CASTES AND TRIBES

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THURSTON

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CASTES AND TRIBES

OF

SOUTHERN INDIA

CASTES AND TRIBES

OF

SOUTHERN INDIA
BY

EDGAR THURSTON,
Superintendent, Madras Government

c.i.e.,

Museum
;

Correspondant Etranger,

Soci6t6 d'Anthropologie de Paris

Societa

Socio Corrispondante,

Romana

di

Anthropologia.

ASSISTED BY

K.

RANGACHARI,
of the

m.a..

Madras Government Museum.

VOLUME V M

TO P

GOVERNMENT

PRESS,

MADRAS

1909.

U h O
V.

RA
1 ? 1966

NOV

!??/rv OF 1055:^

113S748

CASTES

AND

TRIBES
INDIA.
V.

OF SOUTHERN

VOLUME

^ARAKK Avar. The

Y^i
I

Marakkayars are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Tamil-speaking Musalman tribe of

mixed Hindu and Musalman origin, the people of which are usually traders. They seem to be distinct
from the Labbais
statistics
{g'.z'.)

in

several respects,

but the

of the two have

apparently been confused,

as the

they should be."

numbers of the Marakkayars are smaller than Concerning the Marakkayars of the
district,

South Arcot
"

Mr. Francis writes as follows.*

The Marakkayars

are largely big traders with other

countries such as Ceylon and the Straits Settlements,

and own most of the native coasting craft. They are particularly numerous in Porto Novo. The word Marakkayar
is

usually derived from the Arabic markab, a boat.

The

story goes that,

when

the

first

immigrants of

this

were driven from their own country by persecutions) landed on the Indian shore, they were naturally asked who they were, and whence
they came.
In answer they pointed to their boats, and

class (who, like the Labbais,

pronounced the word markab, and

consequence known
to

they

became

in

the Hindus as Marakkayars, or

* Gazetteer of the South Arcot

district.

MARAKKAYAR
the people of markab.

The Musalmans

of pure descent

hold themselves to be socially superior to the Marakkayars, and the Marakkayars consider themselves better

than the Labbais.

There is, of course, no religious bar to intermarriages between these different sub-divisions, but such unions are rare, and are usually only brought
offer of

about by the

strong financial inducements to the

socially superior party.

Generally speaking, the pure-

bred Musalmans

differ

from those of mixed descent by

their

dressing themselves

and

women

in

the
at

strict

Musalman fashion, and by speaking Hindustani among themselves. Some of the Marakkayars
of

home are now

following their example in both these matters, but most

high hat of plaited coloured grass and (kambayam) waist-cloth. The Labbais also very generally wear these, and so are not always readily distinguishable from the Marakkayars, but some of them use the Hindu turban and waist-cloth, and let their womankind dress almost exactly like Hindu women. In the same way^ some Labbais insist on the use of
affect the

them

the tartan

Hindustani

in their houses, while others

speak Tamil.

There seems
of

to

be a growing dislike to the introduction

domestic ceremonies, and the proces-

Hindu

rites into

sions and music, which were once

common

at marriages,
in

are slowly giving place to a simpler ritual

more

resem-

blance with the nikka ceremony of the

Musalman faith." Of 13,712 inhabitants of Porto Novo returned at the census, 1901, as many as 3,805 were Muhammadans. " The ordinary vernacular name of the town is Farangipettai or European town, but the Musalmans call it Muhammad Bandar (Port). The interest of the majority
of the

inhabitants centres

in

matters

connected with
their living

the sea.
either as

large proportion of
of,

them earn

owners

or sailors

in,

the boats which ply

MARAKKAYAR

between the place and Ceylon and other parts, and it is significant that the most popular of the unusually large

number
is

of

Musalman

saints

who

are buried in the town

one Malumiyar, who was apparently in his lifetime a His fame as a sailor has been notable sea-captain.
magnified into the miraculous, and
it

is

declared that
to

he owned ten or a dozen

ships,

and used

appear
has

in

command
those

of

all

of them simultaneously.
of being able to deliver
to the sea in ships,

He
and

now

the reputation

from danger
sailors

who go down

setting out

on a voyage or returning from one

an offering
in

in safety

usually put

the

little

box kept
in

at his

darga, and these

sums are expended

and whitewashed.
is

keeping that

building

lighted

Another curious

darga

in the

town

that of Araikasu Nachiyar, or the

one pie

lady.

Offerings to her must on no account be

(-jJ-^

worth more than one pie

small an

of a rupee)
effect.

tributes in

excess of that value are of no

If

sugar for so

amount cannot be procured, the devotee spends the money on chunam (lime) for her tomb, and this is
consequently covered with a superabundance of whitewash.
Stories are told of the

way

in

which the valuable

failed to obtain her

offerings of rich
favour,

men have altogether

and have had to be replaced by others of the

regulation diminutive dimensions.

well kept.

The

chief

mosque

is

Behind

it

are two tombs, which stand at an

parallel as

odd angle with one another, instead of being

usual.

The legend goes

was a great saint called even more devout disciple called Saiyad Shah. The latter died and was duly buried, and not long after the saint died also. The disciple had always asked to be buried at the feet of his master, and so the grave of this latter was so placed that his feet were opposite the head
V-I B

upon a time there Hafiz Mir Sahib, who had an

that once

marakkAyar
of his late pupil.
pupil was

4
But
his
spirit

recognised that the

really greater than the master,

and when men

his
feet

came
saint

later to

see the two graves they found that the

had turned his tomb round so that

no

longer pointed with such lack of respect towards the head of his disciple." *
In

the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Jonagans

are separated from the Marakkayars, and are described as

And, Mr. Francis says that in the Gazetteer of South Arcot, "the term Jonagan or Sonagan, meaning a native of
traders of partly

Musalman

Hindu parentage.

Sonagan^or Arabia,

is

applied by Hindus to both Labbais

is

and Marakkayars, but it tuous flavour about it."

but

usually held to have a contemp-

There

is

some

little

confusion

concerning the exact application of the name Jonagan,

I

gather that

it

is

applied to sea-fishermen and

boatmen, while the more prosperous traders are called

Marakkayars.
to differ

point, in

which the Labbais are said

is

from the Marakkayars,

that the former are

Hanafis, and the latter Shafis.

The Marakkayars
various

are said to admit converts from

Hindu

classes,

who

are called Pulukkais, and

for

may

not

intermarry with the Marakkayars

several

generations, or until they have

become prosperous.
rites,

In one form of the marriage

the ceremonial

extends over

four

days.

The most important

items
in

on the

first

day are fixing the mehr (bride-price)

rite

the

presence of the vakils (representatives), and the per-

formance of the nikka

by the Kazi.

The nikka

and the hands of the contracting couple are united by male elders, the bride standing within a screen. During the reading of the kudbha, a sister of
is

kudbha

read,

* Gazetteer of the South Arcot

district.

mAran or MARAYAN
present set up a roar,
sit

the bridegroom ties a string of black beads round the

bride's

neck.

All the

women

called kulavi-idal.

On

the following day, the couple

ties

among women, and the bridegroom

on the
bride's

a golden
fourth

tali

neck.

On
is

the third

or

day a

ceremony

called paparakkolam, or

performed.

The

bride

Brahman disguise, is dressed like a Brahman woman,

and holds a brass vessel in one hand, and a stick in the Approaching the bridegroom, she strikes him other.
gently,

and says

"
for

Did not
them."
in

give you buttermilk and

curds

Pay me

The bridegroom

then places

a few tamarind seeds

objects to this, and

the brass vessel, but the bride

demands money, accompanying the

demand with
retires in

strokes of the stick.

The man then

places

copper, silver, and gold coins in the vessel, and the bride

triumph to her chamber.

in

Like the Labbais, the Marakkayars write Tamil

Tamil,

Arabic characters, and speak a language called Arabin

which the Kuran and other books have been

[See Labbai.)
(sand).

published.

Maralu

Maran
up,
"
in

or

Marayan.

A gotra of Kurni. The Malayans

are

summed

Madras Census Report, 1901, as being temple servants and drummers in Malabar. Like many of the Malabar castes, they must have come from
the
the east coast, as their

name

frequently occurs in the

Tanjore inscriptions of 10 13 A.D. They followed then the same occupation as that by which they live to-day,

and appear
In parts of
"

to

have held a tolerably high

of
this

social position.

North Malabar
"

they are called Oc'chan."

caste,"

The development
writes,*
is

Mr.

H.

A.
the

Stuart

interesting.

In

Chirakkal,

Madras Census Report,

1891.


MArAN or MArAYAN
6
district,

northernmost taluk of the Malabar

and

in

the

adjoining Kasargod taluk of South Canara, Marayans

are barbers, serving Nayars and higher castes
;

in the

Kottayam and Kurumbranad

drummers, and also
they are

taluks they are barbers and

officiate as purohits (priests) at the

funeral ceremonies of Nayars.

In the latter capacity

known

in

those parts also as Attikurissi Marayan.

Going

still

further south,

we

find

the

called simply Attikurissi, omitting the

Nayar purohit Marayan, and

Neverthe-

he considers
less,

it

beneath his dignity to shave.

he betrays his kinship with the Marayan of the

first

north by the privilege which he claims of cutting the

hair

when

a Nayar

is

shaved

after funeral

obsequies.

On

the other hand, the drummer,

who

is

called

Marayan,

and would be insulted if it were said that he was akin to the shaving Marayan of the north. He is considered next in rank only to Brahmans, and would be polluted by the He loses caste by eating the food of touch of Nayars. Nayars also lose caste by eating his food. Nayars, but the
or honorifically Marar, poses as a temple servant,

proverb says that a Marayan has four privileges

1.

Pani, or drum, beaten with the hand.

2.

Koni, or

bier,

i.e.^

the making of the bier.

3.
4.

Natumittam, or shaving.
Tirumittam, or sweeping the temple courts.

North Malabar a Marayan performs all the above duties even now. In the south there appears to have been a division of labour, and there a Marayan is in these days
" In

only a

drummer and temple

servant.

Funeral

rites are

conducted by an Attikurissi Marayan, otherwise known

as simply Attikurissi, and shaving
is

the duty of the

for

Velakattalavan.

This appears to have been the case

I

many

generations, but

have not attempted

to distinall

guish between the two sections, and have classed

as

7
barbers.

mArAn or MARAYAN

Moreover,
and,

it is

only in parts of South Malabar

that the caste has entirely given

up the profession of

barber

curiously enough, these are the localities

is

where Nambudiri influence

as

supreme.

The Marayans
title

there appear to have confined themselves to officiating

drummers

in temples,
;

and

to

have obtained the

In

of Ambalavasi

and, in course of time, they were even

honoured with sambandham of Nambudiris.

places an attempt

some

is made to draw a distinction between Marayan and Marayar, the former denoting the barber, and the latter, which is merely the honorific plural, the temple servant. There can, however, be little doubt that this is merely an ex post facto argument in support of the alleged superiority of those Marayans who have abandoned the barber's brush. It may be here noted

that

it is

common

to find barbers acting as musicians

throughout the Madras Presidency, and that there are

several other castes in Malabar, such as the Tiyyans,

Mukkuvans,

etc.,

who employ

barbers as purohits at

their funeral ceremonies."

In the Cochin Census Report, 1901, Mr.

M. Sankara

Menon

writes that the Marars are " Sudras, and, properly

speaking, they ought to be classed along with Nayars.

Owing, however,
vices in temples,

to their close

connection

with

ser-

and the absence of

Nayars,
they

free interdining or

intermarriage with

are

classed

along

with Ambalavasis.

They
also

are drummers, musicians, and

storekeepers in temples.
sections

Like Tiyattu Nambiyars, some

among them
known

draw

figures of the goddess in

Bhagavati temples, and chant songs.

they are also
as

In

some places
sub-castes

Kuruppus.

Some
if

among them do
Nayars.
In

not dine, or intermarry.

As they have
they touch

generally to serve in temples, they bathe

the

matter

of

marriage (tali-kettu and

marAn or marAyan

8
pollution, etc., they

sambandham), inheritance, period of

follow customs exactly like those of Nayars.

In
in

the
the

southern taluks Elayads officiate as purohits, but,

northern taluks, their

own castemen

take the part of the

Elayads

in

their

sradha ceremonies.

The
in

tali-kettu

is

likewise performed by Tirumalpads

taluks, but

the

southern
in

by their own castemen, called Enangan,

with
their

the northern taluks.

Their castemen or Brahmans unite

themselves

women

in

sambandham.

As

among Nayars,
etc.,

purificatory ceremonies after funerals,

are performed

by Checthiyans or Nayar

priests."

For the following detailed note on the Marans of

Travancore

am

indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Iyer.

has nothing to do with
is

The name Maran

Tamil root mar,

maranam

or

death, as has been supposed, but

to beat.

derived from the

In the Tanjore inscriptions of

Coromandel coast appears to have been known by this name. The Marans correspond to the Occhans of the Tamil country, and a class of Marans in North Malabar are sometimes called
the eleventh century, the caste on the

by

this designation.

In the old revenue records of the

to

Travancore

State,

Mangalyam appears

be the term

made use of. The two well-known titles of the caste are Kuruppu and Panikkar, both conveying the idea of In a person who has some allotted work to perform. modern days, English-educated men appear to have
given these up for
Pillai,

the titular affix added to the

name of the Sudra population generally. Marans may be divided into two main divisions, viz., Marans who called themselves Marars in North Travancore, and who now hesitate to assist other castes in the performance of their funeral rites and Marans who do
;

not convert their caste designation

plural,

into

an honorific

and

act as priests for other castes.

This distinction

9
is

MArAN or MArAYAN
to

most clearly marked

in

North Travancore, while

the south of Alleppey the boundary line

may be

said to

remain only dim.

In this part of the country, therefore,

is

a fourfold division of the caste

the one best

known

to

the people, namely Orunul, Irunul, Cheppat, and Kulanji.

The Orunuls
among them
death.

look upon themselves as higher than the

Irunuls, basing their superiority

on the custom obtaining

of marrying only once in their lifetime,

first

and

contracting no second alliance after the

Living,

husband's

however, with a Brahman, or one of

a distinctly higher caste, is tolerated

among them

in the

event of that calamity.

string,

The word Orunul means one

of

and
the

signifies

the absence

widow marriage.
tali-tier is

Among

Irunuls

(two strings) the

not

necessarily the husband, nor is a second husband forbidden after the death of the first. Cheppat and Kulanji

were once mere

local varieties, but

have now become

of the four sections,
rapidity

separate sub-divisions.

The males
interdine.
in

but not the females,

castes sub-divide

With what

and ramify

Travancore may be seen

from the

fact of

the existence of a local variety of

Ma-

rans called Muttal, meaning substitute or

emergency

employee,

in

the Kalkulam taluk,

who

are believed to

represent an elevation from a lower to a higher class of

Marans,

rendered

necessary by a temple

exigency.

The Marans
are entitled

are also
to

known

as Asupanis, as they alone

sound the two characteristic musical

instruments, of In

Malabar temples,

called asu

and

pani.

the south they are called Chitikans, a corruption

of the Sanskrit chaitika, meaning one whose occupation

relates to the funeral pile,
(asthi,
in

and

in the north Asthikkurichis

a bone), as they help the relations of the dead the bones

after

the collection of

cremation.

The

Marans

are, further, in

some places known

as Potuvans,

mArAn or mArAyan

to

as their services are engaged at the funerals of

castes.

many

Before the days of Sankaracharya, the sole occupation

of the

Marans

is

said to

have been beatino- the drum

in

Brahmanical temples.

When
is

Sankaracharya was refused

assistance in the cremation of his dead mother by the

Nambutiri Brahmans, he

believed to have sought in

despair the help of one of these temple servants, with

whose
the

aid the corpse

in

deposited

the

pit.

was divided into eight parts, and For undertaking this duty, which

Nambutiris repudiated from a sense of offended

religious feeling, the particular

Maran was thrown out

rest of the caste,

of his caste by the general community, and a compromise

had

to

be effected by the sage with the

in

who

returned

a body on the day of purification along

with the excommunicated man, and helped Sankaracharya

to bring to a close his mother's death ceremonies.

In

recognition of this timely help, Sankara

is

believed to

have declared the Maran to be an indispensable functionary at the death ceremonies of Nambutiris and

Ambalavasis.

It

has even been suggested that the

original form of
(to

chop

off),

in

Maran was Muran, derived from mur reference to the manner in which the
of.
is

remains of Sankara's mother were disposed

The
ments

traditional occupation of the

Marans
are

sounding

or playing on the panchavadya or five musical instru-

used

in

temples.

These
in

the

sankh or

conch-shell,

timila,
is

chendu,

kaimani,

and maddalam.

The
is

conch, which

necessary

every Hindu temple,

loudly sounded

in

the early morning, primarily to

wake

the deity, and secondarily to rouse the villagers.

Again,

when

the

temple service commences, and when the

is

nivedya or offering

carried, the

music of the conch

is

heard from the northern side of the temple.

On

this

II

mArAn or mArAyan
The
asu and pani

account,

many Marans

call

themselves Vadakkupurattu,

or belonging to the northern side.

are sounded by the

highest dignitaries
is

among them.

The

beating of the pani

the accompaniment of expiatory

offerings to the Saptamata, or seven

mothers of Hindu
Offerings

religious

writings,

viz.,

Brahmi, Mahesvari, Kaumari,

Vaishnavi, A^arahi, Indrani, and

are

Chamunda.

made

to these divine
in

mothers

during the daily sribali

procession, and

important temples also during the

sribhutabali hours,
at

and on the occasion of the utsavabali There are certain the annual utsava of the temple.

well-established rules prescribing the

hymns

to be recited,

and the music

rules
priest

to

be played.

So

religiously

have these
carries

to be observed

during the utsavabali, that the

who makes
all

the offering, the Variyar

who

the light before him and the

Marans who perform the

music

and to dress themselves in orthodox Brahmanical fashion, with the uttariya or upper garment worn in the manner of the sacred thread. It is sincerely believed that the smallest violation of the rules would be
have to
fast,

visited with dire

consequences to the delinquents before

the next utsava ceremony.

In connection with the musical instrument called

the timila, the following legend
timila in the Sri
is

current.

There was a
of kuruntotti,

and there

Padmanabha temple made was a Maran attached to the

temple,

who

was such an expert musician that the priest was unable

to adjust his

hymn
in

recitation to the

music of the Maran's

drum, and was

wrath.
It

consequence the recipient of the divine

to get a

was contrived

officiate as priest, and, as he could not recite the in

Brahman youth to hymns

to a height

consonance with the sounds produced by the drum, a

spirit lifted

hungry

him up from the ground

of ten feet.

The

father of the youth, hearing

what had

MARAN or MARAYAN
fingers, the blood of

12

occurred, hastened to the temple, and cut one of his

which he offered

to the spirit.

The

boy was then set free, and the old man, who was more than a match for the Maran, began to recite the hymns. The spirits, raising the Maran on high, sucked away his
blood, and vanished.
this

The

particular timila

has since

event never been used by any Maran.

higher classes of Marans claim six privileges,

The

called pano, koni,

tirumuttam, natumuttam, velichchor,

literally

and puchchor.
to

Koni means

a ladder, and refers

the stretcher,

made

of

bamboo and kusa

grass or

straw, on
laid.

which the corpses of high caste Hindus are Tirumuttam is sweeping the temple courtyard,
courtyard of a Nambutiri's house, where oblations

and natumuttam the erection of a small pandal (booth)

in the

are offered to the departed spirit on the tenth day after

death.

Velichchor,

or sacrificial

rice,

is

the right to

retain the remains of the food offered to the manes,

and
the

puchchor the offering made

ceremony.

to the

deity,

on

whom

priest throws a few flowers as part of the

consecration

A
over

large portion of the time of a

all

Maran

is

spent

within the temple, and

it.

through the night some watch

Many

functions are attended to by

them

in the

houses of Nambutiris.

Not only

at the

tonsure ceremony,

and samavartana or closing of the Brahmacharya stage, but also on the occasion of sacrificial rites, the Maran
acts as the barber.

At the

funeral ceremony, the pretil

paration of the last bed, and handing the

seeds, have to be

{Sesamtim)

done by him.

The Chitikkans perform

only the functions of shaving and attendance at funerals,

and, though they

may

beat drums in temples, they are

not privileged to touch the asu and pani.

there
is

a class of potters called

At Vechur Kusa Maran, who should

13

marasAri

be distinguished from the Marans proper, with they have absolutely nothing in common.

whom

Many
type,

families of the higher division of the

Marans

regard themselves as Ambalavasis, though of the lowest

and abstain from

flesh

and
a

liquor.

Some Marans
vice,

are

engaged

in the practice of sorcery,

while others are

agriculturists.

Drinking

is

common

sanctioned
it

by popular opinion owing to the notion that

for

is

good

persons with overworked lungs.

In their ceremonies the Marans resemble the Nayars,

as they do also in their caste

government and religious

or
first

worship.

The annaprasana,
is

food-giving cere-

mony,

is

the only important one before marriage, and

the child

taken to the temple, where

it

partakes of the

consecrated food.
ally

The Nayars, on
at

the contrary, generPurification

perform the ceremony

is

home.

by a
In
to

Brahman
pollution,

necessary to release the

is

Maran from death

which
in

not the case with the Nayars.

rate, the

Travancore, at any

Nayars are considered

be higher

the social scale than the Marans.

In connection with asu and pani, which have been

referred to in this note,
I

gather

that, in

Malabar, the

instruments called

maram
if

(wood), timila, shanku, chen-

gulam, and chenda,

kottugu, or playing

played together, constitute pani

pani.

Asu and maram

which
is

are the
in

names
ble, are

of an

instrument,

included
this
is

pani

kottugu.

Among the

occasions

when

indispensa-

the dedication of the idol at a newly built temple,

the udsavam

puram and

Sriveli festivals,

and the carrying

on which a

of the tadambu,

or shield-like structure,
is

miniature idol (vigraham)

borne outside the temple.

Marasari. Marasari
division of

or

Marapanikkan, meaning
is

carpenter or worker in wood,

an occupational sub-

Malayalam Kammalas.


marAtha
Maratha. Mariithas
of the
latest

14

are

found

in

every

district

Madras Presidency, but are, according to the census returns, most numerous in the following
:

districts

South Canara

..
.
.

..
.

...

..

31,351
7,314
7,156
6,311

Salem
Taj-ijore

..
..

..
..

..

..

..

Bellaiy
It
is

recorded, in the
Ivlarathi

Madras Census Report,

1891,

that

"the term

denotes the various Marathi

to the south either as

non- Brahman castes,

soldiers or

who came

camp

followers in the armies of the Marathi

in

invaders
caste
is

but in South Canara,

it

which

district the

most numerous,

appears to be the same as

Are, a class of Marathi cultivators.

of 65,961, as
as both caste

Of the

total

number
of sub-

many

as 40,871

have returned Marathi

and sub-division.
by the
rest
is

The number
no
castes.

divisions returned

less than 305, of

which the majority are the names of other

have evidently been used

Some
sense.

of these castes are purely Dravidian, and the names

in their occupational

For example, we have Bogam, Gandla, Mangala, etc." Mr. H. A. Stuart writes further, in the South Canara Manual, that " Marathi, as a caste name, is somewhat open to confusion, and it is probable that many people of various castes, who speak Marathi, are shown as
beine of that caste.

The

true Marathi caste

is

is

said to

have come from Goa, and that place

divided into twelve

the head-quarters.

balls, which The caste is Caste disputes are settled are exogamous sub-divisions. by headmen called Hontagaru, and allegiance is paid to The favourite deity the head of the Sringeri math.

wargs or

is

the goddess Mahadevi,

Brahmans, usually Karadis,

Marriage
is

officiate at their

ceremonies.

both infant

15,

marAtha

and

adult.

Bant).

The dhare form of marriage is used {see Widows may remarry, but they cannot marry

again into the family of the deceased husband

a rule
some

which
parts,

is

just the reverse of the

Levirate.

In

however, the remarriage of widows is prohibited. husband or a wife can divorce each other at will, and A Marathis are either both parties may marry again.
farmers, labourers, or hunters.

They

eat fish

and

flesh

(except that of cattle and animals generally regarded as

unclean) and they use alcoholic liquors.
either the ordinary Marathi or the
it."

They speak
dialect of

Konkani
call

The Marathis

of South Canara

themselves Are

and Are Kshatri. In the North Arcot Manual, Mr. Stuart records that the term Marathi is " usually applied to the various

Maratha Sudra
caste affix
to
is

castes,

which have come south.

It is

Their

always Rao.

impossible to discover

what particular Sudra division each belongs, for they do not seem to know, and take advantage of being away
from their own country to assert that they are Kshatriyas a claim which is ridiculed by other castes. In

marriage they are particular to take a bride only from

within the circle of their
of the oriorinal castes
is

own

family, so that

an admixture

is

thus avoided.

Their laneuaee
are tailors.*

Marathi, but they speak Telugu or Tamil as well,

in

and engage
Others

many

professions.

Many

enlist in

the army, in the police, or as peons

(orderlies or messengers),

and some take

to agriculture

or trading."

Of

the history of Marathas in those districts in which

will

they are most prevalent, an account

be found

in

the

Manuals and Gazetteers.

The Rangaris

are

Maratha dyers and

tailors.

MARATHA
The
died in
that
last

l6

Maratha King of Tanjore, Maharaja Sivaji, It is noted by Mr. M. J. Walhouse * 1855.

stately

"an eye-witness has recorded the

and

solemn spectacle of his funeral, when, magnificently arranged, and loaded with the costliest jewels, his body,
placed in an ivory palanquin, was borne by night through
the torchlit streets of his royal city amid the wail of
vast multitudes lamenting the last of their ruling race.

The

nearest descendant, a boy of twelve, was carried

thrice round the pile,

and

at the last circuit a pot of water

was dashed to pieces on the ground.

lit

The boy

then

the

pile,

and loud long-sustained lament of a nation

filled

the air as the flames rose."

Upon

the death of

Sivaji, the

Raj became, under the decision of the Court

extinct.

of Directors,

His private estate was placed

the
Collector
of

under the
In
addition

charge
to

of

the

district.

three

wives

whom

he

had already

married, Sivaji, three years before his death, married in

a body seventeen girls.

In 1907, three of the Ranis

It
is

were

still

living

in

the palace at Tanjore.

that,

re-

corded

by the Marchioness of Dufferin

in

when

the

Viceroy visited the Tanjore palace

1886 to speak

with the Ranis, he was admitted behind the purdah.

"The

ladies

had not expected him,

in their best,

and

were

not

dressed out
intelligible

language.

and no one could speak any However, a sort of chattering

chair, which,
cloth,

went

on,

and they made signs towards a

being covered with crimson

Dufferin

thought

down on. He turned and was just about to do so, when he thought he saw a slight movement, and he fancied there might be a little dog there, when two women pulled the cloth open, and there was the
he was
to sit
Ind. Ant., VII, 187S.

Om

Viceregal Life in India, 1884-88.

marAtha
reached half
the Viceroy
said
it

principal

Rani

a
!"

little

old

way up the back of the

him such a turn

woman who chair, and whom

had been within an act of squashino-.

He

gave

A
in

classified

index to

the Sanskrit Manuscripts in

the Tanjore palace was published by Mr. A. C. Burnell

1880.

In

the

introduction
first

thereto, he

states that

"the library was

brought to the notice of Euro-

pean scholars by H.S.H. Count Noer, Prince Frederic

of Schleswig-Holstein,

who brought an account

But
in
its full

of

it

to

the late Professor Goldstticker.

importance

was not known

it

till

was deputed,

1871, to

examine

by the then Governor of Madras, Lord Napier and

Ettrick.

The manuscripts
;

are the result of perhaps 300

;

years' collections

secondly, after

by the Nayaks of Tanjore about 1675, by the Mahratha princes.

firstly,

Some
and

of the palm-leaf manuscripts belong to the earlier

period, but the greater

part were collected in the last

All

present

centuries.

the

Nagari

Manuscripts

belong to the Mahratha times, and a large number of

these were collected at Benares by the Raja Serfojee

(Carabhoji) about
In the are large

fifty

years ago."

Maratha Darbar Hall of the Tanjore palace

pictures,

of

little

artistic

merit,

of

all

the

Maratha kings, and the palace also contains a fine statue Sarabhoji by Chantrey. The small but splendid series of Maratha arms from this palace constitutes one of the most valuable assets of the Madras Museum.
of

"The

armoury," Mr. Walhouse writes,* "consisted of

all

great heaps of old weapons of

tions, lying piled

conceivable descrip-

(music-hall),

upon the floor of the Sangita Mahal which had long been occupied by many
* Loc.
cit.

V-2

MARATHA
tons
of rusty arms

and weapons,
curved

in

confused
rust.

heaps,

coated and caked together with thick

of swords,
beautifully
straight,

Hundreds

and

ripple-edged,

many

damascened and
;

inlaid with

hunting or battle

scenes
in

in

gold

many broad

blades with long inscriptions

Marathi or Kanarese characters, and some so finely

to

tempered as
were
long
devices,

bend and quiver

with gold,

like

whalebone.
steel,

There
endless

gauntlet-hilts,

brass

or

in

hilts inlaid

and

hilts

and guards of

the most tasteful and elaborate steel -work.

There were
swords,

long-bladed

swords and

executioners'

two-

handed, thick-backed, and immensely heavy.

knives, and poniards

Daggers,

by

scores,

of

all

imaginable and
;

almost unimaginable shapes, double and triple-bladed

some with
beautiful

pistols

or spring-blades concealed in their

handles, and the hilts of

many

of the kuttars of the most

steel-

and elaborate pierced

rivalling

work,

in

endless

the European metalThere was a profusion of long narrow thin-bladed knives, mostly with bone or ivory handles very prettily carved, ending in parrot-heads and the like, or the whole handle formino- a bird or monster, with lesfs and
devices,

best medieval

work.

wings pressed close to the body,

all

exquisitely carved.
;

The use

of these

seemed problematical
fruit,

some

said they

were used to cut

others that they had been poisoned

and struck about the roofs and walls of the women's quarters, to serve the purpose of spikes or broken glass!

curious point was the extraordinary

number

of old

European blades,
distinctly

often graven with letters

and symbols

of Christian meaning, attached to hilts and handles most

Hindu,

adorned

idolatrous emblems.

with figures of gods and There was an extraordinary number

of long straight cut-and-thrust blades termed Phirangis,

which Mr.

Sinclair,

in his

interesting

list

of

Dakhani

19

MARATHA
in

weapons,* says means the Portuguese, or else made

imitation of such

imported swords.
disclosed
(siV.).

kuttar,

with a

handsome
informed
captured

steel

hilt,

the
Sir

well-known
Walter

name
has

ANDREA FERARA
me
in

Elliot

that,

when

a notorious

freebooter was

the Southern Maratha country

many

years

Andrea Ferrara,' Mr. Sinclair adds that both Grant DufI" and Meadows Taylor have mentioned that Raja Sivaji's favourite Evensword Bhavani was a Genoa blade t tually the whole array (of arms) was removed to Trichinapalli and deposited in the Arsenal there, and, after a Committee of officers had sat upon the multifarious collection, and solemnly reported the ancient arms unfit for use in modern warfare, the Government, after selecting the best for the Museum, ordered the residue This was in to be broken up and sold as old iron.
ago, his sword

was found

to be

an

'

1863."
It is

recorded,

in

the Gazetteer of the Bellary district,

that ''in 1790

Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General

of India, entered into an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam to reduce Tipu to order, and it was agreed that whatever territories should

be acquired by them
the chiefs

from Tipu

should be equally divided between them.

Certain specified poligars,

of Bellary,
to be left

among whom were

Rayadrug and Harpanahalli, were, however, in possession of their districts. Tipu was
in 1792,

reduced to submission
year he ceded half

and by the treaty of that

| Sandur and a part of the Bellary

his territories to the allies.

was

allotted to the Marathas,

Ind. Ant., II, 1S74.

t
X

The word Genoa occurs on several blades in the Madras Museum collection. The bas-relief of the statue of Lord Cornwallis in the Connemara Public
him receiving Tipu's two youthful sons as hostages.

Library, Madras, represents

V-2 B

MARATHA
district

20
Nizam."

to the

The

present Maratha chief of

is

the

little

hill-locked

Sandur State

a minor, whose

name and titles are Raja Venkata Rao Rao Sahib Hindu Rao Ghorpade Senapati Mamalikat Madar. Of the
eleven thousand inhabitants of the State, the various
castes of Marathas
families
officials

number over a thousand. " Three of them are Brahmans, who came to Sandur as with Siddoji Rao when he took the State from
Except
for

the Jaramali poligar.

Siddoji's

two short

intervals,

descendants have held the State ever since.

The

others are grouped into three local divisions, namely,

Khiisgi,

Kumbi,

and

Lekavali.

The

first

of these

consists of only

some eight

families,

and constitutes the

to

aristocracy of the State.

Some

of

them came

Sandur

from the Maratha country with Siva Rao and other rulers of the State, and they take the chief seats at

Darbars and on other public occasions, and are permitted

to dine

and intermarry with the Raja's

family.

They

wear the sacred thread of the Kshatriyas, belong to the orthodox Brahmanical gotras, have Brahmans as their purohits, observe many of the Brahmanical ceremonies,
burn their dead, forbid widow re-marriage, and keep On the other hand, they do their womankind gosha.
not object to drinking alcohol or to smoking, and they eat Their family god is the same as meat, though not beef.
that of the Raja's family, namely,

Martanda Manimallari,
to his

and they worship him in the temple in his honour which

is

in

the Raja's palace, and

make pilgrimages
[It
is

shrine at Jejuri near Poona.

noted by Monler(also

Williams * that

'

a deification,

Khando-ba

called

Khande-Rao), was a personage who

bourhood of the
hill

lived In the neigh-

Jejuri,

thirty miles

from Poona.

Brahmanism and Hinduism.

marAtha
of

He

is

probably a deification

some powerful Raja

or aboriginal chieftain,

who made himself useful to the Brahmans. He is now regarded as an incarnation of Siva in his form Mallari. The legend is that the god Siva descended in this form to destroy a powerful demon named IMallasura, who lived on the hill, and was a terror
to the

neighbourhood.

ParvatI descended at the

wife.

same
very

time to
popular
country.

become Khando-bas

His worship

is

among

the people of low caste in the Maratha

Sheep are sacrificed at the principal temple on the Jejuri hill, and a bad custom prevails of dedicating young girls to the god's service. Khando-ba is sometimes represented with his wife on horseback, attended
by a dog.
shipped

sect existed in Sankara's time,

who wor-

Mallari

as

lord of dogs.']

At the marriages
Before the cere-

of the Khasgis, an unusual custom, called Vira Puja, or

the worship of warriors,

is

observed.

mony, the men form themselves into two parties, each under a leader, and march to the banks of the Narihalla

mock combat as they go. At the river an offering is made to Siva in his form as the The godwarrior Martanda, and his blessing is invoked. dess Ganga is also worshipped, and then both parties march back, indulging on the way in more pretended The second division of the Marathas, the fighting.
river,

engaging

in

Kuribis, are generally agriculturists,

though some are

intermarry

servants to the

first

division.

They cannot

with the Khasgis, or dine with them except in separate

rows, and

womanfolk are not gosha but they have Brahmanical gotras and Brahman purohits. Some of them use the Raja's name of Ghorpade, but this is
their
;

only because they are servants in his household.

The
many

third division, the Lekavalis, are said to be the offspring

of irregular unions

among

other Marathas, and are


MARAVAN
of 22

them servants in the Raja's palace. Whence they They all call themselves are also called Manimakkalu. Ghorpades, and members of the Raja's (the Kansika) gotra. They thus cannot intermarry among themselves, but occasionally their girls are married to

Kunbis.

Their

women

are in no

way

gosha." *
is,

The

cranial type of the

Marathas

as

shown by the

following table, like that of the

or sub-brachycephalic
:

Canarese, mesaticephalic

Canarese
Marathi
Canarese
50 Holeyas
...

Cephalic

Index
Ma.x.

Av.

79-1

87-4 92-2

30 Rangaris
50 Vakkaligas

79-8

S17
81 -s

93 "8
88-2
84-4

Marathi

30 Suka

Sale.'?

Marathi

30 Sukun Sales

82-2

Maravan. " The

writes, t
" are

Maravans,"
in

found chiefly

H. A. Stuart Madura and Tinnevelly,

Mr.

where they occupy the tracts bordering on the coast from Cape Comorin to the northern limits of the Ramnad The proprietors of that estate, and of the zemindari.
great Sivaganga zemindari, are both of this caste.

The
of the

Maravars
peninsula,
little

must
and,

have

been

one

of the

first

Dravidian tribes that penetrated to the south of the

like

the

Kalians, they have been but

influence.

affected

by Brahmanical

There

exists

among
in

them a picturesque tradition to the effect that,

consequence of their assisting

Rama

in his

war against

the

demon Ravana,

that deity gratefully exclaimed in

* Garcilcer of the Bellary ilislricl.

Madras Census Rcporl,

1S91.

23

MARAVAN
never forget, and that

good Tamil Maraven, or they have ever since been more

probability, the

will

called

Maravans.

But, with

name may be connected with the word maram, which means killing, ferocity, bravery and
the
like,

as pointing clearly to their unpleasant profession,

and slaying their neighbours. In former days they were a fierce and turbulent race, famous for At one time they temporarily their military prowess.
that of robbing

held possession of the Pandya kingdom, and, at a later

date, their armies

gave valuable assistance to Tirumala

the British

Nayakkan.
end of
last

They gave

much

trouble at the

(eighteenth) century and the beginning of

century,

this (nineteenth)

but they are

now much

the

same

as other ryots (cultivators), though perhaps some-

what more bold and lawless.

Agamudaiyan and Kalian

is

are returned as sub-divisions by a comparatively large

number
there
vans,
is

of persons.

Maravan

also found
little

among

the

sub-divisions of Kalian, and there can be

doubt that

a very close connection between Kalians, Mara-

and Agamudaiyans." This connection is dealt But may here with in the article on the Kalians.
I

quote the following legend relating thereto. " Once upon a time, Rishi Gautama left his house to go abroad

on business.

Devendra, taking advantage of his absence,

his wife,

debauched

and three children were the

like a thief,

result.

When

the Rishi returned, one of the three hid himself

behind a door, and, as he thus acted

henceforward called Kalian.

he was

was therefore called

the third brazened ing for himself the
of pride.
it

Another got up a tree, and Maravan from maram, a tree, whilst

and stood
his ground, thus earn-

out,

name of Ahamudeiyan, or the possessor This name was corrupted into Ahambadiyan."*
*

Madras Review,

1S99.

MARAVAN
"Some
marani, sin
;

24
say

word Maravan is derived from a Maravan being one who commits sin by
the

killing living creatures without feeling pity,

and without
or

* fear of god."

Kuha, Rama's boatman, who rowed him across to Ceylon. According to the legend, Rama promised Guha that he would come back at a fixed time. When he failed to
return,
to

The Maravans

claim descent from

Guha

Guha made a fire, whereon to burn himself Hanuman, however, prevented him from death.

committing suicide, and assured him that

shortly return.

Rama would

This came to pass, and Rama, on learndone, called him Maravan, a brave

ing what

Guha had

or reckless fellow.

According to another legend, the

god

Indra, having

become enamoured

of Ahalya,

set

out one night to visit her in the form of a crow, and,

seating himself outside the dwelling of the

Rishi her

husband, cawed loudly. The Rishi, believing that it was dawn, went off to bathe, while Indra, assuming the form of her husband, went in to the woman, and satisfied When her husband reached the river, there his desire. were no signs of dawn, and he was much perturbed, but not for long, as his supernatural knowledge revealed to him how he had been beguiled, and he proceeded to curse Indra and his innocent wife. Indra was condemned
to have a thousand female organs of generation
his
all

over

body, and

the

woman was

turned

into a stone.

Indra repented, and the Rishi modified his disfigurement

by arranging

that, to the onlooker,

he would seem to

be clothed or covered with eyes, and the

woman was
in

allowed to resume her feminine form when Rama,

the course of his wanderings, should tread on her.

The

F.

FawccU.

Journ. Anlhrop. Insl.,

XXXIII,

1903.

25
result of Indra's

MARAVAN
Hence

escapade was a son, who was stowed

place

away

in

secret

(maravuidam).

his

descendants are

known

as Maravan.*
is

The head
or

of the

Maravans

the Setupati (lord of

the bridge), or Raja of Ramnad.

"The

Sethupati
J.

line,

Marava dynasty

of

Ramnad," the Rev.

had
its

E. Tracy
to popular

writes,! " claims great antiquity.

According

legendary accounts,
great

it

rise in

the time of the

Rama

himself,

who

is

said to have appointed,

on

his

victorious return from

Lanka

(Ceylon), seven

guardians of the passage or bridge connecting Ceylon

with the mainland

places the

....

Another supposition
second or third

rise of the family in the

It rests its

century B.C.

case principally upon a statelast of

in

ment

in the

Mahawanso, according to which the

the
the

three Tamil invasions of Ceylon, which took place

second or third century B.C., was under the leadership of

seven chieftains,
of the

who

are supposed,

owing

to the silence

Pandyan records on the subject of South Indian

with Ceylon, to

dealings

have been neither Cheras,

Cholas, or Pandyans, but mere local adventurers, whose

territorial

proximity and marauding ambition had tempted

them

to the undertaking

....

Another supposition

places the rise of the family in the eleventh or twelfth

century A.D.

There are two statements of this case, differing according to the source from which they come. According to the one, which has its source in South
India, the rise of the family took place in or

about 1059

A.D., when Raja Raja, the Chola king, upon his invasion
of Ceylon, appointed princes
to himself,
in his

whom
to

he knew to be loyal

and who, according

all

some, had aided him

conquest of

Pandya, to act as guardians of the

r. I'awccU,

loc, cil.

t Madras journ. Lit. Science, 1890.

MARAVAN

26

passage by which his armies must cross to and

supplies be received from the mainland.
the other statement, which has
records, the family took
its rise
its

and According to
fro,

source

in

Sinhalese

from the appointment of

Parakrama Bahu's General Lankapura, who, according

to a very trustworthy Sinhalese

epitome of the Maha-

wanso, after conquering Pandya, remained some time at

Ramespuram, building a temple

island,

there, and, while

on the

struck kahapanas (coins similar to those of the

Whichever of these statements we may accept, the facts seem to point to the rise of the family in the eleventh or twelfth century A.D., and inscriptions quoted from Dr. Burgess by Mr. Robert Sewell * show that grants were made by Sethupati princes in 14 14, again in 1489, still again in 1500, and
Sinhalese series).
finally as late as 1540.

These bring the

in 1604, to

line

down

to

within two generations of the time

when Muttu
have found

Krishaffairs

nappa Nayakka

is

said,

sadly disordered in the

Marava

re-established the old family in

and to have the person of Sadaiyaka

country,

Tevar Udaiyar Sethupati.

earlier series present

The

coins of the Sethupatis

divide themselves into an earlier and later series.

The

specimens which are usually larger and better executed, and correspond in weight and
appearance very nearly to the well-known coins of the
Sinhalese series,
found.
'

together with which they are often

These

coins,'

Rhys Davids

writes, t

'

are prob-

ably the very ones referred to as having been struck by

Parakrama's General Lankapura.'

series are very rude in device

The

coins of the later

and execution. The one face shows only the Tamil legend of the word Sethupati, while the other side is taken up with various devices."
* Sketch of the Dynasties of

t Numismata Orient.

South India, Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon.

27

MARAVAN

and whose curled beards resemble the furious twisted horns of the stag-, the loud twang of whose powerful bowstrings, and the stirring sound of whose
Maravar,

poet, in days of old, refers to " the wrathful

double-headed drums, compel even kings

large armies to turn their back and
fly."

at the

head of

are further described as follows.

"

The Maravans Of strong limbs and

Maravans,

hardy frames, and

fierce

looking as tigers, wearing long

the blood-thirsty

and curled locks of

hair,

armed with the bow bound with

travellers,

leather, ever ready to

injure others, shoot their arrows at poor

and defenceless
their victims." t
district,
it

from

whom

they can steal nothing, only to

feast their eyes

on the quivering limbs of

" to

In a note on the Maravans of the Tinnevelly

is

recorded
Poligars,

:j;

that

this

class

belonged most of the

or feudal

chieftains,

who disputed

with the
last,

English the possession of Tinnevelly during the

first

and

years

of

the

present

(nineteenth)

century.

As

feudal chiefs

and heads of a numerous

class of the

population, and one whose characteristics were eminently

adapted

for the roll of followers of

a turbulent chieftain,

bold, active, enterprising, cunning

class constituted themselves, or

and capricious,

this

were constituted by the

peaceful cultivators, their protectors in time of bloodshed

and rapine, when no central authority, capable of keeping

Hence arose the systems of Desha and Stalum Kaval, or the guard of a tract of country comprising a number of villages against open marauders in armed bands, and the guard of separate villages, their houses and crops, against secret theft. The feudal chief
the peace, existed.

received a contribution from the area around his fort

in

Kalilh-lhokai.
Pillai.

t Kanakasabhai +

The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Vcars

ago.

1904.

Manual of

ihe Tinnevelly dislricl, 1879.

MARAVAN

28

consideration of protection afforded against armed invasion.

The Maravars

are chiefly the agricultural servants

or sub-tenants of the wealthier ryots, under

cultivate, receiving a share of the crop.

whom

they

An

increasing

proportion

of this caste are

becoming the ryotwari owners

of land by purchase from the original holders."

Though
usually

the

Maravans, Mr. Francis writes,* " are

they are

some of them the most In Madura they expert cattle-lifters in the Presidency. particularly ingenious method of removing cattle. have a
cultivators,

The

actual thief steals the bullocks at night,

at a gallop for half a

and drives

them
alibi.

dozen miles, hands them over

to a confederate,

and then returns and establishes an The confederate takes them on another stage, and

does the same.

third

moving all that night. and rested, and thereafter they are driven by easier stages to the hills north of Madura, where their horns are cut and their brands altered, to prevent them from being recognised. They are then often sold at the great In some papers Chittrai cattle fair in Madura town. read in G.O., No. 535, Judicial, dated 29th March 1899, it was shown that, though, according to the 1891 census, the Maravans formed only 10 per cent, of the population of the district of Tinnevelly, yet they had committed
70 per cent, of the dacoities which have occurred in that They have recently district in the previous five years.
(1899) figured prominently in the anti-Shanar riots in the

and a fourth man keep them The next day they are hidden

same
'

district."

{^See

Shanan.)
F. S. Mullaly writes, f " furnish

The Maravans," Mr.

nearly the whole of the village police (kavilgars, watch-

men), robbers and thieves of the Tinnevelly

* Madras Census Report, 1901. t Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.

district.

29

MARAVAN

Very often the thief and the watchman are one and the same individual. The Maravans of the present time, of course, retain only a shadow of the power which their
ancestors wielded under the poligars,

who commenced the Still the Marava of to-day, as a member kavil system. of a caste which is numerous and influential, as a man of
superior physique and bold independent
spirit, thief

and
an

robber, village policeman and detective combined

is

immense power
It is

in

the land."

noted, in the

Madras Police Report,

predilection

1903, that

" a large section of the population in

Tinnevelly

the

Maravans

are

criminal by
efforts

and

training.

Mr. Longden's

have been directed to the suppres-

sion of a bad old custom, by which the police were in

the habit of engaging the help of the

selves in the detection of crime.

The

natural result

Maravans themwas

a mass of false evidence and false charges, and, worst

of
all,

a police indebted to the Maravan,

who was

certain

to \va.w&\\\s qtiid pro quo.

This method being discoun-

tenanced, and the station-house officer being deprived of

the aid of his tuppans (men

has found himself

who provide a clue), the former very much at sea, and, until sounder

methods can be inculcated, will fail to show successful Still, even a failure to detect is better than a results.
police in the

hands of the Maravans."

Further informa-

tion concerning tuppukuli, or clue hire, will be found in

the note on Kalians.

From

a very interesting note on the Maravans of the

district,

Tinnevelly

the following extract

is

taken.*

"

On

the principle of setting a thief to catch a thief,

Maravars

are paid blackmail to keep their hands from picking and

stealing,

and

to

make

restitution for
district,

any

thefts that

may

* Tinnevelly, being an account of the Mission Field, 1897

the

people, and the missions.

MARAVAN
watchmen.

30

possibly take place, notwithstanding the vigilance of the

(A

suit

has been

a Munsiff's Court, for failure

known to make

to

be instituted,

in

restitution for theft

after receipt of the kudikaval

fact,

money.)

As

a matter of

no robberies on a large scale can possibly take place

People living
at the

without the knowledge, connivance, or actual co-operation

of the Kavalgars.
in

country places, remote

from towns, are entirely

by

mercy of the Maravars,

hut,

and every householder or occupier of a mud

is

which

dignified

being called a
is

house,

must pay the

Maravars half a fanam, which

pies, yearly.

equal to one anna eight

Those who own

it is

cattle,

and there are few

who do
enemy

not,

must pay one fanam a

year.

At the time

of the harvest,
to

the custom in Southern India for an

his antagonist's crops as they are

go and reap
fields.

g'rowine in the

He

does this to

brinij

matters to

a climax, and to get the right side of his enemy, so that

he

may be

forced to
is

come

to terms, reasonable or other-

wise.

Possession

nine points of the law.

On

occa-

sions such as these, which are frequent, the advantage of

the

employment

of Kavalgars can readily be understood.

salt,

The Maravars
bidder.
like

are often true to their

though some-

times their services

can be obtained by the highest

The

plan of keeping kaval, or going the rounds

is,

policeman on duty,

for a village of,

say,

hundred Maravars, to divide into ten sections.

people living within their range.
place,
If

Each

section takes a particular duty, and they are paid by the

a robbery takes

and the value of the property does not exceed ten

rupees, then this section of ten

men

will
If,

each subscribe however, the

all

one rupee, and pay up ten rupees.

property lost exceeds the

sum

of ten rupees, then

the

ten sections of Maravars,

together, and

the hundred men, will join

make

restitution for the robbery.

How

31

MARAYAN

they are able to do

be imagined.

and to recoup themselves, can Various attempts for many years have
this,

been made to put a stop to this system of kudi-kaval. At one time the village (Nunguneri) of the chief

Maravar was burnt down, and for many years the police have been on their track, and numerous convictions are Out of 150,000 Maravars in constantly taking place.
the whole district,

10,000 are professional thieves, and

of these 4,000 have been convicted, and are living at the

present time.

The

question arises whether

some

plan

could not
rogues.
It

be devised to make honest

men

of these

has been suggested that their occupation as

watchmen should be recognised by Government, and

that they should be enlisted as subordinate officials, just as

some of them are now employed

as Talayaris

and

Vettiyans
side
girls,

....
the
is

The villages of the Maravars exist

castes, and, as

by side with the other

all

boys and

different

classes

that there

bond of

grow up together, so sympathy and regard between

them all. therefore, are not regarded as marauding thieves by the other classes. Their position in the community as Kavalgars is recognised, and no one actually fears them. From time immemorial it has been the mamool (custom) to pay them certain dues,
and, although illegal,

The Maravans,

contrary to custom
the villagers
is

who The

in

India

is

prepared to act

small

sum paid annually by

it

insignificant,
it,

and no one considers

that his
steal,

hardship to pay
in

when he knows
the

goods are
there

safety

and,

if

Maravars did not

{e.^:,

are plenty of other roving castes

the Kuluvars,
so that, on the

Kuravars, and Kambalatars)

whole,

who would,

ordinary unsophisticated natives,

who

dwell in

the country side, rather like the

Maravar than otherwise.

torchlight

When, however, these watchmen undertake


MARAVAN
dacoities,

32

and attack

travellers

on the high-road, then

little

they are no better than the professional thieves of other

countries,

and they deserve as

in

consideration.
is

It

must be borne
of

mind

that, while

robbery

the here-

ditary occupation of the Maravars, there are thousands

them who lead strictly honest, upright lives as husbandmen, and who receive no benefit whatever from Some of the most noted and the kudi-kaval system. earnest Native Christians have been, and still are, men and women of this caste, and the reason seems to be If they are that they never do things by halves.
murderers and robbers, nothing daunts them, and, on
the other hand,
of the earth."
if
I

they are honest men, they are the

salt

am

informed

that,

when

Maravan

takes food in the house of a stranger, he will sometimes

take a pinch of earth, and put

it

commences

his meal.

This act frees

on the food before he him from the obliga-

tion not to injure the family

which has entertained him. In a note entitled Marava jati vernanam,* from the
it

Mackenzie Manuscripts,
seven sub-divisions
ively
in

is

recorded that

"

there are

the tribe of the Maravas, respect-

denominated

Sembunattu,

Agattha,

Oru-nattu,

Upukatti, and Kurichikattu.

that of the

Among these sub-divisions,

is

Sembunattu Maravas In the Madras Census Report,

returned as the most

the principal one."

1891,

the

following
:

are

important

sub-divisions

Agamudaiyan, Kalian,
(or

Karana,

Kondaikatti, Kottani,
the Sembanattus

Sembanattu, and Vannikutti.

Among

Sembanadus), the following septs or khilais have been recorded

:

Marikka.
Piccha.

Thanicha.
Karuputhra.
Katra.

Tondaman.
Sitrama.

* Madras Journ. Lit. Science, IV, 1836.


MARAVAN

33

"The Kondayamkottai
writes,*

Maravars," Mr. F. Fawcett

kothu,
I

"are divided into

six sub-tribes, or, as they call

is

them, trees.

Each

tree, or

divided into three

khilais or branches.

These

call septs.

Those of the

khilais belonging to the same tree or kothu are never

allowed to intermarry.

man

or

woman must marry

with one of a khilai belonging to another tree than his

own, his or her own being that of his or her mother, and
not of the father.

But marriage

is
:

not permissible between

there are

those of any two trees or kothus

tions.

some

restric-

For

instance, a branch of betel vine or leaves

may

marry with a branch of cocoanut, but not with areca nuts

or dates.
I

am

not positive what

all

the restrictions are,

but restrictions of

some

kind,

by which marriage between

persons of

all

trees

may

not be

made

indiscriminately,

certainly exist.

The names
to

of the trees or kothus and of

the khilais or branches, as given to

Padel, a

me

from the Maraver

book considered

be authoritative, are these

Khilai.

Tree.

Kothu.

Viramudithanginan.

Milaku

Pepper vine

...

<

Sedhar.

Semanda.
Agastyar.
Vettile

Betel vine

...

...

<

Thennang

Cocoanut

...

...

<

Maruvidu. Alakhiya Pandiyan. Vaniyan. Vettuvan.

Nataivendar.

Komukham
Ichang

Areca nut

...

...

<

Kelnambhi. Anbutran.

Gautaman.
Dates
...
...

<

Sadachi. Sangaran.
Pichipillai.

Akhili.

Panang

...

Palmyra

...

...

<

Lokhamurti. Jambhuvar.
1903.

* Journ. Anthrop. Inst.,

XXXIII,

v-3

MARAVAN
"

34
I

Unfortunately
all

am
old.

unable

to

trace

out

the

meanings of
to

these khilais.

are, of course,

sages of

Agastya and Gautamar Viramudithanginan seems

Alakhiya

mean a

king's

crown-bearer.

Pandiyan

seems to be one of the old Pandiyan kings of

(alakhiya
to

Madura

means

beautiful).

Akhili

is

perhaps intended

mean

the wife of Gautama, Lokamurti, the one being

monkey king with a bear's The common rule face, who lived long, long ago. among Brahmans, and indeed regulating marriages
of the world, and Jambhuvar, a

people of almost every caste

in

Southern India,
is

is

that

the proper husband for the girl

or bis son.
kottai

her mother's brother

the

But

this

is

not so

among
same

Kondayam-

Maravars.

girl

can never marry her mother's

khilai.

brother, because they are of the

On

the

other hand, the children of a brother and sister

may
same
of

marry, and
as,

should

do

so,

if

this

can

be

arranged,

though the

brother

and

sister

are of the

khilai,

their children are not, because the children

the brother belong

perforce
khilai.

to that of their
It

mother,

who
that

is

of a different

very often
khilai

happens
;

man

marries

into

his

father's

indeed

there seems to be some idea that he should do so

if

possible.

The

children of brothers

may

not marry

with each other, although they are of different khilais,

for

two brothers may not marry into the same khilai. One of the first things to be done in connection with
marriage
is

that the female relations of the brideto

it

groom must go and examine the intended bride, She should not, as test her physical suitability. was explained to me, have a flat foot; the calf
the
skin on

of

her leg should be slender, not so thick as the thigh the

;

throat

should not

form more than

two wrinkles

the hair over the temple should

grow

35
crossways.

MAR A VAN

The

last

is

very important."

A
is

curl

on

the forehead resembling the

head of a snake
rites as

of evil

omen.
In one form
of

the

marriage

carried out

by the Maravans, the bridegroom's party proceed, on an auspicious day which has been fixed beforehand, to the home of the bride, taking with them five
cocoanuts,
turmeric,
five

bunches of plantains,

five
tali

pieces

of

betel,

and

flowers,

and the
the

strung on

a thread dyed with turmeric.

the
bride
is

At the auspicious hour,

house
sister

seated

within

on

plank,

facing
strincr

east.

The bridegroom's
this
is

removes
the

the

of black beads from her neck,

and

ties the tali

thereon.
is

While

being done,
in

conch-shell

blown, and

women

indulge

what Mr.

Fawcett

describes as a shrill kind of keening (kulavi

bride
is

idal).

The

taken to the house of the bridegroom, where

side

they

sit

by side on a plank, and the ceremony

the evil

of warding

off

eye

is

performed.

Further,

milk

is

poured by people with crossed hands over the

heads of the couple.

the

feast

is

held,

in

which meat

takes a prominent part.

to

Maravan, who was asked

ceremony, replied that
it

describe

marriage

consists in killing a sheep or fowl,

and the bringing

of the bride by the bridegroom's sister to her brother's

house after the

tali

has been

tied.

The Kondaikatti

Maravans,
tali

in

some

places, substitute for the usual golden

a token representing "the head of Indra fastened

to a

bunch of human
In

hair, or silken strings

representing

his hair." *

another form of the marriage

of the

father

ceremony, the bridegroom goes to the bride's house,

* F. Fawcett,

loc. cit.

V-3B


MARAVAN

36
articles

accompanied by his relations, with the following in a box made of plaited palmyra leaves
:

5 bundles of

betel.

lumps of jaggery (crude

sugar).

21 measures of rice.
7

cocoanuts.

21 pieces of turmeric.

70 plantains.

Flowers, sandal paste,

etc.

At the

bride's

house,
there,

these presents are touched

by those assembled
the bride's father.

and the box

is

handed over
is

to

On

the wedding day (which

four

days afterwards), pongal (cooked

rice) is offered to

the

house god early bridegroom

bride.
is

in

the morning.
in

Later

in

the day, the

taken
is

a palanquin to the house of the

Betel

presented to him

by her father or

brother.
till

The

bride generally remains within the house

tali

the time for tying the

has arrived.

The maternal
lifts

uncle then blindfolds her with his hand,

carries

her up, and

her to

the

bridegroom.

Four women stand

round the contracting couple, and pass round a dish

containing a broken cocoanut and a cake three times.

The

bride and bridegroom then spit into the dish, and

shrill

the females set up their

keening.

The

maternal

uncles join their hands together, and, on receiving the

assent of those present, the bridegroom's sister ties the

tali

on the bride's neck.

The

tali

consists of a ring

attached to a black silk thread.

" silk tali "
is,

After marriage, the

for

every day purposes, replaced by golden

tali

beads strung on a string, and the

used at the

wedding
places,

is

often borrowed for the occasion.

tied,

having been
their

the pair are blessed, and,

shoulders,

The tali in some

knees,

heads, and
in milk,

backs are

touched with a betel leaf dipped

with the words
to
"

and blessed
the thurvi

May

the pair be prosperous, giving rise

tree,

leaves

like

banyan

roots

like

{Cynodon Dactylon) grass, and

like the

bamboo."

Of

Zl
the thurvi grass
this grass,
it is

MARAVAN
Veda
"

said in the Atharvvana

May

which rose from the water of Hfe, which has a hundred roots and a hundred stems, efface a hundred of my sins, and prolong my existence on earth for a
hundred years."
Still

further variants of the marriage ceremonial are

described by Mr. Fawcett, in one of which " the Brah-

man

priest (purohit)

hands the
it

tali

to the

bridegroom's

sister,

who
in
it.

in

turn hands

to the bridegroom,

who

ties

a knot

and puts
ties

it

The sister then ties two more knots in it, round the bride's neck. After this has been
still

done, and while the pair are

seated, the

Brahman

together the litde fingers of the right hands of the

pair,

which are interlocked, with a silken thread. The pair then rise, walk thrice round the marriage seat (manavanai), and enter the house, where they sit, and
the bridegroom receives present from the bride's father.
fingers are

The

then untied.

ceremony,
kappu."

the

bridegroom

While undergoing the wears a thread smeared

It
is

with turmeric tied round the right wrist.

called

In the manuscript already quoted,*

it

is

noted that
of wealthy

''should

it

so

happen, either

in

the case

rulers of districts or of poorer

common

people, that any

impediment arises
to the sacred
tali

to prevent the
all

complete celebration

of the marriage with

attendant ceremonies according

only

is

books and customs of the tribe, then the sent, and the female is brought to the house

of her husband.

At a subsequent
to a

period, even after

two

or three children have

been born, the husband sends the

marriage of areca nut and betel

usual

leaf; and,

summons when

the relatives are assembled, the bride

Madras Journ.

Lit. Science, IV, 1836.

MARAVAN

38
in

and bridegroom are publicly seated

marriage pandal
contract
is
;

state

under the

the want of completeness in the former

;

made up

and,

all

needful ceremonies being

gone through, they perform the public procession through

the streets of the town,
in

when they break

the cocoanut

the presence of Vignesvara (Ganesa), and, according

to the

means possessed by
is

the parties, the celebration

in

of the marriage

concluded

one day, or prolonged

to two, three or four days.

the
is

name

of katu

tali,

The tali, being tied on, has and the name of the last ceremony
If
it

called the removal of the former deficiency.

that,

so

happen

after the

first

ceremony, the second be

the Maravas.

not performed, then the children of such an alliance

are lightly regarded

among

Should the

husband die during the continuance of the first relation, and before the second ceremony be performed, then the body of the man, and also the woman are placed upon the same seat, and the ceremonies of the second marriage,
according to the customs of the
the
tali
is

tribe,

being gone through,

is

taken

off;

the

woman

considered to be
It is

a widow, and can marry with some other man."

further recorded * of the Orunattu

Mara vans

that "the

elder or younger sister of the bridegroom goes to the

house of the bride, and,

ties

to the

sound of the conch-shell,

After some
there are

on the

tali

and, early on the following morning,

brings her to the house of the bridegroom.

time, occasionally three or four years,

when

indications of offspring, in the fourth or fifth

relatives of the pair assemble,

month, the

and perform the ceremony

of removing the deficiency

placing the

man and
by

his wife
fire

on a seat

in public,

and having the

sacrifice

and

other matters conducted by the Prohitan (or Brahman)

* Madras Journ. Lit. Science, IV, 1836.

39
after

MARAVAN

which the relatives sprinkle seshai rice (or rice beaten out without any application of water) over the
heads of the
pair.

The

relatives are feasted

;

and other-

wise hospitably entertained

donations on the pair,

and these in return bestow from one fanam to one pagoda.

Sometimes, when money
is

The marriage
for

is

then finished.

expenses
till

is

wanting, this wedding ceremony

postIf

poned
the

after the birth of

two or three children.

husband dies, another marriage is customary. Should it so happen that the husband, after the tying
first

on of the
his

tali in

the

first

instance, dislikes the object of

former choice, then the people of their tribe are

;

assembled

she

is

conducted back to her mother's house

sheep, oxen, eating-plate, with brass cup, jewels, orna-

ments, and whatever else she

may have brought

;

with
tali,

her from her mother's house, are returned

and the

which was put on,

is

broken

off

and taken away.

If

the

wife dislikes the husband, then the

money he

paid, the

expenses which he incurred

in

the wedding,

the

tali

which he caused

to

be bound on her, are restored to him,

and the woman, taking whatsoever she brought with her, returns to her mother's house, and marries again at her
pleasure."
It is

recorded, in the
special

Madras Census Report,

1891,

that

custom obtaining among the Marava zemindars of Tinnevelly is mentioned by the Registrar

"a

of that district.

It

is

the celebration of marriage by

means
in

of a proxy for the bridegroom in the shape of

is

a stick, which

sent by the bridegroom, and

is
is

set
tied

up by

the marriage booth in his place.

The

tali

some one representative of the bridegroom, and the marriage ceremony then becomes complete

....

Widow

re-marriage

is

freely

allowed and
"

practiced,

except in the Sembunattu sub-division."

widow,"
,'
\

MARAVAN
Mr.

40
writes,

Fawcett
not

"may marry
but

her deceased

husIf

band's elder brother,

not a younger brother.

she does
else."

like

him, she may marry

some one
is

When

a girl reaches puberty, news of the event

conveyed by a washerman.

On

the sixteenth day she

comes out of

seclusion, bathes,

and returns home.

is

At

the threshold, her future husband's sister

standing, and

averts the evil eye by waving betel leaves, plantains,

cocoanuts, cooked flour paste (puttu), a vessel

filled

with

water, and an iron measure containing rice with a style

(ambu) stuck

in

it.

The

style

is

removed by the
it

girl's

prospective sister-in-law,
enters the house.
girl's

who
is

beats her with

as she

A feast
who

held at the expense of the

it

maternal uncle,

brings a goat, and ties

to

a pole at her house.

Both

burial

and cremation are

practiced
of

by the

Maravans,

The Sembunattu
is

Maravans
is

Ramnad

regard the Agamudaiyans as their servants, and the water,

with which the corpse

Further,
it is

washed,

brought by them.

an Agamudaiyan, and not the son of the

carries the fire-pot to the burial-ground.

deceased,

who
is

The corpse
grave
is

carried thither

on a bier or palanquin.

The

dug by an Andi, never by a Pallan or Paraiyan. Salt, powdered brick, and sacred ashes are placed on the floor thereof, and the corpse is placed in it in a sitting posture. The Kondaiyamkottai Maravans of Ramnad, who are stone and brick masons, burn their dead, and, on their way to the burning-ground, the bearers of the
corpse walk over cloths spread on the ground.

On

the

second or third day, lingams are made out of the ashes,

or of

mud

from the grave

if

the corpse has been buried.

To

these, as well as to the soul of the deceased,

and

to the crows, offerings are

made.

On

the sixteenth day,

41

MARAVAN

nine kinds of seed-grain are placed over the grave, or the spot where the corpse
five

was

burnt.

Pandaram

sets

up

kalasams (brass vessels), and does puja (worship).

of the deceased,

The son

who

officiated as chief

mourner,
his

goes to a Pillayar (Ganesa) shrine, carrying on

a pot containing a Hghted lamp

head

made

of flour.

As he
is

draws near the god, a screen

is

stretched in front thereof.

the

He

then takes a few steps backwards,

screen

removed, and he worships the god.

He

then

retires,

walking backwards.
those present.

The

flour

is

distributed

Presents of

new

cloths are

among made to the

sons and daughters of the deceased.

In his account of

the Kondaiyamkottai Maravans, Mr. Fawcett gives the

following account of the funeral

rites.

"

Sandals having
is

been fastened on the

feet,

the corpse

carried in a

recumbent position, legs

first,

to the place of cremation.

A
a

little rice is
little

placed in the mouth, and the relatives put

the

money into a small vessel which is kept beside chest. The karma karta (chief mourner) walks thrice
filled

round the corpse, carrying an earthen vessel

allows some water to

with

water, in which two or three holes are pierced.

fall

He

on the corpse, and breaks the

lies to

pot near the head, which

attends this part of the
the pot, the

the south.

No Brahman
he has broken
;

ceremony.

When

karma karta must not see the corpse again he goes away at once, and is completely shaved. The barber takes the cash which has been collected, and
lights

the pyre.

When

he returns to the house, the

;

karma karta prostrates himself before a lighted lamp he partakes of no food, except a little grain and boiled pulse and water, boiled with coarse palm sugar and ginger. Next day he goes to the place of cremation, picks up such calcined bones as he finds, and places them in a basket, so that he may some day throw them in

MARAVAN
water which
is

42
considered to be sacred.

On

the eleventh

or twelfth day,

some grain
these.

is

sown

in

two new earthen

is

vessels which have been broken, and there

continued

weeping around plants, which have sprouted, are removed, and put water, weeping going on all the while and, after
;

On

the sixteenth day, the young

into
this

has been done, the relatives bathe and enjoy a festive

meal, after which the
cloth,

and

is

karma karta is seated on a white presented with a new cloth and some money

by his father-in-law and other relatives who are present. On the seventeenth day takes place the punyaga-

vachanam or purification, at which the Brahman presides, and the karma karta takes an oil bath.

priest

The
for

wood

of the pipal tree {Fictcs religiosa)

is

never used

purposes of cremation."

Concerning the death ceremonies

district,

in

the Trichinopoly
as
follows.

Mr.

F.

R.
is

Hemingway
cow-dung,

writes

"

Before the corpse

removed, the chief mourner and

in

his wife take

two

balls of

which the barber

into water

has mixed various kinds of grain, and stick them on to

the wall of the house.

These are thrown

is

on

the eighth day.

The ceremonial

called pattam kat-

tugiradu, or investing with the

title,

and indicates the

succession to the dead man's estate.

rocket

is

fired

when
leaves

the corpse

is

taken out of the house.

On
in

the sixth

day, a pandal (booth) of naval {Etcgenia Janibolana)

is

prepared, and offerings are

made
It is

it

to the

manes of the ancestors of the family.

removed on
in.

the eighth day, and the chief mourner puts a turban on,

and merry-making and dances arc indulged

are ordinarily no

There

karumantaram ceremonies, but they are sometimes performed on the sixteenth day, a Brah-

man being

called

in.

On

the return

home from

these

ceremonies, each

member

of the party has to dip his toe

43
into a

MARAVAN
last

mortar
it

full

of

cow-dung water, and the

man

has to knock

down."

Among some
mony
of one
called
is

Kondaiyamkottai Maravans, a cere-

palaya

karmandhiram,

or

old

death

ceremony,

performed.

Some months

after the

death
is

who has

died an unnatural death, the skull

exhumed, and placed beneath a pandal (booth) in open space near the village. Libations of toddy indulged in, and the villagers dance wildly round head. The ceremony lasts over three days, and
final

an
are

the
the

death ceremonies are then performed.

For the following account of the jellikattu or bullbaiting, which is practiced by the Maravans, I am indebted to a note by Mr. J. H. Nelson.* "This," he
writes,
''

is

game worthy

of a bold

and

free people,

and
that

it is

to

be regretted that certain Collectors (District

it

Magistrates) should have discouraged

it

under the idea

jellikattu
is

was somewhat
year,

dangerous.

The

conducted
in

in the following

manner.

On
in

a certain day

the

large

crowds of people, chieHy males,

in the

assemble together
tank (pond), and

morning

some extensive
or of a

open space, the dry bed of a

river

perhaps,

many of them may be seen leading ploughing bullocks, of which the sleek bodies and
afford clear evidence of the extra
for

rather wicked eyes

diet they

have received
event.

some days
of

in anticipation

of the

great

The owners

these

animals

soon begin to brag of their strength and speed, and to

challenge

and any to catch and hold them and in a short time one of the best beasts is selected to open the day's proceedings. A new cloth is made fast round his
all
;

horns, to be the prize of his captor,

and he

is

then led

Manual of the Madura

district.

MARAVAN

44

out into the midst of the arena by his owner, and there
left

to himself

surrounded by

a throng

of

shouting
sort of

and excited strangers.

Unaccustomed

to this

treatment, and excited by the gestures of those

who

have undertaken to catch him, the bullock usually lowers his head at once, and charges wildly into the midst of
the crowd,

who nimbly run

off

on either side to make

His speed being much greater than that of the men, he soon overtakes one of his enemies and makes at him to toss him savagely. Upon this the

way

for him.

man drops on
after another.

the sand like a stone, and the bullock,

instead of goring him, leaps over his body, and rushes

The second man drops

;

in his turn,

and

is

passed

like the first

and, after repeating this operation

several times, the beast either succeeds in breaking the

ring,

and galloping

off to his village,

is

charging every

person he meets on the way, or

at last

caught and
Strange as

held by the most vigorous of his pursuers.

it

may

seem, the bullocks

never by any chance toss

or gore any one who throws himself down on their approach and the only danger arises from their acci;

dentally reaching unseen and unheard

some one who

remains standing.

After the

have been

let

loose one after

two or three animals the other, two or three, or

first

even half a dozen are let loose at a time, and the scene The crowd sways quickly becomes most exciting.
violently
efforts to

to

and

fro

in

various directions
;

in

frantic
is

escape being knocked over

;

the air

filled

with shouts, screams, and laughter

and the bullocks

if

thunder over

the plain as fiercely as

blood and

slaughter were their sole occupation.

In this

way

per-

haps two or three hundred animals are run

of a day, and,
cuts

in the

course

when

all

go home towards evening, a few

and bruises, borne with the utmost cheerfulness,

45
are the only results of an

MARAVAN
amusement which requires
and other things
a
little
I

great courage and agility on the part of the competitors

for

the prizes

that

is

for the cloths

tied to the bullocks' horns

and not

on the part
this sport

of the

mere bystanders.
I

The

only time

saw

(from a place of safety)

entertainment,

was highly delighted with the

and no accident occurred to mar my One man indeed was slightly wounded in the pleasure. buttock, but he was quite able to walk, and seemed
to be as

happy as

his friends."
is

further account of the jallikat or jelHcut

given
a day

in the Gazetteer of the

Madura

district.

"

The word

jallikattu literally

means tying

of ornaments.

On

fixed

and advertised by beat of drums

cattle,

at the adjacent

weekly markets, a number of

loosed one
after the

to

the horns
tied,

of
are

which cloths and handkerchiefs have been

other, in (juick succession,

from

a large pen or other enclosure, amid a furious tom-

tomming and loud shouts from the crowd

spectators.

of assembled

The animals have

first

to run the gauntlet

carts,

down
in

a long lane formed of country

and then
consists

gallop off wildly in every direction.

The game
of

endeavouring to capture the cloths tied to their

horns.

To do

this

requires

fleetness

foot

and

considerable pluck, and those

who

are successful are the

heroes of the hour.

those

Cuts and bruises are the reward of

who

are less skilful, and

now and again some

of

the excited cattle charge into the on-lookers, and send

a few of them flying.

The sport has been prohibited on more than one occasion. But, seeing that no one need run any risks unless he chooses, existing official opinion
inclines to the

view that
is

it is

a pity to discourage a manly

amusement which

not really more dangerous than

football, steeple-chasing, or fox-hunting.

The keenness

MARAVAN
of the

46
virile sections
(</.^.)'
""^

more

of the community, especially

is

the Kalians

^^^^

game

extraordinary, and, in
specially for
it.

many villages, cattle are bred and reared The best jallikats are to be seen in the
in

Kalian country
in

Tirumangalam, and next come those

taluks."
"

Melur and
" are

Madura

Boomerangs," Dr. G. Oppert writes,*

used

The by the Maravans and Kalians when hunting deer. Madras Museum collection contains three (two ivory, one wooden) from the Tanjore armoury. In the arsenal of the Pudukottai Raja a stock of wooden boomerangs is always kept. Their name in Tamil is valai tade (bent To Mr. R. Bruce Foote, I am indebted for the stick)."
following

note on
**

the

use of the boomerang in the

Madura district. Madura country

very favourite weapon of the

of curved

is

a kind

throwing-stick,

having a general likeness to the boomerang of the

Australian aborigines.
I

have

in

my

collection

two of

these Maravar weapons obtained from near Sivaganga.

The

larger measures

24^" along the outer curve, and

i7|-".

the chord of the arc

rather

At the handle end

and
i^" in its

is

ovate

knob

2^" long

maximum
weapon
width
it

thickness.
is

The

thinnest and smallest part of the

in

just
i-i-"

beyond the knob, and measures ^|"

in width.

diameter
its

by

From

that point

onwards
end,

increases very

gradually to the
across and
is
is

distal

where

measures
lateral

2|-"

squarely truncated.

The
second
is

diameter

greatest three or four inches before

it

the truncated end, where

measures

i".

My

specimen

is

little

smaller than the above, and

also

rather less curved.

Both are made of hard heavy wood, dark reddish brown in colour as seen through the

* Madras Tourn.

Lit. Science,

XXV.

47
varnish covering the surface.

MARAVAN
The wood
is

is

said to be

tamarind root.

The workmanship

rather

rude.
in
I

had an opportunity of seeing these boomerangs

near Sivaganga in March, 1883.
across In the morning

use

came

many parties, small and large, of men and big boys who were out hare-hunting with a few dogs. The
which was sparsely
scrub
jungle.

parties straggled over the ground,

covered with low

And, whenever an
it

unlucky hare started out near to the hunters,

was

greeted with a volley of the boomerangs, so strongly

and dexterously thrown that poor puss had

of escape.
I

little

chance

saw several knocked out of

time.

On

making enquiries as to these hunting parties, I was told that they were in observance of a semi-religious duty, in which every Maravar male, not unfitted by age or ill-health, is bound to participate on a particular day Whether a dexterous Maravar thrower in the year. make his weapon return to him I could not could
find
out.

Certainly

in

none of the throws observed

by
for

me was
simple
"

any tendency to a return perceptible.

straight

But

shots

these

boomerangs answer

admirably.

The Maravans bear

worship various minor
Kali,

Saivite sectarian marks, but also

deities,

among whom

are included

Karuppan, Muthu Karuppan, Periya Karuppan,

lobes of the ears of

Mathurai Viran, Aiyanar, and Munuswami.

The

Marava females
Sir) F,

are very

elongated as the result of borinor and o-radual dilatation

during childhood.

Mr. (now

A. Nicholson,

who

was some years ago stationed

the
his
lest

at Ramnad, tells me that young Maravan princesses used to come and play in garden, and, as they ran races, hung on to their ears,

the

heavy

ornaments

should rend asunder the

filamentous ear lobes.

MARAYAN
It

4^

was recorded, in 1902, that a young Maravan, who was a member of the family of the Zemindar of Chokampatti, was the first non-Christian Maravan to pass the B.A. degree examination at the Madras
University.

The
but

general
style

title

of the

Maravans

is

Tevan

(god),

some

themselves Talaivan

(chief),

Servaikkaran
or Rayar-

(captain),

Karaiyalan (ruler of the

coast),

vamsam

(Raja's clan).

Marayan. A synonym of Maran. Mari. Mari or Marimanisaru is

Holeva.

a sub-division of

Mariyan.

Said be a sub-division of Kolayan. Markandeya. Agotraof Padma Sale and Seniyan

to
rishi or

(Devanga), named after the

sage Markandeya,

who was remarkable for his austerities and great age, and is also known as Dirghayus (the long-lived). Some
Devangas and the Salapus claim him as their ancestor. Marri {Fie us bengalensis). An exogamous sept of Mala and Mutracha. Marri-gunta (pond near a fig tree) occurs as an exogamous sept of Yanadi. Marumakkathayam. The Malayalam name for

the law of inheritance through the female

line.

Marvari. A
Marwar.
religion.

territorial

name, meaning a native of

At times of census, Marvari has been returned

ix.,

as a caste of Jains,

Marvaris,

who

are

Jains by

The Marvaris

are enterprising traders,

who
are,

have settled
in

in various parts of

Southern

India,

and

the city of Madras, money-lenders.

Masadika. A synonym for Nadava Bant. Masila (masi, dirt). An exogamous

sept

of

Devanga.

Masthan.

Muhammadan

title,

meaning a

saint,

returned at times of census.

49

MATTIYA

J.

Mastiga. The Mastigas are described by the Rev. Cain* as mendicants and bards, who beg from Gollas,
I

Malas, and Madigas.

am

informed that they are also

to

known

as

Mala Mastigas, as they are supposed

be

illegitimate descendants of the Malas,

and usually beg

from them.

When engaged

in

begging, they perform

various contortionist and acrobatic feats.

Matam

(monastery, or religious institution).

An

exogamous sept of Devanga. Matanga. Matanga or Matangi Madigas sometimes Madiga. The

is

synonym of
themselves

call

Matangi Makkalu,
favourite goddess.

or children of Matangi,

Matangi

is

further the

dedicated prostitutes,

who

are respected

who is their name of certain by the Madiga

community.

Matavan. Recorded,
Report,
1

in

the

Travancore Census

90 1, as a name

for the

Pulikkapanikkan sub-

division of Nayar.

Matsya
in

(fish).

Mattiya.
these are

The Mattiyas
cultivators

A sept of Domb.
are

summed up
" In

as follows

the ]\Iadras Census Report, 1901.

hill

Vizagapatam
Provinces,

from the Central

who

one account to be a sub-division Some of them wear the sacred thread, of the Gonds. because the privilege was conferred upon their families by former Rajas of Malkanagiri, where they reside.
are
stated in

They are said to eat with Ronas, drink with Porojas, The name but smoke only with their own people.
is

said

to

denote workers

in

mud
it

(matti),

and

in

Ganjam they
ers.

are apparently earth-workers and labouris

In the Census Report, 1871,

'

noted that the

Matiyas are

altogether superior to the Kois and to the

Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

v-4

"

MATTIYA
Parjas (Porojas).

50

They say they sprang from They

talk Uriya,

the

soil,

and go so
lands well.'

far

as to

point out a hole, out of which

their ancestor

came.

and farm

their

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. Hayavadana Rao. The caste is divided into at least four septs, named Bhag (tiger), Nag (cobra), Cheli (goat), and Kochchimo (tortoise). A man may claim
C.
his paternal aunt's

daughter

in

marriage.

Girls are, as
is

a rule, married after puberty.

plated, the
to the

When a match
is

contem-

would-be husband presents a pot of liquor

parents.
rice,
is

girl's

If

this

accepted,
cloths,
is

a further

present of liquor,
on.

and a pair of

made

later

The

liquor
it,

distributed

among

the villagers, who,

by accepting
as musicians,

indicate their consent to the transfer of

the girl to the man.

is

procession, with
girl
is

Dombs
has

acting

formed, and the

taken to the

bridegroom's

village.

pandal

(booth)

been

erected in front of the bridegroom's house, which the

contracting

couple enter on

the

following

morning.

Their hands are joined together by the presiding Desari,

they bathe in turmeric water, and
to

new

cloths are given

them.

Wearing

these,

they enter the house,

the

bridegroom leading the bride.

well towards them.

Their relations then

exhort them to be constant to each other, and behave

feast follows,

and the night

is

spent

in

dancing and drinking.

Next day, the

of

bride's

parents are sent away with a present of a pair of cows

or bulls as jholla tonka.

The remarriage
Divorce
is

widows

is

allowed,

and a younger brother usually marries the

permitted, and,

widow

of his elder brother.

when a husband separates from his wife, he new cloth and a bullock as compensation. woman may remarry.

gives her a

divorced

51

mavilAn

By

the Mattiyas, and other Oriya castes, the ghoro-

javai (house son-in-law)

custom

is

practiced.

According

to this custom, the poorer folk, in search of a wife, work,

according to a contract, for their future father-in-law for

a specified time, at the expiration of which they set up
a separate establishment with his daughter.

To

begin

married

life

with, presents are

made

to the couple

by the

father-in-law.

The dead
takes place
is

are burnt, and the spot where cremation

marked by
pots,

setting up in the

ground a bamis

boo pole, to which one of the dead man's rags

attached.
ill-

The domestic
ness, are
for eight days.

which were used during

his last
is

broken there.

Death pollution
is

observed

On

the ninth day, the ashes, mixed with

water, are cleared up,

and milk

poured over the spot.

a square hole, which
is

The
dug
it

ashes are sometimes buried

to a

in

depth of about three

is

feet,

and

filled

in.

Over

a small hut-like structure

raised.

fevv

of these

sepulchral
of the

monuments may be seen on the south side Pangam stream on the Jeypore-Malkangiri road.

The

personal names of the Mattiyas are often taken from

the day of the

week on which they are born. Mavilan. Described, in the Madras Census Report,

1 90 1, as a small tribe of shikaris (hunters) and herbalists,

who
son),

follow

makkathayam

(inheritance from

father to

and speak corrupt Tulu.

Tulumar

(native of the

Tulu country), and Chingattan (lion-hearted people) were returned as sub-divisions. " The name," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,* "is said to be derived from mavilavu, a
medicinal herb.
I

think,

however, the real derivation

to be a
in the

must be sought
Canarese caste.

in

Tulu or Canarese, as it seems These people are found only

Madras Census Report, 1891.

V-4


MAYALOTILU
52

Chirakkal taluk of Malabar.

is

Their present occupation

is

basket-making.
it

Succession

from father to son, but

among some
It is

is

also said to be in the female line."

recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that the

"

Mavilons are

divided into Tulu Mavilons and

Mavilons, and sub-divided into thirty illams.

Eda They are

employed as mahouts (drivers of elephants), and collect honey and other forest produce. Their headmen are
called

Chingam (simham,
(rascal).
J.

lion),

and their huts Mapura."

or Manjulotilu
is

Mayalotilu said by the Rev.

hill

Mayalotilu
in

Cain to be a name given by the

live near the

Koyis to the Koyis who

Godavari

river.

Mayan. Recorded,
as a synonym^ of

the

Madras Census Report,

Kammalan.

The Kamsali goldsmiths

claim descent from Maya.

Meda, Medara, Medarlu, or Medarakaran. The Medaras are workers in bamboo in the Telugu, Canarese,

Oriya and Tamil countries, making

sieves, baskets,

cradles, mats, fans, boxes, umbrellas,

and

tatties (screens).

Occasionally they receive orders for waste-paper baskets,

coffins for

Native Christian children, or cages

In former days they

for

pigeons

made basket-caps for They are said to cut the bamboos in the forest sepoys. on dark nights, in the belief that they would be damaged They do not, like the Korachas, if cut at any other time. from the leaf of the date-palm (PJiamix). make articles They believe that they came from Mahendrachala
and parrots.
mountain, the mountain of
Indra,

and the following

fatherto

legend
in-law

is

current
Siva,

among them.
went
to

Dakshudu, the
his

of

invite

son-in-law
to

devotional

sacrifice,

which he was about

perform.

Siva was

in

a state of meditation, and did not visibly

return the obeisance which

his

hands to his

Dakshudu made by raising Dakshudu became angry, forehead,

53

mda, medara
his wife, or

and told

his

people not to receive Siva or

respect.

show them any mark of

to the
sacrifice,

Parvati, Siva's wife,

went with her son Ganapati, against her husband's order,

and received no sign of recognition.

tears,

Thereat she shed

disappeared.
layas),

and the earth opened, and she She was again born of Himavant (Himatelling her

and Siva,

who she

was, remarried her.

Siva, in reply to her enquiries, told her that she could

avoid a further separation from him

religious vow,

if

she performed a

and gave cakes

or

of gold,

winnowing basket. which was not

it

Brahmans in a chata, She accordingly made a basket

to
efficacious,

because, as Siva

explained to her,
are.

was not

plaited, as

bamboo baskets
it

Taking

his serpent, Siva turned

into a

bamboo.

He

ordered Ganapati, and others, to become men, and

his trisula

gave them

and ghada

to

work with on bamboo,

for

from which they plaited a basket

of Parvati's vow.

the completion

Ganapati and the Ganas remained

to them.

on the Mahendrachala mountain, and married Gandarva

women, who bore children

Eventually they

were ordered by Siva to return, and, as they could not

take their wives and families with them, they told them
to

earn their livelihood by plaiting

bamboo
or

articles.

Hence they

were

called

Mahendrulu

Medarlu.

According to another legend,* Parvati once wanted to

perform the ceremony called gaurinomu, and, wanting a

winnow, was

at a loss to

asked Siva to produce a

know how to secure one. She man who could make one, and
complied,

he ordered his riding-ox Vrishaban to produce such a

person

by

chewing.

Vrishaban

and

the

ancestor of the Medaras, being informed of the wish of

the goddess, took the snake which formed Siva's necklace,

Manual of

ihe

North Arcol

dislricl.


MEDA, MEDARA
and, going to a
hill,,

54
planted
its

head
the

in

the ground.

bamboo

at

once sprang up on the spot, which, after

its

returning the snake to

owner,

making" a winnow.
is

The

snake-like root

man used for of the bamboo

regarded as a proof of the truth of the story.

As among many
given to children.

other castes, opprobrious names are

For example, a boy, whose elder brother has died, may be called Pentayya (dung-heap). As a symbol of his being a dung-heap child, the infant, as
soon as
it

is

born,

is

placed on a leaf-platter.

Other

names are Thavvayya, or boy bought for bran, and In a case where a male child had Pakiru, mendicant. been ill for some months, a woman, under the influence of the deity, announced that he was possessed by the goddess Ankamma. The boy accordingly had the name
of the goddess conferred on him.

The

following are

some
:

of the gotras and

exogamous

septs of the

Medaras

(a)

Gotras.

Hanumanta (monkey-god).
Puli (tiger).

Bombadai

(a fish).

Vinayaka (Ganesa).
Kasi (Benares).

Thagenilu (drinking water).

Avisa {Sesbania grandiflora)

Moduga

{Buiea froiidosa).

Rela [Ficus).
Seshai (snake
?).

Kovila (koel or cuckoo).

{b)
Pilli (cat).

Exogamous

septs.

Nuvvulu
Tsanda

(gingelly).

Parvatham (mountain).
Putta
(ant-hill).

Senagapapu (Bengal gram).

(subscription).

Konda

(mountain).

Nlla (blue).
Sirigiri (a hill).

Javadi (civet-cat).

Nandikattu

(bull's

modth).

Kanigiri (a

hill).

Kandikattu (dhal soup).

Pothu (male).
Naginldu (snake).

Kottakunda (new
Pooreti (a bird).

pot).

Kola

(ear of corn).

Kalluri (stone village).

55

MEDA, MEDARA
his

A man
aunt.

most frequently marries

maternal uncle's

daughter, less frequently the daughter of his paternal

Marriage with a deceased

wife's sister

is

regarded
sisters, if

with special favour.

Marriage with two living

is

one of them

is

suffering from disease,

common.
district,

In a note on the

Medaras of the Vizagapatam

girls are

Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes that

before or after puberty.

married

Brahman officiates at the marriage ceremonies. Widows are allowed to remarry once, and the sathamanam (marriage badge) is tied by the new husband on the neck of the bride, who has, as in
the Gudala caste, to
sit

near a mortar.
Saivites, but

Formerly

all

the

Medaras were

many

are at the present day Vaishnavites, and even the Vaishnavites worship Siva.

Every family has some

they worship,
for

special

person or
Virullu,

persons

whom
in

example,

or boys

who have

died unmarried.
It is

silver

image

is

made, and kept

a basket.

taken out on
a family, and
to
it.

festive occasions, as before a

marriage

in

offerings of milk

and

rice gruel are

made

Bala

Perantalu, or girls Perantalu, or are

who have died before women who have died

fruits,

marriage, and before

turmeric,
their
rice,

husbands,

worshipped with

cocoanuts, etc.

Some

of the Saivites bury their dead in a sitting

All the Vaish-

posture, while others resort to cremation.

navites burn the dead, and, like the Saivites, throw the

ashes into a
as a rule

river.

The
it,

place of burning or burial

or
is

is if

not
the

marked by any stone

a
tulsi

mound.
built,

But,

family can afford

fort

and the

tulsi

{Oczmjtm sanctum) planted therein.

district,

In the Vizagapatam

death pollution

is

said to last for three days,

is

during which the caste occupation

not carried out.

It

On

the third day, a fowl

is

killed,

and food cooked.

mEda, medara
is

56

taken to the spot where the corpse was burnt, on which

is

a portion

thrown, and the remainder eaten.

of charms in warding off evil spirits

The potency
is

believed

in.

For example, a figure of Hanuman the

cabalistic letters

monkey-god, on a thin plate of gold, with

inscribed on
it,

days, the root

worn on the neck. of the madar or arka

is
is

And, on eclipse
plant {Calotropis

gigantea), enclosed in a gold casket,

worn on the neck

of females, and on the waist or arms of males.

Some
These

members
cicatrices

of this, as of other castes,

may be

seen with

on the forehead,

chest, back, or neck.

are the scars resulting from branding during infancy with

lighted turmeric or cheroot, to cure infantile convulsions,
resulting,
it is

believed, from inhaling tobacco

smoke

in

small, ill-ventilated

rooms.
in

Various legends are current

heroes.

connection with tribal

is

One Medara Chennayya

said to

have fed

some thousands of people with a grandson, Medara Thodayya, used

and bathed three times
leprosy, lost a calf.
daily.

potful of rice.
to

His

do basket-making, Brahman, afflicted with

it,

In searching for
in

he

fell

into a

ditch

filled

with water,

which the Medara had bathed,

his

and was cured.

the

One Medara Kethayya and

charitable.

wife

were very poor, but

In order to test him,

large

god Iswara made

grains of gold appear in

quantities in the hollow of a bamboo, which he cut.

He

avoided the bamboos as being

full

of vermin, and useless.

At some
growing
such a

distance, he found an ant-hill with a

in
it,

bamboo
In so

and,

knowing

that

bamboos growing on
it.

hill will

not be attacked by vermin, cut

doing, he cut off the head of a Rishi,

who was doing

who was
in

penance.
guilty,

Detecting the crime of which he had been

" Siva, Siva."

he cried

His

wife,

miles

away, heard him, and, knowing that he must be

some

57
trouble,

mda, mEdara
asked her how he was to
"

went

to the spot.

He

expiate his
life,

sin,

and she repHed.

in return."

You have taken

and must give one

He thereon

prepared

commit suicide, but his wife, taking the knife from him, was about to sacrifice herseh' when Iswara appeared, restored the Rishi to Hfe, and took Medara Kethayya
to

and

his wife to heaven.

As among many

other castes, the sthambamuhur-

tham (putting up the post) ceremony is performed when the building of a new house is commenced, and the deeparathana (lamp-w^orship) before
settlement there
is
it is

occupied.

In every

a Kulapedda, or

hereditary caste

headman, who
inflicting fines,
flicting

has,

among

other things, the power of

in-

sentencing to excommunication, and

for adultery, eating

punishments
etc.

with members
a real punish-

of lower castes,

Excommunication
is

is

ment, as the culprit

not allowed to take bamboo, or

In the Kistna and Goda-

mess with

his former castemen.

vari districts, serious disputes,

which the
a native

local

panchayat

(council) cannot decide, are referred to the

Masulipatam, who at present

are
"

is

headman at doctor. There

is
I

no

trials

by ordeal.

The
is.

usual form of oath

say."

Where

ten are, there

God

In his presence

When
on

a girl reaches puberty, she has to

sit in

a room

five fresh

palmyra palm leaves, bathes

not eat
salt.

in

turmeric
pre-

water, and

may

If

there

is

" leg's

sentation

"

at childbirth, the infant's

maternal uncle should

not hear the infant cry until the shanti ceremony has

been performed.

Brahman
oil in

recites

some mantrams,
seen by the

and the
riage

reflection of the infant's face

is first

uncle from the surface of

is

a plate.

Widow

remar-

permitted.
tali,

widow can be recognised by her

toe).

not wearing the

(silver ring

gazulu (glass bangles), and mettu

on the second

mda
The
are,

58
lowest castes with which the Medaras will eat

they say, Komatis and Velamas.

will eat

Some

say that

they

with Satanis.

Coorg country, the Medaras are said to subsist by umbrella-making. They are the drummers at Coorg
In the
festivals,

and

it

is

their privilege to receive annually at

harvest-time from each

as

Coorg house

of their district

much reaped paddy

as they can bind up with a rope

twelve cubits in length.

but in poorer style.*
It
is

They

dress like the Coorgs,

recorded
taluk,
in

Mercara

by Bishop Whitehead f that, "in Ippanivolavade, and in Kadikeri in

kona or male buffalo. gloomy grove near the temple, the beast is killed by a Meda, who cuts off its head with a large knife, but no Coorgs are present at the time. The
Halerinad. the villagers sacrifice a
to a tree in a

Tied

blood

is

spilled

on a stone under a

tree,

and the

flesh

eaten by Medas."

At the Census, 1901, Gauriga was returned as a subThe better classes are taking caste by some Medaras.
to call themselves Balijas,
their names.

and

affix

the

title

Chetti to

sometimes

call

The Godagula workers in split bamboo themselves Odde (Oriya) Medara.J

mound).

Meda
Padma
Sale.

(raised

An

exogamous sept

of

Medam

(fight).

An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Mehtars are
"

Mehtar. A

few

returned,

in

the

Madras Census Report,

caste of scavengers.
write, "
is

1901, as a Central

Provinces

This name," Yule and Burnell

usual in Bengal, especially for the domestic

* G. Richler.

Manual of Coorg.
Bull.,

+ Madras

Museum

V,

3, 1907.

X yoi portions of this Hobson-Jobson.

article I

am

indebted to a note by Mr.

J.

D. Samuel.

59
servant of this class.

MELAKKARAN
is

The word

Pers.,

comp. mihtar

(Lat. major), a great personage, a prince,

and has been

applied to the class in question in irony, or rather in

consolation.

But the name has so completely adhered

sense of either irony or conis

in this application, that all

solation has perished.

else.

Mehtar

a sweeper, and nought

It
is

His wife

is

the Matranee.

not unusual to
"
!

hear two Mehtars hailing each other as Maharaj

Meikaval (body-guard
Pandarams.

of the god).

name

for

Mekala
of Boya,

(goats).

