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The Digestive System:

The Lab Anyone Can Stomach!
The digestive system and its accessory organs are a collection of complex tissues designed to tear, grind, moisten, digest and absorb our food. That sandwich doesnt stand a chance! With the exception of the accessory organs, the digestive system is a hollow tube. There are two common names for this tube, the alimentary canal and the gastro-intestinal tract. You should be familiar with both names. Before we look at the microscopic tissues of the organs, we must first be able to recognize these organs macroscopically, that is to recognize the organs as they appear whole. The following is a brief tour of the gastro-intestinal tract. Each organ is discussed in more detail below. We consider the teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas and gallbladder to be accessory organs of the digestive system. Again, we examine each of these in detail as we progress (Martini pp. 663-695). We begin the digestive process by putting food into our mouths. In the mouth, we use our teeth, designed for chewing (mastication), and various salivary glands that produce saliva. Saliva starts chemical digestion, specifically for complex carbohydrates such as starch. The tongue positions food for digestion and chewing, moving food around and propelling it backwards for deglutition (a fancy word for swallowing). Chewed food also has a name, the bolus, as in life is just a bolus of cherries. As the bolus is swallowed, it passes to the oropharynx and then travels through the laryngopharynx on into the esophagus. The esophagus is a tube, normally collapsed, that generates peristaltic waves (wave-like contractions down a hollow tube) propelling the food toward the stomach. From here on out, our trip through the alimentary canal will be one great long peristaltic slide, so hang onto your hats. The stomach (Martini p. 678-79) is a J shaped sac that further digests the bolus into an acidic liquid substance called chyme. The stomachs digesting enzyme is specific to protein. The stomach contains four regions: the cardiac region where the esophagus enters; the fundus, which is the upper hump of the stomach; the body, which makes the majority of the stomach; and the pylorus, the inferior narrow region that leads to the small intestine. Besides digestion, the stomach also acts as a temporary storage unit. It keeps the chyme on hold until the next organ, the small intestine, is ready for it. Once summoned, chyme squirts through the pyloric sphincter of the pylorus and into the small intestine. The pyloric sphincter is easily recognized by touch. Because the pyloric sphincter is a thick smooth muscle, it feels hard when you squeeze it. The rest of the stomach feels softer. The small intestine (Martini pp. 683-85) is composed of three regions. The first region is duodenum (yes, it really is pronounced DU-O-DEE-NUM which means, having the same length

as the width of twelve fingers. Whoever came up with that name either had an unusual pair of hands or a cooperative lab partner. Needless to say, the duodenum is short, about twelve inches, but despite its shortness, it is the most active part of the small intestine. We find the duodenum tucked under the stomach behind the peritoneum with the pancreas resting in its curvature. Emptying into the duodenum are the common bile duct and the pancreatic ducts. The common bile duct squirts bile from the liver and gallbladder into the duodenum; the pancreatic duct sends pancreatic juices into the duodenum. Bile helps breaks large fat droplets into smaller ones, a process called emulsification. Pancreatic juices contain digestive enzymes that complete digestion, and bicarbonate that neutralizes the acid that comes from the stomach. Most of the digestion and absorption of the small intestine takes place in the duodenum and the jejunum, which is the second part of the small intestine. Note, however, that fat digestion is completed in blood vessels. The second region of the small intestine after the duodenum is the jejunum. Jejunum literally means empty. Why this name? The jejunum is usually more empty than the next region, the ileum. Peristaltic waves propel food beyond it, but food backs up in the next region, the ileum. The term ileum means twisted, and is not to be confused with the term ilium, which means hip. Why twisted? The ileum does twist about, but so does the jejunum. Oh well. You can tell them apart easily enough at the end of the ileum where it enters the cecum of the large intestine. This entry point is the

