CHNG 1

GII THIU V TN HIU V H THNG

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Ni dung Phn loi tn hiu Cc m hnh v php tnh tn hiu Phn loi h thng M hnh h thng: M t quan h ng vo ng ra h thng

Ti liu tham kho: B.P. Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems, Berkeley-Cambridge Press, 1998 Chng trnh by mt s c tnh c bn ca tn hiu, ng thi gii thiu cc nim c bn chnh v gii thch nh tnh phng thc hot ng ca h thng, to c s cho phn cn li ca ti liu. Tn hiu Tn hiu l tp cc thng tin hay d liu, Th d tn hiu trong in thoi hay truyn hnh, doanh s bn ca mt cng ty, hay ch s gi chng khon hng ngy (th d ch s Dow Jones). Cc th d trn cho thy tn hiu l hm theo bin thi gian c lp, tuy khng phi lc no cng ng. Th d in tch c phn b trong mt vt th tn hiu l in tch li ph thuc nhiu vo yu t khng gian, khng phi l thi gian. Ti liu ny quan tm ch yu n cc tn hiu ph thuc theo thi gian. Tuy nhin, phng thc ny cn p dng c cho cc dng bin c lp khc. H thng H thng x l cc tn hiu, nhm thay i hay ly thm thng tin t tn hiu. Th d, ngi lnh phng khng cn thng tn t mc tiu di ng ca i phng m radar ca mnh ang theo bm. Thng qua x l ng tn hiu radar (ng vo), anh ta c th c lng c v tr sp ti ca mc tiu. Nh th, h thng l mt thc th (entity) nhm x l tp cc tn hiu (ng vo) to mt tp tn hiu khc (ng ra). H thng c th c to lp t cc thit b vt l, nh cc h thng in, h thng c, hay thy lc (phn cng), hay c th l mt thut ton tnh ton ng ra khi c tn hiu ng vo (phn mm). 1.1 Kch thc ca tn hiu (o lng tn hiu) Kch thc ca mt thc th l con s nhm ch th ln hay cng ca thc th ny. Ni chung, bin tn hiu thay i theo thi gian. Nh th, lm cch no o lng mt tn hiu tn ti trong mt khong thi gian vi bin c thay i dng ch mt con s nhm ch th kch thc hay cng ca tn hiu? o lng ny khng ch xem xt v tn hiu bin , m cn xem xt n thi gian tn ti. Th d nu ta c nh ch dng mt s V o kch thc ca con ngi, ta khng ch xem xt vng ngc m cn phi xem thm v chiu cao. Nu ta dng gi thit l hnh dng con ngi l mt hnh khi trn c bn knh r (thay i theo chiu cao h) th o lng hp l kch thc ca ngi c chiu cao H l th tch V, cho theo cng thc:

V = p r 2 (h)dh
0

Nng lng tn hiu T , tip tc xem xt vng in tch ca tn hiu f(t) nh php o kch thc, do phn ny khng ch dng bin , m cn quan tm n thi gian tn ti ca tn hiu. Tuy nhin, phng php ny c th cho kt qu o lng sai khi f(t) l tn hiu ln, to cc vng din tch c gi tr dng v gi tr m, c kh nng trit tiu nhau, lm cho php o c gi tr nh hn gi tr thc. Vn ny c hiu chnh bng cch nh ngha kch thc ca tn hiu l vng in tch ca f2(t), l vng in tch lun c gi tr dng. Gi o lng ny l nng lng tn hiu Ef, c nh ngha (cho tn hiu thc) l:

E f = f 2 (t )dt
-

(1.1) (1.2)

Khi f(t) l tn hiu phc, ta c cng thc tng qut:

Ef =

f (t ) dt

Tuy cn c th o lng tn hiu bng nhiu cch khc, th d nh vng in tch ca f (t ) , nhng php o nng lng vi kh nng biu din dng ton hc, cn c ngha ch th nng lng ca tn hiu (s c minh ha phn sau). Cng sut tn hiu Nng lng tn hiu cn hu hn o lng c kch thc tn hiu, iu kin cn nng lng hu hn l bin tn hiu 0 khi t (xem hnh 1.1a), nu khng tch phn trong phng trnh (1.1) s khng hi t. Trong mt s trng hp, th d khi bin ca f(t) khng 0 khi t , (hnh 1.1b), th nng lng tn hiu l v hn. Trng hp ny, cn o kch thc tn hiu theo tr trung bnh theo thi gian ca nng lng, nu tn ti. o lng ny gi l cng sut ca tn hiu. nh ngha cng sut Pf ca tn hiu f(t) l: 1 T /2 2 (1.3) Pf = lim f (t )dt T T -T / 2

Khi f(t) l tn hiu phc, ta c cng thc tng qut: 1 T /2 2 Pf = lim f (t )dt (1.4) T T -T / 2 Ta thy l cng sut tn hiu Pf l trung bnh theo thi gian ca bnh phng bin tn hiu, tc l tr bnh phng trung bnh ca f(t). Hn na, cn bnh phng ca Pf l tr rms (root mean square) ca f(t). Trung bnh ca tn hiu trong khong thi gian di v hn tn ti nu tn hiu l tun hon hay statistical regularity. Khi khng tha iu kin ny th c th khng tn ti tr trung bnh. Th d, tn hiu hm dc f(t) = t tng v hn khi t , nh th khng tn ti cng sut cng nh nng lng ca tn hiu ny. Nhn xt Nng lng tn hiu c nh ngha t phng trnh (1.1) v (1.2) khng ch th nng lng thc ca tn hiu do nng lng tn hiu khng ch ph thuc vo tn hiu m cn ph thuc vo ti ca tn hiu. Nng lng ny c th c biu din nh nng lng tiu tn (dissipated) ca mt ti chun ha vi gi tr 1 ohm khi p in p f(t) vo hai u tr (hay khi cho dng f(t) qua tr 1 ohm ny). Trng hp ny o lng nng lng ch th kh nng ca nng lng ch khng l nng lng thc. Nh th, cc nim v bo ton nng lng khng dng c cho nim nng lng tn hiu ny. L lun tng t cho trng hp cng sut tn hiu theo nh ngha (1.3) v (1.4). Cc o lng ny khng ch th thch hp cho kch thc tn hiu, l nim hu ch trong nhiu ng dng. Th d, ta xp x tn hiu f(t) bng tn hiu g(t), sai s xp x l e(t) = f(t) g(t). Nng lng (hay cng sut) ca e(t) l ch th thch hp tnh ng ca php xp x, nhm cung cp cho ta mt o lng nh lng nhm xc nh tnh khp ca php xp x. trong h thng thng tin, khi truyn qua knh truyn, tn hiu tin tc b sai lch do tn hiu khng mong mun (nhiu). Cht lng tn hiu thu c c nh gi thng qua kch thc tng i ca tn hiu mong mun v tn hiu khng mong mun (nhiu). Trng hp ny, t s gia cng sut tn hiu mang tin tc v cng sut nhiu (t s tn hiu trn nhiu) l ch th tt nh gi cht lng tn hiu thu c. n v o nng lng v cng sut: Phng trnh (1.1) v (1.2) cha c th nguyn ng, do ta khng dng nim nng lng theo ngha qui c, m ch dng ch th kch thc tn hiu. Tng t cho trng hp cng sut (1.3) v (1.4). Trng hp ny, n v ca nng lng v cng sut c nh ngha theo bn cht ca tn hiu f(t). Nu f(t) l tn hiu in p, th nng lng Ef c th nguyn l V2s (vn bnh phng-giy) v cng sut Pf c th nguyn l V2 (vn bnh phng). Khi f(t) l tn hiu dng in, th nng lng Ef c th nguyn l A2s (vn bnh phng-giy) v cng sut Pf c th nguyn l A2 (ampe bnh phng). Th d 1.1: Xc nh o lng thch hp cho cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.2 Trong hnh 1.2a, bin tn hiu 0 khi t , vy o lng thch hp cho tn hiu l nng lng Ef, cho bi:

E f = f 2 (t )dt = (2) 2 dt + 4e -t dt =4 + 4 = 8
- -1 0

Trong hnh 1.2b, bin tn hiu khng 0 khi t . ng thi, tn hiu l tun hon nn tn ti cng sut. Dng cng thc (1.3) xc nh cng sut. n gin ha php tnh do quan st thy tn hiu tun hon lp li mi chu k 2 giy (trong trng hp ny). Vy: 1 1 1 1 1 Pf = f 2 (t )dt = t 2 (t )dt = 2 -1 2 -1 3 Nhc li: cng sut tn hiu chnh l bnh phng ca tr rms. Do , tr rms ca tn hiu l 1 / 3 . Th d 1.2: Xc nh cng sut v tr rms ca: (a) f (t ) = C cos(w0t + q ) , (b) f (t ) = C1 cos(w1t + q1 ) + C2 cos(w 2t + q 2 ) (w1 w 2 ) , (c) f (t ) = De jw0t . (a) Tn hiu tun hon, chu k T0 = 2p / w0 . o lng thch hp l cng sut. Tn hiu tun hon, nn cng sut l trung bnh ca nng lng trong mt chu k T0 = 2p / w0 . Tuy nhin, minh ha, ta gii theo cch ly trung bnh trong khong thi gian v hn, phng trnh (1.3). 1 T /2 2 C2 T /2 2 Pf = lim C cos (w0t + q )dt = lim [1 + cos(2w0t + 2q )]dt T T -T / 2 T 2T T / 2 C2 T /2 C2 T /2 = lim dt + lim cos(2w0t + 2q )dt T 2T -T / 2 T 2T T / 2 Tha s u tin ca v phi l C 2 / 2 . Hn na, tha s th hai trit tiu do tch phn trong tha s ny l phn din tch ca tn hiu sin trong khong thi gian rt ln T v T . Phn din tch ny bng vi phn din tch ca mt bn k do phn din tch dng v m ca tn hiu sin trit tiu nhau. Tha s th hai l phn din tch ny nhn C2 vi C 2 / 2T vi T . R rng, tha s ny l zr, v: Pf = (1.5a) 2

(b) Trong chng 4, ta chng minh c l tng hai sin c th l tun hon hay khng tun hon, iu ny ty thuc vo t s w1 / w2 l hu t hay khng, Do , cha xc nh c chu k ca tn hiu ny. Nh th, xc nh cng sut dng php ly trung bnh ca nng lng trong T giy, vi T . Vy: 1 T /2 Pf = lim [C1 cos(w1t + q1 ) + C 2 cos(w 2t + q 2 )]2 dt T T -T / 2 1 T /2 1 T /2 2 = lim [C12 cos 2 (w1t + q1 ) + lim [C2 cos 2 (w2t + q 2 ) + T T -T / 2 T T -T / 2 2C C T / 2 = lim 1 2 cos(w1t + q1 ) cos(w2t + q 2 )dt -T / 2 T T Tch phn th nht v th hai ca v phi l cc cng sut ca hai tn hiu sin, c gi tr l C12 / 2 v C22 / 2 nh tnh ton phn (a). Tng t trong phn (a), ta thy tha s th ba trit tiu, sau cng: C2 C2 (1.5b) Pf = 1 + 2 2 2
2 V gi tr rms l (C12 + C 2 ) / 2 . C th m rng kt qu ny tnh tng nhiu tn hiu sin c tn s khc nhau. Nh th, nu

f (t ) = Cn cos(wn t + q n )
n =1

Vi cc tn s wn khng ging nhau, th

1 2 Cn 2 n=1 (c) Khi tn hiu l phc, dng phng trnh (1.4) tnh cng sut: 2 1 T /2 Pf = lim De jw0t dt T T -T / 2 Pf =

(1.5c)

Do e jw0t = 1 nn De jw0t = D , v
2

Pf = D

(1.5d)

Tr rms l D . Nhn xt: Phn (b) chng minh c l cng sut ca tng hai tn hiu sin th bng tng cng sut cc tn hiu sin. Nhn thy l cng sut ca f1 (t ) + f 2 (t ) l Pf1 + Pf 2 . iu khng may l kt qu ny khng phi lun lun ng, m ch ng trong mt s trng hp (trc giao) s c trnh by trong phn 3.1-3.