Recorded

as an

exogamous sept
is

Chenchu, Golla, Kamma, Kapu, Togata, and

Nerigi Mekala (a kind of goat)
a further

Yanadi.

sept of Yanadi.

Mekhri.
dans.

sub-division

of Navayat

Muhammain

Melachcheri.
Laccadive islands

class

of

Muhammadans

the

{see Mappilla).

Meladava. Dancing-girls in South Canara. Melakkaran. Concerning the Melakkarans, Mr. " The name F. R. Hemingway writes as follows.* means musicians, and, as far as Tanjore is concerned,

is

applied to two absolutely distinct castes, the Tamil

(of

and Telugu Melakkarans

musicians).

whom

the latter are barber

in

These two

will

not eat

each other's
a separate

houses, and their views about dining with other castes

are similar.

They say they would mess

house, and
it

(in

room)

in

a Vellalan's
is

would dine with a

Kalian, but

doubtful whether any but the lower

non-Brahman communities would eat with them. In The other respects the two castes are quite different.
former speak

Tamil, and,

in

most of

their customs,

* Gazetteer of the Tanjore district.

MELLIKALLU
resemble
generally
the

60
Vellalans

and

other higher

Tamil
mans.

castes, while the latter

speak Telugu, and follow

domestic practices similar to those of the

Telugu Brahpractice

Both

are

musicians.

The Telugus

only the musician's art or periyamelam (band composed

of clarionet or nagasaram,
pipe,

drum, and cymbals),

appropriate.
the dancing-

having nothing to do with dancing or dancing-girls, to

whom
girls

the chinnamelam or nautch music

provides, or has adopted

is

The Tamil caste

in

all

the district.

The daughters

of these

women
rarely

are generally brought up to their mother's profession,

but the daughters of the

men

of the

community

nowadays become
ried to

dancing-girls, but are ordinarily mar-

members

of the caste.

The Tamil Melakkarans

perform both the periyamelam and the nautch music.

The

latter consists of vocal

music performed by a chorus

perform
are called

of both sexes to the accompaniment of the pipe and

cymbals.
vans,

The

class w^ho

it

Nattu-

and they are the instructors of the dancing-women. The periyamelam always finds a place at weddings, but
the nautch
is

a luxury.

Nowadays

the better musicians

hold themselves aloof from the dancing-women.

Both

castes have a high opinion of their own social standing.

Indeed the Tamil section say they are really Kalians,

Vellalans,

Agamudaiyans, and so on, and that

merely an accident."

their pro-

fession

is

The

Vairavi, or temple

servant of Nattukottai Chettis, must be a Melakkaran.

Mellikallu.
lekalu,

Under

the

name
are
as

Mellikallu or Malreturned,
hill

seventy-six

individuals
190T,

in

the
in

Madras Census Report,

''

cultivators

Pedakota village of Viravalli taluk of the Vizagapatam Agency, who are reported to constitute a caste by themselves.

They

pollute by touch, have their

beef."

own

priests,

and eat pork but not

6l

MENON
sub-division
of

Melnadu.
country,
is

Melnadu, or Melnatar, meaning western

name
of a territorial

the

Kalian and Shanan.

Melu Sakkare.
kare,

name, meaning western Sakin

by which

Upparas
the

Mysore

style themselves.

They

claim descent from a mythical individual,

named

Sagara,

who dug

explain that

than
sugar.

sugar,

Bay of Bengal. Some Upparas they work in salt, which is more essential and that Mel Sakkara means superior
than
class

Meman. More
of this

three
of

hundred
It

members
were
recorded,

Muhammadan
Bombay

Bombay

traders
is

returned at the Madras Census, 1901.

in the

Gazetteer, that
as

many Cutch Memans

Kurrachee,

are

prospering

traders

in

Bombay,

the Malabar coast,

Hyderabad, Madras, Calcutta, and

chillies).

Zanzibar.

Menasu

(pepper or

An

exogamous sept

of Kuruba, and gotra of Kurni.

Menokki
been returned,
as accountants

(overseer).
in

Menokki

and Menoki have

are employed

the Travancore and Cochin Census

Reports, as a sub-division of Nayars,

in

temples.

who The name is

derived from

mel, above, n5kki, from

Menon.
title

nokkunnu to look after. By Wigram,* Menon is defined

by the Zamorin on
all

as

"a

originally conferred
writers.
It is

his agents

and

In Malabar, the

now used by village karnam

Travancore
be
"a.
title

classes of Nayars.
is

(accountant)

called
1901,
(a

Menon."

In
is

the
to

Census Report,

Menon
families

said

contraction of

Menavan

superior person).

was conferred upon several by the Raja of Cochin, and corresponds to

* Malabar

The

Law and Custom.

MERA
Pillai

62

down

south.

As soon

as a person was

made

Menon, he was presented with an

he was expected to
fill,

ola (palmyra leaf for

writing on) and an iron style, as symbolical of the office

i.e.^

now,

in

British

Malabar,
writer
or

each

village

has

Even amsham or revenue accountant, who is called

of an accountant.

Menon."

Mr. F.

Fawcett writes* that "to those of

the sub-clan attached to the Zamorin

ciently capable to earn
it,

who were
titular

suffi-

he gave the

honour
title

Menon,

to be used as an affix to the

name.

The

Menon is in general hereditary, but, be it remarked, many who now use it are not entitled to do so. Properly
speaking, only those whose investiture by the Zamorin
or

some other recognized

(in

chief

is

undisputed, and their

descendants

the female line)

invested with
chief,
'

may
the

use
title

it.

A man
in

known

to

me was
the

Menon

1895 by

Karimpuzha

who,

in

the presence

of a large assembly, said thrice

I

From
title title

this

day forward

confer on Krishnan

Nayar the
it

of Krishna

Meused

non.'

Nowadays be

said,

the

Menon

is

by Nayars of clans other than the Akattu Charna." Indian undergraduates at the English Universities,
with names such as Krishna Menon,

Raman Menon,

Ramunni Menon, are known as Mr. Menon. In the same way, Maratha students are called by their titular name Mr. Rao. Mera. A sub-division of Holeya. Meria. At the Madras Census, 1901, twenty-five

individuals returned themselves as Meria or Merakaya.

They were descendants of persons who were reserved for human (Meriah) sacrifice, but rescued by Government
officials in

the middle of the last century.

* Madras

Museum

Bull. Ill, 3, 1901.

63

Mi LA
by

Mesta. A name

taken

some

Chaptegaras

(carpenters) in South Canara.

Mestri. A title of Semmans and other Tamil classes. The Panan tailors are said to be also called Mestris.
Concerning the word mestri,
Burnell write as follows.*
or

maistry,

Yule and

"This word, a corruption of

constant Anglo-Indian use.
In

the Portuguese Mestre, has spread into the vernaculars

all

over

India,

and

is

in

Properly a foreman, a master- worker.

W. and

S.

India maistry, as used in the household, generally

means

the cook or the tailor."

Mettu Kamsali.

A synonym of

Ojali blacksmith.

Mettu means shoes or sandals. Mhallo.^A name for Konkani barbers. Midathala (locust). An exogamous sept of Boya and Madiga. Middala or Meddala (storeyed house). An

exogamous sept of Padma Sale. Midichi (locust). A gotra of Kurni.

Mila.

The Milas are a

for

fishing caste in

Ganjam and

Vizagapatam,

the following note on

whom

am

indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

vandlu, by which
fishermen.

The name

Mlla-

they are commonly

also
call

known, means
Odavandlu,

They

themselves
fishing

because they go out to

sea,

from boats (oda).

When
septs,

they become wealthy, they style themselves

Oda

Balijas.

The caste among which

is

divided into numerous exogamous

are dhoni (boat), and tota (garden).

The custom

of menarikam, according to which a

is

man
Girls
is

should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,

in force,

and a man may

also

marry

his sister's daughter.

are generally married after puberty.

Gold jewellery

* Hobson-Jobson.

MILAKU
presented
in lieu of

64

money

as the bride-price (voli).

half a

On
and

the occasion of a marriage,

dozen males

females go to the house of the bride, where they are

entertained at a feast.
the bridegroom.

She

is is

conducted to the home of

placed at the entrance to

plank

the house, on which the bride and bridegroom take their

seats.

After they have bathed,

new

cloths are presented

to them,

and the old ones given

to the barber.

They

then

sit

once more on the plank, and the caste headman,

Ejaman. takes up the sathamanam (marriage badge), which is passed round among those assembled.
called the
It is finally

tied

by the bridegroom on the bride's neck.

of

The remarriage

widows

is

recognised.

Each

village

has an Ejaman, who, in addition to officiating at weddings, presides over council meetings, collects fines, etc.

Polamma, to whom animal sacrifices are offered, and in whose honour an annual festival is held. The expenses thereof are met by public subscription and private donations. The dead are burnt, and

The

caste goddess

is

a Satani officiates at funerals.

Death

pollution

is

not

observed.

On

the twelfth day after death, the pedda

is

rozu (big day) ceremony

are

performed.

The

caste titles

Anna and Ayya. Milaku (pepper

Milikhan.

Piper 7iignun).
of

tree or kothu

of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans.

class

Muhammadan
[see

pilots

and
of

sailors in the

Laccadive islands
(fish

Mappilla).

Minalavaru
Bedar or Boya.
Pallis

people).
(fish) in

An

exogamous sept

Min

Palli occurs as a

name

for

who have

settled

the Telugu country,

and

adopted fishing as their profession.

Minchu
Kuruba.

(metal toe-ring).

An

exogamous

sept of

Mini

(leather rope).

A gotra of Kurni.

65

MOGER
sub-division of Panan.

Minpidi
sept of Boya.

(fish-catching).

y[\v2i'^3.^3.yB.{Capsicumfruiescens).

An exogamous
Balija.

A sub-division of Domb. Miriyala (pepper). An exogamous sept of Mir Shikari. A synonym of Kurivikkaran. Misala (whiskers). An exogamous sept of B5ya. Mise (moustache). An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Mirigani.

Mochi. ^^^ Mucchi. Modikaran.The name

kan mendicants, who dabble
trial

sometimes applied
in jugglery. in

to

Nokis

Modi

of magical powers

between two persons,

which the

hiding of

money

is

the essential thing.

Moduga {Butea frondosa). A gotra of Medara. Moger.The Mogers are the Tulu-speaking fishermen
part,

of the
follow

South Canara
line),

district,

who,

for the

most
the

the aliya santana law

of inheritance (in
settled
in

the female

though some who are

northern part of the district speak Canarese, and follow

the
son).

makkala santana law (inheritance from father to

The Mogers
are also

are largely
in

employed

the

engaged in sea-fishing, and Government fish-curing yards.

On

the occasion of an inspection of one of these yards at

Mangalore,

my

eye caught sight of the saw of a saw-

fish {Pristis)

elicited
in

hanging on the wall of the office. Enquiry that it was used as a "threatening instrument"

the yard.
I

The

ticket-holders were

Mappillas and

Mogers.

was informed that some of the Mogers used

sticks, to

the hated thattu vala or achi vala (tapping net), in using

which the sides of the boats are beaten with

drive the fish into the net.

Those who

object to this

method of
v-5

fishing maintain that the noise

made with

the

sticks frightens

away the shoals of mackerel and sardines.

MOGER

66

few years ago, the nets were cut to pieces, and thrown

into the sea, as a protest against their

free
fight ensued,

employment.
rupees,

with the resuh that nineteen indififty

viduals were sentenced to a fine of

and three
inspec-

months' imprisonment.
tions of fisheries, the

In connection with

my

following

quaint

official

report

was submitted. " The Mogers about the town of Udipi are bound to supply the revenue and magisterial establishment of the town early in the morning every day a number of fishes strung to a piece of rope. The custom
was originated by a Tahsildar (Native revenue
officer)

about twenty years ago, when the Tahsildar wielded the powers of the magistrate and the revenue officer, and

was more than a tyrant, if he so liked when rich and poor would tremble at the name of an unscrupulous
Tahsildar.

The

Tahsildar

is

divested of his magisterial

and punctual is not more harmful than the dormouse. But the custom continues, and the official, who, of all men, can afford to
pay
for

powers, and to the law-abiding

what he
toil

eats, enjoys the privileges akin to those

of the time of Louis

XIV's

court,

and the poor

fisher-

man
at
to.

has to

by night to supply the

in

rich official's table

with a delicious dish about gratis."

Cannanore
Writing

A curious custom Malabar may be incidentally referred

Dr. Francis

in 1S73,

Day

states* that

" at

Cannanore, the Rajah's cat appears to be exercising a deleterious influence on one branch at least of the fishing, viz., that for sharks.
fish daily
It

appears

that, in

olden times,

was taken from each boat as a perquisite one for the Rajah's cat, or the poocha meen (cat fish) collection. The cats apparently have not augmented so much
as the fishing boats, so this has been

commuted

into a

Sea Fisheries of India.

6;

MOGER

money payment
boat.

two pies a day on each successful this, the Rajah annually levies a Half of the sharks' tax of Rs. 2-4-0 on every boat.
of In addition to
fins

are

also

claimed by the

Rajah's

poocha meen

contractor."

Writing concerning the Mogers, Buchanan * states

that " these fishermen are called

Mogayer, and are a

the

caste of

Tulava

origin.

They resemble

Mucuas

(Mukkuvans) of Malayala, but the one caste will have no communion with the other. The Mogayer are boatmen, fishermen, porters, and palanquin-bearers. They pretend to be Sudras of a pure descent, and assume a
superiority over the Halepecas (Halepaiks), one of the

most common castes of cultivators

in

Tulava

but they

acknowledge themselves greatly

inferior to the Bunts."

Some Mogers have abandoned

sion of fishing,

their hereditary profes-

and taken

to agriculture, oil-pressing,

and

playing on musical instruments.

as palanquin-bearers.

Some

are

still

employed

The

oil-pressers call themselves

Ganigas, the musicians Sappaligas, and the palanquinbearers

Bovis.

These

are

all

occupational

names.

Some Bestha immigrants from Mysore have settled in the Pattur taluk, and are also known as Bovis. The word
Bovi
is

a form of the Telugu Boyi (bearer). the caps

The Mogers manufacture

and Holeyas.

made from

the

spathe of the areca palm, which are worn by Koragas

The
pattana.

settlements

of the

Moger

fishing

community

are called pattana,

e.g.,

Odorottu pattana,
Pattanadava

Manampade
is

For

this

reason,

sometimes

given as a synonym for the caste

name.
in

The Tamil
like

fishermen of the City of Madras are,

manner,

Journey from Madras through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 1807.

V-5 B

MOGr
called Pattanavan, because

68
they live
in

pattanams or

maritime

villages.

Like other Tulu castes, the Mogers worship bhuthas

(devils).
is

The

principal bhutha of the fishing

community
is

Bobbariya, in whose honour the kola festival

held

periodically.

Every settlement, or group of settlements,

local tradition,

has a Bobbariya bhuthasthana (devil shrine).

Brahmans, who, according to

raised to the rank of

The Matti are Mogers

Brahmans by one Vathiraja Swami,

ceased to be

a Sanyasi, also have a Bobbariya bhuthasthana in the

village of Matti.

The Mogers who have

fishermen, and dwell in land, worship the bhuthas Panjurli

There is a caste priest, called Mangala pujari, whose head-quarters are at Bannekuduru near Barkur. Every family has to pay eight annas annually to the priest, to enable him to maintain
and Baikadthi.

the temple dedicated to

Ammanoru

Bannekuduru.

According to

Mastiamma at some, Mastiamma is Mari,

or
is

the goddess of small-pox, while others say that she

the

same as Mohini, a female devil,

kills

who

possesses men, and

them.
at
least

For every settlement, there must be

Gurikaras (headmen), and,
are as
in

two

some

settlements, there

many
.wear,

as four.
office,

All the Gurikaras wear, as an

emblem

of their
in

a gold bracelet on the

left wrist.

Some

addition,

a bracelet presented by the

members of the caste for some signal service. The office of headman is hereditary, and follows the aliya santana
law of succession
(in the

female

line).

The

ordinary Tulu barber (Kelasi) does not shave

the Mogers,

who have their ow^n caste barber, called Melantavam, who is entitled to receive a definite share The Konkani barbers (Mholla) of a catch of fish.
in

do not object to shave Mogers, and,

some places

69

MOGER
is

where
called

JM hollas are not available, the Billava barber

in.

Like other Tulu castes, the Mogers have exogamous

septs, or balis, of

which the following are examples

Honne,
Pterocarpiis

Ane, elephant.
Bali, a fish.

Marsupium.
Shetti, a fish.

Deva, god.

Dyava,

tortoise.

Tolana, wolf.

The marriage ceremonial

to the

of the

customary Tulu type.

Mogers conforms betrothal ceremony is

rites last

gone through, and

over two days. a plank or
cot,

the sirdochi, or bride-price, varying

from six to eight rupees, paid.

The marriage
is

On
and

the

first

day, the bride

rice

seated on

five

women throw

over her head,

and

retire.

The bridegroom and

his party

come

to the

home

of the bride,

and are accommodated

at her house, or

elsewhere.

On

the following day, the contracting couple

are seated together, and the bride's father, or the Gurikara, pours the dhare water over their united hands.
It is

customary to place a cocoanut on a heap of

betel

rice,

wuth some

leaves and areca nuts

at
is

the side thereof.

The

dhare water (milk and water)

cocoanut.

poured thrice over the

Then

all

those assembled throw rice over the

heads of the bride and bridegroom, and

make presents

of

money.

Divorce can be easily effected, after information

In the

of the intention has been given to the Gurikara.

Udipi taluk, a

man who wishes

to divorce his wife

goes

to a certain tree with

two or three men, and makes three

This
is

cuts in the trunk with a bill-hook.

called baraha-

kodu, and

is

apparently observed by other castes.

The
and

Mogers

largely adopt girls in preference to boys,

they need not be of the same sept as the adopter.

On

the

seventh day after the birth of a child a

it,

Madivali (washerwoman) ties a waist-thread on

and


MOGILI
gives
time,
it

1o

a name.

This name

is

usually dropped after a

for
it.

and another name substituted

The dead are either buried or cremated. If the corpse is burnt, the ashes are thrown into a tank (pond)
or river on the third or
fifth

day.

The

final

death cereninth,

monies (bojja or savu) are performed on the seventh,

of the Biilavas.

eleventh, or thirteenth day, with details similar to those

Like other Tulu castes, some Mogers

of the

perform a propitiatory ceremony on the fortieth day.

The
the

ordinary caste

title

Mogers

is

Marakaleru,

and Gurikara that of members of the

families to

which

headmen belong.
is

In the

Kundapur
is,

taluk, the title

Naicker

preferred to Marakaleru.

The cephalic
and Biilavas
:

index of the Mogers

following table, slightly less than that

shown by the of the Tulu Bants

as

Av.

Max.

Min.

No. of times index

80 or over.

50 Biilavas 40 Bants
...

8o-i
78-

91-5

7r
70-8

28
13

91-2 84-9

40 Mogers

77-1

71-8

Mogili
sept of

{Pandarms

fasciailaris).

An

exogamous

Kapu and

Yerukala.
sub-division of Gaudo, the

Mogotho. A
Mohiro

members
or gotra

of which are considered inferior because they eat fowls.

(peacock).

An

exogamous sept
exogamous
See Stanika.

of Bhondari and Gaudo.

Moksham
Devanga.

(heaven).

An

sept

of

Moktessor or Mukhtesar.

Mola (hare). An exogamous sept of Gangadikara Holeya and Gangadikara Vakkaliga.

71

MONDI

Molaya Devan.
Moliko.

A.title of Kalian

title

of

and Nokkan. Doluva and Kondra.

meaning- those

Monathinni. The name,

who

eat

the \-cimin ot the earth, of a sub-division of Valaiyan.

Mondi. For the following- note Mr. C. Haya\adana Rao. Mondi,

siddhan
for
{(j.t'.),

-I

am

indebted to
Kalladi-

Landa,

and Kalladi-mangam, are different names

class of mendicants.
fellow,

one and the same

The
last

first

two

names denote a troublesome

and the

two one

who

beats himself with a stone.

The Mondis speak

Tamil, and correspond to the

Bandas of the Telugu

sometimes explained as

country, banda meaning- an obstinate person or tricksy

knave.

[The name Banda

stone,
in

is

meaning
brains,
if

reference to these mendicants carry-

ing about a stone, and threatening" to beat out their

alms are not forthcoming.]

They
all

are as a

rule

tall,

robust individuals,

who go about

but naked,

with a jingling chain tied to the right wrist, their hair

long and matted, a knife
the
left

in

the hand, and a big stone on

in

shoulder.

When engaged

begging, they cut

lie

the skin of the thighs with the knife,

their chests with the stone, vomit,

clown and beat

in

roll

the dust or

mud, and throw

alms.

dirt at those

who
or

will

not contribute

In a note on the

Mondis

Bandas,* Mr. H. A.
" lay

Stuart writes that these beggars

religious character.
difficult to

no claim to a
as Sudras,
it

Though regarded
and disgusting
few.

is

think them such, as they are black and filthy

in

in

their

appearance,
their

their

habits.

Happily

numbers are

They wander about

no articulate
of their

singing, or rather warbling, for they utter

words, and,

if

money

or grain be not given to them, they

have recourse to compulsion.

The implements
district.

Manual of

the

North Arcot


MONDI
72

trade are knives and ordure.

With the former they

cut

themselves

until

they draw blood, and the latter they

throw into the house or shop of the person who proves

uncharitable.

They appear

to
it

possess the
to disgust

power of
lie

vomiting at pleasure, and use

people into a
in
it

compliance with their demands.

said, their eyes

Sometimes they

the street, covering the entire face with dust, keeping,

and breathing through is Eventually they always succeed by some of the dust. these means in extorting what they consider their dues."
open the
wiiile,

Boys are regularly trained

to

vomit

at will.

They

are

made

to drink as

can, and taught

much hot water or how to bring it up.

conji (gruel) as they

At

first,

they are

made

to put several fingers in the

mouth, and tickle the

base of the tongue, so as to give rise to vomiting.

constant practice, they learn

By

how to vomit at any time. begging round, they drink Just before they start on a some fluid, which is brought up while they are engaged
in their professional calling.

There are several proverbs relating to this class of mendicants, one of which is to the effect that the rough and rugged ground traversed by the Kalladi-siddhan Another gives the advice that, is powdered to dust. whichever way the Kalladi-mangam goes, you should
dole out a measure of grain for him.
defile the

Otherwise he

will

road owing to his disgusting habits.

song,

which the Mondi may often be heard warbling, runs as

follows
:

Mother, mother,

Oh

grandmother.
birth.

Grandmother, who gave

Dole out my measure.

Their original ancestor

herd,

is

said to have been a shep-

who had both his legs cut off by robbers in a The king of the country in compassion directed jungle.

7Z
that every one should
called

MORASU
his

pay him and

descendants,
or grain.

mondi or lame, a small amount of money

caste
is

The
which
area.

divided into a series of bands, each of

has the right to collect alms within a particular

The merchants and

ryots are expected to

pay

them once a
in

year, the former in

money, and the

latter

grain at harvest time.

Each band recognises a headelders, settles marital

man, who, with the aid of the caste

and other disputes.

Marriage
is

usually celebrated after puberty.

In the

North Arcot
a

district, it is

customary

for a

his maternal uncle's daughter,

and

in the

man to marry Madura district

man can The caste

claim his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage.

is

considered so low in the social scale that

Brahmans will not officiate at marriages. Divorce is easy, and adultery with a man of higher caste is condoned more readily than a similar offence within the caste. Mondolo. Recorded, in the Madras Census

Report, 1901, as an Oriya

the

title
It
is

given by Zamindars to
also a title of various

headmen

of villages.

Oriya castes.

Mora Buvva. A
offer food

sub-division
in

of Madigas,

who

(buvva) to the god

winnowing basket

(mora) at marriage.

Morasu.

The
" In

following legendary account of the

Vellallu
"
is

origin of the "

hal Records.*

Morsu

given

in

the Barama-

the

kingdom

of Conjiveram, there

was a

village

named

Paluru, the residence of a chieftain,

who

ruled over a small district inhabited by the

It

Morsu

Vellallu.

them had a handsome daughter with whom the chieftain fell in love, and demanded her in marriage of her parents. But they

so happened that one of

Section III, Inhabitants, Government Press, Madras, 1907.

MORASU
would not comply with
the
difference of
his

H
caste,

demand, urging as an excuse on which the inflamed lover

to

determined on using force to obtain the object of his

desires.

This resolution coming

girl,

the knowledge of

the parents of the

rest

they held a consultation with the

it

of the sect,

and

was determined

that

for the

present they should feign a compliance with his order,

until

they could meet with a favourable opportunity of

quitting the country.

They accordingly
or

signified their

consent to the matter, and fixed upon the nuptial day,

and erected a pandal

their

temporary building
time,

in front of

house

for the

performance of the wedding cereproper

in

monies.

At

the

the

enamoured and

enraptured chief sent

great state to the bride's house

the wedding ornaments and clothes of considerable value,

with grain and every other delicacy for the entertain-

ment of the guests.

with the other
for flight,
]:)eople

The

parents,

having

in

concert

of the sect prepared everything

they put the ornaments and clothes on the

tied to

body of a dog, which they

of the pandal, threw
all

the centre

pillar

the delicacies on the ground

their

before him, and,

flight

taking

daughter,
chief,

fied.

Their

soon came to the ears of the

at the trick

who, being

vexed and mortified

of his prey.
of the

they had played him,

set out with his attendants like a raging lion in quest

The

fugitives at length
river,

came

to the

banks

and which they found In impassable, and their cruel pursuer nigh at hand. the dreadful dilemma, they addressed to the God Vishnu

Tungabhadra

full

the

following
if

prayer.

'

Vcnkatrama
to

(a

title

of

Vishnu),
ford
this

thou wilt graciously deign to enable us to

river,

and

wilt

condescend

assist
in

us in

crossing the water, as thou didst

Hanumant
will

passing

over the vast ocean,

we from henceforth

adopt thee

75

MORASU
tutelary deities.'

and thy

ally

Hanumant our

Vishnu

was pleased
the water
in

to grant their prayer,

and by
left

his

command
the

an instant divided, and

a dry space,

over which they passed.

The moment they reached

and prevented
to his

opposite bank, the waters closed

their

adversary from pursuing them,

country.

who returned
the provinces

own

The

sect settled in
river,

near the

Tuneabhadra

and

in

course of time spread over

eastern part of the

the districts which

now form the

called

kingdom of Mysore then

arose their surname."

Morsu, and from thence

Indians,

As

in

Africa,

and among the American

Polynesians, so
is

Australians,
artificial

and

in

Southern

India

deformity of the hand

of the
fingers.
"

produced by chopping
in

off

some
in

Writing

1815.

Buchanan

(Hamilton)* says that

near Deonella or Deonhully, a

town

Mysore,

is

a sector sub-division of the Murressoo

Wocal

caste,

every

woman

of which, previous to piercing

the ears of her eldest daughter, preparatory to her being

betrothed in marriage, must undergo the amputation of

the
first

joints of third

and fourth fingers of her right

is

hand.

The amputation

performed by the blacksmith

be

of the village, who, having placed the finger in a block,

performs the operation with a

betrothed
is

chisel.

If the girl to

motherless, and the mother of the boy has

it is

not before been subjected to the amputation,

incum-

bent on

her to

suffer

the

operation."

Of

the

same

ceremony

among the " Morsa-Okkala-Makkalu " of Mysore the Abbe Dubois t says that, if the bride's

mother be dead, the bridegroom's mother, or in default of her the mother of the nearest relative, must submit to In an editorial foot-note it is stated the cruel ordeal.
*

East India Gazetteer.

Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, Ed.,

1897.

MORASU
that this custom
is

76

no longer observed.

Instead of the

two fingers being amputated, they are now merely bound In the Census together, and thus rendered unfit for use.
Report,
is
1

89 1,

it is

recorded that this type of deformity

in

found among the Morasus, chiclly

"

Cuddapah, North

Arcot, and Salem.

called Veralu
fingers,

There

is

a sub-section of them

Icche Kapulu, or Kapulu

who

give the

from a curious custom which requires

is

that,

when

a grandchild

born

in

a family, the wife of the eldest

last

son of the grandfather must have the

two joints of the third and fourth fingers of her right hand amputated
at a

temple of Bhairava."

Further,

it

is

stated in the

Manual of the Salem

district

(1883) that "the practice

now observed
is

in this district is that,

when

a grandchild

born

in

a family, the eldest son of the grandfather,

with his wife, appears at the temple for the ceremony of

boring the child's

and there the woman has the last two joints of the third and fourth fingers chopped off. It does not signify whether the father of the first grandear,
it

child born be the eldest son or not, as in any case

is

the wife of the eldest son

lation.

who has

to

undergo the muti-

After

this,

when

children are born to other sons,

their wives in succession undergo the operation.

When

a child

is

adopted, the same course

is

is

pursued.

"

The
is

origin of the custom

narrated by Wilks,* and

briefly this.

Mahadeo or

Siva,

who was

in

great

peril,

after hiding successively in a castor-oil

tion,

andjawari planta-

concealed himself in a linga-tonde shrub

,

from

a rakshasa who was pursuing him

to

whom
little

a Marasa
finger of

Vakkaliga cultivator indicated, with the

his right hand, the hiding-place of Siva.

The god was

only rescued from his peril by the interposition of Vishnu

History of Mysore.

T^
in

MORASU

the form of a lovely maiden meretriciously dressed, the

lusty

whom

rakshasa,

forgetting

all

about Siva,

attempted
cultivator

to ravish,

and was consumed

the

to ashes.

On
The

emerging from
culprit's wife,

his hiding-place,
forfeit

Siva decreed that the

offending
finger.

should

who

had just arrived at the field with food

for her husband, hearing this dreadful sentence, threw herself at Siva's feet, and represented the certain ruin of

her family

if

her husband should be disabled for

some

months from performing the labours of the farm, and

besought the deity to accept two of her fingers instead of one from her husband. Siva, pleased with so sincere a
proof of conjugal affection, accepted the exchange, and

ordered that her family posterity

sacrifice

in all future

generations

two fingers at his temple as a memorial should of the transaction, and of their exclusive devotion to the

god of the lingam.

For the following account of the performance of the rite, as carried out by the Morasa Vakkaligaru of Mysore, I am indebted to an article by Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar.* " These people are
roughly classed under three heads, viz. (i) those whose women offer the sacrifice (2) those who substitute for
:

the fingers a piece of gold wire, twisted round fingers in the shape of rings.

Instead of cutting the fingers

;

off,

the carpenter removes and appropriates the rings

(3)

those
is

who do

not perform the

rite.

The modus operandi

About the time
is

as nearly as possible the following.

of

the

new moon

in Chaitra,

a propitious day

fixed
to
in

by the

village astrologer, and the

sacrifice

woman who

is

offer the

performs certain ceremonies or puje

honour

of Siva, taking food only once a day.

For three days

before the operation, she has to support herself with

Intl.

Antiquary,

II,

1873.

MORASU
milk,
SLii^ar,

78
fruits,
etc.,
all

substantial

food

being
cart
is

eschewed.

On

the day appointed, a

common

brought

out. painted in alternate strips with white

and
in

red ochre, and adorned with gay flags, flowers,

imitation of a car.
it,

etc.,

Sheep or pigs are slaughtered before

their number being generally governed by the number

of children borne by the sacrificing

is

woman.

The

cart

then dragged by bullocks, preceded by music, the

her husband following, with

woman and
their heads,
relatives.

new

pots filled

with water and small pieces of silver money, borne on

and accompanied by a retinue of friends and

village

The

washerman has

to spread clean

cloths along the

path of the procession, which stops

near the boundary of the village, where a leafy bower

is

prepared, with three pieces of stone installed

in

it.

symbolising the god Siva.

Flowers,

fruits,

cocoanuts,

incense, etc., are then offered, varied occasionally

by an
her

additional sheep or pig.

wooden

seat

is

placed before
it

the image, and the sacrificing

right

woman

places upon

hand with the fingers spread

on the

out.

A man
little

holds

her hand firmly, and the village carpenter, placing his

chisel
first

joints of her ring

and

fingers,

chops them
off are

off

with a single stroke.

ant-hill,

The

pieces lopped
tips

thrown into an

and the
rags

of the

mutilated fingers, round

which

are bound, are

dipped into a vessel containing boiling gingily [Sesamum

indicinii)
oil.

good skin eventually forms over the

stump, which looks like a congenital malformation.

fee of the carpenter
is

The

one kanthiraya fanam (four annas

finger,

eight pies) for each

kind.

maimed

besides presents in

The woman undergoes

a
that,

the barbarous and j^ainful

article of the

ceremony without
popular belief

murmur, and it is an were it neglected, or if

nails

grow on

the stump, dire ruin and misfortune will overtake the

79
recusant
fincfers

MORASU
who have had
their

family.

Staid

matrons,

maimed

for life in

the above manner,

exhibit

their

stumps with a pride worthy of a better cause.

At

the termination of the sacrifice, the

woman

is

presented

with cloths, flowers,

etc.,

by her friends and

relations, to

whom

a feast

is

given.

Her

children are placed on an

adorned seat, and, after receiving presents of flowers,

fruits, etc.. their
is

ears are pierced in the usual way.

It

said that to
full

do so before would be sacrilege."

In a

very

account of deformation of the hand by the

sub-sect of the Vakaliga or ryat caste in

Berulu

Kodo
Mr.

Mysore,

F.

Fawcett says that

"

it

was

regularly

practiced until the Commissioner of Mysore put a stop

to
it

about twenty years ago.

gold or silver pieces, stick

At present some take them on to the finger's ends

oft'.

with flour paste, and either cut or pull them

Others
gold or
flowers

simply substitute an offering of small

silver
for

jjieces of
tie

the amputation.

Others, again,
cut,

round the fingers that used to be

and go through a

pantomime of cutting by putting the chisel on the joint, and taking it away again. All the rest of the ceremony
is

just

as

it

used to be."

The

introduction
to, is

of the

decorated

cart,

which has been referred

connected

by Mr. Fawcett with a legend concerning a zemindar,

who sought
the flight

the daughters of seven brothers in marriage

with three youths of his family.

As
the

carts

were used
is,

in

from

the

zemindar,

ceremonv

to

commemorate the event, called Bandi Devuru, or god of As by throwing ear-rings into a river the fugitives cars.
passed through
it,

while

the zemindar

was drowned,
ears

the caste people insist

on their women's
in

being

bored

for ear-rings.

And,

honour of the

girls

who

cared more for the honour of their caste than for the distinction of marriage into a great family, the

amputation

motAti
of
part

8o
of two fingers of

women

of the caste

was

instituted.
"

Since the prohibition of cutting

off

the fingers,"

Mr. L. Rice writes,* " the women content themselves with putting on a gold or silver finger-stall or thimble,

which

is

pulled off instead of the finger

itself."

Morasa Kapulu women never touch the new grain of the year without worshipping the sun (Surya), and may
not eat food prepared from this grain before this act of

worship has been performed.

They wrap themselves

in

a kambli (blanket) after a purificatory bath,

prostrate

themselves on the ground, raise their hands to the fore-

head

in

salutation,

and make the usual

offering

of

cocoanuts, etc.

They
in their

are said, in times gone by, to

have been lax

morals and to have prayed to the

sun to forgive them.

Morasu has further been returned as a sub-division of Holeya, Mala and Odde. The name Morasu Paraiyan
probably indicates Holeyas

who have migrated from

the

Canarese to the Tamil country, and whose women, like the Kalians, wear a horse-shoe thread round the neck. Motati. A sub-division of Kapu. Moyili.The Moyilis or Mollis of South Canara

are said t by

Mr. H. A. Stuart to be

"

admittedly the

descendants of the children of

women
now

attached to the
swelled in this
of the
1901,

temples, and their ranks are even

manner.
Stanikas"

Their duties are similar to those

(^.z^.).

In the
is

Madras Census Report,

In the
is

Golaka

(a bastard)

clubbed with Moili.

Myin

sore Census Report, this term children of

said to be applied to

Brahmans by Malcrus (temple servants

Mysore).

Mysore.

Manual

of the South Canara district.

MOYILI

The
was

following account of the origin of the Moylars

given

by

Buchanan

at

the

beginning

of

the

nineteenth century.*

"In

the temples of Tuluva there

prevails a very singular custom,

to

which has given origin

of the four or

a caste

named Moylar.

Any woman
who

pure castes

Brahman,

Kshatriya, Vaisya

Sudra

who
life

is

tired of her husband, or

(being a widow,
is

and consequently incapable of marriage)

of celibacy,
is

tired of a

goes to a temple, and eats some of

offered to the idol.

the rice that

She

is

then taken

before the officers of Government,

who assemble some

caste,

people of her
resolution
;

caste to inquire into the cause of her

if

and,

she be of the

Brahman

to give
its

her an option
precincts.
If

of living in the temple

or out of

she chooses the former, she gets a daily

rice,

allowance

of

and

annually

piece

of

cloth.

She must sweep the temple, fan the idol with a Tibet
cow's
fact
tail

and confine her amours to the Brahmans.

In

she generally becomes a concubine to some officer

of revenue

who

gives her a

triile

in

addition to her
if

public allowance, and

who

will

Bog her severely

she

grants favours to
of these

any other person.

are
called

The male
but

children

women
title

Moylar,

are fond

of

assuming the
thread.
live

of Stanika, of

and wear the Brahmanical

them as can procure employment about the temples, sweep the areas, sprinkle them

As many

with an infusion of cow-dung, carry flambeaus before the

gods, and perform other similar low offices."

The

Moyilis are also called Devadigas, and should

not be mixed with the Malerus (or Maleyavaru).

Both
Malerus

do temple
prostitutes,

service,

but the Maleru females are mostly

whereas Moyili

women

are not.

* Journey through Mysore, etc.

v-6

MUCCHI

82
in

arc dancing-girls attached to the temples

South Canara,
Shivalli.

and their ranks are swelled by Konkani,

other

and

Brahman women of bad character. The Moyilis have adopted the manners and customs
same
balis (septs) as the

of the Bants, and have the

Bants

and

Billavas.

Mucchi.
in

The Mucchis or Mochis are

it

summed

up,

the Madras Census Re[)ort, 1901, as being a Marathi

In the

caste of painters and leather- workers.

Mysore

Census Report
caste

is

noted that

" to

the leather-working

may be added a small body of Mochis, shoemakers and saddlers. They are immigrant Mahratas. who, it is said, came into Mysore with Khasim Khan, the general They claim to be Kshatriyas and Rajputs of Aurangzib. pretensions which are not generally admitted. They

are shoemakers and saddlers by trade, and are

all

Saivas

by
" is

faith."

"

The Mucchi," Mr.

A. Chatterton writes,*

not a tanner, and as a leather- worker only enofaofes

in the

higher branches of the trade.

Some

of them

make

shoes, but draw the line at sandals.

considerable

number
offices.
its

are engaged as menial servants in

Government

Throughout the country, nearly every office has own Mucchi, whose principal duty is to keep in order
and covers, and generally make

the supplies of stationery, and from raw materials manufacture ink, envelopes

himself useful.

orood

manv

of the so-called Mucchis.

however, do not belong to the caste, as very few have

wandered south of Madras,

be found
in

and they are mostly

Districts."

to

Ganjam and the Ceded

pencils, prepare ink

The

duties of the office

Mucchi have further been summed

from powders, clean

up as

" to

mend

ink-bottles, stitch note-books, paste covers, rule forms.

Monograph

of Tanning and

Working

in Leather,

Madras, 1904.

S$

MUCCHI
"

and

affix

stamps to covers and aid the despatch of tappals

In the Moochee's

(postal correspondence).

Hand-book
it

by the head Mucchi

in

the office of the Inspector-General

is

of Ordnance, and contractor for black ink powder,

stated that "the Rev.
J. P.

Rottler,

in

his

Tamil and

English dictionary, defines the word Mucchi as signifying

trunk-maker,
prises the following duties:
stationer,

painter.

Mucchi's work com-

To make To mend
paste

black, red,

and blue writing

requisite.

ink, also ink of

other colours as

may seem

quills, rule lines,

make envelopes, mount

or

maps

or plans on cloth with ribbon edges,

pack

parcels in wax-cloth, waterproof or

letters,

common

paper, seal

and open boxes or trunk

articles.

parcels.

To
use.

take charge of boxes, issue stationery for current

and supply petty

To

file

])rinted forms, etc.,

and bind books."

1906, applications

In the Fort St.

George Gazette,

were invited from persons who have ])assed the Matriculation

examination of the Madras University

8 per

for the post

of

Mucchi on Rs.

mensem

in

the office of a

Deputy

Superintendent of Police.
In the District Manuals, the various occupations of

the Mucchis are

leather,

summed up

as book-binding,

working

in

making saddles and trunks, ])ainting, making At the present day, Mucchis toys, and pen-making. (designers) are employed by piece-goods merchants in Madras in devising and painting new patterns for despatch to Europe, where they are engraved on copper cylinders. When, as at the ]:resent day, the bazars
of Southern

India .are

flooded
it is

with

imported

piece-

goods of British manufacture,

curious to look back,

* G. D. lyah Pillay, Madras, 1878.

V-6 B

MUCHERIKALA
and
reflect

84
piece-o-oods

that the term

was

originally-

applied in trade to the Indian cotton fabrics exported

to England,

The term Mucchi

sets

is

applied to two entirely different

parts

of people.
it

In

Mysore and

of the

Ceded
people,

Districts,

refers to

Marathi-speaking workers

in leather.

But

it

is

further

applied to
or

Telugu-speaking

called

Raju,

Jinigara,

Chitrakara,
toys, etc.,

who

are mainly
in leather-

engaged
work.

in painting,

making

and not
S.

[See Rachevar.)

Mucherikala. Recorded by
a

Mr. F.

Mullaly* as

synonym of a thief class in the Telugu country. Mudali. The title Mudali is used chiefly by the

offspring of Deva-dasis (dancing-girls),

Vellalas.

Kaikolans, and
title

The

Vellalas generally take the

Mudali

in the northern,

and

Pillai in
is

the southern districts.

By
it

some
is

Vellalas,

Mudali

considered discourteous, as

also the title of weavers.!

title

Mudali further occurs as

Pallis or

of

some

Jains,

Gadabas, Occhans,

Vanni-

yans, and Panisavans.

Some

Pattanavans style them-

selves Varunakula Mudali.

Mudavandi.^The Mudavandis
special

are said

to

be

"

begging

class,

descended from Vellala Goundans,

since

they had the

immemorial

privilege

of taking

possession, as
infirm
or

of right,

of any Vellala child that was

his claim

maimed.

The Modivandi made

will,

by

spitting into the child's face,

and the parents were then

to give
it

obliged, even against their

up.

Thence-

forward

it

was a Modivandi, and married among them.

has fallen into desuetude
for

The custom
or
fifty

the last forty

years, as a complaint of abduction

would

entail

* Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency,

t Manual of the North Arcot

1

district. district.

Manual of the Coimbatore

85
serious consequences.

MUDAVANDI
is

Their special village

Modi-

vandi

Satyamangalam near Erode.

The

chief Modi-

vandi, in
(orderlies)

employ peons with belts and badges upon their begging tours,
1887, applied for sanction to

probably because contributions are less willingly made

nowadays to idle men. They claim to be entitled to sheep and grain from the ryats." In a note on the Mudavandis, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes that it is stated to be the custom that children born blind or lame in the Konga Vellala caste are handed
over by their parents to become

Mudavandis.

If

the

parents hesitate to comply with the custom, the

Muda-

vandis

tie

a red cloth round the head of the child, and

the parents can then

no longer withhold their consent.

They have

to give the
if

boy a bullock to
blind.

ride

on

if

he

is

lame, or a stick

he

is

Revenue Officer writes (1902) that, at the village of Andipalayam in the Salem district, there is a class of people called Modavandi, whose profession is the adoption of the infirm members of the Konga Vellalas.
Andis are professional beggars.
the

Konga

Vellalas,

and

all

They go about among the blind and maimed

to their

children are
village.

pounced upon by them, and carried

While parting with

their children, the parents,

always at the request of the children, give a few, sometimes rising to a hundred, rupees.
his status.

The

infirm never loses

He becomes

the adopted child of the Andi,

and

inherits

half of his property invariably.

They

are
In

married

among

the Andis, and are well looked after.

return for their services, the

Andis receive four annas a

head from the

Konga

the income from this

community annually, and source alone amounts to Rs. 6,400.

Vellala
is

A forty-first

part share

given to the temple of Arthanar-

iswara at Trichengodu.

None

of the Vellalas can refuse

MUDI

86

the annual subscription, on j^ain of being placed under

the ban of social excommunication, and the Andi

a\ ill

not leave the V'ellala's house until the infirm child

is

handed over

to

him.

One

Tahsildar (revenue

ofl'icer)

asked himself why the Andi's income should not be

to income-tax,

liable

Of

course,

it

and the Andis were collectively assessed. was cancelled on appeal.

of Mala.

Mudi (knot). An exogamous sept Mudiya.1 he name, derived from

Muduvar.
of
hill

mudi, a prepara-

tion ot tried rice, of a sub-division of Chuditiya.

The Muduvars
hills,
I

or

Mudugars

are a tribe

cultivators in

Coimbatore. Madura, ]Malabar, and

those

Travancore.
inhabit the
Ff.

For the following note on

who

Cardamom

am

indebted to Mr. Aylmer

Martin.

The name
English, and in
or

of the tribe

Muduvar in Tamil pronounced Muthuvar, Muthuvar

is

usually spelt

Muthuvanal.

Outsiders
(a title

som.etimes

call

the tribe

Thagappanmargal
people
in

sometimes used by low -caste

addressing their masters).

The Muduvars
Tamil, with
for

have a dialect of their own, closely

a few

allied to

Malayalam words.

Their names

males are

mostly those of Hindu gods and heroes, but Kanjan (dry

or stingy),

Karupu Kunji

(black chick), Kunjita (chicken)

and Kar

Megam

(black cloud) are distinctive and com-

For females, the names of goddesses and heroines, Karapayi (black), Koopi (sweepings), and Paychi (she-

mon.

common. Boy twins are invariably Lutchuman and Raman, girl twins Lutchmi and Rama}i. Boy and orirl twins are named Lutchmanand Ramavi, or Lutchmi and Raman. The Muduvars do not believe themselves to be indigenous to the hills the legend, handed down from
devil) are
;

father to son,

is

that they originally lived in

Madura.

8;
Owing' to troubles, or a war
of the times
at
in

MUDUVAR
which the Pandyan Raja
fled to the hills.

was engaged, they

left

When
say,

Bodinayakanur, the pregnant

women (or.

as

some

a pregnant woman) were

behind, and eventually went

with the offspring to the Nilgiris, while the bulk of the

tribe

came
is

to the

High Range

of

North Travancore.

There

su])posed to be enmity between these rather

peoj)le

vague Nilgiri

and the Muduvars.

The
is

Nilgiri

people are said occasionally to visit

if

Bodinayakanur, but,

by chance they are met by Muduvars, there

is

no speech

between them, though each

supposed instinctively or

intuiti\ely to recognise the presence of the other.

Those
to to

that

came

to the

High Range
it

carried their children up

the ghats

on their backs, and

name
with

the tribe Muduxar, or

was thereupon decided back people. According

another tradition, when

them on
by Mr.

their

Madura, they carried back the image of the goddess

the}- left
it

Minakshi, and
stated

brought
P.

to

Neriyamangalam.
that the

It

is

E.

Conner*

Muduvars
hill tribes.

"

rank

high

in

point of precedency

among the

They

were originally Vellalas, tradition representing them as

having accompanied some of the Madura princes to the

Travancore
but

hills."

The approximate
at the time

time of the exodus

from Madura cannot even be guessed by any of the

tribe,
it

was possibly

when

the

Pandyan
the
in

Rajas entered the south, or

more probably when

Telugu Naickers took possession of Bodinayakanur

the fourteenth century. the
It

has also been suggested that

Muduvars were driven to the hills by the Muhammadan invaders in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Judging from the two distinct types of countenance,
their

language, and their curious mixture of

* M.-idras Journ. Liv. Science,

I,

1833.

MUDUVAR
customs,
I

o
hazard the conjecture that, when they arrived
they found a small tribe
in

on the

hills,

possession, with

whom

they subsequently intermarried, this tribe having

affinities

with the west coast, while the new arrivals were

east.

connected with the

The
of

tribe

is

settled

on the northern and western

portion of the

Cardamom Hills, and the High Range Travancore, known as the Kanan Devan hills, and
is,
1

there
hills.

believe,

one
to

village

on

the

Anaimalai

They wander
owing
to

some

extent, less so of the

now than
planting

formerly,

the establishment

community

in their midst.

The

head-quarters at present

may be
Range.

said to be

on the western slopes of the High

or

headman lives in a village on the western slope of the High Range at about 2,000 feet elevation, but villages occur up to 6,000 feet
above sea
level,

The present Mel Vaken

the

majority of villages being about

4,000 feet above the sea.

The wandering
final

takes place

between the reaping of the

land,

crop on one piece of

and the sowing of the next. up of the old

village,

About November
and February the

sees the breaking

establishment of the new.

On

the plateau of the

High

Range
and
to

their dwellings are small rectangular, rather flat-

roofed huts,
root),

made

of jungle sticks or grass (both walls

in

and are very neat

appearance.

On

the

western slopes, although the materials lend themselves

even neater building, their houses are usually of a

rougher type.
leaves
of the

The

meiterials used are the

ita

stems and

large-leaved

(bamboo

Ocklandra

travancoricd) owing to the absence of grass-land country.

The back
made

of the house has no wall, the roof sloping on

to the hillside behind,

and the other walls are generally

of a rough sort of matting

made by

plaiting split

Ita stems.

89
Outsiders are theoretically
not

MUDUVAR
received
into

the

caste, but a weaver caste boy and girl

(in

the famine of 1877,

hills,

deserted on the

who were starving as far as I can make out), and were adopted, and, when they
full

grew

up,

were allowed the

'

privileges of the caste.

'

Since then, a
adopted,

Thotiya Naicker

child

was

similarly

and
wife.

is

now

full-blown

Muduvar

with

Muduvar
tion

On
or

similar occasions, adoptions from

similar or higher castes

might take

place, but the

adop-

of Pariahs

low-caste

people would

be quite

impossible.

In a lecture delivered
it

Mr. O. H. Bensley,
their

some years ago by was stated that the Muduvars

upon a considerable period
admitting
the *W'Ould-be

permit the entry of members of the Vellala caste into

community, but
before

insist

of

probation

finally

Muduvar
If

into their ranks.

in the

any dispute arises

community,

it is

referred

to

the

men

of

the

village,

who form an

informal

panchayat (council), with the eldest or most influential

man

at its head.

References are sometimes, but only

seldom,

made

to the

Muppen, a
office of

sort

of

sub-headman

of the tribe, except, perhaps, in the particular village in

which he

resides.

The

both

Muppen and Mel

sister.

Vaken

is

hereditary,

and follows the marumakkatayam

custom,

i.e.,

descent to the eldest son of the eldest

The

orders of the panchayat, or of the headman, are not

enforceable by any specified means.

sort of sending

a delinquent to Coventry exists, but

the matter has blown over.

falls

through when
the case of

Adjudications only occur

at the request of the parties concerned, or in

cohabitation between the prohibited degrees of consanguinity,

when, on

are banished to

becoming known, the guilty pair the jungle, but seem nevertheless to be
it

able to visit the village at

will.

When

disputes between

MUDUVAR
generally
is

90
any one, he may be
fined,

parties are settled against

in

kind

calf,

no

trial

by ordeal.

bull, or grain. There Oaths by the accuser, the accused,

a cow, a

and partisans of both, are

oath
is

freely taken.

The form
if

of

to call

upon God that the

die within so

])erson swearing, or

his child,

may

many days

the oath

is

same time stepping over the Rama kodu, which consists of lines drawn on the ground, one line for It may consist of any number of lines, but each day. three, five, or seven are usual. Increasing the number
untrue, at the

of lines indefinitely would be considered to be trifiing

with the subject.

There do not seem

to be

any good omens, but

evil

omens are numerous.

The barking
hill

of 'jungle sheep'

(barking deer) or sambar, the

robin crossing the

Oracles,

path when shifting the village, are examples.

are believed in very

magic, sorcery, witchcraft, and especially the evil eye,

firml\-,

but are not practiced by

Muduvars.

the evil eye at

was myself supposed to have exercised one time. It once became my duty to
culti-

apportion to Muduvars land for their next year's

vation,

and

went round with some of them

for this

purpose, visiting the jungle they wished to clear.

A
;

particular friend of mine, called Kanjan, asked for a bit

of secondary growth very close to a cinchona estate

it

was, in

fact,

situated between Lower Nettigudy and

Upper Nettigudy, and

I

the main road passed quite close.

him that there was no objection, except that it was most unusual, and that probably the estate coolies would rob the place and I warned him \cry distinctly that, if evil came of his ch(Mce, he was not to put the blame on me. Shortly afterwards I left India, and
told
;

was absent about three months, and, when I returned, found that small-pox had practically wiped out that I

91
village, thirty-seven out of forty inhabitants

MUDUVAR
having died,
;

including Kanjan.
as
I

was, of course, very sorry

bit

but,

found a small
felled,

of the

land

in

question
I

had

been
it

and

there being

no claimants,

planted

up with cinchona.

As

the smallpox had

visited all

the

Mudu\'ar
I

\-illages,

and

had

spread

great

havoc

being scarce, on the few occasions when I did see them, that they were alwa\'s running awa)-. When I
but
I

among them,

w<is not surprised at their

noticed,

got the opportunity.

riding

cornered a
for

man

b\-

practicallv

him down, and asked

an explanation.

He
that

then told

me

that, of course, the tribe

I

had been sorely

troubled, because
evil

told
I

Kanjan

in

so

many words
(to

would come.

had then disappeared

returned just
in

work

my
five

magic, no doubt), and

time to take

that very bit of land for myself.

That was nearly

is

years ago,

and confidence

in

me

only

now being

gradually restored.

The Muduvans have

journey
Monday,
Tuesday,
start

lucky days for starting on a

before sunrise.

start in the

forenoon.

Wednesday
Thursday,

start before 7 a.m.

start after eating the

morning meal.
a bad day.

Friday, never

make

a start

it is

Saturday and Sunday, start as soon as the sun has risen.

When

boys reach puberty, the parents give a feast

In the case of a girl, a feast
is

to the village.

likewise

given, and she occupies, for the duration of the menstrual

period, a hut set apart for
to
all

the

women

in

the village
it

occupy during their uncleanness.

This
just

When

is

over,

she washes her clothes,

head.
is

and takes a bath, washing her

village
girl just

what every woman of the

is

always does.

There

no mutilation, and the

MUDUVAR
changes her
married

92
child's dress for that of a

woman.

The

women

of the village assist at confinements.

luck.

Twins bring good

times born,

Monsters are said to be someform

of
little

bearing the

tigers,

cows,
is is

monkeys,

etc.

On

these occasions, the mother

said
said

generally to die, but,

to eat the monster.

when she does

not die, she

Monstrosities must

Childless couples are dieted to

principal diet for a

anyway be killed. make them fruitful, the

man being

plenty of black monkey,

and
or

for a

woman a compound of various herbs and spices. man may not marry the daughter of his brother
;

sister

he ought

to

marry

his

uncle's

daughter,

and he may have two or three wives, who may or

Among the plateau Muduvars, both not be sisters. polygamy and polyandry are permitted, the former being common, and the latter occasional. In the case of the
may
latter,

brothers are prohibited from having a

as also are cousins on the father's side.
first

common
In the

wife,

case of polygamy, the

married

is

the head wife, and

the others take orders from her, but she has no other
privileges.
If

the
but,

wives are amicably disposed, they

live together,

when

inclined to disagree, they are

given separate houses for the sake of peace and harmony.

may be in one village, and the others in another. A man may be polygamous in one village, and be one of a polyandrous lot of men a few miles off. On the Cardamom Hills, and on the
With quarrelsome women, one
wife

western slopes, where the majority of the tribe

are

live,

they

monogamous, and express abhorrence of both the polygamous and polyandrous condition, though they admit, with an affectation of amused disgust, that both are practiced by their brethren on the high lands. Marriages are arranged by the friends, and more
often

by the

cousins

on

the

mother's

side

of the

93
bridegroom,

MUDUVAR
woman

who

request the hand of a girl or

If

from her parents.

amicable, a day

they agree, the consent of the most

if

remote relatives has also to be obtained, and,

is

everyone

is

fixed,

and the happy couple leave

like

the village to live a few days in a cave by themselves.

On
to

their return, they

it,

announce whether they would

In the former case, the

go on with

or not.

man

publicly gives ear-rings, a metal (generally brass) bangle,

a cloth, and a
hut.

comb The comb is

If

to the

woman, and takes her

to his
ita

a poor affair
it

made

of split

or

perhaps of bamboo, but

is

the essential part of the

ceremony.

the probationary period in the cave has

not proved quite satisfactory to both parties, the marriage

is

put

off,

and the man and the

else.

woman

are both at liberty

to try

again with some one

Betrothal does not exist

to

as a ceremony,

though families often agree together

this
is

marry their children together, but any way.

to

not binding in
is

The

tying of the
in

tali

(marriage badge)

said

have been tried

former days as part of the marriage

the practice

ceremony, but, as the bride always died,

was discontinued. Remarriage of widows is permitted, and the widow by right belongs to, or should be taken
over by her deceased husband's maternal aunt's son, and
not,

under any circumstances, by any of his brothers.

In

practice she marries almost

brothers.

any one but one of the

the house of his younger

No man

should

visit

brother's wife, or even look at that lady.

This prohibi-

tion does not extend to the wives of his elder brothers,

but sexual intercourse even here would be incest.

The

same ceremonies are gone through

of a

at the remarriage

widow

as in an ordinary marriage, the ear-rings

and bangles, which she discarded on the death of the previous husband, being replaced.
special dress, but are

Widows do

not wear a

known by

the absence of jewelry.

MUDUVAR
Eloj)ements
dccur.

94
WMion a man and woman do not

obtain the consent of the |)ro})cr parties, they run

away

into the jung-le or a cave, visiting the village frequently,

and getting grain,

etc.,

from sympathisers.

The anger
wife.

aroused by their disgraceful conduct havingsubsided, they

quietly return to the village,
[It is noted, in

and

live as

man and

the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that,

is

after a

marriage

settled, the

bridegroom

forcibly takes

away the maiden from her mother's house when she goes
out for water or firewood, and lives with her separately for
a few days or weeks in

They
theory,

then
for,

return,

some secluded part of the forest. unless in the meantime they are
relations.]
will,

searched
a

and brought back by their

divorce his wife at

In
it

man may

but

is

scarcely etiquette to do so, exce])t for infidelity, or in the

case of incompatibility of temper.

If

he wants to get

rid

of her for less horrible crimes, he can ])alm her off on a

friend.

A woman

cannot divorce her husband at

all

in

theory, but she can

make

his

life

so unbearable that he

gladly allows her to palm herself off on

somebody

else.

Wives who have been divorced marry again freely. The tribe follow the west coast or marumakkatayam
law of inheritance with a slight difference, the property

descending to an elder or younger

sister's son.

Property,

which seldom consists of more than a bill-hook, a blanket,

and a few
divided
in

cattle,

always goes to a nephew, and

is

not

any way.
Hindu, and the chief gods

The
vallu,

tribe ]3rofesses to be

are Panaliandavar (a corruption of Palaniandi) and

Kada-

Madura temple with Minakshiammal and her husband Sokuru. Thev are
are supposed to live in the

who

also said to worship Chantiattu Bhagavati

and Neriya-

mangalam

Sasta.

Suryan (the sun)

is

a beneficent deity.

The deities which are considered

maleficent are numerous,

95

MUDUVAR
This
is

and

all

require propitiation.

not very taxing-, as

a respectful attitude

seems
ones).

to suffice.

One

in

when passing their reputed haunts They are alluded to as Karapu (black particular is Nyamaru, who lives on
At
present

Nyamamallai, the jungles round which were said to be

badly

haunted.

they arc

flourishing

tea

estates, so

Nyamaru

has retired to the scrub at the top of

the mountain.

Certain caves are regarded as shrines,

where spear-heads, a trident or two. and copper coins are

placed, partly to

mark them
good
in
is

as holy places, and partly

as offerings to bring
fortune.

luck,

good

health, or

good

They occur

the most remote spots.

only important festival

visit

Thai Pongal, when

they may, must be
is

all

The who
It

the village, be they

who

fed.

occurs about the middle of January, and

feasting and rejoicing.

a time

of

The

tribe does not

employ

priests of other castes to

perform religious ceremonies.

witted, or
it

may be
If

eccentric,

Muduvars who are halfare recognised as Swamyars

or priests.
illness,

one desires to get rid of a headache or

is

the

Swamyar

told that he will get four annas

is

or so

if

the complaint

soon removed, but he

is

not

expected to perform miracles, or to make any active

demonstration over the matter.
their

time

in
in

talking to

the

sun and

brethren,

and

supplications to

Swamyars who spend moon as their mysterious and unknown

they
live a celibate life, live princi-

beings, are the usual sort, and,

if

they are greatly esteemed.

For those who

pally on milk, in addition to practicing the other virtue,

the greatest reverence

is felt.

Such an one occurs only

once or twice

in a century.

The dead
roof,

are buried lying down, face upwards, and

placed north and south.

The grave
put

has a

little
it.

thatched

about six feet by two,

over

stone.

MUDUVAR

96
is

weighing twenty or thirty pounds,

put at the head,

to

and

a similar stone at the feet.

These serve
is
is,

mark
man,

the spot

when

the roof perishes, or

burnt during the

for a

next grass hre.

j\idged sufficient

The depth
if

of the grave

the gravedigger,

standing on the
his waist,

bottom,

finds the level of the

ground up to

but, for a

woman,

it

must be up

to his armpits.

The

reason

is

that the surviving

women do

not like to think

that they will be very near the surface, but the

men
The

are brave, and

know that, if they lie north and nothing can harm them, and no evil approach.
till

south,

ghosts of those killed by accident or dying a violent

death, haunt the spot

the

memory

of the occurrence

fades from the minds of the survivors and of succeeding

generations.

These ghosts are not

propitiated, but the

haunted spots are avoided as much as possible.

The

Muduvars
that,
if

share with

many
by a
it

other jungle-folk the idea

tiger or leopard falls so as

any animal

killed

to lie north

and south,
will
it

will not

be eaten by the beast

of prey.

Nor

be re-visited, so that sitting over a

"kill" which has fallen north

and south,

in

the hopes of
is

getting a shot at the returning tiger or leopard,

useless proceeding.

Totemism does not

jungle tribes, the tiger
Fire
steel,
is
still

exist, but, in
is

common

with other

often alluded to as jackal.

often

made by means

of the

flint

and

though match-boxes are common enough.

is

Some
steel.

dry cotton (generally in a dirty condition)

the
flint,

placed along

the edge of which

is

struck with the

The spark generated

also
this

ignites the cotton,

and
but

is

carefully

nursed into flame in dead and dry grass.

The Muduvars
nowadays
log of a parti-

know how
is

to

make

fire

by
to.

friction,

very seldom resorted

A rotten

cular kind of tree has first to

be found, the inside of

97

MUDUVAR
Some
of the top of the

which

is in

an extremely dry and powdery condition, while

is
still fairly

the outside

hard.

topmost side of the recumbent log having been cut away

at a suitable place,

and most of the inside removed, a

bit

very hard and pointed

of wood,

is

rapidly rotated

against the inner shell of the log where the powdery

stuff is likely to ignite,

and

this

soon begins to smoke,

in the

the
the

fire fire

being then nursed

much

same way

as with

and steel. By the men, the languti and leg cloth of the Tamils A turban is also worn, and a cumbly or are worn. blanket is invariably carried, and put on when it rains.
flint

generated by the

Travancore Census Report, 1901, that males dress themselves like the Maravans of the low
[It is noted, in the

country.

huge turban

is

almost an invariable portion

of the toilette.

The

chief of the

Mudavars

is

known
is

as

Vakka, without whose consent the head-dress

be worn.]
I

not to

have seen a Muduvar with an umbrella.

trousers

Nowadays, the discarded coats of planters, and even and tattered riding-breeches are common, and a Muduvar has been seen wearing a blazer. The men wear ear-rings, supposed to be, and sometimes in reality,
silver or brass finger

of gold, with bits of glass of different colours in them,

and also

and toe

rings,
leg.

and some-

times a bangle on each arm or on one

The women

go

in

very largely for beads, strings of them adorning

their necks,

white and blue

being favourite colours.

toes,

Rings

for the ears, fingers

and

and sometimes many

glass bangles on the arms, and an anklet on each leg,

are the usual things, the pattern of the metal jewelry

being often the same as seen on the

women

of the plains.

The

cloth,

after

being brought round the waist,

and

tucked

in there, is carried

over the body, and two corners

are knotted on the right shoulder.

v-7

Unmarried

girls

wear

MUDUVAR
less

98

jewelry than the married women, and widows wear

till

no jewelry

they are remarried, when they can

in

no

way be distinguished from their sisters. Tattooing is Sometimes a stout thread is worn on not practiced. the arm, with a metal cylinder containing some charm
against illness or the evil eye, but only the wise
elders of the caste lay

men

or

much

store on, or have

knowledge

of these things.

The Muduvars
vators of the
soil,

believe that they were originally cultitheir surroundings

and

and tastes have

made them become hunters and trappers, since coming At the present day, they cut down a bit to the hills.
of secondary jungle or cheppukad, and, after burning
oft,
it

sow

ragi (millet), or,

hill-rice,

which

is

where the rainfall is sufficient, weeded and tended by the women,

After harvest there
not

the

men

contenting themselves by trying to keep out

is

the enemies to their crops.

much

to be done, except building a

traps,

new

village perhaps,
is

making
to them,

and shooting.

All they catch

game
ani-

though we should describe some of the

mals as vermin.
a blowpipe and
in

They catch
dart,

rats, squirrels, quail,

jungle

fowl, porcupines, mouse-deer,

and

fish.

many

small

They kill, with birds. The traps

is

use are varied, but there are three principal ones,

like a big

one of which looks

in the

bow.

It

fixed upright

ground as a spring

to close with a

snap a small
it

upright triangle of sharp-edged bamboo, to which

connected, and into which any luckless small

is

game may
fence.

have intruded
all

its

head,

induced to do so by finding
a

other roads
is

closed with

cunningly

made

Another

a bent sapling, from which a loop of twine

or fibre hangs on

what appears
itself

to be the ground, but

is

really a little platform

on which the jungle fowl treads,

andj immediately finds

caught by both

legs,

and

99
hanging
in mid-air.

MUDUVAR
is is

but of stouter build.

The third The loop

very

much

the same,
set in a
fretful

upright,

and

hedge constructed
porcupine
in

for the

purpose of keeping the

the path, passing along which the beast

flieg

unconsciously releases a pin, back

the

the sapling, and

in

porcupine

is

hung.

If

fouled

any way,

he

generally uses his teeth to advantage, and escapes.

The

Muduvars are

also adepts at catching

'

ibex

'

(wild goat),

which are driven towards a fence with nooses set in it at proper points, which cause the beasts to break their
necks.
cruives,

Fish are caught

in

very beautifully constructed

and also on the hook, while, on the larger rivers

below the plateau, the use of the night-line is understood. With the gun, sambar, ibex, barking deer, mungooses,
'
'

monkeys,

squirrels,

and martens are

killed.

Besides
his

beinsr a orood shot, the

Muduvar, when using

own

powder, takes no

risks.

The

stalk

is

continued until

game when

is

approached, sometimes to within a few yards,

a charge of slugs from the antiquated match-lock

has the same effect as the most up-to-date bullet from Mr. Bensley records how, on the most modern weapon.

one occasion, two English planters went out with two

Muduvars

after

'

bison.'

One

of the Muduvars, carrying

a rifle, tripped, and the weapon exploded, killing one of The two Muduvars immedithe planters on the spot.
ately took to their
heels.

The

other planter covered

to shoot

them with

his

rifle,

and threatened

them

if

they

did not return, which they at last did. the magisterial enquiry, and the
at

Mr. Bensley held

Muduvars were amazed

the

escaping capital punishment.

In their agricultural operations,

Muduvars

are

very happy-go-lucky.
injury to crops or

They frighten away demons,

off pigs,

have no scare-crows to avert

but they employ

many devices
T-7B

for

keeping

sambar, and barking

MUDUVAR
deer from their crops,
efficacious for long.

lOO

none of which appear

to

be

The implement par

excellence of

the

Muduvar

is

the bill-hook, from which he never parts

company, and with which he can do almost anything,

from building a

house

to

skinning a

rat,

or

from

hammering sheet-lead

into bullets to planting maize.

The bulk

of the tribe live on ragi or hill-rice, and

whatever vegetables they can grow, and whatever meat

they trap or shoot.

They esteem

the flesh of the black

monkey {Semnupithecus johni) above everything, and I have seen a Muduvar much pulled down lust after it.
by
illness seize
its

an expiring monkey, and suck the blood

from

jugular vein.

Muduvars
all

will not eat beef, dog,

jackals, or snakes, but will eat several

sorts of lizards,
fish,

and
pot.

rats,

'

ibex,

'

and

the deer tribe,

fowl,

and

other birds, except kites and vultures, are put into the

The

plateau Muduvars, and those on the eastern

slopes, will not eat pig in

any shape or form.

Those on

the western slopes are very keen on wild pig, and this
fact

causes them to be somewhat looked

I

down upon by
is

the others.

think this pork-eating habit

due to the

absence of sambar or
forests.

other deer in the heart of the

Muduvars are fond of alcohol in any shape or form. They take a liquor from a wild palm which grows on the western slopes, and, after allowing it to become Some members of the tribe, fermented, drink it freely. living in the vicinity of these palms, are more or less in
a state of intoxication during the whole time
season.
it

is

in

Their name
slope

for the

drink

is

tippily-kal,

and

the palm resembles

the

kittul

{Caryota urens).

The

Muduvars are acquainted with opium from the west coast, and some of them are slaves to the habit. The Muduvars do not admit that any other caste is good enough to eat, drink, or smoke with
western

lOI

MUDUVAR

them.

They

say that, once upon a time, they permitted

these privileges to Vellalans, but this fact induced so

many
it

visitors to arrive that they really could not afford

eat,

any more, so they

but
will

one now,
strangers.

give

and smoke with no uncooked food to passing

drink,

have never heard any proverb, song, or folk-tale of the Muduvars, and believe the story of their arrival on
I

They have a story, which more a statement of belief than anything else, that, when a certain bamboo below Pallivasal flowers, a son of the Maharaja of Travancore turns into a tiger or pulithe hills to be their stock tale.
is

manisan,

and devours people.

stories of

Men

often

turn

into

puli-manisan owing chiefly to witchcraft on the part of

others,

and

such happenings are often

to a

told.
is

The

nearest approach

proverb
''

have heard

Tingakilamei nalla tingalam, which sounds rather tame

and meaningless
well
"

in English,

On Monday

you can eat

the play on the words being quite

will

lost.

The Muduvars make a miniature tom-tom by stretching monkey skin over a firm frame of split bamboo or
ita,

on which the maker thereof

to his

strum by the hour

shy of

much

own

enjoyment.

In former days, the whole tribe were very

strangers,

and

it is

only within the last thirty years that

they have

become used to having dealings with outsiders. Old men still tell of the days when robbers from the Coimbatore side used to come up, burn the Muduvar villages, and carry off what cattle or fowls they could find. Even now, there are some of the men in whom this fear
seems to be
innate,

of strangers

and who have never

spoken to Europeans.
accentuated,
for,

In the

women

this feeling

is

when suddenly met

with, they

make

themselves scarce in the most surprising way, and find

MUDUVAR
and again men
not

102

cover as instinctively as a quail chick.

in the tribe

There are now

I

who

aspire to read, but

do

know how far any of them succeed. The Muduvars are becoming accustomed

to quite

wonderful things

the harnessing
through
their

of water

which geneand,

rates electricity to

work machinery, the mono-rail tram

country,
old

which now
wonderful of

runs
all,

most

the telephone.

An
"
I

man
the

described

how he would
tribe

raise

envy and wonder

in the hearts of his

by relating his experience.

am

first

of

my

caste to speak and hear over five miles," said he. with

evident delioht.
I

have alluded
;

to the
is

two

different types of counte-

nance

perhaps there

a third resulting from a mixture

first
is

of the other two.

The

distinctly aquiline-nosed

and thin-lipped, and to and

this type the

men generally

belong.

The second is flat-nosed,

unfavourably with the

wide-nostrilled,

and thick-lipped,
have never seen
Hills there
little is

this fairly represents the

women, who compare most

I

men

in face.

men
still

of the second type, but of an intermediate type they

are not

uncommon.
Mr,
D.

On

the

Cardamom
which very

may

exist a tribe of dwarfs, of

late
J.

known.

The

tion about them.

Munro had collected a little informaMr. A. W. Turner had the luck to come across one, who was caught eating part of a barking deer raw. Mr. Turner managed to do a little conversation with the man by signs, and afterwards he related the incident to Srirangam, a good old Muduvar shikari (sportsman), who listened thoughtfully, and then asked " Did you not shoot him ? " The question put a new
complexion on to the character of the usually peaceful

and timid Muduvar.

I

know

the

Muduvars

to be capable of real affection.

his little son,

Kanjan was very proud of

and used to make

I03
plans for
it

MUKA DORA

wounding an ibex, so that his boy might finish off, and thus become accustomed to shooting. In South Coimbatore, "honey-combs are collected
Irulas,

by

Muduvars, and Kadirs.

The

collection

is

dangerous occupation.

hill-man, with a torch in his

hand and a number of bamboo tubes suspended from his shoulders, descends by means of ropes or creepers to the
vicinity of the

comb.

The

sight of the torch drives

fill

away

the bees, and he proceeds to

the

bamboos with the

* comb, and then ascends to the top of the rock."

Mugi

(dumb).

An exogamous sept of Golla.

Madras a sub-division and

Muka. A sub-division of Konda Razu. Muka Dora. Muka is recorded, in the

Census Reports, 1891 and 190 1, as synonym of Konda Dora, and I am informed that the

Muka

Doras, in Vizagapatam, hold a high position, and

most of the chiefs among the Konda Doras are Muka Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am indebted Doras.
to the following note,

inclines to the opinion that the

Muka Doras
They
hill tribes,

form a caste distinct from the Konda Doras.

are traditionally regarded as one of the primitive

but their customs at the present day exhibit a

great deal of low-country influence.

their personal

They speak Telugu,

their titles are

names are pure Telugu, and

as well as Dora.

Anna and Ayya

Vantari Dora of

They recognize one

Padmapuram The Muka Doras are agriculturists and pushing petty They may be seen travelling about the country traders. with pack bullocks at the rice harvest season. They
as their head.
irrigate

their lands with

liquid

manure

in

manner

similar to the

Kunnuvans of the

Palni hills in the

Madura

country.

AgricuU

Ledger

Series, Calcutta,

No.

7,

1904.

MUKA DORA
They
are

104 divided
into

two
sun,

sections,

viz.,

Koravarious

vamsam, which
which reveres

reveres the
the
cobra,

and

Naga-vamsam,
or

and

have further

exogamous
{JMclia

septs or intiperulu, such as

vemu

mm

tree

Azadirachtd),
{Feroiiia

chikkudi

[Dolichos

Lablab),

velanga

elcpkantum),

kakara

[Momordica

Charantid).
Girls are married either before or after puberty.

menarikam system
should marry his
auspicious day,

is

in force,

according to which a

The man
an

maternal uncle's daughter.

On

some of the

elders of the future bridefor the

groom's family take a cock or goat, a new cloth

girl's

mother,

rice

and liquor

to the girl's house.

The
per-

presents are usually accepted, and the pasupu (turmeric)

ceremony,
formed.

practiced

by many Telugu

castes,

is

On

an appointed day, the bridegroom's party

Early next

repair to the house of the bride, and bring her in pro-

cession to the house of the bridegroom.

morning, the contracting couple enter a pandal (booth),

the two central pillars of which are
{^Eugenia Jamboland) and
relli

made

of the neredi

(Cassia Fistula) trees.

links their
little

The maternal uncle, who officiates,

together.

fingers

Their bodies are anointed

with castor-oil

mixed with turmeric

powder, and they bathe.

New

cloths are then given to

them by

their fathers-in-law.

Some

rice

is

poured over the

floor of the

house, and the

bride and bridegroom measure this three times.

The

ends of their cloths are tied together, and a procession

is

formed, which proceeds to the bank of a stream, where

the bride fetches tooth-cleaning sticks three times, and

gives them to the bridegroom,

who

repeats the process.

their teeth.

They then

sit

down

together,

and clean

After a bath in the stream, the ends of their clothes are

once more tied together, and the procession returns to

I05 the brideeroom's house.

MUKA DORA
bride cooks

The

some of the

rice which has already been measured with water brought

from the stream, and the pair partake thereof.

feast,

caste

with

much

drinking,

is

held on this and the two

following days.
in the

The newly-married
five days.

couple then proceed,

company

of an old man, to the bride's house, and

If

remain there from three to

she then goes to the

the girl

is

adult,

home

of her husband.
is

When
a room,

a girl reaches puberty, she

placed apart in

and

sits

within a

triangular enclosure

made
the

by means

of three arrows stuck in the ground, and con-

nected together by three rounds of thread.

roof a cradle, containing a stone,
day, a twig of the neredi tree
is
is

From

placed.

On

the last

plucked, planted on the

way

to the village stream,

it

and watered.

As she

passes
it

the spot, the girl pulls

to the stream, into

out of the ground, and takes

it.

which she throws

She then bathes

is

therein.

The dead
observed
tion
is

are, as a rule, burnt,

and death pollution

for three days,

during which the caste occupa-

not carried out.

On

the fourth day, a ceremony,

is

called

pasupu muttukovadam, or touching turmeric,

performed.

The

relations of the deceased repair to the

spot where the corpse

was

burnt, collect the ashes,

and

sprinkle cow-dung, neredi and tamarind water over the

spot.

Some

food

is

cooked,

and

three handfuls are

thrown to the crows.

ablution.

They then perform

a ceremonial

The ceremony corresponds

to the chinnarozu,
castes.

or

little

day ceremony, of the low-country

The

more well-to-do Muka Doras perform the peddarozu, or big day ceremony, on the twelfth day, or later on. The
relations of the deceased then plant a plantain

on the

spot where he was burnt, and throw turmeric, castor-oil,

and money according to their means.

The

coins are

MUKKARA
collected,

06
purchase
of materials for

and used

for the

feast.

Mukkara
sept of BOya.

(nose or ear ornament).

An exogamous

Mukkuvans are the sea fishermen of the Malabar coast, who are described as follows " The Mucua, or in the plural Mucuar, by Buchanan. are a tribe who live near the sea-coast of Malayala, to
"'*

Mukkuvan.

The

the inland parts of which they seldom go, and beyond

its

limits

any v/ay they rarely venture.

is

Their proper
but they serve

business

that of fishermen, as palanquin-bearers for

;

persons of low birth, or of no caste

also as boatmen.
will

The utmost
is

distance to which they

venture on a voyage

to

Mangalore.
In

In

some

places they cultivate the

parts

cocoanut.

the

southern

of the

province

most of them

have

become

Mussulmans, but continue to follow their usual occupaThese are held in the utmost contempt by those tions.
of the north,

who have given up

all

communication with
to be Sudras,

the apostates.

Those here do not pretend

and readily acknowledge the superior dignity of the They have hereditary chiefs called Arayan, who Tiars.
settle disputes,

and, with the assistance of a council,

punish by

fine or

excommunication those who transgress

the rules of the caste.

goddess Bhadra-Kali,
wood, which
is

The deity of the caste who is represented by a

is

is

the

log of

placed in a hut that

called a temple.

Four times a year the Mucuas assemble, sacrifice a cock, and make offerings of fruit to the log of wood.

One

of the caste acts as priest (pujari).

They

are not

admitted to enter within the precincts of any of the

temples of the great gods

who

are worshipped by the

Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 1S07.

lo;

MUKKUVAN

Brahmans
It is

but they sometimes stand at a distance, and

send their offerings by more pure hands."

recorded by Captain Hamilton* that he saw "at
a square Stake of
it,

many Muchwa Houses,

a few Notches cut about

Wood, with
above,

and that Stake drove into the

it

Ground, about two Foot of

that
is

being

left

and

covered with Cadjans or Cocoanut Tree Leaves,

a

Temple and a God to that Family." In the Gazetteer of Malabar (1908), the following account of the Mukkuvans is given. "A caste, which according to a probably erroneous tradition came originally from Ceylon, is that of the Mukkuvans, a caste of fishermen following marumakkatayam (inheriand
is

tance

through the

female

line)

in

the

north,
in

and
the

makkattayam (inheritance from

south.

father to son)

Their traditional occupations also include chunam (lime) making, and manchal-bearing (a manchal is a

kind of

hammock

slung on a pole, and carried by four

In the extreme south of the
t

men, two at each end).

district

they are called Arayans,

a term elsewhere

used as a title of their

there
are

headmen.

some fishermen,

North of Cannanore known as Mugavars or

the

Mugayans,

who

are

presumably

same

as

the

Mugayars of South Canara. Another account is that the Mugayans are properly river-fishers, and the Mukkuvans sea-fishers but the distinction does not seem to hold good in fact. The Mukkuvans rank below the
;

Tiyans and the artisan classes

the community that
risen to

and

it

is

creditable to

some

of

its

members have
has

recently

occupy such

offices as that of

Sub-magistrate
supplied

and
t

Sub-registrar.

The

caste

many

A New
I

Account of the East Indies, 1744.

that the

am informed

Mukkuvans claim

to

be a caste distinct from

the Arayans.

MUKKUVAN
converts to the ranks of

lo8

Muhammadanism.

In North

Malabar the Mukkuvans are divided

into four exoga-

mous

illams,

called Ponillam (pon, gold),

Chembillam
and are

(chembu, copper),

Karillam, and

Kachillam,

hence called Nalillakkar, or people of the four illams

while the South Malabar

Mukkuvans and Arayans have

and are therefore called

only the three latter illams,

Munillakkar, or people of the three illams.

also a section of the caste called Kavuthiyans,

There

is

who

act as

barbers to the others, and are sometimes called Pani-

magans (work-children).

The

Nalillakkar are regarded

as superior to the Munillakkar

and the Kavuthiyans,

and exact various signs of respect from them. The Kavuthiyans, like other barber castes, have special
functions to perform in of ceremonial pollution
that sea-water
is
;

connection with

the removal

and

it

is

interesting to note

used in the
caste

ritual sprinklings for this

purpose.

The

old

organisation seems

to have to

persisted to the present day

among

the

Mukkuvans

an

extent which can be paralleled amongst few other castes.

They have assemblies (rajiams)

or

of elders called Kadavans,

Kadakkodis,

presided over

by

presidents

called

Arayans or Kama vans, who settle questions of caste The etiquette, and also constitute a divorce court. like that of the Kadavans, is position of the Arayans,
hereditary.
It
is

said to have been conferred

by the
a stick,

different Rajas in their respective territories, with certain

insignia, a painted cadjan

(palm

leaf) umbrella,

and a red

silk sash.

The Arayans

are also entitled to

the heads of porpoises captured in their jurisdictions,

and

to presents of tobacco
is

and pan supari when a

Their consent
is

girl

attains puberty or

married.

neces-

sary to

all

regular marriages.

The Mukkuvans have

;

their oracles or seers

called Ayittans or Attans

and,

I09

MUKKUVAN
from his

when an Arayan

dies, these select his successor

Anandravans, while under the influence of the divine afflatus, and also choose from among the younger members of the

Kadavan
is

families priests called

Manakkans

or Banakkans, to perform puja in their temples.

*'

Fishing

the hereditary occupation of the

Mukku-

Their boats, made of aini {Artoca^'piis hirsuta) or manofo wood, and fitted with a mat sail, cost from Rs. 200 to Rs. 500, and carry a crew of 5 or 8 men according
vans.
to size.

Their nets are of

fine

all

shapes and
for

sizes,

ranging

from a

net with a f"

mesh

sardines and such

small fry to a stout valiya sravuvala or shark net with a

J" or 7"

mesh
is

and

for a big

Badagara boat a complete

Rs.
1,000.

equipment
generally
for nets

said

to

cost

The

nets are

made

of fibre,
finest

cotton thread being used only

Salt
is

with the

mesh.

not usually carried

decompose so rapidly in the tropical sun that the usual fishing grounds are comparabut boats sometimes venture tively close to the shore
in the boats,

and the

fish

out ten,

fifteen,

or even twenty miles.

Shoals of the

migratory sardine, which are pursued

sharks, kora,
fishes great
tities

by predaceous
harvest of

and

cat-fish,

yield the richest

and small to
pomfret,

the Mukkuvan.

Huge quanseir,

of mackerel or aila are also caught, and

white
are

and black

prawns,

whiting,
is

and

soles

common.

The

arrival of the boats

the great event of

the day in a fishing village.

Willing hands help to drag

them up the beach, and an eager crowd gathers round each boat, discussing the catch and haggling over the price. The pile of fish soon melts away, and a string of
coolies,

each with a basket of

fish

on

his head, starts off

at a sling trot into

the interior,

and soon distributes the

far as the

catch over a large area.

fish

Relays of runners convey fresh

from Badagara and Tellicherry even as

MUKKUVAN
Wynaad.
All that
is left

10
is

unsold

taken from the boats

to the yards to be cured

under the supervision of the Salt

Department with Tuticorin salt supplied at the rate of The fisherman is sometimes also lo annas per maund.
the curer, but usually the two are distinct, and the former

disposes of the fish to the latter 'on fixed terms to a

fixed customer,'

and 'looks to him

fish

for

support during

the slack season,

salt

the rainy and stormy south-west

is

mon-

conveyed by coasting steamers The soon.' to Ceylon, and by the Madras Railway to Coimbatore,
Salem, and other places.
fish,

Sardines are the most popular

and are known as kudumbam pulartti, or the family In a good year, 200 sardines can be had for blessing.
a single pie.

Sun-dried, they form valuable manure for

the coffee planter and the cocoanut grower, and are exported to Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and occasionally to

China and Japan

ports.

and, boiled with a

little

water, they yield quantities of

fish oil for

is

export to Europe

and Indian
ready
sale,

Salted shark

esteemed a delicacy,

particularly for a nursing

woman. Sharks' fins find a and are exported to China by way of Bombay.
or sounds of kora and cat-fishes are dried,

The maws

and shipped to China and Europe for the preparation of It will be interesting to watch the effect of isinolass."*
the recently instituted Fishery Bureau in developing the
fishing industry
India.

and system of fish-curing

side

in

Southern

Mukkuvans work
at the fishing

by side with Mappillas both

in the

grounds and

curing yards, and the

said that, in former

two

classes will eat together.

It is

times, Mappillas

were allowed to contract alliances with

that

Mukkuva women, and

West Coast,
Thurston, Madras

male children born as a

For further details concerning the fisheries and fish-curing operations of the
see

Museum

Bull. Ill, 2, 1900.

Ill
result thereof
pilla

MUKKUVAN
Madras Census
is

on Friday were handed over to the MapIt is

community.
1891, that
this caste.

recorded, in the

Report,

"conversion to

Islam

common
the

among

The

converts are called Puislam or

All Puislams follow

Putiya Islam* (new

Islam).

occupation of fishing.
is

In the northernmost taluks there

a rule that

Mukkuva

females during their periods

cannot remain

in the house,

but must occupy the house of

a Mappilla, which shows that the two castes live on very

close terms."

The

fishermen at Tanur are for the most

part Puislamites, and will not

go out
I

fishing

on Fridays.

From
years,

a recent note (190S),

gather that the

Mukkulate

vas and Puislams of

Tanur have been prospering of

in

and would appear to be going

watch-chains, shoes of the kind

for a display
in

of their prosperity
shirts,

by moving about arrayed

showy

known

as Arabi

cherippu, etc.

This sort of ostentation has evidently not been appreciated by the Moplahs, who, it is said, sent

round the
kerosene
into the

Mukkuva

village,

known
sixty,

as Mukkadi,

some

Cherumas, numbering over

tins that

to notify

by beat of

any Mukkuva or Puislam who went

Moplah bazaar wearing a shirt or coat or shoes would go in peril of his life. Some days after this alleged notification, two Mukkuvas and a Mukkuva

woman complained

to the Tirur

Sub- Magistrate that

they had been waylaid by several Moplahs on the public road in the Tanur bazaar, and had been severely beaten,
the accused also robbing the

woman

of
I

some gold ornainformed that

Puis-

ments which were on her person.

am

Tanur

is

the only place where this feeling exists.

lams and

Mappillas settle

down together

peacefully

enough elsewhere.
* Spelt Pusler in

a.

recent educational report.

MUKKUVAN

112

There are two titles in vogue among the Mukkuvans, Of these, the former is the viz., Arayan and Marakkan. title of the headmen and members of their families, and the latter a title of ordinary members of the community.

The caste deity is said Mukkuvans have temples

is

to

be

Bhadrakali,

and

the

of their own, whereat worship

or,
it

performed by Yogi Gurukkals,

families

is

said,

by the
initiated

Karanavans of certain by a Yogi Gurukkal.

who have been

called

At Tellicherry there are two headmen,

Arayan-

mar, belonging to the Kachillam and Ponillam sections.

In addition to the headmen, there are caste servants
called

Manakkan. It is stated, in the Manual of the South Canara district, that " there is an hereditary headman of the caste called the Ayathen, who settles For trifling faults the ordinary punishment is disputes.
to direct the culprit to supply so

be burnt before the caste

oracles

much demon." The

oil

for lights to

Velichapads, or

who become

possessed by the spirit of the deity

called Ayathen,

among the Mukkuvans, are

which

is

prob-

ably an abbreviation of Ayuthathan, meaning a sword or

weapon-bearer, as the oracle, when under the influence

of the deity, carries a sword or knife.

As among

other Malayalam castes,

Mukkuva

girls

must go through a ceremony before they attain puberty. This is called pandal kizhikkal, and corresponds to the
tali-kettu

kalyanam of the other

is

castes.

The

consent of

the Arayan

necessary for the performance of this cerenight previous thereto, the girl
oil.

mony.

On the
is

is

smeared

with turmeric paste and

Early on the following

is

morning, she

brought to the pandal (booth), which

erected in front of the house, and supported by four

bamboo

posts.

She

is

bathed by having water poured

After the

over her by girls of septs other than her own.

113
bath,

MUKKUVAN

she stands at the entrance to the house, and a

Kavuthiyachi (barber woman) sprinkles sea-water over

her with a tuft of grass i^Cynodon Dactylon).

cloth

is

thrown over
barber

her,

and she

is

led into the house.

The
rice,

woman

receives as her fee a cocoanut,

some
is

and condiments.
the
girl's

tali

(marriage badge)

tied
sister

on
if

neck by her prospective husband's

a husband has been selected for her, or by a a sept other than her own.

woman

of

The

girl

must

fast until

the

conclusion of the ceremony, and should remain indoors

for

seven days afterwards.

she receives
per family.

At the time of ceremony, presents of money at the rate of two vellis The Arayan receives two vellis, a bundle of
and tobacco.

betel leaves, areca nuts,

Girls are married after puberty according to one of

two forms of
and

rite,

called kodi-udukkal (tying the cloth)

The former is resorted to by the more prosperous members of the community, and lasts over
vittil-kudal.

two days.

On

the

first

day, the bridegroom goes to the

home

of the bride, accompanied by his relations and

friends,

and sweets, betel leaves and areca

nuts, etc., are

given to them.
return later
procession.
in

They then take

their

departure, and

the day, accompanied by musicians, in

At the entrance to the bride's house they stand while someone calls out the names of the eleven Arayans of the caste, who, if they are present, come Betel leaves and forward without a body-cloth or coat. areca nuts are presented to the Arayans or their representatives, and afterwards to the Rajyakkar, or chief

men

The bridegroom then goes inside, conducted by two men belonging to the septs of the The bridecontracting parties, to the bride's room. groom sits down to a meal with nine or eleven young men in a line, or in the same room. On the second day,
of the village.
v-8

MUKKUVAN
the bride
is

114

brought to the pandal.

Two

persons are

selected as representatives of the bridegroom and bride,

and the representative of the former gives thirty-nine

vellis to the

representative of the
is

latter.

Some

sweet-

ened water

given to the bridegroom's relations.

woman who
udukkal
bride,
rite

has been married according to the kodities

new
her

cloth
if

round the waist of the

is

after asking

she

willing to

marry the

bridegroom, and obtaining the consent of those assem-

Sometimes a necklace, composed of twenty-one At night, the gold coins, is also tied on the bride's neck.
bled.

bridal couple take their departure for the

home
is

of the

bridegroom.

In South Canara, the ceremonial

spread

over three days, and varies from the above

points of detail.

in

some

The bridegroom goes

in procession to

the bride's house, accompanied by a Sangayi or

(best or third

Munan
that

man) belonging to a sept other than

of the bridal couple.

The

bride

is

seated in a room,

with a lamp and a tray containing betel leaves, areca nuts,

and

flowers.

The Sangayi
is tied,

takes a female cloth In which

it

some money
room.

and throws

on a rope within the

On

the third day, the bride puts on this cloth,

and, seated within the pandal, receives presents.

The

vittil-kudal

marriage

rite

Is

completed

in

single day.

The bridegroom comes

to the

home

of the

bride, and goes into her room, conducted thither by two

men belonging to the septs of the contracting The newly-married couple may not leave the
house
until the

couple.
bride's

seventh day after the marriage ceremony,

is

and the wife

house.

not obliged to live at

her husband's

There
rukkal,

is

yet another form of alliance called vechchiis

which

an informal union with the consent of

It
is

the parents and the Arayans.

recorded, in the

115

MUKKUVAN
Mukkuvas
taken
to

Gazetteer of

Malabar, that " amongst

obtains, but for this

the
is

vidaram marriage
performed.

no ceremony

The vidaram

wife

is

not

her

husband's house, and her family pay no stridhanam.

vidaram marriage can at any time be completed, as it were, by the performance of the kalyanam ceremonies.

Even if this be not done, however, a child by a vidaram wife has a claim to inherit to his father in South
Malabar,
if

the latter recognises him by paying to the

mother
called

directly after her delivery a fee of three

fanams

mukkapanam.
that,
if

curious custom

is

that

which

prescribes

a girl

be married

after

attaining

puberty, she must remain for a period in the status of a

which may subsequently be raised by the performance of the regular kalyanam."

vidaram
wife,

Divorce

is

easily effected

by payment of a

fine,

the

money being divided between the husband case may be, the temple, the Arayans, and

or wife as the
charity.

pregnant

woman

has to go through a ceremony

in

called puli or ney-kudi

ripe cocoanut,

the

fifth

or seventh month.

A
and and

which has
fire.

lost its water, is selected,

is

heated over a
five

Oil

then expressed from

the tongue and

it,

or seven

the pregnant

women smear woman with it.

abdomen of
lets
is

A barber woman is present

The husband
his hair

throughout the ceremony.

grow

until his wife has

been delivered, and

shaved on

the third day after the birth of the child.

At the place
is

where he
pieces by
father

sits for

the operation, a cocoanut, betel leaves

and areca nuts are placed.

The cocoanut

broken

in

some one belonging to the same sept as the of the child. Pollution is got rid of on this day

by a barber

woman

sprinkling water at the houses of the

Mukkuvans.
v-8b

A barber

should also sprinkle water at the

temple on the same day.

MUKKUVAN
The dead
are, as

Ii6

rule,

buried.

Soon

after death

has taken place, the

widow

of the deceased purchases

twenty-eight cubits of white cloth.

into the

gold ring
to the

is

put

hand of the corpse, and given

bathed

widow or

her relations, to be returned to the relations of the dead

man.

The corpse

is

in fresh water, decorated,

and placed on a

bier.

The widow then

approaches, and,
off,

with a cloth over her head, cuts her

it

tali

and places

Sometimes the tali is cut off by a barber woman, if the widow has been married In some places, the according to the kodi-udukkal rite.
by the side of the corpse.
bier
it

is

kept

in the
it

custody of the barber,

who

brings

whenever

is

required.

In this case, the articles

e.g.,

requisite for decorating the corpse,

flowers, are

sandal paste and

brought by the barber, and given to the son

of the deceased.

Some

four or five

women
for

belonging to

the

Kadavar
is

families are

engaged

mourning.

The

where a barber tears a piece of cloth from the winding-sheet, and gives
corpse
carried to the burial-ground,
it

to the son.

The

bearers anoint themselves, bathe in

the sea, and, with wet cloths, go three times round the
corpse,
nose.

and put a

bit

of gold, flowers, and

rice,

in its

The
is

relations then

pour water over the corpse,

which

lowered into the grave.

son, bathe in the sea,

Once more the

bearers,

and the

and go three times round

down, so that

the grave.

The

son carries a pot of water, and, at the

it

end of the third round, throws

broken.

it

is

On

their return

home, the son and bearers are

met by a barber woman, who sprinkles them with rice and water. Death pollution is observed for seven days,
during which the son abstains from
salt

and tamarind.
those

barber

woman

sprinkles

water over

under

pollution.

On

the eighth, or sometimes the fourteenth

day, the final death

ceremony

is

performed.

Nine or

117

mundAla
it.

eleven boys bathe in the sea, and offer food near

They then come

to the house of the deceased, and, with

lamps on their heads, go round seven or nine small heaps

of raw rice or paddy (unhusked
rice),

and place the

is

lamps on the heaps.

The

eldest son

expected to

abstain from shaving his head for six months or a year.