ileocecal valve. It completes the small intestine. The jejunum is about 1/3 the length of the ileum. When relaxed, the ileum and jejunum are as long as a twostory building is high. So it appears that the regions of the small intestine were named by a twisted, empty guy with twelve fingers, but thats just my suspicion. The large intestine, or colon, resembles an upside-down horseshoe. (Martini pp. 687) As noted above, chyme enters the large intestine at the ileocecal valve and flows into the cecum. The term cecum means blind because it is a blind-ended pouch. Attached to the cecum is a small wormlike pouch, the vermiform appendix. Vermiform means worm-like, and appendix means something that hangs on to something else. The vermiform appendix is actually a good name because it really looks like a little worm. Now lets get back to the horseshoeshaped large intestine (colon). Traveling upward from the cecum is the ascending colon (the horseshoe begins). The ascending colon tucks behind the peritoneum and emerges a little before the next region, the transverse colon. Now we take a ninety-degree turn and travel across the top part of our horseshoe as the transverse colon. Next we descend to form the descending colon. Once again, the descending colon will dive under the peritoneum and emerge towards its base as the horseshoe ends. At its base, the descending colon forms a pair of twists as it descends to form the S shaped sigmoid colon. Sigmoid means S. Then the sigmoid colon travels downward toward the body wall. As the colon travels toward the body wall, it becomes the rectum. The rectum, in

turn, terminates at the anal canal, which is the lowest external portion of the alimentary canal, passing through the body wall. The anal canal is lined with external and internal sphincter muscles. Stimulation of the internal sphincter muscles via stretch reception gives us the urge to defecate; reliving ourselves of solid body waste, feces, is done by the external sphincter muscles. The external opening of the anal canal is the anus. Certain additional external features of the colon can be seen on the cadaver. The longitudinal muscle of the muscularis externa is partitioned into distinct ribbons called the teniae coli (the coils around the colon). Pockets of fat, the epiploic appendages, can also be seen here (epiploic means above the membrane of the bowels). The rectum lacks teniae coli and epiploic appendages. The serous membrane that holds the colon together is called the mesocolon, and external folds called haustra are also evident. The term haustra means to drink. A major function of the large intestine is to reabsorb water. Haustra increase the surface area of the colon and therefore help the colon to absorb water. They also contribute to the muscle tone, and therefore overall function of the colon.

quarter); the cuspids or canines are the fang-teeth and are used for tearing (one per quarter); the premolars (two per quarter) and the rear molars (three per quarter) are used for grinding. Children lack molars and use their premolars for grinding. As we mature, our molars come in. The last sets of molars are often called wisdom teeth. I suppose they are called wisdom teeth for two reasons: 1. we are older, and therefore wiser when they arrive. 2. We tend to remember the experience. Now let us examine an individual tooth. The tooth can be divided into three sections: The crown rests above the gum (gingiva); the neck rests at the gum line, and the root rests below the gum line attached via a gomphosis (a peg-like joint) to the alveolar bone of the maxilla or mandible. The crown of the tooth has an outer layer of enamel, the hardest substance of our bodies. Below the enamel lies the dentin, a bone-like substance. The dentin is very porous, containing tiny canal called dentinal tubules what make their way inward from the edge of the enamel to the central pulp cavity. The pulp cavity contains blood vessels and nerves and is the interior core of the tooth. The enamel continues into the neck, but stops at the upper region of the root. The hollow root is composed of dentin. The pulp cavity continues into the root. Nerves and blood vessels enter or exit the tooth at the root, specifically at a tiny opening at the base of the root called the apical foramen. The root is also covered with a hard surface called cementum. The periodontal ligament, which holds the root in place, attaches to the cementum anchoring the tooth to the alveolar bone.

The Accessory Organs

Teeth (Martini p.674) Examine the bones that form the mouth, the mandible and maxilla, and mentally divide them in half. Each half of each bone contains the exact same teeth, so to study teeth we need only look at one quarter of the mouth. How very incisive! We have several different types of teeth: the front, flat teeth are incisors used for biting (two per

Cavities or dental caries arise when enamel is eaten away by acids produced by bacteria. This exposes the dentin. Recall that the dentinal tubules are contained within the dentin. When these tubules are exposed to the external environment, nerves within the pulp cavity may be stimulated. Because the nerves are nociceptors, firing the nerve creates pain. Likewise, when the gum line recedes and dentin below the neck of the tooth is exposed, nerves can fire. Any unusual change can stimulate the nerves of the tooth (hot, cold, touch, and even some chemicals from foods). Brushing and flossing teeth removes bacteria, promotes healthy gums and prevents having to send your dentists children to private schools by way of huge dental bills. . The Liver & Gallbladder (Martini pp. 691-93) On the upper right side of our body just below the diaphragm rests the liver. The liver has multiple functions, including the production of most blood proteins, the production of many clotting factors, the production of bile, the detoxification of harmful chemicals, as well as the production of many metabolites including glycogen and various lipids. The liver is divided into two main lobes, the right and left lobe, and two inferior smaller lobes, the caudate lobe which is the most posterior of the two, and the quadrate lobe which is closely associated with the gallbladder. Resting between the lobes of the liver is the faliciform ligament, a continuation of the linea alba. Recall that the linea alba is formed when we, as flat tiny embryos, fold over and unite in the middle to form into a tubal organism. The round ligament is at the

