1122

G.Strang

2011


1122 ,
2009, , Rn Cn . Gauss,

Rn Cn ,
. .
.
G.Strang,
,
2006 (Linear Algebra and its Applications, Fourth Edition,
Thomson, 2006).


1 Gauss

32

58

68

89

6 , .

112

 1
Gauss
,
.

2x y = 1
x + y = 5
.
() .
2x y = 1
: x- 1/2
y- 1.
x + y = 5
x- 5 y- 5.
, , ,
(x, y) . , (2, 3).
; ,
. ,
2x y = 1
4x + 2y = 0
. ,
2x y =
1
4x + 2y = 2
: (x, y)
.
1

2
1
1
x
+y
=
.
1
1
5
, x y,
. ,
,
.
; , . ,
.
, .
3 .
2u + v + w =
5
4u 6v
= 2
2u + 7v + 2w =
9

(1.1)

().
( 25 , 0, 0), (0, 5, 0), (0, 0, 5).
u- v- ( 21 , 0, 0) (0, 31 , 0).
u = 0 v = 0 0w = 2, .
w-.
. ,
. .
, (1, 1, 2).
; .
:
,
, ,
, .
,
, ,
.
,
.
(1.1) ,

2
1
1
5
u 4 + v 6 + w 0 = 2 .
(1.2)
2
7
2
9

Gauss

u, v w
. , R3
. ,
, ,
(u, v, w) = (1, 1, 2).
; , ,
. .




1
1
1
u 2 + v 0 + w 3 = b.
3
1
4

2
b= 5
7

2
b= 5
6

.
.
,
. ,
.
1.1
x + 2y = 2
x y = 1
. .
. .
. x y ,
.
. ( ) ,
.
1.2

1
2
2
x+
y=
1
1
1

, x y
1.1, .

1.3
.
.

2u + v + w = 5
4u + 2v + 2w = 6
2u + 7v + 2w = 9

.
u + v + w = 2
2u +
+ 3w = 5
3u + v + 4w = 6
.
u + v + w = 2
2u +
+ 3w = 5
3u + v + 4w = 7

. 1 Rn , n 0.
R0 = {0} Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n} .
Rn , Rn ( ). x1 , . . . , xn
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn .
,
, (x1 , x2 , x3 ) . ,
(0, 0, 0) (x1 , x2 , x3 ). ,
. , Rn
n- , x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
, , ,

x1
x2

x = .. ,
.
xn
,
, , , (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
1

6 ,
Cn = {(z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) | zi C, i = 1, 2, . . . , n} .

Gauss

Rn n , ,
.
, :

1
2
2 0
+
3 1
4
5

x1
x2
..
.

y1
y2
..
.

3
2
=

4 .
1

xn + yn

yn

xn

x1 + y1
x2 + y2
..
.

, ,
:

2 2
2
0 0

.
2
1 =

5
5 2
,

x1
x2
..
.

xn

x1
x2
..
.

xn

,
(),

x1
x2
..
.
xn

y1
y2
..
.
yn

z1
z2
..
.
zn

x1 + y1 + z1
x2 + y2 + z2
..
.

xn + yn + zn

, , .
( R3 .) x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) , x y
x y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + + xn yn .
n n ,
:
-, 2 Rn ,
n .
2

n 1!

,
.
1.4 y1 , y2 , y3
(0, y1 ), (1, y2 ) (2, y3 ) ;
1.5

2
1
3
1 , 1 , 0
1
4
2

. 2.
. 2 2.
. 2 2.
. 1.
;
1.6

:
u + v + w + z = 6
u
+ w + z = 4
u
+ w
= 2.

, ; u = 1;
.
1.7 , 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
, 4 b. (1, 0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1, 0)
(1, 1, 1, 1) b = (3, 3, 3, 2); ,
x, y, z, t ;

Gauss
. Gauss (Gauss elimination),
, .
Gauss (1.1), ,
,
.

Gauss

2u + v + w =
5
4u 6v
= 2
2u + 7v + 2w =
9
u 0. , ,
u , , 0,
u .
2 .
1 (
).
u .
2 1 u .
2u +

v + w =
5
8v 2w = 12
8v + 3w =
14

u . v 0.
, v .
1 .
Gauss.
2u +

v + w =
5
8v 2w = 12
w =
2

v
. w 0 .
.
w = 2.
w , 8v 4 = 12,
v = 1.
v w , 2u + 1 + 2 = 5,
u = 1.
(back substitution).
Gauss u, v w ,
:

, .
Gauss ,
,
.

:

2
1
1
5
2
1
1
5
2
1 1
5
4 6 0 2 0 8 2 12 0 8 2 12
0
0
1
2
0
8
3
14
2
7 2
9
, , ,
.
n n , n ( ) ,
, .
,
.
1. , ,
, .

u + v + w = a
2u + 2v + 5w = b
(1.3)
4u + 6v + 8w = c

1 1 1
a
1 1 1
a
1 1 1 a
2 2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b 0 2 4 4a + c
0 0 3 2a + b
0 2 4 4a + c
4 6 8 c

, .
2. , .
. ,
u + v + w = a
2u + 2v + 5w = b
4u + 4v + 8w = c
u,

1 1 1 a
1 1 1
a
2 2 5 b 0 0 3 2a + b
4 4 8 c
0 0 4 4a + c

. ,
. .

Gauss

2a + b = 6 4a + c = 7,
3w = 6
4w = 7
. .
2a + b = 6 4a + c = 8,
3w = 6
4w = 8
w = 2. u v.
u v .
.
1.8

2u 3v
= 3
4u 5v + w = 7
2u v 3w = 5

. u, v, w. ,
.
. Gauss :
, u .
. ()
() , v . w v
u.
1.9 b ;
b ; ,
x, y, z.
x + by z = 0
x 2y z = 0
y + z = 0

1.10

u + v + w = 2
3u + 3v w =
6
u v + w = 1

. Gauss (
).

10

. v ,
.
1.11
. .
. (x, y, z) (X, Y, Z) , ;
. 25 , ;
1.12

:
2x + y
x + 2y + z
y + 2z + t
z + 2t

=
=
=
=

0
0
0
5.

1.13
Gauss;
. ,
1 3.
. 2 3.
. , 1 2 3.

. .
-, b. (1.2),

5
b = 2 .
9
, ,
-,

u
x= v .
(1.4)
w
9 , ,
,

2
1 1
A = 4 6 0 .
(1.5)
2
7 2

Gauss

11

3 3.
. m n , m n
mn m n ,
[, ]. m = n . m 6= n
.
, , . n- n 1
. , . :

2
1 1
3
6 5
5 1 + 6 4
+
=
.
4 6 0
2
7
2
2
1
2

2
1 1
6
3 3
3
=
.
4 6 0
12 18 0
.
i j aij . m n A

a11 a12 . . . a1j . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2j . . . a2n
.
..
..
..
.

.
.
.
.
A=

ai1 ai2 . . . aij . . . ain

.
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
am1 am2 . . . amj . . . amn
A = [aij ]. , A = [aij ]
B = [bij ] m n A + B = [aij + bij ]. (A + B)ij
ij A + B,
(A + B)ij = aij + bij ,

(B)ij = bij .
(1.2)
A, 1.5,
x, 1.4. ,
.
. m n A n- x m-
Ax, i i- A
x, Ax = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ),
yi = ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn , i = 1, . . . , m.
m n A, n- x
m- Ax.
1.1 3 3 3- 3-,

1 2 6
2
2 + 10 + 0
12
3 0 3 5 = 6 + 0 + 0 = 6 ,
1 1 4
0
2+5+0
7

12

2 3 3- 2-,

1 2 6
2 + 10 + 0
12
5 =
=
.
3 0 3
6+0+0
6
0
Ax
A x:

1 2 6
2
1
2
6
12
3 0 3 5 = 2 3 + 5 0 + 0 3 = 6 .
1 1 4
0
1
1
4
7
P
,
:
n
X
(Ax)i =
aij xj .
j=1

.
,
, :

2
1
1

2 1 0 4 6 0 = 0 8 2 .
2
7 2
.
2
, (1.1).
0 0 1 ,

2
1 1

0 0 1 4 6 0 = 2 7 2 .
2
7 2
.

A E:

1 0 0
2
1 1
2
1
1
E A = 2 1 0 4 6 0 = 0 8 2
(1.6)
0 0 1
2
7 2
2
7
2
. mn A np B. AB
m p , ij i-
A j- B,
(AB)ij =

n
X
k=1

aik bkj , i = 1, . . . , m j = 1, . . . , p.

13

Gauss

A
B.
1.2 2 2 I 2 3
B:

1 0
2
3 7
2
3 7
IB =
=
.
0 1
4 6 0
4 6 0
1.3 ,
AB BA:

2

AB = 1 6
= 8 ,
1

BA=

2
1

1 6

2 12
1 6

1.4 P
B, P B:

2 3
7 8
0 1
=
,
PB=
7 8
2 3
1 0

BP =

2 3
7 8

0 1
1 0

3 2
8 7

,
.
1.1
1. i- AB
B i- A.
2. j- AB A
j- B.
. i- AB

(AB)i1 . . . (AB)ip

Pn
k=1

aik bk1 . . .

Pn
k=1

aik bkp

n
X

aik

bk1 . . . bkp

k=1

1.2 ,
. , A, B m n , C, D n p
E p q ,
1.
A(CE) = (AC)E ,

14

2.
A(C + D) = AC + AD

(A + B)C = AC + BC .

. P

. i = 1, . . . , m j = 1, . . . , q, :
(A(CE))ij =
=
=

n
X
k=1
n
X

aik (CE)kj
aik

p
X

k=1
p
n X
X

!
ckt etj

t=1

aik ckt etj

k=1 t=1

,
(A(CE))ij =

p
n
X
X

aik ckt etj

t=1

k=1

p
n
X
X
t=1

p
X

!
aik ckt

etj

k=1

(AC)it etj

t=1

= ((AC)E)ij .
.

1.14

3
1
1

1 2 7 2 , 1 2 7 5 , 2 3 5 1
7
1
7

1.15

2 1 0
1 2 3

0, 5
/2

2/3

1 6 cos(/6) 7
1 0 0
0 2 0 3
2
2
1 0 3
/3
3
1

1 0 0
1
0
0
0 2 0 0
1/2 0
1 0 3
1/3 0 1/3

15

Gauss

1.16 Ax Ax =
. Ax = 0;

3 6
0
2

2 2
1 .
Ax = 0
1 1 1
1
1.17

3 3 A B
aij = i j

bij =

1
.
j

AB, BA A2 .
1.18 A aij ,

.
. i1 i
. aij .
. .
1.19

EA, AE,

1 7
E=
.
0 1

1.20 nn A c1 , c2 , . . . ,
cn , n n B - r1 , r2 , . . . , rn .
ci ri n n ( 1.3).
AB .
1.21
P , .
1.22
2 3 3 5 .
1.23

; .

. A ,
AB.
. B ,
AB.

16

. A ,
AB.
. B ,
AB.
1.24 .
,
.
. 2 2 A C, 2 1 B 1 2
D

A B

C
D

AC + BD

. x ,

.
x x .. x
.
x x .. x
.
..
.
x x .. x

.
x x .. x
.
x x .. x
.
..
.
x x .. x

1.25 .
, CA1
, S.

I
0
1
CA
I

A B
C D

A B
0 S

1.26 A m n B n r,
AB mnr . (
). C r p,
(AB)C
A(BC).
1.27 A, B, C, D : A : 5 14, B :
14 87, C : 87 3 D : 3 42.
ABCD
. (A(BC))D
. A(B(CD))

Gauss

17

(1.6), (1.1)
, .
. 1 0 ,
. 1 6= 0
ij i 6= j, 0 , ,
Eij ().
A Eij (),
j i A.
A Eij (),
i j A.

1.1, b
.

2
1 1
5
4 6 0 2 .
2
7 2
9
1. 2

2
1
1
5
1 0 0
2
1 1
5
0 8 2 12 = 2 1 0 4 6 0 2
2
7
2
9
0 0 1
2
7 2
9
2. 1

2
1
1
5
1
0 0
1 0 0
2
1 1
5
0 8 2 12 =
0
1 0 2 1 0 4 6 0 2
0
8
3
14
(1) 0 1
0 0 1
2
7 2
9
3. 1

2
1
1
5
0 8 2 12 =
0
0
1
2

1
0
0
1 0 0
1 0 0
2
1 1
5
0
1
0 0 1 0 2 1 0 4 6 0 2
0 (1) 1
1 0 1
0 0 1
2
7 2
9

, E
1 0 0
1
0 0
1
0
2 1 0 , F =
0
1 0 G = 0
1
0 0 1
(1) 0 1
0 (1)
Gauss.
b. Gauss
.
.
.
.
[A..b] E[A..b] F E[A..b] GF E[A..b] .

=
0
0
1

18

,
A b GF E.

AX = b

GF EAx = GF Eb .
. A = [aij ]
0, aij = 0 i > j.
A = [aij ]
0, aij = 0 i < j.
U = GF EA c = GF Eb, U ,

Ux = c
,
.
, U
A: , .
G (1) ,
G1 ,

1 0 0
G1 = 0 1 0 .
0 1 1

1 0 0
F 1 = 0 1 0 (1)
1 0 1

1 0 0
, E 1 = 2 1 0 2
0 0 1
,
E 1 F 1 G1 U = A .
E 1 F 1 G1 L. A
A = LU .
n n ,
.
.
1.28

L = E 1 F 1 G1 .