At the end
day.

of this time, he
hair, plantains,
is

is

shaved on an auspicious
rice,

The
pot,

and

are placed in a small

sea.

new

which

thrown into the

After a bath,

rice is

spread on the floor of the house so as to resemble

the figure of a man, over

which a green cloth

is is

thrown.
placed.

At one end of
lights are
put,

the figure, a light in a measure

rice or

Seven or nine heaps of

throwing
rice at

paddy are made, on which

and the son goes three times round, the north, south, east, and west corners.
clqse.

This brings the ceremonial to a

Mulaka {Solanum x antho carpunt). A

The
fruit

sept of Balija.

of this plant

is

tied to the big toe of

Brahman

corpses.

Muli.

Recorded,

in

the

Madras Census Report,

in

as a class of blacksmiths 1 90 1,
cutters in Vizagapatam.
It
is

Ganjam, and stone-

said to be a sub-division

of Lohara.

Muli also occurs as an occupational sub-

division of Savara.

Muli Kurava. A name for Kuravas in Travancore. Mullangi (radish). An exogamous sept of Komati.

MuUu

(thorn).

gotra

of

Kurni.

Mullu also

occurs as a sub-division of Kurumba.

Multani. A
Multan
found
in

territorial

name, meaning a native of

are
described,
in

the

Punjab.

They
1901,

the

Mysore Census Report,

in the large

as

immigrant traders,

towns, whose business consists chiefly

of banking and money-lending.

Mundala.A

sub-division of Holeya.

MUNDAPOTHO
name

Il8

MundapOtho. Mundapotho
bury)
is

(mundo, head

potho,

the

of a class of mendicants

who wander

about Ganjam. and frequent the streets of Jagannath

(Puri).

They

try to arouse the

burying their head in

rest of the body.

sympathy of pilgrims by the sand or dust, and exposing the

generally speak Telugu.
skirt).

They

Mungaru
Kapu.

(woman's
Ravulo.

An

exogamous sept of

Muni. 6>^
of

Munillakkar

(people of the three illams).

is

A section
Kurnool

Mukkuvans, which

divided into three illams.

Munnuti Gumpu.
Manual, as "a mixed

Recorded,

in

the

caste,

comprising the illegitimate

descendants of Balijas, and the male children of dancinggirls."

It is

not a caste name, but an insulting

name for

those of mixed origin.

Munnuttan (men of the three

at times of census, as a

hundred).

Recorded,

synonym

of Velan, and sub-caste

of Panan,
five

among

the latter of

whom
of

Anjuttan (men of

hundred) also occurs.

as a

In the Gazetteer of Malabar,

class

Munnuttan appears
is

closely akin to the Velans.

Mannans, who are In Travancore, Munnutilkar

Vellalas,

name

for

Kumbakonam

who have

settled

there.

Muppan. Muppan
the

has been defined as "an elder,

headman of a class or business, one who presides over ploughmen and shepherds, etc. The word literally means an elder mukkiradu, to grow old, and muppu, seniority." At recent times of census, Muppan has been
:

returned as a

title

by many

classes,

which include Alavan,

in

Ambalakaran, Kudumi, Pallan, Paraiyan and Tandan

Travancore, Senaikkudaiyan, Saliyan, Shanan, Sudarman

and Valaiyan.
of

It

has further been returned as a division

in

Konkana Sudras

Travancore.

119

MUSSAD

During my wanderings in the Malabar Wynad, I came across a gang of coolies, working on a planter's estate, who called themselves Muppans. They were interesting owing to the frequent occurrence among them of a very simple type of finger-print impression
(arches).

A sub-division of Nayar. Murikinadu. Murikinadu or Murikinati

Muppil
torial
(chief).

is

terri-

name, which occurs as a division of Telugu Brahe.g.,

mans, and of various Telugu classes,

Kamsala, Mala,

Mangala, Razu, and Tsakala.

Muriya. A
in

small class in Ganjam,

of fried

who are engaged

(muri) and in

making a preparation

rice

cultivation.

Muru BalayanOru
division of Kappiliyan.

(three-bangle people).

sub-

Musaliar.- An

occupational

term,

denoting

Muhammadan
Tamil country.

priest,

returned at times of census in the

Musari. A

division

of

Malayalam

Kammalans,

whose occupation is that of brass and copper smiths. The equivalent Musarlu occurs among the Telugu
Kamsalas.

Mushika

(rat).

A gotra

of Nagaralu.

The

rat

is

the vehicle of the Elephant God, Vignesvara or Ganesa.

Mushtiga. An exogamous
may
It

sept of the Gollas,

who

not use the mushtiga tree [Stiychnos Nux-vomica).

also occurs as a

synonym

of Jetti.

Mushti

Golla.

class of mendicants, usually of

mixed extraction.

Mushti means alms.

the following note on the Mussads
I

Mussad.
or

For

Muttatus of Travancore,

am

indebted

to

Mr.

N. Subramani Aiyar.

They

are

known

as Muttatus or
(or

Mussatus

in

Travancore and Cochin, and Potuvals


MUSSAD
Poduvals)
or
1

20
in

Akapotuvals
elder,

North Malabar.
is

The

word Muttatu means

indicate a

and
is

generally taken to

community, which

higher than the Ambala-

vasi castes, as Ilayatu (or Elayad), or younger, denotes

a sub-caste slightly lower than the Brahmans.

records, the

In early
identical

word Mupputayor, which has an

meaning,
i.e.,

is

met

with.

Potuval means a

common
in the

person,

the representative of a committee, and a Muttatu's

right to this

name
and
is

is

from the

fact that,

absence

of the

Nambutiri managers of a temple, he becomes

invested with authority to exercise
all

their agent,

their functions.

The work

of an Akapotuval always lies

within the inner wall of the shrine, while that of the

Purapotuval or Potuval proper

lies outside.

The
titles,

caste-

men themselves
Brahman.
as

prefer the

name

Sivadvija or Saivite

few families possess special

such

Nambi and Nambiyar. Their women are generally known as Manayammamar, mana meaning the house of a Brahman. There are no divisions or septs among the
Muttatus.

The

origin of the Muttatus, and their place in

Malabar

society, are questions

has been of late

Sanskrit
to

on which a good deal of discussion In the Jatinirnaya, an old expended.

the
it

work

on

castes
said

of

Kerala
the
four

attributed

Sankaracharya,

is

that

kinds of

Ambalavasis,

Tantri,

Bharatabhattaraka, Agrima, and

in

Slaghyavakku, are
those

Brahmans degraded

the Krita,

Treta, Dvapara, and Kali ages, respectively, and that

who were

so degraded in the Dvapara

Yuga
is

the Agrimas or Muttatus

and

whose occupation

to

cleanse the stone steps of shrines

are
as

found

in large

numbers in Kerala. According to Kerala Mahatmya, another Sanskrit work on Malabar history and customs,
these

Muttatus

are

also

known

Sivadvijas,

or

121

MUSSAD

Brahmans dedicated
a lower position
in

to the worship of Siva, occupying Malabar society than that of the

Brahmans.

One of them,

disguised as a Nambutiri, mar-

became known before the marriage was consummated, and the pair were degraded, and allotted a separate place in
society.

ried a Nambutiri's daughter, but his real status

This tradition

is

not necessary to account for

all

the present position of the Muttatus in Kerala, as,

over India, worship of fixed images was viewed with

disfavour even in the days of

Manu.

Worship

in Saivite

temples was not sought by Brahmans, and was even considered as despiritualising on account of the divine
displeasure which

may be expected
w^as
for

as

the result
that

of

misfeasance.

It

a similar

reason

the

Nambiyans of even Vaishnavite temples on the east coast became degraded in society. The Illayatus and Muttatus have been long known in Malabar as Nyunas or castes slightly lower than the Brahmans, and Avantaras or castes intermediate between Brahmans and Ambalavasis. As, in subsequent days, the Brahmans
themselves undertook with impunity the priestly profession in

Hindu
viz.,

temples, Saivite as well as Vaishnavite,

the

Muttatus had to be content with a more lowly

that of guarding the temples

occupation,

and images.

According

to

Suchindra Mahatmyam, eleven Brahmans

were ordered by Parasu

Rama to

partake of the remnants

of the food offered to Siva,

in

and to bear the Saivite image

;

procession round the shrine on occasions of festivals and, according to the Vaikam Sthalapuranam, three
families of Sivadvijas

were brought over by the same

regard to the antiquity or

sage from eastern districts for service at that temple.

Whatever may be
authenticity of

said in

many

of these Sthalapuranams, corrobo-

rative evidence of the Brahmanical origin of the Muttatus

MUSSAD
may be amply found
fresh

122
in their

manners and customs.

is

colony of Sivadvijas
at

believed

to
in

have

been

invited to settle

Tiruvanchikkulam

Cranganore

from Chidambaram by one of the Perumals of Kerala,

in

connection with the establishment of Saivite temples

They have preserved their original occupation faithfully enough down to the present day. The houses of Muttatus arc known as illams and mattams, the former being the name of all Nambutiri They are generally built beside some wellhouses. known shrine, with which the inmates are professionally The dress of both men and women resembles, connected.
there.

Nambutiri Brahmans, the injunction to cover the whole of the body when they go out of doors being
that of the

applicable also to the

Manayammamar.

Girls before

marriage wear a ring and kuzal on the neck, and, on

festive occasions, a
ears,

palakka ring.

The

chuttu in the
after

and pozhutu

tali

on the neck are worn only

maidens.

marriage, the latter

being the symbol which distinguishes

married

women from widows and

Widows
like

are

prohibited from wearing any ornament except the chuttu.

In

food and drink the

Muttatus

are

quite

the

Nambutiris.

The Muttatus

are the custodians of the images, which

they take in procession, and wash the stone steps leading

to the inner sanctuary.

They

live

by the naivedya or
that one

cooked food offering which they receive from the temple,

and various other emoluments.

this food,

It

may be noted

of the causes of their degradation was the partaking of

which Brahmans took care not to do.

in Sanskrit,

The

Muttatus are generally well-read

astrology, medicine,

and study
govern-

and sorcery.

The
or

social

ment of the Muttatus

rests wholly with the Nambutiris,

who

enforce

the

smartavicharam

enquiry

into

123

MUSSAD

suspected case of adultery, as in the case of a Nambutiri

woman.
Muttatus,

When
if

Nambutiri priests

are

not

available,

learned in the Vedas,

may be employed,

but

punyaham, or purification done by a Nambijtiri.

after pollution,

can only be

Like the Nambutiris, the Muttatus

the rule that only the eldest male

strictly
in

observe
a family

member

can

marry.

The

rest

form casual

connections with

women
like

of most of the Ambalavasi classes.

They

are,

the

Brahmans, divided into exogamous septs or

gotras.

A girl is married before or after puberty.

not

Polyis

gamy

is

uncommon, though the number

four.

of wives

never more than

Widows do

not

remarry.

In

their marriage ceremonies, the

Muttatus resemble the

Nambutiris, with some minor points of difference.

They

follow two sutras, those of Asvalayana and Baudhayana,

Rig Veda and the latter The former omit a number of details, of the Yajur Veda. such as the panchamehani and dasamehani, which are observed by the latter. According to a territorial distinction, Mussad girls of North Malabar cannot become the daughters-in-law of South Malabar families, but girls of South Malabar can become the daughters-in-law of North Malabar families.
the former being

members

of the

The Muttatus observe all the religious rites of the The rule is that the eldest son should be named after the paternal grandfather, the second after
Nambutiris.
the maternal grandfather, and the third after that of the
father.

The upanayana ceremony

is

celebrated between

the ages of seven and eleven, and the Gayatri

hymn may

only be repeated ten times thrice daily.

rites,

In the funeral

the help of the

Maran

called Chitikan (a corruption

is

of Chaitika,
funeral pyre)

meaning one who

is

connected with the

sought.

Pollution lasts only ten days.

MUSSAD
The Muttatus
vasi group,

124
stand above
all

sections of the

Ambala-

and below every recognised section of the Brahman and Kshatriya communities, with whom they

do not hold commensal relations in any part of Kerala. They arc thus on a par with the Illayatus, but the latter
have their own hierarchy, and lead a social life almost independent of the Brahmans. The Muttatus seek their
help and advice in
all

important matters.

The Muttatus
leaf-plates

are, however, privileged to take their food within the

nalampalam (tem.ple courts), and the afterwards removed by temple servants.

vasis

are

The Ambala-

do not possess a right of this kind. At Suchindram, the Narnbutiri by whom the chief image is served is not
privileged to give prasada (remains of offerings) to any

worshipper, this privilege being confined to the Muttatus

engaged

to serve the

minor

deities of the shrine.

The

washing of the stone steps leading to the inner sanctuary, the mandapa, kitchen, feeding rooms, and bali stones,
both inside and outside the shrine, are done by Muttatus
at

temples with which they are connected.

All

Ambala-

vasis freely receive food

It
1

from Muttatus.

is

further noted, in the Cochin

" there
is

Census Report,
in

90 1,

that

pithy saying
to

Malayalam,

according to

which the Muthads are

be regarded as

the highest of Ambalavasis, and the Elayads as the

lowest of Brahmans.

Considerable difference of opinion

exists as to the exact social status of

Muthads.

For,

while some hold that they are to be regarded as degraded

Brahmans, others maintain that they are only the highest

class of Ambalavasis.

In the opinion, however, of the

most learned Vydikan who was consulted on the subject,

Muthads are to be classed as degraded Brahmans. They are supposed to have suffered social degradation
the

by their

having

tattooed

their

bodies

with

figures


125

MUSSAD

representing the weapons of the god Siva, and partaking

of the offerings

made

to that god."

A
are

correspondent,

who

has

made enquiry

into caste

questions in Malabar, writes to

several

me

as follows.
e.g.,

There
Mussu,

ways of spelling the name,

Mussad, and Muttatu.

In practice,

Some
I
I

people tried to discri-

minate between these, but

distinctions.

could not work out any

think, all the classes noted

indifferently,

below are called by either name

and most
:

commonly Mussad.
(i) {a)

There are several

classes, viz.

Brahman or

quasi- Brahman.

Ashtavaidyanmar, or eight physicians, are eight

families of hereditary physicians.

They

are called Jati-

matrakaras (barely caste people), and

they may, as

it is

supposed that
blood.
called

they are Nambudiris slightly degraded by the necessity

surgeons, be under of shedding
are called Mussad, but one at least
is

Most of them Nambi.

(b)

Urili Parisha Mussad, or assembly in the village

Mussad, who are said to be degraded because they accepted gifts of land from Parasu Rama, and agreed to
take on themselves the sin he had contracted by slaying
the Kshetriyas.
or Saptagrastan.
(2)
{c)

This

class, as

a whole,

is

called Sapta

Ambalavasi.

Mussad or Muttatu,

They

appear

to

be

identical with the Agapothuvals, or inside Pothuvals, as

distinguished from the Pura, or outside

Pothuvals,

in

North Malabar.
of a Sivadvija

They

are said to be the descendants

girl.

man and pure Brahman

which
is

According

to another account, they lost caste because they ate rice

offered to Siva,

prohibited by one of the ana-

charams, or rules of conduct peculiar to Kerala.

They

MUSU KAMMA
perform various duties

126
in temples,

and escort the

idol

when
across

it is

carried in procession on an arrangement called

is

tadambu, which
it,

like

an inverted shield with a shelf

idol is placed.

on which the

They wear

the

punul, or sacred thread.

[d)

Karuga

Micssad.

So

called from the

is

karuga

grass i^Cynodon DactyIo?i), which

used in ceremonies.

Their exact position is disputed. They wear the sacred thread {cf. Karuga Nambudiris in North Malabar), who

cook

rice for the

{e)

sradh (memorial ceremony) of Sudras.

Tirtivalayanath or Kovil [temple)

Mussad.

They also wear the sacred thread, but perform puja in Bhadrakali temples, incidents of which are the shedding of
blood and use of liquor.

They seem
higher,

to be almost identical
I

with the caste called elsewhere Adigal or Pidaran, but,

think, Adigals arc a
little

and do not touch

liquor,

while Pidarans are divided into two classes, the lower of

which does not wear the thread or perform the actual

piija,

but only attends to various matters subsidiary thereto.

In an account of the annual ceremony at the Pishari

temple near Quilandy

in

Malabar

in

honour of Bhagavati,

Mussad priests mantrams (prayers) over the goats for an hour as repeat
Mr. F.
a preliminary to the
sacrifice.

Fawcett informs us * that the

Then

the chief priest,

with a chopper-like sword, decapitates the goats, and

sacrifices several cocks.

The Mussads cook some

is

of the
rice.

flesh of the goats,

and one or two of the cocks with

This

rice,

when cooked,

taken to the kavu (grove) to

the north of the temple, and there the

ply their mantrams.

Mussads again

Musu Kamma. The name of a special ear ornament worn by the Musu Kamma sub-division of Balijas.
* Madras

Museum

Bull., Ill, 3, 1901.

mlsl;

kamma

a\x)max.

127
In the Salem District Manual,
sub-division of this caste.

MUTRACHA
Musuku
is

recorded as a

Mutalpattukar.

A synonym of Tandan
who
in

in

Travan-

core, indicating those

received an allowance for the

assistance they were called on to render to carpenters.

Mutracha.
in

Mutracha appears,
The
in

published records,

a variety of forms, such as Muttaracha, Muttirajulu,

caste
is

Muttarasan, and Mutratcha.

of these

known by one

names

the Telugu

country, and in the Tamil

country as Muttiriyan or Palaiyakkaran.

Concerning the Mutrachas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes " This is a Telugu caste most numerous in as follows.* the Kistna, Nellore, Cuddapah, and North Arcot districts.

The Mutrachas were employed by

to defend the frontiers
title
is

the Vijayanagar kings

of their dominions,
of paligars
{cf.

and were

honoured with the

Palaiyakkaran).

The word Mutracha

derived from the Dravidian roots

;

mudi, old, and racha, a king

but another derivation

is

from Mutu Raja, a sovereign of some part of the Telugu

country.

They

eat flesh,

and drink

liquor.

Their
t

titles

are

Dora and Naidu."

North Arcot

Mr. Stuart writes further

over

that
in

in the

district they are "

all

most numerous

the Chendragiri taluk, but found

the district in

the person of the village taliari or watchman, for which

reason
call

it

is

often called the taliari caste.

in

They proudly

themselves paligars, and

Chendragiri doralu or

lords,

because several of the Chittoor palaiyams (villages

in

governed by paligars) were

their
in the

possession of

members

of

caste.

They seem
its

to

have entered the country

time of the Vijayanagar kings, and to have been

kavilgars (watchmen).
one.

appointed as

usually esteemed by others as a low

The caste Most of

is

its

Madras Census Report, 1891.

Manual of

the North Arcot district.

MUTRACHA
members
are poor, even
fession of taliari,

128

when they have

left

the proeat in

and taken to agriculture.

They

the houses of most other castes, and are not trammelled

by many
are

restrictions.

In Chendragiri they rarely marry,

but form connections with

often

permanent,

women of their caste, which though not sanctioned by the

marriage ceremony, and the offspring of such associations

are regarded as legitimate."
In the Nellore Manual, the

Mutrachasare summed up

as being hunters, fishermen, bearers, palanquin-bearers,

and hereditary watchmen in the villages. At times of census, Mutracha or Mutarasan has been recorded as a sub-division of Urali, and a title of Ambalakkaran.
Muttiriyan, which
is

simply a Tamil form of Mutracha,

recorded as a sub-division

appears as a
{q.v.).

title

and sub-division of Ambalakkaran

is

Further, Tolagari

of Mutracha.
cultivating

The Tolagaris are stated * to be a small caste, who were formerly hunters, like the
Most of the Mutrachas are engaged
in

Palayakkarans.
agriculture.

At Paniyam, in the Kurnool district, I found some employed in collecting winged white-ants {Termites), which they sun-dry, and store in large pots
as an article of food.
special

powder as

They a means

are said to

make

use of

some

of attracting the insects, in

catching w^hich they are very expert.

In some places, the relations between the Mutrachas

and Gollas, both of which castes belong to the left-hand

section, are strained.

On

occasions of marriage

among

the Madigas, some pan-supari (betel leaves and areca

nuts)
is

set apart for the

Mutrachas, as a mark of respect.

In consequence of the fact that

some Mutrachas have

been

j)etty chieftains,

they claim to be Kshatriyas, and

Manual of

ihe

North Arcot

district.

129
to

MUTRACHA
Mahabaratha.

be descended from Yayathi of the

to

According

the legend,

Devayana, the daughter of

Daityas (demons and

Sukracharya,
giants),

the

priest

of the

went to a well with Charmanishta, the daughter

of the Daitya king.

quarrel arose between them, and

Charmanishta pushed Devayana into a dry well, from which she was rescued by king Yayathi. Sukracharya
complained to the Daitya king, who made his daughter become a servant to Yayathi 's wife, Devayana. By
her marriage Devayana bore two sons.

Subsequently,

Yayathi became enamoured of Charmanishta, by whom he had an illegitimate son. Hearing of this, Sukracharya
cursed Yayathi that he should be subject to old age

and

infirmity.

This curse he asked his children to take

all

on themselves, but
child Puru.

refused except his illegitimate

He

accordingly cursed his legitimate sons,

that they should only rule over barren land overrun by

One of them, Durvasa by name, had seven children, who were specially favoured by the goddess Ankamma. After a time, however, they were persuKiratas.

aded

to

worship Maheswara or Virabhadra instead of

the goddess angry, and she caused

Ankamma. This made

all

flower gardens to disappear, except her own.

Flowers

being necessary for the purpose of w^orship, the perverts

stole
in

them from Ankamma's garden, and were caught As a punishment for their the act by the goddess.
they had to lose their lives by killing themselves on

sin,

a stake.

One

of the seven sons had a child

named

Ravideviraju, which was thrown into a well as soon as

it

was born.
the

The Naga Kannikas

infant,

of the nether regions

it

rescued

and

tended

with

care.

One
her

day, while
(country),
vehicle,

Ankamma was
she

traversing the
crying,

Naga lokam
sent
child,

heard a child

and

a jackal
v-9

(nakka), to bring the

which,


MUTRACHA
however,
130
not
allow
the

would

animal

to
it

take
off.

it.

The goddess
child
sons,

accordingly herself carried

The

grew up under her care, and eventually had three named Karnam Raju, Gangi Raju, and Bhupathi
from

Raju,

whom

the Mutrachas are descended.

In

return for the goddess protecting and bringing 'up the

child,

she

is

regarded as the special tutelary deity of the

caste.

There is a saying current among the Mutrachas that the Mutracha caste is as good as a pearl, but became degraded as its members began to catch fish. According to a legend, the Mutrachas, being Kshatriyas, wore the
sacred thread.

Some

of them, on their

way home
to

after a

hunting expedition, halted by a pond, and were tempted

by the enormous

number

of fish therein
lines.

fish for

them, using their sacred threads as

They were

seen by some Brahmans while thus engaged, and their

degradation followed.
In the

Telugu country, two

divisions, called

Paligiri

and Oruganti, are recognised by the Mutrachas, who further have exogamous septs or intipcrulu, of which the
following are examples
Avula, cow.
Arigala,
:

Katari, dagger.

dish

carried

in

Marri, Ficns ben^alensts.

processions.
Busi, dirt.
Ella,

Nakka,

jackal.

Puli, tiger.

boundary.

Talari,

watchman.

Guvvala, doves.
India, house,
iga,
fly.

Tota, garden.
Uyyala, a swing.

Thumu,

iron

measure

for

Koppula, hair-knot.

measuring grain.

During the

first

menstrual seclusion of a

girl,

she

may

not have her meals served on a metal plate, but

is

uses an earthern cup, which

eventually thrown away.

131

muttAn
in

When

she reaches puberty, a girl does up her hair

knot called koppu.

In the case of confinement, pollution ends on the

tenth day.

But,

If

woman

loses her infant, especially

is

a first-born, the pollution period

shortened, and, at

every subsequent time of delivery, the

the seventh or ninth day.

on the bathing day brings a

it

woman bathes on Every woman who visits her pot of warm water, and pours

over her head.

Muttal (substitute). A sub-division of Maran. Muttan. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Muttans are summed up as " a trading caste in Malabar. The better educated members of it have begun to claim

a higher social status than that usually accorded them.

Formerly they claimed

have gone further, and,
of

to
in

be Nayars, but recently they

the census schedules,

some

the Vaisya

them returned themselves as Valsyas, and added title Gupta to their names. They do not, however, wear the sacred thread, or perform any Vedic rites, and Nayars consider themselves polluted by their
touch."
It is

recorded, in the

Madras Census Report,

castes,

1891,

under the conjoint heading Muttan and Tarakan, that

"

these

two are
It

allied

but the

latter

would
Dr.

consider
the

a disgrace to acknowledge any affinity with

former.

Tarakan
that

literally

means a broker.

Gundert says
an elder.
division,

these

were originally warehouseIs

keepers at Palghat.

Muttan

probably from Muttavan,

Tarakans have returned Muttan as a suband vice versa, and both appear as sub-divisions

of

Nayar.

We

have

In

our schedules

instances

of

persons

who have

returned their caste as Tarakan, but

with their names Krishna Muttan (male) and Lakshmi

Chettlchlar (female).
Y-9 B

Muttan may,

in course of time,

muttAn

132

become a Tarakan, and then a Nayar. Both these castes follow closely the customs and manners of Nayars, I have not, however, but there are some differences.
been able to get
at

the real state of

affairs,

as the
subject,

members

of the caste are very reticent

on the

and simply assert that they are

as Nayars.

in all respects

the same

One

difference

is

that a

Brahmani does not

Again,
instead

sing at their tali-kettu marriages.

of

having a Marayan, Attikurissi, or Elayad as their

they employ a

priest,

man

of their

own

caste, called Choratton.

This

man

assists at their funeral ceremonies,

and

purifies

them
for

at the

end of pollution, just as the Attikurissi does

Kali temples

Nayars.

seem

to

be specially affected
priests

by
in

this caste,

and these Chorattons are also

these temples.
practically

The Muttan and Tarakan

Palghat and

castes

are

confined to

Walluvanad

taluks."

In a note on

some

castes in
it

Malabar which are most

Muttans,

likely of foreign origin,

is

stated, in the Gazetteer of

Malabar, that " this

is

certainly true of the

who
of

are found only in the Palghat taluk and in the parts

it,

Walavanad bordering on
is

a part of the country

where there
tion.

a large admixture of Tamils in the popula-

They

are

now advancing

a claim to be Vaisyas,
title

and some of them have adopted the

is

Gupta which
title

proper to that caste,

while a
in

few have the

Ezhutacchan.

Some Muttans
title

Palghat are called

Mannadiars, a
Taragans.

also

apparently
follow

borne by some

makkattayam (inheritance from father to son), and do not enter into the loose connections known as sambandhams their women
;

The Muttans

are called
origin
to
;

Chettichiars, clearly indicating their eastern

and their period of pollution is ten days, according which test they would rank as a high caste. On

133
the other hand,

MUVVARI

they

Their purificatory

meat and drink Hquor. ceremonies are performed by a class

eat
(literally,

may

known

as

Chorttavans

sprinklers),

who

are

said to be

identical with

Kulangara Nayars, and not

in

by Attikurrissi Nayars as
Ambalavasis,

the case with Nambudris,

There is considerable antagonism between the Palghat and Walavanad sections of the caste. Another caste of traders, which has now
Nayars.

and

been practically incorporated

class

in

the

Nayar body,

is

the

known

as

Taragans

(literally,

brokers) found in

Palghat and Walavanad, some of

able wealth and
of

whom

have consider-

high social position.

The Taragans

Angadippuram and the surrounding neighbourhood

be immigrants from Travancore, and to be

claim to

descendants of Ettuvittil Pillamar of Ouilon,

high caste Nayars.

who

are

They can marry

occasionally have

Kiriyattil

women,

and their

women

sambandham with

Samantan Rajas. The Palghat Taragans on the other hand can marry only in their caste." Muttasari. Recorded, in the Travancore Census

Report,

90 1, as a name by which

Kammalans

are

addressed.

Muttiriyan.

See Mutracha.
An
say
or

Mutyala
of

(pearl).

exogamous

sept,

and name
in

sub-division

of

Balijas

who

deal

pearls.

The Ambalakarans
sweat
(muttu,

that

they were

born of

the
of

pearl

bead of perspiration)
as

Paramasiva.

Muvvari.

Recorded *

"a North Malabar

caste

of domestic servants under the Embrantiri Brahmans.

Their customs resemble those of the Nayars, but the Elayads and the Marayans
*

will not serve

them."

Madras Census Report, 1901.

myAsa
Myasa.

134

Myasa, meaning
is

grass-land or
(village)

forest,

is

one of the two main divisions, Uru

of the Bedars and Boyas.

and Myasa,
said to be

Among

the

Myasa Bedars,
is

the rite of circumcision

practiced, and

the survival of a custom which originated

when they

were included

in

the

army of Haidar

Ali.

Nadan. Nadan,
village, or

meaning
lives
in
call

ruler of a country
is

or of
in

one who

the country,

title

the Shanans, who, further,

themselves Nadans
"

preference to Shanans.

Nadava.

" This, "

Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,*

in

is

caste of Canarese farmers found only

South Canara,

The Nadavas have

which
is

returned four sub-divisions, one of

Bant, and two of the other three are sub-divisions

In the case as sub-

of Bants, the most important being Masadi.

of 33,212 individuals,
division
also.
I

Nadava has been returned

information

have no

regarding the

seem to be closely allied to the Bant caste, of which Nadava is one of the sub-divisions." The name Nadava or Nadavaru means people of the
caste, but they

nadu or country.
Bants.

It is

one of the sub-divisions of the

Naga (cobra
sa,

Naiatripudians).
in the

Nag, Naga, Nagaof a sept or gotra of

or Nageswara, occurs

name

various classes in
kulu,

Ganjam and Vizagapatam, e.g., AiyaraBhondari, Bhumia, Bottada, Domb, Gadaba, Konda

Dora, Medara,

Muka Dora,
to

Nagaralu, Omanaito, Poroja,

of the

Rona, and Samantiya.

sept of

Odiya claim

Nagabonso be descendants of Nagamuni,

Members

* Madras Census Report, 189 1.

135
the serpent
rishi.

nagarAlu

Naga
'

is

further a gotra or sept of

Kurnis and Toreyas, of

dings, worship at 'ant

whom

the

latter, at their

wed-

{Tei^mitcs)

hills,

which are often

Gazula
(cobra's

the

home
is

of cobras.

It is

also a sub-division of

Kapus and
hood)
head,
the

Koppala Yelamas.

Nagavadam

name

of a sub-division of the Pallis,

called

who
the

wear an ornament,
in

nagavadam, shaped
a
sept

like a cobra's

the dilated
there
is

lobes of the ears.

Among

Viramushtis

named

Naga Mallika

i^Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of which shrub are

believed to be an antidote to the bite of poisonous snakes.

The

flowers of CoiLrotipita gtdanensis, which has been

introduced as

a garden

tree

in

Southern India, are

naga linga pu, from the staminal portion of the flower which curves over the ovary being likened to a cobra's hood, and the ovary to a lingam.
as

known

Nagali (plough). An exogamous sept of Kapu. Nagalika (of the plough). A name for Lingayats

eno-aored in cultivation.

Nagaralu.'The Nagaralu
in

are a cultivating caste

it

Vizagapatam, concerning

whom
in

is

recorded * that
city,

"

Nagaralu means the dwellers

this

a nagaram or

and apparently

caste

was

originally a
life,

section of
itself

the Kapus, which took to town

off

and separated

from the parent stock.

pation was medicine,

They say their original occuand a number of them are still

physicians and druggists, though the greater part are

agriculturists."

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Viziaram Raz, the friend of Bussy, conferred mokhasas (grants of land) on some of the most important members of the caste, whose descendants
*

Madras Census Report, 1901.

NAGARTHA

o'

^^6

are to be found in various places.

into three sections or

The

caste

is

divided

gotras,

viz.,

Nagesvara (cobra),

Kurmesa (tortoise), and Vignesvara or Mushika (rat). The rat is the vehicle of the elephant god Ganesa or Vignesvara. It is further divided into exogamous septs
or intiperulu, such

as sampathi
etc.

(riches),

chakravarthi

(king or ruler), majji,

The menarikam

system, according to which a

is

man

should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,

Girls are usually married before puberty,
officiates

in force.

and a Brahman
of

at

marriages.

The marriage

widows and
and pedda

divorce are not permitted.

The dead
officiates,

are burnt, and the chinna

(little)

rozu (big day) death ceremonies, whereat a Brahman

are celebrated.

Some members
The
are
fit

of the caste have acquired a great

reputation as medicine-men and druggists.

usual caste
title is

Pathrulu, indicating those

who

to receive a gift.

Nagartha.

Nagarata,

is returned, in the

Nagarattar, or Nagarakulam Madras Census Report, 1901, as a In the Census Report, 1891,
" hail
it

sub-caste of Chetti.

is

recorded that the Nagarattu

from Kanchipuram

(Conjeeveram), where,

it

is

said,

a thousand families of
city)

this caste formerly lived.

Their namec;(nagaram, a

refers to

their

original

home.

They wear

the sacred

thread, and worship both Vishnu and Siva.

They take
that they

neither flesh nor alcohol.

As they maintain

are true Vaisyas, they closely imitate the

Brahmanical

ceremonies of marriage and death.

This sub-division
it,

has a dancing-girl and a servant attached to

duties are to dance, and to do miscellaneous

whose

work during

marriages.
of the caste).

The

caste servant

is

called Jatipillai (child

137

nAga-srni

Concerning the Nagarthas, who are settled in the Mysore Province, I gather * that "the account locally obtained connects them with the Ganigas, and the two
castes are said to have been co-emigrants to Bangalore,

where one Mallaraje Ars made headmen of the principal members of the two castes, and exempted them from the
house-tax.

Certain gotras are said to be

common

to

both

castes, but they

call

never eat together or intermarry.

Both

between them are said

unpleasantness.

themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas, and the feuds to have often culminated in much

The Nagarthas are principally found in towns and large trade centres. Some are worshippers of Of the latter, some wear the Vishnu, and others of Siva. They are dealers in bullion, cloth, cotton, drugs, linga. and grain. A curious mode of carrying the dead among
Namadarior Vaishnavite Nagarthas is that the dead body is rolled up in a blanket, instead of a bier or vimana These cremate their dead, whereas the as among others.
the

Marriage must be performed before a girl reaches puberty, and widows are not allowed to Polygamy is allowed, and divorce can be for remarry.
others bury them.

adultery alone.
" cases

It

is

recorded by Mr.

L. Rice f that

sometimes occur ofaSivachar marrying a Namadari woman, and, when this happens, her tongue is burned
with the linga, after which she forsakes her parents' house

and

religion.

It

is

stated that the Sivachar Nagarthas

never give their daughters in marriage to the Namadari

sect."

Among

the gotras returned by the Nagarthas are

Kasyapa, Chandramauleswara, and Cholendra.

Naga-sreni. A fanciful name, meaning those who live in the Naga street, used as a caste name by the
Patramela dancing-girl
caste.

Mysore Census Reports, 1891, 1901.

t Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer.


NAGAVASULU
Nagavasulu.
138

The

Nagavasulu are described,

in

the Vizagapatam Manual, as "cultivators in the Vizagapatam district. Women who have not entered into matrimony earn money by prostitution, and acting
as
life,

dancers at

feasts.

Some

of the caste lead a

bad
In

and are excluded from the body of the caste."

it

the Madras Census Re])ort, 1891, Nagavasamu means a company of

**

is

stated

that

dancing-girls, and
call

the

sons of

women

of this profession frequently

themselves

Nagavasulu.
however,

The bulk
are
said

of
to

the

caste

in

Vizagapatam,
farmers."
*'

be

respectable
1901, that

It is

noted, in the Census Report,

most of the Nagavasulu are

cultivators, but

some

of

the

women

are prostitutes by profession, and outsiders

are consequently admitted to the caste.

Their

title is

Naidu."

Nagellu

Nagna
Naidu.
times of
Bestha,

An exogamous sept of Boya. (naked). A name Sanyasis, who go

(plough).
for

about naked.

Nayudu is census by many Telugu

or

Naidu

title,

returned at
e.^.^

classes,

Balija,

Boya,

Ekari,

Gavara, Golla,

Kalingi,

Kapu,

Mutracha. and Velama.

of a

Tamilian,

when speaking
call

Telugu person bearing this title, would Naicker or Naickan instead of Naidu.

him

Naik.
is

The word Naik (Nayaka, a leader

older
writers
:

or chief)
in

used,

by the

on Southern India,

several senses, of which the following examples, given

by Yule and Burnell,* may be cited

(a)

Native captain or headman. "II s'appelle Naique,

Capitaine."
Barretto,

qui

signifie

Rel

du

Prov de

Malabar.

Ilobson-lobson.


139
(d)
''

NAIK
in

A title of

honour among Hindus

the Deccan.

The

kings of Deccan also have a custome

when they
and
the

honour a man or rccompcnce rayse him to dignitie and honour.

will
title

their service done,

They give him

of
[c)

Naygue

".

Linschoten.

name of the kings of Vijayanagara, and of the Lords of Madura and other places. "II y a plusieurs Naiques au Sud de Saint Thome, qui sont Le Naigue de Madure on est un ". Souverains

The

general

Thevenot.

Naik,

Naickan, Naicker, Nayak or Nayakkan has

at recent times of census,

been returned,
Pallis, Irulas,

by the Tamil

and Vedans, and also by various Telugu and

:

Canarese

classes, e.g.

Telugu Balija, Boya, Kkari, Golla, Kavarai, Muttiriyan, Odde, Tottiyan, and Uppiliyan.
Canarese

Bedar, Cheptegara, Charodi, Kannadiyan,

Wynad
in

Servegara, Siviyar, and Toreya.

(a jungle folk) in the

are

Some Jen Kurumbas also locally known as

parts of South Canara,

Naikers.

Tulu
prefer

The Mogers,
title

some
to

the

Naiker

the

ordinary caste
title.

title

Marakaleru, and some Bants have the same

The headman among

called Naik.
in

the Lambadis or Brinjaris

is

Naicker further occurs as a hereditary

title

some Brahman families. I have, for example, heard of a Desastha Brahman bearing the name Nyna Naicker.
Naik,

Naiko,

or

Nayako appears
e.g.,

as the

title

of

various Oriya classes,

Alia,

Aruva, Bagata, Gaudo,

It
is

Jatapu, Odia, Pentiya, Rona, and Teli.

noted by

Mr.
the

S. P.

Rice that

"

the Uriya Korono, or head of the

village,
title

appropriates to himself as his caste distinction

Potonaiko signifying the Naik or head of the

town."

NAINAR
The name Nayar

140
or Nair
is, it

may be

noted, akin to

Naik and Naidu, and signifies a leader or soldier.* In this connection, Mr. Lewis Moore writes t that " almost
every page of Mr. Sewell's interesting book on Vijayanagar { bears testimony to the close connection between

Yijayanagar and the west coast.

Colonel
(afterwards
Sir

It is

remarkable that

Thomas)
in

Munro,

in

the

memorandum

written by

him

1802 on the poligars

(feudal chiefs) of the

the cases of a

Ceded number of

Districts,

when dealing with

poligars

who were

direct

descendants of

men who had been

chiefs under the kings

of Yijayanagar, calls
or

Nair,

using

them throughout his report Naigue the two names as if they were
that,
in

Identical."
It
is

noted by Mr. Talboys Wheeler

||

the

city of

Madras in former days, " entrusted to a Hindu official, known

or
'

police duties

were

elder chief,'
to

who kept
all

a staff

Pedda Naik of peons, and was

as the

bound

make good

stolen articles that were not

recovered."
In the

South Canara
is

district,

the

name

Naikini

(Naik females)

taken by temple dancing-girls.

Nayinar.

Nainar. 6"^^

Nakash.A
places.

name, denoting exquisite workmanship,

in

by which Rachevars or Chitrakaras are known

some

Nakkala. Nakkala
Golla,

or

Nakka, meaning

jackal, has

been recorded as an exogamous sept of Boya, Gudala,

The jackal is the vehicle goddess Ankamma, who is the tutelary deity
and Mutracha.
* Wij^rani \

of the
of the

Malabar Law and Customs.

Ibid., 3rd ed., 1905.

I'orgoUen Empire, Yijayanagar.

Fifth Report of the

Committee on

the affairs of the East

India Comiiany.

Reprint, Ilifjginbolham, Madras.

11

College History of India, 1888.

NALK1-: J)E\1L-DANCER.

141

NALKE

Mutrachas.

The name occurs further as a name for the Kuruvikkarans, who manufacture spurious jackal horns
Nali Kuruba.

as charms.

(bamboo

tube).

An

exogamous

sept

of

Nalillakkar (people of the four illams). A section of Mukkuvans, which is divided into four illams. Nalke. The Nalkes or Nalakeyavas are described
by Mr.

H. A. Stuart* as "a caste of mat, basket,

and umbrella makers, who furnish the devil-dancers, who play such an important part in the worship of the

Tulu people.
sub-divisions

They have the usual Tulu exogamous They are generally held to be or balls.
Pariahs.
In

Holeyas
Panaras."
"

or

Canarese

they

are called

Every
"

village

in

Canara,"

Mr.

Stuart

writes
in

further, t

has

its

Bhutasthanam or demon temple,

is

which the
tered

officiating priest or pujari

usually a

man

of the Billava caste, and shrines innumerable are scat-

throughout the length and breadth of the land

malevolent spirits of deceased

for the propitiation of the

celebrities,

who,

in their lifetime,

had acquired a more

evil,

than usual local reputation whether for good or

or

had met with a sudden or violent death. In addition to these there are demons of the jungle and demons of the

demons who guard the village boundaries, and demons whose only apparent vocation is that of playing
waste,
tricks,

such as throwing stones on houses, and causing

The demons who guard the village boundaries seem to be the only ones who are credited with even indirectly exercising a useful function. The others
mischief generally.

merely inspire terror by causing sickness and misfortune,

Manual of

the South

Canara

district.

-f

Ikid.

NALKE
and have
to

142

be propitiated by offerings, which often

involve the shedding of blood, that of a fowl being most

common. There are also family Bhutas, and in every non-Brahman house a room, or sometimes only a corner,
is

set

apart

for

the

Bhuta,
is

and called the

Bhuta-

kotya.

The Bhutasthanam

generally a small, plain

2

structure, 4 or 5 yards

deep by

or 3 yards wide, with

a door at one end covered by a portico supported on two

pillars.

The

roof

is

of thatch,
it

and the building

is

with-

out windows.
four

In front of
pillars.

there are usually three or

T-shaped

Flowers are placed, and cocoanuts

broken on them at ceremonies.

The temples

of the

more popular Bhutas are often

considerable
usually a
size.

substantial buildings of

Inside the Bhutasthanam there are

of images,

number

roughly made

in brass, in

human

shape, or resembling animals, such as pigs, tigers,

fowls, etc.

These are brought out and worshipped

peculiar small goglet or vase,

as symbols of the Bhutas on various ceremonial occasions.*

made
is

of bell-

metal, into which from

is

time to time water

poured,

kept before the Bhutas, and, on special occasions,

kepula {Ixo7^a coccined) flowers, and lights are placed

before them.
In the larger sthanas a sword
is

always

kept near the Bhuta, to be held by the officiating priest

when he stands possessed and trembling with excitement

before the people assembled for worship. t

bell

or

gong

is

also found in

all

Bhutasthanams.
is

In the case

of Bhutas connected with temples, there

a place set
of the

apart for them, called a gudi.

The Bhutasthanam

Baiderlu
"

is

called a garudi.

The names
is

of the Bhutas are legion.

One

of the

most dreaded

named

Kalkuti.

Two
Inst.,

others

commonly

M.

J.

Walhouse.

Journ. Anthrop.
Intl.

V, 1876.

t Devil Worship of the Tuluvas,

Ant., XXIII, 1894.

NALKK

1)];\1I.

DANCER.

143

NALKE
Billavas arc Koti

worshipped by the

Bants and the

Baidya and Chennaya Baidya, who always have Billava These two Bhutas are the departed spirits of pujaris.

two Billava heroes. The spirit of Kujumba Kanje, a Bant of renown, belongs to this class of Bhutas. Amongst the most well known of the others, may be mentioned Kodamanitaya and Mundaltaya, and the
jungle demons Hakkerlu and Brahmerlu.

The Holeyas
not recognised

worship a Bhuta of their own, who

is

by any other class of the people. He goes by the name of Kumberlu, and the place where he is said to reside Very often a stone of any is called Kumberlu-kotya.
shape, or a small plank
in
is

placed on the ground, or fixed

it.

a wall, and the

name

of a Bhuta given to

Other

representations of Bhutas are in the shape of an ox

(Mahlsandaya), a horse (Jarandaya), a pig (Panjurli), or

a giant (Baiderlu).
"

The Bhuta worship

viz..

of South

Canara

is

of four

kinds,

kola, bandi,
is

nema, and agelu-tambila.

supposed to

Kola,

or devil dancing,

offered to the Bhutas in the sthana

reside.
it,

of the village in

which they are

The Sudras
in public,

of the village,

and of those adjacent to

assemble near the sthana, and witness the kola ceremony

sharing the cost of
the Sudra families
is
it

by subscriptions raised
the village
in

among

all

in

which the

ceremony

held.

Bandi

is

the

same as

kola, with the

addition of dragging about a clumsy kind of car, on

which the Pompada priest representing the Bhuta

seated.

is

Nema

is

a private ceremony in honour of the

Bhutas, held in the house of anyone

It is

who

is

so inclined.

performed once
to about Rs.

in ten, fifteen, or

twenty years by
of the

well-to-do Billavas or Bants.

The expenses
nema

nema

amount

600 or Rs. 700, and are borne by

takes place.

the master of the house in which the

NALKR

144
i.e.,

During the nema. the Bhutas,

the

the things represent-

ing them, are brought from the sthana to the house of

man

giving the
is

Agelu-tambila
Baiderlu,
will

and remain there till it is over. a kind of worship offered only to the
feast,

and that annually by the Billavas only. It be seen that kola, bandi, and nema are applicable
is

to all the Bhutas, including the Baiderlu, but that the

agelu-tambila

applicable only to the Baiderlu."

The
exorcists

following account of Canara devil-dancers and

is

given
is

Canara.

" It

Mr. Lavie's Manuscript History of their duty to carry a beautiful sword

in

with a handsomely curved handle, and polished blade of These they shake and flourish about in the finest steel. all directions, jumping, dancing, and trembling in a most
frightful

manner.

Their hair

is

loose and flowing, and,

I

by

their inflamed eyes

and general appearance,

prepared
for the

should

suppose that they

are

occasion

by

intoxicating liquids or drugs

exorcists
is

....
I

Their power as

exercised on any person

supposed to be
in

possessed with the devil.

have passed by a house

which an exorcist has been exercising his powers. He began with groans, sighs, and mutterings, and broke
forth into low mournings.

Afterwards he raised his voice,

and uttered with rapidity and in a peculiar tone of voice certain mantrams or charms, all the while trembling violently, and moving his body backwards and forwards."

The performance
night,
pujari,

(of devil dances) always takes place at

o'clock.

commencing about nine

At
in

first

the

with the Bhuta sword and bell

his

hands,

whirls round and round, imitating the supposed mien

and gestures of the demon.

full

But he does not aspire to

possession

that

is

reserved for a

Pombada

or

Nalke, a

man

of the lowest class,

who comes forward

when

the Billava pujari has exhibited himself for about

^*v '^
'^-v

^v'

--

:.i

NALKE UEML-DAXCKK.

145
half
face

NALKE
for a waist-band,

an hour.
is

He

is

naked save
and
a

his

painted with ochre, and he wears a sort of arch

of cocoanut leaves,

made

metal mask.

After

pacing up and

down

slowly for

some

time, he gradually
frenzy, while

works himself up to a pitch of hysterical

the tom-toms are beaten furiously, and
join in raising a long,

the spectators

a peculiar

vibration.

monotonous howling cry, with At length he stops, and every

;

one

is

addressed according to his rank

if

the
his

Pombada
numerous
for

offends a rich Bant by omitting

titles,

any of
it.

he

is

made
is

to suffer

for

Matters regarding
then

which there
accepted.
fed,

any dispute

are

submitted
is

the decision of the Bhuta, and his award

generally

Either at this stage or

earlier,

the

demon

is

rice
if

and

food

being
is

offered

to

the

while,

the Bhuta
also

of low degree, flesh

Pombada, and arrack

last

(liquor) are

presented.

These

festivals

for

several nights, and

Dr. Burnell states that the devilfee of eight

dancer receives
labours."

rupees

for his frantic

Of

the

three devil-dancing castes found in South

Canara (Nalke, Parava, and Pompada), the Nalkes are

apparently the
lowest.

Even

Nalke or a Parava
hand

inferior to him.
is

Koraga considers a It is said that, when

expected to raise his
not,

a Parava meets a Koraga, he

to his forehead.

This practice does

however,

seem to be observed at the present day. The Nalkes, though living amidst castes which follow the aliyasantana law of inheritance
(in

the female

line),

follow

the makkalakattu law of inheritance from father to son.

The

numerous balls (septs), which are eviborrowed from the Bants and Billavas. As examples of these, Salannaya, Bangerannaya, Kundarcaste has

dently

annaya, and Uppenannayya

V-IO

may be

cited.

The Nalkes

NALKE

146
settles disputes

have a headman called Gurikara, who

and other matters affecting the community, and

ceremonials.
Girls are married after puberty, and a

acts as

the priest at marriages, death ceremonies, and other

woman may

marry any number of times.

concluded in a single day.
over their heads, and

The marriage ceremony is The contracting couple are

a turmeric-dyed string with

seated on planks, and the Gurikara throws coloured rice

ties

beads strung on

it

round their necks.

Those assembled
is

then throw rice over them, their hands are joined by

the Gurikara or their fathers, and the dhare water

poured thereon.

The dead
castes in

are

either

buried or

cremated.

After

burial or cremation, a

mound (dhupe) is, as among other Canara, made over the spot. Round it, four
car
{cf.

posts are stuck in the ground, and decorated so as to

resemble a small

Billava).

The

final

death

ceremonies (uttarakriya)
the
fifth

are generally performed

on
is

or seventh day.

On

this day,
it

cooked food
This

offered to

the deceased

by placing

near the dhupe,

last.
is

or

on the spot where he breathed

If

his
is

followed by a feast.

the ceremony

not performed

on one of the recognised days, the permission of some Bants or Billavas must be obtained before it can be
carried out.

All castes in South Canara have great faith in Bhutas,

and,

when any calamity

Bhutas
is

or misfortune overtakes a family,

propitiated.

the

must be

The worship
personage

of

Bhutas

a mixture of ancestor and devil propitiation.

is

In the Bhuta cult, the most important

Brahmeru, to

whom

the other Bhutas are subordinate.

Owing
is

to the influence of

Brahman
for

Tantris,

Brahmeru

regarded as another name

Brahma, and the various

R.v

8V

lUMADI liHUTA.

147

NALKE

Bhutas are regarded as ganas or attendants on Siva. Brahmanical influence is clearly to be traced in the
various Bhuta songs, and
all

Bhutas are

in

some manner
Bhutas, a

connected with Siva and Parvati.

Whenever people want

Nalke or Parava
is

to propitiate the

engaged.

In

some

places, the

Nalke

disguises himself as any Bhuta, but, where Paravas are

Nalke may not dress up as the Baiderkulu, Kodamanitaya, or Rakteswari. The propitiation of the Bhuta takes the form of a ceremony Of these. Kola called Kola, Nema, or Agelu Tambila. is a periodical ceremony, in which various castes take
also to be found, the
part,

and
is

is

always performed

near a

Bhutasthana.
is

Nema
by

usually undertaken by a single family, and

performed at the house.

Billavas
at

their

homes.

Agelu Tambila is celebrated The Kola ceremony is

or chief man, with

usually performed for the propitiation of Bhutas other

than the Baiderkulu.

The Muktesar
jewels,

the assistance of a Brahman, fixes an auspicious day for

its

celebration.

The

and votive offerings made

to the Bhutas, are kept in the custody of the Muktesar.

On

the Kola day, the people

go

in

procession from the

sthana to the Muktesar's house, and return to the sthana

with the jewels and other
articles.

These are arranged

on
in

cots,

and a Billava pujari places seven plantain leaves

a row on a cot, and heaps rice thereon.

is

On

each

heap, a cocoanut

placed for the propitiation of the most

important Bhuta.

To

the minor Bhutas, these things

are offered on three or five leaves placed on cots, or

on the

floor of the sthana,

according to the importance

of the Bhuta.

seven-branched torch must be kept

burning near the cot of the principal Bhuta.

conical

The

pujari

goes to the courtyard of the sthana, and piles up a

mass of cooked
V-lOB

rice

on a

stool.

Over

this,

NALKE

148

pieces of plantain fruits are scattered.

Round the mass,

several sheaths of plantain leaves are arranged, and on

them tender cocoanut

stuck.

leaves,

cut in various ways, are

The

pujari,

who wears

a metal belt and other

jewelry,

does

puja to the

Bhutas,

and
their

retires.

The
(ani)

Nalkes or Paravas then advance dressed up as Bhutas,

and request permission to put on and

sing

canopy
dance,

brass

anklet

(guggire).

They then
the

and

songs

connected

with

Bhutas
are

which are

being
retire,

propitiated.

When
steps

they

exhausted and

the
in

pujari

forwards,

assembly

the

following

terms

and addresses the

"

Oh

great
I
I

men

who
you
you.

are
all.

assembled, with
!

your

permission
assembled,

salute salute
is

Oh Brahmans who are Oh priest, salute you."

!

In this manner, he
of
all

expected to run through the

names

important

personnges

who

are present.

When

he has finished,
is

the devil-dancers do the same, and

the ceremony

at

an end.

Kodamanitaya, Kukkintaya, Jumadi, Sarlu Jumadi, Pancha Jumadi, Rakteswari, Panjurli, Kuppe Panjurli, Rakta Panjurli, Urundarayya, Hosadevata (or Hosa Bhuta),
Bhutas, the best
are Brahmeru,
Devanajiri, Kalkutta, Ukkatiri, Gulige, Bobbariya, Nicha,

Of the

known

Duggalaya, Mahisandaya, Varte, Chamundi, Baiderukulu,

Okkuballala, and Oditaya.

According to some,

Jumadi is the small-pox goddess Mari. There are only two female Bhutas Ukkatiri and Kallurti. The Bhutas For example, are supposed to belong to different castes.

Okkuballala and Devanajiri are Jains,

and Kukkinataya are Bants, Kalkutta

bariya
In
is

is

Kodamanitaya a smith, Bob-

a Mappilla, and Nicha a Koraga.

to Siva, the Tantris offer

some temples dedicated

food, etc., to the various

Bhutas on special occasions,

149

NAMBIDI
At Udipi, the

such as

Dipavali

and

Sankaranthi.

Sanyasis of the various mutts (religious institutions)

seem

to believe
for the

in

some

of the Bhutas, as they give

money

performance of Kola to Panjurli, Saria

Jumadi, and Chamundi.

At Hiriadkap
areca palm,

in

South Canara, where the Nalkes

performed before me, the dancers wore spathes of the

forming spats to prevent the skin from
being injured by the metal bells round their ankles as
they danced.

The songs sung by

ous,

the devil dancers are very numerlocalities.

full

and vary

in

different

Of

the

stories

relating to Bhutas, a very

account has been given

by Mr. A. C. BurnelL*

collection of stories (padanollu) belonging to the

demon-worshippers of the Tulu country, and recited

at their

annual

festivals,

was published

at the

Mangalore

Basel Mission Press in 1886.

Nalla
Velama.
Nallur.
Nayar.

(black).

An

exogamous sept

of

Koppala
in

Nallur and

Naluvitan are recorded,

1901.

the

Travancore Census Report,

as sub-divisions of

Namadari. A
Namala occurs Nambidi.
It is

name, indicating one who wears the

7"he equivalent

Vaishnava sectarian mark (namam).

as an

exogamous
included

sept of Boya.

class,

among the Ambalavasis.

1901,

recorded, in the Travancore Census Report,

*'

that

Nampitis are of two

classes, the

thread-wearing

and the threadless.

tions for the latter.
Devil

The former have

their

own

priests,

while the Ilayatus perform the required sacerdotal func-

Their ceremonies are very much

Ind. Ant.,

Worship of the Tuluvas.

XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVI,

1894-7.

NAMBIDI
like those of the

150
Kshatriyas.

Tradition connects them

with royalty acquired under rather unenviable circumstances.

They

are, therefore, called

Tampurans

(lords)

by the Sudras, and also Muppinnu

(elder) or

Karanavapfemale

pat (uncle) head of a matriarchal family.

They observe
line.

twelve days' pollution, and inherit

in the

Their

women are
is

called Mantalu.

The chief man among

it

the Nampitis

the Karanavappat of Kakkat in British

Malabar."

In the Cochin

Census Report, 1901,

is

noted that of the Nampidis "the Aiynikoor Nampidis,

or the five families of Nampidis, are historically and
socially the

most important
title

the eldest male

member

possesses the honorific

of Karanavarpad, enjoying

special privileges at the hands of the rulers of Cochin,

as the

members

of the

family once held responsible

posts in the militia of the State.

According to

tradition,

they were Nambudris.

One

of the Perumals or Viceroys

of Kerala having proved troublesome, the

Brahmans
fol-

resolved upon his removal.

In the struggle that

lowed, the Perumal was killed by the Brahmans.

When

him returned to the place where the Brahmans had met in solemn conclave, they were
those
slain

who had

gladly welcomed, and asked to

sit

in their

midst

but,

feeling that they had committed a heinous crime and

thus disqualified themselves from sitting along with the

Brahmans, they volunteered to

of the council
threshold),

sit

apart on the threshold

room by saying nam padimel (we on the

fact
is

which

supposed to account

for

the

origin of their

name Nampadi.

They and

their

comlost

panions have since been regarded as having almost

their social status as

Brahmans, and they are now classed along with the intermediate castes, having but a few They privileges other than those enjoyed by the group.

wear the sacred thread, and have Gayatri.

Nambudri

151

NAMBIYATIRI

Brahmans
pollution,

officiate

as priests at marriage ceremonies,

sradhas, and purification at the end of birth or death

which
tali

lasts only for ten

days.

They
tied

follow

the

marumakkatayam law

of inheritance (in the female

line).

The

(marriage

badge)

is

by

their

own
unite

caste men.

Nambudris, or

their

own

caste men,

in sambandham with Nampidi Nampidis are allowed to consort with Nayar women. At public feasts they are not privileged to sit and eat with Nambudris. Their women are called

themselves

females.

Manolpads."

Nambiyassan.
is

A division of the Ambalavasis.

It

Census Report, 1901, that " the Nampiassans, otherwise called Nampiyars or Nampis, have at present no temple service of any kind. They keep gymnasia or schools of training suited to
the

noted, in the Travancore

Indian system of warfare.

(preceptors) of the fighting Nayars.

ever,
at

They were the gurus They seem, how-

one time to have followed the profession of garland-making in temples. It is still the occupation
of

many Nampiassans

in

Cochin and British Malabar."

1901,
it

In the Cochin Census Report,

is

stated that

Nambiyar is rather a misleading title, as it is applied to more than one class of people. Some Nayars are known by that title. In some places, Muthads and
Elayads are also called Nambiyars.
yars beat a

Chakkiyar Nambi-

drum

of a peculiar shape at intervals during

the discourses or acting of the Chakkiyars, while their

females, called
also

Nangiyars, keep time.

The Nangiyars

a sort

assume the figure of mythical characters, and perform of pantomime on the Chakkiyar's stage. {See

Unni.)

Nambiyatiri (a person worthy of worship). synonym of Elayad.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
Nambutiri
has

152

Brahman.*
nambu

The
The

name
least

Nambutiri

been variously derived.

(a

objectionable

origin seems to be
tiri

(sacred or trustworthy) and

The latter occurs as an honorific suffix Malabar Brahmans, and other castes above the among Nayars. The Nambutiris form the socio-spiritual arislight).

tocracy of Malabar,
of Parasu

and, as

the traditional

landlords
in

Rama's

land, they are

everywhere held

great

reverence.

when questioned about the past, refers to the Keralolpatti. The Nambutiris and their organization according to gramams owe their origin in legend, so far as Malabar is concerned, to Parasu Rama. Parasu Rama (Rama of the axe), an incarnation of Vishnu, had,
Nambutiri,
according to the puranic story, slain his mother
of wrath,
in

fit

and was advised by the sages

to expiate his sin

by extirpating the Kshatriyas twenty-one times.

did so, and handed over the land to the sages.

He
this

But

annoyed the Brahmans exceedingly, for they got no share so they banished Parasu Rama in the arrangement
;

from the land. from

Varuna,

By

the

performance of austerities he

gained from the gods the boon to reclaim some land

the sea god.

Malabar was then nonhis

existent.

He

was allowed to throw

all

axe from Cape

Comorin, and possess

his throw.

the land within the distance of

his

So he threw

axe as

far as

Gokarnam

in

the South Canara district, and immediately there was land

between these two

western ghats,

places, within the direct line

and the
he

now

consisting of Travancore and Cochin,

Malabar, and part of South Canara.

To

this land

* With the exception of the notes by Mr. Subramani Aiyar,

this article

is

reproduction, with very slight changes, of an account of the Nambiitiris by Mr. F.

Fawcett, which has already been published in the Madras Bulletin Series (III,
1900).

I,

153

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

gave the name Karma Bhumi, or the country in which salvation or the reverse depends altogether on man's individual actions, and blessed it that there be plenty of

But he was alone. To relieve his loneliness, he brought some Brahmans from the banks of the Krishna river, but they did not remain long,
rain
in
it.

and no famine

l^hen he brought some Brahmans from the north, and, lest they too should flee, gave them peculiar customs, and located

for

they were

frightened

by the snakes,

them
female
nur,

in

sixty-four

follow the

gramams. He told them marumakkattayam law of succession

also to
(in the

line),

but only a few, the Nambiitiris of Payya-

obeyed him.

The Brahmans

ruled the land with

into

severity, so that the people

(who had somehow come

existence) resolved

to have a king under

whom

they

could live in peace.

And, as

it

was impossible to choose

one among themselves, they chose Keya Perumal, who was the first king of Malabar, and Malabar was called

Keralam
the sea
is is

after him.

The

truths underlying this legend

are that the littoral strip between the western ghats and
certainly of recent formation geologically.
it

It

was under the sea, and it is certain that the Nambutiris came from the north. The capital of the Chera kingdom was very
not very long, geologically, since

probably on the west coast not

in the

far
it

from Cranganore
being

Travancore State, the

site of
still

now

called

Tiruvanjikkulam.

There

is

a Siva temple there,

it

and about a quarter of a mile to the south-west of

are the foundations of the old palace.

The

rainfall of

Malabar
hills to

is

very high, ranging from

300 inches

in the

about 120 inches on the coast.

is

" It

said that

Parasu

Rama

ruled that

all

Nambudri

women

should carry with them an umbrella whenever

they go out, to prevent their being seen by those of the

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
male
sex, that a

154
called a Vrishali should

Nayar woman
foot,

invariably precede them, that they should be covered

with a cloth from neck to

and that they should not

These women are therefore always attended by a Nayar woman in their outdoor movements, and they go sheltering their faces from public gaze with a
wear jewels.
cadjan (palm
leaf)

umbrella."*

The
in

KcM-alolpatti relates the story of the exclusion of

the Panniyiir

Brahmans from the Vedas.

There were

the beginning two religious factions among the

Namin

butiris, the

Vaishnavas or worshippers of Vishnu

;

his

incarnation as a boar, and the Saivas

in

the former residing

latter in

Panniyiir (boar village),

and the

Chovur

(Siva's village).

The

Saivas

gained the

upper hand,

and, completely dominating the others, excluded

altogether from the Vedas.

them So now the Nambutiris of

prohibition
is

Panniyiir are said to be prohibited from studying the

Vedas.

It

is

said,

however, that this

fact,

not observed, and that, as a matter of

the Panniyiir

Nambutiris perform
recorded

all

the Vedic ceremonies.

" Tradition," Mr.

in

N. Subramani Aiyar writes, " as

the Keralamahatmiya, traces the Nambiitiris

to Ahikshetra,
to
settle
in

whence Parasu Rama invited Brahmans his newly reclaimed territory. In view to
it,

preventing the invited settlers from relinquishing

is

he

on the advice of the sage Narada, certain deep and distinctive changes in their personal, domestic, and communal institutions. The banks of the Nerbudda, the Krishna, and the Kaveri are believed to have given Brahmans to Malabar. I
said to have introduced,

have come across Nambutiris who

have referred to

traditions in their families regarding villages on the east

N. Subramani Aiyar, Malabar Quart. Review, VII,

I,

190S.


155

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

came, and the Vadama, Brihatcharanam, Ashtasahasram, Sanketi, etc., to which they Even to this day, an east coast Brahman of belonged.
coast
their ancestors originally

whence

sub-divisions of the Smarta caste,

the VadadcsattLi

Vadama
Broach

caste

has to pour water into

the hands of a Nambutiri Sanyasi as part of the latter's

breakfast ritual.
in

Kathiwar, one of the greatest

is

emporiums of trade
Brahmans.

in the

middle ages,

also mentioned

as one of the ancient recruiting districts of the Nambutiri

Broach was the ancient Bhrigucachchha,

his

where Parasu Rama made

and where to
this

avabhritasnana

(final

bathing) after his great triumph over the Kshatriyas,

day a

set of

people called Bhargava

Brahmans
is

live.

Their comparatively low social status

ascribed to the original sin of their

Brahman progeniis

tor or founder having taken to the profession of arms.

The

date of the

first

settlement of the Nambutiris

not

known.
to the

Orthodox

tradition

would place

it

in

the Tretareference

yuga, or the second great Hindu cycle.

The

the

gramams of Chovvur and Panniyur contained in Manigramam Syrian Christian grant of the eighth
its

century, and

absence

in the Jewish,

have suggested

to antiquarians

some time between the seventh and

eighth centuries as the probable period.

The

writings of

Ptolemy and the Periplus furnish evidence of Brahman

settlements on the Malabar coast as early as the
century, and
families
it

first

is

probable that immigrant

Brahman

began

to

pour

in

with the ascendancy of the

Western Chalukya kings in the fourth and fifth centuries, and became gradually welded with the pre-existing Nambutiris. All these Nambutiris were grouped under (a) the Vaishnavites or Panniyur two great sections Gramakkar, who came with the patronage of the
:

Vaishnavites of the Chalukya dynasty with the boar as

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
their

156

[d) the Saivites or Chovvur emblem Gramakkar, who readily accepted the Saivite teachings from the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings who followed the Chalukyans. They included in all sixty-four gramams, which, in many cases, were only families. Of these, not more than ten belong to modern Travancore. These gramams constituted a regular autocracy, with four talis

royal

or administrative bodies having their head-quarters at

Cranganore.

It

appears that a Raja or Perumal, as he

was

called,

from the adjoining Chera kingdom, including

the present districts of Salem and Coimbatore, was, as an

improved arrangement, invited

period,

to rule for

aduodecennial

and was afterwards confirmed, whether by the

lapse of time or by a formal act of the

it

Brahman owners

is

not known.

isolation

The Chera Viceroys, by virtue of their from their own fatherland, had then to arrange
being made, as best they could, with

for marital alliances

the highest indigenous caste, the Nambutiris, the males

consorting with Sudra women.

of

The

matriarchal form

inheritance

was

thus

necessary

consequence.

Certain tracts of Kerala, however, continued under direct

Brahman

sovereignty, of which the Ettappalli chief

is

almost the only surviving representative."

Writing
serves * that
capacities of

in

the eighteenth century,

"

Hamilton obfirst

the Nambouries are the

State,

in

both

Church and
Sovereign

and some of them are

in

Popes,
the

being

Princes

both."

Unlike
Presi-

Brahmans

of the remainder of the

all

Madras

dency,

who

so largely absorb

appointments worth
in trade, in,

having under Government,

who engage

one

may

say, every profitable profession and business, the Nambutiris hold almost entirely aloof from what the poet

A New

Account of the East

Indies, 1744.

157

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
strife,"

Gray

calls

"the busy world's ignoble

and,

more

than any class of Brahmans,

position,

retain

their

sacerdotal
are for

which

is

of course the highest.

They

the most part landholders.

very large portion

of

Malabar

is

owned by Nambutiris,
is

especially in Wallu-

vanad, most of which taluk

the property of Nambutiris.

land,

They

are

the

aristocracy

of the

impressively by two characteristics,

simplicity.

marked most exclusiveness and

to
ai

Now
but,
is

and then a Nambutiri journeys

a
rule,

Benares,
simplicity

as

he stays

home.

Their

really proverbial,*

and they have not been

1 his contact,
race, has left

influenced by contact with the English.

which has influenced every other caste or

the Nambutiri just where he

was before the English knew India. He is perhaps, as his measurements seem to prove, the truest Aryan in Southern India, and not only physically, but in his customs, habits, and ceremonies, which
if

are so welded into him that forsake them he cannot

he

would.

It is

noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that " as

a class, the Nambudiris

may be

described as less affected

than any other caste, except the very lowest, by western

influences of whatever nature.
to

One Nambudiri
Government

is

known
;

have accepted a

clerical post in

service

a good

many are Adhigaris (village headmen), and one member of the caste possesses a Tile-works and is partner in a Cotton-mill. The bicycle now claims several among the caste, and photography at least one votaries
other.

But these are exceptions, and exceptions which,

unimportant as they

may seem

to

any one unacquainted

with the remarkable conservatism of the caste, would

certainly have caused considerable surprise to the author

of the

first

Malabar Manual."
believe that Europeans have
tails.

The Nambutiris everywhere

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

158

Concerning the occupations of the Nambutiris, Mr.

Subramani Aiyar writes that

a means
of living
is

" service in temples, unless

very remunerative, does not attract them.

Teaching as
if

rank heterodoxy.

And,

anywhere
is

Manu's dictum
observed,
left
it

to the
in

Brahman

Never serve'

strictly

is

Malabar.

by

travellers,

Judging from the records the Nambutiris used to be selected

concerninof them.

by kings as messengers during times of war. Writing Barbosa states that " these are the
messengers who go on the road from one kingdom to

another with letters and

they pass
in safety

money and merchandise, because

at war.

without any one molesting them, even

though the king may be

well read

These Brahmans are many books, and are learned and masters of many arts and so the kings honour them as such." As the pre-historic heirs to the entire land of Kerala, the Nambutiris live on agriculture.

....

and

possess

But inefficiency
operates

in

adaptation to changing environments

as a severe

handicap

in

the

race for pro-

gressive affluence, for which the

initial

equipment was
incidental to

exceptionally favourable.

The

difficulties

an

effete

landlordism have contributed to making the

litigious population,

Nambutiris a

and the ruinous scale

girl,

of expenditure necessary for the disposal of a of the most plebeian kind,

be

it

has brought their general

prosperity to a very low level.

The feeling of responsible

is

co-operation on the part of the unmarried males of a

Nambutiri household
fast

in

the interests of the family

;

decreasing

old maids are increasing

and the

lot

of

the average Nambutiri man, and more especially

is

woman,

very hard indeed.

As

matters

now

stand, the tradi-

tional hospitality of the

Hindu

kings of Malabar, which,

is

fortunately for them, has not yet relaxed,

the only suste-

nance and support of the ordinary

Nambutiri.

The

159
characteristic features of the

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
Nambutiri are
as
his faith in

God

and resignation to his

veracity,

will, hospitality

to strangers,

scrupulous

punctiliousness

regards

the

ordinances prescribed, and extreme gentility in manners.

The
is

sustaining

power of

hib belief in divine

providence

so ereat, that calamities of whatsoever kind

do not

exasperate him unduly.

The

story

is

told with great

admiration of a Nambutiri who, with his large ancestral

house on

fire,

his only

son just tumbled into a deep

servant

disused well, while his wife was expiring undelivered,

quietly
called

out

to

his

for

his

betel-box.

Evening

baths,

and daily prayers

at sunrise,

noon and
is

sunset, are strictly observed.

tradition, illustrative of

the miracles which spiritual power can work,

told of the islet in

often

the Vempanat

lake

known

as Patirainto

manal

(midnight

sand)

having

been

conjured

existence by the Tarananallur Nambutiripad, when, during

a journey to Trivandrum,

it

was past evening, and the

prayers to Sandhya had to be

ablutions.

made

after

the

usual

To
is

the

low^er animals,

the attitude of the

In his rela-

Nambutiri

one of child-like innocence.

is

tion to man, his guilelessness

a remarkable feature.
to the Nambutlris,

Harshness of language

is

unknown

and
his

it is

commonly

said that the severest expression of

is

resentment at an insult offered

a hundred times over.
is

generally that he

(the Nambutiri) expects the adversary to take back the

insult

Of

course, the

modern

Nambutiri
purity,

not the unadulterated specimen of goodness,

But, on the whole,

and piety that he once was.

the Nambutiris form an interesting community, whose

existence
antiquity.
is

indeed a treasure untold to

all

lovers of
is,

however, far from re-assuring. They are no doubt the traditional owners of Kerala, and hold in their hands the

Their present economic condition

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
janmom
Malabar.
or

l6o
a large portion of

proprietary interest in

But their woeful want of accommodativeness

to the altered conditions of present

their ruin.

day

life

threatens to be

Their simplicity and absence of business-like

habits have

made them a prey

is

to intrigue, fraudulence,

and

grievous neglect,

and an unencumbered and well

ordered estate
least in

a rarity

among Malabar Brahmans,

is

at

Travancore."
of the Nambiitiri

The orthodox view

in
is

thus stated

an
holy

official
;

document of Travancore.
are

"His person
his
is

his directions
;

commands
is

movements
the holiest
of

are a procession

his
;

meal

nectar

he

human beings he is the representative It may be noted that the priest at earth."
of of Badrinath
established
in

god on
been

the temple

Gurhwal, which

is

said to have
at

by Sankaracharya, and

the temple at

Tiruvettiyur, eight miles north of Madras, must be a

Nambutiri.
in

The

birth-place of Sankara has been located

a small village

named Kaladi
is

in

Travancore.
" at

It

is

stated by Mr. Subramani Aiyar that

some

part of his

eventful

life,

Sankara

believed to have returned to his

native village, to do the last offices to his mother.

assistance

Every

was withdrawn, and he became so helpless that he had to throw aside the orthodox ceremonials of cremawhich he could not get
sacrificial pit in his

tion,

his relations to help

him

in,

made a
can
still

garden, and there consigned

his mother's mortal remains.

The compound

(garden)

be seen on the banks of the Periyar river on the

side,

Travancore

with a masonry wall enclosing

the

crematorium, and embowered by a thick grove of trees."

Every Nambutiri
of the

is,

theoretically, a life-long student

Vedas.

Some admit

that

religious

study
;

or

exercise occupies a bare half hour in the day

others
certain

devote to these a couple of hours or more.

It is

l6i

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

under close study between the ages of seven and fifteen, or for about eight years of his
is is allowed to interfere with Should circumstances compel interruption of Vedic this. study, the whole course is, I believe, re-commenced and

that every Nambutiri

Hfe,

and nothing whatsoever

gone through da capo. A few years ago, a Nambutiri boy was wanted, to be informally examined in the matter
of a dacolty in his
alone,
as,

father's illam

but he had to be

left

among

other

unpleasant consequences of

beinsf treated as a witness, he

would have had

to besfin

again his whole course of Vedic study.

are probably

The Nambutiris
any other

more

familiar with Sanskrit than

Brahmans, even though their scholarship may not be of a high order, and certainly none other is to the same
extent governed by the letter of the law handed
Sanskrit.

down

in

As
priests.

already said, the Nambutiris are for the

most

part landholders, or of that class.

they

The rich have spend much money.

their

They are also temple own temples, on which

there,

All over Malabar there are

to be seen Pattar

Brahmans, wandering here and

fed free at the illams of rich Nambutiris, or at the var-

ious kovilakams

and temples.

And

they are always to

be found at important ceremonial functions, marriage

or the like, which they attend uninvited, and receive a

small

money

present (dakshina).
unless invited.

But the Nambutiri

never o-oes anywhere,

seen, the presents to

From what
:

have

Brahmans on these occasions are

usually given on the following scale

eight

annas to

each Nambutiri, six annas to each Embrantiri, four annas The Nambutiri is sometimes to each Pattar Brahman.
a money-lender.

Of

the two divisions, Nambutiri and Nambutiripad,

the latter are supposed to be stricter, and to rank higher

V-II

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
than the former.
often

162
is

Pad, meaning power or authority,

used to

all

Nambutiris when addressing them.

Thus, some
Nambutiris.

who
It

are called Nambutiripads

may

really

be

may

not be strictly correct to divide the

Nambutiris thus,

for neither so-called division is sepa-

The class distinctions are more properly denoted the Adhyan and Asyan, of which the former is the higher. An Adhyan
rated from the other by interdiction of marriage.
is

never a priest

he

is

a being above even such functions

as are

sacerdotal in the temple.

But there are also

of

divisions according to the

number
:

yagams

or sacrifices

performed by individuals, thus

the

Somatiri or Somayaji,
A man
may
reach

Akkitiri or Agnihotri, and Adittiri.

first

stage of these three, and become an Addittiripad by going through a certain ceremony. At this, three

Nambutiri Vaidikars, or

men

well versed in the Vedas,

must

officiate.

square

pit is

made.

Fire raised by

between two pieces of pipal (Ficus religiosd) wood with a little cotton is placed in it. This fire is
friction

called aupasana.
until

The ceremony cannot be performed

It
is

after marriage.

only

those

belonging to
and, by so

certain gotras

who may perform yagams,

doing, acquire the three personal distinctions already

named.
Report,

Again, there are other divisions according to

professions.
1

Thus
"

it

is

noted,

in the

Cochin Census

90 1, that
;

the

Adhyans

are to study the

Vedas

and Sastras
(literally

they are prohibited from taking parannam

meals belonging to another), from taking part

in the funeral

ceremonies of others, and from receiving

sacrifice of adhana are

presents.

Those who perform the

known
called

as Aditiris, those

Somayagis or

who perform some yaga are Chomatiris, while those who perform
Only married The Nayar

agni are called Agnihotris or Akkitiris.

men

are qualified to perform the sacrifices.

63

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
performance of these

is

an indispensable factor

in the

sacrifices.

Sastras

and teach the the Orthikans are to teach the Vedas, and to
Bhattatiris are to study

The

officiate as family priests.

The Vadhyans
are

are to teach

the Vedas, and to supervise the moral conduct of their

pupils.

The Vydikans
and
to

the

highest authority to

decide what does or does not constitute violation of caste

rules,

prescribe

expiatory ceremonies.

The

Smarthas are to study the Smritis and other Sastras

relating to customs, with the special object of qualifying

themselves to preside over caste panchayats, or courts,

and to

investigate,

under the orders of the sovereign,

cases of conjugal infidelity arising

among the Nambutiris.

committed

The

rulers of

Cochin and Travancore issue the writs

in the case of offences

convening the committee

within their territory.

The Zamorin

of Calicut,
to exercise
to

and
the
cases

other Chiefs or Rajas, also continue

privilege

of

issuing

such orders in regard

occurring in Malabar.
priests in temples.

The

Tantris officiate

as high

There They Adhyans among this class also. Having received weapons from Parasu Rama and practiced the art of war, the Sastrangakars are treated as somewhat degraded Brahmans. They are prohibited from studying the
also practice exorcism.

are

Vedas, but are entitled to muthalmura, that

the Vedas, or hearing them recited once.
to devote their time

is,

reading

Having had

and energy to the practice of the art of war, they could not possibly spend their time in the study of the Vedas. The Vaidyans or physicians,

known

as Mussads, are to study the medical science,

and to practice the same. As the profession of a doctor necessitates the performance of surgical operations
entailinof the

shedding of blood, the Mussads are also consi-

dered as slightly degraded.

V-II B

They too

are entitled only to


NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
muthalmura.
164

Of

these, there are eight families,

known

as Ashta Vaidyans.

The Gramanis

are alleged to have

suffered degradation by reason of their having, at the

command

Rama, undertaken the onerous duties of protecting the Brahman villages, and having had, as
of Parasu

Rakshapurushas or protectors, to discharge the functions assigned to Kshatriyas.

Ooril Parisha Mussads

are supposed to have undergone degradation on account

of
their

having
sin of

accepted

from

Parasu

Rama

the

accumulated

having killed the warrior Kshatriyas

thrice seven times, along with

immense

gifts in the

shape

of landed estates.

They

are

not allowed to read the

Vedas even once." " There are," Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes, " sub-divisions am.ong the Nambutiris, which may
referred to
(i)
:

five

be

TampuTakkal.

This

is

a corruption of the
reference to

Sanskrit

temporal as

name Samrat, and has probable much as to secular sovereignty.

in

Tampurakkal families and Azhvancheri, the

spiritual

Of the two South Malabar, Kalpancheri

now
in

latter alone

remains.

As
(i) (2)

Samrats (sovereigns) they are entitled to

an assembly,
lore,

bhadrasanam, or the highest position

sequent sanctity,

brahmavarchasa, or authority in Vedic

(3)

and con-

Brahmans,

(4)

brahmasamragyam, or lordship over sarvamanyam, or universal acknowledg-

ment of reverence. Once in six years, the Azhvancheri Tampurakkal is invited by the Maharaja of Travancore, who accords him the highest honours, and pays him the homage of a sashtanganamaskaram, or prostration obeisance.
class in all
all

Even now, the Samrats form a saintly Malabar. Though considered higher than
endogamous community.

other sub-divisions of Nambutiris, they form, with

the Adhyas, an

l65
(2)

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
eight
families,

Adhyas.

They

form

called

Ashtadhyas, and are said by tradition to be descended

from the eight sons of a great Brahman sage,

who

lived

on the banks of the river Krishna.

lated
spirituality

The

fund of accumuis

inherited

from remote ancestors

considered to be so large that sacrifices (yagas),

as vanaprastha

as well

and sanyasa (the two

in descent.

last

stages of the

Brahman's
for

life),

are reckoned as being supererogatory

even the
in

last

They
in

are,

however, very

strict

the

observance of religious ordinances, and

themselves
the
are

constantly engage
of

reverent study

Hindu

scriptures.

The
as

Tantris
their

Adhyas with
function.
priests,

temple

administration

specialised

They
ritual.

are the constituted gurus of the temple

final

and are the

authorities in

all

matters of temple

(3)

Visishta.

These are of two

classes,

Agnihotris

and

Bhattatiris.
:

The former

are the ritualists, and are

of three kinds

(i) Akkittiris, (2) Adittiris,

agnichayanayaga,

mony
the

of agniadhana, (3)
sacrifice.

who have performed the who have done the cereChomatiris, who have performed
Bhattatiris are the philosophers,

soma

The
of

and

are, in

spirit of judicious
all

economy, which
caste

is

the

characteristic feature

early

proscriptions,

actually prohibited from trenching

on the province of the

They study tarkka (logic), vedanta (religious philosophy or theology), vyakarana (grammar), mimamsa
Agnihotris.
(ritualism), bhatta,

from which they receive their name,

six sciences of the early

and prabhakara, which are the

Nambutiris.

They were
Under

the great religious teachers of

Malabar, and always had a large number of disciples

about them.

this

head come the Vadyars or

at
in British

heads of Vedic schools, of which there are two, one

Trichur in Cochin, and the other at Tirunavai

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
Malabar
;

66

the six VaicUkas or expounders of the caste

canons, and the

Smartas,

who

preside at the smartaof

vicharams
Malabar.

or

socio-moral

tribunals

Brahmanical

(4) Sd7ndnyas.
tariat,
is

They

form the Nambutiri proleis

from

whom

the study of the Vedas

all

that

expected.

They take up

the study of mantravada

(mystic enchantment), puja (temple ritual), and reciting

the sacred accounts of the Avatara and astrology.

(5)

Jdtimatras.

The

eight

leading
are,

physician

families of Malabar, or
ble

Ashta Vaidyas,

by an inexcusa-

misuse of language, called Gatimatras or nominal

Nambutiris.

The
They

class of

Nambutiris called Yatrakalik-

kar (a corruption of Sastrakalikkar) also comes under

this head.

are believed to be the Brahmans,

who

accepted the profession of arms from their great founder.

Those

that actually received the territory from the hands

of Parasu

Rama,

called

Adhyas, are also

Gramani Nambutiris or Gramani Gatimatras. They were the virtual

sovereigns of their respective lands.

The

physicians,

the soldiers, and the landed kings, having other duties to

perform, were not able to devote

recitations.

all their

time to Vedic

The mutalmura

or

first

study was, of course,

gone through. In course of time, this fact was unfortunately taken by the religious conscience of the people to lower the Brahmans who were deputed under the scheme
of Parasu

Rama

for special functions in the service of

the nation in the scale of Nambutiri society, and to a formal prohibition as of

in

mean

men unworthy
who

to be

engaged

Vedic study.
Papagrastas are Nambutiris,
are supposed to

have questioned the divine nature of Parasu Rama.

The

Urilparisha Mussus,

who

too are

Brahmans who

received gifts of land from Parasu

Rama, the Nambitis,


16;

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
Gramakkar

the Panniyur Gramakkar, and the Payyanur

or the

Ammuvans

(uncles), so called

from their matri-

archal system

of inheritance,

form other sections of

Nambutiris."
It
is

recorded, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901,

that " certain special privileges in regard to the perform-

ance of religious

rites

and other matters of a purely

social nature serve as the best basis for a sub-division

of the Nambutiris in the order of social precedence as

recognised amongst themselves.

privileges

For this purpose, the may be grouped under two main classes, as

given

in the following

mnemonic formula

A
1.

Edu

(the leaf of a cadjan

grandha or book)

the right of studying and teaching the Vedas

and Sastras.
2.

Piccha (mendicancy symbolic of family priests)

the right of officiating as family priests.

3.

Othu

(Vedas)

the

right

of

studying

the

Vedas.
4.

Adukala (kitchen)
classes of

the right of cooking for

all

Brahmans.
:

5.

Katavu (bathing place or ghat) the right of bathing in the same bathing place with other
Brahmans,
person
services.

or

the right of touching after

bathing, without

thereby disqualifying the

for

touched

performing

religious

B
1.

Adu

(sheep):

the right

of

performing

holy

sacrifices.
2.

Bhiksha (receiving alms)

ing a Sanyasi.

the right of becom-

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
3.

l68
the right

Santhi (officiating as temple priests)

of performing priestly functions in temples.

4.

Arangu

(stage)

the right of taking part in the

performance of Sastrangam Nambudris.

5.

Panthi (row of eaters)

the

the right of messing in

same row with other Brahmans.

privilege of No.
i

Those who enjoy the

No.
in
2

in

are

entitled to all the privileges in

and

those enjoying
2

and

m A have all the privileges from B those having No. 3 in ^4

;

No.
in

downwards
all

have similarly

the privileges from No. 3

so on.

downwards
No.
;

and B, and
all

Those

entitled to
i

in

have

the

privileges except No.

in

similarly those entitled to

No.
in

2 in

have

all

the privileges from No. 2

downwards

B, but only from No. 3 downwards in A, and so on."

Among

the people of good caste in Malabar, to speak

of one as a hairy

Yet, putting

man is to speak aside Muhammadans,

is

of

him reproachfully.
all,

the highest of
In the

the

Nambutiris are certainly the most hairy.

Nambutiri, the hair on the head

young
and

plentiful, glossy,

wavy.

The

hair

is

allovv-ed to
little
is is

grow over an
it

oval patch

from the vertex or a

the
forehead.
hair thus

behind

to a little

back from
fashion.

This

the

regular

Malabar

The

grown

done

into a knot

hanging over
also the face

the forehead or at one side according to fancy, never

hanging behind.
is

The

rest of the head,

and

shaved.
is

The whole

body, excepting this knot and

Karkkadakam, Kanni, and Dhanu are months in which shaving should be avoided as far as possible. An auspicious day
shaved periodically.

the back,

Kumbham

always selected by the Nambutiri for being shaved. Gingelly oil (enna) is commonly used for the hair. When
is

a Nambutiri 's wife

is

pregnant, he refrains from

the

barber, letting his hair

grow

as

it

will.

And, as he may

69

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

have as many as four wives, and he does not shave when

any of them

is

in

an interesting condition, he some-

times has a long beard.

marked

difference observed

between the Nambutiri and those

lower races,
is this.

allied to him,

and the
in the
in

The former have whiskers

shape of a

full

growth of hair on the cheeks, while

the

latter this is scanty or entirely absent.

Also, while the

chest, the others

Nambutiris have very commonly a hairy

have

little

or no hair on the chest.

legs.

So, too, in the case

of hair on the arms and

One Nambutiri examined

ribs.

had hair

all

over the body, except over the

In connection with a hypothesis that the

Todas of

the Niloriris are an offshoot of one of the races

existing in
follows.*
"

now

Malabar,

Dr.

W. H.

R.

Rivers writes as

Of

all

the castes or tribes of Malabar, the

Nambutiris

perhaps

show the

greatest

number
it

of
is

resemblances to the customs of the Todas, and

therefore interesting to note that Mr. Fawcett describes

these people as the hairiest of

all

the races of Malabar,

and especially notes that one individual he

like

examined was
that

a Toda."
It
is

noted

by Mr. Subramani Aiyar

than a foot long,
in

"the

Nambutiris are passionate growers of

are sometimes

finger-nails,

which

more

and serve several

the Nambutiri
Locally-

useful purposes.
is

As

everything

else,

orthodox

even

in

the

matter of dress.

manufactured cloths are alone purchased, and Indian

publicists
tries

who

deplore the crushing of indigenous indus-

by the importation of foreign goods may congratulate

Silk
sex.

the Kerala Brahmans on their protectionist habits.

and coloured cloths are not worn by either

style of dress
is

peculiar.

That

of the males

is

The known as

The Todas,

1906.

NAMBUTIRJ BRAHMAN
tattutukkuka.

70

Unlike

the

Nayar

dress,

which

the

Nambutiris wear during other than religious hours, the

worn has a portion passing between the thighs and tucked in at the front and behind, with the front portion arranged in a number of characteristic reduplications. The Nambutiri wears wooden shoes, but never shoes made of leather. Nambutiri women have two styles of
cloth
dress,
viz.,

okkum koluttum vachchutukkuka

for

the

Adhyans, and ngoringutukkuka

for ordinary Nambutiris.

Undyed

cloths constitute the daily wearing apparel of

It
is

Nambutiri women.
other ceremonials,
all

interesting to notice that

(sacrifice),

all

Brahman women, during a yagnam

in favour of the old,

when, as

at

recent introductions are given up

cloths.

wear undyed

Beyond

plain

finger-rings

and a golden amulet

(elassu) attached to the

waist-string, the

Nambutiri wears no ornaments.

His

worn unless he is an when ear-pendants of an elongated pattern Agnihotri, (kundalam) are used. The ornaments of the Nambutiri
ears are bored, but no ear-rings are

women have
as
it

several peculiarities.

Gold bracelets
the

are,

were,

proscribed

even

for

most wealthy.

Hollow bangles of brass or bell-metal for ordinary Nambutiris, and of solid silver for the Adhyas, are the
ones
in

use.

The

chuttu

is

their

ear
is

ornament.

A
and

peculiar

necklace called cheru-tali

also worn,

beneath this Adhya

women wear

three garlands of manis

or gold pieces, along with other jewels called kasumala,

puttali,

and
a

kazhuttila.

The Nambutiris do
in this

not bore
respect,

their noses or

wear nose-rings, and,

contrast
to

present

striking

the

Nayar
tali, is

women.
placed on

No restriction,
is

except the removal of the

the use of ornaments

by Nambutiri women.

Tattooing

taboo

to

Nambutiri women.

They

put

on three

horizontal lines of sandal paste after bathing.

These


171

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

marks have,

in the case of

shape (ampilikkuri).

Adhya women, a crescentic Kunkuma, or red powder, is never

to the forehead.
for the face
that,
is

appHed by Nambutiri women powder as a cosmetic wash Mr. Fawcett states vogue.
turmeric
is
is

Turmeric
also not in

on

festive occasions,

used by the Brahmans of Malabar.

But

this

not borne out by the usage in Travancore.

Eye-

salves are applied, and

lines

may be seen extending

side."

as dark

up to the ears on either

The ornaments and marks worn by

(i)

individual
:

Nambutiri males are thus recorded by Mr. Fawcett

Left hand: gold ring with large green stone

finger
;

on

first

four plain gold rings

on

third finger

a ring,
finger.

in

which an anavarahan coin is set, on little This is a very lucky ring. Spurious imitations
it

are often set in rings, but

is

the genuine coin which

:

brings good luck.

Right hand

two plain gold

rings,

and a pavitram on the third finger. The pavitram is of about the thickness of an ordinary English wedding ring, shaped like a figure of eight, with a dotted
pattern at each side, and the rest plain.
It is

made

of gold, but, as every Nambutiri must wear a pavitram

while

performing

or

undergoing certain ceremonies,

those

who do

not possess one of gold wear one

made

of

darbha grass.
of darbha grass
(2)

They do
is

not say

so,

but

think the ring

orthodox.

Golden amulet-case fastened to a string round the waist, and containing a figure (yantram) written or marked on a silver plate. He had worn it three on because he used to feel hot during the cool season, and attributed the circumstance
years,

having put

it

to the influence of an evil spirit.

(3)

Youth, aged
left

12.

Wears a yak

skin sash, an

inch wide, over the

shoulder, fastened at the ends by

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
a thong of the same skin.
seven, and will wear
it

172

He
he

put
is

it

on when he was

till

fifteen,

when he

will

have completed

his

course

of Vedic study.

ring,

hanging to a string

in front of his throat, called

modiram,

was put on in the sixth month when he was named, and be worn until he is fifteen. The ears are pierced. He wears two amulets at the back, one of gold, the In each are some chakrams (Travancore other of silver. silver coins), and a gold leaf, on which a charm is inscribed. One of the charms was prepared by a
will

Mappilla, the other by a Nambutiri.

(4)

Black spot edged with yellow

in

the centre of the

forehead.

Three horizontal white stripes on the forehead. dab on each arm, and a stripe across the chest.
(5)

Black

spot

near
it.

glabella,

and two yellow

the chest, with

horizontal stripes near

The same on

the spot between the

(6)

lines.

Red

spot and white stripe on the forehead.

in front

A red

dab over the sternum, and on each arm

of the deltoid.
(7)

An

oval,

cream-coloured spot with red centre,

over the glabella.
chest are generally
(nuts
<d{

an inch

in greatest length,

The stripes on the forehead and made with sandal paste. Rudraksha
worn.

EIcbo carpus

Ganitrus) necklaces, mounted in gold, are sometimes

The thread worn by men over the left shoulder is made of a triple string of country-grown cotton, and,
unlike other
is

Brahmans

of Southern
It

India,

no change

made

after marriage.

may be changed on any

once a year.

auspicious day.

Brahmans of Southern India outside

their thread

Malabar change

Concerning the habitations of the Nambutiris, Mr.

Subramani Aiyar writes as

follows.

"

Nambutiri's

173

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

house stands within a compound (grounds) of its own. Each house has its own name, by which the members
are known, and
is

called

by the generic

title
is

of illam, the

term used by Brahmans, or mana, which

expression of Sudras and others.

the reverential

words are found combined,

tamarind, mango, and jak,

e.g.,

Sometimes the two Itamana illam. In the

trees

compound surrounding the

house,

such as

the

grow
is

in

shady luxuriance.
;

The

area of the
in

compound
is

very extensive

in fact,

no

house

Malabar

surrounded by a more picturesque or

that of the Nambutiri.

more spacious garden than

tains of
all

Plan-

varieties are cultivated,

and yams of various

kinds and peas in their respective seasons.

is

A tank (pond)
most Nambutiri

an inseparable accompaniment, and,

in

houses, there are three or four of them, the largest being

used for bathing, and the others for general and kitchen
purposes.

Whenever
it,

there

is

a temple of any importance

in the

near at

hand, the Nambutiri may prefer to bathe

tank attached to

but his favourite ghat

is

always the

tank near his home, and owned

by him.

Wells are
is

never used for bathing, and a hot-water bath

as far

avoided

as possible, as plunging in a natural reservoir

would

alone

confer the

requisite

ablutional
is

purity.

Towards the north-west corner of the house

of a Malabar house.

located

the sarpakkavu or snake abode, one of the indispensables

The kavu

is

either an artificial
relic of

jungle grown on purpose in the compound, or a

the centre of the kavu

the

unreclaimed primeval jungle, which every part of Malabar

once was.

Right

in

is

the carved

granite image of the cobra, and several flesh-and-blood

representatives of the figure haunt the house, as

if

in

recognition of the memorial raised.

In the centre of the

is

compound

is

situated the illam or mana, which

in

most

cases a costly habitat.

All the houses used until recently

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

174

to be thatched as a protection against the scorching heat

of the tropical

sun,

which a

tiled
is

house would only

essentially a square

aggravate.
building,

In form the house

consisting of several courtyards in the centre,

all

with rooms on
courtyard, a

sides.

On

the east or west of the

serves as a drawing

room having the space of two ordinary rooms room and the dormitory of the unmarried members of the house. The rest of the house
is

zenana to the stranger.

Right on the opposite side of

is

the visitor's room, beyond the central courtyard,

arappura, of massive wood- work,
preserved.

the

On

where the valuables are either side of this are two rooms, one of

which serves as a storehouse, and the other as a bedroom.

The

kitchen adjoins the visitor's room, and

In the front, which
is

is

tolerably spacious.
east of the house,
is

generally the
flat,

a spacious yard, square and

and

leading to

it is

a flight of steps, generally

made of granite.

These

steps lead to a gate-house,

house keep watch at night.

where the servants of the The whole house is built of

wood, and substantially constructed.

own.

