Social Cognitive Theorists: An Annotated Bibliography Personal Construct Theory by Deborah Harnke Self-Efficacy by Sylvia Hernandez Affective Load

Theory by Karen Alfino LI802XC May 6, 2011

The three theorists represented are George Kelly, Albert Bandura and Diane Nahl, all social behaviorists. The common denominator among these theorists is the emotional entanglement that affects our life productivity, especially as it pertains to information behavior (IB). In the work of Kelly, we create our world by our thoughts and deeds, with Bandura, our self-evaluation yields the propensity to facilitate corresponding results and Nahl presents the ever-increasing reality and potential threats of information overload and its affect on information behavior. A brief summary of the three theorists is below: George Kelly's personal construct theory is based on the belief a persons processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events. People behave according to how they construe the world around themselves. This construed dimension, embodying likeness and difference is what we call a construct. Today personal construct theory is best known for its methodologies, specifically the repertory grid. This interview method examines the ways a persons constructs apply to aspects of the world. Albert Banduras theory of Self Efficacy states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypostasized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Engaging in activities that are personally threatening, but in fact are relatively safe, produces an experience of further developed self-efficacy and reduces defensive behavior. Diane Nahls affective load theory is a social-behavioral perspective on the thoughts and feelings of individuals while engaged in information behavior (IB). Affective states, specifically, high load affective states affect IB in a negative way. All search tasks involve hundreds of individual cognitive micro-behaviors all of which affect the search. These actions either support or disrupt the search depending on whether the affective load is low or high. Affective load theory provides empirical methods for identifying affective states of users that disrupt ongoing cognitive operations.

GEORGE KELLYS PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY Kelly, G. A. (1970). Personal construct theory and the psychotherapeutic interview. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1 (4), 355-362. In Kellys article he comes to the realization that no matter how close he came to his patients who were looking for his help, he always saw them through his own peculiar spectacles (p. 356). He acknowledges that his patients were also not able to perceive what he was trying to relay to them. He discusses how dogmatic interpretations of clients problems often did more harm than good; it restricted free inquiry on his side. Kelly abandons realism, and this is the first theoretical viewpoint where the psychology of personal constructs stakes out its basic philosophical claim. Kellys theory has a theoretical postulate: a persons processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events. The only way for a person to cope with life is to apply his or her personal constructs. People behave according to how they construe the world around themselves. This construed dimension, embodying likeness and difference, this reference axis, is what we call a construct. He emphasizes that constructs are personal, that each person creates his own. Also, all constructs are not used in every situation because they have a limited range. An important point that Kelly makes is that people are continually revising and updating their own constructs. Personal construct theory is best known for its methodologies, especially the repertory grid. This method examines the ways a persons constructs apply to aspects of the world. It is an interview technique, which uses a statistical method to describe inconsistency among observed variables in terms of a possibly lower number of unobserved variables called factors that will assess personality. The repertory grid is a technique for identifying the ways that a person construes his or her experience. The grid consists of four parts: a topic, elements, set of constructs, and set of rating of constructs. Each persons construct is individual and compared to others with similar constructs. Each person is given three elements and instructed to identify how two constructs are similar and distinct from the third. It provides information from which inferences about personality can be made. From this article Kellys presents his theory of Personal Construct and although no study is presented except his personal experience I believe that his observations are true of society and is applicable to information science. Katz, J. O. (1984). Personal construct theory and the emotions: An interpretation in terms of primitive constructs. British Journal of Psychology, 75, 315-327. Katz examines George Kellys Theory on Personal Constructs and finds two areas he critiques and adds amendments to. Kelly suggested that his personal construct theory was designed to be revises and elaborated upon and that is what Katz does. Kellys theory is that each individual builds for himself a system of constructs which is used to anticipate and control events and to

make sense of discrimination. An individuals behavior is managed not by learning or reinforcement, but by the ways in which he anticipates events and gives meaning to his world through his constructs. The first problem that Katz sees with Kelly's theory is the origin problem, or the origin of constructs. The issue is that one cannot without conflict assume that creating new constructs involves the use of other preexisting constructs, and that the construct a person possesses was personally created. Katz remedies this by creating the Origin Postulate, which emphasizes that each individual routinely begins with developing his construction system with a set of primitive constructs which he inherits as a part of his biological creation, and becomes prominent at set times in his life. The second issue that Katz sees with Kellys theory is the issue emotion and what is specifically is. Kelly defines it as transitional states of construction, but presented no hypothesis to the general nature of emotion and to distinguish emotions from what is one and what is not one. Katzs Emotion Corollary is where a person perceives an event in terms of a primitive construct and, as necessary result, reacts with a psychophysiological expectation that is involuntary, brief, and phylogenetically predisposed, he experiences an emotion. Katzs additions to Kellys theory are relevant and soundly grounded. He addresses issues that Kelly glossed over and didnt address, which Katz points out. Howard, D. L. (April 01, 1994). Pertinence as reflected in personal constructs. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45 (3), 172-85. Howards study searches to understand the practical nature of relevance by examining five individuals pertinence behavior. Kellys Personal Construct Theory is applied to the concept of pertinence, personal constructs concerning pertinence are examined, and implications for information science are discussed. Personal constructs concerning pertinence were elicited from five subjects based on self-selected information sources used in an information problem. Subjects selected between five and seven documents they used in their research and then rated each other selections on relevance. The constructs were then arranged in two ways by three other subjects by perceived similarity and foci. Howard concluded that constructs about pertinence are shared, but as expected, sharing is not universal. Pertinence appears to be a category in which members share characteristics, but an individual member may share characteristics with different members and may have a unique characteristic as well. This study shed some small light on a few characteristics of pertinence, particularly in operations use. Although essential steps were taken toward improvements in professional assistance and information systems in this study, further information and study is needed in this subject area. Since the sample size was so small the results cannot be conclusive of the entire population of information problem solvers. Williamson, K. (September 01, 2006). Research in constructivist frameworks using ethnographic techniques. Library Trends, 55 (1), 83-101.