base of the falciform ligament, and is the remains of the umbilical vein, terminating at the navel. It is referred to as ligamentum teres. Recall that teres means round. A fold of fatty serous tissue called the lesser omentum can be seen between the liver and the stomach, depending on the extent of the prosection. The gallbladder is literally a green organ that hangs from the quadrate lobe of the liver. It stores bile produced by the liver, but does not produce bile itself. The gallbladder receives bile from the liver in the following manner. Bile drains from the liver via the left and right hepatic ducts. These two hepatic ducts join together to form the common hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct joins with the cystic duct coming from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct. The common bile duct drains into the duodenum, but the sphincter muscle that regulates the flow of bile is usually closed. This sphnicter is called the sphincter of Oddi or the hepatopancreatic sphincter (see Martini p. 693). When the hepatopancreatic sphincter is closed, the bile draining from the liver backs up into the common bile duct. Recall that connecting to the common bile duct is the cystic duct that drains upward into the gallbladder. In other words, as the common bile duct fills, the cystic duct fills. As bile is continually produced by the liver, bile eventually makes its way via the cystic duct to the gallbladder. When we eat fatty foods, the hepatopancreatic sphincter opens, sending bile into the duodenum via the duodenal ampulla (the ampulla of Vater), which is a wide tube traveling through the duodenal layers to the lumen. The gall bladder also contracts

via peristalsis, propelling more bile into the duodenum. Bile then emulsifies the fat. Because only a small amount of fat can be emulsified at one time, the stomach keeps fatty chyme from entering the duodenum via the pyloric sphincter, which is hormonally controlled. This is why you feel full for a long time after a fatty meal from McDonalds. The Pancreas (Martini p. 694). The pancreas rests between the stomach and the duodenum and has a lumpy, almost amorphous appearance. The head of the pancreas rests in the curvature of the duodenum, and the tail extends out to connect with the spleen. This connection is strictly anatomical; there is no direct physiological relationship between the pancreas and the spleen. Deep within the pancreas lie two pancreatic ducts which course along the entire length of the interior of the pancreas. Each duct drains pancreatic fluid to the duodenum via duodenal ampulla described above. The pancreatic juices produced contain sodium bicarbonate used for neutralizing acid from the stomach and an array of digestive enzymes. Besides being a major contributor to digestion, the pancreas also has an endocrine function. Insulin and glucagon are hormones produced by the pancreas.

absent. In that case, adventitia forms the outermost layer of the tube. The mucosa consists of the epithelium and underlying connective tissue, the lamina propria. A tiny band of smooth muscle, the muscularis mucosae, separates the mucosa from the submucosa, which lies beneath it as its name implies. The submucosa consists of connective tissue; major arteries, veins and nerves course through it. The next layer, the muscularis externa consists of smooth muscle fibers. The innermost smooth muscle is circular; the outermost is longitudinal. Finally the serosa, when present, consists of a serous membrane composed of simple squamous epithelium and a thin reticular layer which helps compose the basement membrane. When absent, areolar connective tissue helps form the outer walls of the organs as adventitia. We will examine the various organs of the alimentary canal in relation to the layers described above. We will begin with the salivary glands. Salivary Glands Submandibular gland: Gartner & Hiatt, p. 302-3 (figure 4) Submaxillary gland slide: Another name for the mandible is the submaxilla, so our slide is labeled submaxillary gland. Nearly the entire tissue is designed for secretion. Two types of secretory tissue can be seen, the darker serous acini and the light mucosal acini. The term acini applies to the slice of pie appearance of each the cells. The term acinar literally means grape-shaped. Wouldnt you know? Serous acini secrete salivary amylase

Histology of the Gastro-intestinal Tract (Weve arrived!)

