOR,DMIMS,NAGPUR

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ANALYSIS OF THE DATA IS THE MOST SKILLED TASK IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS. ANALYSIS MEANS A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE ASSEMBLED AND GROUPED DATA FOR STUDYING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OBJECT UNDER STUDY AND FOR DETERMINING THE PATTERN OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE VARIABLES RELATING TO IT. BOTH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS ARE USED.

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 SUMMARIZES

LARGE MASS OF DATA INTO UNDERSTANDABLE & MEANINGFUL FORM MAKES EXACT DESCRIPTIONS POSSIBLE (IN PERCENTAGE) IDENTIFICATION OF CASUAL FACTORS UNDERLYING COMPLEX PHENOMENA DRAWING OF RELIABLE INFERENCES FROM OBSERVATIONAL DATA MAKES ESTIMATIONS OR GENERALIZATIONS

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 DESCRIPTIVE

ANALYSIS ( This involves construction of statistical distribution & calculation of simple measures like averages, percentages & measures of dispersion for describing the features of the research queries) COMPARE TWO OR MORE DISTRIBUTION OR TWO OR MORE SUBGROUPS WITHIN A DISTRIBUTION. STUDY THE NATURE OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG VARIABLES.
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DESCRIPTIVE

ANALYSIS

INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS

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THIS TYPE OF ANALYSIS DESCRIBES THE NATURE OF AN OBJECT OR PHENOMENON UNDER STUDY. THIS PROVIDES US WITH PROFILES OF ORGANIZATIONS, WORK GROUPS, PERSONS AND OTHER SUBJECTS ON ANY OF A MULTITUDE OF CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS SIZE, COMPOSITIONS, EFFICIENCY, PREFERENCES ETC. THIS ANALYSIS MAY DESCRIBE DATA ON ONE VARIABLE, TWO VARIABLE OR MORE THAN TWO VARIABLES. ACCORDINGLY IT IS CALLED UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS AND MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS CONSIST OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS MULTIPLE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS CANNONICAL ANALYSIS MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FACTOR ANALYSIS
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MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS IS MADE WHEN ONE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IS PRESUMED TO BE A FUNCTION OF TWO OR MORE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE MULTIPLE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS IS APPROPRIATE WHEN THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE CANNOT BE MEASURED BUT CAN BE IDENTIFIED WITH A PARTICULAR GROUP ON THE BASIS OF SEVERAL PREDICTOR VARIBLES. CANNONICAL ANALYSIS IS USED FOR SIMULTANEOUSLY PREDICTING A SET OF DEPENDENT VARIABLES FROM THEIR JOINT COVARIANCE WITH A SET OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES. IN MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE THE RATIO OF AMONG GROUP VARIANCE TO WITHIN GROUP VARIANCE IS WORKED ON A SET OF VARIABLES. THIS IS USEFUL FOR TESTING HYPOTHESIS CONCERNING MULTIVARIATE DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUP RESPONSES TO EXPERIMENTAL MANIPULATIONS. FACTOR ANALYSIS IS USEFUL FOR GROUPING A LARGE NUMBER OF VARIABLES INTO A FEW INDEPENDENT FACTOR DIMENSIONS.

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INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS IS CONCERNED WITH DRAWING INFERENCES AND CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FINDINGS OF A RESEARCH STUDY. THESE ARE TWO AREAS OF STATISTICAL INFERENCES STATISTICAL ESTIMATION-IT INVOLVES ESTIMATION OF THE POPULATION PARAMETERS FROM THE RESULTS OF SAMPLE DATA ANALYSIS. IN ORDER TO ARRIVE AT ACCURATE ESTIMATES OF PARAMETERS, THE RESEARCHER HAS TO EFFECTIVELY DEAL WITH THREE PROBLEMS: PRECISE DEFINITION OF POPULATION DETERMINATION OF ADEQUATE SAMPLE SIZE SELECTION OF A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS- HYPOTHESES ARE TESTED WITH TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE. THIS TESTING INVOLVES THE ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABLITY OF SPECIFIC SAMPLING RESULTS UNDER ASSUMED POPULATION CONDITIONS. ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE POPULATION PARAMETERS ARE MADE IN ADVANCE AND THE SAMPLE THEN PROVIDES THE TEST OF THESE ASSUMPTIONS. AN INFERENCE IS ALSO DRAWN ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG VARIABLES. INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS ENABLE US TO MAKE DECISIONS AND DRAW CONCLUSIONS FROM STUDIES WHICH COULD OTHERWISE NOT BE FEASIBLE BECAUSE OF THE SIZE OF THE UNIVERSE. IT INVOLVES AN ESTIMATE OF ACCURACY OF THE INFERENCE CALLED REALIBLITY.THE REALIBILTY IS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF PROBABLITY DETERMINED FROM THE RELEVANT STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION i.e. CONFIDENCE LEVELS.
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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY-MEAN,MEDIAN,MODE MEASURES OF DISPERSION- RANGE, MEAN DEVIATION, STANDARD DEVIATION MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION / RELATION-CORRELATION, REGRESSION, ASSOCIATION OF ATTRIBUTES, CHI-SQUARE TEST, FACTOR ANALYSIS, DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS, CLUSTER ANALYSIS, CANNONICAL ANALYSIS ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE- ONE WAY ANOVA, TWO-WAY ANOVA, MANOVA AND ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE TIME SERIES ANALYSIS-SEASONAL, TREND AND ERRATIC VARIATIONS.