Williamson begins with a broad overview of social sciences research philosophy detailing positivist and interpretive, which deal with the nature of reality. Interpretivist philosophy is where the constructivist paradigm fits where many paradigms lay. Constructivist framework is detailed along with constructivist grounded theory. Kelly is acknowledged as the key proponent of the personal construct theory where people make sense of their worlds on an individual basis. She mentions Dervin and Nilan who emphasized the importance of individuality and created the Sense-Making methodology. The author uses both personal and social construct theory for her research regarding information seeking and use. The first example focuses on breast cancer using ethnographic techniques and the second on information seeking for online investment using two ethnographic techniques. Individual interviews were conducted, along with a questionnaire to collect demographic data, as well as additional information about investing and information-seeking behavior. The author admits that any research method has strengths and weaknesses and that small sample sizes have its benefits and drawbacks. The constructivist approach allowed the meaning of participants to be studied and to allow their words to convey their meaning to the reader, which is beneficial for rich data. A disadvantage of this is that it is hard to categorize this type of information into meaningful data. I do appreciate that the author uses two different forms of ethnographic techniques rather than relying only on an in depth interview. I think that using two varying subjects, breast cancer and online investments, was beneficial in gathering a more representative sample of information seekers. Potthoff, J. K., Weis, D. L., Montanelli, D. S., & Murbach, M. M. (May 01, 2000). An evaluation of patron perceptions of library space using the role repertory grid procedure. College & Research Libraries, 61 (3), 191-203. The above authors reviewed research methodologies as tools for library space planning. In this study the role repertory grid procedure was tested for its practicality as a way of gathering patron perceptions about library space. George Kelly developed the procedure as a way to test his personal construct theory. According to Kelly the task for researchers is to get individuals to describe these constructs without human biases. The authors conducted two sets of studies. Consistent with role repertory grid procedure, patron perceptions of space within the library were investigated in two independent studies. Reponses from participates in Study 1 were used to make the triads in Study 2. The first study had a total of sixty-five respondents who were asked to respond to a questionnaire regarding their knowledge and impressions of the library space. Consistently participants regarded the library as a crowded. In general students felt that the library was messy and slightly dirty and that it is difficult to locate materials. The second study is a short questionnaire given to forty patrons of the library. The participants were asked to indicate

which two pictures in each triad were most similar and which were most different and why, thematic analysis was formed from this. Study 2 was designed to test the usefulness of the role repository grid procedure, it was found that that the test was easy to administer and this method allowed respondents to speak for themselves. It produced useful information about the themes that library patrons use in making judgments about library space. The limitations included were the time consuming, complex process of thematic analysis. The results of Study 1 and 2 illustrate the importance of developing such a methodological approach in the study of patron perceptions of library spaces. Although themes were identified in the role repertory grid procedure in Study 2, they were not common reasons for similarity of differences. This suggests that direct, self-reporting questioning and less obvious decision-making methodologies can create opposing results. This is an interesting study since often times researchers can find themselves depending on the results of their study. This research shows that results can vary when different methodologies are used. Hunter, M.G. (June 01, 2006). Experiences conducting cross-cultural research. Journal of Global Information Management, 14, 75-89. This paper presents a lookout on three projects that used a qualitative approach to the cross-cultural research of some aspect of the subject area of information systems. An emphasis is placed on the process followed to conduct the investigations within the context of cross-cultural research. The first project presents what represents the characteristics of excellent systems analysts. Interviews were conducted in Canada and Singapore. The objective of this project was to explore the difference in the way systems analysis perform their roles. Seventy research participants from three companies in Canada and seventeen from one company in Singapore were interviewed using the repertory grid technique from Kellys theory of Personal Constructs. The process brings structure to the interview while allowing flexibility and reducing researcher bias. This is important when conducting cross-cultural research. The repertory grids can be used to gather large amounts of rich qualitative data relating to a research participants explanation of a construct. The results of this study suggest that there is support for both the convergence and divergence hypothesis. Convergence is identified in the two countries by their valued importance in attitude, knowledge, and communication. An example of divergence is shown by excellent systems analysts in Singapore may be view as experts, while in Canada, they would be views as partners. The second project relates to the use of information systems by small business. There were multiple researchers in different regions; one person in each company was involved in the project. Interviews were conducted in Canada, Portugal, and the U.S. The third project is still in progress; it involves a single researcher conducting an in depth interview with one individual within large companies. It involves the investigation of the rising role of chief information offers. In this project interviews were conducted in Taiwan, New Zealand, and the U.S. There are