There are usually four layers of tissue found in the tube of the alimentary canal. Working from the inside out, the layers are the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis externa and the serosa. The serosa is sometimes

and the watery portion of saliva; mucosal acini secrete mucous. Linear connective tissue structures called trabeculae can also be seen, dividing the gland into lobules and providing a structure that allows larger blood vessels to course through. Several ducts may be seen, typically composed of simple columnar epithelium that provide a vehicle for secreting the saliva into the oral cavity. In some salivary glands, ducts of stratified cuboidal or stratified columnar epithelium may be found. There are two additional salivary glands, which will be viewed under the microscope but will be studied as whole organs. These are the parotid gland and the sublingual gland. The parotid gland rests over the masseter muscle and under the ear (parotid means on the side of the ear). The sublingual gland rests under the tongue. The parotid gland produces mainly serous fluid rich in amylase, while the sublingual gland produces mostly mucus. I have chosen the submandibular gland because it shows tissues common to all the salivary glands. They all work together they form a relatively viscous saliva. Incidentally, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system regulate which salivary glands are most active. The parasympathetic system stimulates the parotid gland, which is why your mouth waters before you eat a meal. The sympathetic system stimulates the sublingual gland, which is why your mouth seems dry when you are nervous. Most of the time, our saliva is the consistency of the saliva produced by the submandibular gland.

The Esophagus
Esophagus: Gartner & Hiatt, pp. 280-1 Examine the slide called trachea & esophagus. We know from studying respiration, the trachea is a circular tube. The esophagus rests behind the trachea and is a collapsed tube. The interior portion of this tube is a mucosa composed of stratified squamous epithelium, which is highly folded. The mucosa, which also contains a folded layer of lamina propria, composed of areolar connective tissue. Below the lamina propria lies a band of muscle, the muscularis mucosae, completing the mucosa. The submucosa, is composed of dense irregular connective tissue mixed with areolar connective tissue. It contains numerous blood vessels. Esophageal glands may also be seen in some animals. Their purpose is to secrete mucus for lubrication of the esophageal lumen. In the upper third of the esophagus, the muscularis externa is composed of striated skeletal muscle, but eventually the transition to smooth muscle will occur. In either case, an inner circular muscle and on outer longitudinal muscle can be distinguished in this tissue region. The final layer of tissue on the esophagus is the adventitia, composed mostly of areolar connective tissue. The adventitia helps anchor the esophagus to the trachea as well as providing the esophagus with an outer covering. Blood vessels can often be seen within the adventitia. Esophageal/Stomach junction: Gartner & Hiatt p. 281 figure 4 Examine the esophageal/stomach junction slide. The esophagus passes

through the diaphragm at the esophageal hiatus and enters the cardiac portion of the stomach at the esophageal /stomach junction. Of most interest to us is the transition of the epithelium from stratified squamous to simple columnar epithelium. Note, too, the muscularis externa is by now composed of smooth muscle; striations in this tissue are absent. In addition, dark purple masses of mucosa associated lymphatic tissue (Peyers patches) can often be seen in this region. The little purple cells within this region are lymphocytes.

The Stomach
Stomach: Gartner & Hiatt p. 282-5 (Fundus figure 1 & 2 p. 285) Examine the stomach, fundus slide. Find the simple columnar epithelial tissue. This tissue will be found in what appear to be fused fingers. The epithelium and the underlying connective tissue, the lamina propria together form the mucosa of the stomach. Several features are worth mentioning here. The spaces between the mucosa are called the gastric pits. I have often thought that this would be a good name for a barbecue restaurant, but perhaps not. The fat cells closest to the surface of the lumen in the gastric pits are mucoussecreting epithelial cells (goblet cells). The mucus they secrete helps protect the lining of the stomach from its own acids. Traveling into the gastric pits themselves are three general types of cells: 1. goblet cells & mucus neck cells, 2. parietal cells, and 3. chief cells. Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus. The mucous neck cells produce acidic mucus and resemble the surface goblet cells.