Though the houses

appearance
all

look antiquated, they have a classical

their

To

the north-east

is

the gosala, where large

numbers of oxen and cows are housed. The furniture of a Nambutiri is extremely scanty. There are several cots,

some made of
planks.
seat,

coir (cocoanut fibre),

is

and others of wooden

The kurmasana

the Nambutiri's devotional

and consists of a jak {Artoca7'pzcs integrifolia) plank

carved in the form of a tortoise.

Other

seats, of a

round

or oblong shape, are also used, and no

Brahman addresses
and
is

himself to his meal without being seated on one of them.

Every Brahman
to
sit

visitor

is

offered one,

even pressed

on

it.

When

the writer went to a

Brahman house
a seat for

at Kalati, the native village of

Sankaracharya, and wished

the hosts not to trouble themselves

about


175

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

him, he was told that the contact of a Brahman's nates

with the floor was harmful to the house.

Hansfino- cots,

attached to the ceiling by chains of iron, are

things in a

common
the bed-

Nambutiri's house, especially

to

in

rooms.

Skins of spotted deer, used

sit

on during
of inherit-

prayers, also form part of the Nambutiri's furniture."

The Nambutiris

follow the
;

makkatayam law
so.

ance from father to son

the same

not,

however, precisely as

do the other people who do

of inheritance

as that

Nor is their system of Brahmans to the

eastward

{i.e.,

of Southern India generally), with

whom

up amongst the male members at the instance of any one of them. The Nambutiri household is described by Mr. Subramani Aiyar as representing a condition intermediate
the family property

may be

divided

between the impartible matriarchal form of the Nayars and the divided patriarchal form of the other coast. Among the Nambutiris, the eldest male member of the
family
is

the Karanavan
all

or

manager

of

it,

and has
but

complete control over

the property.
are

The younger

members

of the

family

entitled to nothing

maintenance.

The head
is

of the family

provided there

none of the other

sex.

may be a female, The eldest

son alone marries.

the recognised

The accepted practice, as well as principle among the Nambutiris, seems

expounded by
a

to be in consonance with the directions

Manu,

viz.

Immediately on the birth of his

the father of a son, and
is

first-born,

man

is

free

from the debt to the

manes.

That son
estate.

is,

therefore, worthy to receive the

whole

That son

alone,

on

whom

he throws his debt,

is

begotten for (the fulfilment of) the law.

they consider the offspring of desire.

All the rest

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
As a

176

father supports his sons, so let

let

the eldest
in

support his younger brothers, and so

them,

accord-

ance with the law, behave towards their eldest brother as sons behave towards their father.

Should a Nambutiri eldest son

ries,

die,

the next mar-

and so

on.

Women join the family of their

her
children

husband,

and to

this

too
is

belong.

Self-acquired

property, that

property acquired by any junior

member

of the family through his

own

efforts outside the tara-

vad,* lapses to the taravad at his death, unless he has

disposed of

it

in his lifetime.

This

is

the custom, which

is

our law has not yet infringed.

The

taravad

the unit,

and, as the senior male succeeds to the management,

it

may happen

that a man's sons do not succeed directly

as his heirs.

The arrangement

is

an excellent one

for

is no Every circumstance tends towards aggrandispersion. dizement, and the family is restricted to no more than a requisite number by one member only marrying, and

the material prosperity of the family, for there

producing children.
principle.
It is

Impartibility

is

the fundamental

seldom that a Nambutiri family comes to

and such a thing as a Nambutiri's estate escheating to Government has been said on eminent authority It happens sometimes that never to have been known.
an end
;

there

no male member to produce progeny, and in such a case the sarvasvadanam marriage is performed, by which a man of another family is brought into the
is
it,

family and married to a daughter of

who, after the

manner of the
so brought in

" appointed

daughter

"

of old

Hindu

law,

hands on the property through her children.

is

1 he man

henceforth a

member

of the family which

he has joined, and as such he performs the sraddha or

Taravad or tarwad
:

marumakkatayam
one

family,

consisting of

all

the

descendants

in the female line of

common

female ancestor.

z^

177

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
exception to the general

ceremonies to the dead.

rule of inheritance
in
is

An

that seventeen families of

Pa)annur
other

North Malabar follow the marumakkattayam system

through the female
at these,
line.

of inheritance,

The

Nambutiris look askance

dine with them.
It is

and neither marry nor

supposed that they are not pure

the

bred, having Kshatriya blood in their veins.

Adoption
kaiyyal dattu,
dattu.
"

among

Nambutiris

is

stated

by

Mr. Subramani Aiyar to be of three kinds, called Pattu

Chanchamata
first is

dattu,

and Kutivazhichcha
Pattukai means

The

the orthodox form.

ten hands, and indicates that five persons take part in the

ceremony, the two natural parents, the two adopted

parents,

and the son

to be adopted.

The gdtra and

same

sutra

of the natural family have to be the

as those of the
his

adoptive family.

The son adopted may have had

made without

upanayanam already performed by

his natural ]:arents.

An

adoption of this kind cannot be

all

the

members of the family, ot the Sapindas or Samanodakas who are distinct blood relations, though some degrees removed. In the second form, the
permission of
the male

adoption
duties

relieves

the

adopted

son of

all

ceremonial
as
it

towards the

natural parents.

Involving,

does, a position contrary to the established ordinances

of Sankaracharya, this kind of adoption

is

not in favour.

The third form is still less orthodox. The adoption is made by a surviving widow, and mainly serves to keep
up the lineage."
Liquor
Nambutiris.
is

and

flesh

are

strictly
is

forbidden

to

rhe

Their staple food

rice

and curry.
in

Upperi

a curry of chopped vegetables fried

ghi (clarified

butter),

cocoanut or gingelly
indicwn),
salt,

oil,

seasoned with gingelly

{Sesamiitn

and jaggery (crude sugar).

of jak fruit

Aviyal

is

another,

composed

mixed with some

V-I2

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
vegetables.

178

Sweets
rice,

are

sometimes

eaten.

Candied

cakes of wheat or

and

rice boiled in

milk with sugar

and

spices, are delicacies.

Papadams

(wafer-like cakes)

are eaten at almost every meal.

bathe,

The Nambutiri must

any meal.
fire,

and pray

to the deity before partaking of

is

An
The
It

offering of rice
rice is
is

then made to the household

some

thrown

to the crows,

and he
but,

sits

down

to eat.

food

served on a plantain leaf or a bell-metal plate.

;

should be served by the wife

Nambutiris dining with him,

dren.

it is

served by

The

sexes feed separately.

his wife

man has other men or chilBefore a man rises

if

from his meal,

must touch the

leaf or plate

on
lie

which the food has been served.

in this.

The

reason

may

The remains
rising,

of the food are called echchil, and

cannot be eaten by any one.

Just before finishing his

meal and
with his
it

the Nambutiri touches the plate or leaf

left

hand, and at the same time his wife touches

right hand.

with her

echchil,
is

and she may

eat

it.

The food is then no longer The Nambutiri householder

which rule
rice a

said to be allowed by the Sastras,

his life

in every detail, to eat but

one meal of
strictly

day

at

midday.

He

should not,

speaking, eat rice in

the evening, but he

may do

so without sinning heinously,

and usually does.

evening.
in

Fruit only should be eaten in the

Women

and children eat two or three times

is

a day.

widow, however,

supposed to lead the

life

of a Sanyasi, and eats only once a day.

eat

Nambutiri

may

food prepared by

an east country
In
fact,

Brahman
large

(Pattar), or by an
illams,

Embrantiri.

in the

where many people are fed every day, the cooks The Nambutiri are generally Pattars in South Malabar.

woman
Pattar

is

more scrupulous, and

considered to be.

will

not touch food pre-

pared by any one of a caste inferior to her own, as the

is

Tea and

coffee are objected

179
to.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

The

Sastras do not permit their use.

time, they

At the same do not prohibit them, and some Nambutiris

Persons observing vows are
oil

drink both, but not openly.

not allowed an

bath, to eat off bell-metal plates, or

to eat certain articles of food.

khai,

The gourd

called churato the

palmyra

fruit,

and palmyra jaggery are taboo

Nambutiri
larly

Water-melons are eaten reguduring the month Karkkataka, to promote health

at all times.
life.

and prolong

In connection

with

the

Nambutiri's
" their food

dietary,
is

Mr.

Subramani Aiyar
simple.

states that

extremely

As Camoens
To crown
their

writes

*
:

meal no meanest

life

expires.

Pulse, fruit,

and herb alone

their food requires.

"

Ghi

is

not in a

great

requisition,
is

Gingelly

oil

never enters the kitchen.

Milk

not taken except as

of prathaman
(first).

porridge, which goes by the

name

bolus-like preparation of boiled rice-flour

is

with cocoa-

nut scrapings, called kozhakkatta,

in

great favour,
or the

and

is

known

as

Parasu Rama's palaharam,

light refreshment originally prescribed

by Parasu Rama.
accessories,

Conji, or rice gruel, served

is

up with the usual

the Nambutiri's favourite luncheon.

Cold drinks are

rarely taken.

with

The drinking water is boiled, and flavoured coriander, cummin seeds, etc., to form a pleasant
a sacred animal, and cannot be kept.
dog, and cat are the animals ordinarily
;

beveracre."

The horse is The cow, buffalo,

kept
in

domestication

and
in
is

it

is

said that a parrot

slokas.

is

sometimes taught to repeat Sanskrit

There are

families,

magician and sorcerer

which the business of the hereditary, chiefly in South

* The Liisiad.

V-I2


NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAX
i8o

Malabar and among the Chela * Nambutiris, as those are termed who, in the turbulent period of Tippu's invasion,

were made

Muhammadans by
at

force.

True, these

returned almost

once to their own religion, but a

stigma attaches to them, and they are not looked on as

true Nambutiris.
It is

extremely

difficult to

obtain reliable information

it

regarding magic or anything allied to

and most

difficult of all

among

the Nambutiris.

among any people, They

name
of one of

possess magic books, but they will neither produce nor

expound them.
these,

Hara Mekhala
most used.
:

is

the

which

is

It

is

said that the sorcerer

aims

at the following

(i) Destruction (marana).

(2) Subjection of the will of

another (vasikarana).

(3) Exorcism (uchchatana). (4) Stupefaction (stambhana).

(5)

Separation of friends (vidveshana).

(6)

Enticement as

for love

(mohana).

Of these,
manner.
is

the

first

may be

carried out in the following

figure representing the

enemy

to be destroyed

drawn on a small sheet of metal (gold by and to it some mystic diagrams are added.
addressed with a statement that bodily

preference),
It
is

then
the

injury

or

death of the person shall take place at a certain time.

This

little

sheet
if

leaf (of gold

wrapped up in another metal sheet or possible), and buried in some place which
is
is

the person to be injured or destroyed

passing.
that the

in

the habit of

Should he pass over the

place,

it is

supposed
Instead

charm

will

take effect at the time named.

is

of the sheet of metal, a live frog or lizard

sometimes

buried within a cocoanut shell, after nails have been stuck

* Chela, the cloth worn by Mappillas
arc also Chela Nayars.

(Muhammadans
mean

in

Malabar).

Thare

The word

is

said to

the rite of circumcision.

l8l
into
its

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
The
deaths of the animal

eyes and stomach.

and the person are supposed to take place simultaneously.

For carrying out vasikarana, vidveshana, and mohana,

betel leaves, such as are ordinarily used for chewing, or

veofetables

are

somehow

or other s^iven to the victim,

who unknowingly takes them into his mouth. Exorcism may be treated as follows. If a young woman is suffering
from hysteria, and
spirit,
is

supposed to be possessed by an
excited

evil

or by the discontented spirit of

some deceased
drums,

ancestor,

nervousness

is

by

beating

blowing conch-shells, and otherwise making a horrible

noise
close
to
her.

When
is

the
is

supreme moment
sprinkled

is

believed to have arrived, water

over the

wretched woman, who

required to throw rice repeatedly

is

on certain diagrams on the ground, woven into which

a representation of the goddess Durga, the ruler of evil

spirits.

An
is

effigy of the evil spirit

is

then buried in a

copper vessel.
or Kali

By means of certain mantrams, Hanuman

some
occult

propitiated, and, with their aid, in

manner, the position of buried treasure may be found.

It is

said that the bones of a

woman who

has died imme-

diately after childbirth,

useful to the magician.

and the

fur of a black cat, are

There are
well

said to be

two Nambutiris of good

family,

known

in

South Malabar, who are expert mantra-

vadis or dealers in magic, and

who have complete

mischievous
spirit,

control

over Kuttichchattan, an

evil

whose
is

name
sets

is

a household word in Malabar.

to

He

it

who
inter-

fire

houses,

damages
"
is

cattle,

and teases

minably.

Concerning Kuttichchattan, Mr. Subramani

Aiyar writes as follows.

of

The most mischievous imp

little

Malabar demonology
as black as night,

an annoying, quip-loving
size

spirit,

and about the

and nature
people

of a well-nourished twelve-year old boy.

Some

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

182

say that they have seen him, vis-d-vis, having a forelock.

The

nature and extent of

its

capacity for evil almost

to

beggar description.
these are so

There are Nambutiris,

whom

they choose.

many missiles, which they throw at anybody They are, like Ariel, little active things,

and most willing slaves of the master under

whom

they

happen

to be placed.

Their victim
fire,

suffers

from unbear-

able agony.

His clothes take

his food turns into

ordure, his beverages

become

urine, stones fall in

showers
his

on

all

sides of him, but curiously not on him,

literal

and

bed

becomes a
man.
to

bed of thorns.

He

feels like a lost

In this way, with grim delight, the spirit continues

But,

torment his victim by day as well as by night.

all this

with

annoying mischief, Kuttichchattan, or Boy

Satan, does no serious harm.

He oppresses and harasses,

Brahman
of

but never injures.

nacheri
is

celebrated

Changa-

said to

own more than

articles

a hundred of these

Chattans.

Household

and jewelry of value can

hands on them.

be

left

on the premises of the homes guarded by Chattan,

thief dares to
lay his

and no

The
in

invisible sentry

keeps diligent watch over

for all these

his master's

property, and has unchecked powers of

movement

any
the

medium.
scale.

As remuneration

services,

Chattan demands nothing but food, but that on a large

If starved,

the Chattans would not

;

hesitate to
if

remind the master of their power

cared
for,

but,

ordinarily

they would be his most willing drudges.

is

more than a malevolent spirit. safeguard against the infinite power secured for the
nature Chattan

By As a

master by the Kuttichchattan,

acts

it

is

laid

down

that malign

committed through

his instrumentality recoil on the

prompter,

who

either dies childless,

or after frightful

physical and mental agony.

sing humanity, believed to

Another method of oppresbe in the power of sorcerers.

8.^

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
spirits
;

is

to

make men and women possessed by

puberty,
ills

women
not

being more subject to their evil influence than men.

Delayed

sterility,

and

still-births

are

uncommon

of a

woman

possessed by a

devil.

Some-

times the spirits sought to be exorcised refuse to leave

the body of the victim, unless the sorcerer promises

them

a habitation

in

the

compound

of his

own

house, and
is

arranges for daily offerings being given.

to as a matter of unavoidable necessity,

This

agreed

and money and

to

lands are conferred

upon the Nambutiri mantravadi,

his promise."

enable him to

fulfil
is

A
in

Nambutiri

not permitted to swear, or take oath

any way.

He

may, however, declare so and

hand, by

so,

holding the while his sacred thread between the thumb

and

forefi-nger of the right

way

of invoking the
call

Gayatri in token of his sincerity.

the earth mother

And he may

on

to bear witness to his words,

falsely,

for she

may, should he speak

relieve

herself of him.

The name

Supreme Being is not used in oath. Nambutiris have been known to take oath before a
of the
it

shrine, in order to settle a point in a Civil Court, but

is

not orthodox to do so.

Something has been said already concerning vows.

Those who
to the

desire

offspring
is

perform the vow called

payasahavanam.
on a

Sacrifice

Supreme Being.

child's birthday, to

made through fire (homam) Homam is also vowed to be done Here we ensure its longevity.
Nambutiri and a
For, while the

may observe a man of one of

contrast between the

the inferior castes.

vow

of the Nambutiri has assumed to

some extent the nature

of propitiatory prayer, of which those low

down

really

know
the

nothing, the other gives nothing until he has had

satisfaction of his
is

full

vow.

Mrityunjayam, or that

which conquers death,

another kind of

homam

in

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
performance of a vow.

184

further one
sin.

is

concerned with
In the
in

cleansing from any specific

Liberal presents are

is

made to vow called rudrabhisheka

secrated
water.
It
is
is

Brahmans. when the vow

the

completed.
is

god Siva

bathed

con-

performed by way of averting

the day for
it,

misfortune.

Monday

as

it is

supposed

that on that day Siva

amuses himself with Parvati by

of letting the

dancing on Kailasa.

The custom observed by Nambutiris

hair

grow on the head, face, and body, untouched by the razor, when a wife is enceinte has been noticed already.

Nambutiri who has no male issue also

in the

lets

his

hair

grow
wife.

same way

for

a year after the death of his

issue,

Should there,

however, be male

on the

eldest son devolves the duty of performing the ceremonies

connected with the funeral of

it

his

mother

(or father),

and

is

he

case,

the

who remains unshaven for a year. In such a husband of a woman remains unshaven for

twelve days (and this seems to be usual), or until after

the ceremony on the forty-first day after death.

The
is

period during which the hair

for a death, a

is

allowed to grow, whether

pregnant

wife, or

by reason of a vow,

called

diksha.

During diksha, as well as during the

articles of food,

Brahmachari period, certain

drumstick vegetable, milk,
etc.,

such as the

chillies,

gram, dhal, papadams,

writes, "
all

are prohibited.

"

Bathing,

"

Mr. Subramani Aiyar

particular.

is

one of

the most important religious duties of of

Hindus, and

Brahmans
least,

in

Nambiitiri only wants

an excuse
a day at
to

for bathing.

Every Nambutiri bathes twice and sometimes oftener. It is prohibited

sunrise, after

do so before
rite

which a bath ceases

to be

a religious
cloth,

on the other

coast.

The

use of a waistprivate

the languti excepted, during a bath in

185
or in public,
is

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
This injunction runs

also prohibited.

counter to that of the Sutrakaras,

snayat,'
i.e.,

who

say

'

Na vivasanah
fastidious

bathe not without clothing.

The

sense of bath purity occasionally takes the form of a

regular mania, and receives the not inapt description of

galappisachu or possession by a water-devil.

except under extreme physical incapacity, does a
butiri
fail

Never,

NamBefore

to

bathe

at

least

once

day."
it

concluding the bath, the cloth worn

when

was begun,
is

and

for

which another has been substituted,

wrung

out in the water.

From

this practice, a

patch of indufinger of the

rated skin between the

right
it,

thumb and
cloth
is

first

hand, where the

held

while

wringing
way.

is

commonly
in

to be seen.

Almost every Nambutiri

in this

examined

North Malabar was marked

The

Nambiitiris observe sixty-four anacharams, or

irregular customs, which are said to have been promul-

gated by the great reformer Sankaracharya.

as follows
(i)
:

These are

(2)

You must You must

not clean your teeth with sticks.

not bathe with cloths worn on your

person.
(3)

You must

not rub your body with the cloths

worn on your person.

(4)
(5)

You must not bathe before sunrise. You must not cook your food before you

bathe.

Avoid the water kept aside during the night. (7) You must not have one particular object in view while you bathe. (8) The remainder of the water taken for one
(6)

purpose must not be used

(9)

for
if

another ceremony.

You must

bathe

you touch another,

i.e.,

Sudra.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
(lo)

l86
if

Vou must bathe

a Chandala.

you happen

to

be near

another,

i.e.,

(ii)

You must bathe

if

you touch polluted wells

or tanks.
(12)

You must

not tread over a place that has

it

been cleaned with a broom, unless

water. (13)

is

sprinkled with

])articular

mode

of

marking the forehead

with ashes (otherwise described as putting three horizontal lines on the forehead with pure burnt cow-dung).
(14)

You must

repeat

charms yourself.

(You

must not allow someone else to do it.) (15) You must avoid cold rice,

etc.

(food cooked

on the previous day). (16) You must avoid leavings of meals by children.
(17)

You must

not eat anything

that

has

been

offered to Siva.
(18) (19)

You must not serve out food with your hands. You must not use the ghi of buffalo cows for
You must
not use buffalo milk or ghi
for

burnt offerings.
(20)

funeral offerings.
(21)

A
in

particular

mode

of taking food (not to put

too

much
(22)

the mouth, because none must be taken

back).

You must

not

chew

betel

while you

are

polluted.

(23)

You must observe

period
(the

the

conclusion

of

the

Brahmachari

samavarttanam

ceremony).

This should be done before consorting with Nayar

women.
(24)

You must

give

presents to

your guru

or

preceptor.

(The Brahmachari must do so.) (25) You must not read the Vedas on the

road.

iS;
(26)
girls

x\AMBUTIRI

BRAHMAN
money
for

You must

not

sell

women
in

(receive

given
(27)

in marriage).

You must
desires.

not fast

order to obtain

fulfil-

ment of your

(28) Bathing

is all

that a

woman

should observe

if

she touches another in her menses.

(A woman touching
it

another

who

is

in this state should,

is

said,

purify

herself by bathing.

A man

should change his thread,

and underq-o sacred ablution.

Women,

durinsf
is

their

periods, are not required to keep aloof, as

the custom

among non-Malabar Brahmans.)

(29) (30)
selves.

Brahmans should not spin cotton. Brahmans should not wash cloths
should
avoid

for

themthe

(31) Kshatriyas

worshipping

lingam.
(32)

Brahmans should not accept

funeral

gifts

from Sudras.
{^2>)

Perform the anniversary ceremony of your

father (father's father, mother's father

^md both grand-

mothers).
(34) Anniversary ceremonies should be performed

on the day of the new moon

spirits of the deceased).

(for

the gratification of the

(35)

The death ceremony should be performed

at

the end of the year, counting from the day of death.

(36)

The ceremony

to be performed
is

till

the end of
to).

the year after death (Diksha

{;^'/)

apparently referred

Sraddhas should be performed with regard to

the stars (according to the astronomical, not the lunar

year).

(38)

The death ceremony should

not be performed

until after the pollution

caused by childbirth has been

removed.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
(39) -^ particular

i88

mode

of performing sraddha by
for his

an adopted son (who should do the ceremony

adopted

parents

as

well as for

his

natural parents.

Among
nothing

non- Malabar Brahmans, an

to

adopted

son has

do with the ceremonies

for his natural father,

from whose family he has become entirely disconnected).

(40)

The

corpse of a

man

should be burnt

in his

own compound.
(41) Sanyasis should not look at (see) (42) Sanyasis

women.
all

should

renounce

wordly
deceased

pleasures.
(43)

Sraddha should not be performed

for

Sanyasis.

Brahman women must not look persons besides their own husbands. (45) Brahman women must not go
(44)

at

any other
unless

out,

accompanied by
(46)

women

servants.

They should wear

only white clothing.

(47) Noses should not be pierced. (48) Brahmans should be put out of

their caste

if

they drink any liquor.

(49)

Brahmans should

forfeit their caste,

if

they

have intercourse with other Brahman

their wives.

women

besides

(50)

The

consecration of evil spirits should

said
to

be
of

avoided.

(Otherwise

be

that

worship

ancestors should not be done in temples.)

(51)

Sudras and others are not to touch an

idol.

(52)

Anything

offered to

one god should not be

offered to another.
(53) Marriage, etc., should not be

done without a

burnt offering (hdmam).

(54)
other.

Brahmans should not give

blessings to each

(55)

They should

not

bow down

to

one another.

(Among

non- Malabar Brahmans, juniors receive bene-

diction from seniors.

The Nambutiris do

not allow this.)

(56) (57)

Cows should

not be killed in sacrifice.

Do

not cause distraction,

some by observing

the religious rites of Siva, and others those of Vishnu.

(58)

Brahmans should wear only one sacred thread.

(59) (60)

The eldest son only is entitled to The ceremony in honour of

marriage.
a

deceased

ancestor should be performed with boiled

rice.

(61) Kshatriyas, and those of other castes, should

perform funeral ceremonies to their uncles.

(62)
etc.,

The

right

of inheritance

among

Kshatriyas,

goes towards nephews.

(63) Sati should be avoided.

(This also includes

widows not to shave the head, as is the custom among non- Malabar Brahmans.) In connection with the foregoing, Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes that the manners and customs of the Nambutiris differ from those of the other communities in
directions to

several

marked

particulars.

They go by

the

specific

name
are so

of Keralacharas, which, to the casual observer,

many anac haras

or mal -observances, but to the

sympathetic student are not

acharas.

more perhaps than unique

the
effect

verse

runs

to

that

they are

anacharas, because they are not acharas (observances) elsewhere.

(Anyatracharanabhav^at anacharaitismritah.)

Of these

sixty-four acharas, about sixty will be found to

be peculiar to Malabar.
following six main classes
(i)
(2)

These may be grouped

:

into the

Personal hygiene.
Eating.

Bathing.
are very religiously observed.
in

The rules about food, either regarding

it.

the cooking or eating of

Absolute fasting

is

unknown

Malabar.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
(3)

190
juanes.

Worship of the Gods and

is

The

anni-

versary of a person's death

of the

regulated not by the age

moon

at the time, but

by the

star,

unlike on the

other coast.

Again, a birth pollution has priority over

other observances, even death ceremonies.

son

who

has
is

to

perform the funeral ceremonies of

unfit

his father
inter-

rendered

for that

solemn function by an
adopted son
is

vening birth pollution.

to his natural parents.

An

not,

as in

other parts of India, relieved of the sraddha obligations

Sectarian controversies in regard
strictly

to Siva

and Vishnu are

tabooed.

The

establish-

ment of Hinduism on a
string (sacred thread)
is

non-sectarian basis was

life.

the

sacred mission of Sankaracharya's

single triple

worn

irrespective of civil condition.

This

is

contrary to the usage of the other coast, where

triplets.

married Brahmans wear two or three

water
burnt
is

Sprinkling

an essential purificatory act

after the use of the

broom.
in

An

isolated

rule requires

dead bodies to be
in

private
sites,

compounds, and not

consecrated

communal
(4)

as

among
in

the east coast people.

Conduct

society.

Chastity
severe

is

jealously

guarded by the
adulterers.

imposition
salutation,

of

ostracism

on

Formal

and even namaskaras and

anugrahas, or prostration before and blessing by seniors,

are
prescribed.

This

is

a striking point of difference

between Malabar and the rest of India, and is probably based on the esoteric teaching of universal oneness.
(5)

prescribed that a

Asramas or stages of Brahman should

life.

It

is

distinctly

formally conclude the

Brahmachari asrama, and that presents or dakshina to the gurus should be the crowning act. The asura or bride-sale form of marriage is prohibited a prohibition
which,
in

the

case

of the

Nambutiris,
stand.

is

absolutely

unnecessary as matters

now

An

injunction in the

191

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

reverse direction against the ruinous tyranny of a bride-

penalty

would be an anxiously sought

of

relief

to

the

strugglings

many an

indigent bride's father.

The
is

special law of Malabar, under

which the eldest son

alone entitled to be married, has already been referred

to.

The anchorite stage comes in for regulation by the Manu of Kerala. The eyes of a Sanyasin should never This rule, which, if rest on a woman even for a second.
it

errs at

all,

only does so on the side of safety,

is

is

not

observed elsewhere, as the stage of a Sanyasin

expected

to be entered only after the complete subjugation of the

passions.

No

iiradhana
is

(worship)
in

sraddhas are per-

formed

for

them, as
is

done

other parts.

of the Sanyasin

freed from the

birth,

The soul bondage of Karma

and the chance of recurring

and has only to be

remembered and worshipped, unlike the ordinary Jivan or still enslaved soul, whose salvation interests have to
be furthered by propitiatory Karmas on the part of
earthly beneficiaries.
(6)
its

Regulation of ivoinen

conduct.

Women

are

not to gaze on any face but that of their

and never go out unattended.

wearing of jewelry.
pyre
is

wedded lord, They are to wear only

white clothes, and are never to pierce their noses for the

Death on the husband's funeral

life

not to be the sacred duty of the Nambutiri widow,

who

is

advised to seek in the

of a self-sacrificing

Sanyasi a sure means of salvation.

In affairs of the world, time
is

reckoned by the ordinary

Malabar

kollam or solar year, the era beginning from the

date of the departure of the last Perumal, a sovereign of

the western coast, to Arabia in 825.

The months

of the

Mesha (Metam), Vrishabha (Itavam), Mithuna, Karkkataka, Sihma (Chingga), Kanya (Kanni), In Tula, Vrischika, Dhanu, Makara, Kumbha, Mina.
kollam year are

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN'
affairs of religion,

19^

time

is

reckoned bv the salivahana saka.

or lunar year, the months of which are Chaitra, \'aisakha,

Jeshta, Ashadha, Sravana. Bhadrapata, Asvavuja,

Mar-

gasirsha. Paushya,

or thereabouts, there

Magha, Phalguna. Every three years is added another month, called

by the Xambutiris are as
last

Adhika.

Some
follows
:

of the festivals kept

(i) Sivardiri.

Worship of Siva on the The

day of

Magha.
(2)

Fast and vigil at night, and puja.

Updkarma.

regular day for putting on

new sacred

thread, after having cleansed

of the year through the prayaschittam, in

away the sins which ceremony

curds, ghi,

the five sacred products of the

urine,

cow

(milk,

and dung) are partaken

of.

It is

done on the 15th

wor-

of Sravana.
(3)

Ndgara panchhni.
is

The
On

serpent god

is

shipped, and bathed in milk.

the 5th of Sravana.

This

festival

common

in

Southern India.

{4)

Gbkiddshtami.

Fast
first

and

vigil

at

night,

to

celebrate the birth of Krishna.

Puja at night, on the

nine days of Asvavuja

eighth day of the latter half of Sravana.

(5)

Navardtri.

The

are devoted to this festival in honour of Durga.

(6)

Dipdvali.

Observed
The

more

particularly

in

North Malabar on the anniversary of the day on which Krishna slew the rakshasa Naraka. Everyone takes an On the last day of Asvayuja. oil bath.
(7)

Ashtkalam.

pitris

(ancestors)

of

the

family are propitiated by offerings of pinda (balls of rice)

and tarpana
of

(libations of water).

On

the

new moon day

Dhanu.
(8)

Vindyaka
is

Chaturthi.

The

elephant-headed

god of learning

worshipped.

At the end of the


nambDtiri brahman
into a well.

193

ceremony, the

idol

is

dropped

On

the 4th

of Bhadrapada.

god of love, represented by a clay image, is propitiated by unmarried girls with offerThe image is ings of flowers seven days successively. finally given, together with some money, to a Brahman, who drops it into a well. The flowers which have been used to decorate the image are placed by the girls at the Contrary to the custom of other foot of a jak tree. Brahmans, Nambutiri girls are under no disgrace, should In the month of they attain puberty while unmarried.
(9)

Pura?n.

The

Mina.
(10)

dnam.

The

great festival of Malabar, kept

It is

by everyone, high and low, with rejoicing.

of o-eneral good-will, of of distribution

the time

games

peculiar to the festival, and

cloths to
relations

of

new yellow

and

dependants.
of

It is

supposed to commemorate the descent

Maha

Bali, or

Mabali, to see his people happy.

(11)

Tiruvadira.

Fast and vigil in honour of Siva,

In the
solar

observed by
(12)

women

only.

Vishu.
festival

The
in

month of Dhanu. new year's day. A very

It
is

important
gifts,

Malabar.

the occasion for

chiefly to

superiors.

The

first

thing seen by a

Nambutiri on

this

day should be something auspicious.

first

His

fate

during the year depends on whether the

is

object seen

auspicious, or the reverse.

The

following festivals are referred to by Mr. Subra:

mani Aiyar
(i)

In the month of Trikkatta or Jyeshta star, Chingam. Food is cooked, and eaten before sunrise by all the married male members, as well as by every

Though not of the previous day, the food goes by the name of Trikkatta pazhayatu, The import of this or the old food of the Trikkatta day.
female

member

of a family.

V-13

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
festival,

194

when

the specific ordinance of Sankara against

is

food cooked before sunrise

(2)

contravened,

is

not known.

Makam or Mag ha star. In the month of Kanni.

cows of the house are decorated with sandal paste and flowers, and given various kinds of
this day, the

On

sweetmeats.

The

ladies of the house take ten or twelve

grains of paddy

(rice),

anoint them with

oil,

and, after

bathing

in

turmeric-water, consecrate the grains by the

recitation of certain

hymns, and deposit them

in the

ara

or safe

room of the house. If there are in the house any female members born under the Makam star, the duty of performing the ceremony devolves on them in particular.
is

This

really a harvest

festival,

and has the securing

for
its

of food -grains in

abundance (dhanyasamriddhi)

temporal object.

this

All the days in the month of Thulam. In month, young unmarried girls bathe every day
(3)

before 4 a.m., and worship Ganapathi (Vignesvara), the

elephant god.
(4)

Gauri
is

pilja.

In

the

month
in

of

Vrischigam.

This

is

done on any selected Monday

the month.

The

ceremony

known

touching the

ammiyum vilakkaum toduka, or grinding-stone and lamp. The married

as
its

women
stone,

of the house clean the grinder and the grindingside.

and place a bronze mirror by

worship Gauri,

They then
to

proceed to

whose

relation

Siva

represents to the
life.

Hindu

the ideal sw^eetness of

wedded

In the month of (5) Tiruvatira or Ardra star. Dhanu. This is a day of universal festivity and rejoicing. For seven days previous to it, all the members of the house bathe in the early morning, and worship Siva.

This bathing

is

generally called tutichchukuli or shiver-

ing bath, as the mornings are usually cold and intensely

195

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

dewy.

On

the day previous to TIruvatira, ettangnati, or

eight articles of food purchased in the bazar, are partaken

of.

The

Such a repast is never indulged in on any other day. Tiruvatira day is spent in the adoration of Siva, and
single meal (orikkal).

the votaries take only a

vigils are

Night

kept both by the wife and husband seated

fire,

before a lighted

which represents the sakshi (witness)

of Karmas and contracts.

agnisakshi.)

(Hence the common term They then chew a bundle of betel leaves,
hundred
in

not less than a

number.

This

is

called

kettuvettila tinnuka.

As

the chewing of betel

is

is

taboo

except
attest

in

the married state, this function

seal their irrefragable

believed to

and
(6)

mutual

fidelity.

The new moon day

in the

month of Karkdta-

kam.

On

the evening of this day, various kinds of

sweetmeats are cooked, and, before the family partakes

of them, a portion of each
as an offering to rats,
is

placed in the upper storey

their divine master,

by which

Ganapathi,

is

believed to be propitiated.
business,

The Nambutiri's
hear or see vocal

which he has

in

hand, will

be concluded to his satisfaction, should he on starting

or

instrumental music, a harlot, a

litter,

dancing-girl, a virgin, a
bull or

an elephant, a horse, a
rice of a reddish colour,
fruits,

cow

tethered, curds,

raw

sugar-cane, a water-pot, flowers,

honey, or two

Brahmans.
the
first

Bad omens, which,

if

seen by a householder
trouble of

thing in the morning,

mean
cat,

some
left

kind for the rest of the day, are a crow seen on the
hand, a kite on the right, a snake, a

a jackal, a hare,

an empty vessel, a smoky

fire,

a bundle of sticks, a

widow, a man with one eye, or a

man

with a big nose.

A
at

Nambutiri, seeing any of these things, when setting

out on a journey, will turn back.

Should

he,

however,

once see a lizard on the eastern wall of a house, he

V-I3 B

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
may
day
;

196
is

proceed.

To

sneeze once
is

a good

omen

for the

to sneeze twice

a bad one.
is

An

evil spirit

may

enter the

mouth while one

yawning,

so, to

avert such

a catastrophe, the fingers are snapped, and kept snapping

until the

yawn
But

is

over, or the

hand

is

held in front of the

mouth.

this idea,

and the custom of snapping the

fingers, arc

by no means peculiar to the Nambutiris.

look on a voyage across the sea
yet
visited

The Nambutiris
with horror,

and no Nambutiri has ever

England.

Nayar should not come nearer than

six paces to a

Nambutiri, a
paces, a
four,

man

of the barber caste nearer than twelve

thirty-six, a

Malayan than sixtyand a Pulaiyan than ninety-six. Malabar is, indeed,

Tiyan than

the most conservative part of Southern India.

The man

of high caste shouts occasionally as he goes along, so that

the low caste

pass

man may go off the road, and unpolluted. And those of the lowest
to give

allow him to
castes shout

as they go.

notice

of their

pollution-bearing
of the
is

presence, and, learning the

caste,

command
road.
It

move away from the

man of high common to see

not want
road.
to

people of the inferior castes travelling parallel to the

road, but not daring to
to.
It
is

go along
as
is

it.

They do
off

not because they

to

are forced
to

the
or

Custom

clings

them

the

Nayar

the

Nambutiri.

But even

this

undergoing modification.

In connection with marriage, three chief rules are

observed.

The
;

contracting parties must not be of the

same gotra

they must not be related to each other

;

through father or mother

and the bridegroom must

It
is

be the eldest son of the family.

said that there

are seven original gotras, called after the sages

Kamsha,
and

Kasyapa,
Tatri
;

Bharadvaja,

Vatsya,

Kaundinya,

Atri,

and that other gotras have grown out of these.

197

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
to cease after the fourth

Relationship

is

said by

some

generation, but this

always heavy.
forsaking

her

is disputed. The bride's dowry is The wife joins her husband's gotra, own altogether. Women may remain

unmarried without prejudice.

the reverse of favour with

Needless

to say, this has

But the Nambutiri

married,
is

girl or

Brahmans outside Malabar. woman, who has not been

semblance of marriage,
for,
is

not allowed to disappear altogether from the

least the

world without at
at her death,

some

part of the marriage

ceremony

performed on her person.

manner, a dead Toda
last rest

The

tali

is

tied.

In like

girl is not

allowed to go to her
is

unmarried.

Infant marriage, which

is

the rule
the

with other Brahmans,

said to be

unknown among

Nambutiris.

writes * that he

Mr. Justice K. Narayana Marar, however, is " not prepared to assert that infant
that mar-

marriage
riages

is

unknown among Nambudris, and

are always

celebrated before puberty.

There

are instances, though rare, of infant marriages

among
more,

them."

When
is

a girl

is

ten years old, or a

little

her father thinks of finding a husband for her.

alone
the real thing to be considered.

Property
detail

Every

bearing on advantage to the family through the alliance

is

carefully thought out.

Among the

Malayalis generally,

the young

man

with University degrees has

command
on a

of the marriage market, but to the Nambutiri these are

of no account.
likely

When

the

girl's

father has fixed

young man, he gets his horoscope, and confers with a Vadhyar concerning the suitability or agreement of the young man's horoscope with that of his daughter. Should the decision of the Vadhyar be favourable,
the

young man's

father

is

invited to the house on an

Malabar Quart. Review,

I,

i,

1902.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

98

auspicious day, and the two fathers, together with some

friends,

talk the matter over.

In the presence of

all,

the Vadhyar announces the agreement of the horoscopes

of the pair

whose marriage
is

is

of the bride

then

fixed.

The dowry Probably many days have

in prospect.

been occu[)ied already, before the fathers can agree as When this has been to the settlement of the dowry.
done, the Vadhyar consults the heavenly
bodies,

and

appoints the day on which the

marriage ceremonies

should be begun.

A
He
to

There is then a feast for all present. Nambutiri would be in very bad circumstances if he
should give

did not give at least a thousand rupees with his daughter.

much more, and

does,

if

he possibly can.
are supposed

The ceremonies connected with marriage

within ten days.
bride's
illam,

occupy a year, but they are practically completed

They open with

a party leaving the

his

to invite the

bridegroom and

party

to

the

wedding.
is

At the house of the

bridegroom,

the Vadhyar

given about eight fanams * (money) by

both parties.

The

return to the bride's illam

is

a sort

of noisy procession
his friends,

composed Nayar women under big cadjan (palm leaf) umbrellas, a number of Nayars, some of whom indulge in sword play with swords and shields, and Nambutiris
in

of the bridegroom with

versed

the

Sastras.

The bridegroom, who

is

the

chief figure in the crowd, has a string (the usual kan-

kanam)
evil

tied

round his right wrist to protect him from

spirits,

and carries a bamboo with sixteen joints

symbolic of the married state, a mirror for good luck, an arrow to guard the bride against evil spirits, four cloths, and a tali. At the gate of the bride's illam, the
procession
In
all

is

met by some Nayar women dressed as

all

ceremonies, and indeed in

it

arrangements connected with labour

in

rural Malabar,

is

the rule to reckon in the old,

and not

in the existing, currency.

199

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

Nambutiri women, who, being unable to come out and

welcome the bridegroom, do so by proxy.

These women
offer

wave a galyam

light in front of his face,

and

ashtaman-

plate on which are plantain, betel leaves, a

cocoanut, and other articles.

agni, or sacred
bride's
illam.
fire,
is

On

this day, the

aupasana

prepared
pit is

in

the courtyard of the

fire
is

square

made, and

made
It is

with a piece of wood of the jak tree and of the pipal.

This

fire is

rendered sacred by some mystic

rites.
is

kept burning throughout the marriage, and

until the

preserved
in

death of the future husband and wife

:

one of

two ways
(i)

keeping a lamp lighted

heating
the

at

the

fire

burning

perpetually
(2)
in
fire

a piece of

wood
is

(plasa or

palasa) or dharba

grass.

The wood
is

or grass

put away,
is

and,
in

when
fire

the aupasana agni

to

be revived,

lighted

of jak

and pipal wood, while certain mantrams

of the bridegroom (and,
die
first)

(consecrated formulae) are repeated.

The body
bride

think,

of the

should she

should be burnt in the

first

aupasana agni prepared on the

day of the wedding.

The aupasana agni

riage.

is,

as

it

were, a witness to the mar-

In the courtyard, the

nandimukham ceremony
minor
deities

is

performed

for propitiation of the

and the

pitris (spirits of

deceased ancestors),

pot containing

sacred or consecrated water, a piece of sandalwood, a

piece of gold, flowers, raw rice, and

some

fruits are the

apparent object of adoration.

It

is

called kalas

kalasam of the Tamil and Telugu countries

the and a
is

common symbol
Williams,*
it

of the

deity.

According to Monier
" In

should be worshipped thus.

the

Brahmanism and Hinduism.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
mouth
Rudra,

2oo
its

of the water-vessel abideth Vishnu, in

in
its

neck

is

Brahma, while the whole company of the mothers are congregated in its middle
lower part
is

part.

Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Saraswati, Narin

mada, Sindhu and Kaveri, be present

this

water."

ceremony (nandimukham) is called the punyahavachana, for which the bridegroom repeats certain hymns after the Vadhyar, and is sprinkled
part of the
aforesaid

with water from the kalas.

in

While all this the courtyard, the very same ceremony

does
inside the

is

being done

is

performed

within the house in the presence of the bride, whose

house what the bridegroom is At the conclusion of the ceremony, the doing outside. Then two of the cloths tali is tied on the bride's neck. brought by the bridegroom are sent inside, and are
father

touched by the bride.

After she has touched them, they

are again brought out, and the bridegroom puts

them

on.

He

touches the other two cloths, which are taken inside,

bride.

and worn by the

item.

feast

(ayanium)

is

the next
it

The

bride and bridegroom eat their share of

in separate

rooms.

Then comes

the marriage proper.

feet,

The

bride's father

washes the bridegroom's

a light (ayiram
tiri

while

a Nayar

woman waves
his
face,

or thousand

lights) before

prepared

for the

wedding.

and conducts him to the hall In this is a mantapam, or

pillars

and a covering roof. The pillars of the mantapam, and the ceiling of the hall, are covered with red cloth (red being an auspisort of raised
seat,

having four

cious colour), and there are festoons of

mango

leaves.

To one

side of the

mantapam

is

a screen, behind which

stand the Nambutiri

women

of the household, looking

holes.

at the scene in the hall

through

The

bride and

bridegroom are led to the mantapam, the former following the latter screened from the general gaze by a big

20I

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
in

cadjan umbrella.

She hands him a garland, and,

doing

so,

she should not touch his hand.

He

puts on

Vedic hymns are chanted, and the pair This is called are brought face to face for the first time. mukhadarsanam, or seeing the face. The bridegroom
the garland.
leads the bride three times round the
fire

and water
"

jar,

moving round
is

to the right, repeating a

mantram, which
I

irendered as follows by Monier Williams.*

am

male, thou art female.

offspring.

Come,
let

let

us marry,

let

us possess

United

in affection, illustrious, well

disposed

towards each other,

us live for a hundred years."

Each time the bridegroom leads the bride round, he causes her to mount a mill-stone, saying " Ascend thou
this stone,

and be thou firm as

this rock.t

"
is

Then,

at a

moment supposed

to be auspicious, water

poured on

the hands of the bridegroom, signifying that the girl and

her dowry have been handed over to him.

tiri

The Nambuin

women behind
fire

the screen, and the

Nayar women

the hall, utter a shrill cry "like that of the Vaikura."

The

here mentioned

is

probably taken from the

original

aupasana agni.

the bridegroom leads her seven steps

Holding the bride by the hand, one for force,

two

for strength, three for wealth,

four for well-being,

five for offspring,

six for the seasons,

and seven as a
This

friend.

He
is

tells

her to be devoted to him, and to bear

live to

him many
ceremony
is

sons,

who may
It
is

a good old age.

called the saptapadi (seven steps).

A homam
A

then performed.

said that the fire used on this

occasion must be preserved until the death of the bride-

groom, and used

is

at the

cremation of his body.

it

feast

the next thing.

When

is

over, the bride's father

takes her on his lap, asks his son-in-law to treat her well,

* op.

cit.

t Ibid.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

202

and formally hands her over to him. The bridegroom promises to do so, and takes his wife by the hand. Then
there
is

a procession to the bridegroom's illam, the bride

in

being carried

litter,

and the bridegroom walking

and carrying the

It

sacrificial fire.

So ends the
is

first

day.

seems

that the newly-married couple live apart for

initiated
is

the next three days, during which the bride

into household duties.

The

only daily ceremony

after

the

homam, which
mony,
in

is

done by the pair

bathing, and
is

before taking food.

On

the fourth day there

a cere-

which the bride plants a jasmine cutting, by

in

way

of symbolising help to her husband

his religious duties.

the

per-

formance of

are conducted to the bridal

At night the couple chamber by the Vadhyar.

The bed

is

merely a grass mat, or a

common

country
little

blanket, covered with a white sheet, and having a

ridge of rice and paddy, signifying plenty, round the

edge.
shuts

The Vadhyar withdraws, and the door.* The Vadhyar outside

the bridegroom
cites appropriate

passages from the sacred writings, which are repeated

by the bridegroom.

On

the

fifth

day,
oil,

the bride and

bridegroom anoint each other with

and the

latter

combs the

hair of the former.

little fish

Then, before bathing,

they catch some

called manatt kani (eyes look-

ing up) which are found in pools, with a cloth used as a

While bridegroom
net.

this
"

is

being done, a Brahmachari asks the

to the fishes

Did you see a cow and a son ? " Pointing caught in the cloth, the bridegroom replies
This
is

" Yes, they are here."

said to be suggestive of
fertility.

progeny, fishes being emblematic of

is

Homam

then done.

At

night, the

bridegroom adorns the bride

with flowers, and makes her look into a mirror, while he

The Nambiiliris

lake objection to a statement of Mr. Logan, in the

it.

Manual

of Malabar, that the Vadhyar shuts the door, and locks

203
recites

NAM13UTIR1

BRAHMAN
From
the

mantrams

suitable to the occasion.

sixth to the ninth

day there

is

practically nothing in the

And, as that proper to the tenth day is invariably done on the sixth day, the ceremony may be said to conclude on the night of the sixth day.
of ceremonial.

way

few Brahmans are fed to please the

tree,

pitris,

and the

couple go to a jak

under which some

grass,

rice, curds,
is

and ghl are placed on kusa

and an offering

made

of flowers and sandalwood or powder.

staff,

The kanka-

nam, bamboo
Sir

arrow, and mirror are given to the

is

Vadhyar, and the wedding

over.

W. W. Hunter* speaks

of the Nambutiris

as

"a despised

The

little

class," they having had fishermen ancestors. ceremony of catching fish, which is a very

important

item

in

the marriage

rites,

may

look like

preservation in meaningless ceremonial of something real

in the past, but
it

only shows that, in an endeavour to

we must be far from hasty. Among the Shivalli Brahmans of South Canara, the marriage mat is taken to a tank in procession. The bride and bridegroom make a pretence of catching fish, and, with
interpret ceremonial,

linked fingers, touch their foreheads.

It is

recorded, in

the

Manual of South Canara,

in ascribing

that " all

Tulu chronicles

agree
or

the creation of Malabar and Canara,

Kerala, Tuluva, and Haiga, to Parasu

Rama, who

reclaimed from the sea as

much

land as he could cover

by hurling
ghauts.

his battle-axe

from the top of the western

According

to l^ulu traditions, after a quarrel to

with Brahmans

who used

come

to

him

periodically

from Ahi-Kshetra, Parasu

for the reclaimed tract

Rama procured new Brahmans

fisher-

by taking the nets of some

men, and making a number of Brahmanical threads

Annals of Rural Bengal,

Orissa.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

204

with which he invested the fishermen, and thus turned

them

into

Brahmans, and retired to the mountains to

informing them
that,
if

meditate, after
distress,

they

were

in

and

called on him, he

would come

to their aid.

After the lapse of some time, during which they suffered

no

distress,

they were curious to

know

if

Parasu
in

Rama

would remember them, and

find out.

called

upon him

order to

He promptly appeared,

but punished their thus

to revert

mocking him by cursing them, and causing them

to their old status of Sudras."

A more
is

detailed account of the marriage ceremonial

given

in the

Gazetteer of Malabar, which

first

quoted.
diri

"

The

preliminaries in

may well be arranging a Nambu-

marriage are the inevitable comparison of horoscopes,

and the settlement of the dowry. When these have been satisfactorily concluded, an auspicious day for the wedding
is

selected in consultation with the astrologer.

On

that

day, the bridegroom,

before he starts from his illam,

partakes with his relatives and friends of a sumptuous

repast called

the ayani

un.

similar

feast

is

held

simultaneously at the bride's house.

illam,

On

leaving the
all

as he crosses the threshold, and indeed on

occasions of importance, the bridegroom must be careful

to put his right foot
first.

He
is

also mutters

mantrams of

an auspicious nature, called mangala sutrangal.

passes out of the gate, he
carrying
the
eight

As he
ladies,

met by a bevy of Nayar

articles

lucky

(ashtamangalyam).

These are a grandha, a washed cloth, a chcppu or rougebox, some rice, a val kannadi or metal hand-mirror, some

kunkumam
sandal,

(crimson

powder),

chanthu (ointment

of

camphor, musk and

saffron),

and mashi (bdellium

illam,

or any eye salve).

On

his

journey to the bride's

he

is

preceded by a noisy procession of Nayars, armed

with swords and lacquered shields,

who

constitute his

205

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

agambadi or body-guard, and by Nambudri friends and At the relatives, one of whom carries a lighted lamp. gate of the bride's illam he is met by a band of Nayar

women, dressed like antarjanams, and carrying the ashtamangalyam and lighted lamps. The bridegroom enters the inner court-yard (nadumittam), and takes his
seat in the usual eastward position.

The

bride's father

comes and
invitation

sits

opposite him, and, clasping his right hand,

formally invites

him

to bathe

and wed

his daughter,

an

which he formally accepts.

After his bath, he

returns clad in fresh clothes, and wearing a ring of dharba

or
in

kusa grass {Cy7todo7i Dactylon), and takes

the

his seat

room adjoining the porch (pumukham), called purattalam. He then makes an offering of a few fanams
(money) to
his family deities,

performs Ganapathi puja

five

(worship of the elephant god), and presents four or

Nambudris with a few fanams each, and with betel leaf and areca nut. This is called asramapischetha prayaschittam, and
is

in

expiation of any sins into which he

may have been

Similar
pfifts

betrayed

during his bachelor days.

first

are also

made

to

two Nambudris of

any gotra considered as representing the deities called

Visvadvas, and then to two others of different gotras
representing the deceased ancestors or
gift
is

Pitris.

The

last

called

Nandimukham.
is

Meanwhile, within the

house the bride

shaped
after

conducted to the vadakkini room,

veiled in an old cloth,

like

and carrying a piece of bell-metal

a hand-mirror (val kannadi).

Her

father,

washing his feet and putting on a darbha ring, comes and performs Ganapathi puja, and repeats more or less the same ritual that has been performed without.

The
and

bride
four
is

is

then sprinkled with holy water by her father

other

Nambudiris.

The

tali

or

marriage

symbol

brought in a brass vessel containing holy water,

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
and
is

206

laid
;

near the idol to which the daily domestic worship

and, after further offerings to
is

paid

Ganapathi,

the

bridegroom

summoned

to

enter the illam.

off the

Before
ring,

doing so he purifies himself, taking

darbha

marks with holy ashes (bhasmam), feet, replacing the ring, and being sprinkled with holy water by four Nambudiris--a form of ritual which recurs constantly in all ceremonies. He enters the nadumittam, preceded by a Nambudiri carrying a lighted lamp, and takes his seat on a wooden stool

making the washing his

'

caste

'

(pidam)
father

in

the middle of the court where the bride's

to him,

makes obeisance

and

is

given four double

lengths

of cloth (kaccha),

which the bridegroom has

are taken to the bride,

brought with him.

to wear.

They

who

puts on two of them, and returns two for the bridegroom

where he

The bridegroom then goes to the kizhakkini, prepares what may be called the "altar." He
floor in front of

smears part of the

him with cow-dung

and then, with a piece of jack-wood {Artocarpus integrifolia), called sakalam, draws a line at the western side
of the place so prepared, and at right angles to this line
five

more, one at each end, but not actually touching

it,

and three between these.

jack-wood on the
altar,

He

then places the pieces of

it

and

ignites
illam.

with

fire

brought

from the hearth of the bride's

He feeds

the flame

with chips of plasu or chamatha [Butea frondosa).

fire is

This

the aupasana agni, regarded as the witness to the

rite.

marriage

It

must be kept alight

not

actually, but

by a pious fiction*

till

the parties to the marriage die,

it.

and

their funeral pyre

must be kindled from

Three

pieces of plasu called paridhi, and eighteen pieces called

udhmam,

tied together

by a string of darbha, are placed

fire

Ky keeping a lamp

lighted at the
fire,

perpetually alight, or by heating r piece

it

of plasu or darbha grass in the

and putting

away

carefully.

207

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

on the northern side of the altar on two pieces of jackwood and there are also brought and placed round the altar four blades of darbha grass, a small bell-metal
;

vessel,

an earthenware pot full of water, a pair of grindstones (ammi and ammikuzha), a small winnowing fan containing parched paddy (malar), and a copper vessel
of ghee (clarified butter) with a sacrificial ladle
plasu.

made

of

Meanwhile, the bride's father ties the tali round her neck in the vadakkini, and her mother gives her She is conducted a garland of tulasi {Ocimum sanctum).
to the kizhakkini, preceded

by a Nambutiri carrying a
is

lamp
east

called ayyira

tiri

(thousand wicks), and

made

to stand facing the

bridegroom on the north or north-

of the

altar.

This

is

called

mukha-dharsanam

(face-beholding).

She gives the garland to the bridethe central rite of this elaborate

groom.
of a

Now comes

ceremonial, the udaga-purva-kannyaka-dhanam, or gift

maiden
facing

with water.
west,

The

bride and

her father

stand
All

and the

bridegroom facing them.

hands, so
that

three stretch out

their right

the

bride's

hand

is

between those of her father and the

bridegroom, which are above and below hers respectively.

A Nambutiri Othikan or ritual expert pours water

into
it

thrice

the father's

hand.

The

latter

each time

pours

into his daughter's hand,

it

and then, grasping

her hand, pours

into

the bridegroom's hand.

The

dowry
fire,

is

then given to the bride,

who hands

it

over to

the bridegroom.

and

sits

She then passes between him and the on an amana palaga * on the east of the
sits

altar,

while the bridegroom

on another palaga on

and burns the udhmams (except one piece of plasu and the darbha string used to tie the bundle), and
her
left,

An amana

palaga or

ama

palaga, literally tortoise plank,

to be

is

a low

wooden

seat of

chamatha wood, supposed

shaped

like a tortoise in outline.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

2o8
called

makes an oblation of ghee

rite
is

agharam.

The

next
rises

called

Panigrahanam.

The bridegroom

from
bride,

his seat, turns to the right,

and stands facing the

who remains

seated, holding the mirror in her left

She stretches out her right hand palm upwards, with the fingers closed and bent upwards. He grasps
hand.
it,

and

sits

down

again.

brother of the bride

now

comes and takes the mirror from the bride, puts it on a palaga, and professes to show her her own reflection in
its

surface.

Then the bridegroom pours a little ghee

into

her joined hands, to which the bride's brother adds

two

handfuls of paddy from the winnowing basket, and the

bridegroom then brushes the paddy from her hands into This is called the Lajahomam, At its conthe fire.
clusion, bride

and bridegroom perform a pradakshinam

passing outside the water-pot but not

round the
the

fire,

Next comes the important piece of ceremonial called Asmarohanam, symbolising The bride and bridegroom stand west of immutability.
grindstone

and

fan.

the grindstones, and the bridegroom, taking her feet one

by one, places them on the stones, and then grasps

feet

and stones with both hands.

Lajahomam, pradhakthrice.

shinam, and

asmarohanam are each repeated

his bride

Then comes the rite The bridegroom leads

as he does so.

called Saptapadi or seven paces.

seven steps towards the

north-east, touching her right foot with his right hand

They then

pass between the grindstones

and seat themselves on the west of the earthen pot facing east, the bride behind the bridegroom and the latter performs a somewhat acrobatic feat which it must be difficult to invest with any dignity.

and the

fire,

bends backwards, supporting himself by placing the palms of his hands on the ground behind him, until he
can touch with the top of his head that of the bride,

He

who

209

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
After
this,

bends forward to

facilitate

the process.

the

bridegroom sprinkles himself and the bride with water

from the earthen pot.
west of the
altar,

They then

return to their seats

at

and face north, ostensibly looking

the pole star (Druvan), the star Arundati, and the Seven
Rishis (Ursa Major), which the bridegroom
to point out to the bride, while
is

supposed
on
her

he teaches her a short

of long
life

mantram invoking the blessing

husband.

The bridegroom then makes two

fire,

oblations,

pouring ghee on the sacred

the

first

called Sishtakral-

homam

and

the
fire

second

Darmmihomam.
rest of the ghee.

He

then

places on the

the paridhis, the remaining

udhmams

and dharba grass, and the

then

start

is

made

for the bridegroom's illam, the

bridegroom

carrying the

chamatha branch
in

used

in

making

the

aupasana agni
is

in the bride's house.

On arrival,

an altar

prepared

much
is

chamatha branch
offered.

same manner as before, the igrnited, and darbha and o-hee are
the

The

bride and bridegroom next spend a few

moments

closeted in the .same room, she lying on a skin

spread over a

new

cloth

on the

floor,

and he

sitting

on
or

an amana palaga.
ofterings of

In the evening, aupasana

in

homam,

chamatha

the sacred

fire,

and Vaisyadeva
These,

homam,
till

or offerings of boiled rice, arc made.

which are known as a second homam, may be postponed

next afternoon,
if

there

is

no time

for

them on the

actual

wedding day.
months.

They have to be performed daily

first

for ten

The

three days on which these

homams
the case
(diksha),

are performed
it,

(viz.,

the wedding day and the

two following

or the three days after the wedding as

may

be) are regarded as days of

mourning
the fourth

and clothes are not changed.

considered to be at an end.

On

day, the newly married couple have an oil-bath, and the

diksha

is

After the usual

V-14

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

2io
is

homams and worship

the
bridcd

of Ganapathi, the bride

at

led to

chamber

an

auspicious moment.

Her

two garlands of jasmine, one of which he puts on the lamp placed in the south-east corner of the room, and one round his wife's neck. He
husband joins
her, carrying

then smears the upper part of her body with the ointment

known
part.

as

chanthu, and she herself smears the lower

vir

Turn

penem suum
scilicet

fjeminae ad partes

pudendas

admovit,

vestibus

haud

remotis.
sit

They then

bathe and change their clothes, and

gives her water, and after

near each other,

the wife screened behind an umbrella.

Her husband

some

further rites they eat

from the same plantain

leaf.

Actual cohabitation com-

mences from that night. The pair are conducted to the The nuptial couch is bridal chamber by the Vadhiyar. but a grass mat or a common country blanket covered
with a white sheet, with a
little

ridge of rice and paddy

signifying plenty around the edges.

is

The
It
is

final

ceremony
second

the

homam
If

called stalipagam.
first
full
is

performed on

the day after the

moon day

after the

homam.

the

set or earlier,

f nazhiga before sunthe ceremony may be performed on the full

at the full

moon

moon day
It will

itself."

have been seen already that the Nambutiris

are not strict monogamists.

Some

stated that a

man
all

may

have

four

wives,

and that the same ceremony

no restriction to the

as that described must be performed for wedding

four wives.

Moreover, there

is

number

of

Nayar women, with whom a man may be

at the

associated.

Hamilton, writing concerning Malabar

says that
"

end of
not

the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century,

when the Zamorin

till

marries,

he must

cohabit with his bride

the Nambutiri or chief priest

211

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
pleases,

has enjoyed her, and,

nights of her company,

if

he

may have
first

three
of her
:

because the

fruit

nuptials must be an holy oblation to the

god he worships

and some of the nobles are so complaisant as to allow

the clergy the

same

tribute

but the

common

people

cannot have that compliment paid to them, but are forced

to supply the priest's place themselves."

Of ceremonies

after marriage,

and those performed

child,

during pregnancy and subsequent to the birth of a the following may be noted :
(i)

There is some panic grass into his wife's nostrils. (2) Garbharakshana secures the unborn child from and is not It is not considered important, dangers.
always done.
(3)

Garbhadhanam, performed soon after marriage. a homam, and the husband puts the juice of

Pumsavana, performed
for the

in the third

month of

pregnancy

purpose of securing male offspring.

The

desire of the

Hindu

for

male rather than female

Putra (a son)
It is
is

children need not be dilated on.

the

one who saves from

text

hell (put).
it

by every religious

made

clear that

is

the duty of every

man

to

produce a son.

The Nambutiri may have

in succession, until he

practically

any number of wives

begets a son

by one of them, and he may adopt a son through the

sarvasvadanam form of marriage. On the day devoted to the pumsavana ceremony, the wife fasts until she is
fed by her

husband with one grain of corn, symbolising

the eenerative organs of the male.

(4)

Simantonnayana is the next ceremony performed

the unborn child.
It is

for the benefit of

done between

the sixth and eighth months of pregnancy, and consists

in

a burnt sacrifice to the deity, and the husband parting

quill,

the hair of his wife's head with a porcupine

V-I4 E

or with

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

212

three blades of the sacred

kusa grass,

re]~)eatino;

the

while Vedic verses.

(5)

and

is

Jatakarma is the name of the birth ceremony, Honey and performed by the father of the child.

ghi are introduced into the mouth of the infant with a

golden spoon or rod, to symbolise good fortune.

rod, while
(6)

Then

the cars and shoulders are touched with the spoon or

Vedic texts are

recited.

Medhajananam,
Ayusha,
for

rarely done,

is

for

inducing

intelligence.
(7)

prolonging

life,

is

the

next

in

order.

The

father gives the child a secret name, having

for a

an even number of syllables

male and an uneven

number

for a female,

which

is

never revealed to any one

except the mother.

(8)

Namakarana
is

is

the ceremony, at which the

child

is

named, and
which

said to be

done on the tenth day

is

after birth.

The naming
is
life.

of a child

an important

religious act,

supposed to carry consequences

parents, assisted

throughout

The

by a Vadhyan,

make

a burnt sacrifice to the deity.

(9)

Annaprasana

is

the ceremony at which food

is first

other than that from nature's foimt

given.

It is

done

in the sixth

month
is

after birth.

The

father carries

the child to a

group of friends and

rice

relations.

The
in

Vadhyan
child's

or purohit

present and repeats Vedic texts,

little

w^hile the father places a

and butter

the

mouth.

(10)

Chaula

is

the ceremony w^hen the hair

is

cut

for the first

time in the Nambutiri fashion.

(11)

Kama

vedha

is

the occasion on which the ears

are bored.

Vidyadasami day, the tenth of Asvayuja, when a male child is five years old, the father goes
the

On

2 13

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
him
into the mysteries of

through the form of

the alphabet.

initiating

The

following details of

some

of the above ceremonies

are given in the Gazetteer of Malabar.

ceremonies connected with pregnancy are or rite to secure male offspring, at which the husband
puts a grain of barley and two beans, to represent the

The chief Pumsavanam

"

male organ,
over them,

into his wife's hand,

and pours some curds

swallows, and
also
;

which the wife then

pours some juice of karuga grass into her right nostril

and Simantham, a ceremony

fourth

usually performed in the

month
atti

of pregnancy, at w^hich the

husband parts

the wife's hair four times from back to front w^ith a

sprig of

{Ficus glomerata), a porcupine quill which

w'hite

must have three

of darba
grass,

marks on

it,

and three blades

which mantrams
vinas.

all

tied together, after

are sung

to

the accompaniment

of

The

first
is

ceremony

to be

performed on the birth of a child

little

jathakarmam.

gold dust

is

mingled with ghee

of the mixture
lips

and honey, and

the father takes up

some

with a piece of gold, and smears the child's

with

it,

once with a mantram and once

in

silence.

He

next

washes the gold, and touches the child's ears, shoulders and head with it, and finally makes a gift of the bit The ceremony of gold and performs nandimukham.
of

naming the
twelfth
waist,

child,

or

namakarmam, takes
its

place on

the

day.

The

father ties a string round

the

child's

and marks
Then,

body with the sacred ash

'

(bhasmam).
thrice
in the
'

after the usual

gifts

'

he pronounces
'

child's right ear the

if

words
'

Devadatta

Sarmmasi,
from

or

the child be a

girl,

Nili dasi.'

He

then calls out the

its

name

thrice.

Then, taking the child

mother,

mother, he again calls out the

the child back to
its

finally gives

name thrice, and who in turn

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
calls

214
Gifts

out the

name

thrice.

and nandimukham comis

plete the ceremony.

In the fourth month, the child

ceremonially taken out of doors (nishkramana or

purapattu) by the father,

vittil

who

carries

it

to a cocoanut,

round which he makes three pradakshinams." The death ceremonies of the Nambutiris are com-

menced

shortly
is

before

death

actually

takes

place.

When

death

believed to be unmistakably near,

some

verses from the Taittirya Upanishad arc spoken in the

dying man's
ear hymns.
is

ears.

These are

called karna mantras, or

A
in

prepared
placed on
in

bed of kusa grass, called darbhasana, the verandah or some convenient place

outside the foundations of the house, and the dying

is
it.

man

When

life is

extinct, the

body

is

washed,

dressed
of
is

new white

cloth,

and placed on a bier made

cloth.

bamboos covered with a new white

the
place

The
the

bier

then carried on the shoulders of four of the nearest

of cremation within
laid

relatives to

comwhich

pound of the
must include

illam,

and

on a

pile of firewood,

some sandalwood.
if

This should be done

;

by brothers or sons
sity

there are such

if

not,

by more

distant relatives or friends.

The pyre need

texts,
life,

not of neces-

be prepared by Nambutiris.
sacred

Properly speaking,

according to the

which govern almost

relatives

every act of the Nambutiri's

and

friends,

male and female, should accompany the bier

of cremation, but, as a rule,
procession.
is

to the place
little

women do

not join the

The

bier

is
is

laid

on the pyre, and the corpse

uncovered.

Rice

scattered over the face by the

blood-relations
thrust into

and small pieces of gold are the nine openings of the body, while mantras
present,

are recited by the

to be used

Vadhyayar
sacrifice,

or priest.

The gold

is

said

on

this occasion as part of the offering in the

yagam

the

last

as the burning of the body

2 15

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
to assist the deceased

is

called
his

and

not in any

way

in

journey to "the undiscovered country."

is

Soon
is

after the bier

laid

on the funeral pyre, a

it

homam
chest

made.

Fire taken

from

is

placed on the
is

of

the deceased, and then the pyre

lighted in three places.

The performer

of the crematory rites carries an earthen

pot round the pyre.

The

officiating

priest punctures

the pot with a knife, and receives the water in another

pot.
is

He

throws this water on the pyre, and the pot

(lung

then smashed and

is

away.

This part of the

ceremony

said to symbolise that the deceased has

had
god,

his ablution in the

water of the Ganges, and the

lire

Agni, represented by the homam, was witness to the

same.

The

fire

god

is

supposed to witness every cereAfter the body

bathe.
is

mony
those

enjoined by the Vedas.

burnt,

who attended go away and

is

bodied soul
Sarira,

supposed

to enter a

The disembody called Sukshma

hell

and eventually goes

But, before
it

to

heaven or
its

as

it

deserves.

can reach

destination, certain

ceremonies must be performed.

These

consist chiefly of

oblations on each of the ten days following death, for the

purpose of causing the preta

(spirit) to

grow out of the

Dhananjaya Vayu, which causes deformities and changes Each day's ceremony in the deceased after death.
completes a limb or part of the preta, and the body
is

complete

in ten days.

On

the third day after death,

the ashes of the deceased are collected in an urn, and

buried at the place of cremation or close to

called ekoddishta.

it.

This

is

On the eleventh day,

all

the

members
which

of the family

go through a

purificatory ceremony,

consists in swallowing the panchagavya, and changing

the sacred thread.

They then perform a sraddha,

offering-

balls of rice, etc., to the

tors,

deceased and three of his ances-

and give a dinner and presents of money and cloths

NAMBUTIRl BRAHMAN
to
in

2i6

Twelve sraddhas must be performed, one each month following, when water and balls of rice
Rrahmans.

(pindas) are offered to the spirit.

is

The

twelfth sraddha

the sapindi karana, which elevates the spirit of the

deceased to the r;ink of an ancestor.

there
is

Following

this,

only

the annual

sraddha,

or

anniversary

of

death, calculated according to the lunar or astronomical

year,

when

not less than three

Brahmans

are fed, and

receive presents of

money and
"

cloths.

Concerning" the death ceremonies,

Mr. Subramani

Aiyar writes as follows.

After death, the blood rela-

tions of the deceased bathe, and, with wet clothes on,

place two pieces of the stem of the plantain tree, one at

the head and the other at the feet of the corpse.

hair of the head
is

The

and

face
in

bathed with water

gopi mark

and the body which turmeric and mailanchi,

is

shaved a

little,

a red vegetable substance, are dissolved.

vite
is

The

X'aishna-

drawn

vertically,

as also are sandal

paste marks on various parts of the body, and flowers and

garlands are thrown over

it.

The corpse
is is

is

then covered

with an unbleached cloth, which a rope of kusa grass.

It

kept in position by
to

carried

the pyre by
circle of the

Nambutiris who are not within the pollution

deceased, the eldest son supporting the head and the

younger ones the

legs.

cremation

pit is

dug

in the

south-east portion of the compound, and a

mango

tree,

which has been

responsible
to

felled, is
is

used as

fuel.

In

all

these cere-

monies, the eldest son

ritualist,

the karta or chief mourner and

with

whom

the younger ones have

keep up physical contact while the several rites are being gone through. When the body is almost reduced
to ashes, the principal performer of the ceremonies

and

his brothers bathe, and, taking some earth from the

adjoining stream or tank,

make with

it

a representation

217
of the deceased.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
funeral ceremonies,

Throughout the

the

Maran

is

an indispensable

factor.

The handing

of

the kusa grass and gingelly {SesaNiiiiii) seeds for the oblation

must be done by a member of that

caste.

Sanchayanam, or the collection and disposal of the burnt bones of the deceased, takes place on the fourth day.

On
is

the eleventh day the pollution ceases, and the daily

sraddha begins.
kept
u[) for

term of diksha or special observance

the sapinda karana sraddha,
called joining the fathers,

three fortnights, but generally for a whole

is

year.

On

the twelfth day

or ceremony of what
after

may be

which the dead person passes from the stage of

preta to join the

manes

or spirits.

There are then the

monthly ceremonies (masikas) and ashta sraddhas (eight

sraddhas).

The abdika or first anniversary, known in Malabar by the name of masam, is a very important
is

ceremony, and one on which unstinted expenditure

the rule."

further account of the death ceremonies

"

is

given

in

the Gazetteer of Malabar.

When

death

is

believed to

be near, the dying man

of the sacred
to the south
fire

is

taken to the west of the hearth

laid

(aupasana agni), and

with his head

on a bed of sand and darbha grass, while

the ottu
is

mantram is whispered in his ear. When life extinct, the body is washed and covered with a plan-

tain leaf.

The mourners dress themselves

in tattu fashion,

and tear up a new cloth breadthwise into pieces called

sesham, which they each wear round their waist.

The
is

body
and

is

then dressed

in

an undercloth

the forehead

smeared with the pounded root of the creeper mettoni,

tulasi

flowers are put

is

on the head

the

kudumi

(hair knot)

arranged to
is

and the punul (sacred thread) hang round the neck in front. The body
untied,

tied

on

to a

bamboo

ladder and covered with a

new

NAMBUriRI BRAHMAN
cloth,

2l8

and then carried by four of the nearest relatives to the ])lace of cremation within the compound of the

illam.

trench

is

dug on the north-east of the

into
it,

pyre,

and some water put

which

is

sprinkled on the

pyre with twigs of chamatha and darbha.

The body

is

then laid on the pyre with the head to the south, and
the
fire is

kindled.

The

ladder

is

thrown away, and a

are recited.

homam

performed of ghee and darbha grass made to

deceased, while mantrams

represent the

Then comes the ceremony called kumbhapradakshinam. The mourners go round the pyre three times, the eldest
son leading the way, carrying an earthen pot of water

on

his left shoulder.

bottom of the

pot,

The water should run through the one hole being made for the first
it

round, two for the second, and three for the third, and other mourners should sprinkle

on the pyre.

At the

end of the third round the pot is thrown on to the pyre, and all the mourners come away, the eldest son leaving

and being careful not to look back. After bathing and shaving, the sons and other persons entitled to celebrate the obsequies, each perform an oblation of water
last,

(udagakriya) to a piece of karuga grass stuck up to represent the spirit of the dead, concluding the ceremony

by touching

iron, granite,

a firebrand, cow-dung, paddy

and gold three times, throwing away the sesham, and

receiving
to the

They then return nadumittam, when they make offerings (bali or

a
clean
cloth

(mattu).

veli) of rice balls

(pindams) to a piece of karuga grass.

to be repeated twice daily

Both these ceremonies have

for ten days.
it is

On

the fourth day after death, provided

not a Tuesday or Friday, the ceremony of collecting

is

the bones (sanchyanam)

performed.

The

eldest son

goes to the pyre with a pala (pot made

of the spathe of

an areca palm) of milk, which he sprinkles on the pyre

19

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

with a brush of chamatha tied with karuga grass. Three palas are placed on the west of the pyre parallel to the
places where the
feet,

waist and head of the corpse rested,

and bones are removed from the feet, waist and head with tongs of chamatha, and placed in the respective The bones are then washed in milk, and all palas.
put into an earthen pot (kudam) with some karuga grass

on the

top.

The
filled

pot

is

covered with a cloth, taken to a

in

cocoanut tree and buried

pit,

the cloth being removed

plantain
is

and the top

day,
all

with mud.

planted

in

the trench that was dug near the pyre. the

On

the eleventh

members

of the family purify themselves,

and perform oblations of water and balls of rice. This constitutes the first sraddha, which must be repeated on
each anniversary of the eleventh day."

The funeral rites of women woman is pregnant at the time

"
first

are similar

but,

if

the

of death, the body has

to be purified seven times with

pounded kusa

grass,

cow-dung, cow's urine, ashes and gold, and to receive

mattu.

The
if
;

belly

is

cut open four

is

inches below the

it is

navel, and,

the child
if

found

alive,

taken out and

brought up
ten days

dead,

it

is

put back in the

womb

with a

piece of gold and

some ghee.

Children not more than

little

old are buried with

ceremony, but

all

others are burnt." *

When
dispute
in

a Nambutiri

is

believed to have been guilty

of an offence against the caste, or

when

there
is

is

a caste

any gramam, the proper course

to the

to represent

the matter to the king (in Malabar the Zamorin),

refers
it

who

Smarta having jurisdiction over that

particular

gramam, ordering him to try the offender after holding a proper enquiry. Minor offences are punishable

The accounts of marriage and death ceremonies

in

the Gazelieer of

Malabar

are from a grandhavari.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
by
inrtiction of

220

penance, fasting, or doing special puja to

the gods.

Graver offences are dealt with by excommuAgainst the decision of the

Adultery between a
is

nication from the caste.

Smarta there
butiri

is

no appeal.
a

Nam-

woman and
all

man

of inferior caste

perhaps the
described as

most serious of
follows by Mr.

caste offences.

The enquiry

into

cases of adultery

is

Subramani Aiyar.
known.

" It is

conducted by

the Smarta, and hence arises the

by which
chastity

it

is

name (smartavicharam) Whenever a Nambutiri woman's

is

is

suspected, she
enquiry,

at

once handed over to

of

society

for

no

considerations

personal
or

affection or public policy intervening.

The mother

brother
act,

may be

the

first

and only spectator of a shady

but feels no less bound to invite, and generally pay

very heavily for a public enquiry by society according"

to its recognised rules.

The
of
or

suspect

is

at

once

transferred to an isolation shed in the

variously called by the

name

same compound, anchampura or fifth

quadrangle),
or

room

(outside

the

nalukettu

the

pachcholappura, a new shed with green thatch roofing

put up for the occasion.

She may be seen here by

her husband, his father and uncles, her father, father's

father, father's

maternal grandfather, and their sons, but

by none

else.

Once a prohibited member

is

sees

her,

the brand of infamy indubitably settles on her, and the

For beginning a smartavicharam. the sanction of the ruling Raja has

smartavicharam
considered foreclosed.
to be obtained.

The matter
For
this,

is

carried to his ears, after

a preliminary enquiry,

called dasivicharam,

has been

gone through.
in

the woman's male relations,

conjunction with the Brahmans of the neighbourhood,

interrogate the Dasi or

Nayar maid-servant attached

to

the suspected

woman.

Along

with the application for

221

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

royal sanction in Travancore, a fee of sixty-four fanams

or nine rupees

has to
Sri

be sent

in,

and

is

credited
as

to

the

treasury

of

Padmanabha
is

Svvami,

whose

deputy the Maharaja

supposed
a

to rule

the country.

The Maharaja then appoints

Smarta (judge), two Mimamsakas. an Akakkoyimma. and a Purakkoyimma.

office of

The
its

Smarta

is

hereditary.

If

a family becomes

extinct, the

place.

the law,
are

Yoga or village union nominates another in The Mimamsakas are Nambutiris learned in and their office is seldom hereditary. They
Smarta
in

appointed to help the

or person

his

enquiries.

The Akakkoyimma,

whose business is to preserve order, holds his appointment by heredity. The Purakkoyimma is the proxy of the sovereign himself.
In ancient days, and even so late as the time of the

great Martanda Varma, the ruling sovereign himself was

present during the

trial,

and preserved order.

Now

deputy
to

is

sent by the Maharaja.

if

He

is
it

generally the

magistrate of the taluk, who,

he finds

inconvenient

attend the meeting, delegates the function to the

chief village officer.

The Smarta, when

he receives the

royal commission (neet) for holding the enquiry, receives

from the woman's relations a small tribute of money

(dakshina).

The Mimamsakas,
for

it

may

be observed, are
alone
is

selected by the Smarta.

In Travancore

the

Smarta's authority supreme,

territory,

no Vaidika
invited.

lives in this

and none are generally

In other parts

of Malabar,

where Vaidikas

live

permanently, one of the

six recognised

Vaidikas has to accompany the Smarta

to the place of the vicharana (enquiry),

and the Smarta

of.

merely

conducts

the

enquiry

as the proxy

and

authorised and guided by the \'aidikas.

council assembles at

Generally the
village temple.

some neighbouring
is

The

suspected

woman

placed within the anchampura,

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

222
at the door.

and her maid-servant stands

are addressed to
to be honoured

All questions

her, as the

gosha of the suspect has

the pronouncement
begins,

in its entirety until

of the

final

verdict.

The procedure

not by

the framing and reading out of a charge-sheet, but by

arranging for the suspicion being brought to notice by

the

accused

person

herself.

For

this

purpose, the

Smarta makes a
if

feint of

entering the isolation shed, as

in

ignorance of everything that has transpired.

stops

The
her

maid-servant
mistress
is

him,

and informs

him

that

within.

The
in

Smarta, on hearing

this, affects

astonishment, and asks her the reason

why

her mistress

should

not

be

the

main building (antahpuram).

With

this question,

the enquiry

may be

said to have

actually begun.

The

next morning by eleven o'clock,

the Smarta and his co-adjutors again go and stand beside

the isolation
hut,

and,

calling for

the

maid-servant,

commence
in

the regular enquiry.

After about five o'clock

in the

the afternoon, the Smarta,

presence of the

Akakkoyimma, relates the whole day's proceedings to the Mimamsakas, and takes their opinion as to the
questions for the next day.

The

enquiry often
It
is

lasts for

months, and sometimes even

for years.

the most

expensive undertaking possible, as the whole judicatory staff has to be maintained by the family, unless the

sadhanam
her guilt.
point out
guilt.

or subject gives a circumstantial confession of

It is

not enough to plead guilty

she must

all

the persons

who have been

partakers in her

Thus every day

?

the Smarta asks " Are there any

more
cil

"

After the completion of the enquiry, the coun-

re-assembles at the village temple.

The guardian

of the suspect presents

himself before the assembled

Brahmans, and makes the customary obeisance.

The

Smarta then recounts the details of the enquiry, ^and

223
ultimately pronounces
his
is

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
If

verdict.

the

woman

is

declared innocent, she

rejoicings,
for the

re-accepted amidst universal

feels

and the head of the family

in

amply repaid

expenditure he has incurred

the reputation for

chastity secured for a

member

of his family under such

all

a severe ordeal. a Brahman,

butiris

If

things do not end so well,

the

Brahmans come out

of the temple and re-assemble,

when

who

is

usually not a Nambutiri, as the

to

Namcaste,

do not desire

condemn one

of their

own

stands up, and in a stentorian voice repeats the substance

of the charge,

and the judgment as given by the Smarta.

of the

The guardian

woman

then goes away, after she

bathes, and performs

has been handed over by the Smarta to the custody of

the Purakkoyimma.
all

The guardian

the funeral ceremonies for his ward,

is

who from

this

moment
purposes.

considered dead for

all

social

and family

The

persons meanwhile, whose names have

been given out by the

in the offence,

woman

as having been implicated

have to vindicate their character on pain

of excommunication.
In connection with a case of adultery, which

was

tried

recently in

Malabar,

it

is

noted that the Purakkoyimma

in

kept order in the court with sword

hand.
in

Iswara
the local

puja (worship of Iswara) was performed

temple on

all

the days of the

trial,

and the suspected

products of the

woman was
I

given panchagavya
tell

(five

cow) so that she might

the truth.

am

informed

that, in the

course of an enquiry into

a charge of adultery,

"it

sometimes happens that the

woman names

innocent

men

as

her seducers.

Two
may
and
is

courses are then open to them, in order that they

exculpate themselves,
ordeal by weighing.

viz.,

ordeal by

boiling

oil,

The former

of these ordeals
Raja,

undergone,

under the

sanction of the

by the

NAMRUTIRI BRAHMAN

224
in ghi.

accused person dipping his bare hand

which has

been boiling from sunrise to midday, and taking out

of
it

bell-metal
if,

bandaged, and
it

image. The hand is immediately on examination of it on the third day,

be found unharmed, the

man
is

is

declared innocent.
to
is

In

the other ordeal, the

man

made
and

sit for

a certain

time

in

one of a pair of

scales,

declared innocent

or guilty, according as the scale ascends or descends.

But these
days,

]:)ractices

do not now
in

prevail."

In former

the ordeal of boiling ghi was undergone at the

of
its

temple
derives

Suchlndram

Travancore.

This temple
to the

name from
illicit

Indra,

who,

according

legend, had

intercourse with Ahalya, the wife of

Gautama
this place.

Rishi, and had to

undergo a similar ordeal

at

In connection with a

case which
is

came before the

suspected.

High Court

of Madras,

it

recorded * that " an enquiry

was held into the conduct of a

her,

woman
illicit

She

confessed that the plaintiff had had

intercourse with

and thereupon they were both declared out-casts, the plaintiff not having been charged, nor having had an opportunity to cross-examine the woman, or enter
on
his defence,

and otherwise

to vindicate his character.

Held by the High Court that the declaration that the plaintiff was an outcast was illegal, and, it having been
found that the defendants had not acted bona fide
in

making

that declaration,

the plaintiff was entitled to

recover damages."
In order to mitigate to

some extent the

suffering

caused by turning adrift a

adultery,

woman proved

guilty

of

who has hitherto lived in seclusion, provision has been made by the Raja of Cherakkal. A Tiyan named
* Ind.

Law

Reports, Madras Series, XII, 1889.


NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
of land granted

225

TalHparamba possesses a large extent

by a former Raja of Cherakkal, on condition of his taking under his protection all excommunicated females,
if

they choose to go with him.

He

has special rank and

privileges,

and has the

title

of Mannanar.

Whenever an
it,

inquiry takes place,

Mannanar

receives information of

and
It

his

messengers are ready to take the

in

woman

away.

was the custom

former days

for

to lead the

woman

to near his house,

Mannanar's agents and leave her at a

which two roads lead to the house one to the eastern gate, and the other to the northern.
certain place from
If

the

woman happened

to enter the house

by the eastern
if

gate, she

became Mannanar's wife, and, by the northern gate, she was considered
by adoption.
This
rule,

she went in

to be his sister

however,

is

not strictly adhered

to at the present day.

The Nambutiris
to
"

are stated by Mr. Subramani Aiyar

belong to different sutras, gotras, or septs,

different

and

follow
sutras

Vedas.

The most

important of the

are

Asvalayana,

Baudhayana, Apastamba, and

gotras
are

Kaushitaka.

The best-known

Kasyapa,

There are a few Samavcdins belonging to the Kitangnur and Panchal gramams, but most of them are Rigvedic, and some belong to the Yajurveda. The Rigvedic Brahmans belong to two separate yogas or unions, namely, Trichur Yoga and Tirunavai Yoga. It appears that three of the most renowned of the disciples of Sankaracharya were
Nambutiri Brahmans, who received their
the
initiation into

Bhargava, Bharadvaga, Vasishta, and Kausika.

sanyasasrama

at

the

great

sage's

hands.

They
as the

established three maths or monasteries,

known

tekkematham
in default in

(southern), natuvile

matham

(middle),

and

vatakke matham (northern).

regard to the
V-15

Succession having fallen

the property that stood

last,


NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
in its

226

name

lapsed to the Raja of Cochin.

Out

of the

funds of this matham, a Vedic pathasala (boarding school)

was
to

established

at
in

Trichur.

certain

number

of

villagers

became

time recognised as being entitled

institution,

instruction at

this

and formed a yoga.

Trichur then became the centre of Brahmanical learning. Later on, when the relations of the Zamorin of Calicut with the Raja of Cochin became strained, he organised another yoga at Tirunavai for the Nambutiris who lived Here there are two yogas for within his territory.

Rigvedic Brahmans.
tion

In these schools, religious instruc-

has been imparted with sustained attention for

centuries.

several

The heads

of

these

schools

are

Changngavot and Erkara, To these two yogas two V'adhyars and respectively. There are also six Smartas six Vaidikas are attached. The Vadhyars are or judges attached to these bodies.
recruited from the houses of

purely religious instructors, and have nojudicial duties in

respect of society.

The

Vaidikas and Smartas are very

it is

learned in the Smritis, and

caste

with them that the whole

government of the Nambutiris absolutely rests." The names of the Nambutiris measured by Mr.
:

Fawcett were as fbllows

Nllakantan.

Bhavasarman.
Nandi.

Paramesvaran.

Raman.
Harijayandan.

Kuberan.

Madhavan.
Anantan.

Chandrasekharan.

Vasudevan.
Greni.

Nambiatan.
Shannan.
Krishnan.
Sankaran.

Damodaran.
Sivadasan.

Mahesvaran.

In connection with the

Subramani Aiyar writes

names of Nambutiris, Mr. " A list of names as follows.

227
not

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

current

or
in

unusual

communities

now among other Brahman Southern India may be interesting.

Kadaniban.
Chitran.

These are
Vishnu.

Gayantan.
Devadattan.
Kiratan.

Gadavedan.
Bhavadasan.
Srikumaran.

Prabhakaran.
Dattareyan.

"

The conspicuous absence may be

in

of the

names

of the third

son of Siva (Sasta), such as Hariharaputra and Budhanatha,

noted.

Nor

are the

names

of Ganapathi

much

favour with them.

Sridevi and Savitri are the

two most common names, by which Nambutiri females There are also certain other names of a are known. Prakrita or non-classic character, used to denote males

and females, which sometimes border on the humorous.

Among

these are
Males.
[

Females.

Nampiyattan.
Ittiyattan.

Nangngaya.
Nangngeli.
Pappi.
Ittichchiii.

Uzhutran.

Tuppan.
Nampotta.

Unnima.
Chiruta.

"

Some names
is

in

this list are identifiable with the

names ple, Uzhutran

Chiruta
Parvati.

of divinities and puranic personages.

For examIn the

a corruption of Rudran.
is

manner, Tuppan
for Sita.

the

Prakrit for
is

same Subramanya, and

for

Unnima

another name
to

Uma
title

or of

Nambutiris

grudge

grant

the

Nambutiri to each other.

seri

For instance, the TamarasBut,

Nambutiri

calls

the Mullappalli Nambutiri merely

if

Mullapalli (house name).

is

the person addressed

an Adhya
V-15B

of one of the eight houses, or at least a

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
Tantri Adhya, the
title

28
is

Nambiitiri

added

to his

name.

Again,

if

there arc in a house two Nambutiris, one of

them being the father and the other the son, the father, whenever he writes, subscribes himself as the Achchan
Nambiitiri or father Nambutiri, while the son subscribes

himself as the

Makan

or son Nambutiri.

In Malabar

there were two poets called

tiri

Venmani Achchan Nambu-

and Venmani Makan Nambutiri, venmani signifying in documents and It is only the name of the illam.
other serious papers that the proper

name

or sarman of

the Nambutiri would be found mentioned."

When
names of
Nambutiri

addressing each other,

their
is

Nambutiris use the

respective illams or manas.

When

talking with a Nayar, or indeed with one

of any other caste, the

sation
is

manner

in

which the converapparent at

must be carried

on, strictly according to custom,

is

such that the Nambutiri's superiority

every turn.

Thus, a Nayar, addressing a Nambutiri,

If

must speak of himself as foot-servant. his rice, he must not call it rice, but

he mentions
gritty rice.

his

Rupees must be called his copper He must call his house his dung-pit. He must speak of the Nambutiri's rice as his raw rice, his coppers as The Nayar rupees, and his house as his illam or mana. must not call his cloth a cloth, but an old cloth or a But the Nambutiri's cloth is to be called spider's web.
coins, not his rupees.
his daily

white cloth, or his superior cloth.

The Nayar,
in

speaking of his bathing, says that he drenches himself

with water, whereas the Nambutiri sports
the water

when he

bathes.

Should he speak of eating or drinking,

the Nayar must say of himself that he takes food, or

treats himself to the water in

which

rice

has been washed.

But, should he speak of the Nambutiri eating, he

must

say that he tastes ambrosia.

The Nayar calls

his sleeping

29

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
his eyes, or resting

lying

flat,

and the Nambutiri's closing

like a Raja.

The Nayar must speak

is

of his

own death as
;

the falling of a forest, but of the Nambutiri's as entering

fire.

The Nambutiri

not shaved by the barber

his

hairs are cut.

He

is

not angry, but merely dissatisfied.

his

He

does not clean

teeth as the

Nayar
;

he cleans
his

his superior pearls.

Nor does he laugh

he displays

superior pearls.

Concerning
Nambutiris,
"

the

Mr.

recreations and pastimes of the Subramani Aiyar writes as follows.

During the intervals of Vedic or Puranic recitations, the Nambutiri engages himself in chaturangam or chess.

When

the players are equally matched, a

or even seven days.

game may

last

five, six,

Another amusement, which

in, is

the Nambutiris take a great interest

the Yatrakali,

which

is

said to be a corruption of Sastrakali, a perform-

ance relating to weapons.

This

is

a unique institution,

kept up by a section of the Nambutiris,

to represent the

who

are believed

Brahmanical army of Parasu Rama.

in

When,

at a

ceremony
is

the Travancore royal household,

a Yatrakali

performed, the parties have to be received

at the entrance of the Maharaja's palace in state,

in

sword
In
its

hand.

The

dress

and songs are peculiar.

in the

import, the performance seems to combine the propitiation of Siva

and Parvati

manner

indicated in
skill

a tradition at Trikkariyur with exorcism and

in

swordsmanship.
days,

It is

generally believed that, in ancient

ruled

the

Brahmans themselves
it

Kerala.

When

they found

necessary to have a separate king, one Atta-

kat Nambutiri was deputed, with a few other Brahmans, to

go and obtain a

ruler from the adjoining

Chera
as

territory.

The

only pass in those days, connecting Malabar and

is

Coimbatore, was that which

galam.

now known

Neruman-

When

the Nambutiris were returning through

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
this pass with the ruler

230

whom

they had secured from the

Chera King, a strange light was observed on the adjacent hills. Two young Brahmans of Chengngamanat village,
on proceeding towards the
thereof,
hill

to investigate the source

it

found to their amazement that

was none

other than Sri Bhagavati, the consort of Siva,

who

en-

joined them to go, via Trikkariyur, to Kodungngnallur,

the capital of the Perumals.

Seeing that the sight of

Bhagavati foretold prosperity, the king called the range

made an endowment of all the surrounding land to the Brahman village of Chengngamanat, the members of which had the good
of hills

Nerumangalam

or true bliss, and

fortune to

see the goddess face to face.

When

they

entered the temple of Trikkariyur, a voice was heard to

exclaim " Chera Perumal," which meant that into that

town, where Parasu

Rama was

believed to be dwelling,

no Perumal (king)
injunction
still

should ever enter

traditional

respected by the Malabar Kshatriyas.

the sixth Perumal who, according to a
for the

At

this place,

tradition,

had a pronounced predilection

the

Bouddha

religion (Islamism or

Buddhism, we cannot

say), called

a meeting of

religious discussion should be held

Brahmans, and told them that a between them and

the Bouddhas, in view to deciding their relative superiority.

'l*he

presiding deity of the local Saiva shrine was

then propitiated by the Brahmans, to enable them to

come out

victorious from the

trial.

A Gangama
hymn

saint

appeared before them, and taught them a

called

nalupadam
saint

(four feet or parts

is

of a sl5ka)

which the

Nambutiris say
within

extracted from the Samaveda.

The
from

further advised

them

to take

out a lamp

the

temple, which

according to tradition had

existed from the time of Sri

Rama,

to a

room

built

on the

western ghat of the temple tank, and pray to Siva in

231

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

terms of the hymn.

one days, six

head,

While this was continued for fortyBrahmans, with Mayura Bhatta at their
the east coast
to the

arrived from

succour of

the Nambutiris.

With the help of these Brahmans, the

to bring
it

Nambutiris kept up a protracted discussion with the

Bouddhas.

Wishing

to a close, the
test.

Perumal

thought of applying a practical

He
first

enclosed a

snake within a pot, and asked the disputants to declare

its

contents.

The Bouddhas came

flower.

out

with the corthat

rect answer, while the

it

Brahmans followed by saying

was a
it

lotus

pleased

with the

The Perumal was, of course, Bouddhas but, when the pot was
;

opened,
a snake.

was found

to contain a lotus flower instead of

felt

The Bouddhas

themselves defeated, and

ever afterwards the nalupadam

hymn

has been sung by

the Nambutiris with a view to securing a variety of

objects,
this

every one of which they expect to obtain by

It
is

means.

also said that,

when

the

Brahmans
and

were propitiating Siva

cranks.

at Trikkariyur, diverse spirits

angels were found amusing Parvati with their quips and

A voice from

heaven was then heard

to say that

such
"

frolics

should thereafter form part of the worship

these socio-religious performances are
associations.

of Siva.

Engaged

in

eighteen

sanghas or

The

chief office-

bearers are the Vakyavritti

who

is

the chief person,

and must be an Ottu Nambutiri or a Numbutiri with full Vedic knowledge the Parishakkaran who holds
;

charge of the Yatrakali paraphernalia

instructor.

and the guru or

The

chief household divinities of these soldier

Nambutiris are Bhadrakali, Sasta, and Subrahmanya.

On

the evening of the Yatrakali day, these

Brahmans
and

assemble round the lamp, and recite the nalupadam and

a few hymns
in praise of their

household

divinities,

especially of Siva,
at Trikkariyur.

the saviour

who manifested

himself

On

the night of the performance they

are entertained at supper,

called Karisloka.
to the

when they sing certain songs They then move in slow procession
singing
specially

kalam or

hall,

songs

in

the

vallappattu
vertically
is

metre,

with

the sacred
(apiviti),

thread

hanging

round the neck

and not diagonally as

the orthodox fashion.

in

In the hall have been placed a

burning lamp
filled

the centre, a para (Malabar measure)

with paddy, a number of bunches of cocoanuts,

fruits,
sit

plantain

and
in

various

kinds

of

flowers.