L 1
. . L
E 1 F 1 G1 . G1
E32 (1), 32 = 1 3 2.
F 1 E31 (1), 31 = 1

19

Gauss

3 1. E32 (1) E31 (1) ,

31 E32 . [1 0 0],
31 3 1
:

1 0 0
1 0 0
1
0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 = 0
1 0 .
31 0 1
0 32 1
31 32 1
, E 1 , 21
2 1, .

L = E 1 F 1 G1 = E21 (21 )E31 (31 )E32 (32 )

1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
= 21 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
31 0 1
0 32 1
0 0 1

1
0 0

21 1 0
=
31 32 1
. n n A
, n. ( , ,
).
0.
1.3 n n Ax = b , A
A = LU ,
L , 1 , ij
.
U , .
A = LU .
. Ax = b
LU x = b.
c = U x,

Lc = b, U x = c.
c
Lc = b x U x = c.
, .
1.1 Lc = b

1
0 0
5
c1
2
1 0 c2 = 2
c3
1 1 1
9

20

c1
=
5
2c1 + c2
= 2
c1 c2 + c3 =
9
, , c1 = 5, c2 = 12, c3 = 2.
U x = c

2
1
1
x
5
0 8 2 y = 12
0
0
1
z
2
.

:
1.4 U n n ,
,
Ux = b
.
.
A = LU ,
: U D
, U 0 , 1 ,
A = LDU 0 .
U 0 U

2
1
1
2
0 0
0 8 2 0 8 0
0
0
1
0
0 1

1 1/2 1/2
0 1 1/4 .
0 0
1

( )
, , 1.32.
1.29
( ).
33,
.
1.30 L U

3 1 1
1 1 1
2 1
, 1 3 1 , 1 4 4
8 7
1 1 3
1 4 8
1.31

1 0 0
2 4 4
u
2
1 1 0 0 1 2 v = 0
1 0 1
0 0 1
w
2

21

Gauss

, Lc = b U x = c.
1.32

A = LDU 0 .

1.33 F GH HGF (
):

1
1
1
2 1

0 1

0
G=
H=
F =
0 0 1

0 2 1

0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0

1
.

0 1
0 2 1

1.34 A LU ,
U x = c , :

2 3 3
u
2

v
= 2 .
Ax = 0 5 7
5
6 9 8
w

1.35

E 2 , E 8 E 1

1 0
E=
6 1

1.36

d1 a b
U = 0 d2 c
0 0 d3

V V U = I. d1 d2 d3 6= 0
V .

(1.3) ,
.
;
1.5

2 3
7 8
=
7 8
2 3

1 0 0
1 5 4
1 5 4
P23 A = 0 0 1 0 2 3 = 7 1 8 ,
0 1 0
7 1 8
0 2 3
0 1
1 0

22

P23 A A P23 .
. Pij i
j A A Pij .
Pij 1 ij ji, ii jj,
0 . A
Pij , i j A.
. A ,
A. A
, A.
n n A Gauss A,
,
Pi1 j1 , Pi2 j2 , . . . , Pik jk .
, P = Pik jk . . . Pi1 j1 ,
P A.
2.1, 1.38. P A

,
P A = LU .
,
.
. n n A
( ) . , A
, U
0.
1.5 n n
Ax = b .

1. A ,
.
2. A , P
P A
.
() ,
.
() P A
P A = LDU 0

23

Gauss

L 1 , D
, U 0 1 .
.
1.37 ,
:
u + 4v + 2w = 2
2u 8v + 3w = 32
v + w =
1

v + w = 0
u + v
= 0
u + v + w = 1

.
1.38 E 3 3 ,
P .
. E P , E 0 P E 0 = EP .
. E 0 .
1.39 6 3 3,
. , .
1.40 ,
, LU .

2
u
2 4 4
1 0 0

v
0 1 2
= 0 .
LU x = 1 1 0
2
w
0 0 1
1 0 1
1.41 P A = LDU 0

0 1 1
1 2 1
1 0 1 , 2 4 2 .
2 3 4
1 1 1
1.42 E21 E32
1
1
A E32 E21 A = U ; E32
E21
1 1
E32 U :
A LU = E21

1 1 1
A = 2 4 5 .
0 4 0
1.43

a a
a b
A=
a b
a b

L U

a a
b b
.
c c
c d

24

a, b, c, d A = LU
.
1.44 A 2, 7 6, ,
2 2 B ;
.
1.45 P P A ;
P1 AP2 ; P2
. . . . . . . . . A.

0 0 6
A = 1 2 3 .
0 4 5
1.46 P1 P2 , P1 P2 :
I .
P1 P2 6= P2 P1 P3 P4 = P4 P3 .

.
. A
B
BA = I AB = I .
B A, A1 .
. ,
( 3, 3.5), .
1.6 A , B
AB = I C CA = I.
1.7 A , .
. B C A, AB = I = CA.
B = IB = (CA)B = C(AB) = CI = C .

1.6 11 A = [a] a 6= 0,
A1 = [1/a].
1.8 A ,
Ax = b x = A1 b.

Gauss

25

A ,
Ax = b, b.
. Gauss
,
.
1.9 A B ,

(AB)1 = B 1 A1 .
. B 1 A1 .
(AB)(B 1 A1 ) = A(BB 1 )A1 = (AI)A1 = AA1 = I ,
(B 1 A1 )(AB) = B 1 (A1 A)B = B 1 IB = B 1 B = I .

1.7 A, F, G GF EA = U , F 1 G1 U A1 =
F 1 G1 (GF EA)A1 = E.
1.10 B C , A
BAC .
. , A1 , (BAC)1 = C 1 A1 B 1 . ,
(BAC)1 , C(BAC)1 B A:
A(C(BAC)1 B) = (B 1 B)A(C(BAC)1 B) = B 1 (BAC)(BAC)1 B) = I .

1.11 .
. B, A j- ,
, BA j-. BA 6= I.

a b
1.47 2 2 A =

c d

d
b
1
ad bc 6= 0, A1 = adbc
.
c
a
1.48

3 8
3 6
,
.
1 3
2 4

1.49
. ;
1.50 A2 B, A
AB. ( A A2 ).
1.51 2 2 , I I,
, A2 = I.

26

Gauss - Jordan
A AA1 = I
: xj j A1 , ej j I,
Axj = ej

j = 1, . . . , n.

, A1 n n n . A n
. Gauss , .
A
I.
[A I] = [A e1 e2 e3 ]

2
1 1

4 6 0
=
2
7 2

2
1
1

0 8 2

0
8
3

2
1
1

0 8 2

0
0
1

= U L1

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

1 0 0
2 1 0
1 0 1

1 0 0
2 1 0
1 1 1

,
, .
,
:

2
1
0
2
1
1

3
2 .
U L1 0 8 0 4
0
0 1 1
1
1
1/8 :

2
0 0 12
58 68
8
3
2 .
0 8 0 4
0
0 1 1
1
1
.
, :

5
6
12
16
16
1 0 0 16
1
38 41 = [I B] .
0 1 0
2
0 0 1 1
1
1
B Axj = ej , AB = I.
,

Gauss

27

F1 , . . . , Fk .
Fk . . . F1 A = I, Fk . . . F1 I = B.
A1 = Fk . . . F1 = B.
GaussJordan,
.
. ,
.
.
1.12 U ,
.
. U
, ukk = 0. k 1
k U u(k1) k . ,
k 2, k 3, . . . , 1
u(k2) k , u(k3) k , . . . , u1 k , W
k .
j
k, Ejk (). M
,
W = UM .
. 1.9,
M . 1.10, U
W . W
1.11 .

A n n , Gauss
U ,
,
A = P 1 LU .
P L U , 1.10 A .

1.13 .
1.52 GaussJordan ,

1 0 0
2 0 4
1
2 1
1 2 0 , 1 3 1 , 3 1
0
2 3 3
0 1 2
2 3
1
1.53

1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
4

A=
1 1 1 0 .
3
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
2

28

1.54
A B, .

a b c
a b 0
A = d e 0 B = c d 0 .
f 0 0
0 0 e
1.55 Gauss-Jordan
A1 :

0 2 1 0
A I =
2 2 0 1
1.56
.

2x 7
1 2
2x x
5 3

1
=

1
=

2 7
1
4
3 2
5
4

1.57 GaussJordan
. ,
.
1.58 , ,
.
1.59 A B
. A + B , A B .
. A + B , A B .
. A, B, A + B .
A1 (A + B)B 1 = B 1 + A1 ,
C = B 1 + A1 , C 1 .
1.60 A ,
A B. B ;
B 1 A1 ;
1.61 A B , I BA I AB . B(I AB) =
(I BA)B.

29

Gauss

. A m n , (transpose) A,
AT n m A.
ij AT ji A:
(AT )ij = (A)ji .

1.8

2 1
8 7

2 8
1 7

1 2 1
1 3 1
3 4 6 = 2 4 4 .
1 4 8
1 6 8
.
1.14 A, B m n , C n p ,
1. (A + B)T = AT + B T .
2. (AC)T = C T AT .
3. A , (A1 )T = (AT )1 .
. A AT = A,
(A)ij = (A)ji i, j. A AT = A, (A)ij = (A)ji i, j.
1.15 A , A = LDU 0 , L
1 , D U 0 1
,
LT = U 0 .
. LDU 0 = A = AT = (LDU 0 )T = (U 0 )T DT LT . (U 0 )T
, DT LT ,
A = LDU 0 , LT = U 0 , (U 0 )T = L.

1.62

4 5 6
1 2 3
0 1 2

1 1 3
1
2 0 .
3
0 4

30

1.63
:

1 2 4
6
4 5 2

3
4

7
2
7

T 1

9
7
.
4
9

2
3
.
4 4

1.64

A (4A )

1.65

A B ,
(AT )1 = (A1 )T

(AT B T )1 = (A1 B 1 )T .

1.66 A 4 1, B 2 3, C 2 4
D 1 3. , ;
. ADB T
. 4CA (CA)2

. C T B 5AD
. (ADB T C)2 I4

1.67 (AB)T = B T AT .
(AB)T , AB,
B T AT .
1.68

0 0 1
0
P1 = 0 1 0 P2 = 1
1 0 0
0

0 1
0 0 .
1 0

, P , P 1 = P T : 1 P P T = I
1.69 ;
.
. 4 4 .
. 1 .
. A , A1 .
. AT , A .
1.70 A2 = 0,
AT A = 0 A = 0.

Gauss

31

1.71
A = LDLT , D L .

2 1 0
1 3
1 b
A1 =
A2 =
A3 = 1 2 1 .
3 2
b c
0 1 2

1.72 R m n , A
m m .
. RT AR; .
. RT R .

Rn
. R2 , = {(x, y) | 3x+2y = 6}.
, .
, :
(2, 0) , (0, 3)

(2, 0) + (0, 3) 6 , 2(2, 0) 6 .

, = {(x, y) | 3x + 2y = 0}, (x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 )

R,
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

(x1 , y1 ) = (x1 , y1 ) .

R3 , = {(u, v, w) | 2u + v + w = 0}
a, b a + b b , = {(u, v, w) | 2u + v + w = 5}
.
. V Rn
( ) Rn
1. V , V 6= .
2. V : a, b V a + b V .
3. V : a V R,
a V .
2 3 , V
V .
2.1 V Rn ,
0 = (0, . . . , 0) Rn V . , V ,
a V 0 = a + (1)a V .
{(0, . . . , 0) Rn } Rn .
R3 , : R3 ,
0 R3 , 0 R3 , {0 R3 }.
32

33

Rm Rn m n , m n .
2.2 Ax = b,

1 0
b1
5 4 u = b2 .
v
2 4
b3
; , (u0 , v0 ), (b1 , b2 , b3 )
A:

0
1
b1
b2 = u0 5 + v0 4 .
4
2
b3
,
A, .
b
A.
A V = {1 (1, 5, 2) + 2 (0, 4, 4) | 1 , 2 R}.
V , (1, 5, 2) V ,
:





1
0
1
0
1
0
1 5 + 2 4 + 1 5 + 2 4 = (1 + 1 ) 5 + (2 + 2 ) 4
2
4
2
4
2
4

1
0
1
0

1 5 + 2 4
= 1 5 + 2 4 .
2
4
2
4
. m n A
Rm , A,
R(A).
R(A) .
.
b R(A) Ax = b .
x
A b.
,
Rm : A = 0.
, m m Rm :
Rm e1 , e2 , . . . , em
I:
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ) = b1 e1 + b2 e2 + + bm em .
m m A. A
Rm : Ax = b b Rm .
2.3 Ax = 0. x = 0 .
x1 x2 ,
A(x1 + x2 ) = Ax1 + Ax2 = 0

A(x1 ) = Ax1 = 0 .

34

Ax = 0
Rn .
. A m n , Ax = 0
Rn , A,
N (A).