Gartner and Hiatt refer to both of these as surface cells. Parietal cells strain red with a dark central nucleus. Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid and resemble red eyeballs. Your eyes would be red too with acid in them. Chief cells strain blue to purplish depending upon the age of the stain. They are smaller than parietal cells and produce pepsinogen, the precursor to pepsin, which is the chief digestive enzyme of the stomach. Pepsin digests protein. Below and between the epithelial tissues lies the lamina propria, the connective tissue portion of the mucosa. Made of areolar connective tissue, the lamina propria contains blood and lymphatic vessels. At the base of the mucosa lies a thin band of muscle, the muscularis mucosae, which helps fold the inner lining of the stomach. These folds, known as rugae, are easily seen within the interior of the organ and contribute to the surface area and extensibility of the stomach. Now lets examine the remaining layers. Below the muscularis mucosae is the submucosa. Major veins, arteries, lymphatic vessels and nerves course through the submucosa. Below the submucosa lie three distinct layers of the muscularis externa (smooth muscle tissue): the innermost oblique muscle layer, followed by a circular muscle layer, and then a longitudinal muscle layer. (this is unusual because the rest of the alimentary canal only has two layers, as we will soon discover; the oblique muscle layer is absent). Still, all three layers of the muscle help churn the chyme within the body of the stomach and ultimately propel the chyme toward the pylorus.

Below the muscularis externa lies the serosa, a simple squamous epithelial membrane that produces serous fluid. Another name for this tissue is the visceral peritoneum.

bactericide, lysozyme, the same enzyme found in tears. Although there is an illustration of the cells of the intestinal crypts in Gartner & Hiatt p. 289. Below the epithelium lies the lamina propria. Although we cannot see them on our slides, the lamina propria contains specialized lymphatic vessels called lacteals that absorb fats that have passed through the intestinal epithelium during digestion. Ultimately these lipid complexes called chylomicrons will pass into the blood stream from the lymphatic system at the subclavian veins. This digestive process will be completed by the endothelium of the blood vessels. As with the stomach, the mucosa of the duodenum is separated from the submucosa by a thin band of muscularis mucosae. The submucosa of the duodenum contains specialized glands called Brunners glands or simply, duodenal glands. These glands produce a highly alkaline mucous that helps to neutralize the acid from the stomach. Below the submucosa lies the muscularis externa consisting this time of an inner circular muscle and an outer longitudinal muscle. The duodenum lacks serosa. We find instead, an outer layer of adventitia. The duodenum lacks a serosa because it is retroperitoneal, meaning it lies behind the parietal peritoneal wall. Other retroperitoneal organs include parts of the ascending and descending colon, the pancreas, and the kidneys.

Small Intestine
Small intestine (duodenum): Gartner & Hiatt p. 286-7 Examine the duodenum slide. Again, locate the simple columnar epithelium that lines the interior of the duodenal lumen. Note the scattered pattern of goblet cells dotted among the other columnar epithelial cells. The duodenum serves as both an area for digestion and absorption. Like the stomach, the duodenum also functions as a gland. Lets look at this tissue. On the surface epithelial cells, you should be able to see long microvilli that resemble cilia. Microvilli increase the surface area, and also hold specialized enzymes called brush border enzymes that achieve the final breakdown of proteins and sugars. Note, too, that the mucosa of the small intestine is folded in a finger-like manner, which also increases the surface area. These finger-like folds are called villi. On the cadaver we will see even larger folds within the small intestine which are called plicae circularis (plica means plate or fold), but the microscopic folds revealed in our slide are the intestinal villi. Between the villi are pit-like regions called the intestinal crypts or crypts of Leiberkuhn. Cells within the intestinal crypts include goblet cells, enetroendocrine cells that produce intestinal hormones (gastric inhibitory peptide, secretin, and cholecystokinin) and Paneth cells that secrete a

Small intestine (ileum): Gartner & Hiatt p.288-9 figure 3 & 4 Examine the ileum slide. The ileum is very similar to the duodenum, but there are some subtle differences. In the mucosa, numerous goblet cells can be seen as opposed to few goblet cells in the duodenum. The intestinal crypts and villi are broader and less numerous. There is also a good chance of finding Peyers patches here. In addition, the submucosa of the ileum lacks the glandular tissue found in the duodenum (duodenal glands), and while the muscularis externa is similar to the duodenum, a serosa can be found in the ileum in contrast to the adventitia found in the duodenum.

The submucosa will be similar between the large and small intestines, as will the muscularis externa, although in a whole specimen of the colon, the longitudinal muscle becomes the teniae coli described above. The serosa offers little distinction between the tissues. It may be present or absent depending upon whether the tissue was taken from a retroperitoneal region of the colon.