D Bi tp E 1.1 Chng t nng lng ca cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.3a, b, c v d ln lt l 4, 1, 4/3, v 4/3. Nhn thy khi nhn i tn hiu th nng lng tng gp 4, v khi di tn hiu theo thi gian khng nh hng n nng lng. Chng minh l cng sut ca tn hiu trong hnh 1.3e l 0,4323. Tm tr rms ca tn hiu trong hnh 1.3e? D Bi tp E 1.2 Lm li th d 1.2a tm cng sut tn hiu sin C cos(w0t + q ) bng cch ly trung bnh nng lng tn hiu trong mt chu k T0 = 2p / w0 (thay v ly trung bnh

trong khong thi gian v hn). Chng t l cng sut ca tn hiu hng f (t ) = C0 l C02 v tr rms l C0 .
D Bi tp E 1.3 Chng t khi w1 = w2 , th cng sut ca f (t ) = C1 cos(w1t + q1 ) + C2 cos(w2t + q 2 )
2 l [C1 + C2 + 2C1C2 cos(q1 - q 2 )] / 2 , khng bng gi tr (C12 + C2 ) / 2 .

1.2 Phn loi tn hiu C nhiu lp tn hiu, trong ti liu ny ta ch quan tm n cc lp tn hiu sau: 1. Tn hiu lin tc v tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian 2. Tn hiu analog v tn hiu s 3. Tn hiu tun hon v tn hiu khng tun hon 4. Tn hiu nng lng v tn hiu cng sut 5. Tn hiu xc nh v tn hiu ngu nhin

1.2-1 Tn hiu lin tc v tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian Tn hiu xc nh vi mi gi tr ca thi t (hnh 1.4a) c gi l tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian, v tn hiu ch xc nh vi cc gi tr thi gian ri rc (hnh 1.4b) l tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian. Ng ra ca my in thoi v my ghi hnh l tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian (ngy nay, iu ny l cha ng?!!), trong khi gi tr GNP theo qu, gi tr bn hng ca cng ty, v ch s chng khon tng ngy l cc tn hiu ri rc.

1.2-2 Tn hiu analog v tn hiu s nim v tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian thng b hiu lm l tn hiu analog. Hai nim ny khc nhau, tng t nh nim gia tn hiu ri rc v tn hiu s. Tn hiu c bin vi bin c th c gi tr bt k trong tm lin tc thi c gi l tn hiu analog. iu c ngha l bin tn hiu analog c th c v hn gi tr. Tn hiu s, th bin ch c th c s hu hn cc gi tr. Tn hiu dng trong my tnh s l tn hiu s do ch c hai gi tr bin (tn hiu nh phn). Tn hiu s c th c M gi tr l tn hiu bc M, trong nh phn (M=2) l mt trng hp c bit. Cm t lin tc theo thi gian v ri rc theo thi gian cho thy bn cht ca tn hiu theo trc thi gian (trc ngang). Cm t analog v s, th li cho thy bn cht ca tn hiu theo trc bin (trc dc). Hnh 1.5 v tn hiu analog ri rc theo thi gian. Tn hiu analog c th

chuyn thnh tn hiu s (qua b chuyn i ADC) qua qu trnh lng t ha (lm trn gi tri) nh gii thch phn 5.1-3.

1.2-3 Tn hiu tun hon v tn hiu khng tun hon Tn hiu f(t) l tun hon khi c mt s hng s dng T0 f (t ) = f (t + T0 ) vi mi gi tr t (1.6) Tr b nht ca T0 tha iu kin tun hon (1.6) l chu k ca f(t). Cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.2b v 1.3e l tn hiu tun hon c chu k ln lt l 2 v 1, Tn hiu khng tun hon l tn hiu khng c chu k. Cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.2a, 1.3a. 1.3b, 1.3c v 1.3d u l tn hiu khng tun hon. T nh ngha, tn hiu tun hon f(t) khng thay i khi di mt chu k theo thi gian. Do , tn hiu tun hon phi bt u t t = - , nu khng, gi s khi bt u t t = 0 , th tn hiu di theo thi gian mt chu k f (t + T0 ) s bt u t t = -T0 v f (t + T0 ) s khng ging tn hiu f (t ) . Nh th mt tn hiu tun hon phi bt u ti t = - v lin tc khng dng, nh v hnh 1.6

Mt c tnh quan trng ca tn hiu tun hon f(t) l f(t) c th c to ra t cch m rng tun hon (periodic extension) mt on bt k ca f(t) vi thi khong T0 (chu k). T , ta c th to f(t) t bt k on no ca f(t) vi thi khong mt chu k bng cch t on ny v ti to tn hiu. Hnh 1.7 v tn hiu tun hon f(t) vi chu k T0 = 6. Phn t en trong hnh 1.7a cho thy mt on ca tn hiu f(t) bt u ti t = -1 v c thi khong mt chu k (6 giy). on ny, khi lp li khng dng theo cc hng, to ra tn hiu tun hon f(t). c gi c th kim nghim li l c th to vi bt k on no ca f(t) , thi im no vi thi khong l mt chu k. Tn hiu bt u t t = - v tip tc khng dng c gi l tn hiu khng dng (everlasting signals). Nh th, tn hiu khng dng tn ti sut trong khong - < t < . Cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.1b v 1.2b l th d v tn hiu khng dng. R rng l t nh ngha th tn hiu tun hon l tn hiu khng dng. Tn hiu khng bt u trc khi t = 0, c gi l tn hiu nhn qu. Tc l, f(t) l tn hiu nhn qu nu: (1.7) f (t ) = 0 khi t < 0 Cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.3a, b, c cng cc hnh 1.9a v 1.9b l cc tn hiu nhn qu. Tn hiu khi u trc t = 0 c gi l tn hiu khng nhn qu; tuy nhin tn hiu khng nhn qu trong hnh 1.1 v 1.2 l tn hiu dng. Mt tn hiu c gi tr zr vi mi t 0 c gi l tn hiu phn nhn qu (anticausal signal). Nhn xt: R rng l trong thc t, ta khng to ra c tn hiu khng dng thc. Nh th ti sao ta li bn tm n chng nh th? Cc chng k cho thy mt s tn hiu (bao gm c cc tn hiu khng dng sin) tuy khng to ra c trong thc t nhng li rt hu ch khi nghin cu v tn hiu v h thng. 1.2-4 Tn hiu nng lng v tn hiu cng sut. Tn hiu c nng lng hu hn gi l tn hiu nng lng, v tn hiu c cng sut hu hn v khc khng th c gi l tn hiu cng sut. Cc tn hiu trong hnh 1.2a v 1.2b ln lt l cc tn hiu nng lng v tn hiu cng sut. Nhn thy cng sut chnh l trung bnh theo thi gian ca nng lng. Khi ly trung bnh trong khong

thi gian v hn, tn hiu c nng lng hu hn s c cng sut bng khng, v tn hiu c cng sut hu hn s c nng lng l v hn. T , mt tn hiu th khng th va l tn hiu cng sut va l tn hiu nng lng. Nu l tn hiu cng sut th khng th l tn hiu nng lng v ngc li. Trng hp tn hiu hm dc l mt th d. Nhn xt: Mi tn hiu thc t u c nng lng hu hn nn l tn hiu nng lng. Mt tn hiu cng sut th cn phi c rng v cng; cng sut ca chng, tc l nng lng trung bnh trong thi khong ln v hn, s khng tin v gii hn (khc khng). R rng l khng th to ra c tn hiu cng sut thc trong thc t do tn hiu ny c rng v hn v nng lng v hn. 2 ng thi, do cc tn hiu tun hon c vng din tch ca f (t ) trong mt chu k l hu hn, nn l tn hiu cng sut; tuy nhin, khng phi mi tn hiu cng sut u l tn hiu tun hon.
D Bi tp E 1.4 Chng minh l hm m khng dng e - at khng th l tn hiu nng lng hay tn hiu cng sut vi mi gi tr thc ca a. Tuy nhin, khi a l s phc, th tn hiu ny li l tn hiu cng sut c cng sut Pf = 1 , bt chp gi tr ca a.

1.2-5 Tn hiu xc nh v tn hiu ngu nhin. Mt tn hiu l tn hiu xc nh khi bit c hon ton m t vt l ca tn hiu, dng m t ton hc hay dng th. Mt tn hiu m gi tr khng th d bo c mt cch chnh xc nhng ch bit c cc tha s v m t thng k, nh tr trung bnh, trung bnh bnh phng, th c gi l tn hiu ngu nhin. Gio trnh ny cha nghin cu v cc tn hiu dng ny. 1.3 Mt s php tnh ln tn hiu Phn ny trnh by ba php tnh hu ch cho tn hiu: php di, php t l, v php o. Do bin c lp ca tn hiu l bin thi gian, nn cc php tnh y l: php di theo thi gian, php t l theo thi gian, v php o theo thi gian (php gp). Tuy nhin, phng php ny cn dng c cho bin c lp dng khc (th d bin tn s hay bin c ly). 1.3-1 Php di theo thi gian. Xt tn hiu f(t) trong (Hnh 1.8a) v tn hiu di T giy theo thi gian (Hnh 1.8b) c gi l f (t ) . Thay i ca f(t) ti thi im t cng l thay i ca f (t ) ti thi im t+T. Vy: (1.8) f (t + T ) = f (t ) V (1.9) f (t ) = f (t - T ) Do , khi di tn hiu mt khong T, ta thay t bng t T. Vy f(t T) biu din tn hiu f(t) c di mt khong T giy. Nu T > 0, ta c php di phi (php tr: delay). Nu T < 0, ta c php di tri (php sm: advanced). Do , f(t 2) l php lm tr f(t) 2 giy (di phi 2 giy) v f(t + 2) l php lm sm f(t) 2 giy (di tri 2 giy).

 Th d 1.3: Hm m f (t ) = e -2t v hnh 1.9a c l tr 1 giy. V tm m t ton hc ca hm ny. Lm li bi tp khi f(t) c lm sm 1 giy. Hm f(t) c m t ton hc nh sau: e -2t t 0 f (t ) = (1.10) 0 t<0 Gi f d (t ) l hm f(t) c lm tr (di phi) mt giy nh hnh 1.9b. Hm ny l f( t - 1); m t ton hc c c t f(t) bng cch thay t bng t 1 vo (1.10). Vy: e-2 ( t -1) t - 1 0 hay t 1 f d (t ) = (1.11) t - 1 < 0 hay t < 1 0 Gi f a (t ) l hm f(t) c lm sm (di tri) mt giy nh hnh 1.9c. Hm ny l f(t+1); m t ton hc c c t f(t) bng cch thay t bng t+1 vo (1.10). Vy: e -2( t +1) t + 1 0 hay t -1 f a (t ) = (1.12) t + 1 < 0 hay t < -1 0 D Bi tp E 1.5 Vit m t ton hc ca tn hiu f 3 (t ) ca hnh 1.3c. Tn hiu ny c lm tr i 2 giy. V tn f d (t ) = 2(t - 2) c lm sm f a (t ) = 2(t + 2) hiu tr. Chng minh tn hiu tr f d (t ) c th m t ton hc thnh vi 2 t 3 , v bng 0 trong cc trng hp khc. Lm li khi tn hiu 1 giy. Chng minh tn hiu sm f a (t ) c th m t ton hc thnh vi - 1 t 0 , v bng 0 trong cc trng hp khc.

1.3-2 Php t l theo thi gian. T l l php nn hay gin tn hiu theo thi gian. Xt tn hiu f(t) trong hnh 1.10a. Tn hiu f (t ) trong hnh 1.10b l f(t) nn theo thi gian vi t l 2. Nh th, thay i ca f(t) ti thi im t cng xut hin trong f (t ) ti thi im t/2, nn t f ( 2 ) = f (t ) (1.13) V (1.14) f (t ) = f (2t ) Do f (t ) = 0 ti thi im t = T1 v T2 , ta cn c f (t ) = 0 ti t = T1 / 2 v T2 / 2 nh hnh 1.10b. Nu tn hiu f(t) c ghi vo bng t v pht li vi tc hai ln tc lc ghi, ta s c f(2t). Thng thng, nu f(t) c nn theo thi gian theo t l a ( a > 1 ), tn hiu f (t ) c cho bi: (1.15) f (t ) = f (at ) Tng t, khi tn hiu f(t) c gin ra theo thi gian vi t l a (a>1) th t (1.16) f (t ) = f ( a )
t Hnh 1.10c v f ( 2 ) , vi f(t) gin theo thi gian vi t l 2. Trong php t l theo thi gian, ti gc t = 0, f(t)= f(at)= f(0). Tm li, khi t l tn hiu theo thi gian vi t l a, ta thay t bng at. Nu a >1, php t l ny l php nn theo thi gian, nu a<1, th php t l ny l php gin theo thi gian.