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE PACKAGES ARE AVAILABLE FOR APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES LIKE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS, REGRESSION, MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS AND THE LIKE. THEY FACILITATE COMPLEX ANALYSIS WITH GREAT EASE AND TREMENDOUS SPEED. SPSS-STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES.

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IT AIMS AT DEFINING THE PROBLEM, DEVELOPING AN APPROACH, FORMULATING THE RESEARCH DESIGN, DATA COLLECTION, DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS AND REPORT PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION. IT AIMS IN HELPING ITS CUSTOMERS GET A BETTER APPROACH AND RESULT IN RESEARCH. IT INCLUDES CORPORATIONS ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS, HEALTHCARE PROVIDERS, MARKET RESEARCH ORGANIZATION AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES. IT OFFERS PROGRAMMES TO ASSIST IN THE FIELD WORK OR DATA COLLECTION. A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF ADMINISTERING THE SURVEY CAN BE DONE INCLUDING TELEPHONE, ELECTRONIC MAIL AND PERSONAL INTERVIEWING THROUGH SPSS DATA ENTRY STATION, SPSS DATA ENTRY ENTERPRISE SERVER (DEES), SPSS DE (DATA ENTRY) BUILDER ETC.
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MEASURES: MODE MEDIAN MEAN QUARTILES DECILES CENTILES SERIES INDIVIDUAL, DISCRETE & CONTINOUS

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 RANGE
MEAN

DEVIATION STANDARD DEVIATION VARIANCE CO-EFFICENT OF VARIANCE LORENZ CURVE QUARTILE DEVIATION

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HELPS IN STUDYING THE DIRECTION OR NATURE OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES WE CAN MEASURE THE MAGNITUDE OR DEGREE RELATIONSHIP EXISTING BETWEEN THE VARIABLES. CAN IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES AVERAGE RELATIONSHIP CAN BE SUMMED UP IN A SINGLE VALUE OF CHANGE CALLED COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION USED IN FORECASTING

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SOCIAL SCIENCES, MOST RELATIONSHIP ARE LINEAR IN NATURE AND CAN BE FITTED INTO A LINEAR FUNCTION. A FUNCTION IS SAID TO BE LINEAR WHEN PAIRS OF X, Y VALUES FALL INTO A FUNCTION THAT CAN BE PLOTTED AS A STRAIGHT LINE. THIS LINE IS REPRESENTED BY Y=a+Bx

IT HELPS TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF ONE VARIABLE ON OTHER.

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 DISCRIMINANT

ANALYSIS

IT AIMS IN STUDYING THE EFFECT OF TWO OR MORE PREDICTOR VRIABLES ON CERTAIN EVALUATION CRITERION. USUALLY THE EVALUATION CRITERION IS CATEGORISED IN TWO GROUPS, THEY MAY BE GOOD OR BAD, LIKE DISLIKE SO ON. THE RESEARCHER IS USUALLY INTERESTED TO KNOW WHETHER THE PREDICTOR VARIABLES DISCRIMINATE AMONG THE GROUPS. MOREOVER IT IS NECESSARY TO IDENTIFY THE PREDICTOR VARIABLE (INDEPENDENT VARIABLE) WHICH IS MORE IMPORTANT WHEN COMPARED TO THE OTHER PREDICTOR VARIABLE. SUCH ANALYSIS IS CALLED DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS.