1 0
0
5 4 u = 0 .
v
2 4
0

2
(u,v) = (0, 0).
N (A) = {0 R }.
1 0 1

B = 5 4 9 , .
2 4 6
R,



1
0
1

5 + 4 9 = 0.
2
4
6

(1, 1, 1) Bx = 0,
N (B) = {(1, 1, 1) | R}
.
2.1 R2
.
. 3x + y = 0
. 3(x + 2) 5y = 6

. 3(x + 2) = 5y
. x2 + y 2 = 0

2.2 b A,
, . . . . . . . . . .
. Ax = b
b;
2.3 AB A.
AB ( )
A. A AB .
2.4 ;
.
. b R(A)
.
. R(A) , A .
. 2A A.

35

. A I A.
2.5

1
0
0

1 1
x1
1 1 x2 =
0 1
x3

(b1 , b2 , b3 ) ;

b1
1 1 1
x1
b1
0 1 1 x2 = b 2 .
b2 ,
b3
0 0 0
x3
b3

2.6 3 3
(1, 1, 0) (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1). 3 3
.
2.7 A 9 12 Ax = b b,
R(A) = . . . .

2 0
2.8
.
1 0
2.9 A nn , N (A) = {0 Rn }.

m n
m n m 6= n,
, . ,
, 3 4 :

1
3 3 2
6 9 5 .
A= 2
(2.1)
1 3 3 0
, . ,
:

1
3 3 2
1 3 3 2
2
6 9 5 0 0 3 1
1 3 3 0
0 0 6 2
,
. ,
, .
:

1 3 3 2
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 1 0 0 3 1 .
0 0 6 2
0 0 0 0

36

.
.
, .
( )
( ).
( ) .

.
.
, m m . ,

1 0 0
E 1 = 2 1 0
1 0 1

1 0 0
F 1 = 0 1 0 .
0 2 1
A = E 1 F 1 U = LU ,

1 0 0
L= 2 1 0 .
1 2 1
, . ,
, .
2.1 m n A
1. m m P ,
2. m m L, 1 ,
3. m n U

P A = LU .

.
.
r ji .
. m n U = [aij ]
r ( ), 0 r m,
i = 1, . . . , r ji n (
i)

37

1. aiji 6= 0, i ji .
2. j1 1, i = 1, . . . , r 1, ji+1 > ji . (
).
3. i = 1, . . . , r, aik = 0 k < ji . (
).
4. i > r, aik = 0 k. ( r ).

0 a1j1
0 a2j2
..
..
..
.
.
.
0
0
..
..
..
.
.
.
0

..
.

arjr

..
.

..

0
..
.
0

,
.
.
U = [aij ] m n , r m
j = 1, . . . , n ij (
j) ij r,
1. 0 i1 1 j = 1, . . . , n 1, ij ij+1 ij + 1.
2. aij = 0 i > ij , ij > ij1 aij j 6= 0.
ij 1 j.
. , ij . i0 = 0, U0 = A k n > k 0
Uk ( A k
) i0 , . . . , ik .
k + 1 Uk Uk+1 ik+1
.
ai(k+1) = 0 i m i > ik ,
k + 1 Uk+1 . ik+1 = ik Uk+1 = Uk .
, i i > ik ai(k+1) 6= 0.
i, ik + 1 i Uk ,
Uk P(ik +1)i .
k + 1.
, aij . `
m ` > ik + 1,
a
a(i `(k+1)
ik + 1 `.
k +1)(k+1)
k + 1
a(ik +1)(k+1) . ik+1 = ik + 1 Uk+1 .

38

, U = Un ,
.
P1 , . . . , Pr r
, L1 , . . . , Lr ,
U = Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 A .
LU = P A, L 1
P ,
Li Pi . , ,
Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 6= Lr Lr1 L1 Pr Pr1 . . . P1 .
K, 1 ,
Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 = K Pr P1 .
Kr = Lr , i = 1, . . . , r 1 Ki
(Pr Pr1 Pi+1 )Li = Ki (Pr Pr1 Pi+1 ) .

(2.2)

,
, 2.2.
Lr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1 =
=
=
=
=

Kr Pr Lr1 Pr1 L1 P1
Kr Kr1 Pr Pr1 L1 P1
...
Kr Kr1 K3 K2 Pr Pr1 P3 P2 L1 P1
Kr Kr1 K2 K1 Pr Pr1 P2 P1 .

K = Kr K1 1 .
Li i ,

..
I .
0
i .

Li = ..

..
B . Imi
Pr Pi+1 R

I
i

Pr Pi+1 =

i + 1, . . . , m,

..
. 0

..
.

..
0 . R

..
. 0

..
.
Pr =

..
1
0 . R

Ii

(Pr Pi+1 )1 = Pi+1

39

Ki
,

I
i
Ki =

0

I
i

= (Pr Pi+1 )Li (Pr Pi+1 )1

..
. 0

..
.

..
. R
..
.
0
..
.
.
RB .. Imi

..
.
0
I

i
.
..

..
B . Imi
0

Ii

..
. 0

..
.

..
. R1

, 1 .
K = Kr K1 1 .

2.10

A B ,

.
A .. 0

.
C =
.
0 .. B 1

2.11

1 0
P1 = 0 0
0 1

0
0 0 1
1 0 0
1 , P2 = 0 1 0 , L = 0 1 0
0
1 0 0
0 2 1

P1 LP11 P2 LP21 .
; .
2.12 U , P L
P A = LU , :
.

A=

0 1 0 3
0 2 0 6

A=
.

A=

1 2 2
2 4 5
1 2 2
2 4 4

1 2 0 1
A= 0 1 1 0
1 2 0 1

40

0
1
A=
0
3

0
2

0
6

m n ,
: .
Ax = 0 .
A = (P 1 L)U , P 1 L , Ax = 0
U x = (P 1 L)1 0,
Ux = 0 .

.
2.1,

1 3 3 2
0 0 3 1

0 0 0 0

, x = 0.

u
0

v
= 0 .
w
0
y

u w . :
3w + y = 0, w = 13 y.
w u + 3v y + 2y = 0,
u = 3v y.
v y, ,
u w.
(3v y, v, 31 y, y) .
, , , ,
, ,
. v y,

u
3
1

= v 1 + y 01 .
x=
w
0

3
1
y
0

41

(3, 1, 0, 0)
(1, 0, 31 , 1) A.
, m n ,
,
.
, .
U . 1 , 0
,
. U x = 0,
Ax = 0.

. x1 , . . . , xn k , xi1 , . . . , xik .
ai1 , . . . , aik . x2 = v x4 = y,

a2 = (3, 1, 0, 0) , a4 = (1, 0, 31 , 1) .
, c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) N (A).
U c = Ac = 0. c
ai1 , . . . , aik , ci1 , . . . , cik c,
c = ci1 ai1 + ci2 ai2 + + cik aik .
a = c (ci1 ai1 + + cik aik )
U x = 0, U c = 0 U aij = 0. ,
a 0. U
a : 0.
c (ci1 ai1 + + cik aik ) = 0 .
2.13 LU
,

1 2 0 1
A= 0 1 1 0 .
1 2 0 1
Ax = 0.
.
2.14 A 2.12,
Ax = 0.

:
Ax = b ,

b 6= 0 .

42

b A.
b 6 R(A), , .
b R(A), .
2.1.

1
3 3 2
b
1
v

2

6 9 5
Ax = b
w = b2
1 3 3 0
b3
y

u
b1
1 3 3 2

0 0 3 1 v =
.
b2 2b1
w
0 0 0 0
b3 2b2 + 5b1
y

Ux = c

b3 2b2 + 5b1 6= 0
. ,
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) 5b1 2b2 + b3 = 0.
b = (1, 5, 5).
.

u
1
1 3 3 2

0 0 3 1 v = 3 .
w
0
0 0 0 0
y
. 0x = 0.
v y .

3w + y = 3
u + 3v + 3w + 2y = 1

w =
1 y3
u = 2 y 3v .

, ,
Ax = 0. , x1 x2
Ax = b, A(x1 x2 ) = 0.
,
0. , x = (2, 0, 1, 0),

u
2
3
1
v 0
1
0

x=
w = 1 + v 0 + y 1 .
3
1
y
0
0
2.2 Ax = b b
A. x1 , x
x = x1 + x0 ,
x0 Ax = 0.

43

b 6= 0
: A .
A r
. r , r n r
.
U .
r = n, , A
{0 Rn }, , .
r = m, Rm
A, Ax = b b.
r = m = n, :
.
2.15 A 2.12, ,
bi b,
Ax = b. , b
, .
2.16 A 2 3 C 3 2 , CA
( CA).
AC = I.
2.17

U= 0
0

3 3 2
0 3 1 .
0 0 0

, ,
, 1 .

1 3 0 1
R = 0 0 1 1/3
0 0 0 0
,
A.
R
.

1 2
3 4
1 2
2 4

1 2 3 5
2 4 8 12
3 6 7 13

44

2.18 mn r mr
r n :
A = ( ) ( R).

.
2.19 [A .. b]
U b
Ax = b.

b1
2 4 6 4
A = 2 5 7 6 b = b2 .
b3
2 3 5 2
Ax = 0, Ax = b
b = (4, 3, 5).
2.20

Ax = b
.
A [A .. b].
2.21 (b1 , b2 , b3 ) A;
A 0;

1 2 1
1 1 1
A = 2 6 3 , A = 1 2 4
0 2 5
2 4 8
2.22 b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ; .

1 2
b
1
2
3
b
1
1

2 4 x1
b2
2 4 6 x1

x2 = b2 .
=
,
2 5 x2
b3
2 5 7
b3
x3
3 9
b4
3 9 12
b4
2.23 b1 , b2 , b3 ;
.
[A .. b], .
x + 2y 2z = b1
2x + 5y 4z = b2
4x + 9y 8z = b3
2.24 Ax = b x1 x2 ,
Ax = 0. Ax = b.
2.25 r, m n,
m n A r, Ax = b

45

. b .
. b .
. b, b.
. b.
2.26 q, ,
A B ) 1, ) 2, ) 3.

6
4
2
A = 3 2 1 ,
9
6
q

B=

3 2 3
q 2 q

2.27 3 4 A
(2, 3, 1, 0).
. A, Ax = 0;
. R A.
2.28 ;
.
. .
. .
. m n n .
. m n m .

2.29


A
1
1
0
Ax =
x =
+c
.
0
0
1
2.30 2 2
.
2.31
(2, 2, 1, 0) (3, 1, 0, 1).
2.32 (1, 1, 1)
(1, 1, 1, 1).
2.33 (1, 1, 0)
(0, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1) (0, 0, 1)

46

Ax = 0, 2.1,
1, 0,
. , 0
1, .
, 1 ,
.
.
.
,
3x + 5y + 2z = 0
2x + y z = 0
x + 4y + 3z = 0
,
U = {(t, t, t) | t R}
,
U . ,
. ,
.
, ,
, . .
.
.
, . ,
.
, .
u1 , . . . , uk Rn , k 2,
.

1 1 2
0
4 1
1
3 3
,
(1, 3, 3) = (1, 1, 2) + (0, 4, 1). (u, v, w)

u

v + 2w = 0
4v + w = 0 ,
u + 3v + 3w = 0
.

47

k Rn 0, : v1 = 0 v1 = 0v2 + + 0vk .
,
.
. v1 , . . . , vn Rm
c1 , . . . , cn , ,

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + + ck vk = 0 .
A v1 , . . . , vn
Ax = 0 x = (c1 , . . . , cn ) 0 Rn .
v1 , . . . , vk Rn
, v1 , . . . , vk
, , 0.
Ax = 0 x = 0 Rn .
n = 1, {u}
u = 0, u 6= 0.
2.4
. c1 v1 + c2 v2 = 0, c v1 = cv2 v2 = cv1 ,
c1 = c2 = 0.
2.5 v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 6, 3), v3 = (3, 9, 3)
, . 3v1 +v2 +0v3 =
0.
2.6 v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 4, 3), v3 = (1, 4, 1)
, 4v1 v2 v3 = 0.
, v1 , . . . , vn Rm , m n v1 , . . . , vn .
c = (c1 , . . . , cn ) Ac = 0, A
. Ax = 0 , x = 0 Rn ,
A .
,
0.
2.3 , . .
. m n , r ,
j1 , j2 , . . . , jr . U r n
, c = (c1 , . . . , cr ) cT U = 0.
c = 0.
j1 . a1j1 6= 0, 0.
c1 a1j1 = 0 c1 = 0.
c1 = c2 = . . . = ck = 0, k < r, ck+1 = 0.
jk+1 . a(k+1)jk+1 6= 0, p > k + 1, apjk+1 = 0.
ck+1 a(k+1)jk+1 = 0 ck+1 = 0.
,
U x = 0

48

0. x = 0.

2.4 n > m n Rm .
2.34 a = 0 d = 0 f
:

a b

U= 0 d
0 0

= 0, U

c
e
f

2.35 a, d, f 2.34 0,
U x = 0 x = 0. U .
2.36 :
) (0, 1), (1, 1)
) (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0)
) (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)
2.37 u1 , u2 , u3 ,
u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 :




1
1
1
2
u1 = 0 , u 2 = 1 , u 3 = 1 , u 4 = 3 .
0
0
1
4
2.38 w1 , w2 , w3 , u1 = w2 w3 , u2 = w1 w3 u3 = w1 w2 .
u1 , u2 , u3 0.
2.39 w1 , w2 , w3 , v1 = w2 + w3 , v2 = w1 + w3 v3 = w1 + w2 .
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 = 0 wi , ci .