similarities throughout these projects, all involved a qualitative perspective, involved one on one interviews, involved more than one culture and investigated roles. A concern of conducting qualitative interviews is that participants often try to give the interviewer the right answer and to tell only the good news. Since the following examples of research were conducted by different individuals varying methods were used. Although the data collected is rich and detailed, the author makes some important points of the data collected. There is a language barrier that is a complicating factor. Some interviews were conducted with interpreters from within the company that the individual was being interviewed for. In my opinion, data collected under these circumstances is biased and could not be used in the research. Kuhlthau, C. C. (December 01, 1993). A principle of uncertainty for information seeking. Journal of Documentation, 49 (4), 339-55. This paper proposes a theory for information seeking based on the constructivist view of learning and bases on the findings on the authors studies on the information search process of library users. Information seeking is often viewed as a process of construction where users move form uncertainty to understanding. The author reviews three theories on construction created by, John Dewey, George Kelly, and Jerome Bruner. These three theories contributed to how we view those seeking information. Dewey described what he called reflective thinking as occurring in five phases: suggestion, intellectualization, guiding idea or hypothesis, reasoning, and testing by action. George Kelly emphasized the unsettling impression new information can have to a persons system of constructs and the increased uncertainty that comes with construction. A review of Kellys five phases of construction is explained. Bruner emphasizes interpreting as being central to construction. Kuhlthau conducted five studies of information seeking from the users perspective. Five common patterns were found in the searchers process: initiation, selection, exploration, collection and presentation. At initiation a person at first becomes aware of the lack of knowledge and feeling of uncertainty exist. Selection is where the seeker identifies the topic needed to be investigated. Exploration is the step where the information seeker investigates information to gain a more general understanding is conducted, a feeling of confusion increase during this time. Formulation is the turning point where confidence increases and thoughts become clearer. Collection is where the interaction between the user and the system works the best. Presentation is when the task is to complete the search and resolve the problem. Six corollaries are proposed: process, formulation, redundancy, mood, prediction, and interest. The author encourages additional study with the evaluation of the use of information in the different stages of information seeking. Kuhlthaus theory for information seeking follows what I have seen in libraries myself and experienced myself. Many excellent points are drawn upon from other theorist and actual studies have shown that this pattern occurs.

Malhotra, Y. (January 01, 1999). Bringing the adopter back into the adoption process: A personal construction framework of information technology adoption. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 10 (1), 79-104. This author proposes an integrative theoretical framework for studying the personal construction process underlying information technology adoption. The author drew upon three different personal construction themes and discusses them in their paper. Deweys philosophy of reflective thinking and action, Kellys construct psychology, and Burners perspective of individuals interpretive construction theory which focuses on the individuals interpretive task of going beyond the information given. The author notes that the three ideas have earlier been applied by Kuhlthau for studying information-seeking behavior of library patrons. The author uses these perspectives as a lens to better understand the personal construction process in IT adoption. Understanding these theories contributes to the interpretation of the authors theoretical framework. The qualitative study is designed to gather support that reflects upon the groundwork statement based on the theoretical framework and to gather insights that add to a more complete understanding of the process of technology adoption. The study is the implementation of a newly computerized assessment information system in a hospital. The investigation focused on the time right after implementation of the information system. Data was collected through detailed interviews of ten individuals. Six of those ten individuals were chosen for a more in depth comparative analysis since they showed extreme perspectives. And four polar individuals were compared and contrasted. The study suggests that the adoption of a specific technology is dependent upon how relevant the user finds the new technology. Those in the study who were able to find meaning to the new technology were able to demonstrate a greater like for it. Although I agree with the findings of the author, I believe that the sample size of the study is far too small. I understand rich data was gathered from this small sample size, but ten individuals is not a good representation of technology users today. Wilson, T.D. (2002). Alfred Schutz, phenomenology and research methodology for information behaviors research. The New Review of Information Behaviour Research: Studies of Information Seeking in Context (Proceedings of IDIC 2002), 3, 71-82. Wilsons paper discusses Alfred Schutz and his branch of philosophy phenomenological society. The purpose of phenomenology is to study humans, without considering their causes, objective reality, or their appearances. It seeks to understand how a person constructs meaning. Our experience of the world occurs between conscious minds because we experience the world with others. Schutzs position is described in three essays, which the author briefly reviews. Schutz creates three models of human action; the postulates are logical consistency, subjective interpretation, and adequacy. Schutz also examines how knowledge originates socially and uses