The Liver
Liver: Gartner & Hiatt p. 306-7; Kupffer cells p. 309, figure 2. Examine the pig liver slide. The pig liver has a much more distinct pattern than the human liver, so I prefer it for histological study. The pig liver is divided into a series of hexagons called liver lobules. The borders of the lobules are trabeculae of connective tissue. Blood vessels and bile ducts may be found at the corners of the hexagons and will be discussed soon. The tissue that makes the interior of the lobules is composed of epithelial cells called hepatocytes. Hepatocytes line two types of canals: bile canals transport bile from the hepatocytes to the bile ducts; liver sinusoids transport blood from the branches of the hepatic arteries and hepatic portal veins to the central veins. It is usually impossible to tell which type of canal you are looking at, but you should recognize hepatocytes as simple cuboidal to columnar epithelial tissue. Now lets examine what we can actually see in the pig liver slide. At the center of the hexagon is a small hole, the central vein. The central vein doesnt look vascular at all. It looks like a central hole. The central vein receives blood from the hepatic artery and

Large Intestine (Colon)

Large intestine (colon): Gartner & Hiatt p. 290-1 Examine the colon slide. Once again, the colon will have a strong resemblance to the small intestine, particularly the ileum. The principle difference lies with the mucosa, and this difference is admittedly subtle. As with the ileum, there are numerous goblet cells in the epithelium of the mucosa, and even more so in the colon. More importantly, the villi in the colon have a cropped appearance, as if someone had given them a haircut. I look for plateaus when I examine colon tissue, the space between the plateaus being the intestinal crypts. Also, no Peyers patches are found in the colon. Afterall, we want bacteria living here, but not in the ileum. This is why Peyers patches are so abundant in the ileum, but absent from the colon.

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hepatic portal veins that course at the corners of the hexagons. The hepatic portal vein, the hepatic artery and bile duct form the portal triad (see Gartner & Hiatt, pages 301 and 307). Venous blood, returning from the intestine, and arterial blood drain from the portal triad into the sinusoids and are mixed there. As a result, some oxygen is supplied to the hepatocytes while newly digested nutrients are delivered to them for further processing. The central veins ultimately drain into the hepatic vein, which drains into the inferior vena cava, which in turn courses toward the heart. Thats the blood vessel story, but what about the bile ducts? Recall that the bile ducts rest along with the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein. They receive bile from the hepatocytes. Note that bile and blood flow in opposite directions, so that while the hepatic artery and hepatic portal veins are delivering blood to the hepatic sinusoids, the bile ducts are collecting bile from the bile canals. Bile ducts are easily distinguished from the blood vessels because they are composed of simple cuboidal to columnar epithelium. You recall that the arteries and veins are lined with simple squamous epithelium; their other tunics are often recognizable as well. Now examine the Kupffer cell slide. This is human tissue so the distinct lobules will not be evident, but our tissue has been stained to reveal the macrophages found in the liver. These macrophages, called the Kupffer cells (Gartner & Hiatt, p. 309, figure 2) will appear as black amorphous blobs. Incidentally, its pronounced (Coopfer). Although no cellular subtleties can

be detected, the stain does reveal the phagocytic nature of the liver. As well as being general phagocytes, Kupffer cells will take over the job of assassinating old red blood cells if the spleen is removed. For old red blood cells, visiting the liver is like visiting the bad part of town.

The Pancreas
Pancreas: Gartner & Hiatt p. 304-5 Examine the pancreas slide. Note the trabeculae, which are streaks of connective tissue that separate the pancreas into lobules. The majority of the epithelial tissue seen is deeply stained pancreatic acini. Each acinus is a hollow tube with a bulge of epithelium at its base. The epithelial tissues are simple columnar and resemble those found in the salivary gland. The acinar cells produce pancreatic juices that ultimately drain into one of the two central pancreatic ducts. Again, recall that pancreatic juices aid in digestion and neutralization. The enzymes contained within the pancreatic ducts are secreted from the acinar cells of the pancreas by way of specialized vesicles called zymogen granules. These enzymes remain dormant until they reach the duodenum of the small intestine. Here pancreatic enzymes interact with intestinal enzymes, turning each other on, and resulting in a digestion complex that can tackle any food. See Gartner & Hiatt, p. 304, figure 3, for an illustration of zymogen granules. Thats the lab. If you finish early, go back and review. Its important to properly digest this material (he he ho ho ha ha).