 Th d 1.4: Hnh 1.11a v tn hiu f(t). V v vit m t ton hc tn hiu sau khi nn theo thi gian vi t l 3. Lm li khi tn hiu c lm gin theo t l 2. Tn hiu f(t) c th c m t theo - 1,5 t < 0 2 -t / 2 f (t ) = 2e 0t <3 (1.17) 0 otherwise Hnh 1.11b v f c (t ) , l tn hiu f(t) c nn theo thi gian vi t l 3, nn m t ton hc l f(3t), c c bng cch thay t bng 3t trong v phi ca phng trnh 1.17 - 1,5 3t < 0 hay - 0,5 t < 0 2 - 3t / 2 f c (t ) = f (3t ) = 2e 0 3t < 3 hay 0 t <1 (1.18a) 0 otherwise Nhn thy l ti thi im t = -1,5 v 3 ca f(t) tng ng vi t = -0,5 v 1 ca tn hiu nn f(3t). Hnh 1.11c v f e (t ) , l tn hiu f(t) c gin theo thi gian vi t l 2; nn c m t ton hc l f (t / 2) , thay t bng t/2 trong f(t). Vy

2 f e (t ) = f (t / 2) = 2e -t / 4 0

- 1,5 t / 2 < 0 hay - 3 t < 0 0t/2< 3 hay 0 t < 6 otherwise

(1.18b)

Nhn thy l ti thi im t = -1,5 v 3 ca f(t) tng ng vi t = - 3 v 6 ca tn hiu gin f(t/2).

D Bi tp E 1.6 Chng t khi nn tn hiu sin vi t l n (n > 1) ta c tn hiu sin vi cng bin v pha, nhng c tn s tng n ln. Tng t, khi gin tn hiu sin vi t l n (n > 1) ta c tn hiu sin vi cng bin v pha, nhng c tn s gim n ln. Minh ha bng cch v tn hiu sin 2t v cc tn hiu c t tn hiu ny ln lt c nn vi t l 3 v gin vi t l 2.

1.3-3 Php o theo thi gian. Xt tn hiu f (t ) v hnh 1.12a. Xem f (t ) l mt khung ng cng, c khp ni theo trc dc. thc hin o f (t ) theo thi gian, ta xoay khung 1800 theo trc dc. Php o theo thi gian hay cn gi l php gp [phn chiu ca f (t ) theo trc dc], to tn hiu f (t ) (hnh 1.12b). Nhn xt thy cc thay i trong hnh 1.12a ti thi im t cng l thay i hnh 1.12b ti thi im - t. Vy:

f (-t ) = f (t )

Vy, khi thc hin php o theo thi gian, ta thay t bng - t . Nh th, php o tn hiu f (t ) cho tin hiu f (-t ) . Do , tn hiu phn nh ca f (t ) theo trc dc v f (-t ) . Nhc li l tn hiu phn nh ca f (t ) theo trc tung l - f (t ) .

Th d 1.5: Xt tn hiu f (t ) v hnh 1.13a, v f (-t ) l tn hiu o ca f (t ) . Gi tr ca f (t ) ti cc thi im 1 v 5 c nh x thnh cc thnh im 1 v 5 ca f (-t ) . Do f (t ) = e t / 2 , nn f (-t ) = e -t / 2 . Tn hiu f (-t ) c m t hnh 1.13b. C th m t f (t ) v f (-t ) theo:
e t / 2 f (t ) = 0 -1 t - 5 otherwise

Tn hiu o theo thi gian f (-t ) c c bng cch thay t bng t trong f (t ) l
e - t / 2 f (t ) = 0 - 1 -t > -5 hay 1 t < 5 otherwise

1.3-4 T hp cc php tnh. Mt s php tnh phc tp cn thc hin ng thi nhiu php tnh va nu. Trong , f (at - b) i hi thc hin c ba php tnh, v c thc hin theo hai cch: 1. Di f (t ) mt on b c f (t - b) , thc hin php t l a vi tn hiu f (t - b) (tc l thay t bng at) c f (at - b) . 2. Thc hin t l a theo thi gian f (t ) , c f (at ) . Di tip f (at ) theo b a (tc l thay t bng (t - b / a ) c f [a(t - b / a)] tc l f (at - b) . Th d, tn hiu f (2t - 6) c th c thc hin theo hai cch: (a) trc ht, lm tr f (t ) i 6 c f (t - 6) , ri thc hin php nn theo t l 2 (thay t bng 2t) c f (2t - 6) ; (b) u tin, nn f (t ) theo t l 2 c f (2t ) , ri lm tr i 3 (thay t bng t 3) c f (2t - 6) . 1.4 Mt s tn hiu hu ch Cc hm bc, hm xung, v hm m rt hu dng trong lnh vc tn hiu v h thng. Chng khng ch biu din tn hiu, m cn gip n gin ha qu trnh kho st tn hiu v h thng. 1. Hm bc n v u(t) Ta bit l tn hiu nhn qu (causal) l tn hiu bt u t t = 0 . Cc tn hiu ny c th c m t mt cch thch hp theo hm bc n v u (t ) nh v hnh 1.14a v c nh ngha l: 1 t 0 u (t ) = (1.20) 0 t < 0 Nu mun tn hiu bt u t t = 0 (c gi tr l 0 khi t = 0 ) th ch cn nhn tn hiu ny vi u (t ) . Th d, tn hiu e - at l tn hiu khng dng bt u t t = - . Dng nhn qu ca tn hiu ny, v hnh 1.14b, l dng e - at u (t ) . Tn hiu bc n v cn rt hu ch khi c trng hm vi nhiu dng m t ton hc khc nhau trong cc thi khong khc nhau. Th d cc hm c v hnh 1.11. Cc hm ny c nhiu m t ton hc ti cc thi khong khc nhau, nh v hnh 1.17, 1.18a, v 1.18b. Cc m t ny thng di dng v khng thch hp cho php x l ton hc. Khi dng hm bc n v, ta c th m t cc hm ny thnh mt biu thc xc nh vi mi t.

Th d, xt xung vung v hnh 1.15a, do tn hiu xung vung f (t ) c th vit thnh tng ca hai hm bc n v di theo thi gian nh hnh 1.15b. Hm bc n v u (t ) , lm tr T giy l t (t - T ) . Theo hnh 1.15b, th: f (t ) = u (t - 2) - u (t - 4)

Th d 1.6: M t tn hiu hnh 1.16a Tn hiu hnh 1.16 c th c chia thnh hai thnh phn f1 (t ) v f 2 (t ) , ln lt v hnh 1.16b v 1.16c. Hnh 1.16b cho thy f1 (t ) l hm dc t nhn vi tn hiu cng u (t ) - u (t - 2) . Vy: f1 (t ) = t[u (t ) - u (t - 2)] Hnh 1.16c cho thy f 2 (t ) l tch ca hm c dc - 2, c gi tr l - 2t + c . Hm dc qua gc 0 khi t = 0 , nn c = 6 , l - 2(t - 3) , vi xung cng l u (t - 2) - u (t - 3) . Vy: f 2 (t ) = -2(t - 3)[u (t - 2) - u (t - 3)] V f (t ) = f1 (t ) + f 2 (t ) = t[u (t ) - u (t - 2)] - 2(t - 3)[u (t - 2) - u (t - 3)] = tu (t ) - 3(t - 2)u (t - 2) + 2(t - 3)u (t - 3)

 Th d 1.7: Biu din tn hiu trong hnh 1.11a dng mt biu thc xc nh vi mi t. Trong khong t -1,5 n 0, tn hiu l hng s 2, v t 0 n 3, c gi tr l 2e - t / 2 . Vy: f (t ) = 2[u (t + 1,5) - u (t )] + 2e -t / 2 [u (t ) - u (t - 3)] = 2u (t + 1,5) - 2(1 - e -t / 2 )u (t ) - 2e - t / 2u (t - 3) So snh biu thc ny vi trng hp phng trnh 1.17
D Bi tp E 1.7 Chng t l cc tn hiu m t trong hnh 1.17a v 1.17b c th biu din ln lt theo u (-t ) v e - at u (-t ) . D Bi tp E 1.8 Chng t l cc tn hiu m t trong hnh 1.18 c th m t thnh: f (t ) = (t - 1)u (t - 1) - (t - 2)u (t - 2) - u (t - 4) .

2. Hm xung n v d (t ) Xung n v l mt trong nhng hm rt quan trng nghin cu v tn hiu v h thng, c P.A.M Dirac nh ngha theo: d (t ) = 0 t0

d (t )dt = 1

(1.21)

C th xem xung n v l mt xung vung rt cao, c rng rt hp v din tch l n v, v hnh 1.19b. rng xung rt hp v l e 0 vi cao l 1 / e . Do , c th xem xung n v nh xung vung c rng cc k b, cao cc k ln v tng din tch xung lun l n v. Vy d (t ) = 0 ti mi t 0 v v cng ln ti t = 0 , c v hnh 1.19a. Cc dng xung khc, nh xung dng m, xung tam gic hay dng hm Gauss cng c th c dng xp x hm xung. c tnh quan trng ca xung n v khng nm hnh dng xung, m do rng xung tin v khng trong khi din tch c gi khng i. Th d, trng hp xung hm m ae -at u (t ) v hnh 1.20a cng tr nn cao v hp dn khi a tng. Ti gii hn a , cao ca xung , v rng 0 . Trong khi , phn din tch ca xung n v lun l n v, bt chp gi tr ca a do:

ae -at dt = 1

(1.22)

Tng t cho cc xung trong hnh 1.20b v 1.20c. T phng trnh (1.21), cho thy hm kd (t ) = 0 vi mi t 0 , v c in tch l k. Vy kd (t ) l hm xung c din tch l k (khc vi xung n v, c din tch l 1).

Php nhn hm vi xung n v Xt trng hp nhn hm f (t ) (lin tc ti t = 0) vi hm d (t ) . Do xung ch tn ti ti t = 0, v gi tr ca f (t ) ti t = 0 l f (0) , ta c: (1.23a) f (t )d (t ) = f (0)d (t ) Tng t, nu nhn f (t ) vi xung d (t - T ) , (xung ti v tr t = T), th (1.23b) f (t )d (t - T ) = f (T )d (t - T ) Cho thy l f (t ) l lin tc ti t = T . c tnh ly mu ca hm xung n v T phng trnh (1.23a): Cho thy l f (t ) lin tc ti t = 0. iu ny c ngha l vng din tch ca tch mt hm vi xung n v d (t ) th bng vi gi tr hm ny ti thi im tn ti ca xung n v. c tnh ny rt quan trng v hu dng, v c gi l c tnh ly mu hay c tnh sng lc (sifting) ca xung n v. T phng trnh (1.23b):

f (t )d (t )dt = f (0) d (t )dt = f (0)

-

(1.24a)

f (t )d (t - T )dt = f (T )

(1.24b)

Phng trnh (1,24b) l mt dng khc ca c tnh ly mu hay c tnh sng lc. Trong trng hp phng trnh (1.24b) th xung d (t - T ) tn ti t = T . Nh vy, din tch do f (t )d (t - T ) l f (T ) , gi tr ca f (t ) ti thi im m xung tn ti (ti t = T ) vi gi s l hm l lin tc ti thi im tn ti ca xung.