ideal types to investigate this. There are four ideal types: eyewitness, insider, analyst, and commentator. The eyewitness is someone who reports what they have observed in the world, the insider is a person who is able to report the opinions of others, the analyst is a person who shares system of relevance, and the commentator is a person who does not share anothers system of relevances but has collected information. Previous research in this field had led to other kinds of ideal types. Kuhlthaus stages and Wilsons problem solving processes are mentioned as constitute that are created by the social scientist. Wilson also clarifies between methodology to method, methodology comes before the method. To state ones methodological position is to describe ones view of the nature of reality. With phenomenology it emphasis is on understand the persons experience through their viewpoint. Methods for this type of study should include conceptual analysis, linguistic analysis, historical-critical method and formal logic, to name a few. Dervins ideas on sense making have link to phenomenology as well as Kuhlthaus use of Kellys personal construct theory. The author provides us with a useful framework to guide research into people information behavior and help us choose appropriate methods. Walker, B. M., & Winter, D. A. (January 01, 2007). The elaboration of personal construct psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 453. The article reviews the expansion of personal construct psychology both by Kelly and by others who developed his ideas. There have been several advances in Kellys theory, in regard to methods of assessing constructs, relationships between constructs, construing of the self, social relationships, emotions, links with other approaches, and supporting research. In the articles survey of contributors, Kellys student Hinkle is mentioned who explored why and how people change. Hinkles theory of construct implications concentrates less on the way constructs apply to elements of a persons world and more on how constructs interrelate. Kelly believes that self is one pole of a construct, which in turn is construed. He rejected the idea that self is the essence of a person. One example of linking self with others is a research program focusing on the golden section hypothesis where individuals apply positive poles of their construct to others and assign themselves and other to the same poles of constructs about 62% of the time (p. 457). PCP is very much a social psychology. Kelly emphasizes the importance of sociality and commonality confirms tests of constructions. Duck proposes that individuals seek confirmation of their worldview by looking for others with similar constructs. Kelly defines emotions differently than conventional understanding. He defines them from the perspective of the experience rather than that of the recipient. Some criticize the link between anger and hostility that want to elaborate on the concept of anger. Kellys theory has been argued to represent an approach more usually found in the domain of philosophy, rather than psychology. Deweys emphasized the utility of constructions rather than correspondence to reality. The article also discusses major developments in regard to methods of assessment of construing include both repertory grid and

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non-grid techniques. These techniques have been viewed as ways of structuring conversations rather than neutral reflections. Grid based methods include construct-element grids, construct-construct grids, and element-element grids. Nongrid-based methods discussed include laddering and pyramiding, ABC technique, self-characterization and textual analysis, interview methods, construct content analysis, questionnaires, and visual techniques. Although it took years for the full significance of Kellys theory to become apparent, there is now a worldwide network of communicating investigators who are developing and extending Kellys theory and techniques, applying them in clinical and environmental psychology, anthropology, criminology, urban planning and many other research areas. The author address the adaptability of the personal construct theory and the many uses that different fields have applied this theory. The theory has produced many hypotheses that have been subjected to experimental tests and the support that these have received indicate the theory's validity.

ALBERT BANDURAS SELF-EFFICACY Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. The article identifies the theory of self-efficacy and it presents an integrative theoretical

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framework to explain and predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment . Bandura utilizes a proposed model noting expectations of personal efficacy derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and psychological states (pg.195). The article examines the role of cognition in the acquisition and regulation of behavior (pg .192). The article primarily focuses on the treatment of clients. This form of treatment allows clients incapacitated, to rapidly lose their fears and engage in activities they formerly inhibited (pg. 196). The article centers primarily on many sources of information inactive, vicarious, exhortative and emotional (pg.195). The article provides relevant and useful information towards learning different processes regarding self-efficacy in correlation to human behavior modification. Bandura identifies clearly how self-efficacy is detrimental to human development. Self-efficacy is the perception of the individual that he or she can master a take. This in turn affects the individuals motivation, persistence, and degree of effort he or she will expend in carrying out the task. If a person thinks and believes they can, they will and do. If you think you are unable to or its highly unlikely you wont and do not. The cognitive stimuli of self-efficacy are analyzed. In conclusion this article presents research that has tested the predictive power of the conceptual scheme for efficacy expectations developed through inactive vicarious and motive based procedures. Ren, W. H. (2000). Library instruction and college student self-efficacy in electronic information searching. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 26(5), 323-328. The article is informative, in relevance to the current issue in information education deprivation. The article acknowledges the human populations ability to learn if and when educators present the material to students alleviating fears and guiding them along the way. Students without the proper guidance are lost and tend not to deal with the situation because an ideal method has not been discovered and the situation tends to be vastly overwhelming. The student will tend to shun any activity in which they feel overwhelmed and or stressed. If proper education and guidance is conducted then the student has more chances of becoming actively involved in the process. The author focuses on Banduras theory stating that a positive attitude and self-motivation can be best achieved by enhancing self-efficacy, which refers to a person's belief in his or her own capability to perform specific activities or tasks. The author determines that technological education is necessary to assist students become comfortable with searching methods, stating Library instruction has the potential to induce students to engage in electronic information searches on their own if it not only teaches technical search skills but also cultivates self-efficacy beliefs. I am in agreement with the author for all intents and purposes and believe that people tend to do better in areas they are informed of and capable of, due to self-confidence and familiarity. The basis of the article primarily focuses on the educational abilities of

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undergraduate students, and their ability to be successful in research inquiries using computers.