The
after
in

Brahmans
preliminary

a circle
to

round the lamp, and,

Ganapathi,
sing

invocations

songs

praise of Siva.

After this various kinds of

is

dumb-show
skill

are performed, and this

in

the time for exhibiting

swordsmanship.

The

exorcising, by the

waving of a

lighted
spirits

torch before the face of the host, of any evil

that

may have attached themselves is then gone through. The performance ends with a prayer
to
will shower every prosperity. upon this, a variety entertainment is sometimes given by the Yatrakali Nambutiris. This old

Bhagavati,

that she

Following close

institution

is

still

in

great favour in

British Malabar,
it,

and, as
is

it

has a religious laspect intertwined with

it

not likely to be swept away by the unsparing broom

of the so-called parishkarakalam or reforming age of

modern
"

India.

The
of

Kathakali, or national

drama of Malabar,

is

held in great

esteem and favour by the Nambutiris.

Most

them are conversant with the songs and shows

it,

relating to
failure.
in

and severely
Kathakali
is is

criticise

the slightest fault or

The

more than three centuries old

been
first

Malabar, and

said to have

brought into

existence by a

member

of the ancient ruling house of

Kottarakkara.

As

the earliest theme represented was

the Ramayana, the

KathakaH
play lasts

is

also

known

as

Ramaten

nattam.

single

for

eight and even

hours

in the

night.

Kshatriyas,

Asuras, Rakshasas,
etc.,
is

Kiratas

(hunting

tribes),

monkeys,, birds,

each

has an

appropriate

make-up.
is

The

play

in

dumb-

show, and no character

stage.

permitted to speak on the

the

The songs

are sung by

songster, and

the actors literally act,

Bhagavatar or and do nothing

form of
to a

more.

The Nambutiris

love this antiquated

it

theatrical performance,

and patronise

remarkable

extent. "

There are a number of other recreations of an

entirely non-religious character. called respectively seven

The

chief of these are

fifteen

dogs and the leopard,

dogs and the leopard, and twenty-eight dogs and the

leopard.

Success

in

these

games

consists in so arranging

the dogs as to form a thick phalanx, two abreast, round the leopard.
sent the dogs

Stones of two sizes are employed to repre-

and leopards, and the

field

is

drawn on
is

the ground.

"The

ezahmattukali, or seventh amusement,

its

said

to have been so called from the fact of

being intro-

duced by the seventh Nambutiri gramam of Kerala.

It is

a miniature form of Yatrakali, but without

its

qtiasi-

religious character,

and

is

intended to serve merely as

all

a social pastime.

The

players need not

be Brah-

mans

nor

is

fasting or

any religious

discipline part of

the preliminary programme.

Sitting round the

lamp

as at the Yatrakali, and reciting songs in praise of Siva,

the players proceed to the characteristic portion of the

recreation,

which

is

a kind of competition

in

quick-

wittedness and
parties.

memory held between two yogas or One among them calls himself the Kallur Nayar

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
and
is

234

the presiding judge.

There

is

interrogation and

answering by two persons, and a third proclaims the mistakes in the answers.
as bailiffs to

There are two

others,

execute the judge's orders.

introduced,

who serve Humorous

scenes

are

then

such as

Ittikkantappan

Niiyar, Prakkal, Mutti or old

woman, Pattaror Paradesa

Brahman, and other characters, who appear on the stage

and amuse the assembly."

The Nambutiris
tures are the Vedas.
tiris

are Vedic
It is

Brahmans

their scrip-

safe to say that the

Nambu-

are Shaivas, but not to the exclusion of Vishnu.

The

ordinary

South Indian Vaishnava Brahman has

interest in the

nothing to do with the Shaiva temple over the way,

and takes no part or

Siva
is

Shaiva

festivals.

to the

Nambutiri the supreme

deity, but

he

has temples also to Vishnu, Krishna, Narasimha, Sri

Raghava.

Ganapathi,

Subrahmanya,

Bhagavati,

etc.

There are
narayanan
Like

said to be temples to Sastavu

and Sankar-

amalgamated
is

forms of Siva and Vishnu.

The lingam
all

the ordinary object of worship.

Brahmans, the Nambutiris believe that the

west,morth-west,

eight directions or points of the compass, north, northeast, east, south-east, south, south-west,

arc presided over by eight deities, or Ashtadikpalakas,

riding on various animals.

Indra reigns
the sun god.

in

heaven and

Yama

in hell,

and Surya

is

All these and

their wives are worshipped.

Parvati shares adoration

so
on.

with Siva,

Lakshmi with Vishnu, and

in

The

Nambutiris believe
said

the existence of evil spirits which

influence man, but they do not worship them.

It
is

that

the

Nambutiri has of

late

been

influenced by Vedantism, that wonderful religious idea

of the existence of one spirit or atman, the only reality,

outside which the world and

all

besides

is

mere

illusion,

235

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
in
is

and whose doctrine

"

is

wrapped up
".

the three words

Ekam

eva advitlyam

(There

but

one

being

without a second).

The Nambutiris
Their legendary
India
is

call

themselves Arya Brahmanar.

to

transmigration
doubtless true.

Malabar
is

from by
far

Northern
with
in

Theirs

the purest form of the Vedic

Brahmanism

to be

met
these

Southern India.

complete account of the

given
in

religion

of the Nambutiris cannot be

pages.
last of

The
which

Nambutiri's
is

life is

a round of sacrifices, the

the burning of his body on the funeral

pyre.

When

the

Nambutiri

has
or

no male

issue,

he

performs the

putra kameshti

karmavipakaprayasit.

chittam yagams or sacrifices to obtain

Should he

be unwell, he performs the mrittyunjaya santi yagam,

so that he

may be
aja

restored to good health.

sacrifice,

He

per-

forms the

yagam, or goat

in

order to

obtain salvation.

Though animal
is

food

is

strictly for-

bidden, and the rule

goat,
in

strictly followed,

the flesh of the

which remains
sacrifice,
is

after the offering has

been made
present
the only

this

eaten by

the Nambutiris

as part

of the solemn

ceremonial.
is

This

is

occasion on which animal food

or prostration,
it

is

Namaskaram, eaten. much done during prayers. By some

daily,

is

done some hundreds of times

It

by others

not so often.

amounts

to physical exercise,

and

is

calculated to strengthen the arms and the back.

Reference has already been made to certain cere-

monies connected with pregnancy, and the early

of a child.

life

There are three further important ceremonies, called Upanayana, Samavartana and Upakarma, concerning which Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes as " Upanayana may be called the Brahmanising follows.
ceremony.

An

oft-repeated Sanskrit verse runs to the

NAMBUriRI BRAHMAN
effect

236
is

that a

Brahman

Brahman by

virtue of his

karmas or actions in this life, or the lives preceding it. The meaning of the term Upanayana is a ceremony vvhicli leads one to god, i.e., to a realisation of the eternal self through the aid of a guru (preceptor).
This ceremony takes place
ninth year of a boy's
it

in

the seventh, eighth, or

ordinarily understood,

life.

As

is

a ceremony for males only, as they alone have

But, in ancient days,
it

to observe the four asramas.

seems was not compulsory, and a

to
at once.

have been performed also by females.

girl

Marriage

might take to asceticism

not born, but

Sita

is

said

to

have worn a yagnopavitam

is

(sacred thread).

A Brahman

made
is,

by the karmas.

In other words, a

Brahman boy
and
it

at

the time of his birth, only a Sudra,

is

by the

performance of the necessary karmas

ceremonial
process
in
rites,

not

merely the

but the disciplinary and preparatory

to
spiritual

view

development

that

he

becomes a Dviga or twice-born.

is

The word Upanayana

and nayana, leading.

composed of upa, meaning

the youth
is

near,

What
self,

led to

is,

according to some, Brah-

maggnana

or the realisation of the eternal

to

and universal

and according

others only the teacher or guru.

A
or

Nambiitiri

Upanayana begins with the presentation

or

of a dakshina (consolidated fee) to the Ezhuttachchan,

the

Nayar

Ambalavasi teacher, who has been

instructing the youth in the vernacular.

The boy

stands

on the western side of the

sacrificial fire, facing

the east,

and the father stands beside him, facing the same way.

The second
head,

cloth (uttariya)
right

is

thrown over the boy's

the skin of a Krishnahis shoulders

and

his

hand being held up, the sacred

thread, to which a strap

made from
is

mriga (antelope)

is

attached,

thrown over

and under

his right arm, while

he stands reverently with

237
closed eyes.

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN

The

thread and skin arc wrapped up in

the cloth, and are not to be seen by the boy.

He

is

then taken to an o{)en place, where the priest introduces

the

new Brahmachari

to the sun,

and invokes him to

next goes to the

cover his pupil with his rays.

sacrificial altar,
fire.

The boy

and himself offers certain sacrifices to the

Saluting his preceptor and obtaining his blessing,

he requests that he
tram.

may be

initiated into the Savitriman-

After a few preliminary ceremonies,

the guru

utters in the right ear of his disciple the sacred syllable

mantram nine times. He then instructs him in certain maxims of conduct, which he is to cherish and revere throughout the Brahmacharya

Om, and

repeats the Gayatri

stage.

Addressing the boy, the guru

entitled to the study of the

says,
;

'

You have

Vedas perform all the duties which pertain to the asrama you are about to enter. Never sleep during the day. Study the Vedas

become

by resigning yourself to the care of your

spiritual in-

These exhortations, though made in Sanskrit, structor.' are explained in Malayalam, in order that the boy may
understand them
the other coast.

a
if

feature

unknown

to

Brahmans on

With his words of advice, the preceptor gives the youth a danda or stick made of pipal {^Ficus
religiosd)

wood, as

to keep
if

him

in perpetual

memory
dis-

of what would follow

any of the directions be

his obeisance to
is

regarded.
parents and

The boy then makes

all his

his

relations,

and

given a brass vessel

collects,

called bhikshapatra (alms pot), in

which he

by

house-to-house

visits,

food for his daily sustenance during

the Brahmacharya stage.

of his

He

proceeds to the kitchen

own house with the vessel in one hand and the stick in the other. Making his obeisance in due form to his mother, who stands facing the east, he says Bhiksham bhavati dadatu (May you be pleased to give me
'
'

'

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
alms).

238

The mother

places five or seven handfuls of rice

in the vessel.

After receiving similar contributions from

the assembled elders, the boy takes the vessel to his

father,

who
is

is

the

first

guru, saying

'

Bhaikshmamidam
it,

(This
says
'

my alms collection). The father blesses and May it be good.' After the Gayatrijapa, the cereof

mony
to the

Samidadhana

is

performed.

This
fire,

is

the Brah-

machari's daily worship of the sacred

corresponding
to be per-

aupasana of the Grihastha, and has

daily.

formed twice

After another

homam

at night, the
is

cloth covering the sacred thread and skin

removed,

and the consecration of the food

is

done

for the first time.

In addition to the skin strap, the Brahmachari wears a

mekhala or twisted string of kusa grass. It is doubtless of the youthful Nambutiri that Barbosa wrote as follows
at the

beginning of the sixteenth century.

'

And when

these are seven years old, they put round their necks a

two fingers in width of an animal which they call cresnamergan, and they command him not to eat betel
strap
for

seven years, and

all

this time he

wears that strap

;

round the neck, passing under the arm

reaches fourteen years of age, they

and, when he make him a Brahman,

removing from him the leather strap round his neck, and putting on another three-thread, which he wears all his
life

as a

mark

of beinsc a Brahman.'

The

rules

which

observed, and every Nambutiri

were observed with such strictness centuries ago are still boy goes through his
full five

period of Brahmacharya, which lasts at least for

years.

During the whole of this period, no sandal no scents, and no flowers are to be used by him.

paste,

He

is

not to take his meals at other houses on festive occasions.

He

must not sleep during the day.

Nor may he wear a

Shoes and umbrella
of the Brahmachari

loin-cloth in the ordinary fashion.

are also prohibited.

The completion

239
asrama,
or

NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
is

stage of pupilage,

called Samavartana.

After a few religious ceremonies in the morning, the

Brahmachari shaves
bathes.
self

for the first time since the

yana ceremonies, casts

Upanaoff the skin strap and mekhala, and

He

puts on sandal paste marks, bedecks him-

with jasmine flowers, and puts on shoes.

He

then
After

holds an umbrella, and wears a pearl necklace.

this,

he puts on a head-dress, and a few other ceremonials

conclude the Samavartana.

to this, the

For three days subsequent

is

budding Grihastha
is

considered ceremonially

impure, and the pollution

perhaps based on the death

In the

of the old asrama, and birth of the new.

Upakarma

ceremony, hymns are sung by the preceptor, and the

pupil has merely to listen to them."

In conclusion, something

may be

said concerning the

general beliefs of the Nambutiris.

All objects, animate

or inanimate, organic or inorganic, are believed to be

permeated by the divine

spirit.

Animals,

trees, plants,

and
sun,

floM'-ers

are animate, and therefore venerated.

stars are revered
in

The

moon, and

on account of some
deity.

inherent quality

each, such as utility or strength, or

owing to

their connection with

at

some

god can
bird,

assume any form

beast, or tree.

any time, such as that of a man,

various forms

in which a god has appeared are ever sacred. Some animals have been used as vehicles by the gods, and are therefore revered. Cows, horses, and snakes are worshipped. The cow is

The

the

most sacred of

all

animals.
plenty,

The Puranas

tell

of

Kamadhenu, the cow of

one of the fourteen useful

things which turned up out of the ocean of milk

when

it

gods

was churned, and which is supposed to have yielded the all they desired. So Kamadhenu is one who gives
is
is

anything which
sacred,
its

urine

Every hair of the cow is the most holy water, and its dung the
desired.


NAMBUTIRI BRAHMAN
240

most purificatory substance. The horse is the favourite animal of Kubera, the treasure-god. The Uchchaisravas,
the high-eared prototype of
the churned ocean.
greatest of
all

all

horses, also

Horse

sacrifice, or

came out of Asvamedha, is the

sacrifices.

Performance of a hundred of

them would give the sacrificer power to displace Indra, Snakes are the fruitful in order to make room for him. Kasyapa and Kadru. The Maha progeny of the sage
Sesha, their prince,
is

the couch and canopy of Vishnu,

his

and supports the world on

attention to snakes
is

thousand heads.
in

But

probably more
do,

the light of the

in character.

harm, which they

may

and propitiatory

Among
sanctum)
is

plants,

the tulasi or sacred basil {^Ocimum

all.

the most sacred of

It is

supposed to be

pervaded by the essence of both Vishnu and Lakshmi

according to some legends,
it

is

a metamorphosis of Sita
is

and Rukmini.
in

The

daily prayer offered to the tulasi

"
I

thus rendered by Monier Williams.

adore that tulasi

whose roots are all the sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose centre are all the deities, and in whose upper branches arc all the Vedas." The udumbara {Ficus Under this tree Dattatreya, glome7'ata) is also sacred.
the incarnation of the Trinity,
austerities.
sastras, there

performed his ascetic

The Nambutiri

says that, according to the

in his

must be one of these trees

it is.

compound,

and,

if it is

not there, he imagines

is

The

bilva

{^gle
leaves

Marmelos)
India.

specially sacred to Siva all over Southern

it

To

the Nambutiri

is

very sacred.

Its

are supposed to represent the three attributes of Siva

Satva, Raja, and

Tama and

trisulam (trident).

and his They are used by the Nambutiri in

also his three eyes

propitiatory ceremonies to that god.

single leaf of this tree
is

An

offering of a

believed to annihilate the sins

done three births or existence.

Kusa grass

[Ei'agrosfis

241
cynosuroides)
is

NANCHINAD VELLALA
in

very sacred, and used

many ceremonies.

At the churning

of the ocean, the snakes are said to

have been greedy enough to Hckthe nectar off the kusa The grass, and got their tongues spHt in consequence.
asvaththa {Ficics religiosa)
Nambutiris.
of
It is
is

also very sacred to the

spirit

supposed to be pervaded by the

Brahma the Creator. From the sun (Surya, the sun-god) emanate
its

light

and heat, and to

sun and

powers
it

all

vegetation

is

due, so the

Nambutiri worships

daily.

He

also offers puja to the

moon The (planets).

as

belonging to the nine navagrahas

planets are the Sun,

Moon, Mercury,
Ketu.

Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,

influence the destinies of men,

Rahu and

They
in for

and therefore come

some worship. The three last are sinister and must be propitiated. Namdev. A synonym of Rangari.

in their effects,

A name Travancore. Nanchinad Nanchinad Vellala. The

Nanchi Kuruva.
in

for

Kuruvas,

who

inhabit

Nanchinad
is

Vellalas, to
all

the

number of

18,000,

are

found scattered

over

Travancore, though their chief centre

Nanchinad,

composed of the taluks of Tovala and Agastisvaram. Their manners and customs at the present day are so different to those of the Tamil Vellalas that they may be
regarded as a separate caste indigenous to Travancore

and Cochin.
the the
title
title

Like other Sudras of Travancore, they add Pillai to their name, which is often preceded by

Kannaku.
a copper-plate grant
in the

From

possession of the

Syrian Christians, dated A.D. 824,

we

learn that

one

family of carpenters, and four families of Vellalas, were

entrusted with the growing of plants on the sea-coast,

the latter being the Karalars or trustees.
V-16

From

this

it

NANCHINAD VKLLALA

242

appears that the Vellalas must have settled on the west coast in the ninth century at the latest. The Nanchinad
Vellalas were not originally different from their

Pandyan

analogues, but settled in the taluks above mentioned,

over which
periods
in

Pandyans held sway during several mediceval times. On one occasion, when
the

there was a dispute about the territorial jurisdiction of

Nanchinad between the Maharaja of Travancore and the Pandyan ruler, the leading Vellalas of these taluks went over in a body to the Travancore camj), and swore They gradually allegiance to the Travancore throne.
renounced even the law of inheritance, which their brethren of the Tamil country followed, and adopted many novel customs, which they found prevalent in
Kerala.

From

Nanchinad

the

caste

spread

in

all

directions, and, as most of

them were respectable men

with good education and

services

mathematical training, their

were utilised for account-keeping in the civil and military departments of the State. They must, of course, be clearly distinguished from the Tamil makka-

thayam Vellalas of Kuttamperur in Tiruvella, who have also become naturalised in Travancore. For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. Like the Tamil Vellalas, the Nanchinad Vellalas are divided into two classes, Saiva and Asaiva, of which the former abstain from flesh and fish, while the latter have
no such scruple.
Asaivas
will

take food in the houses of

Saivas, but the Saivas cook their

own

food

when they

go to an Asaiva house.
girls

Again, though the Saivas marry

from Asaiva families, they are taught the Saiva

the

hymn by
custom
is,

Gurukal

immediately afterwards,

and
This

prohibited from dining with their former relatives.

however, only known to prevail

in

the south.

243

NANCHINAD VELLALA

While the Vellalas

brethren
houses.
in

in

the south reside in streets, their

Hve,
lils:e

the

north

Nayars,

in

isolated

In their dress and ornaments, too, the Nanchiin

nad Vellalas living

North Travancore

differ

from those

of the south, inasmuch as they adopt .the practice of the

Nayars, while the latter are conservative, and true to

their old traditions.

The Nanchinad
acumen.

Vellalas are well known, throughout

thrift,

Travancore, for their

industry,

and mathematical
their

Several families have dropped the designa-

tion of Vellala,

and adopted Nanchinad Nayar as

largely

caste-name.

mixed up with Malayalam words and phrases. Madan Isakki (Yakshi) and Inan are their recognised tutelary deities, and were till recently
Their language
is

worshipped

in

every household.

V'illati-chanpattu

is

common

propitiatory song, sung by

members
It

of the

goldsmith and oilmonger castes, in connection with the

ceremonies of the Nanchinad Vellalas.

deals with

the origin of these minor deities, and relates the circumstances in which their images were set up in various
shrines.

Amman-kodai, or

offering to the mother,

is

the the

most important religious

festival.

They also observe

Tye-pongal, Depavali, Trikkartikai,

festivals.

Onam
is

and Vishu
celebrated,
Vellalas, in

The

anniversary

of ancestors

and the Pattukkai ceremony of the Tamil

propitiation of deceased female ancestors,
is

performed

every year.

Stories

of Chitragupta,

the accountant-

general of Yama, the Indian Pluto, are recited on the

new-moon day

in

the month of Chittiray (April-May)

with great devotion.

The Nanchinad Vellalas are chiefly an class, having their own village organisation,
V-l6 B

agricultural

with

office-

bearers such as kariyasthan or secretary, mutalpiti or

NANCHINAD VELLALA
treasurer,

244
or accountant.

and the

pilla

Contributions

towards village funds are made on certain ceremonial Their high priest belongs to the Umayoruoccasions.

bhagam mutt
Vcllalas

of

Kumbakonam,and
the

the North Travancore

recognise

Panantitta

Gurukal as their
often officiate

spiritual adviser.

East coast

Brahmans

as their priests,
rites at

and perform the

for girls to

sacrificial

and other

weddings.
usual rule
is

The

is

marry

after puberty, but

early marriage

not rare.
is

The maternal

uncle's or

paternal aunt's daughter

bride.

regarded as the legitimate

The

presents to the bridegroom include a

dress,

mundu
said to

and neriyatu, the ordinary Malabar often an iron writing-style and knife.
be symbolical of the

and very
is

This

fact that the Vellalas

formed the
to

accountant caste of Travancore, and that several families

of

them were

invited from

Madura and Tinnevelly

settle

down

in

Nanchinad

for this purpose.

A procession
is

of the bridal couple in a palanquin through the streets

a necessary item of the marriage

festivities.

The NanNayar
downwards.
the

chinad Vellalas contract temporary alliances with

women from
Divorce
is

the

Padamangalam

section

permitted, provided a formal release-deed, or

is

vidu-muri,

executed by the husband.

enter into

After

this,

woman may
The

sambandham

(connection) with a

Nanchinad or Pandi

Vellala.

laws of inheritance are a curious blend of the

makkathayam and marumakkathayam systems.

Sons

are entitled to a portion of the property, not exceeding

a fourth, of the self-acquired property of the father, and

also a fourth of
in a

what would have descended

family.

to

him

makkathayam
it

This

is

called ukantutama,

because
right.

is

property given out of love as opposed to

a further rule that, in case of divorce, the

It

is

245

nanchinAd VELLALA

wife and children should be given this ukantutama, lest

they should be

left in

utter destitution, only a tenth part

of the ancestral property being allotted for this purpose,

if

her husband leaves no separate estate.

is

If

more than

a fourth of the estate

to be given

in this

manner, the

permission of the heirs in the female line has generally

to be obtained.
his
If

a
or

man

dies without issue,

and leaves
fresh

wife

too

old

unwilling to
is

enter

into a

matrimonial alliance, she

of his estate.

entitled to maintenance out

if

divorced woman,

without issue,
life

is

similarly entitled to

maintenance during the

of her

The property to which she may thus lay claim is known as nankutama, meaning the property The nankutama cannot be of the nanka or woman.
former husband.
claimed by the widow,
if,

at the

time of her husband's

death, she does not live with,

and make herself useful to

him.

When

widow enters

into a

sambandham

alliance,

the second husband has to execute a deed called etuppu,

agreeing to pay her, either at the time of his death or

divorce,

a specified

sum

of money.

The ukantutama
to the

from the family of her

issue of a

first

husband does not go

woman who

is in

possession of an etuppu

deed.

The namakarana,
formed
in early
life.

or name-giving ceremony,

is

per-

Many
Siva,

of the

names are unknown

Kuttalalingam,

among

Nayars,

e.g.,

Vishnu,

Subramanya, Ponnampalam among males, and Sivakami, Kantimati among females. The tonsure is performed
before a boy
is

three years old.

is

The
lasts

right of performing
or,

the funeral ceremonies

one,

vested in the son.

for

failing

the

nephew.

Pollution

sixteen

days.

The

karta (chief mourner) has to get himself completely

shaved, and

wears the sacred thread throughout the

period of pollution, or at least on the sixteenth day.

On

NANDIKATTU

246

that day oblations of cooked food, water and gingelly

(Sesavuim)

seeds are
dies,

offered

to

the

departed.

If

daughter's son

her mother,

and not the

father,

observes pollution.

Nanchinad Vellala has been assumed by males of the

Deva-dasi caste
in

Travancore.
mouth).

Nandikattu
Medara.

(bull's

An exogamous sept of

Nandimandalam.

Nanga

(naked).

A sub-division of Poroja.
so-called

A sub-division of Razu.
Nangudi
Vellalas,

Nangudi Vellala. The

in

or Savalai Pillais, are found inhabiting several villages

the Tinnevelly district, and differ from other Vellalas

in several

important points.

They say

that they are

Kottai

(fort) Vellalas,

living within a fort. to enter the fort at

who have given up the custom of Nangudi women are not allowed
Srivaiguntam, wherein the Kottai
last

Vellalas

live.

Within the

few years, marriages are

septs or

said to have taken place

between members of the two

after persons or deities,

communities.
kilais,

The Nangudis have exogamous

for the

named

most part

which, like the septs of the Maravans, run in the female

line.

The

hereditary caste

Pillai.

In olden times,
to run

headman is called Pattaththu members who disobeyed him

were made
a

through the streets with a rotten

tender cocoanut tied to the kudumi (hair knot), while

man
The

ran behind, applying a tamarind switch to the

back.

consent of a

girl's

maternal uncle and his wife

is

necessary, before she can marry.

signified

The

aunt's consent

is

by touching the tali (marriage badge) on the wedding day. The uncle keeps a light, called ayira
panthi,

burning

until

the
is

time for tying the

tied

tali.

quarter measure of rice

up

in

a cloth, and the

247
knot
converted
into

NANTUNIKKURUPPU
which
is

wick,

fed

with

gh'i

(clarified butter).

The news
by the barber.

of a death in the

community

is

conveyed
all

Before the removal of the corpse,

close relations,

and

at least

one pair of Nangudis from

every village, must come to the house.

occasion
is

Absence on
insult.

this

considered as a very grave

On

the

second day after death, an Amarantits, called arakkirai,

must be cooked.

A
that a

special feature

in

connection with inheritance

is

man

should give his daughters some property,

and every daughter must be given a house. The husbands have to live in their wives' houses. The property which a woman receives from her father

becomes eventually the property of her daughters, and Sons inherit the property her sons have no claim to it. of the father in the usual manner.
Like the Kondaikatti Vellalas, the Nangudis claim
that they

had the right of placing the crown on the head

kings.

of the
is

Pandyan

In the village of Korkai, there

a tank (pond) called

Kannimar

Jonai, because celestial

maidens used to bathe there.

are said to have

When
The

one Agni
Rishi

Maha
in love

Rishi was doing penance, three of the celestial maidens

come

to bathe.

fell

with them, and eventually three sons were born.

the request of the Rishi,
likely to

These
were

children were brought up by the Vellalas of Korkai at

who represented
According
kings.

that they

become

kings.

to the legend, they

became Chera, Chola, and Pandya

Nannuru
Madiga.

(four hundred).

An

exogamous sept of
in the

Nantunikkuruppu.
Census Report,
division of Nayar.

Recorded,
synonym

Travancore
a sub-

1901, as a

of Vatti,


NANUKONDA
Nanukonda.
named
district.

248

sub-division of Lingayat

Kapus,

after the village of

Nanukonda

in

the Kurnool

Naravidyavaru. These are Vipravinodis, who are Jangams by caste. They style themselves Naravidyavaru when they perform acrobatic and other feats before ordinary people, and Vipravinodi when they perform
before Brahmans.

The name Naravidyavaru

is

said to

be a contraction of Narulu-mechche-vidya-cheyu-varu,
/.e\,

those

who

receive the approbation of men.

feats
is

One

of their most favourite

throwing three or four

air,

wooden

or stone balls up into the

and

rolling

quickly in succession over various parts of

them the body

arms, chest,

etc,

Nariangal
Vallamban.

(nari,

jackal).

An

exogamous sept of

Narikela (cocoanut). An exogamous sept of Balija. Narollu (fibre). An exogamous sept of Pedakanti

Kapu.

Narpathu Katchi
division of Valluvan.

(forty-house

section).

sub-

Nasrani Mappilla.
Christians.

A name,
or

in

Malabar, applied to

Nasuvan. Nasivan
unholy, one

Nasuvan, said

to

mean

who should
is

not be touched, or one sprung

Ambattans (Tamil barbers). The equivalents Nasiyan and Navidan occur as a name for Telugu barbers, and Malayali barbers who shave Nayars and higher castes. Navidan is further
from the
nose,

the

name

for

recorded as the occupational

name

of a sub-division of

Tamil Paraiyans. and Vettuvans.

Natamukki.
Naththalu

Recorded,

in the

Travancore Census

Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

(snails).

An exogamous sept of Mala.

249

nAttukottai chetti

Natramiludaiyan.
times of census.

name, meaning the reposi-

tory of chaste Tamil, returned by

some Nattamans

at

Nattan.

At

the Census, 1901, nearly 12,000 indiis

viduals returned themselves as Nattan, which

stated

by the Census Superintendent to be " a vague term meaning people of the country, reported by some to be a

main

caste,
all

and by others
of those

to be a sub-caste of Vcllala.

Nearly

who

returned the

name came from

of

Salem and were

cultivators, but
title

some

them entered
Servaikaran).

themselves as possessing the

denotes an Agamudaiyan
"

of Servai, which usually

Servai,

{see

Nattan also occurs as a

title

of the Tamil

Sembadavan

and Pattanavan fishing

castes,

and of the Vallambans.

Portions of the Tamil country are divided into areas

known

as nadus, in each of which certain castes,

known
For

as Nattan or Nattar, are the predominant element.

example, the Vallambans and Kalians are called the

Nattars of the Palaya
of the

Nadu

in

the Sivaganga zamindari

Madura

district.

In dealing with the tribal affairs

of the various castes inhabiting a particular nadu, the

lead
is

taken by the Nattars.

village).

Nattati (the name of a

Shanan.

A sub-division

of

Nattu

(sons of the

soil).

Recorded as a sub-division

of Kalian, and of the Malayans of Cochin.

Nattukattada Nayanmar.
attached to the Kaikolans
"
((/.v.).

A
all

class of

mendicants

Nattukottai Chetti." Of
Francis
writes,''-

the Chettis,"
distinctive

Mr.

perhaps the

most
in

and

interesting are the Nattukottai Chettis,

who
the

are wealthy

money-lenders with head-quarters

Tiruppattur

Madras Census Report, 1901.

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI

250

and Devakottai divisions of the Sivaganga and Ramnad

zamindaris
in the
all

Madura

district.

They

are the most

go-a-head of
freely to

the trading castes in the south, travelling

Straits Settlements

Burma, the

and Ceylon

(also Saigon, Mauritius,

in

and South
in

Africa),

and having

some cases correspondents

Continent.

As long
is

as their father

London and on the is alive, the members

all

of a Nattukottai Chetti family usually

live together.

The

caste

noted

in

the

Madura

district for the

rise.

huge
them,

houses, to which this custom has given

Married
for

sons have a certain number of rooms set aside

and are granted a carefully calculated yearly budget On the father's allotment of rice and other necessaries.
death, contrary to
all

ordinary

Hindu

usage, the eldest

son retains the house, and the youngest his mother's

jewels and bed, while the rest of the property
divided
is

equally
is

among

all

the
is

sons.

When
it

a male child

born, a certain

sum

usually set aside, and in

is

due time

the accumulated interest upon

education.

spent on the boy's

As soon

as he has picked up business ways

life

sufficiently, he begins

as the agent of

some other

members

of the caste, being perhaps entrusted with a

often

lakh of rupees,

on no better security than an

unstamped acknowledgment scratched on a palmyra leaf, and sent off to Burma or Singapore to trade with
it,

and invest

it.

percentage on the profits of this

undertaking, and savings from his

own

salary,

form a
account.
bills

nucleus which he in turn invests on his

own

His wife

will often help

pay the house-keeping

by
are

making baskets and

and devout.
profit
is

spinning thread, for the

women

as thrifty as the men. In

As

a caste they are open-handed

many

houses, one pie in every rupee of

regularly set aside for charitable and religious

expenditure,

and a whip round

for

a caste-fellow in

251
difficulties is readily

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
to.

responded

By

religion they are

fervent Saivites, and

many

of the

men

proclaim the fact

by wearing a rudraksham [E/crocaj'ptcs Ganib'tis) fruit, Of late years usually set in gold, round their necks. they have spent very large sums upon several of the
famous Saivite shrines
Unfortunately,
in

the

Madras Presidency, notably

those at Chidambaram,* Madura, and Tiruvannamalai.

however, much of the work has been

executed

in

the most lamentable

pitiful

saddening to contrast the

under judicious guidance.
Kaliyana Mahal
in

modern taste, and it is outcome of their heavy

outlay with the results which might have been attained

the

The decoration in the new Madura temple is mainly inferior

and coloured
at

varnished wood-carving, looking-glasses,

glass
balls.

The same

style

has

been followed

Tiruvannamalai, although lying scattered about in the

outer courts of the temple are enough of the old pierced
granite pillars to
in

South

India.

make perhaps the finest mantapam Owing to their wealth and their money-

lending, the Nattukottai Chettis have been called the

Jews of South India, but their kindliness and charity deserve more recognition than this description accords."
I

am

informed that the property of a

woman

(jewels,

vessels, investments, etc.),

on her decease, goes to her

castes,

daughters.

As among other Hindu

the eldest

son

may

retain the personal effects of his father, and,

with the consent of his brothers,

may

retain his house.

in the

But the value thereof

property.
It is

is

deducted from his share

stated in the

Madura Manual

that the " Nattu-

kottai Settis in particular are notorious for their greed,

and most amusing

*

stories are told

about them.

However

The proverb Chetli Chidambaram

is

well

known.

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
wealthy they

252
they
usually
will
live

may

be,

in

the

most

penurious manner, and they

never by any chance

show mercy
left,

to a debtor, so long as he shall have a

penny

or the chance of earning one.

for

However,
in

to

make
of

amends

their

rapacity,

they are
in

the

habit

spending large sums now and then

works of

charity.

And, whatever
excellent

faults

there

may

be,

they are

most

men

of business.

Indeed, until quite lately,

the good faith and honesty of a Nattukottai Setti were

proverbial,

and are even now conspicuous.

The Nattu-

kottai Settis claim to be a

good

caste,

they emigrated to this district

and asserted that thousands of years ago

in

from a town called Kaveripattanam,

consequence of
will

an intolerable persecution.

But the other Settis

not admit the truth of their story, and

affect to despise

them

greatly,

alleging even that they are the bastard

descendants of a

Muhammadan man and

is

a Kalla

woman.
near

The word Nattukottai

Nattarasangkottai,
the

said to be

a corruption of
village

name

of a small

Sivaganga.

But this derivation appears to be doubtful."

is

The name
or country
It

usually said to be derived from Nattukottai,

fort.

has been said that "the Nattukottai Chettis, in

organisation, co-operation,

and business methods, are as

remarkable as the European merchants.

them have yet

Very few of They received any English education.

in public schools as
it

regard education as at present given

worse than useless

theoretical,

for professional

men, as

makes men

and scarcely helps

in practice.

The

simple

which they give their boys, the long and tedious apprenticeship which even the sons of the
but
strict

training

richest

among them have

to undergo,

make them very

in

efficient in their profession,

and methodical

whatever

they undertake to do."

253

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
Chettis.
"

Concerning
chiefest

the

Nattukottai

Mr.

P.

R.

Sundara Aiyar writes as

follows.*
is

aim of a Nattukottai Chetti

The first and to make as much

money as possible. He does not regard usury as a sin. As a little boy of ten or twelve, he begins to apply
himself to business, learns accounts, and attends the shop
of his father.

As soon

as he marries, his father gives

him a separate home, or rather compels him to live separately, though often in the same house as his parents. This makes him self-reliant, and produces in him a
desire to save as

much money
is

as possible.

He

is

given
if

a certain allowance out of the paternal estate, but,

he spends more, he
individual savings.

debited with the excess amount.

tries to

Every one consequently

increase his stock of

Even

the

women

earn
is

money

in

variety of ways.

Every rupee saved

laid
is

out at as

high a rate of interest as possible.

It

commonly
to a lakh

stated that a rupee, laid out at the birth of a child at

compound
of rupees

interest at 12 per cent., will

amount

by the time he attains the age of a hundred.

Nattukottai Chetti are very simple,
is

The
and

habits of a
his living

very cheap, even when he

is

rich.
if

So
if

strict are the Chettis in pecuniary matters that,

a rela-

tion visits them, he gets only his

first

meal

free,

and

he stays longer,
his stay."

is

quietly

debited with the

cost of

The
cooks.

Nattukottai Chettis t are said to employ

Kalians,

Kamof

malans, Valaiyans,

and Vallambans as their

interior

They

are

permitted to enter the

Hindu temples, and approach near to the innermost doorway of the central shrine. This privilege is doubtless accorded to them owing to the large sums of money
* Malabar Quart t C.
:

Review, 1905.
8,

Hayavadana Rao, Indian Review, VIII,

1907.

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI

254
in

which they spend on temples, and

institutions.
district, that
It is

endowing charitable

noted, in the Gazetteer of the

Madura
usually
is

" of the profits of their

commercial transis

actions, a fixed percentage (called

set aside for charity.

magamai)

Some

of the

money

so collected
it

spent on keeping up Sanskrit schools, but most of

has

been

laid out in the repair

and restoration of the temples

of the south, especial attention being paid to those shrines

(padal petta sthalangal, as they are called), which were

hymned by
"

the four great poet-saints,

Manikya Vachakar,

Appar, Tirugnana
to be the

Sambandhar, and Sundaramurti." The Chettis," Mr. Sundara Aiyar writes, " are believed
most charitable
class in

Southern India, and

undoubtedly they spend the largest amount of money on

charity.
charity.

among themselves for local The income obtained from charities, wherever they go. In new places rates is generally spent on temples. the like Ceylon, Burma, and Singapore, they build new In temples, generally dedicated to Subramanya Swami.
levy rates

They They

set

apart a fraction of their profits for

India

itself,

they establish festivals

in

existing temples,

and undertake the repair of temples.

have been spent by them recently
restoration
in

Immense sums
should
not

the renovation and

of

ancient

temples.

We

be

amount spent within the last thirty years alone amounts to a crore of rupees. Being Saivites, they do not generally care for Vaishnava And, even among Saiva temples, only such temples. as have special sanctity, and have been sung about by
surprised to be told that the

the Saiva Nainars

or Bhaktas, are patronised by them.

They have devoted

large

sums

to

the establishment

of comfortable choultries (rest-houses), feeding houses,

Vedic and recently also Sastraic pathasalas

(schools).

They have

established schools

for

the

education

of

255

nattukottAi chetti
And,
in fact,

the Kurukal or the priestly class.

charity

every

of the

orthodox

Hindu type

finds

generous

support
It is

among them."
recorded, in the Gazetteer of the

that the

Madura district, gopurams of the Madura temple " have been

repaired of late years at great cost by the Nattukottai

Chettis.

The northern tower used

to consist only of

the brick and stone-work storeys,

and was known

bald)
Chetti,
is

in

consequence as the mottai

Recently,

(literally

gopuram.
cared

however,

a courageous
it

who

nothing

for the superstition that

left

most unlucky to
usual

complete a building
plaster

unfinished, placed the

top upon

it."

In recent

years, the temple at

Chidambaram has
"

been renovated by the Nattukottai Chettis, who

formed
for this

have

and similar restorations a fund which is made up of a fee of four annas per cent, levied from their The capital clients on all sums borrowed by the latter.
of this
is

invested,

and the

interest thereon

devoted

exclusively to such undertakings."*

In
1906,

the

purificatory
Sri

ceremony,

or

kumbabiat

shekam, of the

Pasupathiswara Swami temple

KarDr was performed with great pomp. The old temple had been thoroughly overhauled and repaired by the The ceremony cost about fifty thouNattukottai Chettis.
sand rupees.
of

Many

thousands were

fed,

and presents
in

money made
same
concert

to a large

number

of Vaidiki Brahmans.

In the
to

year, at a public

meeting held
a

Madras

measures

for

establishing

pinjrapole

(hospital

for animals),

one of the resolutions was that

generally,

early
tions

steps should be taken to collect public subscrip-

from the

Hindu community

and

in

* Gazetteer of the South Arcot district.

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
particular from the

256

Nattukottai Chettis, Gujaratis, and

other mercantile classes.

Still

more

recently,

the

kumbabishekam

festival

was

celebrated at Tiruvanaikkaval, the seat of a celebrated

temple near Trichinopoly, which was repaired by the

Nattukottai Chettis at a cost of

many

lakhs of rupees.

By

a traditional custom, the Nattukottai Chettis live

largely by money-lending.

one outside their own community.

their

They never serve under any They either trade on

for

own

account, or are employed as agents or assistants.

of an assistant
is

The pay
after a

always calculated
is

a period

of three years, and a portion thereof

paid in advance

month's service.

This the assistant invests to the

of a year, a portion of the
to him, leaving a small

best advantage.

At the end
is

balance of the pay

handed over

sum

to be paid at
for

the end of the contract period.

his

His

expenses

board and lodging are met by

employer,

and he may
business.

receive a small share of the profits of the

man, on receiving an agency,

starts

on an

auspicious day, and proceeds to a temple of Ganesa, and

to a

matam

(religious

institution) containing

figures of

Ganesa and Natesa.

After prostrating himself before

If

the gods, he proceeds on his way.

he encounters an
and,
if

object of evil omen, he will not continue,

to journey to a distant spot,he will

he has

throw up

his appoint-

ment.

The accounts

of the

Nattukottai Chettis are

an annual audit being inconvenient, as their business is carried on at various remote spots.
audited triennially,

The

foreign business

is

said* to " be transacted by agents

belonging to the

caste,

who

receive a salary proportioned

to the distance of the place,

and

also, usually,

a percentage

on the

profits.

They generally
* Gazetteer of the

serve for three years, and

Madura

district.

NATrfKUlTAI CHEiri (HI

1.1

)Ki:X.

257

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI

then return, and give an account of their stewardship."

The commencement of a fresh period of three years is made on an auspicious day called puthukanakkunal (fresh
account day), which
ness
is
is

observed as a hoHday.

No

busi-

transacted, and customers are, invited,

fruits,

and receive

presents of

sweets, etc.

In connection with Nattukottai agencies, Mr. Haya-

vadana Rao writes as

follows. *

"

People of moderate

means usually
the different

go to distant places as agents of firms that have their head offices either at
elect to

Madura or in the Zamindaris of Ramnad and Sivaganga. The pay of a local agent varies directly with the distance
of the place to which

he

is

posted.
;

If
if

he

is

kept at

Madura, he gets Rs. loo per mensem

he gets three times as
twice the latter sum.
I

sent to Burma,
Natal, about

much

and,

if

to

fan agent proves himself to be an industrious and energetic man, he is usually given a
percentage on the
profits.

The

tenure of office

is

for

three years, six months before the expiry of which the

next agent

is

sent over to

work conjointly with the

existing one, and study the local conditions.

On

relief,

the agent returns directly to his head

office,

and delivers

over his papers, and then goes to his

this, his

own

village.

With

connection with his firm practically ceases.

He

enjoys his well-earned rest of three years, at the end of

which he seeks re-employment either under his old firm, or under any other. The former he is bound to, if he
has taken a percentage on the profits during his previous
tenure of
office.

If the old firm rejects

is

him when he so
under
Nattukottai

offers himself,

then he
said

at liberty to enter service

others."

It

is

to

be very rare for

women

to

accompany

their

husbands to distant places.

1907.

* Indian Review, VIII, 8,

V-17

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
" In fact,

258

the husbands have to visit their native places

at long intervals,

and make a

felicitous sojourn in

the

company of their wives." The houses of the Niittukottai

and substantial
plan.
buildingrs all

Chettis are spacious

based on the same general

The

front entrance
all

opens into an oblong courtround, and rows of rooms at

is

yard with a verandah

the two sides.

At the

farther end of the courtyard

an

entrance leading into a backyard or set of apartments.

Modern houses have imposing

storey.

exteriors,

and an upper
quarters,

Married sons

live

in

separate

and

every couple receive from their fathers a fixed yearly

allowance, which
fifteen

kalams of

may amount to twenty paddy. The sons may, if

is

rupees and
they choose,

spend more, but the excess

and, at the time

debited to their account,

estate,

of partition of the

deducted,

with interest, from their share.

by Mr. Hayavadana Rao that "the remarkable custom prevails amongst them that obliges
It
is

noted

all

married members to cook separately and eat their

meals, though they live in the

same house.

Even

the

widowed mother is no exception to this rule. Unmarried members live with their parents until they are married.
Allotments of rice and other necessaries are annually

made

to the several semi-independent

members

of the

household.

This custom has

in

oriven rise to the

com-

modious houses
reside."

which members of

this caste usually

As

concerning- the origin of the Nattukottai Chettis,

is

the following story

told.

In ancient days, the Vaisyas

of the lunar race were living in the town of Santhyapuri

in

the

Naganadu
visits to

of the Jambudvii)a (India).

daily

the shrine

emerald, and were traders in

They paid of Vinayaka god made of They were precious stones.

2 59

NATTUKOTTAI chetti

much

respected, and led the Hfe of orthodox Saivites,

wore rudraksha beads, and smeared themselves with They were, however, much oppressed sacred ashes.
by a certain
ruler,

and emigrated

in

a body to Conjee-

veram

Tondamandalam country in the year 204 of the Kaliyuga. The king of Conjeeveram gave them permission to settle in his territory, and made grants to them of land, temples and matams. They
in

the

stayed there for a very long time, but, being troubled by

heavy taxes and

fines, left this

part of the country about

2312 Kaliyuga, and settled in the Chola country. The Chola king, being much impressed with them, bestowed

on them the privilege of placing the crown on the head

of a

new

ruler at his coronation.

At

this time, the

in

town

of

Kaveripumpattanam is said flourishing state, and the north

Vaisyas

to have been
street

a very

was occupied by
unwilling
to

from

other

countries.

Being

disturb them, the king

east, west,

made

the

and south

streets.

new settlers occupy the As a mark of respect,

in

they were allowed to use flags with the figure of a lion

on them, and use golden vessels (kalasam)

houses.

their

They

all,

at the instigation of the king,

became

disciples of one Isanya Sivachariar of Patanjalikshetra

(Chidambaram).

About 3775 Kaliyuga, Puvandi Chola Raja imprisoned several of the Vaisya women, whereon
the eight thousand Vaisya families destroyed themleaving their male children to be taken care of
selves,

all

by a religious teacher named Atmanadhachariar. In all 1,502 children were thus brought up, viz., 600 of six ways
from the west
street,

and

502 of seven ways from the east 400 of four ways from the south street.
street,

Later on,

Puvandi

Chola

fell

ill,

and,

knowing
of his

his

recovery to be impossible, sent for the Vaisya boys, and

asked them to
V-17
1;

look after the coronation

son

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
Rajabhushana Chola.

260
that, as

But they said

they were

comply with his request. The king accordingly made them marry Vellala girls. Those
bachelors, they could not of the west street took as wives girls of the Karkaththar
section, those of the east street girls of the

Sozhia section,

and those of the south street girls of the Kaniyala section. The three groups became disciples of three different
matams,
viz.,

Tiruvarur,

Kumbakonam, and Vanchium.

In the year 3790, a dispute arose in connection with the

right

of priority in receiving sacred ashes between the

Vaisya and true Vellala women, and the former were

become the disciples of a new guru (religious About 3808, a Pandya king, named Sundara preceptor).

made

to

Pandya,

is

said to have

asked the Chola king to induce

to
settle

some

of

the

Vaisyas

down

in

the Pandya

territory.

They

accordingly once more emigrated in a

body, and reached the village of Onkarakudi on a Friday

(the constellation
day).

Astham being

in the

ascendant on that

They were allowed

V^ellar.

to settle in the tract of country

north of the river Vaigai, east of the Piranmalai, and

south of

Those from the

east street settled at

Ilayaththukudi, those from the west street at Ariyur, and

those from the south street at Sundarapattanam.

the
Chettis

became

divided

into

three

Thus endogamous
Sundara-

sections,

of which

the

Ilayaththukudi and
present day in the

pattanam are found

district.

at the

Madura

The members
of

of the Ariyur section migrated to

the west coast on the destruction of their village.

The
the

members

the

Ilayaththukudi

section

became

Nattukottais.

They, not being

satisfied

with only one

place of worship, requested the king to give them more

temples.
different

Accordingly,

temples

were

provided

for

groups

at

Maththur, Vairavanpatti,
Iluppaikudi,

Iraniyur,

Pillayarpatti,

Nemam,

Suraikudi,

and

NATTUKOTTAI chetti
day,

26 1
Velangkudi.

At the present

the

Nattukottai

Chettis are divided into the following divisions (k5vils or temples) and exogamous sub-divisions
:

1.

llayaththukudi kovil

Okkurudaiyar.
Pattanasamiar.

Perumaruthurudaiyar,
Kazhanivasakkudaiyar.
Kinkinikkudaiyar.
Perasendurudaiyar.
Siruseththurudaiyar.
2.

Maththiir kovil
Uraiyur.

Arumbakur.
r^Ianalur,

Mannur.
Kannur.
Karuppur.
Kulaththur.
3.

Vairavan kovil
Sirukulaththur.

Kazhanivasal.

Marudendrapuram,
4.

Iianiyiir kovil.

5.
6.
7.

Pillayarpatti kovil.

Xemam

kovil.

Iluppaikudi kovil.

8.

Suraikudi kovil.

g.

Velangkudi kovil.

When
is

Nattukottai Chettis adopt children, they must

belong to the same temple division.

called

An

adopted son
son,
to

Manjanir

Puthiran,

or

turmeric-water

because, at the ceremony of adoption, the lad has

drink turmeric-water.*

In

villages

where
is

their

maia

temples are situated, the temple manager

*

obliged to

Indian

Law

Reports, Madras Series,

XXIX,

1906,

nAttukottai CHETTI

262
for
it

give food to stranger Chettis, and charge

if

they

belong to another temple division.

According to a variant of the story relating to the origin of the Nattukottai Chettis, "they were formerly
merchants
at the court of the
at

Chola kings who ruled

at

one time a nourishing sea-port at Kaveripattanam, the mouth of the Cauveri, from which they emigrated
in

a body on being persecuted by one of them, and

first

settled at Nattarasankottai, about three miles north-east

of Sivaganga."

By

other castes, the Nattukottai Chettis are said to

be the descendants of the offspring of unions between a

Shanan and a Muhammadan and Uppu Korava women.

Some
in

of the peculiarities of the caste are pointed out

support of the story.

Thus, Nattukottai men shave

their

heads

like

Muhammadans, and both men and

girls

women have
Shanans.

the lobes of their ears dilated like the older

Their

wear necklaces of
the

shell

beads like

Korava women,
sale.

and

women

baskets for recreation,

as the

delight in making Korava women do for

The

caste

is

sometimes spoken of as

Uppu

(salt)

Maruhira Chetti.
naturally

The arguments and

resented

illustrations are

much

by the Nattukottai Chettis,

who

explain the

obnoxious name by the story that

they were formerly very poor, and made a living by

selling salt.

The

Nattukottai Chettis have recourse to pancha-

yats (councils) in matters affecting the community.

They
till

have, Mr. Sundara Aiyar

recently remarkable
for

writes, "

been

at

any rate

settling

their differences

out

of court.
litigation

The
is

influence

of the

elders in

})reventing

very strong.

They

conciliate the disputants

as far

as possible and, after

reducing the
they
often

difference

between

them

to

minimum,

get their

263
signatures to an award, in

nAttukottai chetti
which a blank
is

left

to

decide the

still

existing point of difference, the disputants

agreeing, after putting in their signatures, to the

tors' filling
in

media-

the blank, and

deciding the dispute as

they choose.
take
is

We

are afraid that this spirit of give-and-

now

unfortunately diminishing, and the arbitra-

ment of the courts is more often resorted to than before." There are, among the Nattukottai Chettis, two forms of panchayat, called madaththuvasal mariyal (matam panchayat) and kovilvasal mariyal (temple panchayat), of
which, at the present day, only the latter
is

in

vogue.

For every temple there

is

a manager, an assistant, and

a servant called Vairavi,

who must be

a Melakkaran.

The aggrieved party lodges his complaint with the manager, who sends word to the leading men of the temple The complainant and defendant division concerned. are summoned to attend a council meeting, and the
evidence
is

recorded by the temple manager.

to put in

If
is

the
sent

accused

fails

an appearance, the Vairavi

to his house, to take therefrom

adavu

(security) in the

shape of some
case, a

article

belonging to him.

In a recent

wealthy Nattukottai Chetti promised his brother's

that she should be allowed to adopt a boy.

widow
temple
in his

But,

as the promise
;

was not

fulfilled,

she complained to the

and, as her brother-in-law did not attend the

council meeting,

the Vairavi went to his house, and,

absence, abstracted the adavu.

This was regarded

talk of the case

as a great insult, and there

was some

going

into court.

Matters such as the arrangement of

referred to the

marriage contracts, monetary disputes, family discussions,

and the

like,

are

temple council
never
recorded

for
in

settlement.

Final

decisions

are

writing, but delivered

fail

by word of mouth.

Those who

to abide

by the decision of the council do not receive


NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
a q;arland

264
for

from

the

temple

their

marriage,

and

without this garland a marriage cannot take place.

It is

noted by Mr. Hayavadana

is

kovils or temples "

nominated to the

Rao that each of the managed by Karyakarans, who are place by the local elders. These
and decide
is

Karyakarans
cases
to them,

act as Panchayatdars,

all

civil

referred
it

to
if

them.

If

a case

first

referred

may,

necessary, be carried over again to

But,
if

the established courts of the country.

once

a case

is

first
it

taken to the courts, they would not

them.selves.

entertain

before

They

enforce

their

decrees (i) by refusing to give the garland of flowers

at

the marriage time, (2) by exert:ising

the

power of

excommunication."

Every Nattukottai Chetti youth has to perform a ceremony called Suppidi before marriage. On the
Karthika day, when the constellation Krithikai
ascendant, he
is is

in

the

taken on horseback to a Pillayar (Ganesa)

temple, where he worships, and whirls a bag of burning

charcoal tied to a long string round his head.
In front

of the temple he burns a booth (chokkapane), which has

and with the ashes his forehead is marked. On his return home, and at the entrance of Nattukottai houses which he passes, rice lamps are waved before him
been
set up,
(alathi).

In like manner, every girl has to

go through

a ceremony, called thiruvadhirai, before marriage.

the day of the Arudradarsanam festival, she
is

On

bathed

and decorated. A necklace of gold beads is placed on her neck instead of the necklace of glass beads
(pasimani), which she has hitherto worn.

She proceeds,
:

with a silver cup, to the houses where other girls are

performing the ceremony, and bawls out

I

have come dancing

give

me

avarakkai {Dolichos

Lablab beans).

JEWELRY OF NATTUKOTTAI CHETTIS

265
I

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTl
;

have

come singing

give

me padavarangkai

[Cyamopsis beans).
I

have come speaking

kinds
of

give

me sorakkai {Lagenaria
are

fruit).

Various
silver

vegetables

placed

on

the

vessel,

cooked,
in

and distributed.
in

Cakes,

called

dosai, are
ration,

made

the house, and, during their prepa-

holes

are

made

them by married

women

with an iron

and

it

is

These cakes are also distributed, taken as an insult if any individual does not
style.

receive one.

Every Nattukottai Chetti is said lable right to claim the hand of

daughter.

to

have the invioaunt's

his paternal

This being

so, ill-assorted

marriages are quite

common, the putative

father being often but a child.*

The marriage ceremonies commence

gold for the bride's neck.

with the giving of

On

an auspicious day, the

bridegroom's party give a gold coin to a goldsmith,

beats
it

who

into a thin sheet,

and goes home

after receiving
rites,

betel, etc.
is

On

the

first

day of the marriage

a feast

given to the bridegroom's family, and female ancestors

are worshipped.
of the

On

the following day, the presentation

dowry

(sireduththal) takes place.

The

presents,

which are often of considerable value, are laid out for Perishinspection, and an inventory of them is made.
able articles, such as
{Cajan7(s indicns),
rice,

ghi (clarified
are sold.

butter), dhal

and

fruits

The

bride's

presents are taken to the house of the bridegroom, those

who

carry

them being rewarded with

silk handkerchief,

betel,

a silk fan, a

scent bottle,
tin of biscuits,

bottle of chocolate,

and a brass

vessel.

On

the third

day,

garlands are received from the temples to which the bride

* C. Hayavadana Rao.

Loc.

cit.

NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
and bridegroom belong.

266

The

bride's party

go

to the

house of the bridegroom, taking on a tray a

chief and cloth, and in a silver vessel
etc.
fifty

silk

handker-

rupees, betel,

These are presented to the bridegroom. This ceremony is called mappillai ariyappothal, or going to examine the son-in-law. The next item on the pro-

gramme

is

nalkuriththal, or fixing the day.

The

bride-

groom's party proceed to the house of the bride, taking with them two cocoanuts wrapped up in a blanket, betel,
turmeric,
etc.,

as a present.

The
is

bride

is

bathed and

decorated, and purangkaliththal

proceeded with.

stands by the side of her grandmother, and a

purohit, taking up a few leafy

She Brahman
and

margosa [Melia Azadihead,

rachta) twigs, touches the girl's shoulders,

Her glass knees with them, and throws them away. bead necklace is then removed. At the uppu-eduththal (salt carrying) ceremony, the bridegroom's party carry a
basket containing
salt,

a bundle containing nine kinds of

scroll

grains, and a palmyra

for

writing the marriage

contract on, to the bride's house.

lighted,

An

old

The sacred fire is and homam performed by the Brahman purohit. man, who has had a number of children, and
sister,

belongs to a temple other than that of a bride, and

the bridegroom's her neck.
inches

then

tie

the

tali
tali,

string round

This string bears a large

ornaments,
often

about seven
considerable
points,

long and four

inches broad, and seventeen to

of

twenty-three gold
value.

Some

of

them have very

sharp

so

that accidents sometimes

in

arise from the points sticking

For every day wear, the massive ornaments are replaced by a smaller
set.

the eyes of babies carried by women.

Immediately after the

tali

has been tied, the maris

riage contract (isagudi

manam)

written.

Two

copies

are made,

for

the bride and bridegroom respectively.

26;

NATTUKOTTAI chetti

As an example of a marriage contract, the following may be cited " This is written for the marriage cele:

between Subramanyan, the son of Okkurudaiyan Arunachelam Chetti Ramanadhan Chetti and Valliammai, the daughter of Arumbakurudaiyan
brated on
.

...

K. Narayana Chetti, both formerly of Ilayaththukudi, at

the village of
to the girl
is
; .

...
for
.
.

The

value
;

of jewels given

....

of gold

his

dowry amounts
. . . .

money to sirattuchukram money

....
.

female
. .
;

servant

free gift of jewels

This esaikudimanam was written by

me

at

Signed Ramanadhan Chetti."

in

The

bride-

groom goes on horseback

to a Pillayar temple

where

he worships, and then proceeds

milk
rice.

procession through

various streets to the bride's house, accompanied by his

sister carrying
in a vessel,

and a cooly bearing a

At every Chetti house the procession halts, and coloured rice lights are waved before the bridegroom. At the entrance to the bride's house, he is met by the bride, whose sister-in-law pushes the couple Hence the ceremony is called against each other.
bundle of seed
mappillaikuidiththukattal, or showing the bride to the

bridegroom by pushing
of cotton
cloth

her.

The couple

are then con-

ducted to a dais within the house, and wristlets made

are
tied

on by the

purohit.

They

exchange cocoanuts and garlands, and, amid the blowing

of the conch shell (musical instrument) by
bride's

women, the

mother touches the couple with turmeric, ashes,

sandal, etc.

On

the fourth day,

money

called veththilai

surul rupai

money) is given to the newlymarried couple by Chettis and the maternal uncles. A
(betel-roll
silver vessel, containing betel

and two rupees,

is

given to

the bridegroom by his father-in-law.

usually carries on
his

The bridegroom

shoulders a long purse of silk

nAttukottai CHETTI
or

268
puts

red cloth, called valluvaippai, into which he

the betel and other things which are given to him.

On

the last day of the marriage ceremonies, toe-rings and

wristlets are

removed, and the bridal pair cat together. In connection with pregnancy, two ceremonies are
called

performed,

respectively

marunthidal

(medicine

giving) and thirthamkudiththal

(drinking holy water).

The former is celebrated at about the fifth month. On an auspicious day, the sister-in-law of the pregnant
woman, amid the blowing of the conch-shell by
extracts the juice from the leaves of five plants,
to the

females,

and gives

the

woman to drink. During the woman is given consecrated water

All
first-born

seventh month
(thirtham) from

the temple.

female, have to

(newness).

and go through a ceremony called pudhumai When they are two years old, on an auspicichildren,

both

male

ous day, fixed by a

Brahman
its

purohit, the maternal uncle

of the child ties on

neck strings of coral and glass

beads, to which ornaments of pearls and precious stones are

added

in

the case of the wealthy.

The

child

is

further decorated with other ornaments,

and placed

in

an oval wooden
her sister-in-law.
tray,

tray,

which

is

held by the mother and

They go round
it

three times with the

up, carries
it

and the

child's aunt, taking

round to

be blessed by those who have assembled.

Presents of

money

are given to the child by relations and friends,

and the maternal uncles have to give a larger sum than On the second or third day the coral and bead the others.
ornaments are removed, and, on the fourth day, the child, if a male, is shaved, and must thenceforth have the head
clean shaved throughout
life.

"

The

story

goes that,
persecuted

when
their

the

Chola king of Kaveripattanam

them, the members of this caste resolved not to shave heads until they quitted his
territories.

When

269
they reached their

NATTUKOTTAI chetti
they

new

settlement

shaved their

heads completely as a memorial of their stern resolution."* When a death occurs among the Nattukottai Chettis,

news thereof
messenger.

conveyed by the Thandakaran, or caste Those who come to condole with the beis

reaved family arc received with outstretched hands (kainittikolludhal).

is

The head

of the corpse

is

shaved, and

it

washed and decorated. In front of the house a pandal (booth), supported by four Thespesia popztlnea posts, and roofed with twigs o{ Eugenia Jambolana, is erected. Beneath this the corpse is laid, and all present go round
it

thrice.

While the corpse

is

being got ready for

conveyance to the burning ground, the daughters and On sisters of the deceased husk paddy (unhusked rice).
the
If

way

to the

burning ground, the son carries the

is

fire.
is

the deceased

a young boy
;

or

girl,
it

the pandal
is

removed

after the funeral

otherwise

removed, on

a Tuesday, Thursday, or Sunday, within four days.

The

Nattukottais restrict

the

name pandal

to

the funeral

booth, the marriage booth being called kavanam or Even an ordinary shed set up in front of a kottagai.

house

is

not called a pandal, as the

name

is

associated

with funerals.

On

the day following the

funeral, the

bigger fragments of bones are collected by a barber, and

given to the son,

who

places

them

in

an earthen

pot.

Pandaram
the
first

offers fruit, food, etc., to the deceased.

feast, at

Eight

days afterwards, a

which meat
is

is

partaken of for

time since the death,

given to the relations of

is

the dead person, and their pollution

at

an end.

They

may

not,

however, enter a temple for thirty days.

On

the sixteenth day after death, the final death ceremonies

(karmandhiram) are performed, and

liberal

presents of

* C.

Hayavadana Rao.

Loc.

cit.


NATTUKOTTAI CHETTI
money,
religious

270
such
as

books,

the

Ramayana,
for

Mahabharata, and Periya Puranam, wooden spoons

domestic use,
etc.,

are c^iven to Brahmans.

There are three matams, whereat the Nattukottai

Chettis are initiated into their religion, at Patharakkudi
(or

Padanakkudi) and Kila

for males,

females.

They

are Saivites, but also,

women,
two

worshij) such minor deities

and Tulavur for more especially the as Aiyanar, Munes-

wara, and

Karuppan.

They

are also said to worship

village goddesses, called

Sellattamman and Kannu-

dayamman,

at Nattarasankottai.

Nattukottai
dilated,

men have

the lobes of the ears artificially

but

seldom

wear

ornaments

therein.

They
of

frequently have a gold chain round the loins,

finorer rinofs

and wear

set

with diamonds.

The wives even

wealthy

men wear

a cheap body cloth, and do menial

house work, such as cleaning the kitchen utensils.

plait baskets, and, in

They

some houses, wheels

for

spinning

cotton

may be

seen.
in

Like other trading classes

Southern India, the

In

Nattukottai Chettis have a trade language of their own,

which varies according

to

locality.

the

city

of

Madras they have

three tables,

for annas, rupees,

and

tens of rupees respectively.

Each

of these

is

formed

out of the syllables of certain words.

table
is

Thus, the anna

composed of the syllables of Tiripurasundari, the goddess at Madura, which is a great centre for NattuThe syllables (in the inverse order), and kottai Chettis.
their

money
Ri

equivalent are as follows

...
..

...

...

.]

anna.

Da Un
Sii
2

annas.
M

Ra

271

NATTUSAMBAN
4 annas.
8

Pu
Ri

Ti

The rupee
vararthunai,

table is composed of the word Vedagirlsmeaning with the help of Vedagirlsvarar,

the god at Tirukalikundram near

Madras

Ve

rupee.

Da
Gi
Ri
i

rupees
))

4
5

>

)>

Is

6
7

>>

Va Ra
Ar

)>

8 9

>)

>>

Thu
Nai

10

)>

....
is
:

)9

The

tens-of-rupees table

made up from

the word

TirukaHkundram
Ti

10 rupees.

Ru
Ik

20

J)

30
40

>>

Ka
Li

>j

Ik

50 60 70

>>

Ku
In

>

80

Ra Im

90
100

. >

An anna
known
Unni.)

is

lakkam sometimes called vanakkam

a rupee

is

as velle (white).

Nattupattan.

section

of

Ambalavasis.

(See

Nattusamban.
Paraiyan.

Samban

(a

name

of Siva)

is

title

of some Tamil Paraiyans.

Nattusamban denotes a

village

NATTUVAN
Nattuvan. Defined
1901,
as
"

272
in the

Madras Census Report,

of the dancing-girl
parties,

an occupational term, meaning a dancingis

master, which
castes,

applied to males

who

teach dancing."

At nautch

when

the

Deva-dasis dance, the Nattuvans play the accomflute, clarionet,

paniment on the drum, bag-pipe,

etc.

cymbals,

At the

initiation of a

Kaikolan

girl as a

Deva-dasi,

her dancing-master seats himself behind her, and, grasp-

ing her legs, moves them up and

music.

down

in

time with the

Some Occhans

in

the Tamily country,

who

teach

dancing to Deva-dasis, are also called Nattuvan.

Natuvili (middle).
Travancore.

sub-division of Paraiyans in

Navakdti
Desur Reddi.
10.000,000.

(nine

crores).
is

An
one

exogamous
hundred

sept

of
i.e.,

crore

lakhs,

Navalipitta (peacock). A sept of Jatapu. Navayat. The Navayats or Navayets are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as " a Musalman tribe, which appears to have originally settled at Bhatkal in North Canara, and is known on the west coast as

Bhatkali.

The

derivation of the

name

is

much
It

disputed.

There are
place

five sub-divisions of the tribe,

namely, Kureshi,
takes a high

Mehkeri, Chida, Gheas, and Mohagir.

among Musalmans, and does

not intermarry with

other tribes."

Of the Nevayets, the following account, based on Saadut Nama, and conversations with members of
community,
is

the
the
is

given by Colonel Wilks.*

''

Nevayet

generally supposed to be a corruption of the Hindustanee

and Mahratta terms

the
first

for

new-comer.

About the end of

century of the Hejira, or the early part of the

* Historical Sketches of the South of India, 1810.

273

NAVUTIYAN

eighth century of the Christian era, Hejaj Bin Yusuf,

Governor of

Irak,

on the part of the Khali f Abd-al-

Melik-bin-Mervvan, a monster abhorred for his cruelties

even among Musalmans, drove some respectable and

opulent persons of the house of

Hashem

to the desperate

resolution of abandoning for ever their native country.

Aided by the good

offices of the inhabitants of Kufa, a

town of
of Ali.

celebrity in those days, situated near to the

tomb

west of the Euphrates, they departed with their

families, dependents,

and

effects,

and embarked on ships

Persian Gulf,

prepared

for their reception in the

Some

of these landed on that

part of the western coast of

;

India called the

Concan

the others to the eastward of

Cape Comorin
Nevayets
to one
;

the descendants of the former are the

of the latter the Lubbe,

The Lubbe

pretend

common

origin with the Nevayets,

and attribute
;

their black complexion to intermarriage with the natives

but the Nevayets affirm that the

ants
in

Lubbe

are the descendis

of their domestic slaves

and there

certainly,
class,

the

physiognomy of

this

very numerous

and

in their stature and form, a strono- resemblance to the

natives of Abyssinia.

The Nevayets

of the western coast

preserved the purity of their original blood by systematically

avoiding intermarriage with the

Indians,

and

even with the highest

ties of

Muhammadan
Even

families, for

centuries after the establishment of the

many Musalman dynas-

some Nevayets whose complexions approach the European Their adherence to each other as members of freshness. and they the same family preserved their respectability were famed at the Muhammadan courts of the Deckan
the Deckan.
at this time there are
;

for uniting the rare qualities of the soldier, the scholar,

and the gentleman."

Navutiyan. A synonym
v-i8

of Velakkattalavan.


nayadi
Nayadi.
briefly

274

In the

Malabar Manual, the Nayadis are

Nayadis, or
dog-eaters
persistent in

summed up as follows. " Of the lowest caste among the Hindus the nothing definite is known. They arc most
their

clamour

for charity,

and

will follow at

a respectful

distance, for miles together,

any person walking, driving,

given to them,
it

or boating.
laid

If

anything

is

it

must be

down, and,

after the person offering

has proceeded

a sufficient distance, the recipient comes timidly forward,

and removes

it."

The

subjects,

whom

examined and measured

off,

at

Shoranur, though living only about three miles

had,

by reason of the pollution which they traditionally carry with them, to avoid walking over the long bridge which
spans the
miles.
river,

and follow a circuitous route of many

Ignorant
first

Eventually they had to climb, or be ignomini-

ously hoisted over the wall of the bungalow.

of the orthodox manner
of the craniometer, of using a chair, the
to
sit

victim

who had

while his head was

under examination, assumed the undignified position with

which Eton boys who have been swished are

familiar.

Measurements concluded, men, women, and the grass to an ample feast. And, departed homeward, copious blessings were me, to a chorus composed of the repetition

children sat

down on

before they

invoked on
of a single

shrill

note, not unlike that of the

first

note of a jackal

cry.

To

quote the newspaper account of

'

my

doings,

which refers to the

matters ethnological
:

monograms

'

issued by

me on

" In the evening the kind gentle-

man gave them

a sumptuous treat of canji and curry,

coins,

and gave them also copper

toddy,

and arrack.

The poor
were

people

left

the place immensely pleased, and

safely escorted to the British side of the river from

the Cochin territory."

>
:2;

L^^eBii

275

NAYADI
Malabar or

When

travelling on the public roads in

Cochin, one

may observe

a few ragged and dirty cloths

two copper coins on them and, at the same time, hear a chorus of monotonous stentorian voices at a distance of a hundred yards or more, emanating from a few miserable specimens of
spread near the road, with one or
;

humanity, standing ghost-like with dishevelled

hair,

and

a long strip of leaves tied round the waist, or clad in

a dirty loin-cloth.

The
told

coins represent the alms given

traveller,

by the charitably disposed

Nayadis.
I

and the persons are

there
is

am

that,

near

Kollatur,
is

stone called the Nayadi parai, which

believed to be a

man who was turned

a Nayadi.

into stone for not giving

alms to

The name Nayadi is equivalent to Nayattukar, i.e., The Nayadis are, in fact, professional hunters, and are excellent shots. The Nayars, and other higher
hunter.
classes,

used formerly to take them with them on huntBut, since the

ing and shooting expeditions.

Arms Act

came

into force, the

They
now
trees

are also

pigs, hares,
difficult

Nayadis find this occupation gone. good archers, and used to kill deer, etc., and eat them. These animals are
to
get,

as

the forests are

forests are
for

reserved

by

Government, and private

for

denuded of

their

use

as

fuel,

and
for

house-building

by a
rail-

growing population, and

way.

consumption on the

The
is

suggestion has been

made
are

that the

name
nir-nai

Nayadi
which

derived from the fact of their eating otters,

in
hill

live

streams,

and

called

(water-dog).

The approach
hundred

of a Nayadi within a distance of three

feet is said to

contaminate a Brahman, who has

to bathe and put on a

himself of the pollution.

v-i8
li

new sacred thread, to cleanse The Nayadis, in fact, hold the

nayAdi
lowest
position in

276
the social scale, and
consequently-

labour under the greatest disadvantage.

The
of
hills,

Nayiidis live mostly

in isolated

huts on the tops

and generally select a shola, or glade, where there is a pond or stream. Some families live on the land of their landlords, whose crops they watch by night, to guard them against the attacks of wild beasts. Sometimes they are engaged in ploughing, sowing, weeding, transplanting, and reaping, the rice crop, or in plantain
(banana) gardens.
I

take exception to the comparison

by a recent author of the British Empire to the banana {Alusa) throwing out aerial roots. The banyan [Ficus
bengalensis) must have been meant.

The male members

called Molayans,

of the

community are

called

Nayadis, and the females Nayadichis.

The boys

are

and the young

girls Manichis.

Succes-

sion

is in

the male line (makkathayam).

A
pots,

thatched shed with palm-leaf walls, a few earthen

and a chopper, constitute the Nayadi's property.

(matti pasai) from the mattipal tree {Ailantkus

He
the

occasionally collects honey and bees-wax, and also

gum

rnalabaricd),

which,
for

when

burnt,

is

used as

temple

incense

and

fumigating

the

bed-chamber.

He

receives toddy in exchange for the

honey and wax, and

dried
fish,

copper coins

for

the

gum, with which he purchases

salt, chillies,

luxuries in the shape of

tobacco,

and
bark

liquor.

He makes
in water,

rough ropes from the malanar

plant,

and the bark of the kayyul tree (Baiikinia).

is

The
manufibre,

soaked
into

sun-dried, and the fibre

also
birds,

factured

rope.

He

makes

slings

of

wherewith he knocks over

of Cyperus.

and mats from a species

to
offer four

According to custom, the Nayadi has

ropes, each eight yards long, to every

Nambutiri

illam,

277

NAYADI
his settlement,
festivals.
(rice).

and two ropes

to every

Nayar house near

on the occasion of the \'ishu and

return he receives a fixed

Onam
and

In

measure of paddy

The
of the

ropes are

used

for

tethering cattle,

for

drawing

water from the well.

By a wise dispensation
is

ancient local chieftains, to each Navadi

assio-ned a

desom
poach

(portion of a parish),

within which he enjoys

certain privileges.

(^n his preserves.

And no Nayadi has any The privileges arc

and

business to
these.

On

birthdays, anniversaries,

festive occasions, the

Nayadi
an old

receives his share of curry and rice, tied

cloth.

up

in

When

a person

is

sick,

a black

country-made
mustard,
is

kambli (blanket),

with gingelly {Sesa77ium),

turmeric, and cocoanut tied up in the four corners,

passed three times over the patient and presented to a

Nayadi, together with a palm umbrella, a

stick,

and a

cucumber.

This

is

called kala-dhanam, or offering to

Yama, the god

off
gifts,

of death,

whose attack has

long

to be

warded

by propitiatory

offerings.

The Nayadi
life

accepts the

and prays

for the

and prosperity of the

giver.

Placing them before his

life

prays that the

of the sick

own family god, he person may be spared, and

that the disease

may

not be transferred to him.

Like the Cherumans, the Nayadis drink, but they

cannot afford to buy as

much toddy
in

as the former, for the

Cheruman works
by the higher

regularly for a daily wage.

Monkeys,

which are very troublesome

classes,

gardens, are shot

down
eat.

and given to the Nayadis to

rats,

Their dietary includes

mungooses,

pigs,

deer,

paraquets, the koel (cuckoo), doves, quails, fowls, paddybirds, hares, tortoises, V^aranus (lizard), crocodiles,

and

fish.

They

abstain from eating the flesh of dogs, cats, snakes,

land-crabs, shell-fish, and beef.

Among

vegetables, the
included.

tubers of

yams {Dioscorea) and Colocasia are

nayAdi
They produce
fire

278

by

friction

vvitK

two

sticks of Litscea
is

sebifera, in the shorter of

which a cavity

scooped

out.
in

They do
red-hot

not,

hke the Todas, put powdered charcoal

ignite the ck)th
friction.

the cavity, but

rag by means of the

wood dust produced by the

a

When
of a

woman

is

pregnant, she craves for the llesh

monkey

or jungle squirrel during the sixth month.

is

During the seventh month, a ceremony

to relieve her of the

performed,

influence of devils,

who may be
Abortion

troubling her.
is

It is

called ozhinnukalayuka.

attributed to the malign influence of evil spirits.

off this,

To

ward

they

tie

round the neck a magic thread, and

hill

invoke the aid of their

ancestors.

gods and the

she

spirits of their

They
his

erect a special hut for delivery, to

which

the

woman

retires.

When

is

in labour,

her husband

shampooes

own abdomen,

while praying to the gods

to suggest

for her safe delivery

a custom which seems

as his wife
is

the couvade.

As soon

delivered, he offers

thanks to the gods " for having got the baby out."

The

woman

observes pollution for ten days, during which her

husband avoids seeing her.

eighth day after birth,
child takes place.
is

Any deformity

in the child is

attributed to the evil influence of the gods.

On the twenty-

the ceremony of naming the

to the first-born son

The name given

that of the paternal grandfather,

and to the

first-born
fifth

daughter that of the maternal grandmother.

year, the ear-boring

In the

ceremony takes place, and the operachild's uncle.

tion

is

performed by the

A piece

of brass

wire takes the place of ear-rings.

of

Girls

wear a plug

wood in the lobes. The Nayadichis do not, like the Cheruman women, wear bracelets, but have many rows of

beads round their necks, and hanging over their bosoms.

When

a girl

reaches
in

puberty, a

Nayadichi

leads

her to a tank (pond),

which

she bathes,

after

2 79

NAYADI
leaf tied

pandi,

composed of severdl

})ieces of plantain

together, has been carried three or four times round her.

She must not touch any utensils, and must abstain from touching her head with the hand, and, if the
skin itches, the
stick.

body must be scratched with a small

Concerning a very interesting form of marriage, Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar writes as follows.* "A large hut is constructed of holly and other leaves, inside which
' '

the girl

is

ensconced.

Then all the young men and women

or the nearest male relative, sits
in his
is

of the village gather round the hut, and form a ring about
it.

The

girl's father,

a short distance from the crowd, with a tom-tom

hands.

Then commences
father,
:

the

music, and

a chant

sung by the
follows

which has been

my

freely translated as

Take the

stick,

sweetest daughter,

Now

seize the stick,

my

dearest love,
for,

Should you not capture the husband you wish

Remember,
" All the

'tis

fate decides

whom

you shall have.

young men, who are eligible for marriage, arm themselves with a stick each, and begin to dance
round the hut, inside which the bride is seated. This goes on for close on an hour, when each of them
thrusts
his
stick
girl

inside

the

hut

through the
stick

leafy

covering.

The

has then to take hold of one of these

sticks from the inside,

and the owner of the

which

she seizes becomes the husband of the concealed bride.

This ceremony
marriage
is

is followed up by consummated."

feasting, after

which the

photograph by Mr. F. Fawcett shows a young man with a ring hanging round his neck, as a sign that he was

* Malabar and

its

Folk.

NAYADI
still

280 But he was soon about

to part with
girl,
it,

unattached.

for a present of a
fix

rupee enabled him to find a

and
a

up a marriage, within two days. Adultery is regarded with abhorrence, and there

is

belief that those

who

are guilty of

it

are liable to be the occasion of

attacked by wild beasts or demons.

On

the marriage of a divorced woman's son or daughter, the

mother attends the

festivities,

if

she receives a cordial

invitation from her children.

But she does not look her

the face, and returns to her

former husband straight

in

home

the

same evening.
a

When
fill,

man

lies at

the point of death,

it is

usual to

distribute rice kanji to the people, who, after taking their

become possessed with the power of predicting the

man.

According as the taste of the kanji turns to that of a corpse, or remains unaltered,
fate in store for the sick

the death or recovery of the patient

is

foretold in their

deep and loud voices.*

their dead.

The Nayadis

either burn or bury

Several layers of stones are placed within the

its site is

grave, and

marked by three big

stones, one in

the middle, and one at each end.

The
in

burnt ashes of the

is

bones are collected, and preserved

close to the hut of the deceased.
for ten days,

a pot, which
is

kept

Pollution

observed

during which the enangan (relations by

marriage) cook for the mourners.

On the

tenth day, the

sons of the deceased go, together with their relations,

to the nearest stream,

and bury the bones on the bank.

beli,

The

sons bathe, and perform

so that the soul of the

departed
them.
deceased,

may
is

enter heaven, and ghosts

bath, a

may

not trouble

After the

sand-heap, representing the

it

constructed, and on
leaf,

are placed a piece

of plantain

some unboiled
* Malabar and
its

rice,

and karuka grass

Folk.

"

1(

W
:.
.

^,

~'
^*.

fti

'

^ o
>^ V
'*

/.

1
:'.\^

2 <

'Jr.'

.,".

,<
/}

^Y j6"

'

'

h^
::) I'll

W
wr'

\.
i'

28

NAYADI
water
Is

{Cynodon

Dactylon).

Over these

poured

twelve times, and the sons reverently prostrate themselves

before the heap.

They then

return home, and cow-dung,

rela-

mixed with water, is sprinkled over them by their In tions, and poured over the floor of the hut.

this

manner they are purified. month after death, according

and the bones are
corners of a
sticks,
pit.

Some time during the

is

seventh

to another account, the

grave, in which the corpse has been buried,

carefully collected,

dug

up,

and spread out on

a layer of sticks arranged on four stones placed at the

The bones
is

are then covered with

more
bones

and the

pile

lighted.

The

partially burnt

are

subsequently collected

by the eldest son of the

deceased, and carried to the hut in a

tied to a branch of a neighbouring

new

pot,

which
rite

is

tree.

This

con-

cluded, he bathes, and, on his return, the adiyanthiram

(death ceremony) day

is

fixed.
it

On

this day, the eldest

son removes the pot, and buries

by the side of a stream,

near which a heap of sand

is

piled up.

On

this all the

agnates pour water three times, prostrate themselves

before
it,

and disperse.

close with a square meal.

The ceremony is brought to a Some time ago an old Nayadi,

good shot, died. gunpowder from a gunit

who had

the reputation of being a

His son obtained a handful of

license holder,

and

set

fire

to

near the grave, with

a view to satisfying the soul of the deceased.

The chief gods

and Parakutti, to
flesh of
in their

of the Nayadis are Mallan, Malavazhi,

whom

offerings of toddy, rice,

and the

monkeys are made.

Parakutti

it is

hunting expeditions, bringing the

beasts.

who aids them game to them,

If

and protecting them from wild

succeed
in

they do not

bagging the expected game, they abuse him.

are
also

The Nayadis

ancestor

worshippers,

and

keep representations of the departed,

to which offerings

NAYADI
of rice and toddy are

282

other festivals.

made during the Onam, Vishu, and Beneath a mango tree in a paramba
in

(garden) were forty-four stones set up

the tree.

a circle round

One
is

of the stones

was a

beli-kal (beli stone),

such as

placed round the inner shrines of temples.

The remainder resembled survey stones, but were The stones represented forty-four smaller in size. Nayadis, who had left the world. On the ceremonial
occasions referred to above, a sheep or fowl
is

killed,

and the blood allowed to fall on them, puja (worship) is performed, and solemn prayers are offered that the souls
of the de[)arted

and snakes.
a
tiger,

them against wild beasts that, if he came across he would invoke the aid of his ancestors, and
protect

may

Nayadi asserted

the animal would be rendered harmless.

Whenever the Nayadis labour under any calamity

or disease, they consult the Parayan astrologer.

And,
is

when a woman summoned. He

toddy.

is

possessed by devils, the Parayan

is

furnished with a thread and

some
and

Muttering certain
ties

prayers

to

Parakutti

other deities, he

the thread

round the woman's

neck, drinks the toddy, and the devil leaves her.

When

a person
or the

is

believed to be under the influence of a devil

salt,

evil eye,

chillies,

tamarind,

oil,

mustard,

cocoanut, and a few

})ice

(copper coins) in a vessel are

waved
There

thrice

round the head of the affected individual,

a

and given
is

to

Nayadi,

whose

curse

is

asked

for.
it

this

peculiarity about a Nayadi's curse, that

effect.

always has the opposite

to curse

So,

when he

is

asked

one who has given him alms, he does so by By the Nayadi invoking misery and evil upon him.

money
nakkan

is

called

chembu

kasu

(copper

coin),

food

elamattam (exchange
ilia

of leaves), and having no food

(nothing to lick on).

As

a protection against

283
snake-bite, the Nayadis wear a brass toe-ring.

NAYAR
And, when they wear round
in the hole.

engaged

in

catching rats

in their holes,

the wrist a snake-shaped metal ring, to render them safe

against snakes which

may be concealed
live

The Nayadis who

within the jurisdiction of the

(front

Kavalapara Nayar near Shoranurwear the kudumi

lock of hair), as there are no Mappillas
to molest

(Muhammadans)
at

them.

The Kavalapara Nayar was

and directed
all

one time

an important
(landlords)

chief,

Nambutiri jenmis
Nayiidis of

who

held land within his jurisdiction to bind

let

themselves not to

the land to Mappillas.

other parts are not allowed by the Mappillas to wear the

kudumi, and,

if

they do

so,

they are taken for Parayans

and professional sorcerers, and beaten.

Some Nayadis have become converts to Christianity, others to Muhammadanism, and maintain themselves by begging for alms from Muhammadans. They are called
Thoppyitta (cap-wearing) Nayadis.

The

priest of the
is

Nayadis

is

called

Muppan.

His
all

appointment

hereditary,

and

he enquires into

matters affecting the community, and can excommunicate

a guilty person.*

Nayar. "The
" are a

Average

height, 155 cm.

nasal index, 86.

Nayars," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,t

for

Dravidian caste, or rather a community,

we

find several distinct

elements with totally different occu-

pations
title.

among the people who call themselves by this The original Nayars were undoubtedly a military
militia,

body, holding lands and serving as a

present Nayar

but the

caste includes persons who, by hereditary

* This note
L. K.
t

is

based mainly on articles by Mr. S. Appadorai Aiyar and Mr.

Anantha Krishna Aiyar.

Madras Census Report, 1891.

nAyar

284

occupation, are traders, artisans, oilmongers, palanquinbearers,

and

cv^cn

barbers and washermen.

The

fact

waves of immioration brought from the Canarese and Tamil countries different castes and different tribes and these, settling down in the country, adopted the customs and manners, and assumed seems
to be that successive
;

the caste names of the

more respectable of the commuThis |)rocess of assimilation

Chettis
of

nity that surrounded them.

is

goino-

on

even

yet.

Coimbatore,

for

examj)le.

who

within living

settled in Palghat and Valluvanad memory, have developed by this time into

Nayars.

In the

census schedules
affix

we

find instances in

which the males of a house

the term Nayar to their

in

names, while the names of the females end

Chettichi.

Gollas entering the country from the north have similarly,

in

course of time, assumed Nayar customs and manners,

and are now styled

classes

Nayars.

Again the rajahs and

chieftains of the country

sometimes raised individuals or

the

who had rendered them meritorious service to rank of Nayars, These men were thereafter styled
little

Nayars, but formed a separate sub-division with

or no

Nayar class, until at least, after the lapse of generations, when their origin was forgotten. Nayar may thus at present be considered

communion with the

rest of the

to be a term almost as

wide and general as Sudra,"

Nayar caste is the result of union between the Nambudris with Deva, Gandharva and Rakshasa women introduced by Parasurama and this tradition embodies the undoubted fact that the caste by its practice of hypergamy has had
According to
the
tradition,

Brahman

the

a very large

infusion of

Aryan

blood.

In

origin the

Nayars were probably a race of Dravidian immigrants, who were amongst the first invaders of Malabar, and as conquerors assumed the position of the governing and

285

NAYAR
Aryan blood

land-owning

class.

The

large admixture of

combined with the physical peculiarities of the country would go far to explain the very marked difference
between the Nayar of the present day and what may be
considered the corresponding Dravidian races
of the Presidency.*
In connection with the former position of the
in

the rest

Nayars

as protectors of the State,

" in Johnston's
in
'

it is

noted by Mr. Logan f that

Relations of the most famous

1),

Kingdom
strange to

the world' (161

there occurs the following quaintly

*

written account of this protector guild.

It is

how ready the Souldiour of this country is at his Weapons they are all gentile men, and tearmed Naires.
see
:

At seven Years of Age they are put to School to learn the Use of their Weapons, where, to make them nimble and active, their Sinnewes and Joints are stretched by skilful Fellows, and annointed with the Oyle Sesamus [gingelly Sesamum indicum^ By this annointing they become so light and nimble that they will winde and turn their Bodies as if they had no Bones, casting them
: :

forward, backward, high and low, even to the Astonish-

ment of the Beholders. Their continual Delight is in their Weapon, perswading themselves that no Nation goeth
beyond them
Duncan, who
in

Skill

and Dexterity.'

And Jonathan

Malabar more than once as one of the Commissioners from Bengal in 1792-93, and afterwards as Governor of Bombay, after quoting the
visited

following lines from Mickle's Camoens,

'

Book VII
named
:

Poliar the labouring lower clans are

By the proud Nayrs

the noble rank

is

claimed
:

The The

toils of

culture

and of

art they scorn

shining faulchion brandish'd in the right

left

Their

arm wields the

target in the fight

'

* Gazetteer of the Malabar district,

Manual of the Malabar

district.


NAYAR
went on to observe
last,
'
:

286

These

lines,

and especially the two

contain a good description of a Nayr, w^ho walks

along, holding up his naked sword with the

same kind
in

of unconcern
their

as travellers in

other countries carry

staff.
I

hands a cane or walking

it

have observed

others of them have

fastened to their back, the hilt

being stuck

in

their waist

band, and the blade rising

up and glittering between their shoulders' (Asiatic Researches, V. 10, 18).

M. Mahe de
'

la

Bourdonnais,

who

had some experience of their fighting qualities in the field, Les Nairs sont de grands homthus described them
:

mes basanes,
soldats,
s'ils
ils

legers, et

vigoureux

lis n'ont

pas d'autre

profession que celle des armes, et seraient de fort bons

etiaent disciplines
la
:

mais

ils

combattent sans
les serre

ordre,

prennent

fuite
;

des qu'on
s'ils

de pres

avec quelque superiorite

pourtant,

se voient presses
ils

avec vigueur et qu'ils se croient en danger,

nent a
la

revien-

charge, et ne se rendent jamais

'

(M. Esquer,
Finally,

Essai sur les Castes dans I'lnde, page 181).

the

only

British

General of

any note

Munro
'

who

Sir
in

Hector
the
field,

had ever

to face the

Nayars
:

thus wrote of their modes of fighting

One may

as well look for a needle in a Bottle of

Hay

as any of

them

in

the daytime, they being lurking

behind sand banks and bushes, except when we are marching towards the Fort, and then they appear like
bees out
continued,
well
in

the

month of

June.'

'

Besides which,' he
fire

'they point their guns well, and

them

also' (Tcllicherry

Factory

Diary,

March, 1761).
excellent in

They
with

were,

in

short,

brave light troops,

organization
unfitted
into

skirmishing, but

their

small
to

bodies

discordant

interests

them

repel

any

serious invasion by an
ised.

enemy even moderately

well organ-

Among

other strange Malayali customs, Sheikh

287
Zin-ud-din * noticed the fact that,
his followers attacked
if

NAYAR
a chieftain was
in
till

slain,

and obstinately persevered

This custom
in

ravatheir

ging the slayer's country, and killing his people

vengeance

w'as satisfied.

is

doubtless that

which was described so long ago as

the ninth century

A.D. by two Muhammadans, whose work was translated by Renaudot (Lond., 1733). 'There are kings who, upon their accession, observe the following ceremony. A quantity of cooked rice was spread before the king, and some three or four hundred persons came of their

own

accord, and received each a small quantity of rice

from the king's own hands after he himself had eaten

some.
to

By

eating of this rice they

all

engage themselves
is slain,

burn themselves on the day the king dies or

fulfil

and they punctually

their

promise.'

Men, who
and Barbosa,

devoted themselves to certain death on great occasions,

were termed Amoucos by the Portuguese

as prevalent

one of the Portuguese writers, alluded to the practice

following

'

among the Nayars. Purchas has also the The king of Cochin hath a great number
which he calleth Amocchi, and some are
these two sorts of
it

of Gentlemen,
called Nairi
:

men esteem
for the

not their

lives anything, so that

may be

honour of the
such

king.'

The proper Malayalam term Chaver, literally those who took up,

for

men was

or devoted them-

It was a custom of the Nayars, which was readily adopted by the Mappillas, who also at

selves to death.

times
at

as
as
it is

at the great

Mahamakkam,

twelfth year feast,

in

Tirunavayi f

devoted

themselves to death

the

* The author of Tahafat-ul-Mujahidin or hints for persons seeking the way

to

God,

frequently translated, or

more

literally

an offering to warriors

who

shall fight in defence

of religion against infidels.

Translated by

Rowlandson.

London, 1833. + See Manual of the Malabar

Bull., 111,3, 1901.

district, 164, sq.,

and Fawcett, Madras Museum

nAyar
company of Nayars
Raja.

288
for the

honour of the Valluvanad

not even yet

And

probably the frantic fanatical rush of the

is

Mappillas on British bayonets, which

a thing of the past,
is

the latest development of this

ancient custom of the Nayars.

The

martial spirit of

the Nayars in these piping times of peace has quite

died out for want of exercise.

The Nayar

is

more and

more becoming a family man. Comparatively few of them now-a-days even engage in hunting." According
to an inscription of the
84),

King Kulottunga
i.e.,

(A.D. 1083hill

he conquered Kudamalai-Nadu,

the western

country (Malabar), whose warriors, the ancestors of the

Nayars of the present day, perished

defending their independence.*

to the last

man
at

in

The

following

description

of the
is

Nayars

the

beginning of the sixteenth century

Barbosa.t
"

given by Duarte

The Nairs

are the gentry, and have

no

other duty than to carry on war, and they continually

carry their arms with them, which are

swords, bows,
live

arrows, bucklers,
kings,

and

lances.

They

all

with the

and some of them with other

lords, relations of the

kings, and lords of the country,

and with the salaried

governors, and with one another.

They

are very smart

men, and much These Nairs, besides being all of noble descent, have to be armed as knights by the hand of a king or lord with whom they live, and until they have been so equipped they cannot bear arms nor call themselves Nairs.
taken up with their nobility.
In general,

when they

are seven years of age, they are

all

immediately sent to school to learn

manner of

feats

of agility and gymnastics for the use of their w^eapons.

E. Hullzsch, South-Indian Inscriptions, III, t Description of the

2,

1203.

Coasts of East

Africa

and

Malabar.

Translation.

Hakluyt Society, 1866.

289
First they learn to

NAYAR
for

dance and then to tumble, and

all

that purpose they render supple

their limbs from their

in

childhood, so that they can bend

. . .

them

any direction.

These Nairs

live outside the

towns separate from

in.

other people on their estates which are fenced

When
;

they go anywhere, they shout to the peasants, that they

may

get out of the

way where they have

if

to pass
it,

and

the peasants do so, and,

they did not do

the Nairs

might

kill

them without penalty.

to touch a
her,
kill

And,

if

a peasant were

by misfortune
immediately
her and
all

Nair lady, her relations would and likewise the man that touched
This, they say,
is

his relations.

done to

avoid

all

opportunity of mixing the

.
. .

blood with that

These are very clean and women, and they hold it in great honour to well-dressed
of the peasants.

know how them that

paradise."

to please

men.

They have

a belief amongst

the

woman who

dies a virgin does not

go to

Writing
that "
to
it

in

the eighteenth century, Hamilton states *

was an ancient custom for the Samorin (Zamorin) If he died reign but twelve years, and no longer.
it

before his term was expired,

saved him a troublesome

ceremony of cutting

his

own

throat on a public scaffold

for all

erected for that purpose.

his nobility and gentry,

He first made a feast who were very numerous.

After

the feast he saluted his guests, went on the scaffold, and

very neatly cut his

own

throat in the view of the assembly.

His body was, a little while after, burned with great pomp and ceremony, and the grandees elected a new Samorin.
W^hether that custom was a religious or a
I

civil

ceremony

know

not, but

it

is

now

laid aside,

and a new custom

is

is

followed by the modern Samorin, that a jubilee

New Account

of the East Indies, 1744.

V-19

NAYAR

290

proclaimed throughout his dominion at the end of twelve

years,

and a tent
feast
jollity,

is is

pitched for him

in

a spacious plain,

and a great
mirth and

celebrated for ten or twelve days with

firing night

guns

and day, so

at the

end
to

of the feast any four of the guests that have a

mind

gain a crown by a desperate action

in fighting their

way

through thirty or forty thousand of

the Samorin
in in his tent,

his guards,

he that

kills

and kill him succeeds him

his

empire.

In

Anno

1695 one of these jubilees

happened, and the tent pitched near Ponnany, a sea-port

of his about fifteen leagues to the southward of Calicut.