Xung n v l hm tng qut nh ngha ton hc cha cht ch ca xung n v trong phng trnh (1.21), to ra nhiu kh khn ln. u tin, hm xung cha c nh ngha l hm c nht: th d, ta chng minh c l d (t ) + d&(t ) cng tha c phng trnh (1.21)*. Hn na, d (t ) cng cha thc s l mt hm theo ngha thng thng. Mt hm thng c c trng bi cc gi tr ca n theo mi gi tr thi gian. Hm xung th trit tiu vi mi gi tr, tr gi tr t = 0 . Kh khn ny c gii quyt bng cch nh ngha hm xung l mt hm tng qut thay v l hm bnh thng. Mt hm tng qut c nh ngha t nh hng ca mnh ln cc hm khc cha khng t gi tr theo mi thi im. T , hm xung c nh ngha t c tnh ly mu [phng trnh (1.24)]. Ta cha ni hm xung l g hay n ra sao, m nh ngha hm xung theo nh hng ca n ln hm th f (t ) . Ta nh ngha hm xung n v l hm c phn din tch ca tch s ga hm vi f (t ) bng vi gi tr ca hm f (t ) ti thi im tn ti ca xung n v, vi gi s l hm f (t ) lin tc ti thi im tn ti xung n v. Theo hng ny th c hai phng trnh (1.24a) v (1.24b) u cha nh ngha c hm xung. Nn nh rng c tnh ly mu [phng trnh (1.24)] l h qu ca nh ngha truyn thng (Dirac) v xung [phng trnh (1.21)]. Ngc li, c tnh ly mu [phng trnh (1.24)] nh ngha hm xung theo hng hm tng qut. Tip n, ta gii thiu ng dng quan trng ca hm tng qut nh ngha hm xung. Do hm bc n v u (t ) khng lin tc ti t = 0 , nn khng tn ti o hm du / dt khng tn ti ti t = 0 theo ngha thng thng. Ta s chng minh l cc o hm ny tn ti theo ngha tng qut, v thc ra, chnh l hm d (t ) . chng minh, ta c lng tch phn ca (du / dt )f (t ) vi cch ly tch phn tng phn:

iu ny chng t l du / dt tha c tnh ly mu ca d (t ) . Nh th, theo ngha tng qut th xung d (t ) c nh ngha theo: du (1.27) = d (t ) dt Vy:

du & f (t )dt = u (t )f (t ) - u (t )f (t )dt - dt - & = f () - 0 - f (t )dt =f () - f (t ) = f (0) 0

(1.25) (1.26)

d (t )dt = u (t )

(1.28)

Kt qu ny cn c th tm c dng phng php th t hnh 1.19b. Ta thy l phn din tch t - n t trong dng gii hn ca (t ) trong hnh 1.19b l zr nu t < 0 v bng n v nu t 0 . Vy:

0 t < 0 d (t )dt = = u (t ) - 1 t 0
t

(1.29)

D Bi tp E 1.9 Chng t l: (a) (t 3 + 3)d (t ) = 3d (t ) (b) [sin(t 2 - p ]d (t ) = -d (t ) 2

(c) e -2t d (t ) = d (t )

w 2 +1 1 d (w - 1) = d (w - 1) 2 5 w +9 Hng dn: Dng phng trnh (1.23) .

(d)
D Bi tp E 1.10 Chng t l:

(a) (b) (c)

d (t )e - jwt dt = 1

pt d (t - 2) cos dt = 0 - 4

Hng dn: Trong phn c, cn nh l d (t ) tn ti ti x = 0 . Nh th d (2 - t ) tn ti ti 2 - t = 0 , tc l t = 2 .

e -2( x-t )d (2 - t )dt = e -2( x -2)

3. Hm m est Tn hiu hm m est l mt trong nhng tn hiu quan trng nht trong lnh vc tn hiu v h thng, vi s thng l s phc: s = s + jw st (s + j w ) t st jwt Vy (1.30a) e =s = e e = est (cos wt + jwt )

Gi s * = s - jw (lng lin hp), th

e s t = s (s - jw ) t = est e - jwt = est (cos wt - jwt )

*

(1.30b)

V
* 1 (1.30c) est cos wt = (e st + e s t ) 2 So snh phng trnh ny vi cng thc Euler, ta thy e st l dng tng qut ca e jwt , trong bin thi gian jw l bin t ca bin tng qut phc s = s + jw . Do , bin s

l bin tn s. Phng trnh (1.30) cho thy hm e st bao hm rt nhiu lp hm, nh sau: (minh ha hnh 1.21) 1 Hng s k = ke 0t ( s = 0) 2 Hm m n iu eat (w = 0, s = s ) 3 Hm cos wt (s = 0, s = jw ) at 4 Hm e cos wt ( s = s + jw )

Tn s phc thng c biu din trong mt phng tn s phc (mt phng s) nh hnh 1.22. Trc ngang l trc thc (trc s ) cn trc dc l trc o (trc jw ). Tr tuyt i ca phn o ca s l w (tn s radian), ch th tn s dao ng ca e st ; phn thc ca s (tn s neper) cho thng tin v tc tng hay gim ca bin e st .

Khi tn hiu c tn s phc nm trn trc thc (trc s, vi w = 0) th tn s dao ng l zr v tn hiu tng hay gim n iu theo dng hm m (hnh 1.21a). Khi tn hiu c tn s nm trn trc o (trc jw , vi s = 0), th e st = 1 v tn hiu c dng hm sin truyn thng vi bin khng i (hnh 1.21b). Trng hp s = 0 ( (s = w = 0) th tn hiu l tn hiu hng (dc) do e 0t = 1 . Tn hiu v hnh 1.21c v 1.21d c s v w u khc khng; tn s s c dng phc v khng nm trn cc trc. Tn hiu trong hnh 1.21c gim theo hm m, c s m v nm bn tri trc o. Ngc li, tin hiu hnh 1.21d tng theo dng m, vi s dng v nm bn phi trc o. Vy, mt phng s (hnh 1.21) c th c phn thnh hai phn: na mt phng tri (LHP) tng ng vi tn hiu gim theo dng m v na mt phng phi (RHP) tng ng vi tn hiu tng theo dng m. Trc o phn cch hai vng ny v tng ng vi cc tn hiu c bin khng i. Th d, tn hiu sin tng theo dng m e 2t cos(5t + q ) c th xem l tng ca hai hm m e ( 2+5 j ) t v e ( 2-5 j ) t vi cc tn s phc ln lt l (2 + j5) v (2 j5) v nm bn phi mt phng phc. Tn hiu sin gim theo dng m e -2t cos(5t + q ) c th xem l tng ca hai hm m e ( -2+5 j ) t v e ( -2-5 j ) t vi cc tn s phc ln lt l (- 2 + j5) v (- 2 j5) v nm bn phi mt phng phc. Tn hiu sin vi bin khng i cos(5t + q ) c th xem l tng ca hai hm m

e j 5t v e - j 5t vi cc tn s phc ln lt l j 5 v nm trn trc phc. Ta thy l hm m n iu e 2t l tn hiu sin tng qut vi tn s phc l 2 .

1.5 Cc hm i xng chn v i xng l. Hm f e (t ) c gi l hm chn theo t nu f e (t ) = f e (-t ) Hm f o (t ) c gi l hm l theo t nu f o (t ) = - f o (-t )

(1.31) (1.32)

Hm chn c cng gi tr ti cc thi im t v t, tc l i xng qua trc dc, nh v hnh 1.23a. Mt khc, Hm l c gi tr ngc du nhau ti cc ti thi im t v t, cn gi l phn i xng theo trc dc, nh v hnh 1.23b.

1.5-1 Cc c tnh ca hm i xng chn v i xng l. Hm chn v hm l c cc c tnh sau: hm chn x hm l = hm l hm l x hm l = hm chn hm chn x hm chn = hm chn C th chng minh cc c tnh ny t nh ngha hm chn v hm l [(phng trnh (1.31) v (1.32)]. Din tch Do f e (t ) i xng theo trc dc, theo hnh 1.23a th

V theo hnh 1.23b th

-a

f e (t )dt = 2 f e (t )dt
0

(1.33a) (1.33b)

-a

f o (t )dt = 0

Chng minh: dng cc nh ngha trong cc phng trnh (1.31) v (1.32) v xem nh bi tp.

1.5-2 Thnh phn chn v thnh phn l ca tn hiu. Tn hiu f (t ) c th biu din thnh tng hai thnh phn chn v l, do: f (t ) = 1 [ f (t ) + f (-t )] + 1 [ f (t ) - f (-t )] (1.34) 2 2 = thnh phn chn + thnh phn l T nh ngha ca phng trnh (1.31) v (1.32), ta thy tha s th nht ca v phi l hm chn v tha s th hai l hm l Xt hm f (t ) = e - at u (t ) , phn tch thnh phn chn f e (t ) v l f o (t ) , ta c:
f (t ) = f e (t ) + f o(t ) T phng trnh (1.34) f e (t ) = 1 [e - at u (t ) + e at u (t )] 2
f o (t ) = 1 [e - at u (t ) - e at u (t )] 2

(1.35a) (1.35b)

Hnh 1.24 v tn hiu e u (t ) cng cc thnh phn chn v thnh phn l. Th d 1.8: Tm thnh phn chn v l ca tn hiu e jt . T phng trnh (1.34) e jt = f e (t ) + f o (t ) Vi V
f e (t ) = 1 [e jt + e - jt ] = cos t ] 2 f o (t ) = 1 [e jt - e - jt ] = sin t ] 2

- at

1.6 H thng. Theo phn 1.1, ta thy h thng c dng x l tn hiu nhm thay i hay rt thng tin t tn hiu. Mt h thng c th gm cc phn t vt l (phn cng) hay c th gm thut ton tnh ton tn hiu ng ra t tn hiu ng vo (phn mm). H thng c c trng bi cc ng vo, cc ng ra (hay p ng) v lut hot ng (hay lut) m t hot ng ca h thng. Th d, trong h thng in, lut hot ng l cc quan h dng p quen thuc ca in tr, t in, cun dy, bin p, transistor, v.v,, cng cc quan h lin kt (th d lut Kirchoff). Dng cc lut ny, tm c phng trnh ton hc m t quan h gia cc ng vo v cc ng ra. Cc phng trnh ny c gi l m hnh ton hc ca h thng. Vy, h thng c c trng t cc ng vo, cc ng ra v m hnh ton hc. Mt h thng c th c m t dng hp en vi mt tp cc im vo ca cc bin vo f1 (t ), f 2 (t ), L , f j (t ) v mt tp cc im quan st cc bin ra
y1 (t ), y 2 (t ), L , yk (t ) . Ch , chiu mi tn trong cc bin trong hnh 1.25 ch th chiu ca tc ng .

Vic nghin cu h thng c ba lnh vc: m hnh ton hc, phn tch v thit k. Tuy cp n m hnh ton hc, nhng ta quan tm nhiu n qu trnh phn tch v thit k. Phn ln ni dung trong sch ny trnh by v bi ton phn tch, tc l phng thc xc nh ng ra ca h thng di tc ng ca cc ng vo v m hnh ton hc ca h thng (hay lut iu khiun h thng). Ngoi ra, ta cn kho st bi ton thit k h thng, l phng thc to h thng c ng ra mong mun khi c tc ng ca cc ng vo. D liu cn thit tnh ton p ng h thng. hiu thm v d liu cn thit khi tnh ton p ng h thng, xt mch RC n gin (hnh 1.26) vi ng vo l ngun dng f (t ) . in p ng ra cho bi: 1 t (1.36a) y (t ) = Rf (t ) + f (t )dt C -

Cn ca tch phn v phi l t n t do tch phn biu din din tch m t np t ngun dng f (t ) , v in tch ny l kt qu ca dng in qua t t - . Vit li phng trnh (1.36a) 1 0 1 t (1.36b) y (t ) = Rf (t ) + f (t )dt + f (t )dt C - C 0 Tha s th hai trong v phi l in p t ti t = 0, in p vC (0) , vy

1 t f (t )dt (1.36c) C 0 Phng trnh ny c th c tng qut ha l: 1 t (1.36d) y (t ) = vC (t 0 ) + Rf (t ) + f (t )dt C t0 Phng trnh (1.36a) cho php tnh in p ng ra ti thi im t khi bit c dng in vo qua t trong sut thi gian qua kh (t - n t ). Mt khc, khi ta bit c dng in vo f (t ) ti thi im t 0 , phng trnh (1.26d) cho php tnh y (t ) vi t t 0 . Nh th, p ng ca h thng ti t > t 0 c xc nh t cc ng vo trong khong t t0 n t v cc iu kin u ti t = t 0 . Trong th d trn, ta ch c mt iu kin u. Tuy nhin, cc h thng phc tp hn cn c nhiu iu kin u hn. Th d, trong mch th ng RCL, cn c cc gi tr dng in qua cun dy v in p qua t xc nh cc ng ra ti t t 0 khi cc ng vo trong trong tm [0, t ] . y (t ) = vC (0) + Rf (t ) +
1.7 Phn loi h thng. H thng c phn loi thnh: 1. H thng tuyn tnh v h thng phi tuyn; 2. H thng c tham s khng i v h thng c tham s thay i theo thi gian; 3. H thng tnh (khng nh) v h thng ng (c nh); 4. H thng nhn qu v h thng khng nhn qu; 5. H thng c tham s tp trung v h thng c tham s phn b 6. H thng lin tc v h thng ri rc theo thi gian; 7. H thng tng t v h thng s; 1.7-1 H thng tuyn tnh v h thng phi tuyn nim v tnh tuyn tnh H thng c ng ra t l vi cc ng vo l mt th d v h thng tuyn tnh. Tuy nhin, tnh tuyn tnh cn bao hm c c tnh cng. c tnh ny c th c trnh by nh sau: H thng l tuyn tnh nu nguyn nhn c1 khi tc ng ring l, to nh hng e1 , v nu nu nguyn nhn c2 khi tc ng ring l, to nh hng e2 , th khi tc ng c hai nguyn nhn ny vo h thng, s to ra nh hng chung e1 + e2 . Vy, nu: v (1.37) c1 e1 c2 e2 Th vi c c1 v c2: (1.38) c1 + c2 e1 + e Ngoi ra, h thng tuyn tnh cn tha mn tnh ng nht hay tnh t l, tc l: ce Th vi mi k thc hay o (1.39) kc ke Vy, tuyn tnh c hai c tnh: tnh ng nht (t l) v tnh cng. Cc c tnh ny c t hp thnh mt c tnh gi l tnh xp chng, c th c biu din nh sau: Nu c1 e1 v c2 e2 Th vi mi gi tr hng s k1 v k2.

k1c1 + k 2 c2 k1e1 + k 2 e2 ng vi mi c1 v c2.