Combes, B. (2007). Techno-savvy or just techno-oriented?: What does the research tell us about the information-seeking behavior of the 'Net Generation? Access, 21(2), 17-20. The article discusses the net generation which identifies individuals that are born after 1985 who have keen abilities to work with high IT usage. This generation is identified as being able to work with different applications of computer information systems. The article describes the differences identified to distinguish previous generations and the net generation. The skills, characteristics and abilities of the net generation make these adults more marketable in the workplace because they are interchangeable and necessary for way society is going. The article identifies the need for education systems to adapt or identify the need to adapt to reach out to this population. The culture of this generation is geared towards an IT based community that has computer based information systems in use. The ability to educate the net generation on intelligent research and inquiry skills will only improve their self-efficacy and increase the success rate for future employers. Improving their self-efficacy will make this net generation much more keen and reliable. The current downfall to this generation is their usage of information that is in quantity vs. quality. The author identifies the differences between techno savvy and techno oriented, in conclusion the net generation is extremely techno oriented and self-efficacy directed, however the savviest is yet to come. Kim, Y. M. (2011). Why Should I Use University Library Website Resources? Discipline Differences. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 37( 1), 9-18. The article analyzes the different fields of study and their usage of Library resources. Different fields of academics, Business, Social Sciences, History, Art, ect are encourage to locate information through college based relevance and conveyance. The article discusses how many academic programs shun Library services therefore decreasing self-efficacy in college students. Students who are not forced or encouraged to locate material will consider other avenues for resources relevant to their studies. The author does analytical studies to support her argument. The discussion identifies areas of academic which correlate with Library services available. Areas in which the instructors demand the students awareness add cohesiveness to the discovery of computer information seeking relevance. Students, who are self-efficacy capable, are more likely to be comfortable with information seeking. The article compares the programs which demand different information, and the types of information most likely utilized. Waldman, M. (2003). Freshmen's use of library electronic resources and

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self-efficacy. Information Research, 8( 2) n.p. The article seeks to identify why collegiate students utilize the Library. The different usage capabilities are identified and determining factors are considered. A study is done to see if there is any relevance to usage based on Gender or Age, or other determining factors. The article basis its argument on a study of 60 college students who utilize resources in a Library, the reasons for utilizing services are identified and discussed. The article does not find any correlation or relevance to age, or gender, however it does identify self-efficacy as being a motivational ability of seeking individuals. The article identifies any correlation with frequency of using the library with improved methods of self-efficacy. Students in the study were identified as being comfortable and able to utilize the technology based on factors, such as usage and time spent in a library. The study also showed students unfamiliar with the research methods often felt behind, or out of place. The article describes the quality of information vs. quantity. Individuals are seeking quantity vs. quality that at times produces information that is irrelevant or un-credible. Information which is lacking in academic aptitude tends to deprive individuals of current facts and leads people astray. The college students tend to be frustrated at times due to lack of searching capabilities and turn to whichever sources are painless. Chu, A., Huber, J., Mastel-Smith, B., & Cesario, S. (2009). "Partnering with Seniors for Better Health": computer use and Internet health information retrieval among older adults in a low socioeconomic community. Journal of the Medical Library Association: Jmla, 97 (1), 12-20. The article discusses a study conducted to identify whether senior citizens are able to be competent in medical web inquiries and usage. The discussions are geared towards studies which indicated if the senior population is able to grasp concepts that are relevant to their health delivered thru their computers. The author details a study conducted on 60 older adults who had recieved technical training to assess if their self-efficacy had improved with the education provided. Different techniques for improving self-efficacy were identified and utilized. Self-efficacy was a primary theory identified for improving the correlation with lack of computer usage in the senior population. The study shows relevance with increase self-efficacy and computer usage in the older adult population. The older adults were not lacking in determination to succeed although they required more time to adapt to the comfort of IT usage. Older adults were as welling to learn and become knowledgeable, however they lacked the basic education needed to do so. The computer training allowed them to feel comfortable with seeking internet health information. The lack of financial resources in low socioeconomic communities did have an impact on whether or not access was available to seek health information. Tyler-Smith, K (2006). Early Attrition among First Time e-learners: A Review of factors that

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Contribute to Drop-out Withdrawal and Non-completion Rates to Adult Learners undertaking e-learning programs. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 2( 2) n.p. The article identifies the problem of dropout rates in eLearning-learning programs. The article outlines research, which suggests attrition among mature adult online learners is affected by sociological, psychological, technical and cognitive factors, critical features of which are the notion of cognitive load and locus of control. The article identifies Kembers model which suggest that learners engaged in distance education are most likely to be mature adults with families (1989). The overall discussion in the article is to let readers understand that traditional learning has the same if not higher dropout rates as traditional schools. What does guarantee student excellence in an e-learner environment is based on several factors. Boyles (2000, cited in Dagger & Wade 2004) developed a model that identifies variables specifically addressing retention in e-learning, learners background environmental variables, and academic variables. The article references Albert Banduras theory of self-efficacy and ties this with the Cognitive Load Theory by Sweller (1999). The Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller and Chandler 1994, Sweller 1999 and Sweller, Pass & Renkl 2003) states that learning is initially processed in working memory. The article uses a conceptual model, which identifies the multiple learning tasks that a first-time e-learner must deal with immediately and simultaneously in embarking on an e-learning course. The e-learners must deal with negotiating the technology, negotiating the course website, negotiating the course content, becoming an e-learner and negotiating computer mediated communication (Fox 2002). In conclusion the article identifies that the area needs further research, at this time there is not a definite answer or direction as to why all e-learners attrition rate is high or what steps need to be taken to modify the situation. The article concludes, how some learners may be affected by cognitive overload and the development of strategies to deal with it will reduce early attrition, improve retention and enhance learning outcomes among mature learners engaged in e-learning programs. Black, W (2008). New Intersection for student engagement in Libraries: A qualitative Exploration of Collaborative Learning with Multimedia Technologies. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (3:4). The article explores new ways librarians can provide meaningful learning experiences for student beyond the traditional classroom assignment and typical one hour library instruction. This article discusses many different component needed in order for a student to acquire knowledge. In effort for students to absorb information they must be in-tune with the information and growth and information literacy is attained. The article identifies several key factors such as environment, social exchange, quality of exchanged, the need for growth, creativity and curiosity to be embedded (36) for growth and informational literacy. The key factors stated are relevant to