There were but three men that would venture on that desperate action, who fell on, with sword and target, among the guards, and, after they had killed and wounded
many, were themselves
killed.

One

of the desperadoes

had a nephew close by his uncle in the attack on the guards, and, when he saw him fall, the youth got through the guards into
of fifteen or sixteen years of age that kept

the tent, and

made

a stroke at his Majesty's head, and

had certainly dispatched him if a large brass lamp which was burning over his head had not marred the blow,
but, before

he could make another, he was

I

killed

by the

guards, and
It
is
;

same Samorin reigns noted by Sonnerat * that the Nayars

believe the

yet."

" are the

all

warriors

they have also the privilege of enjoying

the

women
besides

of their caste.

Their arms, which they constantly

tribes.

carry, distinguish

them from the other

They

are

known by their insolent

haughtiness.

When they

perceive pariahs, they call out to them, even at a great

distance, to get out of their way, and,
if

any one of these

unfortunate people approaches too near a Nair, and through inadvertence touches him, the Nair has a right

Voyage

to the

East Indies, 1774 and 1781.

291
to

nAyar

murder him, which is looked upon as a very innocent It is action, and for which no complaint is ever made. true that the pariahs have one day in the year when all
the Nairs they can touch become their slaves, but the

Nairs take such precautions to keep out of the way at

the time, that an accident of that kind seldom happens."
It is

further recorded by

Buchanan

'^

that " the whole of

these Nairs formed the militia of Malayala, directed by

the Namburis and governed by the Rajahs.

delight
is

Their chief

in

arms, but they are more inclined to use them

or surprise,

for assassination

than

in

the

open

field.

Their submission to their superiors was great, but they

exacted deference from those under them with a cruelty

and arrogance, rarely practised but among Hindus in A Nair was expected to their state of independence. instantly cut down a Tiar or Mucuai, who presumed to defile him by touching his person; and a similar fate
awaited a slave,

who

did not turn out of the road as a

Nair passed."

Nayar

is

commonly

said to be derived from the Sans-

krit Nayaka, a leader, and to be cognate with Naik, and

Nayudu
Glossary

or Naidu.
if

In this connection, Mr. L.

is

Moore

writes t that "

a reference

made to the Anglo-Indian

by Yule and Burnell, it Naik or Nayakan, and the word Nayar are derived from the same Sanskrit original, and there is a considerable amount of evidence to show that the Nayars of Malabar are closely connected by origin with the Nayakans of Vijayanagar. I Xavier, writing in 1542 to 1544, makes frequent references to
(Hobson-Jobson)
will be found that the term

men whom he
t Malabar

calls

Badages,

who

are said to have been

* Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 1S07.

Law and Custom,

3rd ed., 1905,

X Vide R. Sewell,

Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar), 1900.

V-I9 B

nAyar
collectors

292
of
royal
taxes,

and

to

have
the

grievously

oppressed Xavier's converts

among

fishermen of

Travancore.*

Dr. Caldwell, alluding to Xavier's letters,

says t that these Badages were no doubt Vadages or

men

from the North, and

the time

is

of opinion that a Jesuit writer of

them Nayars was mistaken, and that I believe, they were really Nayakans from Madura. that the Jesuit rightly called them Nayars, for however,

who

called

find that

Father Organtino. writing

in 1568,

speaks of

these

Badages as people from Narasinga

of course, Vijayanagar, and the

(a

kingdom
Bishof

north of Madura, lying close to Bishnaghur).J

naghur

is.

kingdom

Narasinga

was

the

name

frequently

given by the

Portuguese to

X'^ijayanagar.

Almost every page of Mr.

Sewell's interesting
to

book on Vijayanagar bears testimony the close connection between Vijayanagar and the
that the kings half of the four-

West Coast. Dr. A. C. Burnell tells us who ruled Vijayanagar during the latter
teenth

century belonged to

low non-Aryan caste,

namely, that of Canarese cow-herds.

fore closely akin to the Nayars,

They were
although

there-

one of the leading Rajas

time,
officially
i.e.,

among whom
cow-herd

at

the present
is

described as a Samanta.
caste.||
It
is

in reality

of the Eradi,

remarkable that Colonel

in

(after-

wards Sir Thomas) Munro,

bv him
in

the

memorandum

written

1802

on the Poligars of the Ceded

Districts,

* Father Coleridge's Life and Letters of

t History of Tinnevelly.

St. Francis Xavier.

% Coleridge's Xavier.

Burnell.

Translation of

the

Daya Vibhaga,

Introduction.

Vide

also

Elements of South Indian Palaeography (2nd

that
it is

ed.. p. 109),

where Dr Burnell says

certain that the Vijayanagar kings were

men

of low caste.
2,

II

Vide Glossary, Report of the Malabar Marriage Commission, p.

p. 44.

and

Day's Land of the Permauls,

Fifth Report

of the Committee on the affairs of the East India

Company,

II> 499.

530-

Reprint by Higginbotham, Madras.

293

NAyAR

when dealing with the cases of a number of Poligars who were direct descendants of men who had been chiefs under the kings of Vijayanagar, calls them throughout
his report

Naique or Nair, using the two names as

if

they were identical.

of Vijayanagar
results."

Further investigation as to the

connection of the Nayars of

Malabar with the kingdom

lead
to
interesting-

would,

believe,

In the
is

Journal of the Hon.

John

Lindsay

(1783)

it

recorded* that
still

"we

received

information
coast,

that our

arms were
whilst the

successful on the

Malabar

and that our

country
;

army was now advancing

into the inland

Nayars and Polygars that occupy the jungles and mountains near Seringapatam, thinking this
a favourable

opportunity to regain their former inde-

pendence, destroyed the open country, and committed as

many
"

acts of barbarity as Hyder's

army had done

in

in

the

Carnatic."

Some,

"

Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes

"

a note
is

on the Nayars of Travancore,

derived from

believe that

Nayar

Naga

(serpents), as the

Aryans so termed

the earlier settlers of Malabar on account of the special adoration which they paid to snakes.

The Travancore

Nayars are popularly known as Malayala Sudras term which contrasts them sharply with the Pandi or foreign Sudras, of whom a large number immigrated into Travancore in later times. Another name by which Nayars are sometimes known is Malayali, but other
castes,

which have long inhabited the Malayalam country,

general
of the Nayars
to
It

can lay claim to this designation with equal propriety.

The most

title

is

Pillai (child),

which was once added

dwellers in the south.

the

names of the Brahman

in all probability,

must,

have

* Li\es of the Lindsays.

By Lord Lindsay,

1849.

nAyar
been
after the

294

(father),

Brahmans changed their title to Aiyar by which name the non- Brahman people invarifind that the Vcllalas of the

ably referred to them, that Sudras began to be termed

Pillai.

We
the

Tamil country
themselves

and
Pillai

Nayars

of

Travancore

called

from very early times.

The

formal ceremony of

paying down a sum of money, and obtaining a distinction

direct from the

Sovereign was known as tirumukham

pitikkuka, or catching the face of the king, and enabled

the recipients to add, besides the honorary suffix

Pillai,

the distinctive prefix Kanakku, or accountant, to their

So important were the privileges conferred by it that even Sanku Annavi, a Brahman Dalava, obtained at the hand of the reigning Maharaja, and his it posterity at Vempannur have enjoyed the distinction The titles Pillai and Kanakku until the present day. The name of an individual are never used together. would be, for example, either Krishna Pillai or Kanakku Raman Krishnan, Raman being the name of the
name.

Karanavan or the maternal uncle. A higher title, Chempakaraman, corresponds to the knighthood of mediaeval times, and was first instituted by Maharaja Marthanda Varma in memory, it is said, of his great Prime Minister Rama Aiyyan Dalawa. The individual, whom it was the king's pleasure to honour, was taken in procession on the back of an elephant through the four main streets of the fort, and received by the Prime Minister, seated by his side, and presented with panRare as this investiture is in modern supari (betel). times, there are many ancient houses, to which this title of
distinction
is is

attached in perpetuity.
it,

The

title

often enjoyed with

e.g.,

the maternal uncle's

Kanakku name being

Krishnan.

dropped,

Kanakku
brother)

Chempakaraman
is

Tambi (younger

another

title

prevalent in

295
Travancore.
It
is

NAYAR

a distinctive suffix to the names of

Nayar sons of Travancore Sovereigns. But, in ancient times, this title was conferred on others also, in recogniTambis alone proceed in palanquins, and tion of merit. appear before the Maharaja without a head-dress. The
consorts of Maharajas are selected from these families.
If

a lady from outside

is

to be accepted as consort, she

is

generally adopted into one of these families.

The

title

Karta, or doer, appeeirs also to have been used as a

titular

name by some

of the rulers of Madura.

[At the
Balijas

Madras
and

census, 1901, Kartakkal

was returned by

claiming to be descendants of the

Tanjore.]
in

Nayak kings of Madura The Tekkumkur and Vadakkumkur

Rajas
title

Malabar are said to have first conferred the Karta on certain influential Nayar families. In
Karta was supreme,

social matters the authority of the

was only on important points that higher authorAll the Kartas belong ities were called on to intercede. sub-division of the Nayar caste. The title to the I Ham Kuruppu, though assumed by other castes than Nayars,
and
it

really denotes

an ancient section of the Nayars, charged

with various functions.

Some

were, for instance, instruc-

tors in the use of arms, while others w^ere superintendents

of maid-servants in the royal household.

Writing con-

cerning the Zamorin of Calicut about 1500 A.D., Barbosa

states that " the king has a

whom

thousand waiting women, to he gives regular pay, and they are always at the

court to sweep the palaces and houses of the king, and he

does this for the State, because

sweep."

When
full title

would be enough to a Maharaja of Travancore enters into a

fifty
it

matrimonial alliance,
out the

is

Kuruppu who has

to call

of the royal consort, Panappillai

Amma,

after the

presentation of silk and cloth has been per-

formed.

The

title

Panikkar:

is

derived from pani, work.

nAyar
It

296

was the Panikkars who kept kalaris, or gymnastic and military schools, but in modern times many Panikkars
have taken to the teaching of
letters.

Some

are entirely

devoted to temple service, and are consequently regarded

as belonging to a division of Marans, rather

than of

Nayars.

The

title

Kaimal
e.g.,

is

derived from kai, hand,

signifying power.

In former times,

some Kaimals were

in

recognised chieftains,
in

the Kaimal of Vaikkattillam

North Travancore.

Others were

charge of the
not

royal treasury, which, according to custom, could

be seen even by the kings except

in

their presence.

"Neither could thev," Barbosa

writes,

"take anvthinsf

out of the treasury without a great necessity, and by the

counsel of this person and certain others."

The

titles

Unnithan and Valiyathan were owned by certain

in

families

Central Travancore, which were wealthy and powerful.

to

They were

some extent
all

self-constituted justices of the

in

peace, and settled

ordinary disputes arising

title
is

the kara

where they dwelt.

avan
he.

The

Menavan, or Menon, means

title

a superior person, and

derived from mel, above, and

held
it

The
it

recipient of the

for his life-

time, or

was bestowed in perpetuity on his according to the amount of money paid down as

family,
atiyara.

As soon

as an individual

was made a Menon, he was

office of accountant,

presented with an ola (palmyra leaf for writing on) and

an iron style as symbols of the

which

he was expected to
every

fill.

In British I\Ialabar even

village
title

now

amsam

or revenue

has an accountant or

writer called

Menon.
it

The

Menokki, meaning one

is

who

looks over or superintends,

as

found only
a

in British

Malabar,

was

exclusively

creation

of

the

Zamorin.
"

[They are, I gather, accountants in temples.] There are numerous sub-divisions comprised under

the general head Nayar, of which the most important.


nAyar
are

297

mentioned

in

vernacular

books,

Kiriyam,

11am,

Svarupam, Itacheri or Idacheri, Pallichan, Ashtikkurichchi.

Vattakatan, Otatu, Pulikkal, X^apari, Vilakkitalavan,

and Veluthetan.

Of these Ashtikkurichchi and

is

Pulikkal

are divisions of Maran, Vyapari

a division of Chettis,

and Vilakkitalavan

and Veluthetan are barbers and

washermen
"

respectively.

The
1.

chief divisions of Nayars, as

:

now

recognised,

are as follows

Kiriyam, a

name

said to be a corruption of the

Sanskrit griha, meaning house.

hiofhest
class,

This

represents

the

members of which were, in former times, not obliged to serve Brahmans and Kshatriyas. The word illam indicates a Nambutiri 2. Illakkar.
the

Brahman's house, and tradition has

family once served an illam.

it

that every illam

But, in mediaeval times, any

Nayar could get himself recognised as belonging to the Illam division, provided that a certain sum of money, The called adiyara, was paid to the Government. Illakkar are prohibited from the use of fish, flesh, and
liquor,

but the prohibition

In
of

is

not at the present day

of Malabar, they
in

universally respected.

some parts
their

have moulded many

habits

the

truly

Brahmanical
3.

style.

Svarupakkar.

Adherents

of

the

Kshatriya

families

of Travancore.

The members

of the highest

group, Parur Svarupam, have their purificatory rites It is stated that they were once performed by Marans.
the Illakkar servants of one Karuttetathu Nambutiri,

who

was

the feudal lord of Parur, and afterwards became

to that

attached to the royal household which succeeded

estate, thus
4.

becoming Parur Svarupakkar. Padamangalam and Tamil Padam

Nayars,
but

were not
the

originally

immigrants

from

Tamil

nAyar
country.

298

They

are

confined

to

few

localities

in

Travancore, and until recently there was a distinctive

difference in regard to dress

and ornaments between the

of

Tamil Padam and the ordinary Nayars. the Padamangalakkar is temple

to

The occupation
service,

such as

sweeping, carrying lamps during processions,

etc.

The

Tamil Padakkar are believed

have taken to various

kinds of occupation, and, for this reason, to have become

merged with other

5.

sections.

Vathi or Vatti.

This

name
it

is

not found in the

Jatinirnaya, probably because

tiated from

had not been differena corruption of vazhti,

Maran.

The word
for

is

meaning praying
traditional

happiness,

and

refers

to

their

occupation.

They
call

use

a peculiar drum,

called nantuni.

Some

themselves Daivampatis, or

wards of God, and follow the makkathayam system of inheritance (in the male line).
6.

Itacheri

or

Idacheri,

also

called Pantaris

in

South Travancore. They are herdsmen, and vendors of milk, butter and curds. The name suggests a relation of some kind to the Idaiyan caste of the Tamil country. 7. Karuvelam, known also by other names, such as Kappiyara and Tiruvattar. Their occupation is service in the palace of the Maharaja, and they are the custodians of his treasury and valuables. Fifty-two families
are believed
to

have

been originally brought

from

Kolathanad, when a
Arikuravan.

member

thereof was adopted into

the Travancore royal family.

8.

name,

meaning

those

who

reduced the quantity of rice out of the paddy given to them

to

husk

at the

temple of Kazhayakkuttam near Trlvanlocal chieftain.

for

drum, by which they were accosted by the

9.

Pallichchan.

Bearers
chieftains.

of palanquins

Brah-

mans and Malabar

They

are also employed

299
as
their

nAyar
their

attendants,

to

carry

sword and shield

for

before them.
10.

Vandikkaran.

name, meaning cartmen,

those

who supply
11.

fuel to temples,

and cleanse the vessels

of a

belonging thereto.
Kuttina.
said

The

only

heiress

Svarupam
in

tarwad

is

to

have been a maid-servant

the

Vadakketam Brahman's house, and her daughter's talikettu ceremony to have been celebrated in her master's The bride was called kuttilachchi, newly-built cowshed. or bride in a cowshed, and her descendants were named Kuttina Nayars. They intermarry among themselves,
and, having no priests of their own, obtain purified water

from Brahmans to remove the

12.

effects of pollution.

Matavar.

Also known as Puliyattu, Veliyattu,

They
are believed to have been

and Kallur Nayars.

good archers
13.

in

former times.

Otatu, also called Kusa.

Their occupation

is

to tile or thatch temples

14.

and Brahman houses.

of land in the

Kalkulam taluk, called Mantalachchi Konam, was granted to them by the State. They are paid mourners, and attend at
Mantalayi.
the Trivandrum palace
family.
15.

A tract
when

a death occurs in the royal

Manigramam.
from

Believed

to

represent
to

Hindu

recoveries

early

conversion

Christianity.

Manigramam was
16.

a portion of Cranganore, where early

Christian immigrants settled.

Vattaykkatan, better

Chakala
sacrificial

Nayars,

form
are

in

known in Travancore as many respects the lowest

to stand outside the

sub-division.

They

obliged

stones (balikallu) of a sanctuary, and are not

title

allowed to take the

distinction

Pillai.

Pulva

is

a
is

title

of

among them.

One

section of them

engaged

NAYAR
in

300

the hereditary occupation of oil-pressing, and occupies

in

a lower position

the social scale than the other."

list

The
Malabar
by
I\Ir.

following

of " clans"

among

the Nayars of
is

whom

he examined anthropomctrically
*

given

F.

Fawcett

:
Vangiloth.
Kitavu.
Patlichaii.

Kiriyattil.

Sudra..

Kurup. Nambiyar.
Urali.

Muppathinayiran.
Viyapari or Eavari.
Attikurissi.

Nallioden.
Viyyur.

I\ranavalan.

Akattu Charna.
Purattu Charna.

Adungadi.
Adiodi.

Vattakkad.

Ainayengolam.

"

The Kurup, Nambiyar

all

Viyyur, Manavalan,

Ven-

golan, Nellioden,

Adungadi, Kitavu, Adiodi, Amayen-

golam,

superior clans, belong, properly speaking, to

North Malabar.

The

Kiriyattil,

or

Kiriyam,
is

is

the

highest of all the clans in South Malabar, and

to comprise, or correspond with the

supposed

group of clans first named from North Malabar. The Akattu Charna clan is divided into two sub-clans, one of which looks to the Zamorin as their lord, and the other owns lordship to
minor
with a
lordlings, as the

Tirumulpad of Nilambur.

The

former are superior, and a

woman

of the latter

may mate
In the old

man

of the former, but not vice versa.

Nayar chief had his Charnavar, or adherents. The Purattu Charna are the outside adherents, or fighters and so on, and the Akattu Charna are the inside
days, every

adherents

clerks and domestics.

is

The

clan from which

the former were drawn

superior to the latter.

The

Uralis

arc said to have bee^i masons; the Pallichans manchil

Madras Museum

Bull.,

HI,

3,

190I.

30I
bearers.*^

NAYAR

The Sudra

clan supplies female servants in the

houses of Nambudiris.
chakku,
oil press) clan,

The
oil

X'attakkad (or Chakkingal

nidiier
is

whose proper
with the
the

producing
the lowest
Indeed, in

gingelly or cocoanut of
all,

oil-mill, is

excepting,
I

think,

Pallichan.

North Malabar,
to

have frequently been told by Nayars of

the superior clans that they

do not admit the Yattakkad

be

Nayars,
affix

and say that they have adopted the

honorary

Nayar

to

their

names quite
the

recently.

There

is

some obscurity
clan.

as regards

sub-divisions
of Calicut,
in

of the Vattakkad

To

the north

Kurumbranad, they are divided

those
the

into the Undiatuna, or

who

pull (to

work the oil-machine by hand), and

or

Murivechchu-atune,
Tellichcrry

those

who

tie

or

fasten

bullocks, to
at

work the oil-machine.

Yet further north,

and thereabouts, there are no known

the

sub-divisions, while in Ernad, to the eastward, the clan

is

divided

into

Veluttatu (white)
to

and

Karuttatu
with
the

(black).

The white have nothing

oil,

do

expression and preparation of occupation of the

black.
;

which

is

the hereditary
eat

The white may

black sub-clan

with

Nayars of any
outside their

clan

the black can eat with no others

own
;

clan.

The

is

strictly
is

endogamous
Their

the other, the superior sub-clan,

not.

women may marry men

of any other clan, the

Union by marriage, or whatever the function may be named, is permissible between most
of the

Pallichchan excepted.

other clans, the rule by which a

unite
herself

woman may
always
of her

never

with

her

inferior

being

observed.

She may
with a

unite herself with a

man

own
a

clan, or

man

of any superior clan, or with

or any

Nambutiri, an Embrantiri,

other Brahman,
like

manchil

is

a conveyance carried on
flat

men's shoulders, and more

it,

hammock

slung on a pole, with a

coverinjj over

than a palanquin.

NAYAR
or with one
of the

302
small
sects

Brahmans and the Nayars.

is

coming between the But she cannot under any

circumstances unite herself with a

inferior to hers.
;

inferior to her

man of a clan, which Nor can she eat with those of a clan man may, and does without restriction.
mere
by one who
is

Her

children by an equal in race and not only in

social standing, but nev^er those

inferior,

racially

belong to her taravad.*

The

children of the

inferior

mothers are never brought into the taravad of

flithers, i.e.,
it,

the superior
to belong to

they are- never brought into

it

but they

may

live there.

And, where

they do

so,

they cannot enter the taravad kitchen, or

while they are eating.

touch the

women

allowed to touch their father's corpse.

in

Nor are they They may live

but

the taravad under these and other disabilities,

of
it.

The custom, which permits a man to cohabit with a woman lower in the social scale than himself, and prohibits a woman from exercising the
are never

same

liberty, is called the rule of

lomam.

Dr. Gundert derives

hair, or

anulomam and pratianulomam from anu, with

lomam (romam),

going with the hair or grain.

So pratilomam means going against the hair or grain. According to this usage, a Nayar woman, consorting
with a

man

of a higher caste, follows the hair, purifies

the blood, and raises the progeny in social estimation.

By
or

cohabitation with a
caste,

man
of

of a lower

division (clan)

she

is

guilty

pratilomam,

and,

if

the

difference of caste

were admittedly great, she would

to

be

turned out
being-

of her family,

prevent

the

whole

family
is

boycotted.

corollary

of this

custom

that a Nambutiri

own

children
or

by

his
a

Brahman father cannot touch his Nayar consort without bathing

marumakkathayam
family,

* Tarwad
descendants

taravad,

consisting

of

all

the

in the

female line of one

common

female ancestor.

303
afterwards to remove
pollution.

NAYAR
The
of children in
course,
to

the
their

marumakkatayam
Nambutiris.

family

belong,
caste.

mother's family, clan,

and

They

are Nayars, not

The Nayars
all

of North Malabar are held to

line,

be superior

along the
is

clan for clan, to those

of South Malabar, which

river

divided from the north by the

Korapuzha, seven miles north of Calicut, so that a

woman of North Malabar would not unite herself to a man of her own clan name of South Malabar. A Nayar woman of North Malabar cannot pass northward beyond
the frontier
;

she cannot pass the

hills to

the eastward

and she cannot cross the Korapuzha to the south. It is tabu. The women of South Malabar are similarly confined by custom, breach of which involves forfeiture of
caste.

To

this rule there

is

an exception, and of

late

years the world has come

in

touch with the Malayali,

who nowadays goes

and law
off
in

to the

University, studies medicine

the Presidency town (Madras), or even in far

England.

Women

of the relatively inferior Akattu

restrictions as
;

Charna clan are not under quite the same

so, in

regards residence as are those of most of the other clans

these days of free communications,

when Malayalis travel, and frequently reside far from their own country, they often prefer to select wives from this Akattu Charna
clan.

But the old order changeth everywhere, and now-

adays Malayalis

who

are in the

Government

service,

and

obliged to reside far

away from Malabar, and a few who

in the

have taken up their abode

Presidency town, have

wrenched themselves
the Akattu Charna.
possible exception to

free of the

bonds of custom, and

are of clans other than

taken with them their wives

who

The
it

interdiction to travel,

and the

in

the case of Akattu Charna

women, has been explained to me in this way. The Nayar woman observes pollution for three days during

NAVAR
menstruation.

304

While

in

her period, she

may

not eat or

drink with any other

member
it is

of the taravad,

and on the
is

fourth day she must be purified. as mattu (change), and

wlio, in

Purification

known

eftected

by the washerwoman,

some parts of South Malabar, is of the Mannan or Vannan caste, whose 7nHier is to wash for the Nayars and Nambutiris, but who is, as a rule the washerwoman of the Tiyan caste, giving her, after her bath, one of her own cloths to wear (mattu, change of raiment) instead of
the soiled cloth, which she takes
tion,

away

to wash.
in

Pollu-

which may come through a death

Until

the family,

through child-birth, or menstruation, must be removed

by mattu.
It

it

is

done, the

woman

is

out of caste.

must be done
that the

in

the right

way

at the right
social

moment,

under pain of the most unpleasant

consequences.

How

influential

rural

local

magnate wreaks
in

vengeance on a taravad by preventing the right person

giving mattu to the

women
greater

is

well

known

Malabar.

He
his

could not. with

disposal,
is

all

the sections of the Penal

injury.

inflict

Now
remain

Code at the Nayar

Malabar,

woman

said to feel compelled to

in

or within her of mattu.

caste

own

part of

it.

in

order to be within reach

My

informant

tells

me

that,

the

Vannan

being peculiar to

Malabar,

the

Nayar women
But
I

cannot go where these are not to be found, and that

mattu must be done by one of that

from

caste.

know,

my own

observation in

the most truly conservative

localities, in

Kurumbranad
and
I

for

example, where the Nayar

is

has a relative superiority, that the washerman

rule a

as a

Tiyan

cannot but think that the interdiction

in

has other roots than those involved

mattu.

It

does

not account for the superstition against crossing water,

which has

its

counterparts elsewhere in the world.

The

origin of the interdiction to cross the river southwards

A K A'l

rC

H A R X A N A A R.
\'

305
has been explained to

nAyar
command
was a

me

as emanating from a

of the Kolatirri Rajah in days

gone

by, when, the Arabs

having come

to the country about CaHcut, there

chance of the

women
is

being seized and taken as wives.

fanciful.

The

explanation

somewhat

The

prohibition

to cross the river to the northwards is supposed to have As bearing on this originated in much the same way.
point,
I

may mention

that the

Nayar women
in this

living to

the east of Calicut cannot cross the river backwater, and

come

into the town."

It

may be noted

connection

that the Paikara river on the Nilgiri

hills is

sacred to the

Todas, and,
to cross

for fear

of mishap from arousing the wrath

of the river-god, a pregnant

it.

Toda woman
it,

will not

venture

No Toda

will

use the river water for any

unless they have to

purpose, and they do not touch

ford
it.

the

They then walk through it, and, on reaching Even when they opposite bank, bow their heads.
their

walk over the Paikara bridge, they take

of the putkuli (body-cloth) as a

hands out
the

mark

of respect.

The complexity
Nayars
"
in

of

the

sub-divisions
is

among

North

Malabar

made

manifest

by the

following account thereof in the Gazetteer of Malabar.

There are exogamous sub-divisions (perhaps corre-

sponding to original tarwads) called kulams, and these

are grouped to form the sub-castes which are usually

endogamous.

It

is

quite impossible to attempt a com-

plete account of the scheme, but to give

some idea of

its

nature one example

detail
;

may be
will

taken, and dealt with in

some

and
as

for this

purpose the portion of Kurumbranad

serve.

known

Payyanad

This

is

the

country

between the Kottapuzha and Porapuzha

said to have

rivers,

and

is

been given by a Raja of Kurumbranad to a certain Ambadi Kovilagam Tamburatti (the stanam or
title

of the senior lady of the

V-20

Zamorin Raja's

family).

In

nAyar
this tract or
tains,

306

nad there were originally

six stanis or chief-

who

ruled,

under the Raja, with the assistance, or

subject to the constitutional control, of four assemblies of

Nayars
kulams.

called Kuttams.

Each

kiittam had

its

hereditary

president.

In

this

tract

there

are

seven groups of

The

highest includes twelve kulams, Vengalat,

Nelliot,

Pattillat,

\'iy)'ur,

Atunkudi,

Amayangalat,

Nelloli, Nilancheri, Rendillat, Pulliyani, Orakattcri,

and

Yenmeri.
of the ten

Of these, the Pattillat and Rendillat (members and members of the two illams or houses) affix
last

the
title

title

Adiyodi to their names, the

rest affix

three affix the

Nambiyar, and the

Nayar.

Of

the six

stanis already mentioned, three, with the title of Adiyodi,

belong to the V^engalat kulam, while two of the presidents of kuttams belonged to the Pattillat kulam.

The

younger members of the

It is

stani houses are called kidavu.

the duty of

women

of Viyyur

and Nelliot kulams to

join in the bridal procession of

members

of the \^en-

galat kulam, the former carrying lamps, and the latter

salvers containing flowers, while the Rendillat Adiyodis

same class. Pattillat Adiyodis and Orakatteri Nambiyars observe twelve days' pollution, while all the other kulams observe fifteen. The
furnish

cooks

to

the

second group consists of six kulams, Eravattur, AraEravattur (or half Eravattur), and Attikodan Nayars,

Tonderi Kidavus, Punnan Nambiyars, and Menokkis.

All

these

observe

fifteen

days' pollution.

The

third

group consists of three kulams, Taccholi to which the

remaining three stanis belong, Kotholi, and Kuruvattancheri.

All

afifix

Nayar

to

their names,

and observe

fifteen days'

pollution.

The

fourth group consists of

three kulams, Peruvanian Nambiyars, Chelladan Nayars,

and Vennapalan
days' pollution.

Nayars.

All

three

observe

fifteen

The name Peruvanian means

great or

307
principal oil-man
;

nAyar
the

and

it

is

duty of this caste to

present the
of his

Kurumbranad Raja with oil on the occasion The fifth group consists of the formal installation.
Mannangazhi, Paramchela, and Pallikara
all

three kulams,

Nayars,
of the

observing fifteen days' pollution.

class

member
castes)

first-named

has to place an amanapalaga

(the traditional seat of NambCidiris

for

and other high

Kurumbranad Raja to sit on at the time of his installation, while a member of the second has to The present him with a cloth on the same occasion. sixth group consists of four kiriyams named Patam,
the

Tulu, Manan, and Ottu respectively, and has the collective

name

of Ravari.

The seventh group

consists

of six kulams,

Kandon, Kannankodan, Kotta, Karumba,

Kundakollavan,
fifteen

and Panakadan Nayars. All observe days' pollution, and the women of these six
in

kulams have certain duties to perform

the purification of

connection with

women

of the Vengalat, Pattillat, and

Orakatteri kulams.
are a

Besides these seven groups, there

few other classes without internal sub-divisions.

class
is

One such

known
the

as Pappini Nayar.

A woman
woman
Another
belonging

of this class takes

part

of the

Brahmini
girls

(Nambissan)
to the

at the tali-kettu
in

kalyanam of

kulams included
the
funeral

the third group.

class called

Palattavan takes the place of the Attikurissi

Nayar

at

ceremonies

of the

same three

kulams."
In illustration of the custom of polyandry

among

the

Nayars of Malabar
extracts
it

in

by-gone days,

the

following

may be

quoted.

"On

the continent of India," the Rural, " polyandry

is

recorded

in Ellis' edition of

is still

said to be practiced in Orissa,

tribes in other parts.

the vision of Plato in

V-20 B

and among particular In Malayalam, as is well known, his ideal republic is more completely

NAYAR
realised,

30S
the

women among
number,

the

Nayars

not

being

restricted to family or

but, after she has

been
in

consecrated by the usual rites before the nuptial

fire,

which ceremony any

as

indifferent

person

may
being

officiate
in

the

representative

of her

husband,

her

intercourse with the other sex only restrained by her

inclinations
;

provided that the male with

whom
But
it

she

associates be of an equal or superior tribe.

must

be stated,

for the

glory of the female character, that,

notwithstanding the latitude thus given to the Nayattis,

and that they are thus

free will

left

to the guidance of their

own

and the play of

their

own

fancy (which in other

countries has not always been found the most efficient

check on the conduct of either

that they cohabit with
time.

sex),

it

rarely

happens

more than one person

existing

at the
is

same

Whenever

the

connexion

broken,

whether from incompatibility of temper, disgust, caprice,

or any of the thousand vexations by which from the
frailty

of nature

domestic happiness
seeks another
it

is

liable

to

be

disturbed,

the

woman
But

lover,

the

man

another mistress.
of paternity
off, is

mostly happens that the bond

here, as elsewhere, too strong to be shaken

and that the uninfluenced and uninterested union

of love,

when formed

in

youth, continues even in the

decline of age."
In a note on the

Nayars

in

the sixteenth century,

"

These Nairi having their wives common amongst themselves, and when any of them goe into the house of any of these women, he leaveth his sworde and target at the door, and the time that he is there, there dare not be any so
Caesar

Fredericke writes as follows.*

The Voyage and

Travell of

M.

Caesar Fredericke, Merchant of Venice, into

the East Indies and beyond the Indies (1563).

Translation.

Hakluyt Voyages,

V, 394-

309
hardie as to

NAyaR
The
king's children

come

into that house.

shall not inherite the

kingdom

after their father,

because

they hold this begotten of the king their father, but of some other

opinion, that perchance they were not

man, therefore they accept

of the blood
roiall, for

for

their king

one of the

sonnes of the king's sisters, or of

some other woman

that they be sure that they are of

the blood

roiall."

In his "

New

Account of the East

:

Indies,

(1727)"
said,

Hamilton wrote
very well,
for

"

The husbands,"

of

whom, he
in

there might be twelve, but no more at one time, "agree

they cohabit with

her

their

turns,

according to their priority of marriage, ten days more

or less according as they can fix a term

among themis

selves, and he that cohabits with her maintains her in

all

things necessary for his time, so that she

plenti-

fully

provided for by a constant circulation.

When

the

man

that

cohabits with her

goes into her house

he leaves his arms at the door, and none dare remove

them or enter the house on pain of death.

proves with child, she nominates
care
of
his
it

When
who
it,

she

its

father,

takes

education after she

has suckled

and

brought

to

walk or speak, but the children are never

but the
father's
sister's

heirs to their father's estate,

children are."

Writing

in the latter half of the "

it

eighteenth century,

Grose says * that

to a
is

is

among

the Nairsthat principally

prevails the strange custom of one wife being

common

number

in

which point the great power of custom

the co-tenants of the

seen from

its

rarely or never producing any jealousies

or quarrels

among
is

same woman.

Their number

not so

much

limited by any specific

* Travels to the East Indies.

nayar

310
it

law as by a kind of tacit convention,

scarcely ever

happening that
however,
is

it

exceeds

six or seven.

The woman,
for

under no obligation to admit above a single

less

attachment, though not

privilege to
its

respected
If

using her

utmost extent.
to the house

one of the husbands

is

happens
signals

to

come
at the

when she
is

employed

with another, he knows that

left

circumstance by certain
not come, and

door that his turn

departs very resignedly."

Writing about the same time, Sonnerat * says that " these Brahmans do not marry,
but have the privilege of enjoying
all

the Nairesses.

This privilege the Portuguese who were esteemed as a

great caste, obtained and preserved,
till

their

drunken-

ness and debauchery betrayed them into a commerce

with

all

sorts of

women.

The

follow'ing right

is

estab-

lished

by the customs of the country.

herself to
all

A woman

without

shame may abandon

inferior caste to her

men

wdio are not of an

own, because the children (notwiththey become

if

standing what Mr. de \'oltaire says) do not belong to

the father, but to the mother's brother
his legitimate heirs at their birth,
is
;

even of the crown

',

he

king."

In his
"

'

Voyages and Travels

Kerr writes

as follows, t

By

the laws of their country these

Nayres

cannot marry, so that no one has any certain or acknowl-

edged son or father

all

their children

being born of
or
four

mistresses, with each of

whom
day

three

Nayres
of

cohabit by agreement

among

themselves.
in his

Each one
to the

this cofraternity dwells a

turn with the joint

mistress, counting from

noon of one day

same

time of the next, after which he departs, and another

* Voyage to the Easl Indies, 1774 and 1781.
t R. Kerr.

General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels,

iSil,

History of the Discovery and Conquest of India by the Portuguese between the
years 1497 and 1525, from the original Portuguese of

Herman Lopes dc Caslaneda.

311

NAYAR
their time

comes

for the like time.

Thus they spend

without the care or trouble of wives and children, yet

maintain their mistresses well according to their rank.

Any one may

in like

forsake his mistress at his pleasure

and,

manner, the mistress

may

refuse admittance to

any one of her lovers when she pleases. These mistresses

are
all

gentlewomen of the Nayrc

caste,

and the Nayres,

Consider-

besides being prohibited from marrying, must not attach

themselves to any

woman

of a different rank.

ing that there are always several

men

attached to one

woman, the Nayres never look upon any of the children born of their mistresses as belonging to them, however
strong a resemblance

may

subsist,

and

all

inheritances

among

the Nayres go to their brothers, or the sons of

their sisters,

born of the same mothers,

all

relationship

being counted only by female consanguinity and descent.

This strange law prohibiting marriage was established

that

they might

have neither wives nor children on

whom
free

to fix their love

all

and attachment
to

and

that,

being

from

family cares, they might

more

willingly

devote themselves entirely

warlike

service."

The
to

term

son of ten fathers

to

is

used as a term of abuse

among Nayars

this day.*

Tipu Sultan

is

said

have issued the following proclamation

on the occasion of
since
it

to the Nayars,

his visit to Calicut in 1788.

"And,
to

is

practice with

you

for

one

woman

associate

with ten men, and you

leave your

mothers

and
less

sisters

unconstrained in their obscene practices, and

all

are thence
in

born

in

adultery, and are

more shamefield
;

your connections than the beasts of the

the rest of mankind." f
Law and Custom,
Ed. 1900.

hereby require you to forsake these

live like

sinful practices,

and

* ^\ igram, Malabar

t T. A. Kalyanakrishna Ai}ar,

Malabar Quart. Review,

II, l903.

NAYAR
As
to

312
the
I

present
c;ill

existence

or

non-existence

of

polyandry

must

recent writers into the witness-box.

"

The Rev.

S.

Mateer, Mr. Fawcett writes,*

informed

me

ten years ago

he was speaking of polyandry among the Nayars of Travancore that he had known an Instance
'

two women, four husbands to one, and two to the other. In a case where two brothers cohabited with one woman, and one was converted to
of six brothers keeping
Christianity,

the other brother

was indignant

at

the

Christian's refusal to live any longer in this condition.'

I

have not known an admitted instance of polyandry

amongst the Nayars of Malabar at the present day, but there is no doubt that, if it does not exist now (and I think it docs here and there), it certainly did not long ago." Mr. Gopal Panikkar says t that " to enforce this
social

upon the Nairs, the Brahmans made use of the powerful weapon of their aristocratic ascendancy in the country, and the Nairs readily submitted to Thus it came about that the the Brahman supremacy. custom of concubinage, so freely indulged in by the Brahmans with Nair women, obtained such firm hold upon the country that it has only been strengthened by the
edict

lapse of time.

At the present day there are

families,
it

especially in the interior of the district,

who

look upon

as an honour to be thus united with Brahmans.

But a

reaction has

begun

to take place against this feelings

and Brahman
in

alliances are invariably looked

down upon
Mr. Justice

respectable Nair tarwads.

in the

This reactionary feeling

took shape

Malabar Marriage Act."

:

K. Narayana Marar says

or to be

"

There

is

nothing strange

ashamed of

in

the fact that the Nayars were

if

originally of a stock that practiced polyandry, nor

the

op

cil.

f Malabar and

its

Folk, 1900.

XAYAR

1EA1ALE6.

313
practice continued
till

NAYAR

recently.

say

that,

among

the

Hamilton and Buchanan Nayars of Malabar, a woman

but
these
are

has

several

husbands,

not

brothers.

These travellers came to Malabar in the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century. There is no reason whatever to suppose that they were not just For I am not quite sure recording what they saw.
whether, even now, the practice
is

not lurking in some

country."
Lastly,

remote nooks and

Mr,

corners of the
follows.*
"

Wigram

writes as

Polyandry may now

be said to be dead, and, although the issue of a Nayar

marriaore are
still

children of their mother rather than

of their

father,

marriage

may

be defined as a contract
at will.
is

based

on mutual consent, and dissoluble

albeit

It

has been well said (by Mr, Logan) that nowhere

the

marriage
or

tie,

informal,
is

more

rigidly
:

observed
is
it

respected

than

it

in

Malabar
its

nowhere

more jealously guarded, or

avenged,"

neglect more savagely

In connection with the tali-kattu kalyanam,

or

tali-

tying marriage, Mr, Fawcett

this

writes that " the details of

parts of Malabar, but the

ceremony vary
in

in different
is

ceremony
formed
for

some form
this

essential,

and must be permust

resort, to the

every Nayar

girl before

she attains puberty."

I

For an account of
evidence of Mr.

ceremony,
R.

K.

Krishna

Menon

before the

Malabar Marriage Commission.! " The tali-kattu kalyanam is somewhat analogous

to

what a deva-dasi
royal families,

(dancing-girl) of other countries

(districts)

undergoes before she begins her profession.

Among

and those of certain Edaprabhus,

the Charna sect a
1882.

a Kshatriya, and
* Malabar

among

Nedungadi

is

Law and Custom,

t Report of the Malabar Marriage Commission, 1894.

NAYAi

314

invited to the girl's house at an auspicious hour appointed

for

the purpose,
ties a

and,

in

the presence of friends and

castemen.

tah (marriage

badge) round her neck,

and goes away

after receiving a certain fee for his trouble.

Among
member
fit

the other sects, the

horoscope of the

girl

is

examined along with those of her enangan (a recognised

of one's
is

own
the

class) families,

and the boy whose

is

horoscope

found to agree with hers

tie
tali,

marked out as a

person to

and a day

is

fixed for the tali-

tying ceremony by the astrologer, and information given

to the
family.

Karanavan *

(senior male in a tarwad) of the boy's

called ayaniOnu,

The

feast is

and the boy

is

thenceforth called

Manavalan

or

Pillai

(bridegroom).
is

From

the house in which the Manavalan

is

entertained a

procession

formed, preceded by

men

with swords, and

In the

shields shouting a kind of war-cry.

meantime

a procession starts from the

girl's

house,

with similar

men and
to

cries,

and headed by a member of her tarwad,

after

meet the other procession, and,

to the

meeting the
house.

Manavalan, he escorts him

girl's

After
is

entering the booth erected for the purpose, he

con-

ducted to a seat of honour, and his

brother of the
girl,

feet are

washed by the

who

receives a pair of cloths.

The

Manavalan

is

then taken to the centre of the booth, where

bamboo
seated

mats, carpets and white cloths are spread, and

there.

The

brother

of the

girl

then carries

her from

inside

the house, and, after going round the

at

booth three times, places her

Manavalan.
cloths tied

the

left

side of the

The

father

of the girl then

to the pair,

presents

new
this

inakambli (blanket)

and with

new The
*

cloth (called

manthravadi) they change their dress.

girl's

wife of the
rights

Karanavan of the

tarwad,
dcall

if

she be

The

and obligations of Karanavans are

Custom, 3rd edition, 1905.

fully

with by Moore,

Malabar

Law and

315
of the

NAYAR
girl

same
(a

caste,

then decorates the

by putting

on anklets,
Elayath
to

etc.

The

purohit (officiating priest) called

tali

low class of Brahmans) then gives the

Manavalan, and the family astrologer shouts muhurtham (auspicious hour), and the Manavalan,
the

putting his sword on the lap, ties the

tali

round the
hold

neck of the

girl,

who

is

then required
hand.

to

an

arrow and a
a Brahmani
couple.

lookina--o;lass in her

In rich families

sings certain songs intended to bless the

In ordinary families

who cannot procure

carried by

her

presence, a Nayar, versed in songs, performs the office.

The boy and

girl

are then
in

enangans to

a decorated apartment

the inner part of the house,

where they are required

tion for three days.

to

remain under a sort of polluthe fourth day they bathe in

or river, holding each

On

some neighbouring tank (pond)

other's hands.

After changing their clothes they

come

home, preceded by a procession.

sion,

Tom-toms

(native

drums) and elephants usually form part of the proces-

and turmeric water

all

is

sprinkled.

When

they come
is

home,

doors of the house are shut, and the Manavalan

required to force them open.

He

then enters the house,

and takes

his seat in the

northern wing thereof.

girl

The aunt

and female friends of the

sweetmeats to the couple.

then approach, and give

girl

The

then serves food to the

boy, and, after taking their meal together from the

leaf,

same

they proceed to the booth, where a cloth

is

severed

into

two
girl

parts,

and each part given

severing
of
" " is

and

separately in

Manavalan the presence of enangans and

to the

friends.

The

the

cloth

is

supposed
the

to

constitute

a divorce."

The

tearing

of

cloth,"

Mr. Fawcett writes,

confined to South Malabar.

These are the which is that,

essentials of the ceremony, an adjunct to

in spite

of the divorce, the girl observes

'

nAyar

316

death pollution when her Manavalan

Manavalan may tie the tali during the same ceremony or

The same on any number of girls,

dies.

may

be old or young.

He

is

any other time, and he often an elderly holy Brahat

man, who receives a small present for his services. The girl may remove the tali, if she likes, after the fourth day. In some parts of Malabar there is no doubt that the

man who
to

performs the role of Manavalan

girl,

is

considered
it

have some right to the

but
is

in

such case

has

been already considered that he

into

a proper

man

to enter

sambandham with her. Of the tali-kattu kalyanam

is

in

Malabar, the following

detailed account, mainly furnished by an Urali

Calicut,

Nayar of
"

given

in

the Gazetteer of Malabar.

An

auspicious time has to be selected for the purpose, and

the preliminary consultation of the astrologer
is

in itself

the occasion of a family gathering.

The Manavalan
a small

or

quasi-bridegroom
actual

is

chosen at the same time.

(booths),

For the
one
are

kalyanam, two pandals

inside a large one, are erected in front of the padinhatta

macchu

or central

room of the western wing.

They

decorated with cloth, garlands, lamps and palm leaves,

and the pillars should be of areca palm cut by an Asari on Sunday, Monday, or Wednesday. The first day's ceremonies open with a morning visit to the temple,

where the

officiating

Brahman pours water

sanctified

by

mantrams (religious formulae), and the addition of leaves of mango, peepul and darbha, over the girl's head. This kalasam maduga. The girl then goes home, rite is called and is taken to the macchu, where a hanging lamp
with
five
all

wicks

is

lighted.

This should be kept alight

during

the days of the kalyanam.

The

girl sits
is

on a

piece of pala

[Alstonia scholaris) wood, which

is

called

a mana.

She

elaborately adorned, and

some

castes

317
consider a coral

NAYAR
essential

necklace an

In her right
mirror),

hand she holds a valkannadi (brass hand

her
left

and

in

a charakkal (a highly ornate arrow).

In front of

the girl are placed, in addition to the five-wicked lamp

and nirachaveppu, a metal dish or talam of parched rice, and the eight lucky things known as ashtamangalyam.
usually

A
of

woman, termed Brahmini or Pushpini, the Nambissan caste, sits facing her on a

three-legged stool (pidam), and renders appropriate and

lengthy songs, at the close of which she scatters rice

About midday there is a feast, and in the evening songs in the macchu are repeated. Next morning, the ceremonial in the macchu is repeated for the third time, after which the paraphernalia are removed to the
over her.
nearest tank or to the east of the household well, where

the Pushpini sings once more, goes through the form of

making the
and jump

girl's toilet,

and

ties

a cocoanut frond round

girl

each of her wrists (kappola).

The

has then to rise

over a kindi (vessel) of water with an unhusked

it

cocoanut placed on the top, overturning

the third time.

The

party then proceed to the pandal, two

girl as

men

holding

a scarlet cloth over the

a canopy, and a Chaliyan

(weaver) brings two cloths (kodi vastiram), which the

girl

puts on.
is

In the evening,

the previous day's cere-

monial

repeated in the macchu.

it is

The

third

day

is

the most important, and the ceremony

is

then that the central act of

performed.

For

this

the girl

sits

in
is

the inner pandal richly adorned.

In

some cases she

carried from the house to the pandal by her karnavan or

brother,

who makes

number

of pradakshinams round

the pandal (usually 3 or 7) before he places her in her

seat.

Before the

girl

are the various objects already

ditties

specified,

and the hymeneal

of

the

Pushpini

open the proceedings.

At the auspicious moment the

nAyar
Manavalan

318
arrives in rich attire.

He

is

often

preceded

by a sort of body guard with sword and shield who utter a curious kind of cry, and is met at the gate of the girl's
house by a bevy of matrons with lamps and salvers
decorated with flowers and
lights, called talams.

A man
girl's

of the girl's family washes his feet, and he takes his seat
in

the pandal on the girl's right.

Sometimes the

father at this stage presents

mantrokodi) to the
girl's

pair,

new cloths (mantravadi or who at once don them. The

a small round plate of gold
bit,

father takes the

tali,

about the size of a two-anna

with a hole at the top, pays him for

it,

from the goldsmith

who

is

in waiting,

and gives

it

to the

Manavalan.

of the girl asks the astrologer thrice

The karnavan or father if the moment has

girl's

arrived, and, as he signifies his assent the third time, the

Manavalan

ties

the

tali

round the

neck amidst the

carries the girl

shouts of those present.

The Manavalan

indoors to the macchu, and feasting brings the day to

a close.

Tom-toming and other music

and the women
in

are of course

incessant accompaniments throughout as on other festal

occasions,

attendance keep

up a

curious kind of whistling, called kurava, beating their

lips

with their fingers.

in

On

the

fourth

day,

girl

and

Manavalan go

procession to the temple richly dressed.

The
girl

boy, carrying
If

some

sort of

sword and

shield,

heads

the party.

the family be one of position, he and the

must be mounted on an elephant. Offerings are made

and presents
to the

to the deity,

Brahmans.

They then

return home, and, as they enter the house, the Manavalan

who

brings up the rear

is

pelted by the boys of the party

with plantains, which he wards off with his shield.

other cases, he
the door open.
is

In

expected to make a pretence of forcing

These two usages are no doubt

to be

classed with those marriage ceremonies which take the

319

NAyaR

form of a contest between the bridegroom and the bride's relatives, and which are symbolic survivals of marriage

by capture.

The Manavalan and

the girl next partake

of food together in the inner pandal

a proceeding which
first

obviously corresponds to the ceremonious

meal of a

newly-married couple.
entertained.

The assembled
Kovilagans

guests are lavishly

The

chief

and big
or

Nayar

houses

will feed

1,000

Brahmans

as well as their

own

relations,

and spend

anything up to ten

fifteen

thousand rupees on the ceremony."

Concerning the tali-kettu ceremony

in

Travancore
" After the
for this

Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes as age of eleven, a Nayar

ceremony, though,
in
girl

follows.

becomes too old

it

some

rare instances,

is

celebrated

after a girl attains her age.

As among
e.g.,

other castes, ages

seven, nine, and

represented by an odd number,

eleven, have a peculiar auspiciousness attached to them.

Any number

of girls, even up to a dozen,

may go through
include infants

the ceremony at one time, and they

may

under one year

an

arrangement prompted by consicontracted as

derations of economy, and rendered possible by the fact

that no civil or religious right or liability
is

between the
the tarwad
his default
'

parties.

The duty
'

of getting the girls ot

in

married

de\'olvcs

on the karanavan, or

on the eldest brother, the

arrived.

father's obligation
for the

being discharged by informing him that the time

ceremony has
pikkar,

The masters of

the ceremonies at

a Nayar tali-kettu in Travancore are called

i.e.,

Machcham-

men

in the village,

to that of the tarwad in

whose social status is equal which the ceremony is to be

celebrated.

pikkar, the

At a preliminary meeting of the Machchamnumber of girls for whom the ceremony is to

are examined by the village

be performed, the bridegrooms, and other details are

settled.

The horoscopes

NAYAR
astrologer,

320

and those youths

girls,

in

the tarwads

who have The

passed the age of eighteen, and whose horoscopes agree

with those of the
ola (palm-leaf)
his

are declared to be eligible.

on which the Kaniyan (astrologer) writes

called

decision

is

the
it

muhurta charutu, and the

is

individual

who

receives
is

from him

obliged to see that

in

the ceremony

performed on an auspicious day

next important item
is

the

near future.

The
in

the fixing of a

wooden post
courtyard.

the south-west corner or kannimula of the

At the construction of the pandal (booth)

aid.

the Pidakakkar or villagers render substantial

The
the
is

mandapa

is

decorated with ears of corn, and hence called

It
is

katirmandapa.

also called mullapandal.

On
is

night of the previous day the kalati or Brahman's song

sung.

sumptuous banquet,

called ayaniunnu,

given

at the girl's

house to the party of the young man.

The

ceremony commences with the bridegroom washing his feet, and taking his seat within the pandal. The girl
meanwhile bathes, worships the household deity, and is dressed in new cloths and adorned with costly ornaments. A Brahman woman ties a thread round the girl's left
wrist,

and sings a song called Subhadraveli, which deals

with the marriage by capture of Subhadra by Arjuna.

Then, on the invitation of the girl's mother, who throws a garland round his neck, the bridegroom goes in procession, riding on an elephant, or on foot. The girl's
brother
is

waiting to receive
is

him

at

the

pandal.

A
if

leading villager
to to

presented with some money, as

for the permission

recompense him

granted by him
within
the

commence

the ceremony.
east,

The

girl sits

mandapa, facing the

bridegroom, on his
receives the
ties
it

with her eyes closed.

sits

The
then

arrival,

on her

right.

He

minnu (ornament) from the

girl's

Ilayatu priest,
is

and

round the

neck.

song

sung called

XAVAR JEW ELK Y.

321

NAYAR
uncle.
If

ammachampattu, or the song of the maternal

there are several brides, they
in
sit in

a row, each holding

her

hand an arrow and a looking-glass, and the

in the

ornaments are tied on their necks

ages.

order of their
is

Unless enangans are employed, there

tali-tier,

usually
girls.

only one

whatever may be the number of

In cases where, owing to poverty, the expenses of the ceremony cannot be borne, it is simply performed in
front of a

Brahman

temple, or in the pandaramatam, or

In

house of the village chieftain.

core taluks the girl removes her of the
tali-tier's

many North Travanas soon as she hears

tali

death."

It

is

noted by the Rev. S.

Mateer

* that

" a

Nair

girl

of Travancore must get

married with the

reproach

tali

before the age of eleven to avoid

from

friends

and

neighbours.

In

case

of

need a sword may even be made to represent a bridegroom." Sometimes, when a family is poor, the girl's

mother makes an
the

idol

of clay, adorns
tali in

it

with flowers,

and invests her daughter with the

idol.

the presence of

In an account of the

tali-kettu ceremony,

in

the

Cochin Census Report, 1901, it is stated that " the celebration of the ceremony is costly, and advantage is therefore
taken of a single occasion
years, at
in the

course of ten or twelve

which

all girls in

a family, irrespective of their

all

ages, and,

when

parties agree,

girls

belonging to

families that observe death pollution

between one another

go through the ceremony.

shed, which
is

The ceremony opens with

the fixing of a post for the construction of a pandal 01

beautifully decorated with cloth, pictures

and festoons.
invited,

The male members

to a feast followed

of the village

are

and treated

by the distribution

* Journ. Anthrop.

Inst,,

XII, 1883,

V-2I

NAYAR
of pan-supari.

^2 2

Every time that a marriage ceremony is celebrated, a member of the family visits His Highness the Raja with presents, and solicits his permission for the celebration. Such presents are often made to the

Nambudri Jenmis
privileges,

(landlords),
It

by their tenants, and by

castes attached to illams.

may be

noted that certain

such as sitting on a grass mat, having an

etc.,

elephant procession, drumming, firing of pop-guns,

have often
marriage

to be obtained
itself

from the Ruler of the State.

The marriage

begins with the procession to the

the
eight

pandal

with

auspicious

things

(ashtamangalyam) and pattiniruththal (seating

at the latter of

for song),

which a Brahmini or Pushpini sings certain

texts.

songs based upon suitable Puranic

other female

The

girls

and

members of the family, dressed in gay attire and decked with costly ornaments, come out in procession to the pandal, where the Pushpini sings, with

tom-toms and the

three,
five,

firing of

pop-guns

at intervals.

After

or seven rounds of this, a cutting of the

in a brass pot
is

jasmine placed
temple, where

carried on an elephant

by the Elayad or family

it

priest to the nearest

Bhagavati

is

planted on the night previous to the

ceremonial day
shouts of
auspicious

with tom-toms, fireworks, and joyous

before the
cutting
is

men and women. A few hours moment for the ceremony, this
Before the
tali
is

brought back.

tied,

the girls are

brought out of the room, and, either from the ground

itself or

from a raised platform, beautifully decorated

etc.,

with festoons,
bridegroom,

are

made

to worship the sun.

The
then

a Tirumulpad

or

an

enangan,

is

brought into the house with sword in hand, with tomAt the gate toms, firing of pop-guns, and shouts of joy.
he
is

received by a few female

in their hands,

members with

ashta-

mangalyam

and seated on a bench or

323
stool
in

NAYAR

the pandal.

male member of the family,

girl,

generally a brother or maternal uncle of the

washes

the feet of the bridegroom.

The

girls are

covered with

new

cloths of cotton or silk,

off

and brought

into the pandal,

and seated screened

distribution of

from one another.

After the

money

presents to the

Brahmans and the

or thin plate of

Elayad, the latter hands over the

tali,

gold shaped like the leaf of aswatha {Fiats religiosa),

and tacked on to a string, to the Tirumulpad, who ties it round the neck of the girl. A single Tirumulpad often ties the tali round the neck of two, three, or four girls.

He
The

is

given one to eight rupees per

tali
is

girl for so doing.

girl.
it is

Sometimes the

tied

by the mother of the

all

retention of the

tali is

not at

obligatory, nay

seldom worn or taken care of after the ceremony.

circumstances
clearly

These

show
is

the

purely

ceremonial

character of this form of marriage.

or

The Karamel Asan,

this

headman
is

of the village,

an important factor on

occasion.

In a conspicuous part of the marriage pandal,

cot,

he

provided with a seat on a

on which a grass
permission

mat, a black blanket, and white cloth are spread one

over the other.

is

Before the

tali

is

tied, his

solicited for the

4, 8,

performance of the ceremony.

He
is

is

paid
girl,

i6,

32 or 64 puthans (a puthan

10 pies) per

according to the means of the family.

rice,

He
and

also
is

given

curry
at

stuff,

and pan-supari.
on
the

Rose-water

sprinkled

intervals

males

females

assembled on the occasion.

With

the distribution of

pan-supari, scented sandal paste and jasmine flowers to

the females of the village and wives of relatives and

friends,

who

are invited for the occasion, these guests

return to their homes.

The male members, one

some
places,

or two

from each family

in

the village, are then treated to a

sumptuous

feast.

In

where the Enangu

V-21 B

nAyar
system prevails,
all

324

members

of such families, both male

and female, are also provided with meals.

rice

On

the third

day, the villagers are again entertained to a luncheon of

and milk pudding, and on the fourth day the

girls

are taken out in procession for worship at the nearest

temple amidst tom-toms and shouting. After this a feast is held, at which friends, relatives, and villagers
are eiven a rich meal.

With the usual

distribution of

pan-supari, sandal and flowers, the invited guests depart.

Presents, chiefly in money, are

made

to the eldest
relatives

male

member
villagers,

of the

family

by friends and

and
the

and with

this the
first

ceremony
is

closes.

From

time of fixing the

of the
tali,

pole for the pandal to the tying

in

the village astrologer

attendance on

all

ceremonial occasions, as he has to pronounce the auspicious

moment

for the

performance of each item.

During

the four days of the marriage, entertainments, such as

Kathakali drama or Ottan Tullal,

are very

When

a family can

ill-aff"ord

to celebrate

common. the ceremony

on any grand
belong to
Is

scale, the girls are

taken to the nearest

if

temple, or to the illam of a

Nambudri,

they happen to
tali

sub-divisions attached to illams, and the

tied with little or

no feasting and merriment.

very poor

In the
tie

northern taluks,
the
tali

the

people sometimes

before the Trikkakkarappan on the

Tiruvonam
ceremony

day."

An
is

interesting account of the tali-kettu

given by Duarte Barbosa,

who

writes as follows.*

" After they are ten or twelve years old or more, their

mothers perform a marriage ceremony

for

them

in

this

They advise the relations and friends that manner. they may come to do honour to their daughters, and they
* op,
cii.

325

nAyar

beg some of their relations and friends to marry these It must be said that they daughters, and they do so. some gold jewel made, which will contain half a have
ducat of gold, a
hole
it

little

shorter than the tag of lace, with a

it,

in

the middle passing through

silk
;

and they string

girl

on a thread of white

and the mother of the

stands with her daughter very

much

dressed out, and

number And this relation or friend of hers comes of people. with much earnestness, and there performs the ceremony
entertaining her with music and singing, and a

of marriage, as though he married her, and they throw a

gold chain round the necks of both of them together,

and he puts the above mentioned jewel round her neck, which she always has to wear as a sign that she may

now do what she

to her

pleases.

And

the bridegroom leaves

her and goes away without touching her nor more to say

not so,

on account of being her he may remain with her

if

relation
if

and,
it,

if

he

is
is

he wish
it.

but he

not bound to do so

he do not desire

And

from

that time forward the mother goes begging some young

men
it

to deflower the girl, for

among themselves they hold

an unclean thing and almost a disgrace to deflower

women."

The
of the

tali-kettu

ceremony

is

referred to

by Kerr, who,

in his translation of

Castaneda, states that " these sisters

and other kings of Malabar, have handsome allowances to live upon and, when any of them
Zamorin,
;

reaches the age of ten, their kindred send for a young

man

of the

Nayar

caste out of the kingdom,

and give him

virgin
;

presents to induce him to initiate the

young

after

which he hangs a jewel round her neck, which she wears

all

the rest of her

life,

as a token that she

is

now

at

liberty to dispose of herself to

anyone she pleases as long

as she lives."

NAYAR
The

;26
opinion was expressed by Mr. (now Sir Henry)

Winterbotham, one of the Malabar Marriage Commissioners, that the

Brahman

tah-tier

was a

relic

of the time
first

when
and
it

the Nambutiris were entitled to the

fruits,

was considered the high privilege of every Nayar maid to be introduced by them to womanhood. In this

connection, reference

may be made
Indies',

to Hamilton's
it

'

New

Account of the East

where

is

stated that

"when
her,

the Zamorin marries, he must not cohabit with

till

his bride

the Nambudri, or chief priest, has enjoyed

if

and

he,

he pleases,

may have

three nights of her

company, because the

first fruits

of her nuptials must be

an holy oblation to the god she worships.

And some

of

the nobles are so complaisant as to allow the clergy the

same

tribute,

but the

common

people cannot have that

compliment paid to them, but are forced to supply the

priests' places

themselves,"

Of
some

those

who gave evidence

it

before

the

Malabar

Commission, some thought the tali-kettu was a marriage,

not.

Others called
a sham

mock
a

marriage, a formal

marriage,

marriage,

fictitious

marriage,

marriage sacrament, the preliminary part of marriage, a

meaningless ceremony, an empty form, a ridiculous
farce,

an incongruous custom, a waste of money, and a device

for

becoming involved
'*

in debt.

"While," the report

still

states,

a small minority of strict conservatives

is

maintain
to confer

that the tali-kettu

a real marriage intended

on the bridegroom a right to cohabit with the bride, an

immense majority describe

origin

it

as a fictitious marriage, the

to

of which they are at a loss

explain.

And

another large section tender the explanation accepted by

our President (Sir T. Muttusami Aiyar) that,

or other,
it

in

some way

is

an essential caste observance preliminary

to the forming of sexual relations."

32 7
In a recent note,

NAYAR
:

Mr. K. Kannan Nayar writes *

"Almost every Nayar officer in when applying for leave on account

of his daughter or niece, states

Government employ,
of the kettukallianam
application that he

in his

has to attend to the

is

marriage of the
'

girl.

The ceremony
in

generally mentioned as marriage even

the letters
. .

of invitation sent by
.

Nayar gentlemen

in

these days.

This ceremony

is

not intended even for the betrothal

is

of the girl to a

particular man, but

one instituted

under Brahman influence as an important kriya (sacrament) antecedent to marriage,

status of
is

and

intended, as
girl

the

popular saying indicates, for dubbing the

with the

Amma,

woman

fit

to be married.

Tali-kettiu

become an
In
L.

Amma ayi, which means a Amma when her tali-tying ceremony

The saying woman has

is

over."

summing up the evidence collected by him, Mr. Moore states t that it seems to prove beyond all reasonall

able doubt that " from the sixteenth century at

events,

and up

to the early portion of the nineteenth century,

in families

the relations between the sexes

governed by
it

marumakkattayam were
possible to imagine.

of as loose a description as

is

The tali-kettu kalyanam,

introduced

by the Brahmans, brought about no improvement, and

indeed in
all

probability

made matters much worse by

giving a quasi-religious sanction to a fictitious marriage,

which bears an unpleasant resemblance to the sham marriage ceremonies performed among certain inferior
castes elsewhere as a cloak for prostitution.

As

years

passed,

some time about the opening of the nineteenth

century, the Kerala

Mahatmyam and
by

Keralolpathi were

concocted,

probably

Nambudris,

and

false

and
the

pernicious doctrines as to the obligations laid on

* Malabar Quart. Review, VII,

3,

190b.

t Op.

cit.

nAyar

328

Nayars by divine law to administer to the lust of the Nambudris were disseminated abroad. The better
classes

among

the Nayars revolted against the degrad-

ing custom thus established, and a custom sprang up,

especially in

North Malabar, of making sambandham a

formal contract, approved and sanctioned

more or
the

less

by the karnavan (senior male) of the tarwad to which

lady

belonged,

and

celebrated

with

elaborate

ceremony under the pudamuri form. That there was nothing analogous to the pudamuri prevalent in Malabar
from A.D. 1550 to 1800 may, I think, be fairly presumed from the absence of all allusion to it in the works of
the various

European
a

writers."

According to Act IV,

Madras, 1896, sambandham means an alliance between

woman, by reason of which they in accordance with the custom of the community to which they belong, or either of them belongs, cohabit or intend to
a
cohabit as husband and wife.

man and

Of sambandham the following account was given by Mr. Chandu Menon to the Malabar Marriage Com" The variations of the sambandham are the mission.
pudamuri, vastradanam, uzhamporukkuka, vitaram kayaruka,
etc.,

which are

local expressions hardly

understood

beyond the

localities in

which they are used, but there

would be hardly a Malaiyali who would not readily understand what is meant by sambandham tudanguga (to
begin sambandham).
*

The meaning

of this phrase, which

means to marry,' is understood throughout Keralam in the same way, and there can be no ambiguity or mistake

sambandham is the principal word denoting marriage among marumakkatayam Nayars. [Sambandhakaran is now the common term for
about
it.

It is

thus found that

husband.]

It

will also
facts,

be found, on a close and careful

examination of

that the principal features of this

329

NAYAR

sambandham ceremony all over Keralam are in the main the same. As there are different local names denoting marriage, so there may be found local variations in the
performance of the ceremony.
are more or
tion,
less

But the general features

the same.

For

instance, the

examina-

prior to the betrothal, of the horoscopes of the

bride and bridegroom to ascertain whether their stars

agree astrologically

the appointment of an auspicious

day
at

for the celebration of the

ceremony
;

the usual hour

which the ceremony takes place

the presentation
;

of

danam

(gifts) to

Brahmans
and

sumptuous banquet
are
all

the

meeting of the

bride

bridegroom,
in

features

which are invariably found

well-conducted samalike.

bandhams
would

in all parts of
I

Keralam

But here

state that

should not be understood as saying

that each and every one of the formalities above referred to are

gone through
;

at all

sambandhams among
state that they
if

respectable Nayars

and

would further
at

ought to be gone through

parties wish to

every sambandham,
to the

the

marry according

custom of the

country.

would now

briefly refer to the local varia-

tions to be found in the

ceremony of the sambandham,

to certain
I

and also the particular incidents attached

forms of sambandham
scribe the
in

South Malabar.

shall

dein

pudamuri or vastradanam as celebrated

differ

North Malabar, and then show how the other forms of

sambandham
bandham,
I

from

it.

Of all

the forms of sam-

consider the pudamuri the most solemn and

the most fashionable in North Malabar.

The

prelimi-

nary ceremony

in

every pudamuri

is

the examination

of the horoscopes of the bride and bridegroom by an

astrologer.
in

This takes place

in

the house of the bride,

the presence of the relations of the bride and bride-

groom.

The

astrologer, after examination, writes

down

NAYAR

330
leaf,

the results of his ceilculations on a piece of palmyra

with his opinion as to the fitness or otherwise of the match,

and hands

it

over to the bridegroom's relations.

is

If

the

horoscopes agree, a day

then and there fixed for the

celebration of the marriage.

This date
leaf),

is

also written
is

down on two
handed over

pieces ofcadjan (palm

to the bride's

one of which

Karanavan, and the other

to the bridegroom's relations.

The

astrologer and the

in

bridegroom's party are then feasted

the bride's house,

in

and the former also receives presents

the shape of

money
is

or cloth.

This

preliminary
all

ceremony,
in
is

invariably
is

performed at

pudamuris

which North

Malabar,
in

called

pudamuri kurikkal, but

unknown

South Malabar.

Some

three or four days prior to

the date fixed for the celebration of the pudamuri, the

bridegroom
to

Karanavans and elders in caste, obtain formal leave to marry. The bridegroom on
visits his

such occasion presents his elders with betel and nuts,

and obtains their formal sanction to the wedding. On the day appointed, the bridegroom proceeds after sunset
to the house of the bride,
his friends.

accompanied by a number of

He

goes

in procession,

and

is

received at

the gate of the house by the bride's party, and con-

ducted with his friends to seats provided

or southern hall of the house.
distributes

in the tekkini

There the bridegroom

or

presents

(danam)

money

gifts

to

the

Brahmans assembled. After this, the whole party is treated to a sumptuous banquet. It is now time for the
astrologer to appear, and announce the auspicious hour
fixed.

He

does

it

accordingly, and receives his dues.

The bridegroom

is

then taken by one of his friends to the

padinhatta or principal room of the house.

The
nuts.

bride-

groom's party has, of course,

quantity of

brought with

them a

new

cloths,

and betel leaves and

The

33^
cloths

NAYAR
room
of the

are

placed

in

the western
all

house

(padinhatta), in

which

religious

and other important

This room

household ceremonies are usually performed.

will

be decorated, and turned into a bed-room for the

occasion.

There

will

be placed

in the

room a number of

lighted lamps, and ashtamangalyam, which consists of

eight

articles
rice,

symbolical

of

mangalyam or marriage.
rice),

These are

paddy (unhusked
an arrow,
fire,

the tender leaves

of cocoanut

trees,

a looking-glass,

a well-

washed
cheppu.

cloth,

burning

and a small round box called

These will be found placed on the floor of the room as the bridegroom enters it. The bridegroom with his groomsman enters the room through the eastern door. The bride, dressed in rich cloths and bedecked with jewels, enters the room through the western door, accompanied by her aunt or some other
elderly lady of her
east,

family.

The

bride

stands

facing
in front

with the ashtamangalyam and lit-up lamps

of her.

The groomsman

then hands over to the bride-

groom a few pieces of new cloth, and the bridegroom puts them into the hands of the bride. This being done,
the elderly lady
rice

who accompanied

the bride sprinkles

over the lamps and the head and shoulders of the

bride and bridegroom,

who immediately

leaves the room,

as he has to perform another duty.

At the tekkini or

southern

hall,

he now presents his elders and friends with

Betel and nuts are also

cakes, and betel leaf and nuts.

given to

all

the persons assembled at the place.

After

the departure of the guests, the bridegroom

retires to the

bed-room with the bride. or salkaram ceremony

where
there
is

Next morning, the vettilakettu follows, and the bridegroom's

in

female relations take the bride to the husband's house,

feasting

honour

of the
is

occasion.

Uzhamporukkuka

or vidaram kayaral

a peculiar form

nAyar

332
It will

of marriage in North Malabar.

be seen from the

is

description given above that the pudamuri

necessarily

a costly ceremony, and

costly

many people

resort to the less

ceremony of uzhamporukkuka or vidaram kayaral. The features of this ceremony are to a certain extent the same as pudamuri, but it is celebrated on a smaller scale.

There

is

no cloth-giving ceremony.

confined to the relations of the couple.

incident of this form of marriage
is

The feasting is The particular

not permitted to

that the husband

is

should

visit

the wife in her house, and

take her to his house, unless and until he celebrates the

regular pudamuri ceremony.
to
in

This rule

is

strictly

adhered

North Malabar, and instances in which the husband and wife joined by the uzhamporukkuka ceremony, and with grown-up children as the issue of such marriage, undergo the pudamuri ceremony some fifteen or twenty years after uzhamporukkuka, in order to enable
the husband to take the wife to his house, are
to

known
or most

me

personally.

The sambandham

of South Malabar,
all

and the kidakkora kalyanam of Palghat have

cloths.

of the incidents of pudamuri, except the presenting of

Here money

is

substituted for cloths, and the

other ceremonies are more or less the same.

also salkaram

There

is

ceremony wanting

in

South Malabar, as

the wives are not at once taken to the husband's house

after marriage."

In connection with the following note by Mr. C. P.

Raman Menon on sambandham among

Charna or Akathithaparisha
states that "
(inside clan),
in

the

Akattu

Mr. Fawcett
place that the

my

informant says

the

first

sambandham with a woman until he is thirty. Now-a-days, when change is running wild, the man is often much less. In North Malabar, which is much more conservative than the south, it was,

man

should not enter into

335
however,

NAYAR
sambandham was
writes,

my

experience

that

rare

on the side of the man before twenty-seven."

Karanavan," Mr.
choice to the

Raman Menon

"and the

"The women

of his household choose the bride, and communicate their

intending bridegroom through a third

not, dare not

party

they

may

speak personally to him

in the matter.

He

approves.
if

The

bride's people

are
is

informally consulted, and,

sent
for,

they agree, the astrologer

and examines the horoscopes of both parties

to the intended union.

As

a matter of course these are

found to agree, and the astrologer fixes a day for the

sambandham ceremony.
place,

few days before this takes

visit

two or three women of the bridegroom's house

the bride, intimating beforehand that they are coming.

There they are well treated with food and sweetmeats,

and,

when on

the point of leaving,

they inform the

senior female that the bridegroom (naming him) wishes

to

have sambandham with

is

....

(naming her), and

such and such a day

auspicious for the ceremony.

The

proposal

is

accepted with pleasure, and the party

Prepara-

from the bridegroom's house returns home.

tions for feasting are

made

in

the house of the bride, as

well as in that of the bridegroom on the appointed day.

To

the former

all

relations are invited for the evening,

and to the

latter

a few friends

who

are

much

of the same
at

age as the bridegroom are invited to partake of food

7 or 8 P.M.,

and accompany him

to the

bride's house.

After eating they escort him, servants carrying betel

leaves (one or two hundred according to the

means

of the

taravad), areca nuts and tobacco, to be given to the bride's

household,

and which
bride's

are
is

distributed
far

to

the guests.

When
makes

the

house

away, the bridegroom

awhile, and are again

his procession thither

from a neighbouring house.

sit

Arrived at the bride's house, they

NAYAR

334

served with food, after which they are conducted to a

room, where betel and other chewinor

brass or silver plates called thalam.

stuff

is

placed on
over,
bridal

The chewing
all

sweetmeats are served, and then

chamber, where the

go

to the

women

of the house and others are

assembled with the bride, who, overcome with shyness,

Here again the bridegroom and his party go through more chewing, while they chat with the women. After a while the men withdraw, wishing the couple all happiness, and then the women,
hides herself behind the others.

departing one by one, leave the couple alone, one of

them shutting the door from the outside. The Pattar Brahmans always collect on these occasions, and receive small presents (dakshina) of two to four annas each, with
betel leaves

and areca nuts from the bridegroom, and

bride.

sometimes from the

A few who are invited

receive

their dakshina in the bridal chamber, the others outside.

Those of the bridegroom's party who live far away are given sleeping accommodation at the bride's house [in a Nayar house the sleeping rooms of the men and women About daybreak are at different ends of the house]. next morning the bridegroom leaves the house with his
party, leaving

under

his pillow 8,

i6,

32, or 64 rupees,

according to his means, which are intended

the

to cover

expenses of the

wife's

household

in

connection

with the ceremony.

The

girl

The sambandham is now complete. remains in her own taravad house, and her
her there, coming in the evening and

husband
leaving
pletion

visits

next
of

morning.

few days after

the
senior

the

com-

the

ceremony,

woman

of the

bridegroom's house sends some cloths, including pavu

mundu
Every

(superior cloths)
oil

and thorthu mundu

(towels),

and some
six

to the bride for her use for six months.

at the

months she does the same, and,

Onam,

335

NAyar

Vishu, and Thiruvathira festivals, she sends besides a

little

money, areca
^^,

nuts, betel
1

and tobacco.
64 rupees.

The money
Higher sums
of the

sent should be

8,

6,

32, or

are very rarely sent.

Before long, the

women

husband's house express a longing for the girl-wife to be

brought to their house,

for

they have not seen her yet.

Again the astrologer is requisitioned, and, on the day he fixes, two or three of the women go to the house of
the
girl,

or,

as they call

her,

Ammayi

(uncle's wife).

They

are well treated, and presently bring

away the

girl

with them.

about to enter the gate-house of her husband's taravad, the stile of which she crosses right
is

As she

two or three of the women meet her, bearing a burning lamp and a brass plate (thalam), and precede
leg
first,

her to the nalukattu of the house.

There she

is

seated

on a mat, and a burning lamp, a nazhi (measure) of rice, and some plantains are placed before her. One of the younger women takes up a plantain, and puts a piece
of
it

in the

Ammayi's mouth

little

ceremony

called

madhuram

tital,

or giving the sweets for eating.

is

She
then

lives in her husband's house for a few days, and

sent back to her

cloths,

own with
gifts of

presents, bracelets, rings or

which are
is

the senior

woman

of the house.

After this she

at liberty to visit her

husband's house

on any day, auspicious or inauspicious. In a big taravad, where there are many women, the Ammayi does not, as a rule, get much sympathy and good-will in the household,

and,

if

she happens to live temporarily in

is

her

husband's house, as

sometimes, though very

rarely

the case in South Malabar, and to be the wife of the

Karanavan,
the proverb,

it

is

observed that she gets more than her

share of whatever good things

'

may

be going.

Hence
at

Place

Ammayi Amma on

a stone, and grind

her with another stone.'

sambandham ceremony

nAyar
Calicut
is

336
recorded by Mr. Fawcett, at which there were
for the guests,

cake and wine

and a ring
"

for the bride.

In connection with

sambandham, Mr. N. Subramani

it

Aiyar writes from Travancore that

different localities as

is known in gunadosham (union through good

vastradanam or putavakota (giving of cloth), and uzhamporukkal (waiting one's turn). It may be
or
evil),

performed without any formal ceremony whatever, and

is

actually
in

private

transaction

confidentially

gone
his

through
friends

some

families.

The bridegroom and

assemble

at

the

house of the bride on the

appointed night, and, before the assembled guests, the bridegroom presents the bride with a few unbleached
cloths.

Custom

enjoins that four pieces of cloth should

is

be presented, and the occasion

availed of to present

cloths to the relatives and servants of the bride also.

The
the

girl

asks permission of her mother and maternal

uncle, before she receives the cloths.

After supper, and

party
disperses.

distribution

of pan-supari,

the

Another day is fixed for the consummation ceremony. On that day the bridegroom, accompanied by a few
friends,

goes to the bride's house with betel leaves and

After a
feast,

nuts.

the friends retire."

It is

noted in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that

for the

one name

sambandham

rite is

kitakkora, meaning

bed-chamber ceremony. In the same report, the following "The tiranduaccount of a puberty ceremony is given.
kuli
girl

ceremony

is

practically a public declaration that a

has reached the age of maturity.

is

When

girl

attains puberty, she

seated in a separate room, where

a lamp
flowers

is lit,
is

and a brass pot with a bunch of cocoanut

kept.

She has

to

keep with her a circular

proclaimed by korava

plate of brass called valkannadi, literally a looking-glass

with a handle.

The

event

is

2>37

NAyar
The
females
of

(shouts

of

joy

by

females).

the

neighbouring houses, and of the families of friends and

relatives, visit her.

by her near
friends

New cloths relatives. On the

Early
in

are presented to the girl

third day the villagers,

and

relatives are treated to a luncheon of rice

milk pudding.
the

and morning on the fourth day, the

Mannans
oil,

or Velans appear.

The

girl is

anointed

and tender leaves of the cocoanut palm are tied In the company of maidens round the head and waist. is brouorht out of the room, and the Velans sinof she
with
certain songs.

where the
takes
songs.

girl

Thence the party move on to the tank, wears a cloth washed by a Velan, and
After the bath the Velans again sing
afternoon,

a bath.
In

the

the girl

is

taken

out

by

the females invited for the occasion to an ornamental

pandal, and the Velans, standing at a distance, once
sing.

more

With the usual

distribution of pan-supari, sandal

closes.

and jasmine flowers, the ceremony

of friends and
relatives,

In the midst

of the song, the female guests of the village, the wives

the

family

itself,

and most of the members of present each a small cloth to the

Velans.

They
In

are also given a small

etc.

amount

of money,

rice, betel leaf,

The

guests are then entertained at

is

feast.

some
in

places, the girl

taken to a separate

house
to her

for the

bath on the fourth day, whence she returns

procession, accompanied by tom-toms

house

and shouting.
is

In the northern taluks, the Velan's song

in

the night, and the

is

performance of the ceremony

In the southern taluks,

on the fourth day

it

compulsory.

is

often put off to

some convenient day.

girl is

Before the
prohibited

completion of this song ceremony, the

from going out of the house or entering temples."

It is

provided, by the Malabar Marriage Act, 1 896, that,

registered in the

"

when a sambandham has been

v-22

manner

NAYAR
therein laid down,
it

338
shall

have the incidence of a legal

the wife and children shall

marriage

that

is

to say,

be entitled to maintenance by the husband or father,

respectively,

and

to succeed
;

to

half his

self-acquired

property,

if

he dies intestate

while the parties to such

sambandham cannot
its

register a
is,

second sambandham
it

during

continuance, that

until

is

terminated by
in the Civil

death or by a formal application

Courts.

for divorce

The

total

number

of

sambandhams
the

registered

under the Act has, however, been

reason for this
is,

infinitesimal,

and the
of the
at

admittedly,

reluctance

men
will

to fetter their liberty to terminate

sambandham
for

by such

restrictions

as

the

necessity

formal

divorce, or to undertake the

of a legal obligation to
If,

burdensome responsibility maintain their wife and offspring.

Malabar Marriage

as the evidence recorded by the

'

Commission tended to show, a marriage law in North Malabar, and throughout the greater part of South Malabar, would merely legalise what is the prevailing
custom,'
it

is

hard to see

why

there has been such a

disinclination to lend to that

custom the dignity of legal

applications
to

sanction." *

The

following

register

sambandhams under the Act were 1904:

Nayars.

received from 1897 to

Tiyans.

Others.

Total.

1897

28
8 8 8
3

6
2 2

36
14 14
17

1898

4
4 9
I

1899
I9CX)

I90I

1902
1903
Total
...

2
57

10

20

87

Gazetteer of Malabar.

339
In a recent account of a
in

NAYAR
in

Nayar wedding

high

life

Travancore, the host

is

said to have distributed flowers,

attar, etc., to all his

Hindu

guests, while the European,

Eurasian, and other Christian guests, partook of cake

and wine, and other refreshments,

in

a separate tent.

The Chief

Secretary to Government proposed the toast

of the bride and bridegroom.

The
Nayar.

following note on
to

Nayar pregnancy ceremonies

was supplied
"

Mr. Fawcett by Mr. U. Balakrishnan

has to observe certain ceremonies
First,

A woman
(at least

during pregnancy.

during and after the seventh

well-to-do classes) bathes,

month, she

among the

and worships

in

the temple every morning, and eats before

her morning meal a small quantity of butter, over, which

mantrams (consecrated formulae) have been said by This is generally the temple priest, or by Nambutiris. done till delivery. Another, and even more important
ceremony,
is

the

puli-kuti

(drinking tamarind juice).

This

is

an indispensable ceremony, performed by rich

alike,

and poor

on a particular day

in the ninth

month.

The day and hour are fixed by the local astrologer. The ceremony begins with the planting of a twig of the ampasham tree on the morning of the day of the
ceremony
the
in

the principal courtyard (natu-muttam) of

At the appointed hour or muhurtam, the pregnant woman, after having bathed, and properly
taravad.
attired,
is

conducted to a particular portion of the house

(vatakini or northern wing),

where she

is

seated, facing

eastward.

The ammayi,
is

or uncle's wife, whose presence

on the occasion
drops of

necessary, goes to the courtyard, and,

plucking a few leaves of the planted twig, squeezes a few

its

juice into a cup.

if

This she hands over to

the brother,

any, of the pregnant

woman.

It is

neces-

sary that the brother should wear a gold ring on his

V-22 B

nAyar
right kathi)

340
finger.

ring
in

Holding a

country knife

(pissan

his left

hand, which he directs towards the

mouth, he pours the tamarind juice over the knife with

his right

hand three times, and

it

dribbles

down

the knife

woman's mouth, and she drinks it. In the absence of a brother, some other near relation officiates.
into the

After she has swallowed the tamarind juice, the

woman

is

asked to pick out one of several packets of different grains

placed before her.
to select
is

The

grain in the packet she happens

in

supposed to declare the sex of the child

her womb.
feast

The ceremony winds up

the
relatives

with a sumptuous
family."

to

all

and friends of the

" the

In

connection

with

pregnancy ceremonies,
puli-kuti

Mr.

N.

Subramani Aiyar writes that

is

ceremony
cocoanut,

performed

at the

seventh, or

sometimes the ninth

rice,

month.

The husband

has to contribute the

and plantains, and present seven vessels containing sweetmeats.

In the absence of a brother, a

Maran pours the

juice into the

woman." It is noted in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that "the puli-kudi cereof the
consists in administering to the
pills

mouth

mony
a few
pills

woman

with child

of tamarind and other acid substances.

The

are placed at the end of a knife-blade, and pushed

into the

mouth

of the

woman by means
in

of a gold ring.
to

The ceremony, which

pumsavana

way corresponds
is

the

of the Brahmans,

performed either by a
in

brother or uncle of the woman, and,

of both, by the

the absence

husband himself.
at

Unlike Brahmans, the

the time of the
first

ceremony
garbha

is

performed only

pregnancy,"
veli

In the eighth month, a ceremony, called

uzhiyal,
is

performed by

the

Kaniyan

(astrologer) to

remove the

effects of the evil eye.

in

The ceremonies observed

nancy are described as

connection with pregin

follows

the

Gazetteer

of

341

NAyaR
ceremony
the

Malabar.
during

"The

first
is

regular

performed
or drinking
of

pregnancy

known

as pulikudi
to

tamarind,
the
less

which corresponds

Pumsavanam
not

Brahmans.
importance,
this,

But there are

other observances of
if

which

commonly,

invariably,

precede
to

and may be considered as corresponding the Garbharakshana (embryo or womb protection)

ceremony sometimes performed by Brahmans, though not one of the obligatory sacraments. Sometimes the pregnant woman is made to consume daily a little ghee (clarified butter), which has been consecrated by
a Nambudiri with appropriate mantrams.
exorcists
called
in,

Sometimes
Panans,
are

of

the

lower castes,

such as

and ])crtorm a ceremony called Balikkala, in which they draw magic patterns on the ground, into which the girl throws lighted wicks, and sing rude songs
to avert

from the unborn babe the unwelcome attentions

of evil spirits,
called
tudi, or

accompanying them on a small drum

with bell-metal cymbals.
tlie sacrifice

concludes with

of a cock,

The ceremony if the woman is

is

badly affected

by the singing.
the
fifth,

The

pulikudi

variously

performed
auspicious

in

seventh, or ninth month.

to

An

hour

has

be

selected

by the

village

astrologer for this as for most ceremonies.

of a tamarind tree should be plucked

branch

by the pregnant
Enangatti *

woman's brother, who

should go to the tree with a kindi

(bell-metal vessel) of water, followed by an

carrying a hanging lamp with five wicks (tukkuvilakku),

and,

before plucking
it.

it,

perform three pradakshinams

in

round
*

In

the

room
is

which the ceremony

is

to be

An Enangan
in
1

or Inangan
It is

man

of the same casle and sub-division or

marriage group.

usually translated

"kinsman," but
all

is

at

once wider and

the

narrower

its

connotation.

My
is

Enangans are
a female

who can marry

same

people that

can.

An Enangatti

member

of an Enangan's family.

NAYAR

542
there
is

performed, usually the vadakkini,

arranged a

mat, the usual lamp (nilavilakku) with five wicks, and a

para measure of rice (niracchaveppu), also the materials

necessary for the performance of Ganapathi puja (worship of the

god Ganesa), consisting of

sacred
basil

plantains,
tulasi

brown
called

sugar, leaves of the

or

(Ocimiim

sanctmn),

sandal

paste,

and the

eight

spices

ashtagantham. The
puja,

woman's brother performs Ganapathi

and then gives some of the tamarind leaves to the Enangatti, who expresses their juice, and mixes it with

that of four other plants.*

The mixture
little

is

boiled with
it

little rice,

and the brother takes a

of

in

a jack

{Artocarpus
lets
it

integi^ifolia) leaf folded like

a spoon, and

run

down
in

the blade of a knife into his sister's

mouth.
is

He

does this three times.

Then

the mixture

administered

the same manner by

some woman of

the husband's family, and then by an

one of the members of the

is

girl's

Ammayi (wife of tarwad). The branch

description
taluk.

then planted in the nadumittam, and feasting brings

the ceremony to a close.

The above
Nayar

was
In

obtained from an Urali

of Calicut

other localities and castes, the details vary considerably.

Sometimes the mixture is simply poured into the woman's mouth, instead of being dripped off a knife.

Some

castes use a small spoon of gold or silver instead

of the jack leaves.

In South Malabar there

is

not as

a rule any procession to the tamarind tree.

Among

Agathu Charna Nayars

takes place
in

of South Malabar, the ceremony

the nadumittam, whither the tamarind

branch

is

brought by a

Tiyan.

The

girl

carries

valkannadi or bell-metal mirror, a charakkol or arrow,

and a pisankatti
*

(knife).

An

Enangatti pours some

oil

The aimpuli or "

five

tamarinds " are Tamariiidiis indica, Gardnia Cambogia,

Spondias tnangifera, Bauhinia tacemosa, and Hibiscus hirtus.

343

NAyar
down two
in

on her head, and

to her navel,
girl

lets
it

it

trickle

or three hairs

where

is

caught

a plate.

Then

the

and her brother, holding hands, dig a hole with

the tamarind
it.

the charakkol and pisankatti, and plant

branch
juice
is

in

the

nadumittam, and water

Until she
is

Then

the

administered.

confined,
rice,

the girl
flowers,

waters the

tamarind branch, and offers

to
it

and lighted wicks

"

three times a day.

When
Nayar

labour

begins, she uproots the branch."

At

delivery,"

Mr.

Balakrishnan

writes,

"women
some
Pollution

of the barber caste officiate as midwives.

In

localities, this is
is

performed by Velan caste women.

for fifteen days,

observed

and every day the

mother wears cloths washed and presented by a woman of the Vannan [or Tiyan] caste. On the fifteenth day is
the purificatory ceremony.
lution, a

As
oil

in

the case of death pol-

man

of the Attikurissi clan sprinkles on the

woman
the

a liquid mixture of

and the

five

products of

cow (panchagavya), with gingelly [Sesamiim) seeds. Then the woman takes a plunge-bath, and sits on the ground near the tank or river. Some woman of the
family, with a

copper vessel
river,

in

her hands, takes water

it

from the tank or

and pours

on the mother's
This done, she

head as many
again plunges

as twenty-one
in

times.

the water, from which she emerges

It

thoroughly purified.

may be noted
of purification.

that,

before the

mother proceeds
also to

to purify herself, the

rite
its

new-born babe has

It
is

undergo a
floor,

placed on

the bare

and

father or uncle sprinkles a few

it,

drops of cold water on

and takes

it

in his

hands.

The
child

superstitious believe that the

is

temperament of the
of the taravad

determined by that of the person who thus sprinkles

All the

the water.

members

observe

pollution for fifteen days following the delivery, during

NAYAR

344

which they are prohibited from entering temples and It is noted by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar holy places."
that the
first

act done,

when a male
leaf,

child
if

is

born,

is
is

to

beat the earth with a cocoanut

female, to grind
object,
it

and,

the issue

some turmeric
removing the

in

a mortar, with the

is

said, of

child's fear.

In connection with post-natal ceremonies, Mr. Bala-

krishnan Nayar writes further that

" the

twenty-seventh

day

day of was born, marks the next imporOn this day, the Karanavan of the family tant event. gives to the child a spoonful or two of milk mixed with sugar and slices of plantain. Then he names the child,
after the child's birth, or the first recurring
it

the star under which

and
is

calls

it

in the ear

by the name three times.

all

This
the

followed by a feast to

friends

and

relatives,

expenses of which are met by the father of the

child.

With

the Nayar, every event

is

introduced by a cere(chorun) partaken

It

monial.

The

first

meal of

rice

of

by the child forms no exception to the rule.

must be

remembered

that the child

is

not fed on rice for

it

some
There
first

time after birth, the practice being to give

flour of

dried plantain boiled with jaggery (crude sugar).

is

a particular variety of plantain, called kunnan, used for

this purpose.

Rice

is

given to the child

for the

time generally during the sixth month.

fixes

The

astrologer

the day, and, at the auspicious hour, the child,

it

bathed and adorned with ornaments (which

duty of the father to provide)
plank.
is

is

the

brought, and laid on a

it,

plantain leaf

is

spread in front of

and a

lighted brass lamp placed near.

On

the leaf are served

generally a portion of the rice offered to some temple divinity some tamarind,
a small quantity of cooked rice
salt, chillies, etc.,

and sugar.

[In

some places
feast,

all

the curries,

prepared for the attendant

are also served.]

345

NAyar
the
father,

Then

the

Karanavan, or
sits

ceremoniously
First he

approaches, and

down

facing the child.

puts in the mouth

chillies

of the child a mixture of the tamarind,

rice,

and

salt,

then some

and

lastly

little

sugar.
rice.

Thenceforward the ordinary food of the child

It
is

is

usual on this occasion for relatives (and especially

or
'uncle's
wife')

the bandhus, such as the ammayi,

to adorn the child with gold bangles,

rings and other

is,

ornaments.

The

rice-giving

ceremony

in

some

cases,

preferably performed at

some famous

temple, that at

Guruvayur being a favourite one for this purpose." It that the riceis noted by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar giving ceremony is usually performed by taking the child to a neighbouring temple, and feeding it with the
meal offered to the deity as nivadiyam.
the child
is

In

some

places,

named on

the chorun day.

in

Of ceremonies which take place

hood, the following account
is

infancy and child-

given

in

the Gazetteer of

Malabar.

"

On the fifth day

Marayan

after birth, a

woman
in,

of the

Attikurissi or

caste

among Nayars,
is

or of the
purifies

barber caste in the lower classes,

the mother, the other

called

and

women

of the household, and the

room

in

which the child was born, by lustration with milk

oil,

and gingelly
sprinkler.
(i

using karuga {Cynodon Dactylon) as a

perquisites are the usual niracchaveppu
i

Her

edangazhi of paddy and

nazhi of uncooked rice)

in

placed together with a lamp of five wicks

to be cleansed,

the

room

and a small sum

in

cash.

similar

ceremony on the 15th day concludes the pollution period. In some cases, milk and cow's urine are sprinkled over the woman, and, after she has bathed, the Marayan or Attikurissi waves over her and the
purification
child

two

vessels,

one

containing water stained

red

with turmeric and lime, and one water blackened with

NAYAR
powdered charcoal.

346

During

this

and other periods, a

caste to Nayars, and

characteristic service called

mattu (change) has to be

rendered by people of the

to other castes

Mannan

by their proper washermen, who may or

may

not be Mannans.

On
in

the day of birth, the Mannatti

brings a clean tuni (cloth) of her own, and a

(cloth),

mundu

which she places

the yard, in which she finds

the accustomed perquisites of grain set out, and a lamp.

An Attikurissi Nayar woman

the Mannatti

takes the clean clothes, and

removes those previously worn by the

mother.
period,
is

Every subsequent day during the pollution the Mannatti brings a change of raiment, but it
1

only on the 7th and

5th days that any ceremonial

is

observed, and that the Attikurissi

woman is required. On those days, a Mannan man attends with the Mannatti. He makes three pradakshinams round the clean clothes,
little

the lamp, and the niracchaveppu, and scatters a

of

the grain formino^ the latter on the oround near

obeisance, before the Attikurissi
indoors.
It

it,

with an

woman
far

takes the clothes

This

rite of

mattu has

reaching importance.
local tyrant

affords a

weapon, by means of which the

can readily coerce his neighbours,

to the disabilities of

whom
;

he can subject
while
con-

excommunication by forbidding the

washerman

to render

them

this service

it

tributes in no small degree to the reluctance of Malayali

women
"

to leave Kerala, since

it is

essential that the

mattu

should be furnished by the appropriate caste and no other.

On

the tw^enty-eighth day (including the day of

birth)

which some

comes the Palu-kudi (milk-drinking) ceremony, at women of the father's family must attend.
castes in which the wife lives with the husband,
in

Amongst

the ceremony takes place

the husband's house,

for the first

to

which the wife and child return

day.

time on this

The

usual lamp, niracchaveppu and kindi of water,

347
are set forth with a plate,
milk, honey,
if

NAyar

possible of silver, containing

and

bits of a sort of plantain called

kunnan,

together with three jack leaves folded to serve as spoons.