(1.40)

C v nh tnh cng a bo hm tnh ng nht, tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp, iu ny khng ng, xem bi tp E1.11 di y.
D Bi tp E 1.11 Chng t l h thng c ng vo (nguyn nhn) c(t) v ng ra (nh hng) e(t) vi quan h e(t) = Re{c(t)} tha c tnh cng nhng vi phm tnh ng nht. Vy, tn hiu l khng tuyn tnh: Hng dn: chng t phng trnh (1.39) khng tha khi k l s phc .

p ng ca h thng tuyn tnh n gin, ta ch kho st h mt ng v, mt ng ra (h SISO), tuy nhin cn m rng c cho trng hp h nhiu ng vo, nhiu ng ra (h MIMO). p ng ra ca h thng khi t 0 l kt qu ca hai nguyn nhn c lp: iu kin u ca h thng (hay trng thi h thng) ti t = 0 v ng vo f (t ) ti t 0 . Nu h thng tuyn tnh, th ng ra phi l tng ca hai thnh phn do hai nguyn nhn trn: thnh phn p ng khi ng vo l zr ch ph thuc vo iu kin u ti t = 0 v ng vo f (t ) = 0 ti t 0 v thnh phn p ng trng thi zr ch ph thuc ng vo f (t ) ti t 0 vi iu kin u c gi s l zr. Khi mi iu kin u thch hp u l zr, th h thng l trng thi zr. Ng ra ca h thng ch l zr khi ng vo l zr nu h thng trng thi zr. Tm li, p ng ca h tuyn tnh c din t thnh tng ca thnh phn ng vo zr v thnh phn trng thi zr. p ng tng= p ng ng vo zr + p ng trng thi zr (1.41)

c tnh ca h tuyn tnh cho php phn chia ng ra thnh cc thnh phn t iu kin u v t ng vo c gi l c tnh phn gii (decomposition property). Trng hp mch RC trong hnh 1.26, p ng y (t ) c tnh t phng trnh (1.36c). 1 t + (1.42) y (t ) = vC (0) Rf (t ) + f (t )dt C 0 = Thnh phn ng vo-zr + thnh phn trng thi zr Phng trnh (1.42) cho thy: nu f (t ) = 0 ti t 0 , ng ra y (t ) = vC (t ) , th ng ra y (t ) = vC (0) ; Do , vC (0) l thnh phn ng vo zr ca p ng y (t ) . Tng t, nu trng thi ca h thng (trng hp ny l vC (t ) ) l zr ti t = 0, ng ra l thnh phn th hai ca v phi (1.42) v chnh l thnh phn trng thi zr ca p ng y (t ) . Hn na, theo c tnh phn gii, tnh tuyn tnh i hi cc thnh phn ng vo zr v thnh phn trng thi zr u phi tun th nguyn l xp chng theo tng nguyn nhn tc ng. Th d, nu ta tng iu kin u k ln, thnh phn p ng ng vo zr

cng phi tng k ln. Tng t, nu tng ng vo k ln, th thnh phn p ng trng thi zr cng phi tng k ln. iu ny c chng minh phng trnh (1.42) cho trng hp mch RC hnh 1.26. Th d, nu ta tng i iu kin u vC (0) , th thnh phn p ng ng vo zr cng tng i; nu ta tng i ng vo, th thnh phn p ng trng thi zr cng tng i. Th d 1.9: Chng t h thng m t bng phng trnh vi phn: dy + 3 y (t ) = f (t ) dt l h thng tuyn tnh. Gi y1 (t ) v y2 (t ) ln lt l p ng ca h thng i vi cc ng vo f 2 (t ) , th: dy1 + 3 y1 (t ) = f1 (t ) dt dy2 + 3 y2 (t ) = f 2 (t ) dt

(1.43)

f1 (t ) v

Nhn phng trnh u vi k1, v phng trnh th hai vi k2, ri cng li, c: d [ k1 y1 (t ) + k 2 y2 (t )] + 3[ k1 y1 (t ) + k 2 y2 (t )] = k1 f 1 (t ) + k 2 f 2 (t ) dt Vi: f (t ) = k1 f1 (t ) + k 2 f 2 (t ) V: y (t ) = k1 y1 (t ) + k 2 y2 (t ) Vy khi ng vo l k1 f1 (t ) + k 2 f 2 (t ) , th p ng ca h thng l k1 y1 (t ) + k 2 y2 (t ) , nn l h thng l tuyn tnh. T y, ta c th tng qut ha kt qu chng minh h thng m t phi phng trnh vi phn c dng dny d n-1 y dm f df (1.44) + an-1 n-1 + L + a0 y = bm m + L + b1 + b0 f n dt dt dt dt L h thng tuyn tnh. Cc h s ai v bi trong phng trnh c th l hng s hay l hm theo thi gian.
D Bi tp E 1.12 Chng t h thng m t bng phng trnh vi phn sau l h tuyn tnh: dy 2 + t y (t ) = (2t + 3) f (t ) . dt

D Bi tp E 1.13 Chng t l h thng m t bng phng trnh vi phn sau l h phi tuyn:

y (t )

dy + 3 y (t ) = f (t ) . dt

Nhn xt thm v h thng tuyn tnh Hu ht cc h thng quan st c trong thc t u tr thnh phi tuyn khi p tn hiu vo ln. Tuy nhin, nhiu h thng cng phi tuyn i vi tn hiu vo nh. Phn tch cc h ny thng kh khn. Tnh phi tuyn c th xut hin vi nhiu dng, nn thng khng th m t chng theo dng ton hc thng thng c. Cc h thng khng ch c xp theo lp, m trong tng h thng, khi thay i iu kin u hay bin tn hiu vo cng lm thay i bn cht ca vn . Ni cch khc, c tnh xp chng ca h thng tuyn tnh l nguyn l c nht mnh tm nghim tng qut. c tnh xp chng (tuyn tnh ) n gin ha rt nhiu vic phn tch h tuyn tnh. c tnh phn gii cho php c lng ring bit hai thnh phn ca ng ra. Thnh phn ng vo zr c th c tnh vi gi s ng vo l zr, v thnh phn trng thi zr c tnh vi gi s vi iu kin u l zr. Tuy nhin, khi biu din f (t ) thnh tng nhng hm n gin hn. f (t ) = a1 f1 (t ) + a 2 f 2 (t ) + L + am f m (t ) Do tnh tuyn tnh, p ng y (t ) c vit thnh (1.45) y (t ) = a1 y1 (t ) + a2 y 2 (t ) + L + am ym (t ) Vi yk (t ) l p ng trng thi zr ca ng vo f k (t ) . iu ny a n nhiu hm quan trng, c nhc ti nhiu trong cc chng k, cho thy tnh cc k hu dng v m ra hng mi trong phn tch h thng tuyn tnh.

Th d, xt hm f (t ) bt k v hnh 1.27a. C th xp x f (t ) dng tng ca xung vung c rng Dt v cao thay i. Qu trnh xp x c ci thin khi Dt 0 , tc l khi cc xung vung bin thnh cc xung cch nhau Dt giy (vi Dt 0 ). Nh th, ng vo bt k c th c thay bng tng trng cc xung cch nhau Dt giy (vi Dt 0 ). Do , nu ta bit c p ng ca h thng vi xung n v, th c th xc nh ngay c p ng h thng vi ng vo bt k f (t ) bng cch cng cc p ng h thng ca tng thnh phn xung ca f (t ) .

Tng t, trong hnh 1.27b, th f (t ) c xp x dng php tng nhiu hm bc c bin khc nhau v cch khong nhau Dt . Php xp x c ci thin khi Dt gim nh dn. Nh th, nu bit c p ng h thng vi tn hiu vo l hm bc n v, th c th tnh c d dng p ng h thng vi ng vo f (t ) bt k. Xu hng ny c dng trong chng 2 khi phn tch h thng tuyn tnh trong min thi gian. Trong cc chng 4, 6, 10 v 11 xu hng ny cng c dng vi cc tn hiu c bn c dng hm sin hay hm m. Khi , ta chng minh l tn hiu vo bt k c th c xem l tng trng ca hm sin (hay hm m) vi nhiu tn s khc nhau. Hiu bit v p ng ca h thng vi tn hiu vo sin cho php ta xc nh p ng ca h thng vi tn hiu vo f (t ) bt k. 1.7-2 H thng tuyn tnh v h thng phi tuyn H thng c tham s khng i theo thi gian l h thng bt bin (hay h c tham s hng). Trong cc h thng ny, khi ng vo c lm tr T giy, th ng ra vn nh c nhng c tr i T giy (vi gi s c cng iu kin u). c tnh ny c v trong hnh 2.28

C th chng t c l h thng trong hnh 1.26 l h bt bin theo thi gian. Mch in gm cc phn t RCL v cc phn t tch cc thng dng nh transistor l h thng bt bin theo thi gian. Mt h thng c quan h vo ra m t dng phng trnh vi phn c dng (1.44) l h thng tuyn tnh - bt bin (LTI) khi cc h s ai v bi ca phng trnh l hng s. Khi cc h s ny l hm theo thi gian, th h thng l tuyn tnh thay i theo thi gian. H thng m t trong bi tp E1.12 l h tuyn tnh thay i theo thi gian. Th d khc ca h tuyn tnh thay i theo thi gian l micr than, trong gi tr in tr R l hm theo theo p sut c hc do m thanh tc ng ln cc ht than ca micr. Mch

tng c ca micr c v hnh 1.29. p ng l dng in i(t) v phng trnh m t mch l: di (t ) L + R(t )i (t ) = f (t ) dt Phng trnh c h s R(t) thay i theo thi gian, nn l h thay i theo thi gian.
D Bi tp E 1.14

Chng t h thng m t bng phng trnh sau l h c tham s thay i theo thi gian: y (t ) = (sin t ) f (t - 2) . Hng dn: Chng t l h thng khng c c c tnh bt bin theo thi gian.

1.7-3 H thng tc thi (tnh) v h thng ng T quan st trc, ta thy ng ra ca h thng ti thi im t thng ph thuc vo ton b ng vo trc . Tuy nhin, c mt dng c bit m ng ra ti thi im t ch ph thuc cc ng vo ti thi im ny. Th d, trong mng thun tr, ng ra ca mng ti thi im t no ch ph thuc ng vo ti thi im t ny. Trong cc h thng dng ny, khng cn thng tin qu kh khi xc nh p ng. Cc h thng ny c gi l h thng tc thi (khng c tnh nh hay h thng tnh). Ni r hn th, h thng l h tc thi (hay khng c tnh nh) nu ng ra ti thi im t, ch ph thuc vo cng ca cc tn hiu vo ti thi im ny, khng ph thuc vo cc gi tr qu kh hay tng lai ca cc ng vo. Ngc li l h thng ng (h thng c nh). H thng c p ng ti t c xc nh hon ton bi tn hiu vo trong khong T giy trc [khong thi gian t (t - T) n T] c gi l h thng c nh hu hn (finite-memory) trong T giy. Mng cha phn t cm v in dung thng l nh hu hn do p ng ca cc mng ny ti thi im t, th c xc nh t cc ng vo trong sut qu kh (-, t). iu ny ng vi mch RC trong hnh 1.26. Trong ti liu ny, ta ch yu kho st h thng ng. H thng tc thi c xem l trng hp c bit ca h thng ng. 1.7-4 H thng nhn qu v h thng khng nhn qu. H nhn qu (cn gi l h vt l hay h khng d on trc (nonanticipative)) l h c ng ra ti thi im bt k t0 ch ph thuc vo gi tr ca ng vo f(t) ti t 0 . Ni cch khc, gi tr ca ng ra hin ti ch ph thuc vo cc gi tr qu

kh v hin ti ca f(t), khng ph thuc vo gi tr tng lai ca f(t). n gin hn th trong h nhn qu, ng ra khng th bt u trc khi p tn hiu vo. Nu p ng bt u trc khi c ng vo, tc l h thng bit c tr ca tng lai trong tng lai v tc ng da theo kin thc ny trc khi c tn hiu vo. H thng vi phm iu kin nhn qu th c gi l khng nhn qu (hay h d on trc). Cc h thng thc t vn hnh trong thi gian thc th nht thit phi l h nhn qu. Ta vn cha bit cch no xy dng h thng p ng c vi cc ng vo tng lai (cc ng vo cha c p vo h thng. H thng khng nhn qu l h thng tin tri, p ng c vi cc ng vo tng lai v p ng vi chng trong thi gian hin ti. Vy, nu ta p vo mt tn hiu ti t = 0 vo h thng khng nhn qu, th ng ra c th bt u trc c khi t = 0. Th d, xt h thng c trng bi (1.46) y (t ) = f (t - 2) + f (t + 2)