Rm
.
.
. V Rn . w1 , . . . , wk Rn
V Rn
1. wj V j = 1, . . . , k
2. V w1 , . . . , wk ,
v V c1 , . . . , ck v = c1 w1 + + ck wk .

49

, S V V
V S.
2.7 (1, 0), (1, 1) (1, 0) R2 .
R2 ;
R2 ;
2.8 , , .
(1, 2)
.
2.9 e1 , e2 , . . . , en Rn ( ) Rn . b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )

b1 e1 + + bn en .

w1 , . . . , wk : ,
.
2.5 w1 , . . . , wk Rn . Rn w1 , . . . , wk Rn .
. w1 , . . . , wk Rn .
w1 , . . . , wk Rn w1 , . . . , wk .
Rm A.
, {0 Rn }
.
2.40 u + w u w u
w. u w u + w u w.
. . . . . . . . . . ;
2.41 R2 :
) (0, 1), (1, 1)
) (1, 1), (1, 1)
) (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 0)
2.42 )
, Ax = 0.
(1, 1, 0, 0) ,

(1, 0, 1, 0) ,

(0, 0, 1, 1) ,

(0, 1, 0, 1) .

) (0, 0, 0, 1)
.
2.43 R3

50

. (1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1).

. (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0) (0, 0, 0).
. 3 5 2 .
. .
2.44 , .
A U ;

. V Rn
Rn
1. V
2. .

2.6 w1 , . . . , wk V ,
V w1 , . . . , wk .
. w1 , . . . , wk V ,
b = a1 w1 + + ak wk = c1 w1 + + ck wk .
(a1 c1 )w1 + + (ak ck )wk = 0, w1 , . . . , wk
, 0
0.

2.10 Rn e1 , . . . , en ,
.
. n n Rn .
2.11 , .
. .
2.12

1 3 3 2
U = 0 0 3 1
0 0 0 0

1
0
0

51

(1, 0, 0) (3, 3, 0).

3
c
1
3
=0
c2
0

c1 + 3c2 = 0 3c2 = 0, c2 = 0, c1 = 0.
,

.
U , v1 , . . . , v4 U ,
v2 v4 v1 v3 :
v2 = 3v1

1
v4 = v3 + v1 .
3

Rn {0},
. .
2.7 V Rn k ,
V .
. v1 , . . . , vk w1 , . . . , wm V .
v1 , . . . , vk , wj vi :
wj = a1j v1 + + akj vk .
(2.3)
V W , v1 , . . . , vk w1 , . . . , wm .
A = (aij ) 2.3,
W = V A.
, V A V
a11 , . . . , ak1
a11 v1 + + ak1 vk = w1 .
A k m. k < m, c 6= 0 Ac = 0.

W c = V Ac = V 0 = 0,
W . k < m
W .
k > m, k = m.

. V Rn
V , dim V .

52

2.13 Rn n: n .
{0 Rn } 0: 0 .
2.14 V = {(x, y, z) R3 | y = 3x}
R3

x
3 1 0 y = 0 .
z
V , N (A)
[ 3 1 0 ].
, , 3.
1, .
( ), V 2.
, V .
V ,
V . v V 3 ,
R3 , v R3 . v = (1, 3, 2) V
2, R3 3. v
W = {(t, 3t, 2t) : t R}, 1.
2.45 x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R4 . 24
. 24 V
R4 . x V ) 0, ) 1,
) 3, ) 4.
2.46 x 2y + 3z = 0 R3 .
(x, y)-.
.
2.47 S R6 , 5.
;
. S R6 ,
.
. R6 S, .
2.48 A n Rm . A
. Rm .
Rm
2.49

R4 .

. .
. 0.
. (1, 1, 0, 0) (1, 0, 1, 1)

2.50

53

V k.

. k V , V .
. k V , V .
2.51 V W R5 , V
W . (
, 6 ).

.
, . ,
, .
. , ,
. , ,
A, Ax = 0.
,
.
.

.
A.
, A, m n A
:
A Rm
A,
R(A) Rm
A Rn
Ax = 0,
N (A) Rn
A Rn
A. AT ,

R(AT ) Rn
A Rm
y T A = 0.
AT , y T A = (AT y)T ,
N (AT ) Rm .

54

: ,
, A U
.
2.1 A U :

1
3 3 2
1 3 3 2
6 9 5 , U = 0 0 3 1
A= 2
1 3 3 0
0 0 0 0

A, R(AT )
U
U : 2.3 ,
.
A
U .
2.8
R(AT ) = R(U T ) .
. U
A. ( , 2 U 2 A
1 A.) U
A.
U A:
R(U T ) R(AT ) .
A
U . ( , 2
A 2 U 1 U .)
U A:
R(AT ) R(U T ) .

R(AT ) = R(U T ) .

R(A ) U .
r .
:
T

dim R(AT ) = r .
A.
Gauss, r
A .
.
2.9 m n A Rn ,
,
R(AT ) Rn

dim R(AT ) = r

R(AT )
U .

55

A, N (A).
A U (
Gauss Ax =
0). xi1 , . . . , xik
vi1 , . . . , vik N (A). vij
1 xij , 0 .
vij
. vi1 , . . . , vik
N (A).
, k = n r.
2.10 m n A Rn ,
,
N (A) Rn

dim N (A) = n r .

A, R(A).
, R(A) R(U ) .
R(A) R(U ).
2.52
R(U ).

R(A) 2.1

A
U.
2.11 A
U .
. A0 A,
U 0 U ,
A0 = P 1 L U 0
, P 1 L , x
A0 x = 0 U 0 x = 0.
U 0 , U 0 x = 0
x = 0, A0 x = 0 x = 0.
A0 .
: A0 , U 0 .

r R(U ).
r j1 , . . . , jr A .
R(A) r, A ,
j1 , . . . , jr . r + 1
U , ,
R(U ) r. j1 , . . . , jr R(A) .

56

2.12 m n A Rm ,
r ,
R(A) Rm

dim R(A) = r .

R(A)
U .
2.9 2.12 .
2.13 mn A,
A ,
A.

A, N (AT ).
A AT . ,
. AT , m (
AT , A). AT r, 2.13.
AT m r,
dim N (AT ) = m r .
y y T A = 0,
P A = LU .
L ,
L1 P A = U .
i U i L1 P A. m r
U . m r
L1 P A. L1 P
, . mr
L1 P N (AT ),
m r, .
2.14 m n A Rm ,
m r,
N (AT ) Rm

dim N (AT ) = m r

N (AT ) m r L1 P
Gauss.
2.53 R3

0 1 0
A= 0 0 1
0 0 0

57

2.54

0 1 4 3
0 0 2 2

U =
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

2.55 .
.

1 2 0 1
1 2 0 1
A = 0 1 1 0 U = 0 1 1 0 .
1 2 0 1
0 0 0 0

A=

0 1 4 0
0 2 8 0

U =

0 1 4 0
0 0 0 0

2.56 AB , AB = 0,
B A.
A B
2.57 A V ,
B V : V


1
1
1
1 , 2 , 5 .
0
0
0
2.58 A (1, 1, 1) A;
2.59 Ax = 0 ,
w AT y = w . A w.
2.60 A,
A:

1 0 0
1 2 3 4
A = 6 1 0 0 1 2 3 .
9 8 1
0 0 1 8
2.61 A,
; y = (1, 2, 3, 4)
A, .

 3


x A
Ax. x Rn m n, Rm .
A LA Rn Rm .
LA : Rn Rm : x 7 Ax .
3.1

A=

c 0
0 c

x R2 , Ax = cx. c.
c > 1, , 0 < c < 1, .
c < 0, .
3.2

0 1
A=
.
1
0
x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (v, u).
0, .
3.3

A=

0 1
1 0

x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (v, u).

u = v.
3.4

A=

1 0
0 0

x = (u, v) R2 , Ax = (u, 0).

u-.
58

59

;
.
1. 0 0: LA (0) = 0, A0 = 0.
2.
: LA (cx) = c LA (x), A(cx) = c(Ax).
3. : LA (x + y) = LA (x) + LA (y), A(x + y) = Ax + Ay.

.
. f : Rn Rm
x, y Rn c R,
1. f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
2. f (cx) = c f (x).
, V W Rn Rm ,
f : V W
v V .
m n A, LA .
, , f : Rn Rm .
1 , . . . , n A,

u1

A ... = u1 1 + + un n .
un
3.1 f : Rn Rm A
f (e1 ), f (e2 ), . . . , f (en ), e1 , e2 , . . . , en
Rn . f = LA .
. u = (u1 , . . . , un ). u = u1 e1 +u2 e2 + +un en . ,
f (u) = f (u1 e1 + + un en )
= u1 f (e1 ) + + un f (en )

u1

= A ... .
un

3.1 .
f : V W v1 , v2 , . . . , vk V ,
: v V ,
v = c1 v1 + + ck vk , f f (v),
f (v) = c1 f (v1 ) + + ck f (vk ) .

60

3.5 f : R2 R3 , f (1, 2) = (1, 1, 2)

f (0, 1) = (0, 1, 1), 3 2 f .





1
0
1
0

A
= 1

A
= 1 ,
2
1
0
1

1 0
2 1

1 0
= 1 1 .
0 1

(1, 2) (0, 1) ( R2 )
1 0

.
2 1
A1 ,

1
1 0
1
0
.
A= 1 1
2 1
0 1
3.6 :
1. g(x) = 2x + 1. ,
: g(u + v) = 2u + 2v + 1 6= (2u + 1) + (2v + 1) =
g(u) + g(v).
2. (u1 , u2 ) 7 (2u2 + 1, 0).
3. (x, y) 7 (xy, x, y).
.
3.2 A, B , m n n p ,
C = AB,
LA LB = LC .
. , LC (v) = Cv = (AB)v = A(Bv) = LA (LB (v)) = LA LB (v).

3.1 (v1 , . . . , vn ) ,

1 1
1 2
2
A=
B= 0
0 0
1
3

C=

3 0 1
4 2
0

1 0 2
1
D = 1 0 1 1
1 2 2
2

3.2

61

A
f (x, y) = (3x + y, 2y, x y) .

3.3

. g(x, y, z) = (3x, y 2 ).
. h(u, v, w) = (v + 2, 4u).
3.4 :
. (1, 0) (0, 1) (1, 3) (7, 1), .
.
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) (0, 0, 1) (1, 5, 2, 9),

(2, 6, 4, 7) ( 3, 3, 7, 1), .
3.5 f g , f (u) = g(u) = u,
f g(u) u u2 ;
3.6 f (u + v) =
f (u) + f (v), f (cv) = cf (v), v = (v1 , v2 , v3 );
. f (v) = v/||v||
. f (v) = (v1 , 2v2 , 3v3 )
. f (v) = v1 + v2 + v3
. f (v) = v.
3.7 , v = (v1 , v2 );
. g(v) = (v2 , v1 )
. g(v) = (0, v1 )
. g(v) = (v1 , v1 )
. g(v) = (0, 1)
3.8 f : R3 R3 , f 2
.
3.9 f : V W
( ) f 1 : W V

62

, x = y,
x-. ,
0.
.

,
1
0

R2 .
0
1

1
cos


,
0
sin

0
sin


, ( ).
1
cos
Q ,

cos sin
Q =
sin
cos
,
.

cos() sin()
cos sin
Q =
=
sin()
cos()
sin cos

Q Q =

cos2 + sin2
cos sin sin cos
sin cos cos sin
sin2 + cos2

1 0
0 1

3.10
2,
Q2 = Q2 ,
,
+ ,
Q Q = Q(+) .
(1, 0) x ( -)
(cos , sin ), cos . (1, 0) (cos2 , cos sin ).
, (0, 1) (sin cos , sin2 ).
-

cos2
cos sin
P =
.
cos sin
sin2

-
. +
2
0.

cos +
, sin +
= ( sin , cos ) .
2
2

63

,
:

(P ) =

c2 cs
cs s2

c2 (c2 + s2 ) cs(c2 + s2 )
cs(c2 + s2 ) s2 (c2 + s2 )

= P .

-, -, (cos , sin ) .
- , ( sin , cos )
(sin , cos ). H

c s
c
s
=
H
s
c
s c

H =

=
3.11

c
s
s c

c s
s
c

2c2 1
2cs
2cs
2s2 1

H .

, (H )2 = I.
.
, H = 2P I, (H )2 = (2P I)2 =
4P2 4P + I = I P2 = P

2 0
3.12 A =
(stretching)
0 1
x. x2 + y 2 = 1, (2x, y)
A.
;
3.13
R2 , x;
x
y;

1 0
3.14 A =

3 1
(shearing), y .
x, (1, 0), (2, 0) (1, 0),
x.
3.15 3 3 ;
. (x, y)-.
. (x, y)-.