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whether or not information literacy will be attained. If one of the key factors is lacking this impacts the persons ability to digest the information. It discusses several different theories correlating with constructivism approach, employing learner control is a social collaborating setting (35). It utilizes a quality framework study with participants interpretive and personal experience methods (34). The key points identify and see the relevance student engagement has on whether or not they are in tune with subject matter. This attentiveness is crucial to absorbing information. If people are learning subject matter that they do not see as useful or are passionate about they tend to withdrawal and wander. The authors concurs in identifying Albert Banduras methods when faced with obstacles, setbacks and failures those who doubt their abilities slacken their efforts, give up or settle for mediocre solutions (37). In closing the significance of this article to the library profession is valuable. The study conducted identifies how crucial it is to prepare learners with the steps necessary for success. Students who are competent and confident succeed; students who feel incompetent or unsure of themselves have a higher chance of mediocre outcomes. Black, Roberts (2006). Learning The Social Way: Enhancing learning in a traditional setting. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 12(2), 83-93. The article I read illustrates how Libraries are crucial to educational pursuits. It has depicted a library or resource room that was underused and in serviceable to the students. The article states that the library was not an area that encouraged learning due to the lack of space, resources, and setup. The area was bleak and gray. A study was conducted to receive the ideas of the students on this discussion. The study was able to bring light to the need for change. Funds were issued thru collaboration that allowed for the Library to be converted into a resource room that serves the student population enhancing the learning achievements. The entire atmosphere change allowing for the resource room to encourage student learning. The article discusses the importance of the net generation moving forward, however allocation for an area to learn is crucial to development. The Library is crucial in providing a location for students to enhance on their skills, and abilities. A library that does not provide the resources for the educational population serves ill purpose. The shift of the library from no usage to abundant use occurred instantaneously. The staff recognized the difference the setting had on the student population. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (2001). Self-Efficacy Beliefs as Shapers of Children's Aspirations and Career Trajectories. Child Development, 72( 1), 187-206. The article discusses childrens self efficacy and links this directly with professional achievements. Parents who have higher self-efficacy in an area might encourage their children to pursue this area. The child feels safe and comfortable in obtaining a position where high

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self-efficacy is identified. A persons employment outlook is interdependent to their psychosocial well being, an aversive work life has spillover effects on family relations, whereas a productive fulfilling work life as positive spill-over on the quality of life in a family (Bandura 1997; Karaseck & Theorell, 1990; Maslach, 1982; Ozer, 1995). The parental influence on their children is directly linked with academic aspirations. The article discusses a study conducted on 272 children to identify if there is a direct link between parental influence and their childrens self-efficacy in pursuing professional goals or obtaining academic achievements. The results of the study conclude, parental aspirations are positively linked to all three forms of childrens perceived self-efficacy academic, social and self-regulatory. The article states the impact of parental aspirations on their childrens perceived occupational efficacy is entirely mediated through their childrens perceived self-efficacy and academic achievement.

DIANE NAHLS AFFECTIVE LOAD THEORY Nahl, D. (2005). Affective load theory (ALT). In K. E. Fisher, S. Erdelez, & E.F. McKechnie (Eds.), Theories of Information Behavior: A researchers guide. (pp. 39-43). Medford, NJ: Information Today. Affective load theory (ALT) is a social-behavioral theory that was introduced in the late 1990s which examines the thoughts and feelings of individuals while engaged in information behavior (IB). ALT provides empirical methods for identifying affective states of users that disrupt ongoing cognitive operations. Once a disruptive affective state is identified, coping assistance services