The mother
in his

brings the child newly bathed, and places

lap.

it

Karnavan's

The goldsmith
metals, gold,
ties

is

in

attendance
of the

with a string of five beads (mani or kuzhal)

made
iron,

panchaloham or

five

silver,

copper

and

lead,

which the father

round the baby's waist.

The

Karnavan, or the mother, then administers a spoonthe contents of the plate to the child with each of

ful of

the jack leaves in turn.

The
name

father's

sister,

or other

female relative, also administers some, and the Karnavan

then whispers the child's

thrice in

its

right ear.
till

"The name

is

not publicly announced

(rice giving),

the Chor-

unnu or Annaprasanam

which takes place

generally in the sixth month, and must be performed at

an auspicious moment prescribed by an astrologer.

The

paraphernalia required are, besides the five-wicked lamp,

some plantain leaves on which are served

kinds of curry called kalan, olan,
avil,

rice

and four

and ericchakari,
fried

some pappadams (wafers of

in

flour

and other ingredients),

brings the child
first

plantains and sweetmeats called upperi (plantains

cocoanut

oil).

The mother

newly

bathed, and wearing a cloth for the

it

time,

and places

in

the Karnavan's lap.

The

father then ties round the as

child's

neck a gold

ring,
ring),

known

muhurta mothiram
to

(auspicious

moment

and the

relatives present give

the child other ornaments of gold or silver according

their means, usually a nul or neck-thread

adorned with
then,

one or more pendants, an arannal or

bangles, and a pair of anklets.
after

girdle, a pair of

The Karnavan

an oblation to Ganapathi, gives the child some

its

of the curry, and whispers

times.

name

in its right ear three

He

then carries the child to a cocoanut tree

NAYAR

348

near the house, round which he makes three pradakshi-

nams, pouring water from a kindi round the foot of the The procession then returns to the tree as he does so. and on the way an old woman of the family house,
proclaims the baby's

name aloud
it
'

for the first

'

time

in

the

form of a question, asking*dost thou see the sky?'

Krishnan

(for instance),

In

some

cases,

the father

simply

name twice. "The Vidyarambham ceremony

calls

out the

to

celebrate

the
fifth

beginning of the
or seventh year.
to
is

child's

education takes place in the

some places, the child is first taken the temple, where some water sanctified by mantrams
In
his

poured over

head by the Shantikaran

at the

(officiating

priest).

The ceremony

house

is

opened by Ganaor

pathi

pijja

performed by an

Ezhuttacchan,

by a
writes

Nambijdri, or another Nayar.

The Ezhuttacchan

on the

child's

tongue with a gold fanam (coin) the invofifty-one letters of the

cation to Ganapathi (Hari Sri Ganapathayi nama), or

sometimes the

Malayalam alphabet,
child's right

and then grasps the middle finger of the

hand, and with
it

traces the

same
ola

letters in
(strip

parched

rice.

He
in

also gives the child an

of

palm

leaf)

inscribed with them, and receives in return a small fee

cash.

Next

the

child

thrice
his

touches

first

the

Ezhuttacchan's

feet,

and then

own

forehead with his

right hand, in token of that reverent submission to the

teacher, which

seems to have been the key-note of the old

or ear-boring
is

Hindu
at the

system of education.

"The Kathukuttu
same time
any time
in the fifth or

performed either
operator,
skill,

as the Pala-kudi or the Choulam, or at

seventh year.

The

who

may be any one

first

possessing the necessary

left

pierces

the right and then the

ear with two gold or

silver wires

brought by the goldsmith, or with karamullu

349
thorns.

NAYAR
left in

The

wires or thorns are

girls,

the cars.

In

the case of

the hole

is

subsequently gradually
the
of which

distended by the insertion of nine different kinds of

thorns or plugs

in succession,
it

last
to.

is

bamboo
teristic

plug,

till

is

large

enough

admit the charac-

Malayali car ornament, the boss-shaped toda."

Of the death ceremonies among the Nayars of Malabar,

the following detailed account
"
is

given by Mr. Fawcett.

When

the dying person

is

about to embark for that

is

bourne from which no traveller returns, and the breath

about to leave his body, the
all

members

of the household, and

little

friends

who may be

present, one by one, pour a

water, a few drops from a tiny cup

made

of a leaf or two
in

of the tulsi

{Ocimum sanctum),

into his

mouth, holding
enters the

the hand a piece of gold or a gold ring, the idea being

that the person should touch gold ere
it

mouth
is if

of the person

who
it,

is

dying.

If

the taravad

rich

enough
closed.

to afford

a small gold coin (a rasi fanam,

one

can be procured)

is

placed

in

the mouth, and the lips are

is

As
in

soon as death has taken place, the corpse

cot or bed

removed from the

(a

and carried

to the vatakkini
it

room

the northern end of the house), where

is
;

placed on long plantain leaves spread out on the floor

and, while
it

is in

the room, whether by day or night, a

lamp

is

kept burning, and one

in

member

of the taravad
feet
in

holds the head

his lap,

and another the

the

same way
farewell

and here the neighbours come to take a

look at the dead.

As

the

Malayalis believe

that disposal of a corpse

by cremation or burial as soon

is

as possible after

death

conducive to the happiness

is

of the spirit of the departed, no time

lost in

setting

about the
the

funeral.

The
or

bodies of senior
are

members
those

of
of
all

taravad,

male

female,
;

burned,

children under two are buried

so too are the bodies of

nayar
persons

350

who have
to the
is

died of cholera or small-pox.

When

preparations for the funeral have been made, the corpse

is

removed
if
;

natumuttam or
not, is

central yard of the

is

house,

there
and,
is

one (there always

is

in

the

larger

houses)

if

there

taken to the front yard,

It is

where

it

again laid on plantain leaves.

washed

and anointed, the usual marks are made with sandal paste and ashes as in life, and it is neatly clothed. There is
then done what
or
is

called

the potavekkuka ceremony,

(koti

placing

new
all

cotton

cloths

mundu) over the

corpse by the senior

followed by

member

of the deceased's taravad

the other members, and also the sons-in-law

all relatives.

and dauo"hters-in-law, and

the
place of burial
or
is

These cloths are

to

used for tying up the corpse,

when being taken

In

cremation.

some

parts

of

Malabar, the corpse

carried on a bier

made
in

of fresh
it

bamboos, tied up
case
is

in

these cloths, while

others

is

carried, well covered in the cloths,

it

by hand.

In either

is

carried by the relatives.

is

Before the corpse

removed, there

done another ceremony called para-

virakkuka, or

filling

up paras.
gallon.)
in

(A para
it

is

a measure

nearly as big as a

All adult male

members
direction

of the of

taravad

take part

under

the

man

of the Attikkurissi

clan

who

occupies the

position of director of the ceremonies during the next

fifteen

days,

receiving as

his perquisites

all

the rice
It

and other offerings made

consists in filling

to the deceased's

spirit.

(unhusked
rice.

rice),

up three para measures with paddy and one edangali (^ of a para) with raw

These

offerings of

paddy and

rice are placed

very

near the corpse, together with a burning lamp of the

kind commonly used

the taravad
is

in

Malabar, called nela vilaku.

to afford one, a silk cloth
its

If
is

rich

enough

placed over the corpse before

removal for cremation.

351

nAyar

As much

fuel as is

necessary having been got ready at

the place of cremation, a small pit about the size of the corpse
is

dug, and across this are placed three long

tree,

stumps of plantain

one

at

each end, and one

is laid.

in

the

middle, on which as a foundation the pyre

The

whole, or at least a part of the

that of the

wood
*

used, should be
is

mango

tree.

As

the corpse

being removed
is

to the pyre, the senior

Anandravan

who
to
in

next

in

age
his

(junior) to the deceased tears from

laid

one of the new cloths

on the corpse a piece

it

sufficient

go round

waist, ties

round his waist and holds

This individual

his hand, or

tucks into his cloth at the waist, a piece of iron, generally

a long key.
the offerers of

is

throughout chief among

deceased.

pindam

(balls of rice) to the

The

corpse

is

laid

on the bier with the head to the south,

it,

with the fuel laid over

and a
butter),

little
if

camphor, sandalthese
things
are

wood and
within the

ghi

(clarified

means

of the taravad.

Here must be

stated

the invariable rule that no

or female,

member

of the taravad, male

who

is

older than the deceased, shall take any

part whatever in the ceremony, or in any subsequent

ceremony following on the cremation or

burial.

All

adult males junior to the deceased should be present

when

the
or,

pyre
if

is

lighted.
is

The

deceased's
his

younger
(his

brother,

there

none surviving,
fire to
left

nephew

sister's eldest

son) sets

the pyre at the head of the

corpse.

If

the deceased

a son, this son sets

fire at

the same time to the pyre at the feet of the corpse.

In
fire

the case of the deceased being a woman, her son sets

to the pyre
;

failing a son, the next junior in

age to her

has the
*

right

to

do

it.

It

is

a matter of greatest
called the

The

eldest

male member of the taravad

is

Karanavan.

All male

members, brothers, nephews, and so on, who are junior to him, are called

Anandravans of the taravad.

nayar

352

importance that the whole pyre burns at once.

greatest care
is

The
being

taken that

it

burns as a whole, consumino-

every part of the corpse.

While the corpse

in

is

consumed,
carried
it

all

the

members

of the deceased's taravad

who
is

to the
in

pyre go and bathe

a tank (there

always one

the

Nayar's house).
water, and
It

compound or grounds round every The eldest, he who bears the piece of

torn cloth and iron (the key), carries an earthen pot of

all

return together to the place of cremation.

should be said that, on the news of a death,

assisting
in

the

neighbours assemble,
preparing the pyre,
of the
corpse.

digging the grave,

and so

on, and, while the

members

taravad go and

bathe,

they

remain near the

By the time the relatives return it is almost consumed by the fire, and the senior Anandravan carries
the pot of water thrice round the pyre, letting the water
leak out by

making holes

in

the pot as he walks round.

On

completing the third round,

he dashes the pot on

the ground close by where the head of the dead body has

been placed.
is

small image representing the deceased

rice,

then

made

out of raw

and to

this imaofe a

few
this

grains of rice and gingelly seeds are offered.

When

has been done, the relatives go home and the neighbours

depart, bathing before entering their houses.

When

the

cremation has been done by night, the duty of seshakriya

(making offerings to the deceased's

the next day between
10 and
11

spirit)
a.m.,

must be begun
and
is

done on

seven consecutive days.

In any case the time for this

it

ceremony
seven

is

after
It

10 and before 11, and

is

continues for
All

days.

performed

as

follows.

male

members
in

of the taravad younger than the deceased

i.e.,

go

together to a tank and bathe,

they souse themselves

the water, and return to the house.

the

The

eldest of

them,

man who

tore off the strip of cloth from

353
the corpse, has with

NAYAR

him the same strip of cloth and the piece of iron, and all assemble in the central courtyard of the house, where there have been placed ready by an enangan some rice which has been half
boiled, a few grains of gingelly, a few leaves of the cherula

{yE7'ua lanata),

some

curds, a smaller

measure of paddy,

and a smaller measure of raw rice. These are placed in the north-east corner with a lamp of the ordinary Malabar
pattern.

piece of palmyra

leaf,
is

about a foot or so

in

length and the width of a finger,

it is

taken, and one end of

knotted.

The knotted end

is

is

placed

in

the ground,

and the long end

the deceased.
it.

left

sticking up.

This represents

The

rice

and other things are offered to

palmyra leaf
is

The

belief concerning this piece of thus.

explained

There are in the human body ten Vayus, Pranan, Apanan, Samanan, Udanan, humours Vyanan, Nagan, Kurman, Krikalan, Devadattan, Dha:

nanjayan.

These are called Dasavayu, i.e., ten airs. When cremation was done for the first time, all these, excepting the last, were destroyed by the fire. The Its last one flew up, and settled on a palmyra leaf. existence was discovered by some Brahman sages, who,
by means of mantrams, forced it down to a piece of palmyra leaf on the earth. So it is thought that, by making offerings to this Dhananjayan leaf for seven
days, the spirit of the deceased will be mollified, should

he have any anger to vent on the living members of the The place where the piece of leaf is to be fixed taravad.
has been carefully cleaned, and the leaf
centre of the prepared surface.
it

is

fixed in the

The

offerings

made

to

go

direct to the spirit

is

of the deceased, and the peace

of the taravad

assured.

The men who have bathed

them

and returned have

(karuka
pulla),

brought with

some

grass

plucked on their way back to the house.

v-23

NAyar
They

354

kneel in front of the piece of palmyra, with the right

knee on the ground.

Some

of the grass
leaf,

is

spread on

the ground near the piece of

it

and rings made with

are placed on the ring finger of the right hand by each

one present.
paste,

The

first

offerings consist of water, sandal

and leaves of the cherula, the eldest of the AnandraBoys need not go through the vans leading the way.
actual performance of offerings
;

it

suffices for

them

to

touch the eldest as he

half boiled rice
is

is

making the
in his

offerings.

The

made

into balls (pindam),

present takes one of these

it

and each one right hand, and places

leaf.
is

on the grass near the piece of palmyra

Some
poured
not

gingelly seeds are put into the curd, which

as to

poured so

make

three rings round the pindams.

It is

out of a small cup

half-boiled
rice

made with

the leaf on
It

which the
be
is

had been placed.

should

poured from any other kind of

waved, and some milk

vessel.
leaf,

The whole
leaf.
It

then covered with this same plantain

is
is

a lighted wick
is

put under the

is

undisturbed for some moments, and leaf

then removed, and torn

gently tapped

with the back of the fingers of the right hand.

is

The

leaf

in

two

at

its

midrib, one

piece being placed on either side of the pindams. The ceremony is then over for the day. The performers rise, and remove the wet clothing they have been wearThe eldest of the Anandravans should, it was ing.

omitted to mention, be kept somewhat separated from the

other Anandravans v/hile in the courtyard, and before

the corpse

is

removed

for

cremation

a son-in-law or

daughter-in-law, or some such kind of relation remaining, as

it

were, between him and them.

He

has had the

piece of cloth torn from the covering of the corpse tied

round

his

waist,

and the piece of iron

in

the

folds

of his cloth, or stuck in his waist during the ceremony

355

nAyar
Now, when
it

which has just been described.

completed, he
ties

has been

the piece of cloth to the pillar of the

house nearest to the piece of palmyra leaf which has

been stuck
safe place.

in the

ground, and puts the piece of iron in a

piece of palmyra leaf
is

The
It
is

covered with
seven days at
is

a basket.

uncovered every day

for

the same hour, while the same ceremony

repeated.

The
them

balls of rice are

removed by women and

girls of the

taravad

who

are junior to the deceased.

bell-metal vessel in which

They
the
rice

place

in the

was

The senior places the vessel on her head, and leads the way to a tank, on the bank of which the rice It is hoped that crows will come and eat is thrown.
boiled.
it
;

for,

if

they do, the impression

is

is

received that the

But,
if

deceased's spirit

pleased with the offering.

will not

somehow
eat
it,

it is

thought that the crows

is

come and
are not to

the rice

thrown
it.

into the tank.

Dogs

be allowed to eat

The women bathe

after the rice

When the ceremony which has has been thrown away. been described has been performed for the seventh time,
i.e.^

on the seventh day after death, the piece of palmyra leaf is removed from the ground, and thrown on the During ashes of the deceased at the place of cremation.
these seven days, no other house.

member

of the taravad goes to any

The house
which
is,

of the dead,

and

all its
it

inmates

are under pollution.

No

outsider enters

but under

ban of
ing.

pollution,

however, removable by bath-

visitor entering the

house of the dead during

these seven days must bathe before he can enter his

house.

own

During these seven days, the Karanavan of the

family receives visits of condolence from relatives and

friends to

whom

he

is

"at home" on Monday, Wednessit

day or Saturday.
home,
V-23 B

They

and

chat,

chew

betel,
It

and go
is

bathing ere they enter their houses.

said

NAYAR
that,
in

356

some

parts of Malabar, the visitors bring with

in

them small presents

rites necessarily j^ut

money

or

kind to

help the

Karanavan through the expenditure to which the funeral

him.

To

hark back a

little, it

must
all

not be omitted that, on the third day after the death,

those

who

are related by marriage to the taraviid of the

deceased combine, and give a good feast to the inmates

of the house and to the neighbours

man
is

or

woman

from each house.

7"his feast

who are invited, one The person so invited

called patni karigi.

expected to come.

is

On

the seventh day, a return feast will be given by the

all

taravad of the deceased to

relatives

and neighbours.
after

Between the seventh and fourteenth day

ceremony
is

death no

observed, but the

members

of the taravad

remain under death pollution.

On

the fourteenth day

comes the sanchayanam.

cined remains
;

It

is

the disposal of the cal-

the ashes of the deceased.

The male

members

of the taravad

go

to the place of cremation,

and, picking up the pieces of unburnt bones which they

find there, place these in

an earthen pot which has been

fire

sun-dried (not burnt by

in

the usual way), cover

up the mouth of
all

this pot with a piece of

new

cloth, and,

following the eldest

(it

who

carries

it,

proceed to the

nearest river

must be running water), which receives

the remains of the dead.

The men

then bathe, and return

In some parts of Malabar the bones are collected on the seventh day, but it is not orthodox to do so. Better

home.

by

far

than taking the remains to the nearest river

is it

to

take them to

some specially sacred place, Benares, Gaya, Rameswaram, or even to some place of sanctity much
home, as to Tirunelli
in in

nearer

Wynaad, and there

dispose of them

the

same manner.

ashes of any one having been taken to

deposited
in

The bones or Gaya and there

the river, the survivors of the taravad have

357

NAYAR
for that person.

no need to continue the annual ceremony

This
is

called ashtagaya sradh.

It

puts an end to the

believed that the

need

for all earthly ceremonial.

It is

collection

and careful disposal of the ashes of the dead

spirit,

gives peace to his

the pacified spirit

and, what

is

more important,

will

not thereafter injure the living

members

of the taravad, cause miscarriage to the

women,

possess the

men

(as with

an evil
is

spirit),

and so

on.

On

the fifteenth day after death

the purificatory ceremony.

Until

this has

been done, any one touched by any

partakes of any food.
officiates.

member
his

of the taravad should bathe before he enters

or

house,

A man
milk

of the
oil,

Athikurisi

clan

He

sprinkles

in

which some gingelly seeds have been put, over the persons of those under pollution. This sprinkling, and
the bath which follows
it,

remove the death

remuneration
there
is

pollution.

The
on

purifier receives a fixed

for his offices

this occasion, as well as

when

a birth

in the

taravad.

In the case of death of a senior

member

of a

taravad, well-to-do and recognised as of some importance,

there

is

the

feast

called

pinda

atiyantaram

on the

sixteenth day after death, given to the neighbours and

friends.

With

the observance of this feast of pindams

there

is

involved the diksha, or leaving the entire body

for forty-one days, or for a year.

unshaved

There

is

no

variable limit between forty-one days or a year.

The
I

forty-one-day period

is

the rule in North Malabar.

have seen many who were under the diksha

for a year.

He who
the
is

lets his hair

grow may be a son

his

or

nephew of

the deceased.

One member
offers

only of the taravad bears

mark

of mourning by

growth of

hair.

He who

under the diksha

half-boiled rice and gingelly

seeds to the spirits of the deceased every morning after

his bath,

and he

is

under restriction from women, from

nAyar
alcoholic
drinks,

358

and from chewing

the diksha
is

betel,

also

from

tobacco.

When

observed, the ashes of the

dead are not deposited as described already (in the sundried vessel) until its last day the forty-first or a year

after death.

When

it

is

carried on for a year, there

bali.
It

is
is

observed every month a ceremony called

noteworthy ithat,

in this

monthly ceremony and

it

for the

conclusion of the diksha,

is

not the thirtieth or three

for the

hundred and

sixty-fifth
it

day which marks the date

ceremonies, but

is

the day (of the month) of the star

which was presiding when the deceased met his death For the the returning day on which the star presides.*
ball,

man

of the Elayatu caste officiates.

The
They

Elayatus

are priests for the Nayars.

thread,

They wear
Brahmins.

the Brahmin's
are

but they are not

not

permitted to study the Vedas, but to the Nayars they

stand

in

the place of the ordinary purohit.

rice

The
bali,

officiat-

ing Elayatu prepares the

for

the

when

to

the deceased, represented by karuka grass, are offered

boiled
things.
services,
rice,

curds,

gingelly

seeds,

and

some

other

The Elayatu should be

which are considered

paid a rupee for his

necessary even

when

man under diksha is himself familiar with the The last day of the diksha is one of required ceremonial. festivity. After the bali, the man under diksha is shaved.
the
All this over, the only thing to be done for the deceased
is

the annual sradh or yearly funeral

commemorative
rice

rite.

Rice-balls are made, and given to crows.

Clapping of
is

hands announces to these birds that the

being

thrown
eat,
it

for
is

them, and, should they not come at once and

is

evident that the spirit

displeased, and the

spirits of those

taravad had better look out.

* All caslc Hindus

The

who

who perform

the sradh ceremonies calculate the day of

full

death, not by the day of the month, but by the thithis (day after

or

new moon).

359

nAyar

have committed suicide, or met death by any violent means, are always particularly vicious and troublesome to the taravad, their spirits possessing and rendering
miserable some unfortunate
are pacified,
priests are

member

of

it.

Unless they
so

they

will
in,

called

Brahman and appease them by means of

ruin

the taravad,

tilahomam, a
ghi, gingelly,
**

rite in

which

sacrificial fire is raised,

and

and other things are offered through

Mr. Fawcett
writes,
"

it."

There
in

are,"

many

interesting

features

the death ceremonies as performed by the

Those who carry the corpse to the pyre are dressed as women, their cloths being wet, and each Two junior male members carries a knife on his person. thrust pieces of mango wood into the of the taravad
Kiriattil class.

southern end of the burning pyre, and,

lighted,

when they

are

throw them over their shoulders to the southClose to the northern

in

wards without looking round.

and
tied

end of the pyre, two small sticks are fixed poured

All

the ground,
is

together with a cloth, over which water

members of the taravad prostrate to They follow the enangu the ground before the pyre. carrying the pot of water round the pyre, and go home without looking round. They pass to the northern side of the house under an arch made by two men standing
thrice.

east and west, holding at arms length, and touching at

the points, the spade that was used to dig the pit under
the
pyre,

and the axe with which the wood

felled.

for the

pyre was cut or

After this

is

done the kodali

knife.

ceremony, using the spade, axe, and big

are placed

These
lain.
all,

on the leaves where the corpse had

Then

follows circumambulation and prostration

by

and the leaves are committed

in

to the burning pyre."

it

In connection with the death ceremonies,

is

noted
last

the

Cochin Census Report,

1901,

that

"the

NAYAR

360

moments of a dying person are really very trying. All members (male and female), junior to the dying person, pour into his or her mouth drops of Ganges or other
holy water or conjee (rice) water
tribute of regard.
in

token of their

last
last,

Before the person breathes his

to the bare floor, as
last
it is

he or she

is

removed

considered

sacrilegious to allow the

breath to escape while

ceiling,

lying on the bed, and in a

last
is

room with a
free

which

supposed

to obstruct the

passage of the

breath.

The names

of gods, or sacred texts are loudly

dinned into his or her ears, so that the person

this

may

quit

world with the recollections of

to

God

serving as a

passport

heaven.

The

forehead,

breast,

and the

joints especially are

to prevent the

besmeared with holy ashes, so as

messengers of death from tightly tying

those parts

when they
in

after the last breath,

away the person. Soon the dead body is removed to some

carry

open place

the house, covered from top to toe with

a washed cloth, and deposited on the bare floor with the

head towards the south, the region of the God of death.

lighted

lamp
all

is

placed near the head, and other lights

are placed

round the corpse.

is

mango

tree

is
is

cut,

or other firewood

collected,

and a funeral pyre

con-

structed in the south-eastern corner of a

compound
is

or

garden known as the corner of Agni, which

All male

always re-

served as a cemetery for the burning or burial of the dead.

members, generally junior, bathe, and, without wiping their head or body, they remove the corpse to the
yard
It is

in front

of the house, and place

oil,

it

on a plantain

leaf.

nominally anointed with

and bathed

in water.

Ashes and sandal are again smeared on the forehead and joints. The old cloth is removed, and the body is
covered with a new unwashed cloth or a piece of
silk.

little

gold or

silver,

or small coins are put into the

'<

36

N Avar

With the breaking of a cocoanut, and the offering of some powdered rice, betel leaf, areca nut, etc., the body is taken to the pyre. The members junior to the deceased go round the pyre three, five, or seven times,
mouth.

throw paddy and

then set
to

rice

over the dead body, put scantlings

of sandal wood, prostrate at the feet of the corpse, and

fire

the pyre.

When

the body

is

almost

wholly consumed, one of the male members carries a pot

of water, and, after

making three rounds, the pot

is

broken and thrown into the pyre.

elderly male

The

death of an

member

of a family

is

marked by udakakriya
bali

and sanchayanam, and the daily

courtyard
in

performed

at the

ball kutti (altar) planted in front of the house,

or in the
is

the centre of the house, where there

one.

Nayar officiates as priest at all such obsequies. On the morning of the fifteenth day, the members of the family wear cloths washed by a Velan, and assemble together for purification by the Nayar priest, both before and after bathing, who throws on them paddy and rice, and sprinkles the holy mixture. The
Ashtikurissi

The

Elayad or family purohit then performs another punnayaham or purification, and on the sixteenth day he takes
the place of the priest.
day, and the

On

the evening of the fifteenth

morning of the sixteenth day, the purohits and villagers are sumptuously feasted, and presents of cloths and money are made to the Elayads. In the
Chittur taluk, the Tamil
priestly functions in

Brahman sometimes performs

Elayad.

place of the

Diksha

is

performed

for forty-one days, or for a

whole year,
last

for the
is

benefit of the

departed

soul.

This

ceremony

invariably performed on the death of the mother, maternal

uncle,

and elder brother."

follows.
"

In connection with the habitations of the Nayars, Mr.

Fawcett writes as

house may face east or


nAyar
362
;

west, never north or south

as a rule,

it

faces the east.

Every garden
of

is

enclosed by a bank, a hedge, or a fencing

is

some

kind, and entrance

to

be made at one point

or, in

only, the east,

where there

is

a gate-house,

the case

of the poorest houses, a small portico or

open doorway
It

roofed over.

One
in

never walks straight through this

stile to

there

is

always a kind of

surmount.

is

the

same everywhere
Nayars.

Malabar, and not only amongst the

is

The

following

a plan of a nalapura or fouras representative of

sided house, which

may be taken
:

the houses of the rich

N.

Verandah
Kitchen store room.

all

round.

Dining

hall.

Kitchen.

W.
Ground
lloor.

Courtyard.

S.

Numbers
to the

6 and 7 are rooms, which are generally

used for storing grain.

At
At B
is

A
is

is

a staircase

leading

room members of

of the upper storey occupied by the female the family.

another staircase lead-

ing to the rooms of the upper storey occupied by the

male members.
the family gods.

There

no connection

between the

portions allotted to the

men and women.

No. 8
old

is

for

The Karanavans and

brass.

women

of

the family are perpetuated in images of gold or silver,

or,

more commonly,

Poor people, who cannot

0^
afford to

NAYAR

have these images made, substitute a stone.

made to these images, or to the stones at every full moon. The throat of a fowl will be cut outside, and the bird is then taken inside and offered. The
Offerings are

entrance

is

at C.
N.

E
*

E
*

E
*
*

E
W.
Upper
storey.

E
Tekkini.

large hall occupied

by the men.

There are windows at * * *. E are rooms occupied by women and children. It may be noticed that the apartment where the men sleep has no windows on The the side of the house which is occupied by women.
latter are

relatively free
visit

from control by the men as to

saw,
is

who may

them.

We
it

when speaking
when
is

of funeral

ceremonies, that a house

yard, and, of course,

supposed to have a courtthere are

the

has this only

four sides to the house.

The nalapura
alone can
all

proper

form of house,
observed
in

for in

this

ceremonial be
it

orthodox

fashion.

But

is

not the

ordinary Nayar's house that one sees

all
is

over Malabar.

The
N.
is

ordinary house

roughly of the
Invariably there

shape here indicated.

an upper storey.

and only a few tiny

the west.
at

There are no doors, windows opening to

Men
other,

sleep at one end,

women
own
is

the

each

having
the

their

staircase.

Around

house there

NAYAR
always shade from
the

3^4

many

trees

and palms.

Every

house

is in its

own

seclusion."

Concerning Nayar dwellings, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes that " the houses of the Nayar, standing
in

a separate compound,

have been by

many

writers

supposed to have been designed with special reference

to the requirements of offence

and defence, and Major

house
is

Welsh
the

states that the saying that every man's

is

his castle

well verified here.

is,

The higher ambition

of

Nayar

as has frequently been said, to possess

or

a garden,

wherein he can grow, without trouble

the

expense,

few necessaries
is

of his

existence.

The

garden surrounding the house

or strong fence.
patipura, which

surrounded by a hedge
is

At the entrance

an out-house, or
place

must have served as a kind of guardIn poorer houses

its
is

room

in

mediaeval times.

taken by a roofed door, generally provided with a

to keep out cattle.

stile

The

courtyard

is

washed with cow-

dung, and diverse figures are drawn with white chalk

on the fence.
cattle-shed,

Usually there are three out-houses, a

side, where These are generally those

vadakkettu on the north side serving as a kitchen, a

and a tekketu on the southern

spirit is located.

some family
of Maruta,

i.e.,

some member of the

family

who

has died

of small-pox.

sword or other weapon, and a seat or

other
also

emblem is located within this out-house, which is known by the names of gurusala (the house of a
kalari (military training-ground),

saint),

and daivappura
up every
to propitiate

(house of a deity).

The

tekketu

is

lighted

evening, and periodical offerings are

the deities enshrined within.
is

made
its

In the south-west corner

side a tank for

the serpent kavu (grove), and by

bathing purposes.

Various useful trees are grown in the

garden, such as the jack, areca palm, cocoanut, plantain,

365
tamarind, and mango.
vitu.

NAYAR
is

The whole house

known

as

The houses

are built on various models, such as

pattayappura, nalukettu, ettukettu, and kuttikettu."

Concerning
a

the

dress

of
*'

the

Nayars,

Mr.

N.

Subramani Aiyar writes that

in

the males dress themselves

mundu
is

(cloth), a loose

lower garment, and a towel.

neriyatu, or light cloth of fine texture with coloured

border,

sometimes worn round the mundu on

Coats and caps are recent

festive

occasions.

introductions,
It is

but are eschewed by the orthodox as unnational.

noted by Mr. Logan that 'the

women

clothe themselves

in a single white cloth of fine texture, reaching from the

waist to the knees, and occasionally,

when abroad, they

throw over the shoulder and bosom another similar cloth. But by custom the Nayar women go uncovered from
the
waist.

Upper garments

indicate

lower caste,

or

sometimes, by a strange reversal of Western notions,

Anjengo about the groves on each bank of the river 1 740, observes that chiefly planted with cocoanut trees, and have been are inhabited by men and women in almost a pure state of nature, for they go with their breasts and bellies entirely naked. This custom prevails universally throughout
immodesty.'
Ives,

Edward
*

who came

to

every caste from the

poorest

planter of rice

to the
"

daughter or consort of the king upon the throne.'

[According to ancient custom, Nayar

the Royal Family.
But, since

women
this

in

Travan-

core used to remove their body-cloth in the presence of

1856,

custom has

been abolished, by a proclamation during the reign of

H.H. Vanchi Bala Rama Varma Kulasakhara Perumal

Bhagiodya

Rama Varma.

In a critique on the Indian

J.

Census Report, 1901, Mr.

D. Rees observes* that

* Nineteenth Century, 1904.

NAYAR
"
if

366

the Census Commissioner had enjoyed the privilege

of living

among
*

the Nayars, he would not have accused

them of an

excess of females.'
if

The most

beautiful

women

in India,

numerous, could never be excessive."

Concerning Nayar females, Pierre Loti writes * that " les femmes ont presque toutes les traits dune finesse
particuliere.

Elles se font des

bandeaux a

la

Vierge,

et,

avec

le

reste

de leurs cheveux, tres noirs

et tres lisses,

composent une espece de galette ronde qui se porte au sommet de la tete, en avant et de cote, retombant un
peu \ers
le

front

comme une

petite toque cavalierement

posee, en contraste sur I'ensemble de leur personne qui

demeure toujours grave et hieratique."] The Nayars are Buchanan writes that " the higher particularly cleanly.
ranks of the people of Malayala use very
disorders are never observed except
little

clothing,

but are remarkably clean in their persons.

Cutaneous

the lowest orders, and the

careful,

among slaves and Nayar women are remarkably

saponaceous

repeatedly washing with various

plants to keep their hair and skins from every impurity."

The washerman
the

is

constantly in requisition.

No

dirty

cloths are ever worn.

When

going

for

temple worship,
form by

Nayar women dress themselves

in the tattu

drawing the right corner of the hind

fold of the cloth

between the thighs, and fastening it at the back. The cloth is about ten cubits long and three broad, and worn
in
is

two
the

folds.

The

oldest
called

necklace

ornament of the Nayar women nagapatam, the pendants of

hood.

which resemble a cobra's

with flowers.

The Nayar women

several other forms

wear no ornament on the head, but decorate the hair

The nagapatam, and

of neck ornament, such as kazhultila, nalupanti, puttali,

* L'Inde (sans les Anglais),

36;

nAyar

chelakkamotiram, amatali, arumpumani, and kumilatali

are fast vanishing.

neck

for the first

The kuttu-minnu time by a girl when

is

is

worn on the
is

her tali-kettu

celebrated.

This ornament

also called gnali.

Prior

to the tali-kettu ceremony,

the girls wear

a kasu or

sovereign.

The
is

inseparable neck ornament of a

is

Nayar

woman
is

in

modern days
attached.

the addiyal,

to

which a

patakkam
at the

The

only ornament for the ears

the takka or toda.

After the lobes have been dilated

dilated, a big leaden

karnavedha ceremony, and

inserted in them.

ring
is

is

The nose ornament

which
is
is

of

women

called mukkuthi, from

suspended a gold wire

in

called gnattu.

No ornament

worn

the right nostril.

The wearing
almost
all

of gold bangles on the wrists has been

long the fashion

among South high castes. Round

silver,

Indian

Hindu fem.ales of the waist Nayar women

Anklets were not

wear chains of gold and

belts called

and, by the wealthy, gold

kachchapuram

are worn.

worn

in

former times, but at the present day the kolusu

and padasaram of the Tamilians have been adopted. So, too, the time-honoured toda is sometimes set aside in
favour of the Tamil kammal, an ornament of much smaller
size.

Canter Visscher (who was Chaplain at Cochin

in

the eighteenth century) must have been

much

struck by

the expenditure of the

Nayar women on

their dress, for

he wrote *
not

'

there

is

not one of any fortune

who does
full

own as many as twenty or thirty robes made of silver and other valuable
it

chests

of

materials, for

would be a disgrace

in

their case to
'."

wear the same

dress two or three days in succession

It is

noted by Mr. Fawcett that " the Venetian sequin,

first

which probably

found

its

way to Malabar

in

the days

* Letters from Malabar.

NAYAR
of

3^^
is

Vascoda Gama and Albuquerque,

ornamentation long after

one of diosc coins

is

which, having found favour with a people,

sistently in
it

used per-

has passed out of

that to

currency.
this

So fond are the Malayalis of the sequin

is

day there

quite a large trade in imitations of the

coin for purposes of ornament.

Such

is

the persistence

of

its

use that the trade extends to brass and even copper

imitation of the sequins.

The former
in Austria.'

are often seen to

bear the legend

'

Made

The Nayars wear

If

none but the gold sequins.

The

brass imitations are

worn by the

women

of the inferior races.

one asks the

ordinary Malayali, say a Nayar, what persons are repre-

sented on the sequin, one gets for answer that they are

Rama and
Mr.

Sita

between them a cocoanut

"

tree."

In connection with the wearing of

charms by Nayars
individual (a

Fawcett writes as follows.

One

Kiriattil

Nayar) wore two rings made of an amalgamation

of gold and copper, called tambak, on the ring finger of

the right hand for good luck.

rings.
It is
is

Tambak

rings are lucky

a good thing to wash the face with the hand, a

on which

tambak

ring.

Another wore two rings of

(lit.

the pattern called triloham

metals) on the ring finger

eclipse.

of each hand.

Each

of these

was made during an

Yet another wore a

in

silver ring as a

vow, which was to be

given up at the next festival at Kottiur, a famous festival

North Malabar.

The

right nostril of a

Sudra Nayar

was slit vertically as if for the insertion of a jewel. His mother miscarried in her first pregnancy, so, according
to custom, he, the child of her second pregnancy, had
his nose
slit.

Another wore a

silver bangle.

He

had a

wound in his arm which was long in healing, so he made a vow to the god at Tirupati (in the North Arcot district), that, if his arm was healed, he would give up the
bangle at the Tirupati temple.

He

intended to send the

369
bangle there by a messenger.

NAYAR

An

Akattu Charna Nayar

a Brahman

wore an amulet

to

keep

off the spirit of

who

died by drowning.

Another had a

silver ring,
tail

on which be

a piece of a bristle from an elephant's

was arranged."
to

Tattooing
practiced by

is

said by Mr.

Subramani Aiyar not

favoured by North Travancore Nayars, and to be only

Nayar women living

it

to the south of Quilon.

Certain accounts trace

to the invasion of

Travancore
it

by a Moghul Sirdar
has become rare.
of the

in

1680 A.D.
operation
is

In

modern times

The

performed by

women

Odda

or

Kurava

caste before a girl reaches the

twelfth year.

Concerning the religious worship of the Nayars, Mr.

Subramani Aiyar writes that

proper deity of the Nayars
the
is

"

Buchanan notes

that the

Vishnu, though they wear

mark of Siva on their foreheads. By this is merely meant that they pay equal reverence to both Siva and
Vishnu, being Smartas converted to the tenets of Sankaracharya.

Besides worshipping the higher Hindu deities,

also

the Nayars

manifest their adoration

for

several

minor ones, such as Matan, Utayam, Yakshi, Chattan, Chantakarnan, Murti, Maruta, and Arukula. Most of
these

have granite
as a sword

representations,

or

at

least

such

emblems

or a cane, and are provided with

a local habitation.

Besides these, persons

who have met

died before

with accidental death, and girls

their
tali-tying

who have
specially

ceremony,

are

worshipped

under the designations of Kazhichchavu and Kannich-

some fear, and talismanic amulets are attached to the waist by members of both sexes. Kuttichattan, the mischievous imp of Malabar,
chavu.

Magicians are held

in

is

supposed to cause much misery.

Various

spirits

Tiruvonam day in the month of Avani (August-September), on the Uchcharam or 28th

are worshipped on the
v-24

NAYAR
day of

370

Makarom

(January- February),
Kolam-tullal,

and on some
Velan-pravarti,

Tuesdays and Fridays.

of other

Ayiramaniyam-tullel, Chavuttu, Tila-homam, and a host

ceremonies are

performed

with a view to

propitiate spirits,

and the assistance of the Kaniyans

sought.
Serpents,
too,

and Velans

is

largely

whose

images arc located on the north-western side of most gardens in Central and North Travancore, receive a
large

share of

adoration.

The sun
the
of

is

an object of
cannot
be
the

universal
studied,

worship.
or

Though

Gayatri

the

Sandhyavandanam

Brahmans

performed, an offering of water to the sun after a bath,

to the

accompaniment of some hymn,

and repeated
is

is

made by almost
is

every pious Nayar.

The Panchakshara
daily.

learnt from

an

Ilayatu,

large portion of the

time of an old Nayar

spent in reading the Ramayana,

into

Bhagavata and Mahabharata, rendered

Makiyalam

by Tunchattu Ezhuttachhan, the greatest poet of the Malabar coast. Many places in Travancore are pointed
out as the scene of mem.orable incidents
in

the

Ramayana

and Mahabharata. There are many temples, tanks, and mountains connected with Rama's march to the
capital of

Ravana.

Equally important are the singular

feats said to have

been performed by the

in

five

Pandavas

during the time of their wanderings

the battle of Kurukshetra.

the jungles before

Bhima

especially has built

temples,

raised

up huge

mountains,

and

performed

many
some
where

other gigantic tasks in the country.

village temples
all

There are

owned

exclusively by the Nayars,

the karakkars (villagers) assemble on special

occasions.

A very peculiar socio-religious ceremony peris

formed here
tration of the

the kuttam.

This

is

a village council,
for the

held at the beginning of every

month

adminis-

communal

affairs of

the caste, though, at

371
the present
clay,

nAyar

a sumptuous feast at the cost of each

villager in rotation,

and partaken of by
Astrology

all

assembled,

and a small offering

to

to the temple, are all that remains

is

commemorate
its

it.

believed

in,

and some due

of

votaries are spoken of as Trikalagnas, or those

who know
to a curse

the

past,

present,

and

future.

It

is

of Siva

on the science of
to

his son,

who made
in

bold by
father,

its

means

predict even the future of his

that occasional

mistakes are said to occur

astrological

calculations.

Sorcery and witchcraft

are

believed

to

be potent

powers

for

evil.

To make

person imbecile, to paralyse his limbs, to cause him

to lavish
all

his

wealth upon another, to make him deaf

if

and dumb, and,

ordinary

need
to

be,

even to make an end of him,

are not supposed

wizard.

be beyond the powers of the

Next to wizardry and astrology, palmistry, omens, and the lizard science are generally In the category of good omens are placed believed in.
full

the elephant, a pot

of water, sweetmeats,

fruit,
its

fish
calf,

and

flesh,

images of gods, kings, a cow with

of bad

married women, tied bullocks, gold lamps, ghee, milk, and

so on.

Under the head

etc.

omens come the donkey,

widow, patient,
all

a broom,
cat,

buffalo, untied bullock, barber,

washerman,

The worst

of

omens

is

beyond question

to allow a cat to cross one's path.

An

odd number of Nayars, and an even number of Brahmans, are good omens, the reverse being particularly bad. On the Vinayaka-chaturthi day in the month of Avani,
no man
"
is

permitted to look at the

rising

moon under
is

penalty of incurring unmerited obloquy.

The

chief religious festival of the Nayars

Onam,

which takes place in the last week of August, or first week of September. It is a time of rejoicing and merriment.

Father Paulinus, writing

V-24 B

in

the latter half of the

nAyar

z^i
the tenth
All

eighteenth century, observes that about

of

September the
seems then as
if

rain

ceases
;

in

Malabar.

nature

renovated

the flowers again shoot up,

is

and the trees bloom. In a word, this season same as that which Europeans call spring. The
festival
is

the

Onam
for the
fruitful

said, therefore, to

have been instituted

purpose of soliciting from the gods a happy and

year.
It

continues for eight days, and during that time

the Indians are accustomed to adorn their houses with

flowers,

and
is

to

the cow

a sacred animal, dedicated to the

daub them over with cow-dung, because Goddess

Lakshmi, the Ceres of India. put on new clothes, throw away

On
all
is,

this occasion they also

their old earthenware,

and replace

it

by new.

Onam

according to some, the

annual celebration of the Malabar

which first began with Cheraman Perumal's departure for Mecca. But, with the majority of orthodox Hindus, it is the day
year,

new

of the annual visit of Mahabali to his country, which he

used to govern so wisely and well before his overthrow.

There

is

also a belief that

it

is

Onam
just

day, pays a visit to this

Maha- Vishnu who, on mundane universe, for the

is

and proper maintenance of which he

In

specially

responsible.

horoscopes, Mr.

some North Malabar title-deeds and Logan says, the year is taken as ending with the day previous to Onam. This fact, he notes, is
quite reconcileable with the other

explanation, which

alleges

that

the

commencement

of the

era coincides
is

with Perumal's departure for Arabia,

as
is

if it

assumed,

not improbable, that the day on which he sailed

was Thiruvonam day, on which acknowledgment of fealty should have been made. Onam, it may be observed, is a contraction of Thiruvonam which is the asterism
of the
festival,

second

day of the
five

festival.

Throughout the

boys from

to

fifteen

years of age go out

Z7?>

nayar

early in the

morning
tulasi

to

gather flowers, of which the

kadaH
in

is

the most important.

On

their return,

they

sit

front of the

(sacred basil)

mandapam, make a
in

carpet-like bed of the blossoms which they have collected,

and place a clay image of Ganapati

writer
in

the centre.

the Calcutta

Review

* describes

how having
and then the

set out at

dawn

to gather blossoms, the children return

a.m.,

with their beautiful spoils by 9 or 10

daily decoration begins.

The

chief decoration consists

of a carpet

made out

of the gathered blossoms, the

in their entirety,

smaller ones being used

flowers,
tints,

while the large

and one or two

varieties of foliage of different

little

are

pinched up into

pieces

to
is

serve

the

decorator's purpose.

This flower carpet

Often

invariably

made
of the
art,

in

the centre of the clean strip of yard in front

neat house.

it

is

a beautiful work of

accomplished with a delicate touch and a highly

sense
of

artistic

tone

and

blending.

The

carpet
little

completed, a miniature pandal (booth), hung with

festoons,
is

erected over
in,

it,

and

at all hours of the

day

neighbours look
handiwork.''
"

to

admire and

criticise the beautiful

Various

field sports,
in

of which foot-ball

is

the chief,

are indulged

during the
the

Onam

festival.

To

quote

Paulinus once more,

men, particularly those who

are young, form themselves into parties, and shoot at

each other with arrows.

that a considerable

These arrows are blunted, but

exceedingly strong, and are discharged with such force

both sides.
Ceralia

number are generally wounded on These games have a great likeness to the
Juvenalia
of

and

the

ancient

Greeks

and

Romans."
* January,
1S99.

NAYAR
In connection with

374

writes that "

once witnessed a very interesting

bows and arrows, Mr. Fawcett game

by the Nayars
in the

called eitu (eiththu), played

south-

ern

Kurumbranad during the ten days preceding Onam. There is a semi-circular stop-butt,
portion
of
in the highest part, the centre,

about two feet

to the

and sloping

ground

at

each

side.

The

players stand 25 to
it,

30 yards before the concave side of

players to the right, the other to the

one side of the

There is no Each player is armed restriction of numbers as to sides. of bamboo, about 18 inches in with a little bow made length, and arrows, or what answer for arrows, these
left.

being no more than pieces of the midrib of the cocoanut

palm
end

leaf,

roughly broken

off,

leaving a

little bit

of the

to take the place of the feather.

In the centre of the

stop-butt,

on the ground,
in

is

placed the target, a piece of

the heart of the plantain tree, about 3 inches in diameter,

pointed at the top,

which

is

stuck a

small stick
is

convenient for

lifting the

cheppu, as the mark which

is

the immediate objective of the players

called.

They
hits
it

shoot indiscriminately at the mark, and he

(the
little

who
in

arrows shoot straight, and stick

readily)

carries off all the arrows lying

on the ground.

Each side

strives to secure all the arrows,

and

to deprive the other

side of theirs

a
it.

sort of
last

'beggar
all

my

neighbour.'
;

He
is,

who who

hits the hits

it,

mark

takes

the arrows

that

he

and runs and touches the mark before any

one else
while the

hits

several times that as

As I stood watching, it happened many as four arrows hit the mark, youth who had hit first was running the 25
Before he could touch
it, it,

yards to touch the cheppu.

as

many as four he who hit it

arrows

other arrows had struck

last

and, of course,
all

and touched the mark secured

the

for his side.

The game

is

accompanied by much

375
shouting, gesticulation and laughter.
after securing a large
saults,

nAyar
Those
returning,

number of arrows, turned somerin saltatory

and expressed their joy

motions."

In

a note on this branad,

game

with bows and arrows in

Kurum-

Mr, E. F. Thomas writes that " the players form themselves into two sides, which shoot alternately Beside the mark stand representatives of at the mark.
the two sides.

When
lists.

the

mark

is

hit

by a member of
'

either side, on his representative shouting

Run, man,'

he runs up the
before
it is

His object
all

is

to seize the

mark
If

hit

by any one belonging to the other

side takes
in

side.

he can do
shot,

this, his

the arrows which have been

If,

and are sticking

the stop -butt.

on the other

hand, the
it,

mark

is

hit

by the other side before he reaches

he

may
hit

not seize the mark.

A member of the other side

mark
If
if

runs up
it is

in

his turn to seize the

first

possible before
this,

again by the
all

side.

he can do

he

takes out, not

the arrows, but only the two which are

If,

sticking in the mark.

while

number two

is

running,
first
is

the

mark

is

hit

a third time, a

member

of the

side

runs up, to seize the

mark

if

possible.

The

rule

that

one or three
excitement

hits take all

the arrows in the stop-butt,

in

two or four only the arrows sticking

is

the mark.
in

Great

shown by

all

who

take part

the game,
is

which attracts a number

others.
out.
I

of spectators.

The game
is

played every fortnight by Nayars, Tiyans, Mappillas, and

I

am
it

told that
at

it is

a very old one, and

dying

saw

Naduvanur."
in

The Onam games

to be of a

the south-east of Malabar, in

the neighbourhood of Palghat, are said by Mr, Fawcett

rough character,
in

" the tenants of certain

jenmis

(landlords) turning out each under their

engaging
play.

sham
too,

fights,
is

in

own leader, and which there is much rough

which

Here,

to be seen a kind of boxing,

NAYAR
would seem
to be

376
a
relic

of the days of the

Roman

pugiles using the cestus in combat.

up by the combatants
pugiles.

is

much

the

The same

position taken
as that of the

The Romans were

familiar with

Malabar from

about 30 B.C. to the decline of their power.*

safely assume demanded as

We may
he

that the 3,000 lbs. of pepper, which Alaric

part
city

of the ransom
in

of

Rome when
came

besieged the

the

fifth

century,

from
to the

Malabar."

Swinging on the

uzhinjal,

and dancing

accompaniment of merry songs, are said to be characteristic amusements of the womankind during Onam festival, and, on the Patinaram Makam, or sixteenth day This amusement is indulged in by after Thiruvonam. both sexes. It is noted by Mr. Fawcett that " the cloths given as Onam presents are yellow, or some part of them There must be at least a yellow stripe or a is yellow.
small patch of yellow in a corner, which suggests a relic

of sun-worship

in

a form more pronounced than that

It is

which obtains
the time

at present.
first

a harvest festival, about

is

when the

crop of paddy (rice)

harvested."

the Thiruvathira,
follows. t

Malabar, Concerning another important Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar writes as

festival in

" Thiruvathira

is

one
It

of

the

three

great

national occasions of Malabar.

in the

generally comes off

Malayalam month of Dhanu (December or JanuIt

is

ary) on the day called the Thiruvathira day.

essentially a festival in

which females are almost exclulasts for

it

sively concerned,

and

but a single day.

it

The

popular conception of
of the death of

is

that

is in

commemoration
of our national

Kamadevan, the Cupid

in

mythology.

As recorded
Catalogue
of

the old Puranas,

etc.,

Kamadevan

See Thurston.
cd.,

Roman,

Coins,

Madras Government

Museum, 2nd

1894.
its P'olk,

t Malabar and

1900.

Y,

.^^mmm-

377

nAyar
of the third eye of Siva,

was destroyed
he

in

the burning

fire

one of the chief members of our divine Trinity.

is

Hence
rather

now supposed
existence,

to

have only an ideal

he
exerts
of

or

spiritual

and thus

a powerful
nature.

influence

upon the
us,

lower passions

human
is

The memory alive among

of this

unhappy tragedy
the

still

kept

particularly

female

section,

by

means of the annual celebration of this important festival. About a week before the day, the festival practically opens. At about four in the morning, every young female of Nair families with pretensions to
decency gets out of bed,
tank.

and

takes

her
of

bath

in

Usually a

fairly

large

number

these

young
all,

ladies collect at the tank for the purpose.

Then

or
to

almost

all

of them,

plunge

in the water,
is

and begin

take part in the singing that

of

presently to follow.

One

by means of a peculiar rhythmic song, chiefly pertaining to Cupid. This singing is simultaneously accompanied by a curious sound produced
off

them then leads

with her hand on the water.

is

The palm

of the

left

hand

closed,

and kept immediately underneath the surface

of the water.

Then
in

the palm of the other

is

forcibly

brought down
its

a slanting direction,
is

and struck against

ruffled,

surface, so that the water

all

completely

and

is

splashed in

directions,
is

producing a loud deep noise.

This process
the singing.

continuously prolonged, together with

stanza
is

One

now over along with

the

sound, and then the leader stops awhile for the others to
follow in her wake.

This being likewise over, she caps

until the

her

first

stanza with another, at the same time beating

on the water, and so on

All of

conclusion of the song.

them make a long pause, and then begin another.

on
until

The

process goes

the

peep of dawn, when

to

they rub

themselves dry,

and come home

dress

nAyar
themselves
in

z7^
the neatest and grandest possible
attire.

They
ghee,

also

darken the fringes of their eyelids with

a
or

sticky preparation of soot

mixed up with a
superficial

little

oil

and

sometimes

with a

coating

of

They also wear white, black, or red marks down the middle of their foreheads. They also chew betel, and thus redden their mouths and lips. They then proceed to the enjoyment of another prominent item of pleasure, viz., swinging to and fro on
antimony powder.

what is usually known as an uzhinjal, or swing made On the festival day, after the morning bath of bamboo.
is

over,

they take a light meal, and

is

in

the noon the

family dinner

voraciously attacked, the essential and

almost universal ingredients being ordinary ripe plantain

fruits,

and a delicious preparation of arrowroot powder

purified

and mixed with jaggery (crude sugar) or sugar,

Then,
till

and also cocoanut.

evening,
in.

dancing and

merry-making are ceaselessly indulged

The husband
bound
to

population are inexcusably required to be present in the

wives' houses before evening, as they are

do on
is

the

Onam

and Vishu occasions.

Failure to do this
first

looked upon as a step, or rather the

tion or divorce from the wife.

step,

on the

part of the defaulting husband towards a final separa-

Despite the rigour of

festival

the bleak

December season during which the

falls,

commonly

heightened inevitably by the constant

blowing of the cold east wind upon their moistened

frames, these lusty maidens derive considerable pleasure

from their early baths, and their

frolics

in

the water.

The

biting cold of the season, which

shiver and quiver, becomes to

their ecstatic
frolics

makes their persons them in the midst of all

viz.,

an additional source of pleasure.

the swinging and

The two

items described above,

beating of the water, have each their

own

distinctive

379
significance.

NAYAR
the

these

The former typifies maidens make in order to

attempt which

hang- themselves on

these instruments, and destroy their Hves in consequence

of the lamented demise of their sexual deity

Kamadevan.

The

beating on the water symbolises their beating their

chests in expression of their deep-felt sorrow caused by

their Cupid's death."

Yet

another

important

festival,

Vishu,
" Vishu,

is

thus the

described by Mr. Gopal Panikkar.

like

Onam

and Thiruvathira

festivals, is

a remarkable event

among us. Its duration is limited to one day. The ist of Metam (some day in April) is the unchangeable day, It is practically the astronomical new on which it falls.
year's day.

This was one of the periods when,

subjects of ruling

in

olden

days, the

princes or authorities in

Malabar, under
to

whom
new

their lots

were

cast,

were expected
time-

bring their
to

year's

offerings

to such princes.

Failure

comply
manifold

with

the

customary and
of

consecrated demands was visited with royal displeasure,

resulting
British
in

varieties

oppression.

The

Government, finding this was a great burden, pressing rather heavily upon the people, obtained as
far

back as 1790 a binding promise from those Native Princes that such exactions of presents from the people
should be discontinued thereafter.
festival is now^

Consequently the
ancient sanctity and

shorn of

much

of

its

splendour.
still

But suggestive survivals of the same are

in

to

be found

the presents,

which tenants and

dependents bring to leading families on the day previous

to the Vishu.

Being the commencement of a new year,

it

native superstition surrounds

with a peculiar solemn

importance.
in life

It is

believed that a man's whole prosperity

of the

depends upon the nature, auspicious or otherwise, first things that he happens to fix his eyes upon

NAYAR
on
this
particLilcir

380
morning.

According to Nair, and even general Hindu mythology, there are certain objects which possess an inherent inauspicious character. For
instance,

ashes,

firewood,

oil,

and a

lot

of similar

objects are inauspicious ones, which will render

him who
for

chances to notice them

first

fare badly in life

effects will

the

whole year, and their obnoxious

oxen, cows, gold, and such
like,

be removed

only on his seeing holy things, such as reigning princes,

on the morning of the

next new

year.

The

effects of the sight of these various

materials are said to apply even to the attainment of

objects by a

man

starting

on a special errand,

who

happens

for the first

time to look at them after starting.

However, with
the

this view,

almost every family religiously

Therefore,
is
is

takes care to prepare the most sightworthy objects on

new year morning.

on the previous

night they prepare what

circular bell-metal vessel

known
it.

as a kani.

small

taken, and

some holy

objects

are systematically arranged inside

A
'

grandha or old

book made of palmyra newwashed cloth, some unprofitably gay flowers of the konna tree [Cassia Fistula), a measure of rice, a so-called
leaves, a gold ornament, a
*

looking-glass
are
all

made

of bell-metal, and a few other things,

in the

tastefully

arranged

vessel,

and placed
lamps,

in

a prominent room inside the house.

of this
vessel

On

either side
filled

two
oil

brass

or

bell-metal

diamond sparks, are kept burning, and a small plank of wood, or some other seat, is placed in front of it. At about 5 o'clock in the morning of the day, some one who has got up first
with cocoanut
clear as

wakes up the inmates, both male and female, of the house, and takes them blindfolded, so that they may
not gaze at anything else, to the seat near the kani.

The
and

members

are seated, one after another, in the seat,

381
are then, and not
till

NAYAR

then, asked to open their eyes, and

carefully look at the kani.

at

Then each
little

is

made

to look

some venerable member

fire

of the house, or sometimes

playful urchins

a stranger even.

This over, the

of the house begin to

small crackers, which they

the occasion.

have bought and

is

stored for

The

kani

then taken round the place from house to house for

the benefit of the poor families, which cannot afford to

prepare such a costly adornment.

With

the close of the

noise of the crackers, the morning breaks, and preparations are

in

begun

for the

morning meal.

This meal

is

some parts confined to rice kanji (gruel) with a grand appendage of other eatable substances, and in others to
ordinary rice and
its

accompaniments, but
the junior

in either

case

on a grand

scale.

Immediately the day dawns, the heads

all

of the families give to almost

members and
In the

servants of the household, and to wives and children,

money presents
more
also

to serve as their

pocket-money.

numerically large

families,

similar presents are

made by

the heads of particular branches of

the

same family

to their juniors, children,

wives and servants.

festival

One

other item

connected with the

deserves

mention.

On

the evening of the previous

day, about

four or five o'clock, most well-to-do families distribute

paddy or rice, as the case may be, in varying quantities, and some other accessories to the family workmen, whether they live on the family estates or not. In
return
for
this,

these

labourers
of their

bring with them for

presentation

the fruits

own

labours, such as
oil,

vegetables of divers sorts, cocoanut

tains,

jaggery, planof

pumpkins, cucumbers, brinjals

etc.,

(fruit

Solanum

Melongena),

according as their respective circum-

stances permit.

With the

close

of the

midday meal
families, after

the festival practically concludes.

In

some

NAYAR
the meal
is

3S2
over, dancing

and games of various kinds

are carried on, which contribute to the enhancement of the pleasantries incidental to the festival.

prominent occasions,
also resorted
to.''

As on other card-playing and other games are

Mr. Fawcett writes as

On
follows.

the subject of religion,

"

No

Nayar, unless one utterly degraded by

office,

the exigencies of a Government

would eat

his
It

food without having bathed and changed his cloth.

is

a rule seldom broken that every

at least

Nayar goes

to the
;

temple to pray

once a day after having bathed

generally twice a day. The mere approach anywhere near his vicinity of a Cheruman, a Pulayan, or any
inferior being,

even a Tiyan, as he walks to his house

in

from the temple, cleansed

body and mind,

his

marks
is

newly

set

on

his forehead

with sandal-wood paste,

pollution,

and he must turn and bathe again ere he

eat.

can enter his house and

thus approaching a

Buchanan

tells

us that in

his time, about a century ago, the

man

of inferior caste

Nayar would be

cut

down

instantly

with a sword

there would be no words.

Now

that

the people of India are inconvenienced with an

Arms
alike,

Act which
the

inhibits

sword play of

this kind,

and with a

law system under which high and low are rated

Nayar has
shout
stalks on

to content himself with an imperious

for

grunt-like
as he

the

way

to be

cleared

for

him

His arrogance is not diminished, but he cannot now show it in quite the same way.
imperturbed.
"
I

will

attempt a description

of

the

ceremonial

observed at the Pishari kavu

the

Pishari temple near

Quilandy on the coast 15 miles north of Calicut, where Bhagavati is supposed in vague legend to have slain
an Asura or gigantic ogre,
in

commemoration

of which

3^3
event the festival
followers.
is

nAyar

held yearly to Bhagavati and her

The

festival lasts for

seven days.

When

visited

it

in 1895, the last

day was on the 31st of March.

first

Before daybreak of the

priest,

day, the ordinary temple

a
it

Mussad,
and made

will
it

leave the temple after

;

having

swept
five

clean

and

(also before

daybreak)

Nambutiris

will enter
is

it,

bearing with them sudhi

kalasam.
five

on this occasion made of the products of the cow (panchagavyam), together with
tree,

The kalasam

some water, a few leaves of the banyan

grass, all in

and darbha one vessel. Before being brought to the temple, mantrams or magic verses will have been said
over
it.

The

contents of the vessel are sprinkled

little
is

all

about the temple, and a

put

in

the well, thus

purifying the temple and the

will

well.

The Nambutiris

then perform the usual morning worship, and, either

it

immediately after

or very soon afterwards, they leave

the temple, and the Mussad returns and resumes his

office.

The temple belongs

it

sooner has

to four taravads, and no been purified than the Karanavans of

these four taravads, virtually the joint-owners

of the

temple (known as Uralas) present to the temple servant

(Pisharodi) the silver flag of the temple, which has been
in

the custody of one of them since the Pisharodi receives

east),
it,

last

festival.

The

and hoists

it

in

front of the

temple (to the

begun.
is

thus signifying that the festival has

While

this

is

being done, emphasis and grandeur

given to the occasion by the firing off of miniature

mortars such as are

After the flag
is

common

at all

South Indian
cloth.
to

festivals.

hoisted, there are hoisted all

round the

temple small flags of coloured

few days there
is

nothing particular

For the next be done beyond

;

the procession morning, noon, and night

the image of

Bhagavati being carried on an elephant to an orchestra

NAYAR

384
little

of drums, and cannonade of the

mortars.

All those

who
day,

are present are supposed to be fed from the temple.

is

There
a

a large crowd.
of

On

the morning of the

fifth

man
to

the

washerman

(Vannan) caste

will

announce
there will

the neighbours by beat of tom-tom that

be a procession of Bhagavati issuing from the

gates of the temple, and passing round about. those

this

Like

all

who

are

in

any way connected with the temple,

is

man's

office

hereditary, and he lives to a small

i.e.,

extent on the bounty of the temple,

land on nominal terms

he holds a

little

from the temple property,

fulfil

in

consideration for which he must

certain requirefestivals.

ments

for the temple, as

on occasions of

His com-

office also invests

him with

certain rights in the

fifth

munity.

In the afternoon of the

day, the

Vannan

and a Manutan, the one following the other, bring two

umbrellas to the temple
cloth,
;

the former bringing one of

I

and the latter one of cadjan (palm leaves). am not sure whether the cloth umbrella has been At the possession of the Vannan, but think it has.
events,

in
all

when he brings
is

it

to the temple,
is

it

is

in

thorough

repair

condition for which he

responsible.

The

cadjan umbrella

new

one.

Following these two as

is

they walk solemnly, each with his umbrella, crowd.

a large

There are processions of Bhagavati on the

Early on the sixth day, the head(fishermen),

elephant encircling the temple thrice in the morning, at

noon, and at night.

man

of the

Mukkuvans
is

who by

virtue of

his headship

called the Arayan,

together with the

blacksmith and the goldsmith, comes to the temple

followed by a crowd, but accompanied by no orchestra of

drums.

To

the Arayan

is

given half a sack of

rice for

himself and his followers.

to the

silver

umbrella belonging

temple

is

handed over

to him, to be used

when

^^-

2 <

385

NAYAR
in the evening.

he comes to the temple again

blacksmith
is

To

the

given the temple sword.

silver

The goldsmith
Arayan,

receives the

umbrella from

the

and
the

executes any repairs that

may be

needful, and, in like

manner, the blacksmith looks to the sword.

afternoon, the

In

headman

of the Tiyans, called the Tandan,

his

comes

to the

temple followed by two of

castemen

carrying slung on a pole over their

shoulders three
offering, the
is

bunches of young cocoanuts

an appropriate
will

Tiyans being those whose ordinary profession

climb-

ing the cocoanut palm, drawing the toddy, securing the

cocoanuts, etc.

This time there

be loud drumming,

and a large crowd with the Tandan, and in front of him are men dancing, imitating sword play with sticks and shields, clanging the shields, pulling at bows as if firing
off

imaginary arrows, the while shouting and yelling

madly.

Then come

the blacksmith and the goldsmith

with the sword.

silver

Following comes the Arayan with the

under a canopy of red cloth held

umbrella to the accompaniment of very noisy

in great state

drumming,

lengthways by two men, one before, the other behind. The procession of Bhagavati continues throughout the
night,

and ceases

at

daybreak.

festival are called

Vilakku.

These six days of the word about the drumming.

counted
fifty, all

The number

of instrumentalists increases as the festival

last

goes on, and on the

day
the

Nayars.

The instruments were

about ij
feet in

ordinary

tom-tom, a skin

stretched tight over one side of a circular

wooden band,

diameter and
long drum
;

or 3 inches in width,

and the
than
those

common
in

in the

middle

narrow

at the ends and there were (I think) a few of the middle, something like an hour-

much narrower

glass cut short at both

ends.

They

are beaten with

curved drum
v-25

sticks,

thicker at the end held in the hand.

NAYAR
The accuracy with which
petually,

386
they were played on, never a
per-

wrong note although the rhythm was changed

was
truly amazing.

And

the crescendo and

diminuendo,

from a perfect fury of wildness to the

gentlest pianissimo,

was equally astonishing, especially when we consider the fact that there was no visible
leader of this strange orchestra.

Early on the seventh

is

and

last day,

when

the morning procession

over, there

comes to the temple a man of the Panan caste (umbrellamakers and devil-dancers). He carries a small cadjan umbrella which he has made himself, adorned all round the edges with a fringe of the young leaves of the His approach is heralded and noised cocoanut palm. just as in the case of the others on the previous day.

The

umbrella should have a long handle, and, with

it

in

his hand, he performs a dance before the temple.

The

temple

is

situated within a hollow square enclosure,

in

which none
enter.
level

caste below the

To

the north, south,

Nayar east, and

is

permitted to
is

west, there

entrance into the hollow square, and beyond this

entrance no

man

of inferior caste

may

go.

The Panan
come
to

receives about 10 lbs. of raw rice for his performance.

In the afternoon, a small crowd of Vettuvars

the temple, carrying with

them swords, and about ten small baskets made of cocoanut palm leaves, containing These baskets are carried slung on a pole. The salt. I remember a case of a use of salt here is obscure.'*
Nayar's house having been plundered, the idol knocked
in the place where it should have was looked on as most insultine. The The stood. Vettuvans dance and shout in much excitement, cutting

down, and

salt

put

act

their

heads with their own swords

*

in their frenzy.

Some

The Vettuvans were once

salt-makers.

3^7
of

NAYAR

them represent devils or some kind of inferior evil spirits, and dance madly under the influence of the spirits which they represent. Then comes the Arayan
as on the previous day with his
lastly
little

procession, and

comes the blacksmith with the sword. The proEight elephants, cession in the evening is a great affair. which kept line beautifully, took part in it when I witnessed it. One of them, very handsomely caparisoned, had on its back a priest (Mussad) carrying a sword
smothered
goddess.
in

garlands of red flowers representing the

the priest
discs,
is

The elephant bearing

bedizened

on the forehead with two golden

side of the forehead,

one on each

and over the centre of the forehead hangs a long golden ornament. These discs on the
elephant's forehead are

ceremony.

common The Mappilla poets

girl's

in

Malabar

in affairs

of

are very fond of com-

paring a beautiful

breasts to these cup-like discs.

is

The

elephant bears other jewels, and over his back

large canopy- like red cloth richly wrought.

Before the
right

elephant walked a Nayar carrying

in

in

his

front of

him a sword of the kind

called

hand nandakam

smeared with white (probably sandal)

so that,

paste.

To

its

edge, at intervals of a few inches, are fastened tiny

bells,

when
Tiyans

it

is

shaken, there

is

a general jingle.
is

Just before the procession begins, there

for the to do.

something
having
five

Four men of
(flower

this caste

with

them

pukalasams

kalasams),

and

having jannakalasams, run along the west, north, and east sides of the temple outside the enclosure, shouting

and making a noise more like the barking of dogs than anything else. The kalasams contain arrack (liquor),
which
is

given to the temple to be used

in the

cere-

monies.

Members
v-25 B

of certain families only are allowed

to perform in this business,

and

for

what they do each


NAYAR
man
later.

3^^

receives five edangalis of rice from the temple,

is

and

a small piece of the ilesh of the goat which

sacrificed

These nine men eat only once a day during the they do no work, remaining quietly at home festival
;

unless

when

at the

temple

they cannot approach any one

;

of caste lower than their

own they cannot

cohabit with

women

and they cannot see a

woman

in

menstruation

during these days.

less in this,

A
They

rushing about and barking

crowd of Tiyans join more or like dogs, making

too have kalasams, and,

a hideous noise.

when

they are tired of rushing and barking, they drink the

arrack
in

them.

These men are always under a vow.

fulfil

In doing what they do, they

their

vow

for

the

benefit they have already received from the goddess

cure

from sickness as a
is

rule.
it

To

the west of the

fire-pit,

temple

a circular pit
fire in it

there was no
of

and

was called the

this pit all the

but

Tiyan women
passing

the neighbourhood

circumambulate,

from

west round by north, three times, holding on the head

a pewter plate, on which are a
leaves
little rice, bits

of plantain

and cocoanut, and a burning wick.

completes her third round,
at the

As each
for

woman
moment

she

stands

western

side, facing east,

pit.

contents of the plate into the

and throws the She then goes to the

to the

western gate of the enclosure, and puts down her plate

for

an instant while she makes profound salaam

goddess ere going away.

Now

the procession starts

out from the temple, issuing from the northern gate,

and for a moment confronts a being so strange that he demands description. Of the many familiar demons of the Malayfdis, the two most intimate are Kuttichchattan and Gulikan, who are supposed to have assisted Kali (who is scarcely the Kali of Brahmanism) in overcoming the Asura, and on the occasion of this festival these

389

NAYAR
is

demons dance before her. Gulikan the Vannan and Kuttichchattan by

restrictions with the nine Tiyans.
I

represented by

the

Manutan who

have been already mentioned, and who are under Hke

saw poor Guhkan

six
I

being made up,

the

operation occupying five or

hours or more before his appearance.

asked who
looked mild

he was, and was told he was a

lying

devil.

He

enough, but then his make-up had just begun.

fiat

He was
man
This

on the ground close by the north-east entrance

of the enclosure, where presently he

painting his face to

make

it

was hideous and

;

to dance, a
frightful.

done, the hair was dressed

large

bangles were put

them almost completely from the and his head and neck were swathed and decorated. A wooden platform arrangement, from which hung a red ornamented skirt, was
on
his arms, covering

shoulder to the wrist

fastened to his hips.

There was fastened

to his

back

an elongated Prince of Wales' feathers arrangement,

the top of which reached five feet above his head, and

he was made to look like nothing human.

chattan was treated in

Kuttich-

much

the

same manner.

As

the

procession issues from the northern gate of the temple,

where
in

it

is

joined

by the elephants, Gulikan stands

(which he
for three

the northern

entrance of the enclosure

it,

cannot enter), facing

and a halt

is

made
old

minutes, while Gulikan dances.

The poor

man who
in his

represented this fearful being, grotesquely terrible

wonderful metamorphosis,

must have been extremely

glad when his dance was concluded, for the mere weight

and uncomfortable
difficulty

arrangement of his paraphernalia

It

must have been extremely exhausting.

that

was with

he could move at

all,

let

alone dance.

The

procession passes round by east,

of the
enclosure,

where, at the
gives
his

entrance

Kuttichchattan

nAyar

390

dance, round by south to the westward, and, leaving

the enclosure, proceeds to a certain banyan tree, under

which

is

a high raised platform built

up with earth

and stones.
fifty

Preceding the procession at a distance of

yards are the nine

men

of the Tiyan caste men-

tioned already, carrying kalasams on their heads, and a

crowd of women of the same caste, each one carrying a pewter plate, larger than the plates used when encircling the fire
pit,

on which are

rice, etc.,

and the burning

contents are
I

wick as before.
not

The

plate

and

its

on

this occasion, as well as before, called talapoli.

could
at the

make

out that anything in particular

is

done

banyan

tree,

and the procession soon returns

to the

temple, the nine

carrying their

women following, kalasams and talapoli. On the way, a

men and
the Tiyan
in sacrifice

number of cocks are given

vow.

by people under a

number of devil-dancers, garlanded with white Mowers of the pagoda tree mixed
In the procession are a

with red, jumping, gesticulating, and shouting,

in

an

avenue of the crowd in front of the elephant bearing the

sword.

The person under

vow

holds the cock towards

one of these devil-dancers, who, never ceasing his gyrations and contortions, presently seizes its head, wrings
it

off,

and

flings

it

high

in

the

air.

The vows which

for

are fulfilled by this rude decapitation of cocks have been

made in order The procession

to east,

to bring

about cure

some

ailment.

passes through the temple yard from west

tree,

and proceeds half a mile to a banyan

is

under

which, like the other, there

a high raised platform.

When
nine

passing by the temple, the Tiyan

fire pit

women empty the

and the

contents of their plates in the

as before,

men hand

over the arrack in their kalasams to

the temple servants.

tribution of the rice

Let

me

note here the curious dis-

which

is

heaped

in

the

fire

pit.

391

NAYAR
Tiyans who carried the
five

Two-thirds of
jannakalasams.
it

it

go

to the four

pukalasams, and one-third to the

who

carried the

Returning to the procession, we find

at the raised platform to the east of the temple.

On
and

this platform

have been placed already an ordinary bamrice),

boo quart-like measure of paddy (unhusked

one of
rice,

each covered with a plantain

leaf.

The

princi-

pal devil-dancer takes a handful of rice

flings
it

and paddy, and

all

around.

The

procession then visits in turn the

gates of the gardens of the four owners of the temple.

At each

is

a measure of rice and a measure of paddy

leaves, with

covered with plantain

small

lamp or

burning wick beside them, and the devil-dancer throws

a handful towards the house.
its

The

procession then finds

way

to a tree to
is

the west,

under which, on the

platform,

now

a measure of paddy and a lamp.

Some

Brahmans repeat mantrams, and

on
his

the elephant, the priest

his hand, all three are

back and the sword

to tremble

in

supposed

violently.

Up

to

this

time

the

procession has

moved

leisurely at a very slow march.

it

Now,

starting suddenly,

proceeds at a run to the

quickly

temple, where the priest descends

elephant, and
priests.
is

from the

taken inside the temple by the Mussad

all

He, who has been carrying the sword

it

this

time, places
it

on the

sill

of the door of the

room

in
it.

which

is

kept for worship, and prostrates before

itself for

The

sword then shakes

chief priest stays

fifteen minutes,

until the

its agitation by sprinkling on it some tirtam fluid made sacred by having been used for anointing the image of the goddess. This done, the chief amongst

the devil-dancers

will,

with

much

internal tumult as well

as outward convolutions, say in the

way of oracle whether

utterance, he falls

the devi has been pleased with the festival in her honour,
or not.

As he pronounces this oracular

nAyar
in

392

a sort of swoon, and everyone, excepting only the

priests

as

and temple servants, leaves the place as quickly The sheds which have been erected for possible.
will

temporary habitation around the temple

demolished, and search will be

be quickly
to

made round about

make

sure that no one remains near while the mystic rite

is

of sacrifice

about to be done.

When

the whole place

has been cleared, the four owners of the temple,

who

have stayed, hand over each a goat with a rope tied

round

its

neck to the chief

so, they depart.

priest, and, as

soon as they
in the

have done

There

will

remain now

temple three Mussads, one drummer (Marayar), and two

temple servants.
to
lie

The
I

reason for
it

all this

secrecy seems

in objection to let

be known generally that any

sacrifice is done.

was
It is

told again

and again that there

was no such thing.

priests repeat

a mystic secret.
for

The Mussad
an hour as a

mantrams over the goats

preliminary to the sacrifice.

Then
in his

the chief priest dons

a red

silk cloth,

and takes

hand a chopper-like
while

sword

in

shape something

like a small bill-hook,

the goats are taken to a certain room within the temple.

This room
to
it

is

rather a passage than a room, as there are

but two walls running north and south.

The goats
room,

are

made

to stand in turn in the middle of this

facing to the south.

The

chief priest stands to the east

its

of the goat, facing west, as he cuts off

head with the

Several cocks

chopper.

He

never ceases his mantrams, and the goats

effect of the
in

never flinch
are then

the

mantrams.
place,
is

sacrificed

the

same

and over the

carcasses of goats and cocks there

sprinkled charcoal

powder mixed in water (karutta gurusi) and saffron (turmeric) powder and lime-water (chukanna gurusi), the flow of mantrams never ceasing the while. The three Mussads only see the sacrifice a part of the rite which

:d

y:

Y.

< >

393
is

NAYAR
is

supremely

secret.

Equally so

that which follows.

The

carcass of one goat will be taken out of the temple

to the north side of the temple,
is

by the northern door

and from

this place
it

one of the temple servants, who

blindfolded, drags

three times round the temple, the

Mussads following closely, repeating their mantrams, the drummer in front beating his drum softly with his fingers. The drummer dare not look behind him, anddoes not know what is being done. After the third round, the drummer and the temple servant go away, and the three Mussads
cook some of the
cooked,
(lesh of the goats

and one or two of

This
rice,

the cocks (or a part of one) with

is

rice.

when

taken to the kavu (grove) to the north of the

temple, and there the

Mussads again

ply their mantrams.

As each mantram

is

ended, a handful of saffron (turmeric)

powder is flung on the rice, and all the time the drummer, who by this time has returned, keeps up an obligato
pianissimo with his drum, using his fingers.
the north, and the priests face the south.
priests run (not walk)

He

faces

Presently the

once round the temple, carrying

it

the cooked
ing

rice,

and scattering

wide as they go, repeattemple,

mantrams.

They

enter

the

and remain
is

within until daybreak.

until

No

one can leave the temple

morning comes.
and the
five

Before daybreak, the temple

thoroughly swept and cleaned, and then the Mussads go

out,

Nambutiris again enter before sunrise,

thrice in the day, for

and perform the ordinary worship

this

day only.

The

next morning, the Mussad priests

return and resume their duties.

Beyond noting
its

that the
religious

weirdness of the
effusion,
is

human
last

tumult, busy in

on the

night

enhanced by

fireworks,

mere description of the scene of the festival will not be attempted, and such charming adjuncts of it as the gallery of pretty Nayar women looking on from the

NAYAR
garden fence

394
at the seething procession in the lane

below

must be

left

to

the imagination.

It

will

have been

noticed that the Nambutiris hold aloof from the festival

they purify the temple before and

after,

but no more.

The importance attached to the various offices of those who are attached to the temple by however slender
a thread, was illustrated by a rather amusing squabble

between two of the Mukkuvans, an uncle and nephew, as to which of them should receive the silver umbrella
from the temple, and bear
to be repaired.
it

to the

house of the goldsmith

During the

festival,

one of them made a

fifty

rapid journey to the Zamorin (about

miles distant),

paid

some

fees,

and established himself as the senior who

is

had the right to carry the umbrella.

" in

An

important local festival

in

that held near Palghat,

November,

the

little

suburb Kalpati inhabited

east.

entirely

by Pattar Brahmans from the

it

But

it is

not
its

a true Malayali festival, and

existence, for
it

suffices to

mention

no way represents the religion of the Nayar. The dragging of cars, on which are placed the images of deities, common everywhere from the temple
in

of Jagganath at Puri in Orissa to

Cape Comorin,

is

quite

unknown
is

in

Malabar, excepting only at Kalpati, which

close to the eastern frontier of Malabar.

"

Near Chowghat (Chavagat), about 30 miles to the southward of Calicut, on the backwater, at a place called
Guruvayur,
the festival
is

a very important temple, the property of

the Zamorin, yielding a very

handsome revenue. I visited on one occasion, and purchase was made of

a few offerings such as are

faction of
in silver,

made

to the temple in satisinfant

vows

a very rude representation of an

leg,

a hand, a

an

ulcer,

a pair of eyes, and, most

curious of all, a silver string which represents a man, the

giver.

Symbolization of the offering of self

is

made by

395
a silver string as long as the giver
is
tall.

nAyar
Goldsmiths

working

in silver

and gold are

to be seen just outside the

gate of the temple, ready to provide at a moment's notice

the object any person intends to offer, in case he
is

not

already in possession of his votive offering.

of
is

7'he subject

vows can be touched on but incidentally here. A vow made by one desiring offspring, to have his hand or leg
fulfil

cured, to have an ulcer cured, to

soever,

any desire what-

and he decides

in

solemn affirmation to himself

child, a silver leg,

to give a silver
in the

image of a

and so

on,

event of his having fulfilment of his desire.

true Malayali festival
in
is

"

that held at Kottiyur in

North Malabar,
hills rising

the forest at the foot of the

Wynad

3,000 to 5,000 feet from the sides of the little

it is

glade where
height of the

situated.
rain.

It is

held in July during the

it is

monsoon

Though

a festival for

high and low, these do not mix at Kottiyur.

The Nayars
it is

go

first,

and after a few days, the Nayars having done,

the Tiyans, and so on.

A
it

curious feature of

that the

people going to attend

are distinctly rowdy, feeling

that they have a right to abuse in the vilest

and

filthiest

terms everyone they see on the way

perhaps a few days'

all

march.
content

And

not only do they abuse to their hearts'

in their

exuberant excitement, but they use

along the

personal violence to person and property

road.

They

return like lambs.

At Kottiyur one sees

(or

a temple of Isvara,

there called Perumal

Perumal

Isvara) by the people, a low thatched building forming

a hollow square,

in

the centre of which

see. out,

is

the shrine,

which I was not permitted to Nambutiri priests, who came

conversation.
in the forest
is

There were some and entered into

This spot

The

festival is not held at the temple, but

about a quarter of a mile distant.

dreadful.

deemed extremely sacred and

There was,

nAyar

396

however, no objection to myself and my companions we were simply begged not to go. There visiting it
;

were with us a Nayar and a Kurichchan, and the faces

of these men,
little

when we proceeded

to

wade through the

in

river,

knee-deep and about thirty yards wide,

order to reach the sacred spot, expressed anxious wonder.

They dared not acompany us across. No one (excepting, of course, a Muhammadan) would go near the place, unless during the few days of the festival, when it was
safe
;

at all other times

instantly.

any man going

to the place

is

destroyed

Nothing on

earth

would

have

persuaded the Nayar or the Kurichchiyan to cross that

Dante about to enter the Inferno, had not embarked on so About a hundred yards beyond the fearful a journey. stream, we came upon the sacred spot, a little glade in
river.

Orpheus proceeding

to find his Eurydice,

the forest.

In the centre of the glade

feet
in diameter.

is

a circle

of

piled

up

stones, 12
is

In the middle of

the pile of stones

a rude lingam.
is

Running

east from

the circle of the lingam

a long shed, in the middle of

which

is

a long raised platform of brick, used apparently

as a place for cooking.

also thatched sheds,
in

Around the lingam there were

which the people had lodged
this
festival

during the
carry with

festival.

Pilgrims going to

them

offerings of

some

kind.

Tiyans take

young cocoanuts. Every one who returns brings with him a swish made of split young leaves of the cocoanut
paJm.
1

"

Of
given

the
in

Kottiyur

festival,

the following account

is

the Gazetteer of Malabar.

little

"The Nambudiri
away
in the forest

priests live in a

wayside temple at Kottiyur, but

the true shrine

is

a quarter of a mile

across one of the feeder streams of the Valarpattanam

river.

For eleven months

in

the year, the

scene

is

Q <

397
inconceivably desolate and dreary
;

NAyar
but during the

month
for

Edavam (May- June) upwards

Tiyans from
all

of 50,000

Nayars and

parts of

Malabar throng the shrine

the twenty-eight days of the annual festival.

rest of the year, the

During the

temple

is

given up to the revels of

Siva and Parvati, and the impious Hindu

intrude
is

consumed

instantly to ashes.

who dares to The two great

ceremonies are the Neyyattam and the Elanirattam, the

pouring of ghee

(clarified butter)

and the pouring of the

is

milk of the green cocoanut.

The former
festival
all

performed

by the Nayars, who attend the

latter

first,

and the

by Tiyans.

In

May,

roads lead to Kottiyur,

and towards the middle of the month the ghee pourers, as the Nayar pilgrims are called, who have spent the previous four weeks in fasting and purificatory rites,
assemble
temple.
in

small shrines subordinate to the Kottiyur

in

Thence, clad

white,

and bearing
set

each

upon
from

his

head a pc^ of ghee, they

parts of
is

forth in large

bodies headed by a Itader.

all

At Manattana the pilgrims

to Kottiyur
their jour-

Malabar meet, and thence

unbroken.

the procession

However long

ney, the pilgrims

their

must eat only once, and the more filthy language, the more orthodox is their conduct.
as five thousand pots of

As many

the lingam every year.

the Nayars depart, and

ghee are poured over After the Neyyattam ceremony,

it

is

the turn of the Tiyans.

to
is

Their preparations are similar

those of the Nayars,

and

their

language en route
is

even more

startling.

Eruvatti near Kadirur

the pla^e where most of

them

assemble

for their pilgrimage,

and

their

green cocoanuts

are presented gratis by the country people as an offering

to the temple.

The

Elanirattam ceremony begins at

in

midnight, and the pilgrims heap up their cocoanuts

front of the shrine

continuously

till

the evening of the

nAyar
same day.
heap, and

398

Each Tiyan then marches

falls

thrice
;

round the
certain
to the

prostrate before the lingam

and a

Nayar sub-caste removes the husks preparatory

spilling of the milk.

The
in

festival finally closes

with a

mysterious ceremony,

a great

part,

which ghee and mantrams play performed for two days consecutively by
is

the presiding Nambiidiri, and Kottiyur

for

then deserted
" to

another year."
"

shrine," Mr.

Fawcett continues,
is

Malayalis, Nayars included, resort

at Palni in the

that of

which the Subramania

district

north-west corner of the

Madura

about a week's march from the confines of Malabar near

Palghat.
letting their

Not only are vows paid to this shrine, but men, hair grow for a year after their father's
it

death, proceed to have

cut there.

The

plate

shows

an ordinary Palni pilgrim.

is

The arrangement which he

There are two kinds of kavadi, a milk kavadi containing milk, and a fish kavadi
carrying
is

called a kavadi.

containing
respect

fish,

in

a pot.

The

vow^

may be made
near
for

in

of either,

each being appropriate to

the time comes

certain

circumstances.

When

the

pilgrim to start for Palni, he dresses in reddish orange

cloths, shoulders his kavadi,

and

with a

man

ringing a

bell,

starts out. Together and perhaps one with a

tom-tom, with ashes on his

of a
begraar.

face,

he assumes the role

to

The

well-to-do are inclined

reduce

the beggar period to the

minimum

but a beggar every

to Palni in all
fulfils

votary must be,

and as a beggar he goes

hair,

humbleness and humiliation, and there he

vow, leaves his kavadi and his

his

and a small sum of

very well the

money.

Though

the individuals about to be noticed

their cases
illustrate

were not Nayars,

religious idea of the

Nayar

as expressed under certain

circumstances, for between the Nayars and these there

399
is in

NAYAR
It

this respect little

in

if

any difference.

was

at

Guru-

vayur

November,

1895.

On

a high raised platform

under a peepul tree were a number of people under

vows, bound for Palni.

boy of 14 had suffered as a child from epilepsy, and seven years ago his father vowed on his behalf that, if he were cured, he would make the He wore a string of beads round pilgrimage to Palni.
his neck,

and a

like

string

on

his right arm.

were

in

some way connected with the vow.

sat

These His head

kavadi,

was bent, and he

his shoulder.

motionless under

his
it,

leaning on the bar, which,

when he

carried

rested on
it

He

could not go to Palni until

was

revealed to him in a dream

when he was
years,
rice.

to start.

He

had waited
roots

for this
etc.),

dream seven
and milk

subsisting on

(yams,

no

Now

he had
start.

had the long-looked -for dream, and was about to

Another pilgrim was a man wearing an oval band

silver

of

over the lower portion of the forehead, almost

;

covering his eyes

teeth,

his

tongue protruding beyond the by a

silver

and kept

in position

skewer through

it.

The skewer was

left in for

put

in

the day before, and was to be

forty days.

He
at a

had been fasting

for

two

years.

He was much

under the influence of his

S'od,

and

whacking incessantly
the mouth,

drum

in delirious

excitement.

Several of the pilgrims had a handkerchief tied over

they being under a

vow

of silence.

One

poor

man wore

the regular instrument of silence, the

silver

mouth-lock

wide

band over the mouth, and a

skewer piercing both cheeks.

He

sat patiently

in

nice tent-like affair, about three feet high.

People fed
procure
use

him with

milk, etc.,

and he made no

effort to

food, relying merely

on what was given him.

is

The

of the mouth-lock

common

with the Nayars when

;

they assume the pilgrim's robes and set out for Palni

nAyar
and
I

400

have often seen many of them garbed and mouth-

locked,

going

off

on

a
in

pilgrimage

to

that

place.

Pilgrims generally go

crowds under charge of a

priestly guide, one who, having

made

a certain

number

of journeys to

the shrine, wears a peculiar sash and

call

other gear.

They
all

themselves pujaris, and are quite

mi fait with
there,

the ceremonial prior to the journey, as

well as with the exigencies of the road.

As

stood
the

one

of

these

pujaris

stood

up

amidst

recumbent crowd.
temple a
little

He

raised his
we?.t,

hands towards the

and then spread out his hands as if invoking a blessing on the people around Full of religious fervour, he was (apparently at him.
to the

any

rate) unconscious of all but the spiritual

need of

his flock. " Brief

mention must be made of the

in

festival held

at

Kodungallur near Cranganore

it

the northernmost

corner of the Cochin State, as

possesses some strange

is

features peculiar to Malabar, and

much

frequented
in

by the Nayars.

have been disappointed

obtaining

particulars of the festival, so

make

the following excerpt

'

from Logan's Manual of Malabar.

in

It

takes the people

great crowds from their homes.

The whole country

"

near the lines

a Nada-a
"

of march rings with the shouts

Nada-

of the pilgrims to the favourite shrine.

Of

what takes place when the pilgrims reach

haps the
less said the better.

this spot per-

In their passage up to

Nada-a Nada-a" (march, march away) is varied by terms of unmeasured abuse levelled This abuat the goddess (a Bhagavati) of the shrine.
sive

the shrine, the cry of "

language
arrival
at

is

supposed to be acceptable to
shrine,

her.

On
they

the

they desecrate
this too
is

it

in

every

conceivable way, believing that

acceptable
volleys

throw

stones

and

filth,

howling

of

40I

NAYAR
The
chief of the fisherman

opprobrium
caste, styled

at

her house.

KuH
Into

Muttatta Arayan, has the privilege of

being the
or

first

to begin the

work of polluting the Bhoot

it

shrine.

other

particulars

is

unnecessary

to enter.

Cocks are slaughtered and sacrificed. The worshipper gets flowers only, and no holy water after
paying his vows.
serves out.

Instead of water, he proceeds outside

and drinks arrack or toddy, which an attendant Nayar

All castes are free to go, including Tiyars

and low caste people.

the

The temple was

originally only

a Bhoot or holy tree with a platform.

The image

in

temple

is

said to have been

It is

introduced only

of

Logan is so reticent. My information is that the headman of the Mukkuvans opens the festival by solemnly making a faecal deposit on the image. Here again there is the same strange
recent years.'
a pity Mr.

union of everything
irreverent, with every

that

is

filthy,

abusive, foul and

mode

of expressing the deepest

religious feeling."

Of
account

the cock festival at Cranganore,

is

the following
in his

given by Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar *

little

interesting

the midst

of

its

book on Malabar and its folk. " In native charms is situated a temple
the goddess

dedicated to
infectious

Kali,

who

presides over the

diseases,

cholera and

small-pox.

She

is

virgin goddess,

whom

no quantity of blood

will satisfy.

The temple
attached to
it

is

an old-fashioned one,

presenting no

striking architectural peculiarities,

l^he priestly classes

are not, as usual, Brahmins, but a peculiar

sect called Adigals, of

in

whom

there are but three families

are purposely

the whole of Malabar.

The Brahmins
in

excluded from participation

the poojah ceremonies,

* Malabar and

its

Folk, Madras, 1900.

V-26

nAyar
lest their

402

extreme sanctity might increase the powers

Poojahs are

of the goddess to a dangerous extent.

daily offered to her.

An

annual
this

festival

known
plays a

as the

Bharani,

connected with

goddess,

most
It

important part in the religious history of Malabar.

comes March
on

off in the

Malayalam month of Meenam (about

Pilgrimages undertaken to the temple

or April).

this

occasion are potent enough to safeguard the

pilgrims,

and

their

friends

and

relations,

from

the

perilous attacks of cholera and small-pox.

resort thither

Hence people
all

annually by thousands from almost

;

parts of Malabar

and, the

stronger will you find

more north you go, the the hold which the goddess has

upon the popular imagination. tory offering on the occasion

cocks.

The
is

chief propitiasacrifice

the

of

In
this
at

fact,

every family makes a point of under-

taking

sacred mission.

People arrange

to

start
in

on

it

an auspicious moment, on a fixed day

Preparations are
chillies,

small isolated bodies.

made

for the

journey.
nuts,

Rice,

salt,

curry-stuffs,

betel leaves

powder and pepper, and, and above all, a number of cocks form an almost complete paraphernalia of the pilgrimage. These are all
a
little

turmeric

gathered and preserved

bag.

in

separate bundles inside a large

When

the appointed hour comes, they throw this

bag on

their shoulders,

conceal their

money
in

in

their

girdles, and,

with a native-fashioned umbrella

in

the one

hand and a walking-stick

from his

the other, they start, each

own

house, to meet the

brother pilgrims at
practically

Here a foreman is selected by common consent. Then commences the

the rendezvous.
recitation of that series of obscene

vociferous

songs and ballads,

along.

which characterises the pilgrimage

all

The

fore-

man

it is

that opens the ball.

He

is

caught up by others

403
in equally

NAYAR
This
is

loud and profuse strains.

the beginning of their

continued

right

up

till

Nobody whom
fully

they come across

homeward journey. on the way can successPerhaps

it is

escape the coarse Billingsgate of these religious

zealots.

Even women

are not spared.

in

their case that the pilgrims

wax

all

the

more eloquently

vulgar.

number

of cock's feathers are stuck or tied

upon the

tip of a stick,

and with

this as a

wand they
extremely
pilgrims

begin to dance and pipe

in a set style,

which

is

revolting to every sense of decency.

Some of the

walk

all

the distance to the temple, while others

;

go by

boat or other conveyance

spare any passer-by.

but in neither case do they

Hundreds of gallons of arrack and

festival.

toddy are consumed during the

reach the temple
in

their

dirty

attire.

premises are crowded to overflowing.

the goddess
is

The pilgrims The temple The worship of

altar,

then commenced.

The

offerings consist

of the sacrifice of cocks at the temple

turmeric

powder, but principally of pepper, as also some other

objects of lesser importance.

particular spot inside

the temple
called

is

set

apart

for the distribution

of what

is

prasadam (turmeric powder on which divine blessings have been invoked). The work of is done by young maidens, who are during doling it out
manjal
the process subjected to ceaseless volleys of vile and

Now, leaving out of account the minor ceremonies, we come to the principal one, viz., the
vulgar abuse.
sacrifice of cocks.

The

popular idea

is

that the greater

is

the

number
number

of cocks sacrificed, the greater

the efficacy
in

of the pilgrimage.

Hence men

vie with

one another

the

of cocks that they carry on the journey.

is

The

sacrifice

begun, and then there takes place a

regular scramble for the sanctified spot reserved for this

butchering ceremony.
v-26 B

One man

holds a cock by the

nAyar
trunk,

404
pulls out
its

and another
knife, the

neck by the head, and,

in

the twinkling of an eye, by the intervention of a shar-

pened

head

is

severed from the trunk.

in forceful

The
jets,

blood then gushes forth

and continuous

and

is

poured on a piece of granite specially reserved.

is

Then another

similarly slaughtered,

and then as many

as each of the

pilgrims can bring. In no length of whole of the temple yard is converted into one time, the horrible expanse of blood, rendering it too slippery to be

safely

walked over.

The

piteous cries and death throes of

the poor devoted creatures greatly intensify the horror of

the scene.

The

stench emanating from the blood mixing

with the nauseating smell of arrack renders the occasion

all

the

more

revolting.

One
is

other higher and

more

acceptable kind of offering requires more than a passing

mention.

When

man

taken

ill

of

any infectious
goddess
for

disease, his relations generally pray to this

his recovery,

solemnly covenanting to perform what

goes by the name of a thulabharum ceremony.

consists in placing the patient in

This

one of the scale-pans

of a

huge balance, and weighing him against gold, or more generally pepper (and sometimes other substances

as well), deposited in the other scale-pan.