64

. (x, y)- ,
z- .
. (x, y)-, (x, z)- (y, z)-, .
. ,
.
3.16 ,
, .
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x2 , x3 , x1 ).
3.17 g(v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (v3 , v1 , v2 ).
g(g(g(v))) g 100 (v).
3.18 (1, 0) (2, 5)
(0, 1) (1, 3); (2, 5) (1, 0) (1, 3) (0, 1);
(2, 6) (1, 0) (1, 3) (0, 1);
3.19 x {(x1 , x2 ) : 0 x1
1, 0 x2 1} 2 2 A.
. x 7 Ax;
. A ;
. A ;
. A 1;

.
.
3.3 m n A,
LA : Rn Rm .
1. V Rn , V
LA , LA (V ) = {LA (v) | v V } Rm .
2. W Rm , W
n
LA , L1
A (W ) = {v R | LA (v) W }
Rn .
. 1, w1 , w2 LA (V ) c R,
w1 + w2 cw1 LA (V ). w1 LA (V ), v1 V
LA (v1 ) = w1 , w2 . V , v1 + v2 V
LA (v1 + v2 ) = LA (v1 ) + LA (v2 ) = w1 + w2 , w1 + w2 LA (V ). cv1 V
LA (cv1 ) = cLA (v1 ) = cw1 . cw1 LA (V ).

65

2, v1 , v2 L1
A (W ) c R, v1 + v2
cv1 L1
(W
).

W
LA (v1 ) = w1 , w2 .
1
A
LA (v1 + v2 ) = w1 + w2 W , LA (cv1 ) = cw1 W , v1 + v2 cv1
L1
A (W ).

LA , .
LA v1 , v2 Rn , LA (v1 ) = LA (v2 )
v1 = v2 . Av1 = Av2 v1 = v2 ,
A(v1 v2 ) = 0 v1 v2 = 0. LA ,
, x Rn , Ax = 0 x = 0,
Ax = 0 , x = 0.
, ,
r = n.
LA b Rm , v Rn , LA (v) = b,
Ax = b b Rm .
A Rm , r = m.

3.4 A m n , LA
1. , r = n,
2. , r = m,
3. r = m = n.

f : N M g : M N ,
g f = idN , f ,
h : M N , f h = idM , f , (
).
. A m n ,
1. n m B A, BA = In .
2. n m C A, AC = Im .
3.5 m n A,
1. r = n.
2. r = m.
. ,
LA , .
r = n r = m .

.
m n A r = n, A
, 4.7,

66

T
A
AT A . B = (AT A)1 AT , BA =
A.
(AT A)1 AT A = (AT A)1 (AT A) = In .
A r = m, AT
, ,
(AT )T AT = AAT .

C = AT (AAT )1 , AC = A AT (AAT )1 = (AAT )(AAT )1 = Im .

A, m = n, :

1. r = n.
2. A .
3. A .
4. A .
3.20 V = {x R2 : x1 = x2 }, ( )
LA (V ) L1
A (V ),

1 2
. A =
2 4

1 3
. A =
0 2
3.21 ,

1 3
1 2
B=
A=
0 2
2 4
C=

3 2 1

D=

3 0 2
1
1 0 1 1

3.22 A.
AB = I AT AB = AT B = (AT A)1 AT . B BA = I
. ;
3.23

: R3 R3
(1, 1, 1) = (1, 0, 1)
(0, 1, 1) = (2, 1, 3)
(1, 2, 1) = (1, 1, 2) .

. A .
. (R3 ) R3 .
. {0} .
. V R3 2 (V ) = (R3 ).

67

. v R3 (v) = (6, 1, 5).

. W R3 2 (W )
R3 (6, 1, 5).
3.24 = A : R3 R2

1 0 1
A=
.
2 1 3
. .
. v R3 (v) = (2, 5).
. {0} .
. ( ;) .

 4


, R2 , x = (x1 , x2 )
:
||x||2 = x21 + x22 .
R3 , 2 : x = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
u = (x1 , x2 , 0)
||x||2 = ||u||2 + x23
= x21 + x22 + x23 .
,
||x||2 = xT x .
n 1 ,
Rn :
||x||2 = x21 + x22 + + x2n
= xT x .

4.1 x = (1, 2, 3) 14:

1
kxk2 = xT x = [1 2 3] 2 = 12 + 22 + (3)2 = 14 .
3

, .
, .
x , y ;
:
2 . Rn ,
68

69

,
x y. (x, y)
||x||2 + ||y||2 = ||x y||2 ,

x1 y1 + + xn yn = 0

xT y = 0
4.1 x, y Rn
xT y 0.

4.2 x = (2, 2, 1) y = (1, 2, 2):

1
xT y = [2 2 1] 2 = 0 .
2
: xT x = 0.
Rn 0.
4.2 v1 , . . . , vn ,
.
. c1 v1 + + cn vn = 0.
v1 :
v1T (c1 v1 + + cn vn ) = v1T 0 = 0
v1T vi = 0 i 6= 1,
v1T c1 v1 = c1 ||v1 ||2 = 0
||v1 || 6= 0, c1 = 0
, ci = 0 i, .

:
.
4.1 x = (1, 4, 0, 2) y =
(2, 2, 1, 3).
4.2 u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ;

1
4
1
1
2
0
1
1

u1 =
2 , u2 = 4 , u3 = 1 , u4 = 1 .
1
0
1
1

70

4.3
1.
x = (x1 , x2 ) y = (y1 , y2 ), x2 /x1 y2 /y1 ,
, xT y = 0.
4.4 i B j B 1 , i 6= j;
4.5 x y x + y
||x|| = ||y||. ;

R3 ,
.
, V W Rn
V W .
W1 W2 R3
. ,
, u1 , v1 W1 , u2 , v2 W2 . W1 W2
, 4 u1 , v1 , u2 , v2 .
4.2 . R3 4
.
U V Rn U V .
4.3 V v1 = (1, 0, 0, 0)
v2 = (1, 1, 0, 0). w = (0, 0, 4, 5) v1 v2 . W w R4 V .
R4 V W :
z = (0, 0, 5, 4) v1 , v2 w. U
z V W :
U V , U W , V W .

4.3 m n A.
1. Rn A A:
R(AT ) N (A)
2. Rm A A:
R(A) N (AT ) .
. , AT .

71

x N (A) v R(AT ), v T x = 0.
Ax = 0. v R(AT ), v
r1 , . . . rm A,
v = z1 r1 + + zm rm ,
z Rm v = AT z.
v T x = (AT z)T x = z T Ax = z T 0 = 0 .

:
dim R(AT ) + dim N (A) = n
dim R(A) + dim N (AT ) = m

(4.1)
(4.2)

Rn : Rn . . W
R(AT ), 4.3
N (A) W . , W N (A),

. , x W x
A Ax = 0.
:
. V Rn .
Rn V , Rn
( 4.22), V Rn ,
V .
:
N (A) = R(AT ) .
:
R(AT ) = N (A) .
4.3 R(AT ) N (A) . z N (A). A0 A
z T . A0 A,
z T x = 0 x N (A).
, n.
dim R(A0T ) + dim N (A0 ) = n
4.1, N (A0 ) = N (A), dim R(A0 T ) = dim R(AT ).
z
R(AT ), R(AT ).
. .
4.4 m n A.

72

1. N (A) R(AT )
Rn ,
Rn ,
N (A) = R(AT ) R(AT ) = N (A) .
2. N (AT )
R(A) Rm ,
Rm ,
N (AT ) = R(A) R(A) = N (AT ) .

, .
.
4.5 V Rn , W V , W = V .
1. W dim W = n dim V , V W = {0}.
2. W V : W = V V = W .
3. {v1 , . . . , vk } V {w1 , . . . , wnk } W , {v1 , . . . , vk ,
w1 , . . . , wnk } Rn .
4. x Rn ,
V W .
. 1. v1 , . . . , vk V A
v1 , . . . , vk . V A, A
V , N (A) = W . dim W = dim N (A) =
n k.
x V W, x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ). x V x W = V ,
x , xxT = 0. x21 + x22 + x2n = 0
x = 0.
2. 4.4, W = N (A) R(AT ) = V .
3. {v1 , . . . , vk , w1 , . . . , wnk } n . , Rn . a1 v1 + + ak uk + b1 w1 +
+ bnk wnk ) = 0. ai bj 0.
a1 v1 + + ak uk = y = (b1 w1 + + bnk wnk ) .
V , W .
y V W , y 0 Rn .
a1 u1 + + ak uk = 0, u1 , . . . , uk , ai 0.
, b1 w1 + + bnk wnk = 0, w1 , . . . , wnk ,
bj 0.
4. {u1 , . . . , uk , w1 , . . . , wnk } Rn , x Rn

x = a1 u1 + + ak uk + b1 w1 + + bnk wnk
= x0 + x00

73

x0 = a1 u1 + + ak uk V x00 = b1 w1 + + bnk wnk W .

x = x + x, x V x W . x0 + x00 = x + x,
x0 x = x x00 , V ,
W , , . x0 = x x00 = x.

LA
Rn m n A.
x N (A), LA (x) = 0.
x , x R(AT ), LA (x) R(A).
, R(AT )
R(A), .
4.6 y R(A), , , x
R(AT ), Ax = y.
. y , u Rn Au = y.
4.5, x R(AT ) w N (A),
u = x + w. Aw = 0, Ax = Au = y.
x0 R(AT ) Ax0 = y, x x0 N (A). R(AT )
, x x0 R(AT ). x x0 = 0, .

.
A m n r, LA : Rn Rm
x 7 Ax,
1. R(AT ) Rn , r.
2. R(A) Rm , r.
3. N (A) Rn n r.
4. N (AT ) Rm m r.
5. , N (A) = R(AT ) .
6. , N (AT ) =
R(A) .
7. LA R(AT ) Rn R(A) Rm .
8. LAT R(A) Rm R(AT ) Rn .

.
3.4 , 163 Strang.
4.6 x A,
, :

1 2 1
A= 2 4 3 .
3 6 4

74

4.7 R3 (1, 1, 1)
(1, 1, 0).
4.8 A:

1 0 2
A=
.
1 1 4
x = (3, 3, 3) ,
A.
4.9 S R4
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0. S ,
S.
4.10
(1, 1, 2) (1, 2, 3),
A, Ax = 0. .
4.11 V W ,
: V W = {0}.
4.12 (1, 2, 1)
(1, 2, 1), .
4.13 ,
(1, 1, 2) (1, 2, 3).
, .
4.14

1 2
1 0
B =
.
A=
3 0
3 6
4.15 A,
x A,

1 1
2

0
A= 0
x =
.
0
0
0
4.16 , A

. (1, 2, 3) (2, 3, 5),
(1, 1, 1).
. (1, 2, 3) (2, 3, 5)
(1, 1, 1).

75

1
1
0
T

0 = 0 .
. Ax = 1 , A
1
0
0
. (0, 0, 0),
(1, 1, 1).
4.17 S (1, 2, 2, 3)
(1, 3, 3, 2). S .
Ax = 0 A. A;
4.18 S V , S
V .
4.19 S
. S R3 .
. S (1, 1, 1).
. S (2, 0, 0) (0, 0, 3).
4.20 3 3 A, ,
. AT A.
;
4.21 u = (1, 2, 3)
. u
. u;
4.22

V = {w Rn : v V, wT v = 0}

Rn ,
Rn , .
4.23 V Rn W = V ,
W = V , W V , V
W .
4.24 Ax = b y T b = 0
y y T A = 0.

Ax = b.
b A.
, b R(A).

76

,
, .
,
.
b b0 R(A)
Ax = b0 . , b A b
.
b .
p b ,

A
x = p.

Ax = b, ( 4.25).
4.4 b a, b a.

b = a .
b1 a = 2, b2 a = 3 b3
a = 4. .
2x = b1
3x = b2
4x = b3 .
(b1 , b2 , b3 )
(2, 3, 4).

2
b1
3 x = b2
(4.3)
4
b3
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) . x

p
= kax bk = (2x b1 )2 + (3x b2 )2 + (4x b3 )2 ,
x 4.3.
4.3 , , x
. ax
b , ax b
a.
4.25
ax b a.

d
(2 ),
dx

. a b
. 3 R2 -,
(cos , sin ).

77

b Rn
a Rn . p
:
1. p a, p = xa x R.
2. b p a, aT (b p) = 0.

aT (b xa) = 0
x:
x =

aT b
.
aT a

p = xa =

aT b
a.
aT a

Rn Rn ,
Rn V = {ta : t R},
. a
x:
aT b
p = a
x=a T ,
a a
:
p=

1
aT a

aaT b .

aT a , a, aaT
.

1
P = T aaT
a a
. b Rn
a, P .
4.5 4.4, b = (4, 6, 9),

2
4
3 x = 6 .
4
9
, (4, 6, 9) (2, 3, 4).
x,


4
2

2 3 4
6 x 3 = 0 ,
9
4

78

(2, 3, 4) (4, 6, 9)
62
=
.
2
2
2
2 +3 +4
29
3 (2, 4), (3, 6)
62
(4, 9) = 29
.
x =

4.26 (7, 4)
(1, 2).
4.27 R2 3x 2y = 0.
4.28 P1 a = (1, 3),
P2 a.
P1 + P2 P1 P2 . .
4.29 Rn , (1, 1, . . . , 1)
; .
4.30 a = (1, 1, 1) b =
(2, 4, 4); b a.
4.31 P =
P 2 = P .