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(CAS) can be provided to encourage users to mitigate disruptive states to achieve task success. ALT identifies underlying habits of thinking and feeling while engaging in IB, and clarifies the details of information retrieval from a user perspective. Affective states, specifically, high load affective states affect IB in a negative way. All search tasks involve hundreds of individual cognitive micro-behaviors all of which affect the search. These actions either support or disrupt the search depending on whether the affective load is low or high. These assessments can be reliably measured through concurrent self-reports about expectations, satisfactions and acceptance during continuous cognitive activity. Learned affective norms (LANs) are discussed along with their positive and negative contributions to the users end result of the assigned task. The information states the need for more studies research in the field of affective load theory and the affective information environment of searchers. By researching the affective-cognitive activity the author pursues the important exploration of strengthening information system services and design for information professionals. Nahl, D. (2001). A conceptual framework for explaining information behavior. Studies in Multimedia Information Literacy Education, 1(2), 1-15. This study presents a three congruent theoretical approach for explaining information behavior (IB). To define and measure information behavior, Nahl uses three behavioral approaches: taxonomic, psychodynamic and ethnomethodological. Results are explained in part through a series of four tables. Table 1 compares the authors self-monitoring integrated model to those of Dervin's sense-making communication theory and Kuhlthaus diagnosis and intervention theory. The results of a long-term study (Tables 2 and 3) cover data collected over several years while observing novices conduct CD-ROM searches in an academic library that presented an extensive set of errors. The scope was limited to items that displayed technophobia and expressed an affective information problem. These two tables reflect emotional reactions to taxonomic (information adjustment problems,) psychodynamic (search process problems) and ethnomethodological (personal information problems). By combining the three theories in this study, the author is able to show in Table 4 both affective and cognitive results to the three behavioral categories that pertain to the demands of electronic information environments. The study succeeds in providing new insight in the study of information environments by exploring the taxonomy of technophobia and by providing suggestions for information counseling that address the users needs. The study presents a valuable foundation and framework that enables future researchers to explore the emerging field of the affect/cognitive relationship in information environments. Nahl, D. (2004). Measuring the affective information environment of web searchers. In Proceedings of the 67th ASIST Annual Meeting, 41 (pp. 191-197). Medford, NJ: Information

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Today. This research paper of a study of college students conducting web searches roles out the new concepts termed affective load and user coping skills. Affective variables include need, preference, attitude, task motivation, expected and felt effort, uncertainty, self-efficacy, optimism, relevance, satisfaction, and acceptance of or loyalty. It clearly defines the need for self-report at the beginning and end of a search. Participants are given scales from Not Upset (1) to Extremely Upset (10) by which they can self-assess their emotional state during their search process. Affective load (AL) is defined as Uncertainty (U) multiplied by Time Pressure (TP). AL = U x TP User Coping Skills (UCS) is defined by two sub-components acting together. One is Banduras Self-Efficacy theory (SE) that measures the searchers self-evaluation. Users determine from a scale of Doubtful (1) to Almost Certain (10) on their certainty to succeed in the given task. The other component is Search Optimism feeling (Op). Affective behavior surrounding highly positive and motivated behavior results in lower affective load and provides more positive end results in searches. The formula for determining the relationship between these components is User Coping Skills (UCS) plus both Self-Efficacy (SE) and Search Optimism (Op). UCS = SE + Op Seventy-three college students were enrolled in a writing intensive psychology seminar. Each completed and submitted a twenty-six-question form and a mean was established. The format included questions like: question number 18) How frustrated did you feel in todays search session? Not frustrated (1) to extremely frustrated (10). This groundbreaking study created formulas that could still be used in current information behavior studies. Schunk, D.H. (1985). Self-efficacy and classroom learning. Psychology in the Schools, 22(2), 208-223. This article discusses the tie between Banduras self-efficacy theory and academic learning. Self-efficacy refers to the students self-perception of their capacity for learning. Basically, if the student feels that they will succeed on a certain homework assignment there is a high chance that they will. On the contrary, if students feel that the task is beyond their scope for learning then the likelihood of that student either quitting the task altogether or receiving a poor grade is increased.

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More detail is given on how those perceptions are formed especially as they pertain to a classroom setting and teaching methods. Highlights of this article may seem obvious, for example students who receive positive praise perform better than students who receive no feedback at all. Additionally, students whose feedback was neither positive nor negative, i.e., youve been working very hard had results in between. Also discussed are some things teachers can do to motivate children such as goal setting and using rewards as incentives. The results of this study support these ideas as viable approaches to yielding positive results. Many comparisons exist between Banduras Self-efficacy theory and Nahls Affective load theory with the later often citing Banduras work in her research and studies. Nahl, D. (2005). Affective and cognitive information behavior: Interaction effects in Internet use. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 42: n/a. The author conducted this study of fifty-five college seniors to measure the effects of positive affective forces and how they counteract the negative forces in information intensive environments. By using slightly edited rating scales used in previous affective load research, this study sought to confirm earlier findings. It also sought to examine the predictability of this theory based on factors such as optimism and self-efficacy and how that blends with cognitive information behaviors. The design of the study provided for accountability in which participants were told in advance that their grade was at stake if they did not perform well in the assigned search tasks. Approximately ten percent of students either failed or withdrew from the class. The results show that a statistically significant relationship exists between factors such as self-efficacy and acceptance while it also showed that feelings of self-confidence counteract and reduce frustration and irritation. A pattern is emerging showing consistent results drawn from several studies, which show the correlation between self-efficacy and affective load theories. Bilal, D. (2000). Childrens use of the Yahooligans! web search engine: Cognitive, physical and affective behaviors on fact-based search tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 5(7), 646-655. This research project was part one of a groundbreaking study on the affect-cognitive user relationship in children. Twenty-two seventh grade science students participated. What makes the study unique is the small number of search engine options available to children in the year 2000. At that time, only three of the over five hundred search engines on the Web were geared toward children. Yahooligans!, http://www.yahooligans.com, and Ask Jeeves for Kids, http://www.ajkids.com, are still available online in 2011, yet the third one, SuperSnooper, http://www.supersnooper.com, is no longer being maintained. This study focused on only one of the three, Yahooligans!. It was determined from the results which showed that the childrens search engine, Yahooligans!, was poorly built, and non user-friendly. This determination came