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 DIFFERENT

STAGES OF DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Y=aX1+ bX2

WHERE Y IS THE LINEAR COMPOSITE REPRESENTING THE DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION, X1 AND X2 ARE THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES WHICH ARE HAVING AN EFFECT ON THE EVALUATION CRITERION OF THE PROBLEM OF INTEREST. FINDING THE DISCRIMINANT RATIO (k) AND DETERMING THE VARIABLES WHICH ACCOUNT FOR INTERGROUP DIFFERENCES IN TERMS OF GROUP MEANS. THIS RATIO IS THE MAXIMUM POSSIBLE RATIO BETWEEN THE VARIABLITY BETWEEN GROUPS AND THE VARIABLITY WITHIN GROUPS. FINDING THE CRITICAL VALUE WHICH CAN BE USED TO INCLUDE A NEW DATA SET (i.e. NEW COMBINATION OF INSTANCES FOR THE PREDICTOR VARIABLES) INTO ITS APPROPRIATE GROUP. TESTING NULL HYPOTHESIS, H0:THE GROUP MEANS ARE EQUAL IN IMPORTANCE AGAINST THE ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS , H1 : THE GROUP MEANS ARE NOT EQUAL IN IMPORTANCE, USING F TEST AT A GIVEN SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL , .
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FACTOR ANALYSIS IS A INTERDEPENDENCE TECHNIQUE. THE COMPLETE SET OF INTERDEPENDENT RELATIONSHIP ARE EXAMINED. IT IS USED TO EXPLAIN VARIABLITY AMONG OBSERVED VARIABLES IN TERMS OF FEWER UNOBSERVED VARIABLES CALLED FACTORS. THE OBSERVED VARIABLES ARE MODELED AS LINEAR COMBINATIONS OF THE FACTORS, PLUS ERROR TERMS. THE INFORMATION GAINED ABOUT THE INTERDEPENDENCE CAN BE USED LATER TO REDUCE THE SET OF VARAIBLES IN A DATASET.

EG: TOILET SOAP MANUFACTURER ATTRIBUTE SURVEY : PACKING PAPER, PACKING DESIGN, SIZE OF SOAP, WEIGHT OF SOAP, COLOUR OF SOAP, REACTION TO SKIN, QUALITY, LATHER FORMATION, DISSOLVABILITY, PRICE ETC. BASIC STEPS

IDENTIFY THE ATTRIBUTES USE QUANTATIVE MARKETING RESEARCH TECHNIQUE TO COLLECT DATA FROM A SAMPLE INPUT THE DATA INTO A STATISTICAL PROGRAM AND UN THE FACTOR ANALYSIS PROCEDURE USE THESE FACTORS TO CONSTRUCT PERCEPTUAL MAPS .

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CLUSTER ANALYSIS AIMS AT GROUPING OF PERSONS/OBJECTS/OCCASIONS INTO UNKNOWN NUMBER OF SUCH GROUPS SUCH THAT THE MEMBERS OF EACH GROUP ARE HAVING SIMILAR CHARATERISTICS. CLUSTERING IS THE CLASSIFICATION OF OBJECTS INTO DIFFERENT GROUPS OR MORE PRECISELY, THE PARTITIONING OF A DATA SET INTO SUBSETS (CLUSTERS), SO THAT THE DATA IN EACH SUBSET SHARE SOME COMMON TRAIT. DATA CLUSTERUNG IS A COMMON TECHNIQUE FOR STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS, WHICH IS USED IN MANY FIELDS, INCLUDING MACHINE LEARNING, DATA MINING, PATTERN RECOGNITION, IMAGE ANALYSIS AND BIOINFORMATICS. THE COMPUTATIONAL TASK OF CLASSIFYING THE DATA INTO K CLUSTERS IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS K-CLUSTERING.

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MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING (MDS) IS USED IN DATA VISUALIZATION FOR EXPLORING SIMILARITIES OR DISSIMILARITIES IN DATA. MDS IS A SPECIAL CASE OF ORDINATION. AN MDS ALGORITHM STARTS WITH A MATRIX OF ITEM-ITEM SIMILARITIES, THEN ASSIGNS A LOCATION OF EACH ITEM IN A LOW DIMENSIONAL SPACE, SUITABLE FOR GRAPHING OR 3D VISUALISATION. MDS IS USED TO MEASURE HUMAN PERCEPTIONS AND PREFERENCES TOWARDS SOME OBJECTS LIKE PRODUCTS, ORGANIZATIONS, PLACES, EVENTS, BRANDS ETC. AND POSITION THEM IN A PERCEPTUAL SPACE.

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 FORMULATING

THE PROBLEM OBTAINING INPUT DATA RUNNING THE MDS STATISTICAL PROGRAM MAPPING THE RESULTS AND DEFINING THE DIMENSIONS TEST THE RESULTS FOR RELIABLITY & VALIDITY

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Thanx

a lot.

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