1
aT a

aaT -

4.32 P R3
x + y + t = 0 x t = 0;
4.33 , b a, , p = xa:

cos
1
. b =
a =
sin
0

1
1
. b =
a =
1
1
4.34 b a,
e = b p a:


1
1
. b = 2 a = 1
2
1

1
1
. b = 3 a = 3
1
1
4.35 a Rn P a.
P 1.

79

4.36

a = (1, 2, 1, 3).

. P a.
. N (P ).
. v R4 a
.

. b V k Rm .
k = 2 m = 3, . a1 a2 R3 , V , m k A
ai , V = R(A). p
A,
p = A
x
x Rk . , b A
x
A, 4.4
A:
AT (b A
x) = 0 .

AT A
x = AT b ,
x, p.
AT A ,
x = (AT A)1 AT b ,
b V = R(A)
p = A
x = A(AT A)1 AT b .

P = A(AT A)1 AT .
, A m k , AT A k k ,
P m m .
, k = 1,
m 1 A a, k k AT A
aT a, aT1 a . A,

1
a(aT a)1 aT = T aaT .
a a
T
A A
A ,
V .

80

4.7 AT A A.
. Ax = 0 AT Ax = 0, N (A) N (AT A).
x AT Ax = 0,
xT (AT Ax) = 0.
xT (AT Ax) = (xT AT )Ax = (Ax)T Ax = ||Ax||2 .
Ax , Ax = 0, x N (A).

4.8 m m P Rm
P P 2 = P .
. V Rm , A
V . V P = A(AT A)1 AT .
P 2 = P ,
P 2 = A(AT A)1 AT A(AT A)1 AT
= A(AT A)1 AT
= P.
P
P T = (A(AT A)1 AT )T

T
= (AT )T (AT A)1 AT

1 T
= A (AT A)T
A
= A(AAT )1 AT
= P
, m m P P 2 = P P = P T ,
P . ,
b Rm , P b P . P b b
V = R(P ) b P b V .
v V . v P ,
c Rm v = P c,
(b P b)T v =
=
=
=

(b P b)T P c
(bT bT P T )P c
bT (I P T )P c
bT (P P T P )c.

P T = P P 2 = P , P P T P = P P = 0.

4.6 4.4, b = (4, 6, 9),

a b
b = a + .

81

, (2, 4), (3, 6) (4, 9),

:
2x1 + x2 = 4
3x1 + x2 = 6
4x1 + x2 = 9 ,

2 1
4
x1

= 6 .
Ax = 3 1
x2
9
4 1

(4, 6, 9) A,
. = kb Axk x x = (x1 , x2 )
b A
x A.
:

4
2 1
2 3 4
x1
6 3 1
AT (b A
x) =
= 0,
x2
1 1 1
4 1
9

x1
x2

62
19
1
=
6

29 9
9 3

3 9
9 29

x1
x2

62
19

=0

15
6
7
6

(2, 4), (3, 6) (4, 9)

6b = 15a + 7 .

4.37 Ax = b,
p = A
x,

1 0
1

A= 0 1
b = 1 .
1 1
0
e = b p A.
4.38 2 = ||Ax b||2 ,
2 u v,

1 0
1
u
A = 0 1 , x =
b = 3 .
v
1 1
4
, AT A
x = AT b,
.
x p = A
x. p = b;

82

4.39

b = (4,

1 2
1 1
A=
1
0
1
2

3, 1, 0)

4.40 x,
3x = 10 4x = 5. 2 ; e = (10 3
x, 5 4
x)
(3, 4).
4.41 b A:

1
1
1
A = 1 1 , b = 2 .
2
4
7
b p + q, p A q
. A q;
4.42 P P = P T P , P
. P = 0 , ;
4.43 a1 = (1, 1, 0) a2 = (1, 1, 1)
R3 . , b
0.
4.44 V (1, 1, 0, 1) (0, 0, 1, 0)

. V .
. P V .
. V (0, 1, 0, 1) V
4.45 P A,
A;
4.46 P = A(AT A)1 AT
A, P A;
4.47

V R4
(1, 2, 0, 3),

(2, 1, 1, 2) (1, 4, 2, 5)

. V V .
. x = (4, 15, 7, 8) x = v + w, v V
w V .

83

V Rn dim V = k, v1 , . . . , vk
V . u V
u = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + + ak vk .
u w = b1 v1 + b2 v2 + + bk vk
uT w = (a1 v1T + ak vkT )(b1 v1 + + bk vk )
k X
k
X
=
ai bj viT vj .
i=1 j=1

,
viT vj = 0 i 6= j, uT w
T

u w =

k
X

ai bi viT vi

i=1

k
X

ai bi ||vi ||2 .

i=1

. , :
||vi ||2 = 1. u
w :
uT w =

k
X

ai bi

i=1

.
. q1 , q2 , . . . , qk

0 i 6= j
T
qi qj =

1 i = j

4.48 q1 , . . . , qk V ,
a1 , . . . , ak u = a1 q1 + + ak qk ai = qiT u.
. .
. .
e1 , . . . , en
R . , e1 , . . . , en
n n I.
, .
n

84

4.9 m n M M T M = I.
, Q , ,
QT = Q1 .
. q1 , . . . , qn Rm M . M T M
n n (i, j) qiT qj .

qiT qj

0
1

i 6= j
i 6= j .

M T M n n M T M .
,
3.5 .

cos sin
4.7 Q =
.
sin

cos

cos sin
T
Q , Q =

sin cos
. , sin2 + cos2 = 1, 1.
4.8 , .

0 1
,
P =
1 0
x = y. ,
.
:
4.10 Q : x Rn ,
||Qx|| = ||x||.
, : x, y Rn ,
(Qx)T (Qy) = xT y.
. (Qx)T = xT QT . QT Q = I :
(Qx)T (Qy) = xT QT Qy = xT Iy = xT y.

Q , Q = Q , QQ = I.
.
T

85

Gram-Schmidt
v1 , . . . , vk V Rn , v1 , . . . , vk q1 , . . . , qk ,
j = 1, . . . , k, q1 , . . . , qj v1 , . . . , vj .
Gram-Schmidt. v1 , v2 , v3 . v1 , v2 , v3 .
w1 w2 , w3 . , wi
q1 , q2 , q3 .
w1 = v1 . w2 w1 w1 w2
v1 v2 . v2
w1 .
w 2 = v2

w1T v2
w1 .
w1T w1

w1 w2 :
w1T w2 = w1T u2
= 0

w1T u2 T
w w1
w1T w1 1

v3 w1 , w2 , v1 , v2
v3 . w3 v3
v1 v2 . A w1
w3 .
T

w1 w1
0
T
A A=
0
w2T w2
, , A = [w1 w2 ], v3

A(A A) A v3 = [w1 w2 ]
T

w1T w1

w2T w2

w1T
w2T

v3

w2
w1
T
w
v
+
w2T v3
3
1
T
T
w1 w1
w2 w2
T
T
w 1 v3
w v3
=
w1 + T2 w2
T
w1 w1
w2 w2
=

, w1 w2 ,
w1 w2 w1 w2 .

w T v3
w T v3
w3 = v3 1 2 w1 2 2 w2 .
||w1 ||
||w2 ||
w1 , w2 , w3 .
V ,
q1 =

w1
,
||w1 ||

q2 =

w2
,
||w2 ||

q3 =

w3
.
||w3 ||

86

4.9

1
0

, v2 =
v1 =

1
0

2
1

0
1
,v =
0 3 0
0
1

1
0

w1 =
1 ,
0

1
1
1
2
0 1 0 0

w2 = = 1
,
0
2
2 1
1
0
1


1 2
2
1
2
3
1 2 0
1
1
0

w3 =
=
0
2 1
3/2 12 23
0
0
0
0

1
1 0
,
q1 =
2 1
0

1
2

1
6

0
2 0

q2 =
=
1
1

6
3 2
1
2

3 1

=
q3 =

17
3
0

2
3

2
17
3
17
217

Gauss
A = LU , Gram-Schmidt
A v1 , v2 , . . . , vk :
A = QR,
Q
Gram-Schmidt:
T
q1 v1 q1T v2
q2T v2
R= 0
0
0

q1 , q2 , . . . , qk , R

q1T v3
q2T v3 .
q3T v3

, A m k , R k k
i, j
Rij = qiT vj j i .
4.11 m k A
A = QR ,
Q m k , R k k
. m = k, Q .

87

A = QR
.
AT A
x = AT b

RT QT QR
x = RT QT b.
QT Q = I RT ,
R
x = QT b
x .
4.49 u , Q = I 2uuT
. ( , Householder).
1 1
1
1
Q uT =
.

2 2
2
2
4.50 b = (1, 2) ,
a1 = (1, 0) a2 = (1, 1).
b.
4.51
.

4.52 v1 , v2 , v3 ,
q1 , q2 , q 3 .



1
1
0

v1 = 1 , v 2 = 0 , u 3 = 1 .
0
1
1
4.53 v1 v2 , Gram-Schmidt q1 q2 .
4.54 a1 = (1, 1) a2 = (4, 0),

1 4
a1 .
1 0
QR Q .
4.55

Gram-Schmidt



0
0
1

v1 = 0 , v 2 = 1 , u 3 = 1 ,
1
1
1

A = QR.
4.56 A = QR, Q ,
A.
4.57 q1 , q2 , q3 R3 ,
q1 , q2

1
1
A = 2 1 .
2
4

88

A q3 ;
Ax = b, bT = [1 2 7].
4.58 A 4.57, b = [1 1 1]T , A = QR
Ax = b.
4.59 Gram-Schmidt (1, 1, 0),
(0, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1) x1 + x2 + x3 = 0.
Gram-Schmidt;
4.60

w1 , w2 , w3

v1 = (1, 1, 0, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 1, 0), v3 = (0, 0, 1, 1) .

v1 , v2 , v3 (1, 1, 1, 1).

2 2 :

1 3
A=
2 4
A

1 3

2 4

= 1 4 3 2 = 4 6 = 2.

2 2 , :

a b

c d = ad bc
2 2 .
() 1,

1 0

0 1 = 1.
() :

c d

a b = cb da

a b
.

=
c d
() :

a + a0 b + b0
= (a + a0 )d (b + b0 )c

c
d
= (ad bc) + (a0 d b0 c)

a b a 0 b0
,
+
=
c d c d
89

90

ta tb

c d

= tad tbc

a b

.
= t
c d

() ()
:

c + c0 d + d0

a
b

c + c0 d + d0 = a
b

c d c0 d 0

=
a b a b

a b a b
.
+
=
c d c0 d0
n n ,
.
n n .
. Mn, n n n ,
det : Mn, n R ,
det A |A|, :
() n n 1,

...
det In =
= 1.

0
1
() B A ,
det B = det A .
() det

a11 + a0
11

a21

..

an1

. . . a1n + a01n a11
a21
...
a2n

= ..
..
..
.
.
.

an1
...
ann

ta11

a21

..
.

an1

. . . ta1n
. . . a2n
..
..
.
.
. . . ann

= t

.

. . . a1n a011
. . . a2n a21
. + .
..
. .. ..

. . . ann an1

. . . a01n
. . . a2n
.
..
. ..

. . . ann

a11 . . . a1n
a21 . . . a2n
.. . .
. .
. ..
.

an1 . . . ann

det(A + B) = det A + det B det(tA) = t det A,

n = 1. () (),
.

91

,

.
() A , det A = 0.
, , (),
. det A = det A det A = 0.
() ,
.
B A,
i, j 6= i A,
i- A j-
det A det B, det B = 0.
5.1

()

a+c b+d
.
c
d

5.2

() (aij ).

() () Gauss
, .
() A , det A = 0,
() ().
() D

d1
0

...

,
0
dn
det D = d1 d2 . . . dn .
,

d1
0

d2

...

0
dn

1
0

d2

= d1
...

0
dn

1
0

.
..
= d1 d2 . . . dn

0
1

() A ,
.
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann , a11 a22 . . . ann 6= 0, ,
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann . A , ,

92

a11 . A , ,
ann . det A = a11 , a22 , . . . , ann .
ai i , Gauss
. det A = 0.
n n , (), () ().
. , , Gauss, A U . (), U
. (), A
U : k ,
det A = (1)k det U . A ,
(1)k .
,
A. 5.4, .
5.1 det A A .
. A ,
, det A = 0.
, A ,
, det A = d1 d2 . . . dn 6= 0.

5.2 A, B n n ,
det(AB) = det A det B.
. A, B ,
det(AB) = 0 = det A det B.
B , nn A
d(A) =

det(AB)
.
det B

d(A) (), (), (), , 0 ,

.
(): A = I,
d(I) =

det B
det IB
=
= 1.
det B
det B

(): A,
AB. det AB, d(A).
(): C = (cij ) D = (dij ) j =
1, . . . , n,
a1j = sc1j + td1j
i > 1
aij = cij = dij .

93

AB
n
X

a1k bkj = s

k=1

n
X

c1k bkj + t

d1k bkj

k=1

det AB = s det CB + t det DB, d(A) = s d(C) + td(D).

d(A) A.

5.3 A A,
det(AT ) = det A .
. A AT
.
det A = 0 = det AT .
A ,
P A = LDU .

(5.1)

5.2
det P det A = det L det D det U .
5.1,
AT P T = U T DT LT ,

det AT det P T = det U T det DT det LT .
L, U, U T LT .
1. , D DT = D.
det P T = det P . P
I. det P = 1. , P P T = I,
det P det P T = 1. det P = det P T .
det A = det P T det L det D det U = det P det LT det DT det U T = det AT .