Tn hiu vo f(t) trong hnh 1.30a, to ng ra y(t), tnh t phng trnh 1.46 (v hnh 1.40b), bt u trc khi p tn hiu ng vo. Phng trnh (1.46) cho thy ng ra y(t) ti thi im t, c cho bi tng ca gi tr vo trc t hai giy v ng vo sau t hai giy (ti t 2 v t + 2). Nhng nu ta vn hnh h thng theo thi gian thc ca t, ta s khng bit c gi tr ca ng sau sau t hai giy. Tc l khng th thit lp c h thng ny trong thi gian thc. Do , khng thc hin c h khng nhn qu trong thi gian thc. Ti sao cn nghin cu h khng nhn qu? T tho lun ni trn, c v nh l h khng nhn qu khng c mc ch thc t. iu ny cha ng, vic nghin cu h khng nhn qu c gi tr do nhiu nguyn nhn. Th nht, h khng nhn qu thc hin c khi bin c lp khng phi l thi gian (th d l bin khng gian). Th d, xt in tch c mt q(x) t theo trc x vi x 0 . Mt in tch ny to in trng E (x) hin din ti mi im trn trc x t x = - n . Trong trng hp ng vo [th d in tch q(x)] bt u t x = 0. R rng, h

in tch khng gian ny l khng nhn qu. Phn tho lun ny cho thy l ch c h c bin thi gian c lp cn phi l nhn qu c th thc hin c. Cc h khng dng bin thi gian c lp, nh cc h quang hc, thc hin c d khng l h nhn qu. Tuy nhin, ngay c vi cc h dng bin thi gian c lp dng trong x l tn hiu th vic nghin cu h khng nhn qu vn quan trng. Trong cc h khng nhn qu ny, ta c th c c d liu c ghi nhn trc (thng xut hin trong cc tn hiu ting ni, a vt l, v kh tng dng cc u d khng gian). Trong cc trng hp ny, ta c c cc gi tr tng lai ca tn hiu (so vi thi im kho st t). Th d, gi s ta c tp ghi gi tr cc tn hiu vo ca h thng m t bi phng trnh (1.46). T , tnh c y(t), do ti tng thi im t, ch cn tm trong tp d liu c bit c cc gi tr ng vo ti cc thi im trc hai giy hay sau hai giy so vi t. Vy l thc hin c h khng nhn qu, d khng ti thi gian thc. Ta c th thc hin c h khng nhn qu, vi iu kin chp nhn ng ra vi thi gian tr. Xt h thng c ng ra y (t ) l tn hiu y (t ) trong phng trnh (1.46) c lm tr hai giy (hnh 1.30c), nn: y (t ) = y (t - 2) = f (t - 4) + f (t ) Vi gi tr ca ng ra y (t ) ti cc thi im t l tng cc gi tr ca ng vo f v t ti thi im sm hn t bn giy [ti (t 4)]. Trng hp ny, ng ra ti thi im t khng ph thuc vo gi tr tng lai ca ng vo, nn h thng l nhn qu. Ng ra y (t ) ca h, ging vi phng trnh (1.46) hay hnh 1.30 tr yu t tr hai giy. Nh th, h khng nhn qu c th thc hin c hay tha mt cch xp x trong thi gian thc dng h nhn qu c tr.

L do th ba nghin cu h khng nhn qu do h cung cp bin trn ca tnh nng h nhn qu. Th d nu mun thit k mch lc tch tn hiu khi nhiu, th b lc ti u r rng l h khng nhn qu. D khng thc hin c, tnh nng ca h khng nhn qu hot ng nh gii hn trn phn hiu nng thc hin c v cung cp chun c lng tnh nng ca mch lc nhn qu. Thong nhn th h khng nhn qu c v b him. Thc ra, h khng c g l b mt v c th thc hin xp x dng h vt l vi khu tr. Nu ta mun bit vic sp xy ra trong nm ti, th c hai la chn: n gp nh tin tri (nhn vt khng thc hin c) cho ta kt qu tc thi, hay tm gp mt nh thng thi, v cho ng ta mt thi gian tr l mt nm cho ta kt qu. Nu nh thng thi ny thc s l thng thi, ng ta c th on c tng lai trong thi gian tr t hn mt nm thng cc xu hng pht trin. chnh l trng hp ca h khng nhn qu, khng hn khng km.

D Bi tp E 1.15 Chng t h thng m t bi phng trnh sau l khng nhn qu

y (t ) =

t +5

t -5

f (t )dt

Chng t l c th thc hin c h nu ta chp nhn ng ra vi khu tr 5 giy .

1.7-5 H thng c tham s tp trung v h tham s phn b Khi nghin cu h thng in, ta thng dng quan h dng p cho nhiu linh kin khc nhau (th d, do lut Ohm). Khi thc hin, ta thng gi s l dng qua cc linh kin (in tr, t, v.v,) l nh nhau ti mi v tr ca linh kin. Nh th, ta gi s tn hiu in lan truyn tc thi qua linh kin, Tuy nhin, thc t th tn hiu in l sng khng gian in t i hi thi gian lan truyn hu hn. Th d, dng in lan truyn qua linh kin vi vn tc hu hn v c th c cc gi tr khc nhau ti cc v tr khc nhau trong cng linh kin. Nh th, dng in l hm khng ch theo thi gian m cn theo khng gian. Tuy nhin, khi kch thc tht ca linh kin nh so vi bc sng ca tn hiu truyn, ta c th gi s dng in qua linh kin l khng i. Gi s ny to ra h c tham s tp trung, trong tng linh kin c xem l c gi tr tp trung ti mt im trong khng gian. Gi s ny thng ng tn s thp (bc sng di). Nh th, trong m hnh tham s tp trung, tn hiu c xem l ch ph thuc vo bin thi gian, nn phng trnh h thng ch cn mt bin c lp (bin thi gian), v l phng trnh vi phn thng thng. Ngc li, trong h thng tham s phn b nh ng dy di, ng dn sng, anten, v n tn s vi ba, th cc gi s v tham s tp trung khng cn gi tr. Cc tn hiu ny lm hm ca c khng gian v thi gian, nn m hnh ton hc phi c dng phng trnh vi phn ring phn. Ti liu ny ch tho lun v h c tham s tp trung. 1.7-6 H thng lin tc v h ri rc theo thi gian. Phn 1.2-1 phn bit r gia tn hiu ri rc v lin tc theo thi gian. H thng c cc ng vo v cc ng ra l tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian c gi l h thng lin tc. Mt khc, h c cc ng vo v cc ng ra l tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian c gi l h thng ri rc. Khi ly mu tn hiu lin tc, ta c tn hiu ri rc. C th x l tn hiu lin tc thng qua x l cc mu ny dng h thng ri rc. 1.7-7 H thng analog v h thng s (digital) Cc tn hiu analog v s c tho lun trong phn 1.2-2. . H thng c cc ng vo v cc ng ra l tn hiu analog c gi l h thng analog. Mt khc, h c cc ng vo v cc ng ra l tn hiu s c gi l h thng s. My tnh s l mt th d v h thng s (h nh phn), v ta thy rng my tnh cng ng thi l h thng s v l h thng ri rc theo thi gian. Cc phng php khc dng xp loi h thng Cn c nhiu dng h thng khc, nh h thng kh nghch (invertible) v h thng khng kh nghch (noninvertible). Mt h thng S thc hin mt s tc ng ln tn hiu vo, nu c th dng ng ra y(t) ti to tn hiu ng vo f(t), h thng S c gi l h thng kh nghch. H thng khng kh nghch, th nhiu ng vo khc nhau c th to ra cng ng ra (th d b nn in), nn khng th xc nh c tn hiu vo t ng ra

bit. Nh th, trong h thng kh nghch, mi tn hiu vo ring bit s to ra c tn hiu ra ring bit tng ng, tc l php p mt-mt gia ng vo v ng ra tng ng, o bo l mi ng ra ch c mt ng vo c nht. H thng nhm to tc ng nghch nhm khi phc tn hiu vo t tn hiu ra c gi l h thng nghch ca S. Th d, h thng c ng ra quan h vi ng vo theo phng trnh y (t ) = af (t ) + b l h thng kh nghch. Nhng b nn in, c trng bi phng trnh y (t ) = f (t ) l h thng khng kh nghch v khng ti to c ng ra t h thng dng ny. B vi phn l tng l khng kh nghch do khi ly tch phn ng ra ta khng khi phc li c tn hiu gc, tr khi bit c mt phn thng tin v tn hiu. Th d, nu f (t ) = 3t + 5 , ng ra ca b vi phn l y (t ) = 3 . Nu ng ra ny c p vo b tch phn, th ng ra l 3t + c , vi c l hng s bt k. Nu ta bit mt phn thng tin v f (t ) , th d f (0) = 5 , ta c th xc nh c ng vo l f (t ) = 3t + 5 . Nh th, b vi phn c bit mt phn thng tin (c gi l thng tin ph) l h thng kh nghch. Tng t, h thng gm hai b vi phn ni ui nhau l h thng kh nghch, nu ta bit c hai thng tin ph v tn hiu vo. Ngoi ra, h thng cn c th l h thng n nh v h thng khng n nh. Cc chng tip s tho lun k hn v nim n nh.
D Bi tp E 1.1 Chng t h thng m t bi phng trnh y (t ) = f 2 (t ) l khng kh nghch.

1.8 M hnh h thng: M t vo ra. Nh ni, l thuyt h thng lin quan n nhiu dng h thng, nh in, c, thy lc, m hc c in, v ha hc cng cc h x hi, kinh t, v sinh hc. Bc u trong phn tch bt k h thng no l kin to m hnh h thng, l biu thc ton hc hay lut nhm tha mn mt cch xp x c tnh ng ca h thng. Chng ny ch xem xt h thng lin tc theo thi gian. (Chng 8 tho lun v h thng ri rc theo thi gian.) kin to m hnh h thng, ta cn nghin cu quan h gia nhiu bin trong h thng. Th d trong h thng in, ta cn xc nh m hnh tha quan h dng p ca tng phn t, nh lut Ohm cho in tr. Hn na, ta cn phi xc nh nhiu dng rng buc v in p v dng in khi kt ni nhiu linh kin in li vi nhau. Cc lut v kt ni nh lut Kirchoff v in p v dng in. T cc phng trnh ny, ta lt bt cc bin khng mong mun, c c quan h gia bin ra theo bin vo. Th d sau y trnh by phng php tm quan h vo ra ca mt s h tuyn tnh bt bin dng in.

 Th d 1.10: Trong mch RCL hnh 1.31, tm phng trnh vo ra gia in p vo f (t ) v dng in ta y(t). Dng lut Kirchoff v in p qua vng kn, ta c: v L (t ) + v R (t ) + vC (t ) = f (t ) (1.47) p dng lut dng p cho tng thnh phn mch (cun dy, tr v t), ta vit c phng trnh c dng: t dy + 3 y (t ) + 2 y (t )dt = f (t ) (1.48) - dt Ly vi phn hai v ca phng trnh d2y dy df (1.49) + 3 + 2 y (t ) = 2 dt dt dt Phng trnh vi phn ny l quan h vo ra gia ng ra y(t) v ng vo f(t).

Thc t cho thy nn dng nim D thay cho

d , vi dt

dy = Dy (t ) dt d2y = Dy (t ) dt 2 V tip tc, t phng trnh (1.49) c vit li thnh

(1.50) (1.51)

(1.52) ( D 2 + 3D + 2) y (t ) = Df (t ) Ton t vi phn l nghch ca ton t tch phn, nn c th dng ton t 1/D biu din tch phn. t 1 (1.53) - y(t )dt = D y(t ) Phng trnh (1.48) cng c vit li thnh 2 (1.54) D + 3 + y (t ) = f (t ) D Do , phng trnh (1.48) c vit li thnh: (1.55) ( D 2 + 3D + 2) y (t ) = Df (t )

y chnh l phng trnh (1.52) Nhc li l phng trnh (1.55) khng phi l phng trnh i s, v D 2 + 3D + 2 khng phi l tha s i s nhn vi y(t); m l ton t tc ng ln y(t). Tc l ta phi thc hin cc php tnh sau ln y(t). Ly o hm bc hai ln y(t) v cng vi 3 ln o hm bc nht ca y(t) v 2 ln y(t). R rng, a thc cha D nhn vi y(t) biu din mt s ton t vi phn tc ng ln y(t).