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after all twenty-two participants failed in their quest for new knowledge because they couldnt determine how the search engine worked. This research is a valuable snapshot of the landscape of search engines geared towards elementary school children in the United States at the millennium. Given, L. (2007). Emotional entanglements on the university campus: The role of affect in undergraduates information behavior. In D. Nahl & D. Bilal (Eds.), Information and Emotion: the emergent affective paradigm in information behavior research and theory, (pp.161-175). Medford, NJ: Information Today. The author presents two studies of undergraduates students with both having taken place at two separate large Canadian universities. There were a total of forty-three participants, twenty-eight women and fifteen men ranging in age from eighteen to fifty-five. What makes this information different from others is its holistic view in considering the students physical space both on campus and in their dorm room. Participants participated in ninety-minute interviews, which is different from the majority of affective load studies that typically include self-reporting. The conclusions of this study express the need for librarians to explore the emotional needs of undergraduate students. It suggests that researchers may need to consciously prompt study participants to discuss their feelings in order to promote a more productive search. Interviewing the full range of human emotion, such as love, joy, surprise, anger, sadness and fear, without including the self-reporting method, can be tricky. With so many emotional factors, future research would be needed. I concur with the author that the role of affect of information behavior is under-studied. Lopatovska, I. (2009). Searching for good mood: Examining relationships between search task and mood. Retrieved from: http://www.asis.org/Conferences This study presents a measured mood of thirty-six undergraduate students using an easy and frequently used positive affect (PA) negative affect (NA) scale called PANAS. The PANAS method is frequently used in the field of psychology. The participants filled out two questionnaires, one before and one after each search task. The findings showed, on average, more positive affect than negative affect regardless of assigned topic; however, no statistically significant relationship was stated in the search outcome. For participating, students were given research credit so the only possible outcome was a positive one merely by participating in this study. It may be that using a research tool (such as the PANAS) that works well in the field of psychology may not be appropriate for capturing statistically significant results in an information seeking behavior environment. Lopatovska was a Ph.D. candidate at the time she presented this 2009 conference paper on mood changes before, during, and after an online information search. The author is clever to pursue this mood/information behavior, however, it may produce less bias results if it did not automatically grant research credit thereby creating a situation where only a positive outcome is created.

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Gwizdka, J. & Lopatovska, I. (2009). The role of subjective factors in the information search process. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(12), 1-25. This study investigates both subjective and objective factors in forty-eight participants each of whom conducted six web searches. Participants were a mix of undergraduate, graduate and one doctoral student from Rutgers University. The results show that while a good attitude helps facilitate the completion of a product, something is to be said for a no pain, no gain philosophy when it comes to landing a high quality final grade. A modest fee of twenty dollars was paid for participation. Sprinkled throughout this article were easy to follow tables, graphs and figures visually displaying the procedures and outcomes, making this paper fairly easy and enjoyable to read. The results are based on six web searches and this very low number limits the applicability of the results. Nahl, D. & Tenopir, C. (1996). Affective and cognitive searching behavior of novice end-users of a full text database. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(4), 276-286. Two hours of training was given to seven novice end users on a full-text magazine database (Magazine ASPA). Trained monitors encouraged participants to think out loud with their questions after which each question was recorded. This is the only study that I came across that used this particular technique. Three to four search sessions occurred and results were given of both the search behavior and the questioning behavior. Searching behavior analysis is partially drawn from models established from several of Fidels studies, more specifically the Operationalist viewpoint which is concerned with precision. This very small sample included both faculty and graduate students and due to its size, a question could be raised about its findings. For example, 77% of the searches were for self and 46% were motivated by work-related needs. Larger samples sizes would likely show more conclusive results and patterns, yet it may be difficult to conduct this type of research that records a large number of moves and questions simultaneously. The authors conclusions are based on a very small sample size yet she provides valuable insight into the participants aversion to reading online versus the preference to print off documents. Julien, H. & Barker, S. (2009). How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information literacy skills development. Library & Information Science Research, 31(1), 12-17. This study analyzes the search behavior of three classes of biology students in a large urban high school in the province of Alberta, Canada. The exact number of participants was not determined. The study states an undisputed premise that sophisticated information literacy skills aid in academic success, especially in the field of science. School administrators for the province of

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Alberta has as part of their curricula, a Focus on Inquiry model that notes that in inquiry-based learning classrooms, data and information are actively used, interpreted, refined, digested and discussed. However, perhaps due to the lack of any skill assessment on standardized tests in Canada, the results show that students skills are generally lacking. This article highlights the Focus on Inquiry encouraged, yet not enforced tenet, in this province of Canada. The results of this study provide a much-needed view into what could perhaps lead to information searching skills one day becoming a part of standardized tests in Canada. This Focus on Inquiry is a needed emphasis that should include accountability of information literacy skills alongside other weighted subjects such as math and reading.