5.3 :
,
.

.
5.4
, .

94

. : {1, . . . , n} {1, . . . , n}.

N (i, j) i < j (i) > (j). ,
{1, 2, 3} Nid = 0,
1 3, N = 3, (1) > (2), (1) > (3)
(2) > (3).
, N N
. , N , 1 ,
2 , . . . , k , 1 k , N
, .
i i i + 1. i
j 6= i, i + 1, i (i) = (i + 1) i (i + 1) = (i).
(i) < (i + 1), Ni = N + 1, (i) > (i + 1), Ni = N 1.
,
. k k + r. r k
k + r, k+r1 k+1 k , r 1
k + r k, k k+r2 .
2r 1,
= k k+r2 k+r1 k+r2 k+1 k .

1
2
...
n
.
(1) (2) . . . (n)

1234
,
1 4, 2 2, 3
4213
1 4 3.
5.3 4 4 A det A = 21 ,
det(2A), det(A), det(A2 ) det(A1 ).
5.4 3 3 B det B = 1,
det( 21 B), det(B), det(B 2 ) det(B 1 ).
5.5

1
2 2 0
2 1 0
0
2

3 4 1
1 2 1 0
A=
1 2 0 2 B = 0 1 2 1
0
2
5 3
0
0 1 2

.
B, .
5.6

0
0
det
0
1

0 0 1
0 1

0 1 0
0 0
det

1 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
1 0

0 0
1 0

0 1
0 0

95

5.7 n,
A P A;

an1 ann

a11 a1n
..
..
.
.

A = a21 a2n ,
PA =
.
a21 a2n
an1 ann
a11 a1n
P .
5.8
, .
. A B , (1, 1),
b11 = 2a11 , det B = 2 det A.
. .
. A B , A + B .
. A B , AB .
. AB BA .
5.9

1
4 2
3 2
1
A=
, A =
,
1 3
10 1 4

A I =

4
2
1
3

A I ;
5.10 A
0 det A = 0. A 1,
det(A I) = 0. det A = 1.
5.11 K K T =
K,

0
a b
K = a 0 c .
b c 0
. K 3 3, det(K) = (1)3 det K.
3 3 0.
. 4 4 , det K 6= 0.
5.12 A ,
B, C, AB, AT A C T .

1 1 3
1 1 3
1 1 3
A = 0 4 6 , B = 0 4 6 , C = 0 4 6 .
1 5 8
0 0 1
1 5 9

96

5.13

det 1
1

3 3 Vandermonde

a a2
b b2 = (b a)(c a)(c b).
c c2

5.14 n n A aij = ij, det A = 0,

A = [1].
5.15

1 t t2
101 201 301

t 1 t2
102 202 302 ,

t t 1
103 203 303

5.16 n n A aij = i + j, det A = 0,

n = 1 2.
5.17 .

1 1 1
1 2 3
1 2 2 ,
2 2 3
1 2 3
3 3 3
5.18

1
1
A=
1
2

Gauss

0
2
1
0
1 1

2
2
2
2 1
0

.
( .)
5.19 A 6, B,
A a1 , a2 , a3 B a1 + a2 , a2 + a3 , a3 + a1 .
5.20 det(2A), det(A) det(A2 ) det A, A
n n;
5.21

1234
1234
1234
,
,
.
4213
3142
4321

4 4 , .
5.22

97

. 1, A = 4 2 1 2 .
2

4
0
. U =
0
0

4
1
0
0

8
2
2
0

8
2
.
6
2

. U T .
. U 1 .

0
0
. M =
0
4

0
0
1
4

0
2
2
8

2
6
, .
2
8

a mc b md
5.23
c la d lb
.
5.24
det A1 B = 1.

B = M 1 AM , det B = det A;

5.25 A , det A =
0. 1, det(AI) = 0.
det A = 1.

n n

A = P 1 L D U 0 ,
P , L 1 , D
, U 0
1 .
det P = 1, det L = det U 0 = 1 det D
.
det A = det P 1 det L det D det U 0
= ( ) .
: ,
(1)k , k
.

98

, det A = adbc
2 2 .
:

a b
A=
c d
[a b] = [a 0] + [0 b] ,

a 0 0 b
a b

c d = c d + c d

a 0 a 0 0 b 0 b
+
+
+
=
c 0 0 d c 0 0 d
= 0 + ad + (bc) + 0

n n , , :
[a11 . . . a1n ] = [a11 0 . . . 0] + [0 a12 0 . . . 0] + + [0 . . . 0 a1n ]
n ,
.
, n2
,
. ,
nn ,
0.
i 0 ji ,
aiji .
nn . n .
,
, .
i 7 ji ,
{1, , n}. n! ,
n! nn .
3 3 :

0
0 a12
a11
a11 a12 a13
0
a
0
0
0
13

0 a22
a21 a22 a23 =
0
0
0 a23 + a21
0 + 0

0
a31 a32 a33
0
0
0 0 a32
0 a33 a31

0
0 a12
a11
0
a
0
0
0
13

0
0
0 + 0 a22
0 a23 + a21
+ 0
0 a32
0
0
0 a33 a31
0 0
= a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 a13 a22 a31 .
: {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3},
X
det A =
a1 (1) a2 (2) a3 (3) det(P )

99

P
3 3 I. det P 1 1
.
n n ,
n n .
5.5 A = (aij ) n n ,
X
det A =
a1 (1) . . . an (n) det(P )

(5.2)

n , P

.

(1) = 1. (5.2)
a11 . a11 ,
C11 :

X
X
a11 a2 (2) . . . an (n) det P = a11
a2 (2) . . . an (n) det P = a11 C11 .

(1)=1

(1)=1

{1, 2, . . . , n} (1) = 1,
{2, 3, . . . , n}. C11 A11
A :
X
a2 (2) an (n) det P
C11 =
{1, . . . , n}
(1)=1

a2 (2) an (n) det P .

{2, . . . , n}

(1) = 2.
(5.2) a12 . a12
, C12 :

X
X
a2 (2) an (n) det P = a12 C12 .
a12 a2 (2) an (n) det P = a12

(1)=2

(1)=2

{1, 2, . . . , n} (1) = 2, {2, 3, . . . , n} {1, 3, 4, . . . , n}, C12

A12
A :

...
a21 a23 . . . a2n
a21 a23 . . . a2n
.

..
.. ,
A12 = ..
..
..
.. = ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
an1 an3 . . . ann
an1 an3 . . . ann

100

C12 =

a2 (2) an (n) det P .

{1, . . . , n}
(1)=2

C12 det A12 ,

. j = 1, . . . , n
j = {1, . . . , n 1} {1, . . . , n}\{j}
, {1, . . . , n},
1
i = (i)
i {1, . . . , n 1}:

1
(i)

i
{1, . . . , n 1}
{1, . . . , n}\{i} {1, . . . , n}\{(i)} {1, . . . , n 1}

(k)

(k) 1
i (k) =
(k + 1)

(k + 1) 1

k
k
k
k

<i
<i
i
i

(k) < (i)

(k) (i)
(k + 1) < (i)
(k + 1) (i).

5.6
det P = (1)i+(i) det Pi
. (n) = n,

P
det P = n

= det Pn ,

.
, i {1, . . . , n}, P
(ni)

P i 0
(n (i))
:
0 1
(i)
n

(i)

(n i)

(n (i)) Pi
.

n
1

det P = (1)(ni)+(n(i)) det Pi = (1)i+(i) det Pi

,
X
C12 =

a1 (1) 1 (1) a1 (n1) 1 (n1) (1)1+2 det P1

{1, . . . , n}
(1)=2

{1, . . . , n 1}

= det A12 .

a1 (1) 2 (1) a1 (n1) 2 (n1) det P

101

(5.2)
(1) = j :

X
X
a1 j a2 (2) an (n) det P = a1j
a2 (2) an (n) det P

(1) = j

(1) = j

= a1 j C1 j
C1 j A1j
A j .

a21 a2 (j1) a2 (j+1) a2 n
a21 a2 (j1) a2 (j+1) a2 n

.
..
..
..
A1j = ..
..
..
..
.. = ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
an 1 an (j1) an (j+1) an n
an 1 an (j1) an (j+1) an n

C1j = (1)1+j det(A1 j ) .

{1, . . . , n},
(1)

n
n
X
X
X
X

a2 (2) an (n) det P ,

a1 j a2 (2) an (n) det P =
a1 j
det A =
j =1

(1) = j

j =1

(1) = j

det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + + a1 n C1 n .

. A = (ai j ) n n , (n 1) (n 1)
A i j ,
ai j A.

Ai j

a11
..
.

a1 (j1)
..
.

a1 (j+1)
..
.

a1 n
..
.

a(i1) (j1) a(i1) (j+1) a(i1) n

a
= (i1) 1
a(i+1) (j1) a(i+1) (j+1) a(i+1) n
a(i+1) 1

..
..
..
..

.
.
.
.
an 1
an (j1)
an (j+1)
an n

Ci j = (1)i+j det Ai j ai j .
.
5.7

1. i = 1, . . . , n
det A =

n
X

ai j Ci j

j=1

det A i-.

102

2. j = 1, . . . , n
det A =

n
X

ai j Ci j

i=1

det A j-.
5.1

2 1
0
0
1
2 1
0

A4 =
0 1
2 1
0
0 1
2
:
det A4 = 2(1)1+1 det(A4 )11 + (1)(1)1+2 det(A4 )12

(A4 )11

2 1
0
2 1 = A3
= 1
0 1
2

(A4 )12

1 1
0
1 1 0

2 1 = 0
= 0
A2
0 1
2
0

det(A4 )12 = (1)(1)1+1 det A2 .

det A4 = 2 det A3 det A2 .
, n n An 2 (1)
,
det An = 2 det An1 det An2 .

5.26

. S 1 AS A.
. det A = 0, 0.
. 0 1 1, 0 -1.
5.27
1, 1, 1,

Fn n n

1 1
1
1 1

...
Fn = det

1 1 1
1
1

103

Fn = Fn1 +Fn2 . Fn Fibonacci, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . ..

5.28
.

0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0

A=
B
=
0 1 0 1

0 0 1 0

0
0
6
0

0
3
7
0

1
4
8
0

2
5
.
9
1

4
. det A det B.
5.29 5.28,
. ( (1)i+j )
det A det B.
5.30

n n

1 1
1 1

A1 = [1] A2 =
A3 = 1 1
1 1
0 1

1 :

0
1 ...
1

Dn An .
. ,
Dn = Dn1 Dn2 .
. D1 = 1 D2 = 0, D3 , D4 , . . . , D8 .
Dn , D1000 .
5.31
. LU , 4 4
aij = min{i, j}.
. A = (aij ), aij = min{ni , nj } n1 = 2, n2 = 6,
n3 = 8, n4 = 10.
n1 n2 n3 n4 ;
5.32

a15 a
24 a33 a42 a51
1 2 3 4 5
5 5 . :
;
5 4 3 2 1
5.33
:

1 1 0
1 2 3
A
0
A = 1 0 1 , B = 4 5 6 , C =
.
0 B
0 1 1
7 8 9
;

104

5.34 0 4 4 , 0. ,
0.
5.35 det A 6= 0, n!
0. P A
0 P A.
5.36
. ;

1
2 1
A=
, B == 4
3 6
7

.
2 3
5 6 .
0 0

5.37 Bn 1, 2, 1 An ( 5.1) 1, 1 b11 = 1 a11 = 2.

,
|B4 | = 2|B3 | |B2 | = 1 .

1 1
1
1
1

2 1
,
2 1 .
B3 = 1
B4 =

1
2 1
1
2
1
2

|Bn | = 2|Bn1 | |Bn2 | An .

. Bn ;
5.38

1, 3, 1

3 1 0
3 1
C1 = [3], C2 =
, C = 1 3 1 .
1 3
0 1 3

det C4 ; ( Fibonacci).

det Cn = 3 det Cn1 det Cn2 .
det Cn F2n+2 Fibonacci ( F2n+2 =
3F2n F2n2 )
5.39

, A D ,

A B

0 D = |A| |D| .

2 2

A B

C D 6= |A| |D| |C| |B|.

105

5.40 CD = DC :
, (det C)(det D) = (det D) (det C),
C D . , CD = DC C
D .
5.41

3
2
2
A = 3 1 3 .
1
2

A ;
5.42

4 1 1
B= 1 2 5 .
1 2 3

. B
, ,
B.
. B.
B.

. C = (Ci j )
(i, j) ai j A. , C T ,
A,
adj A,

T
C11 Cn 1
C11 C1 n

..
.. = ..
adj A = ...
.
.
.
C1 n Cn n
Cn 1 Cn n

5.8 A = (ai j ) n n , Ci j ai j ,
b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) ,
b1 Ci 1 + b2 Ci 2 + + bn Ci n

106

B i b i
A,

a11

a1 n
..
..

.
.

a(i 1)1 a(i 1) n

bn
B i = b1

a(i + 1)1 a(i + 1) n

..
..