Th d 1.11: Tm phng trnh quan h vo ra ca mch RC ni tip trong hnh 1.32 khi in p ng vo f(t) v ng ra ln lt l: (a) dng in vng x(t) (b) in p ra trn t y(t). (a) Phng trnh vng ca mch l 1 t Rx(t ) + x(t )dt = f (t ) C - Hay

(1.56)

15 x(t ) + 5 x(t )dt = f (t )

-

(1.57)

Dng nim ton t, vit li phng trnh

5 x(t ) = f (t ) D Nhn hai v ca phng trnh vi D, (tc l ly vi phn hai v), ta c 15 x(t ) +
(15D + 5) x (t ) = Df (t )

(1.58)

(1.59a) (1.59b)

hay
15 dx df + 5 x(t ) = dt dt

(b) Hn na, do
dy 1 = Dy (t ) dt 5 Th vo phng trnh (1.59a) x(t ) = C

(3D + 1) y (t ) = f (t )
Hay
3 dy + y (t ) = f (t ) dt

(1.60) (1.61)

D Bi tp E 1.7 T mch hnh 1.31, tm quan h vo ra khi ng ra l in p qua cun dy v L (t ) .

Hng dn: v L (t ) = LDy (t ) = Dy (t ) . p s ( D 2 + 3D + 2)v L (t ) = D 2 f (t ) .

D Bi tp E 1.8 T mch hnh 1.31, tm quan h vo ra khi ng ra l in p qua t vC (t ) . 1 2 Hng dn: v L (t ) = y (t ) = y (t ) . p s ( D 2 + 3D + 2)vC (t ) = 2 f (t ) . CD D

Th d 1.12: H chuyn ng quay c phng trnh chuyn ng tng t nh trong trng hp h dch chuyn. Thay v lc F, ta c momen xon T . Thay v khi lng M, ta c momen & qun tnh J, thay v gia tc tuyn tnh && , ta c gia tc gc q& . Phng trnh chuyn ng x & cho h quay l T = Jq& (thay v l F = M&& ). x Rt nhiu h thng in c chuyn i nng lng in thnh chuyn ng c hc v ngc li. Hy xem xt th d n gin v h thng iu khin phn ng (vi dng in phn cm i f khng i) ca ng c DC, nh v hnh 1.33a. Gi v tr gc quay ca rto, momen T (t ) do rto to ra t l vi dng in phn ng f (t ) , vy: (1.62) T (t ) = K T f (t ) Vi K T l hng s ca ng c. Momen ny truyn ng mt ti c kh c v & hnh 1.33b. H s nhn n hi (c h s B), t l vi vn tc quay q , to momen tiu & . Vi J l momen qu tnh ca ti (bao gm c rto ca ng c) th momen hao Bq & & T (t ) - Bq (t ) phi bng vi Jq&(t ) ; vy & & (1.63) Jq&(t ) = T (t ) - Bq (t ) Nn (1.64) ( JD 2 + BD)q (t ) = T (t ) = K T f (t )

C th vit thnh D( D + a)q (t ) = K1 f (t ) Vi a = B / J v K1 = K T / J . 1.8-1 M t ni ti v m t bn ngoi ca h thng

T kin thc v cu trc ni ti ca h thng, ta vit c phng trnh h thng dng m t ni ti ca h thng. Ngc li, khi m t h thng t ng vo v u ra ca h thng th gi l m t bn ngoi. hiu c m t bn ngoi, gi s h thng c t trong mt hp en ch quan st c cc ng vo v cc u ra m thi. m t c tnh ca h thng dng ny, ta cn thc hin mt s o lng ti cc im trn. Th d, ta c th p vo mt tn hiu bit, th d hm xung hay hm bc, ri o lng ti ng ra ca h thng. M t c c t php o ny cho ta m t bn ngoi ca h thng.

Gi s mch trong hnh 1.34a c ng vo f(t) v ng ra y(t) c c gi gn trong hp en v ch truy cp c t cc u vo v u ra. Trong iu kin ny th ch c mt phng php m t hay c trng h thng l dng php o lng bn ngoi. Th d ta c th p ngun in p bit f(t) ti u vo v o ng ra tng ng y(t). T thng tin ny, ta c th m t hay c trng c h thng. y l phng php m t bn ngoi. Gi s in p ban u ca t l zr, in p vo f(t) to dng in ra i (hnh 1.34a), c chia u gia hai nhnh do bn cht cn bng ca mch in. Do , in p qua t tip tc c gi zr. Nh th, khi tnh dng in i, c th g b t hay thay th bng ngn mch. Mch tng c c v li hnh 1.34b. Nh th theo hnh 1.34b th f(t) nhn thy tr 5W , v
1 f (t ) 5 ng thi, do y (t ) = 2 x (i / 2) = i, i (t ) =

y (t ) =

1 f (t ) 5

(1.66)

Mch tng ng nhn t u bn ngoi ca h thng c v hnh 1.34b. R rng l trong m t bn ngoi, t khng tn ti. Trong hu ht cc h thng th m t ni ti v m t bn ngoi ging nhau, nhng cng c mt t ngai tr, th d nh trng hp va nu, theo m t bn ngoi cha m t ng hnh nh ca h thng. iu ny xut hin khi h thng l khng iu khin c v/hay khng quan st c. Hnh 1.35a v 1.35b cho thy biu din cu trc ca mt h thng n gin ln lt c tnh cht khng iu khin c v khng quan st c. Trong hnh 1.35a, ta ghi nhn l phn ca h thng (h con S2) nm bn torng hp khng th iu khin c t ng vo f(t). Trong hnh 1.35b mt s ng ra ca h thng (nm trong h con S2) khng th quan st c t cc u ra. Nu mun m t mt trong cc h thng ny dng php p tn hiu bn ngoi f (t ) ri o ng ra y (t ) , th o lng khng c trng c ton b h thng m ch c trng mt phn ca h (trng hp ny l h con S1) l h c c tnh quan st c v iu khin c (kt ni c c c ng vo v ng ra). H thng loi ny thng khng mong mun trong thc t v cn trnh trong cc thit k h thng.

1.9 Tm tt Tn hiu l tp thng tin hay d liu. H thng x l tn hiu vo, bin i hay rt thm thng tin t chng ti tn hiu ra (p ng). H thng c th thc hin dng phn t vt l (phn cng) hay dng thut ton tnh tn hiu ra t tnh hiu vo (phn mm) o lng thch hp kch thc ca tn hiu l nng lng khi tn hiu l v hn. Nu nng lng tn hiu l v hn, th o lng thch hp l cng sut, nu tn ti. Cng sut tn hiu l trung bnh theo thi gian ca nng lng tn hiu (trung bnh trong ton b thi gian t - n . i vi tn hiu tun hon, th php trung bnh ch thc hin trong mt chu k, do tnh lp li c chu k ca tn hiu). Cng sut tn hiu l tr trung bnh bnh phng ca tn hiu (ly trung bnh trong ton thi gian t - n . Tn hiu c th c phn loi theo:

1. Tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian xc nh ti gi tr lin tc ca bin c lp (thng l bin thi gian t). Tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian ch xc nh vi tp cc thi im hu hn hay m c. 2. Tn hiu analog l tn hiu c gi tr bin l lin tc. Mt khc, tn hiu c bin ch c s hu hn gi tr l tn hiu s. Thut ng ri rc theo thi gian hay lin tc theo thi gian cho thy bn cht ca tn hiu dc theo trc thi gian (truc ngang), Thut ng analog hay s , th cho thy bn cht ca bin tn hiu (trc dc) 3. Tn hiu tun hon c nh ngha vi f (t ) = f (t + T0 ) vi trc b nht ca T0 tha h thc trn c gi l chu k. Tn hiu tun hon gi nguyn gi tr khi c di i cc khong l bi s ca chu k. Tn hiu tun hon cn c to ra t bng cch m rng theo chu k cc on ca f (t ) vi rng l T0 . Cui cng, theo nh ngha th tn hiu tun hon phi tn ti trong sui thi gian - < t < . Tn hiu l khng tun hon khi khng c chu k. Tn hiu khng dng bt u bt u t t = - n t = . Tn hiu nhn qu l tn hiu l zr khi t < 0 . Do , tn hiu tun hon l tn hiu khng dng. 4. Tn hiu c nng lng hu hn bt u t t = - n t = . 5. Tn hiu bit c hon ton m t vt l dng ton hc hay dng th c gi l tn hiu xc nh. Tn hiu ngu nhin l tn hiu ch bit c cc tha s c m t ngu nhin nh tr trung bnh, tr trung bnh bnh phng, v. v,, thay v dng m t ton hc hay dng th. Tn hiu f(t) c lm tr T giy (di ph) c vit thnh f( t- T) ; mt khc, f(t) c lm sm (di tri) c vit thnh f(t + T . Tn hiu f(t) c nn theo theo thi gian vi t l a (a>1) vit thnh f(at), mt khc, tn hiu gin theo thi gian c vit thnh f ( 1 ) . Tn hiu nghch theo thi gian vit thnh f( - t). a Hm bc n v u(t) rt hu dng biu din tn hiu nhn qu v tn hiu c nhiu dng m t ton hc ti cc thi khong khc nhau. Theo nh ngha truyn thng, hm xung n v d (t ) c c trng bng din tch n v, v tn hiu tp trung ch ti mt thi im t = 0. Hm xung c c tnh ly mu (hay c tnh di), theo phn din tch ca tch mt hm vi xung n v th bng vi gi tr hm ny ti thi im tn ti xung n v (vi gi s l hm lin tc ti v tr tn ti ca xung). Theo xu hng hin i, hm xung c xem l hm tng qut v c nh ngha t c tnh ly mu. Hm m est, trong s l s phc, lin quan n nhiu loi tn hiu bao gm t hng s, hm m n iu, hm sin, v hm sin thay i theo dng m. Tn hiu i xng theo trc dc (t = 0) l hm chn theo thi gian v phn i xng theo trc dc l hm l theo thi gian. Tch ca hm chn vi hm l l hm l theo thi gian. Tuy nhin, tch ca hm chn vi hm chn hay tch ca hm l vi hm l l mt hm chn. Din tch ca hm l t t = - a n a lun lun l zr, bt chp gi tr ca a.

Mt khc, din tch ca phn chn t t = - a n a lun l hai ln phn din tch ca tch hiu ly t t =0 n a (hay t t =-a n 0). Cc tn hiu u c th vit thnh tng ca hm chn v hm l theo thi gian. H thng x l cc tn hiu ng vo to cc tn hiu ng ra (p ng). Ng vo l nguyn nhn cn ng ra l hu qu. Thng thng, ng ra b tc ng bi hai nguyn nhn: iu kin ni ti ca h thng (nh cc iu kin u) v tn hiu tc ng bn ngoi. C nhiu phng php phn loi h thng: 1. H thng tuyn tnh c c trng t tnh tuyn tnh, bao hm tnh xp chng; nu c nhiu nguyn nhn (th d nh c nhiu ng vo v nhiu iu kin u) tc ng vo h thng tuyn tnh, th p ng tng l tng ca p ng do tng nguyn nhn, vi iu kin cc tc ng khc l khng tn ti. H phi tuyn l h khng tuyn tnh. H bt bin theo thi gian c c trng t cc tham s ca h thng l khng i theo thi gian. Tham s ca h khng bt bin th thay i theo thi gian. Trong h thng khng c tnh nh (h tc thi), p ng ra ti thi im t ch ph thuc vo gi tr hin ti ca ng vo (ti thi im t). Trong h c tnh nh (cn gi l h thng ng), p ng ca h thng ti thi im bt k t khng ch ph thuc vo gi tr hin ti ca ng vo, m cn ph thuc tr qu kh ca ng vo (tr trc thi gian t). Ngc li, nu p ng ca h thng ti t ch ph thuc vo cc gi tr tng lai ca ng vo (gi tr ca ng vo sau t), th h thng l khng nhn qu. Trong h nhn qu, p ng khng ph thuc vo tr tng lai ca ng vo. Ng ra h khng nhn qu ph thuc vo cc gi tr tng lai ca ng vo, nn p ng ra xut hin trc khi c nguyn nhn. Khi h khng nhn qu c bin c lp l thi gian (h thi gian), th h l h d bo, nn khng th thc hin c h thng trong thc t, d cho c c php xp x gn ng vi mt s khu tr ti ng ra. H khng nhn qu c bin c lp khc bin thi gian (th d c bin khng gian) th thc hin c. Nu cc phn t trong h thng c kch thc b so vi di sng ca tn hiu, ta c th gi s l mi phn t l c tham s tp trung, v h thng c xem l h c tham s tp trung. Trong gi s ny th cc tn hiu ch l hm theo thi gian. Khi gi s ny khng ng th tn hiu l hm theo khng gian v thi gian; v cn c gi l h c tham s phn b. H thng c cc ng vo v cc ng ra lin tc theo thi gian l h lin tc theo thi gian; h thng c cc tn hiu vo v ng ra l ri rc theo thi gian l h ri rc theo thi gian. Khi ly mu tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian, ta c tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian. C th x l tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian dng h ri rc x l cc mu ca tn hiu ny. H thng c tn hiu cc ng vo v cc ng ra l tn hiu analog l h thng analog; cn h c tn hiu cc ng vo v cc ng ra l tn hiu s c gi l h thng s.