.
.
an 1

an n

b1 C1 j + b2 C2 j + + bn Cn j
Bj b j
A,

a11 a1 (j 1) b1 a1 (j + 1) a1 n

.. .
..
..
..
Bj = ...
.
.
.
.
an 1 an (j 1) bn an (j + 1) an n
. j A
C1 j , , Cn j . A
Bj . Bj j-
det Bj = b1 C1 j + b2 C2 j + + bn Cn j .
B i .

5.9 A n n ,
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = det A In .
. (i , j) A (adj A)
ai 1 Cj 1 + ai 2 Cj 2 + + ai n Cj n .
, adj A = (Ci j )T . i = j,
det A i-. i 6= j
i- A
j- A. ,
.

det A
0

...
A (adj A) =
.
0
det A
(adj A) A .

5.10 det A 6= 0
A1 =

1
(adj A) .
det A

107

.
n n
, ,
Gauss - Jordan.

Ax = b
5.11 ( Cramer) det A 6= 0,
Ax = b
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
xj =

det Bj
det A

Bj b j A.
. det A 6= 0, A ,
x = A1 b =

1
(adj A) b
det A

xj =

1
det Bj
(C1 j b1 + + Cn j bn ) =
.
det A
det A

Cramer
Ax = b,
Gauss.
5.2
x1 + 3x2 = 0
2x1 + 4x2 = 6
(0, 6)
x1 , x2 :

0 3
1 0

6 4
2 6
18
6
=
=
x1 =
=
9,
x
= 3 .
2 =

1 3
2
2

1 3

2 4
2 4

n-
n u1 , . . . , un , ,
V = ||u1 || ||u2 || ||un || .

108

u1 , . . . , un A.
uTi uj = 0 i 6= j

uT1 u1 uT1 un
||u1 ||2
0

.. =
..
AT A = ...
.
.
.
T
T
2
un u1 un un
0
||un ||

V 2 = ||u1 ||2 ||un ||2 = det(AT A) = (det A)2 ,

,
V = | det A| .
u1 , . . . , un .
u1 , . . . , un det A > 0
det A < 0.
,
. ,
w1 w2 w1 .
,
Gram-Schmidt: w20 = w2 sw1
w1 . w1 w20
w1 w2 .
V = | det A|
A w1 w2 .
n , w1 , . . . , wk1
wk , n- , . , w10 , w20 , . . . , wn0 ,
,

V = | det A| .

Gauss ,
. ,
, k k k Ak
A.

a
b
e
a b e
c d f 0 adbc af ec
a
a
g h i
g
h
i
A1 = [a].

a b
a, b, c, d A2 =
.
c d

109

, A2 ,
.
, n n A1 k n, ,
,

Lk 0
Uk F
A = LU =
B C
0 G

Lk Uk
Lk F
=
BUk BF + CG
Ak = Lk Uk . Lk 1 ,
det Lk = 1, Uk k d1 , . . . , dk .
det Ak = det Uk = d1 . . . dk .
det Ak1 = d1 . . . dk1 , dk
dk =

det Ak
.
det Ak1

, det A0 = 1, k = 1. .
5.12 Gauss n n A

A1 , . . . , An . d1 , . . . , dn
dk =
5.43

det Ak
.
det Ak1

1 2 3
A = 0 4 0 .
0 0 5

C, AC T =
(det A)I.
5.44

C11 , C21 , C23 C33

1 2 3
6 .
A= 5 0
7 1 4

5.45

C12 , C24 , C33 C43

2
0
1 5
8 1
2
1
.
A=
4 3 5
0
1
4
8
2

5.46

110

. A = (2, 2), B = (1, 3) C = (0, 0).

,

1 2 2
(ABC) =
.
2 1 3
. A, B D = (1, 4),

2
2
1

1
3 1 .
(ABD) = 1
2
1 4 1
( ).
5.47

2 1 2
4 5 0 ,
2 7 0

2 1 2
4 5 3 .
2 7 0

.
5.48

Cramer :
ax + by = 1

cx + dy = 0

x + 4y z = 1
x + y + z = 0
2x
+ 3z = 0

5.49 M x = (x1 , . . . , xn )
j .

M =

x1
1
xj
1
xn
1

. M .
. Ax = b, AM Bj ,

a11 a12 b1 a1n

det Bj

..
..
.. ,
xj =
, Bj = ...
.
.
.
det A
an1 an2 bn ann

b j- .
. Cramer, AM = Bj .

111

5.50 0,
. 0,
;
5.51 4 4 `1 , `2 , `3 `4 ,
.
1 1, .

 6
, .
,
Ax = b .
, ,
, LA : Rn Rm : x 7 Ax. LA
N (A) 0, R(AT )
R(A).
, n n A,
Ax = x ,

(6.1)

x.
LA : ,
.

2 0
1
6.1 A =

:
1 3
0

2 0
1
2
=
1 3
0
1

0

3:
1

2 0
0
0
=3
.
1 3
1
1

5 1
1
5

6.2 A =
x =

1
y =
.
1

5 1
1
4
Ax =
=
= 4x
1
5
1
4

Ay =

5 1
1
5

1
1

112

6
6

= 6y .

1
1

113

u R2 x y,
A : u = cx + dy,
Au = cAx + dAy
= 4cx + 6dy.
x Ax = x ,
, A:
A .
( eigenvectors, ).
, ,
,
.
Ax = x; ,
0 . .
6.1
Ax x = 0
I,
Ax Ix = 0

(A I)x = 0 .
x A I. ,
A I , .
: A I det(A I) = 0.
. n n A
det(A I) = 0 .
i , A i I .
A i I A
i . A i I A i .
det(A I) n .
A.
.
6.3 2 2 A,

4 5
A=
.
2 3
,

4
5
det(A I) =
2
3

= (4 )(3 + ) + 10
= 2 2

114

2 2 1 2.
A
1 = 1

2 = 2 .

1 = 1,

(A 1 I)x = 0 ,

5 5
x1
= 0.
2 2
x2

1
x =
, A 1 = 1
1
A 1 I,
X1 = {t(1, 1) | t R} .
2 = 2 , ,
(A 2 I)x = 0

2 5
x1
= 0.
2 5
x2

5
x =
, A 2 = 2
2

X2 = {t(5, 2) | t R} .

6.4

1 2 2
2
1 2 .
2
0 3
A

1 2
2

2
det(A I) = 2 1
2
0
3

= (1 )2 (3 ) + 8 + 4(1 ) 4(3 )
= (1 )2 (3 ) .
1 = 1 2 = 3.
1 = 1

0 2 2
x1
2
0 2 x2 = 0 .
x3
2
0 2

115

2
0 2
x1
0 2 2 x2 = 0 .
0
0 0
x3
x = (1, 1, 1). A
1 = 1 x = (1, 1, 1). A 1 = 1
,
X1 = {t(1, 1, 1) | t R} .
2 = 3

x1
2 2 2
2 2 2 x2 = 0 .
2
0 0
x3
A 2 = 3 x = (0, 1, 1). A
2 = 3
X2 = {t(0, 1, 1) | t R} .

,
, 3 3
. 1 = 1 2, 1. ,
,
.
6.5

4 0 3
A= 0 2 0
3 0 4

4
0
3

2
0
det(A I) = 0
3
0
4

= (2 8 + 25)(2 ) .
, 1 = 2. ,
2 = 4 + 3i
1 = 2

2
0
3

3 = 4 3i .

0 3
x1
0 0 x2 = 0
x3
0 2

116

A 1 = 2 x =
(0, 1, 0).
2 = 4 + 3i

3i
0
3
x1
0 2 3i 0 x2 = 0
3
0
3i
x3

3i
0
3
x1
0 2 3i 0 x2 = 0
0
0
0
x3
A 2 = 4 + 3i
x = (i, 0, 1).
3 = 4 3i

x1
3i
0
3
0 2 + 3i 0 x2 = 0
x3
3
0
3i
A 3 = 4 3i
x = (i, 0, 1).
A ,
, 1 = 2,
X1 = {t(0, 1, 0) | t R} .
A
1 = 2
X1 = {t(0, 1, 0) | t C} ,
2 = 4 + 3i
X2 = {t(i, 0, 1) | t C}
3 = 4 3i
X3 = {t(i, 0, 1) | t C} .

n n
1. A I. n
, .
2. . A.
3. i ,
(A i I)x = 0 .
A i ,
A i .

117

Ax = b Gauss,

. 2.
n n ( C ),
n 5
( )1 .
,
,
.
.
(trace)
tr A.
6.1 n n A . , n , 1 , 2 , . . . , n , .
1. A ,
1 + 2 + + n = tr A
2. A ,
1 2 n = det A .
.
1. 1 , . . . , n A,
det(A I) = (1 ) (n ) .
n 1 .
n 1

a11

a
12
1n

a21
a22
a2n

..
..
..
..

.
.
.
.

an1
an2
ann
n 1
. .
, n 1 ,
,
(a11 )(a22 ) (ann ) .
n 1
a11 n1 + a22 n1 + + ann n1 = (a11 + + ann )n1 .
1

Galois (
), .

118

n1 (1 )(2 ) (n )

(1 + 2 + + n )n1 .

1 + 2 + + n = a11 + a22 + + ann = tr A .
2.
det(A I) = (1 ) (n ) .
, 1 2 n . = 0, det A.
1 2 n = det A .

6.1

1 1
A=
.
2
4

,
.
6.2 B = A 7I, A 6.1,
B. A;
6.3 . 0
, .
6.4

3 4 2
0 0

A= 0 1 2
B = 0 2
0 0 0
2 0

2
0 .
0

.
6.5 A, x
: Ax = x. x A1 ,
.
6.6 AT
A.
6.7 2 2 A B, AB
A B, A + B
.
6.8 3 3 A 0, 3, 5
u, v, w.

119

. A, A.
. Ax = v + w. .
. Ax = u .
6.9

3 4
a b
A=
B =
.
4 3
b a

6.10 x = (1, 1, . . . , 1) . = 1.

0 0 1
0 1 0
P = 0 0 1 R = 0 1 0 .
1 0 0
1 0 0

6.2
A, A
. .
6.2 n n A n x1 , . . . , xn . R, x1 , . . . , xn .
R1 AR ,
1 , . . . , n A,

A = RDR1

.
.
..
.. 1
..
..
0
1
.
.

.
..
= x1 xn
x1 xn .
..
..
..
..
0
n
.
.
.
.

. j- AR Axj = j xj .
.
..
..
.

AR = 1 x1 n xn .
..
..
.
.
j- R1 (AR) j- AR R1 .
j- AR j- R j . j-
R1 (AR) j (j- R1 R), j ej .
.
..
..
.

R1 AR = 1 e1 n en ,
..
..
.
.

120

1 , . . . , n .

A R R AR
.
.
n n n , n
, .
1

6.3
.
. 1 , . . . , m A, v1 , . . . , vm , k, 1 < k m,
{v1 , . . . , vk1 } , v1 , . . . , vk

vk = a1 v1 + + ak1 vk1 .
(6.2)
6.2 A
Avk = a1 Av1 + + ak1 Avk1
vi i
k vk = a1 1 v1 + + ak1 k1 vk1

(6.3)

6.2 k , 6.3:
0 = a1 (1 k )v1 + + ak1 (k1 k )vk1 .
v1 , . . . , vk1 , ai (i k ) = 0 i = 1, . . . , k1,
i k 6= 0, a1 = = ak1 = 0. , 6.2, vk = 0, .
{v1 , . . . , vm } .

6.11 ( R
R1 AR ):

1 1
2 1

.
1 1
0 0

6.12

A =

4 3
, A
1 2

A100 .
6.13

1 1 1
A= 1 1 1
1 1 1

R A.

121

6.14

2 2
2
0
2 0
A1 =
A2 =
A3 =
.
2 2
2 2
2 2

6.15 A = RDR1 ,
D .

1 2
1 1

.
0 3
2 2


Cramer, 107
Fibonacci, 103, 104
Gram-Schmidt, 85
, 7
, 63
, 29, 84, 93
, 64
, 24, 106, 107
GaussJordan, 27
Gauss, 6, 109
, 9
, 65
, 53, 70, 72
, 9, 42
, 50
, 76
, 40
, 65
, 4
, 4
, 51
, 119, 120
, 32
, 63
, 64
, 101
, 40
, 65
, 17, 26
, 65
, 42
, 47
, 46, 47
, 59
, 59
, 5
, 32

, 8
, 22, 27, 92
, 113
, 113
, 113
, 50
, 36
, 68
, 22, 84, 93, 94
, 34, 53, 55, 70, 72
, 7, 36, 37, 108, 109
, 107, 108
, 40
, 90
, 101, 102
, 99
, 68
, 76
, 71
, 70
, 83, 84
, 83
, 83
Gram-Schmidt, 85
, 11
, 24, 25
, 29, 95
, 91
, 16, 85
, 83, 84
, 11
, 1113, 16
, 29
, 11
, 102, 103
, 18, 27, 91
, 22
, 22, 84, 93
122

, 77, 79, 80
, 105
, 49
, 48
, 11
, 62, 84
, 19
, 115
, 12, 13, 16, 92
, 7
, 62, 76, 77, 79
, 76
, 79
, 105
, 53, 54, 70, 72
, 33, 53, 56, 70, 72
, 113
, 17
, 63
, 101
, 4
, 105
, 43
, 17
, 11
, 18

123