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Nu c th khi phc tn hiu vo f(t) t ng ra y(t) ca h thng S thng qua mt s php tnh, th h thng S c gi l h kh nghch, ngc li l h khng kh nghch.

H thng c m hnh tm c t kin thc ca cu trc bn trong ca h thng c gi l m t ni ti. Ngc li, m t bn ngoi ca h thng c m t c nhn t cc u ng vo v ng ra ca h thng; m t ny c c t bng cch a vo h thng mt ng vo bit ri o lng ng ra. Trong hu ht cc h thng thc t, th m t ni ti thng tng ng vi m t t bn ngoi. Tuy nhin, trong mt s trng hp m t bn ngoi khng cung cp thng tin v h thng, trng hp ny, h c gi l h khng iu khiun c hay khng quan st c.

Ti liu tham kho

1. 2. 3. 4. Papoulis, A., The Fourier Integral and Its Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962. Kailath, T., Linear Systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1980. Lathi, B.P., Signals, Systems and Communications, Viley, New York, 1965. Lathi, B.P., Signals and Systems, Berkeley-Cambridge Press, Carmichael, California, 1987.

Bi tp
1.1-1 1.1-2 1.1-3 Tm nng lng ca tn hiu trong hnh P1.1-1. Nhn xt v nng lng khi tn hiu i du. Nhn xt v nng lng khi tn hiu c nhn vi k. Lm li bi tp 1.1-1 dng hnh P1.1-2. (a) Tm nng lng ca cp tn hiu x(t) v y(t) c v hnh P1.1-3a v P1.1-3b. V v tm nng lng ca tn hiu x(t) + y(t) v x(t) + y(t). Nhn xt g t cc kt qu ? (b) Lm li phn (a) dng hnh P1.1-3, cho bit nhn xt trong phn (a) cn c gi tr khng?

1.1-4

Tm cng sut ca tn hiu tun hon f(t) trong hnh P1.1-4. Tm tip cng sut v tr rms ca (a) f(t) (b) 2 f(t) (c) c f(t). Nhn xt.

1.1-5

Chng minh l cng sut ca tn hiu

f (t ) = Dk e
k =m n jw k t

Pf = Dk
k =m

1.1-6

Vi gi s cc tn s l phn bit, vi wi w k vi mi i k Tm cng sut v tr rms ca tng tn hiu sau p p p (a) 10 cos100t + (b) 10 cos100t + + 16 sin 150t + 3 3 5 (c) (10 + 2 sin t )cos10t (d) 10 cos 5t cos10t (e) 10sn cos 10t (f) e jat cos w0t Trong hnh P1.3-1, tn hiu f1 (t ) = f (-t ) . Biu din cc tn hiu f 2 (t ) , f 3 (t ) , f 4 (t ) v f 5 (t ) theo f (t ) , f1 (t ) v cc tnh cht: di theo thi gian, t l theo thi gian v tnh kh nghch theo thi gian. Th d f 2 (t ) = f (t - T ) + f1 (t - T ) .

1.3-1

1.3-2

T tn hiu f (t ) hnh P1.3-2, v cc tn hiu (a) f (-t ) (b) f (t + 6) (c) f (3t ) (d) f (t / 2)

1.3-3

T tn hiu f (t ) hnh P1.3-3, v cc tn hiu (a) f (t - 4) (b) f (t / 1,5) (c) f (-t ) (d) f (2t - 4) (e) f (2 - t )

1.4-1 V cc tn hiu (a) u (t - 5) - u (t - 7) (b) u (t - 5) + u (t - 7) (c) t 2 [u (t - 1) - u (t - 2)] (d) (t - 4)[u (t - 2) - u (t - 4)] 1.4-2 Biu din cc tn hiu trong hnh P1.4-2 dng biu thc xc nh vi mi t. 1.4-3 Tn hiu f (t ) c nng lng E f , chng t l nng lng ca cc tn hiu

- f (t ) , f (-t ) v f (t - T ) u c gi tr E f . Chng t l nng lng ca tn

hiu f (at ) cng tn hiu f (at - b) l E f / a . iu ny cho thy php di v php nghch theo thi gian khng nh hng ln nng lng tn hiu. Mt khc, php nn theo thi gian (a > 1) gim nng lng v php gin theo thi gian (a < 1) lm tng nng lng. Cho bit nng lng thay i ra sao khi nhn tn hiu vi hng s a.

1.4-4 n gin cc biu thc sau: sin t jw + 2 (a) 2 (b) 2 d (t ) d (w ) t +2 w +9 sin [p (t - 2)] 2 (c) [e -t cos(3t - 60 0 )]d (t ) (d) d (t - 1) t2 + 4
1 (e) jw + 2 d (w + 3)

sin kw (f) d (w ) w

1.4-5 Tnh cc tch phn sau: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Hng dn: d (x) tn ti ti x = 0. Th d d (1 - t ) tn ti ti 1 t = 0 v tnh tip. 1.4-6 (a) Tm v v df / dt ca tn hiu f (t ) hnh P1.3-3 (b) Tm v v d 2 f / dt 2 ca tn hiu f (t ) hnh P1.4-2a

- -

d (t ) f (t - t )dt
f (t )d (t - t )dt

(e) (f) (g) (h)

- -

d (t )e - jwt dt d (t - 2) sin ptdt

d (t + 3)e dt (t + 4)d (1 - t )dt f (2 - t )d (3 - t )dt e cos[p ( x - 5)]d ( x - 3)dx

-t - 3 - - ( x -1) - 2

1.4-7 Tm v v gi tr

1.4-8 Dng nh ngha hm tng qut, chng t d (t ) l hm chn theo t. Hng dn: Dng phng trnh (1.24a) nh ngha d (t ) . Thay bin t = - x chng minh

f ( x)dx ca tn hiu f (t ) trong hnh P1.4-7

f (t )d (-t )dt = f (0)

d (at ) =
1 d (t ) a

1.4-9 Chng minh l

Hng dn: chng minh 1.4-10 Chng minh

f (t )d (at )dt =

1 f ( 0) a

& & d&(t )f (t )dt = -f (0) trong f (t ) v f (t ) lin tc ti t = 0, v f (t ) 0 khi t . Tch phn nhm nh ngha d& (t ) l hm tng qut. Hng dn: dng phng php tch phn tng phn. 1.4-11 Tn hiu at cos wt c th c xem l tng ca hm m e st v e - st (phng trnh (1.30c) dng tn s phc s = s + jw v s = s - jw . Xc nh cc tn hiu sin sau trong mt phng phc: (a) cos3t (b) e-3tcos3t (c) e2tcos3t (d) e-2t (d) e2t (f) 5. 1.5-1 Tm v v cc thnh phn chn v l ca (a) u(t) (b) tu(t) (c) sin w 0 tu (t ) (d) cos w0tu (t ) (e) sin w0 t (f) cos w0t

1.6-1 Tm quan h vo-ra ca b tch phn l tng. Xc nh thnh phn p ng vi ng vo zr v p ng trng thi zr. 1.7-1 H thng c m t t cc phng trnh sau, vi ng vo f (t ) , ng ra y (t ) , xc nh h tuyn tnh v h phi tuyn. dy (a) (c) 3 y (t ) + 2 = f (t ) + 2 y (t ) = f 2 (t ) dt dy dy df (b) + 3ty (t ) = t 2 f (t ) (f) + (sin t ) y (t ) = + 2 f (t ) dt dt dt
dy (e) + 2 y (t ) = f (t ) dt dy (d) + y 2 (t ) = f (t ) dt
2

(g)

dy df + 2 y (t ) = f (t ) dt dt
t -

(h) y (t ) = f (s )ds

1.7-2 H thng c m t t cc phng trnh sau, vi ng vo f (t ) , ng ra y (t ) , xc nh h bt bin v h thay i theo thi gian. (a) y (t ) = f (t - 2) (d) y (t ) = - f (t - 2) (b) y (t ) = f (-t ) (c) y (t ) = f (at ) (e) y (t ) = f (t )dt
5 -5

df (f) y (t ) = dt

1.7-3 H thng tuyn tnh bt bin (TT-BB) c ng vo f (t ) , ng ra y (t ) , v hai iu kin u x1 (0) v x2 (0) , ta ghi nhn c quan st sau:

Tm y (t ) khi c hai ng vo u bng zr v ng vo f (t ) c dng hnh P1.7-3. Hng dn: C ba nguyn nhn: ng vo v tng iu kin u. T tnh tuyn tnh, khi nguyn nhn tng gi tr k, th p ng cng tng vi cng gi tr k. Tuy nhin, khi cng thm nguyn nhn mt gi tr, th p ng cng c cng thm mt gi tr tng ng.

1.7-4 H thng c c trng bi quan h vo-ra l f 2 (t ) . y (t ) = df dt Chng minh l h thng tha tnh ng nht nhng khng tha tnh cng. 1.7-5 Chng minh l trong mch hnh P1.5-7 l h tuyn tnh trng thi zr, nhng phi tuyn vi ng vo zr. Gi s cc it c c tnh ging nhau. Hng dn: trong trng thi (khi in p u ca t vC (0) = 0 ) th mch l tuyn tnh. Nu ng vo f (t ) = 0 , v vC (0) khc zr, dng in y (t ) khng c tnh tuyn tnh theo nguyn nhn vC (0) .

1.7-6 Cun L v t C trong hnh P1.7-6 l linh kin phi tuyn, nn l mch khng tuyn tnh. Ba phn t cn li l tuyn tnh. Chng t l ng ra y (t ) ca mch phi tuyn tha iu kin tuyn tnh theo ng vo f (t ) v cc iu kin u (tt c cc dng in ban u qua cun dy v in p ban u qua t). Ch l ngun dng l h mch khi dng in l zr. 1.7-7 H thng c m t t cc phng trnh sau, vi ng vo f (t ) , ng ra y (t ) , xc nh h nhn qu v h khng nhn qu. (a) y (t ) = f (t - 2) (c) y (t ) = f (at ) a > 1 (b) y (t ) = f (-t ) (d) y (t ) = f (at ) a < 1

1.7-8 H thng c m t t cc phng trnh sau, vi ng vo f (t ) , ng ra y (t ) , xc nh h kh nghch v h khng kh nghch. Trng hp h kh nghch, tm quan h vo-ra ca h kh nghch. (a) y (t ) = f (t )dt
- t

(c) y (t ) = f n (t )

n: s nguyn

(b) y (t ) = f (3t - 6)

(d) y (t ) = cos[ f (t )]

1.8-1 Cho mch hnh 1.8-1, tm phng trnh vi phn m t quan h gia nhng ng vo y1 (t ) v y 2 (t ) vi ng vo f (t ) . 1.8-2 Lm li bi tp 1.8-1 dng hnh 1.8-2. 1.8-3 Nc vo thng cha vi lu lng qi n v/giy v lu lng ra khi vi l q0 n v/giy (hnh P1.8-3). Tm phng trnh ca quan h gia ng ra q0 v ng vo qi . Lu tc t l vi h. Nn q0 = Rh vi R l lc cn ca vi. Xc nh phng trnh vi phn m t quan h gia h v ng vo qi . Hng dn: lu tc thc ca nc ti thi im Dt l (qi - q0 )Dt , cn c gi tr l ADh v A l din tch mt ct ca thng cha.