Then

this

weight of the substance

is

is

offered to the goddess.

This

to be performed right in front of the goddess in

the temple yard.

The

usual offerings being over, the

is

homeward journey of the pilgrims

the festival
is

begun.

Though
must

called Bharani, yet all the pilgrims

vacate the temple on the day previous to the Bharani

day.
all
is

For, from that

day onwards, the temple doors are

shut up, and, for the next seven days, the whole place

given over to the worst depredations of the countless

demons over whom this blood-thirsty goddess holds sway. No human beings can safely remain there, lest

405

NAYAR

they might become a prey to these ravenous demons.

In short, the Bharani day inaugurates a reign of terror
in the locality, lasting for these
all

seven days.
is

Afterwards,
cleansed and

the dirt

is

removed.
left

The temple

sanctified,

and again

open to public worship.

The
which

pilgrims return, but not in the same

manner
are

in

they repaired thither.

During the backward journey,

expressions

no obscene songs

or

indulged

in.

They
tive

are to

come back

quietly and calmly, without any

kind of demonstrations.

They

get back to their respec-

homes, and distribute the sandals and other pujah

relations

substances to their
elected to remain at
is

and

friends

who have

home

and the year's pilgrimage

brought to a close."

"

The month Karkkatakam," Mr. Fawcett writes, when the Malayalis say the body is cool, is the time
"
to

when, according

custom, the Nayar youths practice

physical exercises.
I

At

Payoli in North Malabar,

when

was there

in 1895,

the local instructor of athletics was

caste.

a Paravan, a

mason by
name,
it

As he had

the adjunct

Kurup
fact.

to his

took some time to discover the

ilk

Teachers of his
and,

are invariably of the Paravan

are

caste,

when they

believed to be

properly

accomplished, they are given the honorific Kurup.

carefully are things regulated that

So

no other person was

permitted to teach athletics within the

area, a small county),

amsham

(a local

and

his

womenfolk had

privileges,

they only being the midwives

who

could attend on the

Nayar women of the amsham. His fee for a course He, and of exercises for the month was ten rupees. some of his pupils, gave an exhibition of their quality.
Besides bodily contortions and somersaults, practiced
a long low-roofed shed having a sandy play with the following instruments
:

in
is

floor,
;

there

watta

cheruvadi,

nAyar
a short stick
;

406

and a

stick like a quarter-staff called a

sariravadi, or stick the length of one's body.

is

The

watta

held

in

the right hand

as a dagger

it

is

used to stab

or strike and, in
nent.

some ingenious way, turn over an oppolength of the watta

feet.
is

The

total

two

feet,

and of

the cheruvadi about three

at the ends,

The
staff.

latter is
It
is

squared

and

is

but a short

held in the
is

right

hand a few inches from the end, and and guarding

only.

used for
is

striking

The

sariravadi

held at
distance
is

or near one end by one or by both hands.

The

between the hands

is

altered constantly, and so

is

the

end of the
sometimes

stick,

which

grasped now by one, now by

another end by either hand, as occasion

it is

grasped in the middle.

may require The performance

;

with these simple things was astonishing.

the watta and the

should say
or

cheruvadi represented swords,

rather that they were used for initiation or practice in

swordmanship, when
element
in

the

Nayars were the

military

Malabar.

The opponents, who

if

faced each

other with the sariravadi or quarter-staff, stood thirty

feet

apart,

and, as

under the same stimulus, each

air,

kicked one leg high in the

gave several

lively

bounds

in

the

air,

held their staff horizontally in front

arms,

with out-stretched

came down slowly on the

on the ground, bent over,
forehead.
their feet,

haunches, placed the

staff

and touched

it

with the

bound they were again on

nail.

With a sudden and, after some

festive

preliminary pirouetting, went for each other tooth and

The sword

play,

which one sees during

like,
is

ceremonies, such as a marriage or the

the hereditary retainers,

done by
and

who

fight

imaginary

foes,

destroy and vanquish opponents with

of body, and always indulge in

much
is

contortion

much

of this preliminary

overture to their performance.

There

always,

by

407

NAyaR
air,

way

of preliminary, a high kick in the

followed by
turning,

squatting
twisting,

on the haunches, bounding

pirouetting,

high,

and

all

the time

swinging the

sword unceasingly above, below, behind the back, under

the

arm or legs, in ever so many impossible ways. Nayar shields are made of wood, covered with leather, usually coloured bright red. Within the boss are some
in a small space, so that
is

hard seeds, or metal balls loose

there
the ankles of the dancer,

a jingling sound like that of the small bells on

shaken

in

the hand.

when the The swords

shield

is

oscillated or

are those which were

used ordinarily for fighting.

many

patterns for

There are also swords of processional and other purposes, more

or less

ornamented about the handle, and half way up

writes,
^i

the blade."
"

The Nayars," Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar

distinct feudal organisation,

"have a

and the division of

to
it.

their territories

had an unmistakeable reference

The

territorial unit

Dasavazhi.

was the desam, presided over by a number of desams adjoining one another
was under the
jurisdiction of

constituted a nadu, which

a chieftain called the Naduvazhi.

Above the Naduvazhis

was the Rajah, the highest suzerain in the country. In course of time, each nadu split itself up into a certain number of taras, over the affairs of which a Karanavan,
or elder, presided.

An

assembly of these Karanavans

constituted

the

six

hundred
to in

an

old

socio-military

organisation of the Nayars in mediaeval times.

six

These

hundred are referred

two places

in

the second

Syrian Christian document, which bears the date 925 A.D. In a South Travancore inscription, dated 371

M.E., the same organisation

tarunuru,
or

is

referred to as Venat-

the six hundred of Venad, and

one of

their duties evidently related to the supervision of the

nAyar

408
institutions connected

working of temples and charitable

therewith.
ill

As Venad was divided

days,

into eighteen districts

ancient

there
in

might

have

been altogether

eighteen six hundred

the country.

The Naduvazhis
all social

possessed considerable authority in

matters,

and possessed enough lands to be cultivated by their Kudiyans. A feudal basis was laid for the whole organiLarge numbers served as soldiers in times of sation. war, and cultivated their lands when the country was In modern times, none of them take to military quiet. service in Travancore, except those employed as sepoys
in the

Nayar Brigade."
Mr. This
writes that they were, " until the British occupied

Concerning the organisation of the Nayars,

Logan

the country, the militia of the district (Malabar).

name

implies that they were the

leaders

'

of the people.

Originally they

seem

to

hundreds,

and each six

it

have been organised into six hundred seems to have had

all

assigned to
or country.

the protection of

the people in a nad

split

The nad was

in turn

up into

taras, a

Dravidian word signifying originally a foundation, the

foundation of a house, hence applied collectively to a
street,

as

in

Tamil

teru,

in

Telugu

teruvu,

and

in

Cemarese and Tulu teravu.

territorial

The
for

tara

unit of organisation

was the Nayar civil purposes, and

was governed by representatives of the caste, who were The six hundred was styled Karanavar or elders.
probably composed exclusively of those Karanavar or
elders,

who were in some parts called Mukhyastans men) or Madhyastans (mediators), or Pramanis (chief (chief men), and there seem to have been four families of them to each tara, so that the nad must have originally This tara orgaconsisted of one hundred and fifty taras. nisation of the protector caste played a most important

409
part in the political history of the country, for

nAyar
it

was

the great bulwark against the tyranny

and oppression

of the Rajas.

The
in

evidence of the Honourable East

India Company's linguist (interpreter, agent) at Calicut,

which appears
duced.

the diary of the Tellicherry Factory

1746, deserves to be here repro-

under date 28th May,

He

wrote as follows: 'These

Nayars,

being

heads of the Calicut people, resemble the parliament, and

do not obey the king's dictates in all things, but chastise his ministers when they do unwarrantable acts.' The
parliament
referred
to

(assembly)

of the

nad.

must have been the kuttam The kuttam answered many

purposes when combined action on the part of the

community was necessary. The Nayars assembled in their kuttams whenever hunting, or war, or arbitration, or what not was in hand, and this organisation does not
have been confined to Malabar, for the koot organisation of the people of South Canara gave the
to

seem

British officers

much

trouble in 1832-33.

In so far as
to

Malabar was concerned, the system seems

remained
British
in

have

an

efficient

state

down

to the time of the

occupation, and

the power

of the Rajas

was

strictly limited.

Mr. Murdoch Brown, of Anjarakandi,

years of the present (nineteenth)

who knew
Buchanan

the country well, thus wrote to Mr. Francis

in the earliest

century regarding the despotic action of the Rajas

constituted, after the

when

Mysorean conquest, the revenue agents of the Government of Haidar AH. By this new
'

order of things, these latter

(the

Rajas) were
other

vested

with

despotic

authority

over

the

inhabitants,

instead of the very limited prerogatives

that they

had

enjoyed by the feudal system, under which they could

neither exact revenue from the lands of their vassals, nor

exercise any, direct

authority in their

districts.'

And

nAyar
again,
*

410

The Raja was no

longer what

he had been,

the head of a feudal aristocracy with limited authority,

but the all-powerful deputy of a despotic prince, whose

command to curb or chastise any of the chieftains who were inclined to From the earliest dispute or disobey his mandates.' * therefore, down to the end of the eighteenth times,
military force

was always

at

his

Nayar tara and nad organization kept the country from oppression and tyranny on the part of the rulers, and to this fact more than to any other is due the comparative prosperity, which the Malayali country so long enjoyed, and which made Calicut at one time
century, the

the

great

emporium

of trade

between the East and

the

the West.

But, besides

protection,

Nayars
in the

had

originally another
politic.

most important function

being
protectors,

body
also

Besides

they

were

supervisors or overseers, a duty which, as a very ancient

deed

was styled kanam a Dravidian word Parasu derived from the verb kanuka (to see, etc.).
testifies,

Raman
to

(so the tradition preserved in the Keralolpatti

Nayars into taras, and ordered that them belonged the duty of supervision {lit. kan = the eye), the executive power (lit. kei = the hand, as the emblem of power), and the giving of orders {lit. kalpana,
runs) separated the
order,

command), so as

to prevent the rights from being

curtailed, or suffered to fall into disuse.

The Nayars

were originally the overseers or supervisors of the nad, and they seem to have been employed in this capacity as

the collectors of the share of produce of the

land originally reserved for

Government purposes.
and
for their

As
soil

remuneration

for this service,

other func-

tion as protectors, another share of the

produce of the

* Buchanan, Mysore, Canara and Malabar.

411

NAyar

seems to have been reserved specially for them. It would be well worth the study of persons acquainted
with
other
districts

of

the

Presidency to ascertain

whether somewhat similar functions to these (protection

and supervision) did not originally appertain to the Kavalgars of Tamil districts and the Kapus in the Telugu country, for. both of these words seem to have come from the same root as the Malayalam kanam. And it is significant that the Tamil word now used for
proprietorship in the soil
the late Mr. F.
is

kani-yatchi, to which

word

W.

Ellis in his

paper on Mirasi Rights

described by Mr. N.
all

assigned a similar derivation."

The

occupation of the Nayars

"

is

Subramani Aiyar as
pursuits.

comprising

kinds of worldly

end of the eighteenth century, there were with the then Maharaja of Travancore a hundred thousand soldiers, consisting of Nayars and
late as the

So

Chovas, armed with arrows, spears, swords and battleaxes.

The chief occupation

of the Nayars

is

agriculture.
is

Cultivation of a slipshod, time-honoured type

forte of the

the

Nayar, for which he has always found time

old,

from times of
as well.
is

though engaged

in

other occupations
fight,
in

In the Velakali, a kind of

mock

which
every

one of the items of the utasom programme

in

important temple

Malabar, the dress worn by the

Nayars

is

supposed

to

be their ancient military costume.

the Maharaja's
are enabled to

Even now, among the Nayars who form own Brigade, agriculture, to which they
attend during
all

their off-duty days,

goes largely to

supplement their monthly pay.

pations,
all

Various other occusociety,

equally necessary for

have been,

according to the Keralavakasakrama, assigned to the

Nayars, and would seem to have determined their original
sub-divisions.

They

are domestic servants in

Brahman

NAYAR

412

and Kshatriya houses and temples, and deal in dairy produce, as well as being engaged in copper-sheet
roofing, tile-making, pottery, palanquin-bearing,
on.

and so
ceasing

But these traditional occupations are

fast

In the matter under the ferment of a new civilisation. of education, the Nayars occupy a prominent position.

Almost every Nayar

to learn

girl

is

sent to the village school

as

the three

R's,

quite

much
it

as a matter of

course as the schooling of boys.

feature of

This constitutes a
the most literate

Malabar
all

life

that

makes

country
sex.

in

India, especially in respect of the female

After

Ramanujam Ezhuttachchan developed and

enriched the Malayalam language, numerous Asans or

village teachers cam.e into existence in different parts of

Malabar.

After a preliminary study of Malayalam, such

i.e.,

as desired higher,
to

Sanskrit education, got discipled

or

an

Ambalavasi
desire to

Sastri.

Even
is

to-day
in

the

estimable

study

Sanskrit

seen

some

Nayar youths, who have readily availed themselves of

the benefit of the
local

Sanskrit

college.

In

respect

of English education, the Nayars occupy a prominent

position.

The
for

facility afforded

Travancore

by the Government of the study of English is being largely

it

availed of by Nayars, and

is

a matter deserving to
in recent years, several

be prominently recorded

that,

Nayar

girls

have passed the Matriculation examination

in the

of the University of Madras."

It is

noted,

Gazetteer of Malabar, that " the

Nayars as a

class are the best educated

in

and the most

not strictly a

advanced of the communities

perhaps the Pattar Brahmans,

Malabar (excepting
are

who

Malayalam
the

class),

and are intellectually the equals of

Brahmans of the East Coast. Many of them have risen to the highest posts in Government, and the caste

413
has
supplied

NELLU
leading

many

of the

members

of the

learned professions."

Nayi

An exogamous sept of Kuruba. (dog). Nayinar.^Nayinar, Nayanar, or Nainar, has been

who
are thought to be

recorded as a section of Vellalas,

descended from Jains who were converted to Hinduism,

and as a

title of Jains, Kaikolans, Pallis, and Udaiyans. Nayanikulam occurs as a synonym of Boya. The word Nayinar is the same as Nayaka, meaning lord or master,

and the Saivite

called,
e.^s^.,

saints,

being religious teachers, arc so

Sundara Murti Nayanar.

Nayinda. Recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as the name of a caste,which follows the hereditary " They occupation of barber, and also of agriculture. are," it is there said, " members of the village hierarchy. They are paid, like the Agasa (washerman), in kind for They are also fiddlers, and have the their services. exclusive right of wind instruments. They are known as Kelasiga or Hajam. They are both Saivites and Vaishnavites. A section of them wear the lingam, and follow Lingayetism. They are known as Silavanta. These people are largely in requisition at feasts, marriages, etc., when they form the music band." Kelasi is the name of a Canarese barber caste, and Hajam is a
Hindustani word
for barber.

in

Nedungadi. Nedunganad
been

This
in

name, denoting
a
sub-caste
of

settlement

the Walluvanad taluk of Malabar,

as

has

returned

Nayars

and

Samantas.

washermen in South Canara. The women only are said to do the washing, while the men are employed as devil-dancers.
small class
of

Nekkara. A

\^^\\\]^2i{Pkyllantkus Einblica).

Nellu (paddy, unhusked

rice).

An illam ofTiyan. A gotra of Kurni.

NEMILLI
Nemilli (peacock).
and
Balija.

414

An

exogamous sept of Boya

Nerali (Eugenia Jambolana).

of G;ino-adikara Holeya.

An
is

exogamous sept
of

Ncrati or Neravati Kapu. Nese. An occupational term,

Nerati.
applied to
several
of the
especially to the Kurnis.
It
is

a sub-division

meaning
castes,

weaver

weaving

noted, in

more the Madras

but

Census Report, 1901, that "in the inscriptions of Raja Raja the Chola king, about the beginning of the eleventh century, the Paraiyan caste is called by its It had then two sub-divisions, Nesavu present name.
(the weavers)

and Ulavu (the ploughman)."

(neyyuta, to weave).

Netpanivandlu
the Rev.
J.

Recorded

by

Cain

as a

name

for

Mala weavers.

Nettikotala.^In a note on the Nettikotalas or Neththikotalasi, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes that they correspond to the Kalladi Siddhans of the Tamil country. The name means those who cut their foreThey are mendicants who beg from Gavara heads.
Komatis,

whom

they are said to have assisted in days of

old by delaying the progress of Raja Vishnu Vardhana.

(See Kcmati.)

When

their

dues are not promptly paid,

they

make

cuts in their foreheads and other parts of the

body, and

make blood flow. Neyige. The silk and cotton hand-loom weavers of

the

Mysore Province

are, in the

Census Report, 1891,

occupational

dealt

with collectively

under

the

name

Neyige (weaving), which includes Bilimagga, Devanga,

Khatri, Patvegar, Sale, Saurashtra (Patnulkaran), Seniga

and Togata.
* Ind. Ant., VlII, 1879.

415

NILI

Neytikkar. Weavers
in

of coir (cocoanut fibre) mats

Malabar,

Neyyala.'The Neyyala
found chielly
ing note on
in

Telugu fishing caste Yizagapatam andGanjam, for the followare a

I

whom

am

indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana

Rao.

The name

is

derived from the Telugu neyyalu,

meaning fried rice or cholam {Sorghum vulgare), which is made by female members of the caste, especially during
the harvest season, into balls with jaggery (crude sugar).

These

are carried about the country by the

men

for sale

to those

engaged

in

reaping the crop and others.

As

payment, they receive from the reapers a portion of the

grain which they are cutting.
the caste
is

further occupation of
i.e.,

fishing with konti vala, or koyyala vala

nets supported on a row of

bamboo

sticks,

which are

placed in shallow water, and dragged by two men.

The Naga (cobra) is reverenced by the caste. A Brahman officiates at marriages, during which the sacred thread is worn. The remarriage of widows is permitted, provided that the woman has no children by her first husband. Divorce is not allowed. The dead
are burnt, and the chinna
(little)

and pedda rozu (big

day) death ceremonies are observed.

As
liquor,
title is

a caste, the Neyyalas do not drink intoxicatino-

and eat only

Ay)^a.
(clarified

in

Brahman

houses.

Their usual

Neyye
Nila

butter).

An

occupational

sub-

division of Komati.

An exogamous sept of Medara. Nilagara (indigo people). The name of a class of dyers, who are, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901,
(blue).

included in the

Kumbara

or potter caste.

Nili (indigo).

An

exogamous

sept of

Padma

Sale

and Togata.

NIRGANTI
Nirganti. Recorded,
irrigated lands.

416
in

the

Mysore and Coorg

caste.

Gazetteer, as a regulator and distributor of water to

He

is

usually a

Holeya by

Nirpusi (wearers of sacred ashes).

times of census,

Recorded,

at

as a sub-division of Piindya Vellalas.

described, in the Gazetteer of the South

Nirpusi Vellala

is

Arcot
district

district,

as a

name

current in the South Arcot

meaning

Vellalas

reference to certain Jains,

who put on holy who formerly became

ash,

in

Saivites,

taking off their sacred threads, and putting holy ashes

on

their foreheads.

Nityadasu.
mortal slaves,

Nityadasu,
in

is

or Nityulu, meaning imby which some Mala Dasaris a name

style themselves.

Nodha. Recorded,
1901,

as

Madras Census Report, a very small caste of hill cultivators and

the
in the

earth-workers

Oriya country.

Nokkan.
of Jadipillais

The Nokkans, who often go by the name

(children

of the

caste),

are a

class

of

who beg from members of the Palli caste. The word N5kkan is said to mean he who looks'. The Nokkans make periodical visits to villages where
mendicants,
*

Pallis live,

and receive from them a small

fee in

money.

They
tigers,

attend at Palli marriages, and, during processions,

carry flags (palempores) bearing devices of

Hanuman,

Agni,

etc.,

which are made

at Kalahasti.

The Nokkans
follows.

claim fees from the Pallis, because one

of their ancestors helped them.

The legend
Palli

runs as

During the reign of a

car,

king at Conjeestill,

veram, a

bearing the idol of the god, stood

and

could

not

be

moved.

human

sacrifice
offer

was
his

considered necessary, but no one would

as a victim.

himself

A Nokkan

came forward, and allowed

pregnant,
to

only daughter,

who was

be sacrificed

417

NOTTAKARAN
the
their

Pleased at his behaviour, the king ordered that

Pallis

should

in

future

treat

the

Nokkans
is

as

Jadipillais.

Some Nokkans

say that they were presented

with copper-grants, one of which

the possession of one

reputed to be

in

Nokka Ramaswami

of Mulavayal
district.

village in the Ponneri taluk of the

Chingleput

In the course of their rounds, the

Nokkans repeat

the

story of the origin of the Pallis, one version of which runs

as follows.

Two
at

Asuras, Vathapi and Enadhapi,

who

were ruling
Siva,

Ratnagiripatnam, obtained at the hands of

following-

by means of severe tapas (penance), the

boon.

No

child should die within their dominions,

and

the Asuras should be invincible, and not meet their death

at the

hands of uterine-born beings.

for rescue.

The Devatas and

prayed

others, unable to bear the tyranny of the Asuras,

to

Brahma

He

directed

them

to the Rishi

Jambuvamuni, who was doing penance on the banks of

the river Jumna.

This Rishi

is

said to have married a

woman named
Parvati.

Asendi,

who was born from

the cheeks of

lighted the sacred

called

Hearing the request of the Devatas, the Rishi fire, and therefrom arose a being Rudra Vanniyan, and forty other warriors, includ-

ing Nilakanta, Gangabala, and Vajrabahu.

The

Pallis

are descended from these fire-born heroes.

{See Palli.)

Nokkans wear the sacred thread, and carry with them a big drum and a gourd pipe like that used by
snake-charmers.

Noliya. A synonym used by Oriya

Telugu
Jalaris.

castes for the

Nonaba. A
The name
is

territorial

sub-division of Vakkaliora.

derived from Nonambavadi, one of the

former great divisions of the Tanjore country.

Nottakaran.
tester,

The

office of village

Nottakaran, or
times.
It

has been abolished in modern

v-27

was

NUCHCHU
the rupees
in,

418

generally held by a goldsmith, whose duty was to test

when

the land revenue was being gathered

and see that they were not counterfeit.

Nuchchu (broken rice). A gotra of Kurni. Nukala (coarse grain powder). An exogamous
sept of

Padma Nulayan.

In

Sale.

the

Madras Census Report,

1901,

ninety-six individuals are recorded as

belonging to a

small caste of Malayalam fishermen and boatmen.

The
British

Nulayans are found

in the

in

Travancore, and were returned

as

census of Malabar,

the

two small
in

settlements of Anjengo and Tangacheri

Travancore

are under the jurisdiction of the Collector of Malabar.

Nune
Komati.

(oil).

An

occupational

sub-division

of

Nunia (nuno, salt). Nurankurup.An

settled in Malabar,

A sub-division of Odiya.
occupational

name
is

for

Paravans

whose employment

that of lime-

burners (nuru, lime).

Nurbash. Recorded, at the census, 1901, as a synonym of Dudekula. A corruption of nurbaf( weaving). Nuvvala (gingelly Scsamimi indictmt). An exogamous sept of Kamma and Medara. Gingelly seeds, from
:

which an

oil is

extracted,

"form an

essential article of

certain religious ceremonies of the Hindus,

fore received the

and have there-

names of homa-dhanya

or the sacrificial

grain,

and pitri-tarpana or the grain that is offered as an oblation to deceased ancestors." {U.C.Dutt.) During
the death ceremonies of

some Brahmans,

libations of

water mixed with gingelly seeds, called tilothakam, and a

ball of rice, are offered daily to

two stones representing

sept of

the spirit of the deceased.

Nyayam
Sale.

(justice).

An

exogamous

Padma

419

OCCHAN

Occhan.^The Occhans
who
usually officiate

are a class of temple priests,

at

as

pujaris

Pidari

and other

Amman

(Grama Devata) temples. They are for the most part Saivltes, but some belong to the Vadagalai or Tengalal Vaishnava sects. Some of the pujaris wear the
sacred thread

when

within the temple.

Their insignia

are the udukkai, or hour-glass shaped drum, and the

silambu, or hollow brass ring
filled

with bits of brass,

which
trict,

rattle

when

it

is

shaken.

In the Chingleput dis-

some Occhans

act as dancing-masters to Devadasis,

and are sometimes called Nattuvan.

The name Occhan

meaning
sound,
in

is

derived from the Tamil ochai,

to

reference

the

usual

mode

of

invoking the

Grama Devatas
is

(village deities)

by beating
has been

on a drum and singing

suggested that Occhan

their

praises.

It

a contracted form of Uvacchan,

which occurs
oldest
is

in certain old inscriptions.*

Of

these, the

dated Sakha 1180 (A.D. 1258), and refers to

the tax on Uvacchas.

which the same tax is referred to, is dated Sakha 1328 (A.D. In both these inscriptions, Uvacchan has been 1406).
inscription,
in

Another

interpreted as referring to Jonakas,

who

are a class of

Muhammadans.

This

is

one of the meanings given

" a caste of

by Winslow, t who also gives temples, Occhan."

into five sections, called

drummers

at

In the northern districts, the

Occhans are divided

Marayan, Pandi, Kandappan, Periya or Pallavarayan, and Pulavan. Marayan is also

in

name of temple priests the title Occhan is bestowed

the

Travancore, on

whom

as a

by the Travancore sovereigns. |

* E. Hultzsch.

mark of royal favour The Occhans have

I.

South Indian Inscriptions,

82, 108, 1890.

t Comprehensive Tamil and English Dictionary.

X Travancore Census Report, 1901.

V-27 B

ODA VANDLU
many
titles,
e.g.,

420

Archaka or Umai Archaka, Dcvar,

two are said
to

Parasaivan, Mudaliar, Vallabarayan, Pusali, Pulavar, and

Kamban.

Of

these, the kist

be derived

from the Tamil epic poet Kamban, who is traditionally There believed to have belonged to the Occhan caste.
is

a legend

that

Kamban was on
when he heard an

his

way

to

the

residence of a king,

oil-monger,

who

was driving his bulls, remonstrate with them, saying " Should you kick against each other because the poet Kamban, like the Occhan he is, hums his verse ? " On hearing this, Kamban approached the oil-monger, and went with him to the king, to whom he reported that By order of the king, the oilhe had been insulted. monger burst forth into verse, and explained how his bulls had taken fright on hearing Kamban's impromptu
singing.

Kamban was

greatly pleased with the poet

to
let

oil-monger, and begged the king

him go with

honours heaped on him.

In the southern districts,

more

especially in

Madura

and Tinnevelly,
a

it

is

usual for an

Occhan

to claim his

paternal aunt's daughter in marriage.

districts,

In the northern
uncle's
at

man may
In
their

also

marry

his maternal

or sister's daughter.

Brahman Gurukkals
puberty,
closely

officiate

marriages.

marriage,

and

death
or

ceremonies, the Occhans

follow the

Pallis

Vanniyans.

The dead
is

are burnt, and

Brahmans
is

officiate

at the funeral ceremonies.

The
Occhans

caste

an organised one, and there

usually

a headman,

called Periyathanakaran, at places

where
a

occur.

Oda vandlu
fishing caste in

(boatmen).

A
Oda

synonym

of

Mila,

Ganjam and Vizagapatam.

Some

pros-

perous Milas have adopted

Balija as their caste

name.

{^See Vilda.)

421

ODARI
name
of a class of Nayars,

Odan.^An
who

occupational

are tile-makers.

Oclari. The Odaris or Vodaris are Tulu-speaking

potters in the South Canara district.

Those who have

abandoned the profession of potter call themselves Mulia, as also do some potters, and those who are

employed as
shrines).

pujaris (priests) at

bhuthasthanas (devil

In

many

cases, the

headman combines the

is

duties of that office with those of pujari, and

called

Mulia.

Otherwise

his title is

Gurikara.

making pots, use the ordinary wheel, which is rotated by means The wheel of the Odaris is more primof a long stick.
potters in

The Canarese

South Canara,

in

itive,

consisting of a small disc, concave above,

clay, fitting

made

of

unburnt

by means of a pebble pivot

is

into a

pebble socket, which

rotated

by hand.

Like other Tulu castes, the Odaris worship bhuthas,

but also reverence Venkataramana.
In their marriage ceremonial, the Odaris follow the

Bant type.

At the

betrothal, the

headmen

or fathers of

the contracting couple exchange betel, and the party of the future bridegroom give a ring to the people of the
bride-elect.

The marriage

rites

are

completed

in

single

day.

bench

is

placed

within the marriage

pandal (booth), and covered with clothes brought by the

Madivali (washerman caste).

The bridegroom
seat.

is

con-

ducted thither by the bride's brother, and, after going

round three times, takes his

preceded
before
articles

He

is

generally

women carrying lights, rice and fruits him. The lamp is hung up, and the other are deposited on the ground. One by one, the
by
a grain of
rice,
first

women throw
Then

over the lamp, and

then a few grains over the head of the bridegroom,

the barber comes, and, after throwing
rice,

shaves

ODDE

422

the face of the bridegroom, using milk instead of water.

The

bride

is

also

shaved by a barber woman.

to the pandal,

The
and

pair

are decorated, and brought

where those

assembled throw
presents of money.

rice

over their

heads,

make

Their hands are then united by the

headman, and the dhare water poured over them by the

maternal uncle of the bride.

An
the

interesting rite in connection with pregnancy

is

presentation

of

fowl or two to the pregnant

woman by

her maternal uncle.

if

The
be

fowls are tended

it

with great care, and,

they lay eggs abundantly,

is

sign that the pregnant

woman
to,

will

prolific.

The
cremation
(bojja)

dead
is

are

either

buried

or

cremated.

If

resorted

the

final

death ceremonies

day.

must be celebrated on the eleventh or thirteenth If the corpse has been buried, these ceremonies
at least a

must not take place before the lapse of

month.

Odde. The Oddes or Voddas, who are commonly called Wudders, are summed up by Mr. H. A. Stuart *
as being " the navvies of the country, quarrying stone,

sinking wells, constructing tank bunds, and executing

other kinds of earthwork more rapidly than any other

class, so that

they have got almost a monopoly of the

people,

trade.

They are Telugu

whence
their
in

Orissa,

name.

who came originally from Were they more temperate,

work and

they might be

very good circumstances, but, as soon

as they have earned a small sum, they strike

have a merry-making,

in

which

all

get

much

intoxicated,
last.

and the carouse continues as long as funds

are very ignorant, not being able even to

They calculate how

much work they have

done, and trusting altogether to

their employer's honesty.

They

are an open-hearted,

* Manual of the North Arcot

district.


423 good-natured
lot,

ODDE

with loose morals, and no restrictions

will only eat in

regarding food, but they are proud, and

the houses of the higher castes, though most Sudras

look

down upon them.

Polygamy and divorce are

freely

allowed to men, and

women

are only restricted from

changing partners

after

having had eighteen.

Even

this limit is not set to

the men."

Women who
much
greatly
praised.

have had seven husbands are said to be

is

respected, and their blessing on a bridal pair

There

is

common

saying that a

widow mav mount

as

the marriage dais seven times.

In the Census Report, 1871, the

Oddes

are described

being

"the tank-diggers, well-sinkers, and roadlive in

makers of the country who

detached settlements,
bee-hive form, with
in

building their huts in conical or

only a low door of entrance.

contract,

They work

gangs on

and every one, except very old and very young,

takes a share in the work.

in baskets,

The women

carry the earth

while the

men

use the pick and spade.

The

babies are usually tied up in cloths, which are suspended,

hammock
in

fashion, from the

in

employed largely

the construction

They are trees. Works Department, and and maintenante of railways. They
boughs of
the Public
all

are rather a fine-looking race, and

that

have come

across are Vaishnavites in theory, wearing the trident

prominently on their foreheads, arms, and breasts.

The
all

women

are

tall

and

straight.

They

eat every description

of animal food, and especially pork and field-rats, and

drink spirituous liquors."

Of
in

the Oddes, the following brief accounts are given

the Nellore, Coimbatore, and

Nello7'e.

Madura Manuals
are
the

"

These

people

tank-diggers.

They sometimes engage in the carrying trade, but beyond this, they only move about from place to place

ODDE
as they have work.
to

424

The word Vodde

called Orissa,

or

Odde

is

said

be a corruption of the Sanskrit

country

Odhra, the name

for the

now

and the people are

to

ordinarily supposed to have emigrated from the Uriya

country.

Besides Telugu,

they are said

;

speak a

peculiar dialect

among themselves

and,

if

this should

turn out to be Uriya, the question might be regarded

as settled.

The

laborious occupation of the

I

men

tends
fine

to develop their muscles.

have seen some very

men among

the tribe."

CoUnbatore.

"

Numerous,

owing

to

the

hard

nature of the subsoil and the immense and increasing

number of

irrigation wells,

which demand the labour

to the use of the crowbar,

of strong men accustomed

pick-axe, and pow^der.

They
paid,

are black, strong, and of

live

good physique, highly

drink."

and

on strong meat and

Madttra.

"An itinerant caste of tank-diggers

They
in

and

earth-workers.

are Telugus, and are supposed to

have come southward

teppakulam, and assist

the time of the Nayyakkans.

Possibly Tirumala sent for them to dig out his great

in raising

gopuras.

They

are a

strong, hard-working class, but also drunken, gluttonous,

and

vicious.

And

but

little faith

can be placed

in their

most solemn promises.

They

will

take advances from

half a dozen employers within a week,

and work

for

none of them,
In

if

they can possibly help

it."

settled in the outskirts of large towns,

Mysore numbers of Oddes are now permanently where both sexes find employment as sweepers, etc., in connection with sanitation and conservancy. Some Oddes are, at the present time (1908), employed at the Mysore manganese
mines.

The

tribe

is

often found concerting with the

classes
in

Korachas,

Koramas, and other predatory

425

ODDE

committing dacoities and robberies, and it has passed into a proverb that they would rather bear any amount
of bodily torture than

confess

or

disclose

the

truth

regfardino- the crimes attributed to them.

Some Oddes

have settled down as agriculturists and contractors, and

some are very prosperous. For example, there are a few Oddes near Kuppam in the North Arcot district, whose credit is so good that any rich merchant would advance them large sums of money. A wealthy Odde,
worth nearly a lakh of rupees, worried
half an anna, wherewith to purchase
is

my

assistant for
It

some
in

betel leaf.

recorded by Bishop Whitehead,*

the diary of a

tour in the Nizam's Dominions, that, at

" the

Khammamett, Waddas who have become Christians have for some

time past possessed land and cattle of their own, and

are well-to-do people.

One

of the headmen,

who was

presented to

me

after service, said that

he had 80 acres

of land of his own."

Some
and keep
Rev.

of the timber
is

work

in

the Nallamalai

hills, in

the Kurnool district,

bulls for

done by Oddes, who

fell

trees,

dragging the timber out of the

"

forests.

Under the heading

J.

Uppara and Vadde Vandlu," the

t

Cain gives

the
"

following

account of

the

distribution

of wages.

The

tank-diggers

had been

paid for their work, and, in apportioning the share of

each labourer, a

bitter dispute arose

because one of the

women had not received what she deemed her fair amount. On enquiry it turned out that she was in an
interesting condition,

and therefore could claim not only

for

her own, but also a share

the expected child."

legend

is

current to the effect that, long ago, the

to dig a tank, to enable the

Oddes were ordered

Devatas

* Madras Dioc. Magazine, April, 190S.

t Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

ODDE
and men
to

426
obtain water.

This was done, and they

in

demanded payment, which was made

Heu of money.

the form of a
in

pinch of the sacred ashes of Siva to each workman,

When

they reached home, the ashes

turned into money, but they were not satisfied with the

amount, and clamoured

angry, cursed them thus
:

for
"

more.

The

god, growing

What you

obtain in the forests

by digging
ground."

shall

be

lost

as soon as you reach

high
to

Parvati, taking pity

on them, asked Siva

give them large sums of money.

ing out a measuring-rod,
coins),
filled

Whereon
it

Siva, hollow-

with varahans (gold

and gave

it

to the maistry.
it

He also

filled

a large

pumpkin with money, and buried

in a field,

where the

Oddes were working.

by the maistry
raised
left
it

for

The measuring-rod was pawned toddy. The Oddes, noticing the

the burying of the pumpkin,

mound caused by
buffalo,

the depth that they had which was grazing in a field close by, dug. A exposed the pumpkin, which the Oddes, not suspecting its contents, sold to a Komati.

untouched to show

According

to

another

legend,

the

Oddes

were

employed by God, who had assumed a human form, and

was

living

amongst them.

On

one occasion, God had

to

to perform a certain

ceremony, so he gave the Oddes an

advance of three days' pay, and ordered them not

worry him.
laid

This they

failed to do,

and were accordingly

for ever.

under a curse to remain poor

A
sultry

further legend

is

current

among

the

Oddes

to the

effect that,

when Siva and

Parvati were walking one

thirsty.

day upon the earth, they got very hot and

of perspiration which
into a
fell

The drops

from Siva were

changed by him
carrying a basket.

man

with a pick and crowbar,

while those falling from Parvati turned into a

woman

The man and woman

quickly sunk


427

ODDE

a well, with the cooling waters of which the god and

goddess refreshed themselves, and

the labourers certain
gifts,

in gratitude

promised
is

the nature of which

satisfied,

not

now

known, but neither was

and both grumbled,

which

so incensed Siva that he cursed them,

that they

and

their descendants should live

and vowed by the sweat

are

of their brows.

Among
current
:

the

Oddcs,

the

following

sayings

The Oddes
{i.e.,

live

with their huts on their heads

low

huts),

with light

thin conji (gruel),

made from gathered sticks, on blessing those who give, and cursing
in their fangs,

those

who do

not.

Cobras have poison

their tongues.

and Oddes
a mountain,

in

Though wealth accumulates

soon disappears
like mist.

like

it

At recent times of
tional sub-divisions

census,

the
:

following occupa-

were returned

Kallu or Rati (stoneManti or Bailu

said
to
is

workers) and

Mannu

(earth- workers),

(open space), between which there

intermarriage.

be

no

The endogamous
(village men),

sub-divisions

Nata-

puram and Uru

Bidaru (wanderers), and

Beri was given
for the caste

Konga
name.

(territorial)

were

also returned.

as a sub-caste, and Odderazu as a In Ganjam, Bolasi

is

synonym

said to be a sub-division of

the Oddes.

The

caste titles are

Nayakan and Boyan.

Boer was
fatal, for, at

The
was

similarity of the latter

word

to

the time of

my

visit to the

Oddes, the South African war

I

just over,

and they were afraid that

Being
a

was going
evil eye,

to

get them transported, to replace the Boers w^ho had been

exterminated.
refused to
fire

afraid, too,

of

my

they
club

new

kiln of bricks for the

until
I

new

chambers

at

Coimbatore

had taken

my

departure.


ODDl!:
It is

428
noted, in the

Mysore Census Report,

1891, that

two main branches, the Kallu and Mannu Vaddas, between whom there is no social The former intercourse of any kind, or intermarriage.
" the caste divides itself into

are stone-workers and builders, and the latter,

and are very dexterous

in

more robust than moving large masses

of stone by rude and elementary mechanical appliances.

They

are hardy,

and capable of great exertion and

endurance.

The Kallu Vaddas consider themselves superior to the Mannu Vaddas (earth diggers). Unlike the Kallu Vaddas, the Mannu Vaddas or Bailu Vaddas

are a nomadic tribe, squatting wherever they can find

any large earthwork, such as deepening and repairing

tanks, throwing up

embankments, and the

like.

They
more
or

are expert navvies, turning out within a given time

hard work than any other labouring class."

The Mannu
ant-eaters

Oddes eat

rats,

porcupines,

and

scaly

pangolins i^Manis pentadactyla).

Of exogamous
Bandollu, rock.

septs, the following

may

be cited

Sampangi {Michelia
pacd).

Chani-

Bochchollu, hairs.

Cheruku, sugarcane.

Thatichettu, palmyra palm-

Enumala,

buffalo.

Bandari {Dodonoeaviscosa).
Devala, belonging to god.

Goddali, axe.

Gampa,

basket.

Donga,

thief.

Idakottu, break-down.

Malle, jasmine.

Jambu
lana).

{Euge7iia

Jambo-

Panthipattu, pig-catcher.

Panthikottu, pig-killer.

Komali, buffoon.
Santha, a
fair.

Upputholuvaru,
Pitakala,

salt-carrier.

dais

on

which a

Sivaratri, a festival.

priest sits.

Manchala,

cot.

Thappata, drum.

returned gotras, such as arashina (turmeric), huvvina (flowers), honna (gold), and akshantala (rice grain).

At the Mysore

census, 1901, a few

429
"

ODDE

Vaddevandlu section of the tankdigger caste," the Rev. J. Cain writes,* " only wear the glass bracelets on the left arm, as, in years gone by

The women

of the

(according

to

their

own

account),

seller

of

these

bracelets was one day persuading them to buy, and, leaving the bracelets on their left arms, went away,

promising to return with a fresh supply for their right As yet he has not re-appeared." But an old arms.

woman
when
In
central
at

explained that they have to use their right arm

work, and

if

they wore bangles on

it,

they would

frequently get broken.

some

places,

tattooing on the forehead with a

is

vertical

line, dots, etc.,

universally practiced,

because, according to the Odde, they should bear tattoo

marks as a proof of
they
die.

their

life

on earth (bhulokam) when

Oddes, calling themselves Pachcha Botlu, are

in

itinerant tattooers

Godavari
of those

districts.

Ganjam, Vizagapatam and While engaged in performing the

the
to divert the attention

operation, they sing

Telugu songs,

who are being operated on. The office of headman, who is known

as Yejamanadu,

Samayagadu, or Pedda (big) Boyadu, is hereditary, and disputes, which cannot be settled at a council meeting, are referred to a Balija Desai Chetti, whose decision is
final.

some cases, the headman is assisted by officers called Chinna (little) Boyadu, Sankuthi, and Banthari. An Odde, coming to a place where people are assembled
In

with shoes on,

is

fined,

and described as gurram ekki

vachchinavu (having come on a horse).

shoes brings pollution.

The Oddes

are

very particular about touching leather, and beating with

beaten have

to

Both the beater and the person undergo a purificatory ceremony, and
* Ind. Ant., V, 1876.

ODDE
pay a
fine.

430

When
I

in

camp

at

Dimbhum,
ladle, to

in the

Coimbafriend

tore district,

caught hold of a

show my

Dr. Rivers what were the fragrant contents of a pot, in

which an Odde woman was cooking the evening meal. On returning from a walk, we heard a great noise proceeding from the

from work, and found the

Odde men who had meanwhile returned woman seated apart on a rock,
but because she

and sobbing.
I

She had been excommunicated, not because

ladle,

touched the

had afterwards
I

touched the pot.

necessary
fine,

After

much

arbitration,

paid up the
caste.

and she was received back into her

is

When

a girl reaches puberty, she

confined in a

special hut, in

which a piece of

iron,

margosa leaves

{JMelia Azadirachta), sticks of Strychnos Ntix-vomica,

and the arka plant {Caloh^opis gigantea) are placed, to ward off evil S})irits. For fear of these spirits she is not
allowed to eat meat, though eggs are permitted.
the seventh day, a fowl
girl,
is

On
the

killed,

waved

in front of

and thrown away.

is

At the end of the period of

Sometimes, when the
is

pollution, the hut

girl

burnt down.
day, a sieve
it.

bathes on the

first

held over her head,

and water poured through

is

In

some

places,

on the

eleventh day, chicken broth, mixed with arrack (liquor),

administered, in order to

make

the girl's back

is

and
for

waist strong.

The
The

hen, from which the broth

laid

made,

must be a black one, and she must have

the
first

eggs

time.

flesh

is

placed in a mortar, pounded

to a pulp, and boiled, with the addition of condiments,

and

finally the arrack.

Both
Mr. F.
S.

infant

and adult marriages are practiced.

in its

The

marriage ceremony,
Mullaly,*

simplest form,

is,

according to

not a tedious one, the bride and

* Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.

431

0DD

bridegroom walking three times round a stake placed

in

the ground.

In the

more elaborate
etc.,

ritual,

on the

betrothal day,

the bride-price,

are fixed, and an

adjournment
rites are, as

is

made
to

to the

toddy shop.

The marriage

a rule, very simple, but, in some places, the

imitate the marriage ceremonies

Oddes have begun

of the Balijas.

On

the third day, the contracting couple

go

in

procession to a tank, where the bridegroom digs

carries three basketfuls
is

up some mud, and the bride

thereof to a distance.
in

The

following story

narrated

connection with their marriage ceremonies.

A certain

king wanted an

Odde

to dig a tank, which was subse-

quently called Nidimamidi Koththacheruvu, and promised

to

pay him

in

varahalu (gold coins).

When

the

work

was completed, the Odde went to the king for his money, but the kino- had no measure for measuring" out the coins. A person was sent to fetch one, and on his way met a shepherd, who had on his shoulders a small bamboo
stick,

which could easily be converted into a measure.

this stick,

Taking

he returned to the king, who measured

fell

out the coins, which

short of the

amount expected

by the Oddes, who could not pay the debts, which they had contracted. So they threw the money into the
tank, saying " Let the tank leak,

and the land

lie

fallow

All were crying on account of their misery for ever." and indebtedness. A Balija, coming across them, took pity on them, and gave them half the amount required
to discharge their debts.

After a time they wanted to

marry, and

men were

sent to bring the bottu (marriage

etc.

badge), milk-post, musicians,

return,

But they did not

and the
for

Balija

suggested the employment of a

a string of black beads for
instead
of

pestle

the milk-post,

the bottu, and betel leaves and areca nuts

gold coins for the

oli

(bride-price).

ODDE
The Oddes
Saivites,

432
arc in

some

places Vaishnavites, in others

but they also worship minor deities, such as

etc., to

Ellamma, Ankamma,
sacrificed, not

whom

goats and sheep are

with a sword or knife, but by piercing

them with a spear or crowbar.

Writing at the com-

Buchanan states * that "although the Woddaru pray to Vishnu, and offer sacrifices to Marima, Gungama, Durgama, Putalima, and

mencement of the nineteenth

century,

Mutialima, yet the proper object of worship belonging

to the

caste

is

a goddess called Yellama, one of the

destroying

spirits.
;

The image
and
in

is

carried

constantly
is

with their baggage

her

honour there

an

annual

feast,

which

lasts three days.

On

this occasion

they build a shed, under which they place the image,

and one of the

flowers are

tribe officiates as priest or pujari.

rice,

For
and

these three days offerings of brandy, palm wine,

made

to the

idol,

and bloody

sacrifices are

performed before the shed.

The VVoddas

abstain from

eating the bodies of the animals sacrificed to their

own

deity, but eat those which they sacrifice to the other

Saktis."

The dead
corpse
is

are generally buried.

By some Oddes
wrapped up

the
in

carried to the burial-ground

new
laid

cloth,

and carried

in

a dhubati (thick coarse cloth)

to the grave, the corpse
is

by four men.

On

the

way
rice

on the ground, and

thrown over

its

eyes.

It is

then washed, and the

namam

(Vaishnavite sect mark)

painted, or vibuthi (sacred ashes) smeared on the fore-

head of a man, and

that of a female.

kunkumam
is

(coloured powder) on

Earth

thrown by those assembled

into the grave before

dhiram day, or

last

it is filled in. On the karmanday of the death ceremonies, the

* Journey through Mysore, Cunara, and Mahibar.

'5

433
relations

ODDE

repair to a tank or well outside the village.

is

An
is

effigy

offered.

made with mud, to which cooked rice, etc., Some rice is cooked, and placed on an arka
leaf as

{Calotropis)

an offering

to

the

crows.

If

married w^oman has died, the widow'er cuts through

waist thread, whereas a

his

widow

is

taken to the water's

are broken,
is

edge, and

sits

on a winnow.
is

Her bangles

and the bottu

snapped by her brother.

Water

then

poured over her head three times through the winnow.

After bathing, she goes home, and
sits in

a room with

a lamp, and

may

see no one

till

the following morning.

She

is

then taken to one or more temples, and

to pull the tail of a

cow three

times.

made The Oddes of

Coimbatore,

in the

Tamil country, have elaborated both

But they do not
purohit.
is

the marriage and funeral ceremonies, and copy those of

the Balijas and Vellalas.
assistance of a
call in

the

Brahman

A
she
is

woman, found

guilty of immorality,

said to

have

to carry a basketful of earth from house to house, before

re-admitted to the caste.

following note

The

on a

reputed cure

for

snake

poisoning used by Oddes was communicated to

me by

young boy, who belonged to a gang of Oddes, was catching rats, and put his hand into a bamboo bush, when a cobra bit him, and clung to his finger when he was drawing his hand out of the bush. I I saw the dead snake, which was undoubtedly a cobra. was told that the boy was in a dying condition, when a man of the same gang said that he would cure him. He applied a brown pill to the wound, to which it stuck withMr. Gustav Haller.
out being tied.

"A

The man dipped

a root into water, and

on the lad's arm from the shoulder downwards. The arm, which was benumbed, gradually became sensitive, and at last the fingers could move, and the pill rubbed
it

v-28

ODDE
dropped
off.

434

The moist
The man

root

was rubbed on

to the boy's

tongue and
operations.

into the corner of the

eye before commencing

pill
is

said that a used

quite

efficacious, but

poison.

should be well washed to get rid of the In the manufacture of the pill, five leaves of

a creeper arc dried, and ground to powder.

The

pill

days between the bark and cambium of a margosa tree {Melia Azadirachta) during

must be inserted

for nine

the

new moon, when the sap ascends."

coi'difolia

The

creeper

is

Tinospora

(gul bel)

and the roots are appa-

rently those of the

widespread belief
tree
is

same climbing shrub. There is a that gul bel growing on a margosa

which
is

more

efficacious as a medicine than that

found on other kinds of trees.

The
'*

insigne of the caste at Conjeeveram

is

a spade. *

Ceded Districts," Mr. F. S. Mullaly writes, f " some of the Wudders are known as Donga Wuddiwars, or thieving Wudders, from the fact of their having taken to crime as a profession. Those of the tribe who
In the

have adopted criminal habits are

inveterate robbers.

skilful burglars

and

They
class,

are chiefly to be found

among
By

the stone

Wudder
walls,

who, besides their occupation

skilful

of building

are

also

stone-cutters.

going about under the pretence of mending grindstones,

they obtain

much

useful information as to the houses to

In be looted, or parties of travellers to be attacked. highway robbery or dacoity, they are committing a

always armed with stout

sticks.

Burglary by Wudders
if

may usually be traced are made of the breach

as stone-workers,

to them,
in

careful observations

the wall.

The implement

is

ordinarily the crowbar used by them

in their profession

and the blunt marks of the crowbar

Ind. Ant., IV, 1875.

J. S. F.

Mackenzie.

t Op.

cit.

435
are, as

ODDE
will

rule, noticeable.

They
crime,

never confess, or

implicate another of their fraternity, and, should one of

them be accused of a
clamorous, and
inflict

the

women

are most

personal

injuries

on themselves

and

their children, to deter the police

from doing their

duty, and then accuse

them of

torture.

Women

and

children belonging to criminal gangs are experts in committing grain thefts from kalams or threshing-floors,

where they are engaged

in

harvest time, and also in

purloining their neighbours' poultry.

is

Stolen property

seldom found with Wudders.

Their receivers are

Instances have been

legion, but they especially favour liquor shopkeepers in

the vicinity of their encampment.

known

of valuable jewellery being exchanged for a few

In each

drams of arrack.
criminal

a headman called the

Wudder community, there Ganga Raja, and, in the case

is

is

of

gangs

of these people, he receives

two shares

of spoil.

Identifiable property

altered at once,

many
gold

of the

Wudders being themselves

jewellery,

able to melt
for

and

silver

which they dispose of

in

about

one-tenth of the value."

It

has been said of the navvies

are quite

England

that

unaware that the migratory numbers about 100,000, and moves tribe of navvies about from point to point, wherever construction works
"

many persons

are going forward,

reservoirs

such as railways, harbour, canals,

Generally the existence

and drainage works.

works
is

unknown to the public until their They then come into use, but the men completion. who risked their lives to make them are gone nobody knows where. They are public servants, upon whose labours the facilities jf modern civilised life largely
of these

depend,

and
is

surely,

therefore,

their

claim

on

our

sympathies
v-28 B

universal."

And

these

remarks apply

ODDILU
witji

436

equal force to the Oddes,

who numbered 498,388

is

in the

Madras Presidency

at the census, 1901.

In the Census Report, 1901, Odderazulu

given as

synonym of Odde.
is

One

of the sections of the Yeru-

kalas

also
is

called

Odde.

Vadde
clothes,

(Odde)

Cakali

(Tsakala)
the

recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as

name

for those

who wash

and carry torches

and palanquins.

Oddilu. The Oddilu

J.

are described * by the Rev.

river,

Cain as principally raftsmen on the Godavari

raised themselves in
life,

who have
Sishti

and

call

themselves

Karanamalu.
(or

He

states

further that they are

Kois

Koyis)

who

are regarded as

more honourable

than any of the others, and have charge of the principal

velpu (tribal gods).

Odhuvar

(reader or reciter).

A name

for

Pandarams,

who recite hymns in temples. Odisi.^A sub-division of Bhondari.

Odiya.
in

It

is

noted, in the
is

Madras Census Report,

different forms of

1891, that " this

the principal Uriya caste of farmers

Ganjam.

Odia and Uriya are

this caste

one

and the same word, and

native of the Odia or Uriya country, as Telaga

name simply means a means a

man

of the

Telugu country.

In both cases, therefore,

we find a number of persons included, who are in reality members of some other caste. The total number of subdivisions
146, but a
castes,

of Odia, according to the census schedules,

is

number

of these are

names of various Uriya

and not true sub-divisions.

is

The

largest

sub-

division

Benaito, which

is

returned by 62,391 persons.

The Nunia

sub-division, the next largest,

It
is

was returned
in

by 9,356 individuals."
Ind.

further recorded,

the

Ant., VIII, 1S79.

437

ODIYA

Census Report, 1901, that Odiya, Orlya, or Uriya'"is one of the vaguest terms in the whole of Table XIII The Odiyas are a race by themselves, (Caste and Tribe).
split

up into many

castes.

'

Odiya

'

also

often
is,

means

merely a

man who speaks

Oriya.

The term

however,

so constantly returned by itself without qualification,

that

Odiya has perforce figured

a caste.

in the tables of all the

censuses as

The Odiyas

of the hills

differ,

however, from the Odiyas of the plains, the Odiyas of

Ganjam from those

of Vizagapatam,

and the customs of

Mr.
literally
is

one muttah (settlement) from those of the next,"

Narasing Doss writes to

me

that

"Odiya

means
are

an inhabitant of Odissa or Orissa.

There
is

a separate

caste called Odiya, with several sub-divisions.

cultivators

They

by profession.

Marriage

infant or adult.

They employ Brahmans

divorcees are remarried.

at ceremonials.

Widows and
and meat, but

They

eat fish

not fowls or beef, and do not drink liquor.

the dead.

They burn
claim to be

Members

of the

Nagabonso

se{)t

descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent

I

rishi."

gather that there are three main sections

viz.,

among

the Odiyas,

Benaito, Nuniya, and Baraghoria, of

which the first-named rank above the others in the social scale. From them Oriya Brahmans and Koronos will
accept water.

The Benaitos and Nuniyas

are found

all

over Ganjam, whereas the Baraghorias are apparently

confined to villages round about

Aska and PurushothapiJr. There are numerous exogamous gotras within the caste, among which are Nagasira (cobra), Gonda (rhinoceros),
Kochipo
(tortoise),

and Baraha

(boar).

gotra should be worshipped at the

auspicious ceremony.
natha, and Takuranis
titles

The gods of the commencement of any

also worship Jagan-

The Odiyas

(village deities).

number of

occur

in the caste, e.g.,

Bissoyi,

Podhano, Jenna,

ODIYA TOTI

438

Bariko, Sahu, Swayi, Gaudo, Pulleyi, Chando, Dolei, and

Torei.

When
(sun),

an unmarried

girl is

ill,

vow

is

taken

that, if

she recovers, she shall be married to the dharma devata

which

is

represented by a brass vessel.

call

People of mixed origin sometimes

Odiyas,

themselves

and pass as members of

call

this

caste.

Some
Telugu

Bhayipuos, for example,

Adapiipas,

who correspond
for

to the

themselves Odiyas or Beniya Odiyas.

Odiya Toti.
country.

Tamil synonym

Oriya Haddis
the Tamil

employed as scavengers

in municipalities in

Ojali. The Ojali, Vojali, or Ozolu are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being "Telugu blacksmiths in the Vizagapatam Agency. They eat beef, but are somewhat superior to the Paidis and Malas They are also called Mettu Kamsali." in social position. It is stated in the Vizagapatam Manual that, during the reign of Chola Chakravati, the Kamsalas (artisans) claimed to be equal to Brahmans. This offended the Some only sovereign, and he ordered their destruction. escaped death by taking shelter with people of the Ozu As an acknowledgment of their gratitude many of caste. the Kamsalas have ozu affixed to their house-name, e.g.,
' '

Kattozu, Lakkozu.

Okkiliyan.

Okkiliyan
In the

is

the Tamil

synonym

for

Vakkaliga, the large caste of Canarese cultivators, and the name is derived from okkalu, meaning cultivation
or agriculture.

Madras Census Report,

1901, the

Vakkaligas or Okkiliyans are described as " Canarese

cultivators,

who
in

originally belonged to Mysore,

and are

found mainly

Madura and Coimbatore. The caste is split up into several sub-divisions, the names of two of which, Nonaba and Gangadikara, are derived from


439
former divisions of the Mysore country.

OKKILIYAN

Each of these is again split up into totemistic exogamous sections or kulas, some of which are Chinnada (gold), Belli (silver),
Khajjaya (cake), Yemme (cholum a millet)." The
:

(buffalo),

Alagi (pot), Jola Vakkaligas say they are

descendants of the Ballal Rajah of Anegundi, and that

they
tion,
left

their

homes

in

pursuit of

and

settled themselves in

more suitable occupaKonganad (Coimbatore).

district,

The

Okkiliyans,

whom
in

have investigated, were settled

the Coimbatore

in the

Tamil country

where

they were engaged as

cultivators, bakers,

milk-vendors,

bricklayers, merchants, cart-drivers, tailors, cigar

facturers,

manu-

and

coolies.

They returned
:

the

following

eight

endogamous
(i)

sub-divisions

Gangadikara, or those

who

lived

on the banks

of the Ganges.
(2) Gudi, temple.

(3)

Kire [Amaranhts), which

is

largerly cultivated

by them.
(4) (5)

Kunchu, a
Kamati,

tassel or bunch.

foolish.

Said to

have

abandoned
land,

their original

occupation of cultivating the

and

adopted the profession of bricklayer.

(6) Gauri, Siva's consort.

(7) Bai.
(8) Sanu.

Like other Canarese castes,

the Okkiliyans have

exogamous septs (kuttam

etc.

or kutta), such as Belli (silver),

Kasturi (musk), Pattegara (headman), Aruva, Hattianna,

By

religion they are both Saivites

and Vaishnavites.
and the Hatti

Those of the Aruva sept are

sept are Vaishnavites.

all Saivites,

Intermarriage between Saivites

and Vaishnavites
be Lingayats.

is

permitted, even though the former

also

The Okkiliyans

worship village

OKKILIYAN
deities,

440
sacrifice

and

goats and fowls to Magaliamma

and Koniamma.

whose main occuand other vegetables, are said to be Kempati Okkiliyans, i.e.^ Okkiliyans who emigrated from Kempampatti in Mysore.
Kiraikkiirans of Coimbatore,
cultivating
kirai

The

pation

is

(^Amarantus)

The
is

hereditary

headman

of the caste, at Coimbatore,

(little)

called Pattakaran,

who

has under him a Chinna

presides

Pattakaran.

The headman

over

the

caste

council meetings, settles disputes, and

inflicts fines
is

and

other forms of punishment.

If
is

a person

accused of

using coarse language, he

the Chinna Pattakaran.
If,

slapped on the cheek by

during a quarrel, one person

beats the other with shoes, he has to purify himself and

his house,

and feed some of

his fellow castemen.

The
purifi-

man who

has been slippered also has to undergo

feast.

catory ceremony, but has not to stand a

In cases

of adultery, the guilty persons have to carry a basket

of sand on the head round the quarters of the community,

accompanied by the Chinna Pattakaran, who beats them

with a tamarind switch.
there
is

In

some

places,

am

informed,

a headman

for the village, called

Uru Goundan,

who

is

subject to the authority of the Nattu Goundan.

Several nadus, each composed of a number of villages,

are subject to a Pattakar,

who

is

assisted by a Bandari.

All these offices are hereditary.

When

Gangadikara

girl

reaches

puberty,

her

maternal uncle, or his son, constructs a hut of stems of

cocoanut leaves, reeds and branches of Pongamia glabra.

Every day her

flowers.
in

relations bring her a cloth,

is

fruits,

and
is

On

alternate days she

bathed, and dressed

a cloth supplied by the

washerwoman.

The hut

broken up, and a new one constructed on the third, fifth, and seventh days. During the marriage ceremony, the

VAKKALIGA.BRIUK.

441

OKKILIYAN

bridegroom carries a dagger (katar) with a lime stuck on its tip, and partly covered with a cloth, when he
proceeds
to

the bride's house

with a bamboo,

new

clothes, the tali

(marriage badge), jewels, wrist-thread

(kankanam),

fruits,

camphor,

etc.

He

cocoanuts, rice, and a new mat, must have the dagger with him till

the wrist-threads are untied.

of

The

barber cuts the nails

the bridegroom.

The

Pattakaran, or a

Brahman
it

priest, takes

round the
it

tali to

be blessed by those assem-

bled,

and gives

to the bridegroom,

who

ties

on the

bride's neck.

The ends

of the cloths of the contracting

couple, with betel leaves and areca nuts in them, are tied
together,

and they

link together the

little

finger of their

They then look at the sky, to see the polestar, Arundati, who was the wife of the ascetic Vasishta, and the emblem of chastity. The marriage booth has four posts, and the milk-post is made of the milk hedge {^Etiphorbia Tirucalli), to which are tied mango leaves and a wrist-thread. At some Okkiliyan marriages, the
right hands.

caste priest, called Kanigara (soothsayer), officiates at

the

tali-tying

ceremony.

Very great importance

uncle.

is

attached to the linking of the fingers of the bridal couple

by the Kanigara or maternal

a child.

Tke dowry

is

not

given at the time of marriage, but only after the birth of

For her first confinement, the woman is taken to her parents' home, and, after delivery, is sent back to This is not given before her husband with the dowry.
the birth of a child,
as, in

the event of failure of issue or

death of his wife, the husband might claim the property,

which might pass

to a

new

family.
is

Among some
girl

Okkiliyans the custom

maintained by

which the father of a young boy married to a grown-up

cohabits with his daughter-in-law until her husband

has reached maturity.

OKKILIVAN

442
I

A
in

dead person,

was informed
or,
if

at

Coimbatore,

is

buried in a sitting posture,

young and unmarried,

funeral procession

a recumbent
its

position.

As

the

proceeds on

way

to the burial-ground, the relations

and friends throw

on the road,
funeral
is in

coins, fruits, cakes,

cooked

rice,

etc.,

to

be picked up by poor people.

life,

If

the

high

they

may even throw

some

flowers

made

of gold or silver, but not images, as

classes do.
is

of the higher

At

the south end of the grave, a hollow

in.

scooped out for the head and back to rest

is

small quantity of salt

placed on the abdomen, and the

Leaves of the arka })lant [Calotropis gigantea), or tangedu (Cassia aiiriculatd), are placed
grave
is

filled in.

in

three corners, and a stone

son, having

is

set

up over the head.

The

water and a

fire-brand,

gone round the grave with a pot of breaks the pot on the stone

before he retires. her bangles,

The widow

of the deceased breaks

and throws

them

on

the

grave.

The

son and other mourners bathe, and return home, where

they worship a lighted lamp.

carp7is integrifolia)^ milk, a

On

the third day, dried

twigs of several species of Ficus and jak tree (Arto-

new

cloth,
betel,

plantains, tender
etc.,

cocoanuts, cheroots, raw

rice,

required for

worship, are taken to the grave.

The

twigs are burnt,

and reduced
with a

to ashes, with which,

mixed with water,

It
is
it.

the fiofure of a

human

beino-

is

made.

covered

new

cloth,

and flowers are thrown on

Puja

is

done
leaf,

to plantains, cocoanut, etc., placed

on a plantain

and milk
friends.
it

and

poured over the figure by relations The widow breaks her tali string, and
is

throws

on the

figure.

The

son,

and the four bearers

who

carried the corpse to the grave, are shaved.

is

Each

of the bearers

made

to stand up. holding a pestle.

The barber touches

their

shoulders with holy grass

443

OMANAITO
oil.

dipped

in

gingelly [Sesajinun)

Raw

rice,

and other
by the

eatables, are sent to the houses of the bearers

son of the deceased.

Pollution

At night the

cloths, turban,

and

other personal effects of the dead

is

man

are worshipped.

removed on the eleventh day by a Brahman sprinkling holy water, and the caste people are fed.

They perform
is,

sradh.

By some

Okkiliyans, the corpse

etc.,

like that of a
in

Lingayat Badaga,

carried to the

burial-ground

a structure called teru kattu,

made

of

are placed five brass vessels (kalasam).

is

bamboo framework surmounted by a canopy, whereon The structure

decorated with cloths,
flags,

and plantain

trees.

The Morasu
Olai.

Vakkaligas,

who

sacrifice their fingers,

are dealt with separately (see Morasu).

sub-division

of Palli,
olai.

the

members

of

which wear a ear ornament called

Olaro.

A sub-division of Gadaba. Olekara. See Vilyakara.

Olikala (pyre and ashes). Devanga.

An

exogamous

sept of

Omanaito.
Oriya

The

Omanaitos or
to

Omaitos are an
account of

cultivating
I

caste, for the following

which

am

indebted

According

to a tradition,

Hayavadana Rao. the ancestor of the caste was

Mr.
C.

one Amatya, a minister of Sri

Rama

Rama

had gone

to heaven, there

After at Ayodhya. was no one to take care

of them, and they took to agriculture.

The

caste

is

divided into two

endogamous

sections, called

Bodo

(big)

and Sanno

(little).

The

latter are

regarded as

illegiti-

mate children of the former by a Bottada, Gaudo, or

other woman.
called

The Bodo Sva (parrot), Bhag

(cobra),

section
(tiger),

is

divided into septs,

(tortoise),

Kochchimo

Naga

Sila

(stone),

Dhiidho

(milk),

Kumda

(Cucurbita maxima), and Kukru (dog).

OMANAITO
The
office
is

444

caste

headman

is

called

Bhatha Nayak, whose

in

hereditary.

He

arranges council meetings for

settling social questions,

and takes a leading part

excommunicating members of the caste. Like the Gonds, the Omanaitos cannot tolerate a man suffering from sores,
and he
is

formally

excommunicated.
the

To

be received

back into the

the Bhatha

caste, he has to give a caste feast, of

is

which

Nayak

first

to partake.

Girls are married

before or after puberty.

in
it

A man
As

claims his paternal aunt's daughter

marriage.
is

soon as a young man's parents think

time that he

should get married, they set out, with some sweets and

jaggery (crude sugar), for the house of the paternal aunt,

where the hand of her daughter

visit

is

asked

for.

second

of a similar nature
is

is

made

later on,

when
is

the mar-

riage

decided on.

An
is

auspicious day

fixed

by the

Desari.

messenger
rice,

sent to the house of the bride-

elect with
cloth,

some

three rupees, a sheep, and a

to her parents,

new
day.

which are presented

who

invite the

bridegroom and

his party to

come on the appointed

is

On

that day, the bridegroom

conducted

in procession,

sometimes on horseback,
in front of

to the bride's village.

There,

her hut, a pandal (booth) has been constructed

of eight posts of the sal tree i^Shorea robicsta), and a

central post of the ippa {Bassia) tree, to

which seven

pieces of turmeric and seven

mango

leaves are tied.

At
in

the auspicious

procession to

moment, the bridegroom is conducted the booth, and the messenger says aloud

to

the paternal aunt "

The bridegroom

has come.

Bring

the bride quickly,"

She stands by the

rice

side of the bridelittle

groom, and the Desari links together their

while the

fingers,

women throw

coloured with turmeric over

them.

Water, which has been brought from the village

is

stream at early morn, and coloured with turmeric,

445

ONDIPULI

poured over the couple from

themselves
in-law.
in

five pots.

They then

dress

new
is

cloths

presented by their fathers-

feast

given by the bride's party.

is

On

the

following day, the bride

conducted to the home of the

bridegroom, at the entrance to which they are met by

the bridegroom's mother,

who
is

sprinkles

rice

coloured
feet

with turmeric over them, and washes their

turmeric-water.

with

Liquor

then distributed, and a meal

partaken

of.

The Desari
ties

takes seven grains of rice and

seven areca nuts and

them up

in the

ends of the

cloths of the contracting couple.

On

the following day,

a feast

is

held, and, next day, the parties of the bride

and bridegroom throw turmeric-water over each

All

other.
feast

then repair to the

stream,
is killed.

and bathe.

follows, for
It
is

which a sheep
in in

noted,
that

the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam

District,

the course of an

Omanaito wedding

there

is a free fight, with mud for missiles. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of his elder brother. Divorce is allowed, and divorcees may marry again. The Omanaitos worship Takurani and Chamariya Devata, as priest of whom a member of the caste

officiates.

An

annual

festival

is

held in the

month of

Chaitro.

The dead
occupation
is

are burnt.

Pollution on account of a death

in a family lasts for ten days,

during which the caste

not carried out, and the mourners are fed

feast

by people of another sept. On the eleventh day a is held, at which liquor is forbidden.

The

caste

title

is

usually
Patro.
in the

Nayako, but the more

prosperous take the

title

Ondipuli. Recorded,
190 1,

Madras Census Report,

as Telugu-speaking cultivators and cattle-breeders

ONNAM PARISHA
in the

446

Salem

district.

The name
(first

is

sometimes applied

to the

beggars attached to the

Palli caste.

Onnam
Onne

Parisha

party).

{Plerocarpus Marsupm^n).

A section of Elayad. An exogamous

mark
their

sept of Toreyas,

who

are

not allowed to

foreheads with the juice which exudes from the trunk of

this tree.

Onteddu.

Onteddu or
or

Onti-eddu

is

the

name

of a

sub-division of Ganigas or Gandlas,

who

only use one

bullock for their oil-mills.

Opoto.

Opoto A

Apoto

is

the

name
the

of

the

palanquin-bearing section of Gaudos.

Oppamtara.

title

conferred

by

Raja of

Cochin on some Nayars.

Oppanakkaran
culturists.

(trader).

Telugu traders and

Balija.

agri-

Recorded as a sub-division of

OppomarangO
mous

{Achyranthes asperd).

An

exoga-

sept of Bhondari, the

members

of which

may

not

use the root as a tooth-brush.

Ore.

An honorific

title

of Nayars.
devotee).

mendicants,

Origabhakthudu (saluting who are said to beg

Oriya.

class

of

only from Perikes.

Oriya, or Uriya,

is

a general term for those

who speak the Oriya

Sondi and Dhobi.

language.

At times of census,

it

has
e.g.,

been recorded as a sub-division of various

castes,

Oruganti.

Orunul

A sub-division of Kapu and Mutracha. (one A sub-division of Marans,

string).

whose widows do not remarry.

Oshtama.
applied to

corrupt form of the word Vaishnava,

Satanis,

who
in

are

called

by

illiterate

folk

Oishnamaru or Oshtamaru.
Osta.
1

Recorded,

the Travancore Census Report,

for

90 1, as the name of a caste of barbers

Muhammadans.

447

pAdam
name for temples and Brahman
occupational
indicating those

Otattu
Nayars,
houses.

(tile-makers).
tile

An

who

or

thatch

Ottaisekkan. The name,

Vaniyan.

who work

their oil-mill with a single bullock, of a sub-division of

Ottikunda (empty

pot).

An

exogamous sept of

Kamma.

Paccha (green). An exogamous sept of Kamma. The equivalent Pacchai is a sub-division of Tamil Paraiyans, and of Malaiyalis

malais (green
occurs as an

hills).

who have settled on the- PacchaiPace hi powaku (green tobacco)

to

exogamous sept

Kutti

is

the

name given
known
in

Devanga. Pacchai Koravas who travel about

of In like

the country as professional tattooers, the operation of

tattooing being
as pricking with green.
is

manner, Pacchai Botlu

itinerant tattooers

the

name

for

Oddes, who are

the

Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and

Godavari

districts.

Pachilia. A sub-division of Oriya Gaudos.

Pada

(hghting).

Padaharu
indicating the

A sub-division of Nayar. Madala (sixteen madalas). The

name,
say

Upparas.
that the
earth, in

amount of the bride-price, of a madala is equal to two rupees.

salt

section of

Some

name
which

has reference to the modas, or heaps of

was formerly made.

title

Padaiyachi. A synonym or
yan, and Savalakkaran.

of Palli or Vanni-

Padal.
port,

title

of

headmen
in

of the Bagatas.

Padam. Recorded,
1

the Travancore Census Re-

90 1, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Padamangalam

PADARTI
or Padamangalakkar
of
Niiyars,
is

448
also recorded as

a sub-division

in temples. Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes that " Padamangalam and the Tamil Padam are recorded as a division of Nayars, but they are said to be immigrants to Travancore from the

who

escort

processions

Tamil country."
sept of

Padam Moosu Kamma.

also occurs as an

exogamous
in

Padarti.

title

of

pujaris

(priests)

South

Canara, and a

name by which Stanikas are called. Padavala (boat). An exogamous sept of

De-

vanoa.

Padiga Raju.

Recorded,

in

the

Madras Census

The Padiga Rajulu are, however, beggars attached to the Padma Sales, and apparently distinct from Rhatrazus. The name is
Report, as the same as Bhatrazu.

probably derived from padiga, a kind of vessel, and

may

bear reference to the vessel which they carry with

their

them on

begging expeditions.
of Velama.
(lotus)

Padma Padma

(lotus).

A sub-division Sale. The Padma

The

Sales are

a
all

Telugu-speaking caste of weavers,

over the Madras Presidency.
in their hereditary occupation,

who

are scattered

majority are engaged

but only the

minority

possess looms of their own, and they work, for the most
part,
for

the

more prosperous owners of hand-looms.

As

a class they are poor, being addicted to strong drinks,

in the

and

hands of the money-lenders, who take care

always remain
in

that their customers

debt to them.

Like the Kaikolans, the Padma Sales weave the coarser

kinds of cotton cloths, and cannot compete with the

Patnulkarans and Khatres

finer kinds.

in

the manufacture of the

The Padma
But, like other

Sales have only one gotra, Markandeya.

Telugu

castes,

they have a number of

449

PADMA SALE

exogamous
examples
:

septs or intiperus, of which the following are

Bandari, treasurer.

Paththi, cotton.
Putta, ant-hill.

Bomnia, an

idol.

Canji, gruel.

Thelu, scorpion.

Chinthaginjala, tamarind seeds.

Gorantla, Lawsonia alba.
Jinka, gazelle.

Tangedla, Cassia anriculata.

Tumma, Acacia
Chinnam, gold
Gurram, horse.
?

arabica.

Avari, indigo plant.

Kalava, ditch.

Kasulu, copper coins.

Kongara, crane.
Kadavala, pots.

Geddam,
Kota,

beard.

fort.

Manchi, good.
Nili, indigo.

Meda, raised mound.

Middala, storeyed house,
Alamidla, mango.
Narala, nerves.
PiJla, flowers.

Nukalu, flour of grain or pulse.

Nyayam,
tJtla,

justice.

rope for hanging pots.

Pothu, male.

Sadhu, quiet or meek.

The Padma

Sales profess to be Vaishnavites,

All the families of the
to

but

some are Saivites. sept Sadhu are said

exogamous
In

be lingam-wearing Saivites.

addition to their house-god Venkateswara, they worship

Maremma, Durgamma, Narasappa, Sunkalamma, Urukundhi Viranna, Gangamma, Kinkiniamma, Mutyalamma, Kalelamma, Ankamma, and
Pulikondla Rangaswami,

Padvetiamma.

Their caste deity

places,
this deity

is

Bhavana
is

Rishi, to

whom,

in

some

a special temple
is

dedicated.

festival in

honour of

celebrated annually,

during which the god and goddess are represented by

two decorated pots placed on a model of a tiger (vyagra vahanam), to which, on the last day of the ceremonial,
large quantities of rice and vegetables are offered, which

are distributed

among

the loom-owners, pujari, headman,

fasting celebrants, etc.

The Padma
Devangas
v-29

Sales belong to the right-hand, and the

to the left-hand faction,

and the

latter

aver

PADMA SALE
that the

450
Sales took

Padma

away

the

body of the goddess

Chaudcswari, leaving them the head.

Three kinds of beggars are attached to the Padma Sales, viz., Sadhana Surulu, Padiga Rajulu or KoonaConcerning pilli vandlu, and Inaka-mukku Bhatrazus. Buchanan writes as follows.* " The the Sadhana Surulu,
Vaishnavite section of the
Srdc.

Samay

Sale

is

called

Padma

The whole Shalay

formerly wore the linga, but,

a house having been possessed by a devil, and this sect

having been called on to cast him out,

all

their prayers

were of no

avail.

At length ten persons, having thrown

in

aside their linga, and offered up their supplications to

Vishnu, they succeeded

expelling the enemy, and

ever afterwards they followed the worship of this god,

in

which they have been

initiated

by

their

brethren.

The

descendants of these men,

who

are called

Sadana

Asholu (Sadana Sijrulu), or the celebrated heroes, never work, and, having dedicated themselves to god, live upon
the charity of the industrious part of the caste, with

whom

they disdain to marry."

The Padiga Rajulu

are supposed to be the descend-

ants of three persons, Adigadu, Padigadu and Baludu,

who sprang from

following legend

the sweat of
is

Bhavana

Rishi,

and the

current

concerning the origin of

At the creation of the world, men were naked, and one Markandeya, who was sixteen years old, was asked to weave cloths. To enable him to do so, he did thapas (penance), and from the sacred fire arose Bhavana Rishi, bearing a bundle
the

Padma

Sales and Padiga Rajulu.

of thread obtained from the lotus which sprang from Vishnu's navel.

Bhavana Rishi made

cloths,

and presented

them

to the Devatas,

and offered a cloth

to Bhairava also.

* Journey through Mysore,

Canara and Mahxbar, 1807.

451

PADMA SALE
was the
last,

This he refused to accept, as

first,

it

and not the

which
it

is

usually rolled up, and kept on the loom.

Finding-

unsuitable for wearing, Bhairava uttered a

curse that the cloths

made should wear

out in six months.

Accordingly,

Siva asked

tiger's skin for wearing.

of Bhavana, and told

Bhavana to procure him a Narada came to the assistance him to go to Udayagiri, where

Bhadravati, the daughter of Surya, was doing penance

to secure

Bhavana
if

as her husband.

She promised

to

secure a skin,
sented,

he would marry her.

To

this

he conskin.

and,

in

due course, received the

tiger's

Making the
to the

tiger his

vahanam
he killed

(vehicle),

he proceeded

abode of Siva (Kailasam), and on

his

way

thither

met a Rakshasa,
ceeded

whom

in

a fight, in the course

of which he sweated profusely.

From

the sweat pro-

Adigadu,

Padigadu,

and Baludu.
skin,

When

he

eventually reached Siva, the tiger, on the sacred ashes

being thrown over

priated.
in

it,

cast

its

which Siva approbelieve that they

In consequence of this legend, tigers arc held

reverence by the

Padma

Sales,

who

will not

molest them.

The

legendary origin of the

Padma

Sales

is

given as
days,

follows in the

Baramahal Records.*

"In former

the other sects of weavers used annually to present a

piece of cloth to a rishi or saint,

One

year they omitted to

period,

named Markandeyulu. make their offering at the

the
rishi,
fire,

customary

which neglect enraged

who performed

a yaga or sacrifice of

and, by the

power of mantras or prayers, he caused a man to spring up out of the fire of the sacrifice, and called him Padma Saliwarlu, and directed him to weave a This he did, and presented piece of cloth for his use.
* Section III. Inhabitants.

Madras Government

Press, 1907.

V-29 B

PADMA SALE
it

452
'

to the rishi, saying

Oh

Swami, who

is

thy servant

to worship,

and how

is

he to obtain
of the
to

tance to the presence

moksham or admitSupreme ? The rishi

'

answered

'

Pay adoration
"

me, and thou wilt obtain

moksham.'

The office The headman

Setti or
is

of

headman

(Setti or

Gaudu)

is

hereditary.

has under him an assistant, called

Ummidi

Ganumukhi, who is the caste messenger, and exempt from the various subscriptions for temple

festivals, etc.

When
eat
pollution.

a girl

reaches puberty, she

is

forbidden to

meat or Amaranttis during the period of ceremonial

In settling the preliminaries of a marriage, a

With some Padma Sales it is etiquette not to give direct answers when a marriage For example, those who have come is being fixed up. to seek the hand of a girl say " We have come for a

Brahman

purohit takes part.

sumptuous meal,

"

to

which the

girl's parents, if

consent-

ing to the match, will reply "

We are

ready to feed you.

rites are

You

are our near relations."

The marriage
to the

blend of the Canarese and Telugu types.

districts,

In the

Ceded

the bride

is

conveyed

house of the bridewaved,

in

groom, seated on a

bull, after

worship has been done to

is

Hanuman.

As

she enters the house, a cocoanut

and thrown on the ground.

has been wound nine times.

She then bathes

an

enclosure with four posts, round which cotton thread

Wrist-threads of cotton and

wool are

tied

on the bride and brideoroom.

is

The
:

bottu

(marriage badge)

tied

round the bride's neck, and she

millet)

stands on a pile of cholum {SorgJuim vulgare

the floor or in a basket.
mill-stone.

on

The

bridegroom stands on a

While the bottu is being tied, a screen is The bride's interposed between the contracting couple. nose-screw ornament is dropped into a plate of milk.

453
from which she has to pick
evening, the bridal couple go
streets,
it

PAGADAla
out five times.

Towards

in
if

procession through the

there
is

and to the temple,

for a short

one.

On

their

return to the house, the bridegroom picks up the bride,

and dances

time before entering.

This cere-

mony

is

called dega-ata,
castes.

and

is

performed by several
in

Telugu

Some Padma
manner, others,
It is

Sales

bury their dead

the

usual

like the Lingayats, in a sitting

posture.

customary, in some places, to offer up a fowl to the corpse before it is removed from the house, and, if a

death occurs on a Saturday or Sunday, a fowl

the bier, and burnt with the corpse.
belief that otherwise another death
place.

is

tied to
in

This

is

done

the

The

Tamilians,

in like

manner,

would very soon take have a proverb

"

Saturday corpse

will not

go

alone."

On

the

way

to

the burial-ground,

the corpse is laid down, and water poured into the mouth. The son takes a pot of water round the grave, and holes are made in it by the

Ummidi

Setti,
fifth

through which the water

is

trickles

out.

On

the

day, a sheep

killed,

and eaten.

During
puja
sacred

the evening the Satani comes,

(worship), gives the relatives

and, after doing of the deceased

arrack

(liquor)

in

lieu

of holy

water (thirtham) and

meat, for which he receives payment.

On

the last day

of the death ceremonies (karmandiram), the Satani again

comes with arrack, and, according

all

to a note before me,

get drunk.

{See Sale.)
(trader
in

Pagadala

coral).

sub-division

or

exogamous sept of Balija and Kavarai. The Pagadala Balijas of the Vizagapatam district are described as dealing in coral and pearls. Pagada Mukara (coral
nose-ring)

has

been

returned as

sub-division

of

Kamma.

PAGATI VESHAM

454

Pagati Vesham.
put

class of

on disguises (vesham) while

in

annual festival at Tirupati

Telugu beggars, who begging.* At the honour of the goddess

These

Gangamma, custom

requires the people to appear in a

different disguise every

morning and evening.

disguises include those of a Bairagi, serpent, etc.t

Paguththan. A title of Sembadavan. Paida (gold or money). An exogamous sept of Mala. The equivalent Paidam occurs as an exogamous

sept of Devanga.

Paidi.

The

Paidis are

summed

up, in the

Madras

Census Report, 1891, as

" a class of agricultural labourers

and weavers, found in the Vizagapatam district. Some of them are employed as servants and village watchmen.

They
hills,

are closely akin to the Panos and

Dombos

of the

and

Malas of the plains.

is

They speak

a corrupt

dialect of Uriya."

In the Census Report, 1901,

Kangara

(servant)

recorded as a synonym for Paidi.

For the following note on the Paidis of the Vizagapatam district, I am mainly indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. There is a great deal of confusion concerning this caste, and the general impression seems to be that it is the same as Domb and Pano. I am informed that the same man would be called Paidi by Telugus, Domb by the Savaras, and Pano by the Konds. In the interior
of the Jeypore

Agency

tracts the

Dombs and

Paidis both

repudiate the suggestion that they are connected with

each other.

The

Paidis, in

some

places, claim to belong

to the Valmiki kulam,

and

to be

descended from Valmiki,

similar descent,
it

the author of the Ramayana.

may

be noted,

is

claimed by the Boyas.

In the Vizagapatam
(hill

Manual, the Paidimalalu or Paidi Malas

*

Malas) are

Madras Census Report, igoi.

dislricl, I, 1S7.

t See Manual of ihc Norih Arcol

455
described as cultivating land,
village

VAim
serving as servants and
It
is

watchmen, and spinning cotton.

said

that

they

will not eat food,

which has been seen by Komatis.

kept under

The

Paidis stoutly deny their connection with the Malas.

When
day, a

a Paidi girl reaches puberty, she

is

pollution for a varying

Madiga

is

number summoned, who

of days, and, on the last

cuts her finger and
Girls are married

toe nails, after

which she bathes.

either before or after puberty.

is

in

force,

according to

The menarikam custom which a man should marry his

If

maternal uncle's daughter.

price (voli)
is

he does
;

so,

the brideit

fixed at five

rupees

otherwise
last

is

ten

rupees.

The marriage ceremonies

over four days,

and are of the low-country Telugu type.

of

The remarriage

widows and divorce are permitted. The Paidis are Vaishnavites, and sing songs in praise of Rama during the month Karthika (NovemberDecember). Each family feeds a few of the castemen
at least

once during that month.

They

also observe the

Sankramanam festival, at which they The dead are either burnt clothes.
are observed.

usually wear

new

or buried, and the

chinna (small) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies

Some
bringing markets.
schools.

Paidis are cultivators, but a large

number
it

are

prosperous traders, buying up

it

the

hill

produce, and
is

to

the

low-country,

where
English

sold at

Their children

study

in

the

hill

The
time

Some
jail.
I

Anna and Ayya. ago some prisoners, who called themselves

caste titles are

Billaikavu (cat-eaters), were confined in the Vizagapatam

am

informed that these people are Mala Paidis,

who eat The

cat flesh.

following note refers to the Paidis

who

live in

the southern part of Ganjam.

Some have

settled as

PAIDI

456
in

watchmen, or
In
their

other capacities,
in

among

the Savaras,
to tlieir

whose language they speak

marriage

addition

own.
the

ceremonies,

they

conform

to

Telugu
set up,

type, with certain variations adopted from the

Oriya ceremonial.

On

the

first

day, a pandal (booth)

posts.

is

and supported on twelve

feast is

given

to males during the day,

and to females
superior
the
is

at night.

Like

the Oriya Dandasis, they bring water from seven houses

of

members

of

castes

to

their

own.

The
during

auspicious time for

tying

pushte (gold
fixed so as to

marriage
fall

badge) on the following day

the night.

At the appointed

time, the bridegroom rushes

into the house of the bride,

throw
hand,

rice

and the contracting couple over each other. Taking the bride by the
bridegroom
conducts
her
to
dais.

the

the

pandal,
bride
is

wherein they take their seats on the

The
first

should be seated before the bridegroom, and there

mock
for the

struggle to prevent this, and to secure

place

bridegroom.

He

then

ties

a mokkuto (chaplet)

on the

bride's forehead,

a thread on her wrist, and the

pushte on her neck.

After this has been done, the couple

to,

bathe with the water already referred

and once more

sufficient

come
to
fill

to the dais,

where a small quantity of rice,

is

a measure called adda,

is

placed

before them.

Some amusement
a portion of the

derived from the bride abstracting

so
less

rice,
is

that,

when

the bridegroom

measures
marriage

it,

there

than there should be.

The

ceremonies conclude on the third day with

offerings to ancestors,

and distribution of presents to the

are based on the Oriya type.
is

newly married couple.

The death ceremonies

On
As

the day after death, the funeral pyre

extinguished,

and the ashes are thrown on

to a tree or an ant-hill.

they are being borne thither, the priest asks the

man

457

PAIDI

who

carries
is

and he

them what has become of the dead person, expected to reply that he has gone to Kasi

(Benares) or Jagannatham.
are placed on

cloth

is

spread on the

spot where the corpse was burnt, and offerings of food

it.

On

the fourth day, a pig

is

killed

and

cooked.

Before beino- cooked, one of the

lesfs is

hune

up near the spot where the deceased breathed his last. Death pollution is got rid of by touching oil and turmeric, and the ceremonies conclude with a feast. An annual
offering of food
is

made,

in the

month

of

November,

to

ancestors, unless a death takes place in the family during

this

month.
Paidis worship the Takuranis (village

The Ganjam
deities),

and

sacrifice goats

and sheep

at local

temples.

As

they are a polluting caste, they stand at a distance

take a pinch or two of earth.

opposite the entrance to the temple, and, before they

retire,

This,

on their

return home, they place on a cloth spread on a spot

which has been cleansed, and

articles

set before

it

the various

which have been

prepared as offerings to the

is

Takurani.
female

When

a Paidi
or

seriously
is

ill,

a male

or

sorcerer

(Bejjo
into

Bejjano)

consulted.
is

square, divided

sixteen

compartments,

drawn
piece,
set

on the floor with

placed a
leaf,

rice-flour.

In each compartment are

cup oi Buteafrondosa^ a quarter-anna

and some food.

Seven small bows and arrows are

two
lines.
is

up

in

front thereof in
filled

On

one side of the

square a big cup,

sacrificed,

with food,

placed.

fowl

is

and

its

blood poured thrice round this cup.

in

Then, placing water

the same time the
rice sinks,
it is

a vessel near the cup, the sorcerer

It

or sorceress throw^s into

a grain of

rice,

giving out at
If the

name

of

some god or goddess.

is

believed that the illness

deity,

caused by the

anger of the

whose name has been mentioned.

PAIK
If

45 8

the rice floats, the

names of various

deities are called

out, until a grain sinks.

It is

recorded *

that, in the

Parvatipur country of the

Vizagapatam
of the crime,

district,

"the Paidis (Paidi Malas) do most

and often commit dacoities on the roads.

Like the Konda Doras, they have induced some of the

people to employ watchmen of their caste as the price
of

immunity from
of the

theft.

They

are connected with the

taluks,

Dombus
Paik.

Rayagada and Gunupur

who

are even worse."

'

It is

noted by Yule and Burnell,t under the

heading Pyke or Paik, that

"Wilson gives only one

etc.

original of the termx so expressed in Anglo-Indian speech.

He

writes

Paik or Payik, corruptly Pyke, Hind.,

(from S. padatika), Paik or Payak, Mar., a footman, an

armed attendant, an

inferior police

and revenue

officer,

a messenger, a courier, a village

watchman.

In Cuttack

the Paiks formerly constituted a local militia,

holding

land of the Zamindars or Rajas by the tenure of military

service.'

But

it

seems

clear to us that there are here

:

two terms
or courier
;

rolled together
[d)

(a) Pers.

Paik, a foot-runner

Hind, paik and payik (also Mahr.) from

Skt. padatika,

and padika, a

foot-soldier."

In the as " rather

Madras Census Report,

is

1891, Paiko

is

defined

an occupational than a caste name.

It

means

a foot-soldier, and

used to denote the retainers of the

Uriya Chiefs of Ganjam and Vizagapatam.

various castes.

These men

were granted lands on feudal tenure, and belonged to

They

are

now

ordinary agriculturists.

Some
to

are

employed
sacrifice

in the police,

and as peons

in

the

various public departments."

In the records relating

human

and

infanticide, 1854, the Paiks are

* Gazellecr of ihe Vizagapatam district.

Hobson-Jobson.

459
referred to as matchlock men, by

PAILMAN

whom

the

Konds and

Gonds

are kept in abject servitude.

In the

Vizagapatam

Manual, 1869, various castes are referred to as being

" all paiks or fighting

men.

Formerly they were a very

numbers are much diminished now, that is as fighting men, for the old army used to be paid, some in money, and some in grants of land. Now there are very few paiks kept up as fighting men those

numerous body, but

their

discharged from service have taken to trading with the

coast,
at

and

to cultivating their pieces of land.

The

fort

Kotapad on the Bustar frontier always had a standing garrison of several hundred paiks. They are gradually
being disbanded since

we have put

police there.

The

men
as a

are a fine race, brave, and capital shots with the

matchlock."

Paiko has been recorded, at times of census,

or sub-division of

synonym

Rona.

And

Paikarayi

occurs as a

title

of Badhoyis.

Paiki.
as
all

A division of Toda. Pailman. Pailman or Pailwan has been described *

wrestler, used

"an occupational term meaning a

by
are

classes following the occupation, whether they are

Hindus or Musalmans.
usually Gollas or Jettis."

The Hindus among them

In the

Pailmans wrestle, and

Telugu country, the perform various mountebank,

conjuring, and juggling feats.

wandering troupe of

Maratha Pailwans performed before me various stickexercises, acrobatic and contortionist feats, and balancing feats on a bamboo pole supported in the kamerband
(belly-band) of a veteran

member

of the troupe.
lofty

The
pole

performance wound up with gymnastics on a

kept erect by means of ropes tied to casual trees and tentpegs, and surmounted by a pliant bamboo, on which the

* Madras Census Report, 1901.

PAINDA

460

performer swung and balanced himself while playing a

drum, or supporting a pile of earthen pots surmounted

by a
took

brass
}:)lace

vessel

on

his

head.

The entertainment
clarionet,

amid the music of drum and

turns.

and

the patter of one of the troupe, the performers playing

the

drum in the waits between their Painda. A synonym of Paidi. Pakanati (eastern territory).

sub-division of

various

Telugu

classes,

e.g.^

Balija,

Golla,

Kamsala,

Kapu, Mala, and Tsakala. Paki. Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain * as a sweeper caste in the Godavari district, members of which have

come from

the neighbourhood of Vizagapatam,

and are

great sticklers for their caste rules.

Pakinadu.-=A
and other Telugu
Pakirithi.

territorial sub-division of

Kamsalas

castes,

corresponding to Pakanati.
Parigiri,

meaning Vaishnavite, is a sub-division of Besthas, who, on ceremonial occasions, wear the Vaishnava sect mark. Pal (milk). Pal or Pilla has been recorded as a subdivision of Idaiyan and Kurumba, and an exogamous

Pakirithi or

sept of Mala.

{^Sce

Halu.)

Palakala (planks). An exogamous sept of Kamma. Palamala. Palama is recorded as a sub-division of

the Kanikars of Travancore and Palamalathillom, said to

denote the mountain with trees with milky juice, as an

exogamous

sept of the

same

tribe.

Palavili.

A gotra ofGollas, who are not allowed See Mutracha.

to

erect palavili, or sniall booths inside the house for the

purpose of worship.

Palayakkaran.

Paligiri. A sub-division of Mutracha.

* Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879.

461

PALIYAN

Palissa

(shield)

Kollan.

class

of Kollans

in

Malabar, who make

" the girl

leather shields.

It is

recorded, in

the Gazetteer of Malabar, that, at the tali-kettu ceremony,

and manavalan (bridegroom) go to the tank on the last day of the ceremony. The girl, standing in As the tank, ducks her whole body under water thrice.
she does so for the third time, a pandibali or triangular
platter

made

of cocoanut

fronds and pieces of plantain

stem and
in half as

leaf plaited
is

together and adorned with five

lighted wicks,
it

thrown over her into the water, and cut

Boats by an enangan,

who

sings a song called

Kalikkakam.
failure to sever

Lastly, the girl chops in

two a cocoanut
at
it,

placed on the bank.

It

She aims two blows

Is

and

with a third

considered inauspicious.
castes, the lucky (called

Among

Palissa Kollans
is

and some other

last

dip ceremony

performed on the

day

nalam
to

kalyanam or fourth marriage).

out the

An
in

enangan, drawing

packets at random,
girl,

distributes
turn.

them
It
is

the

manavalan, the
for the

and himself

lucky

manavalan

to get the gold,

and the
in

girl the silver.

A
at

significant

finish to
is

the ceremony in the form

of a

symbolical divorce
all

not infrequent

South Malabar

events.

Thus, among the Palissa Kollans the

his

manavalan takes a piece of thread from

mundu

(cloth),
'

and gives
the
girl's

it,

saying

'

Here

is

your
it

sister's

accharam

to
It

brother,
In

who breaks
first
;

In

two and
in

puffs

towards him.
girl

other cases, the manavalan gives the

day, and
or the

a cloth on the

cuts

It

two, giving

her one half on the last

of the
girl

manavalan and an enangan hold opposite ends of a cloth, which the

in

manavalan cuts and tears

pieces to the girl."

two, and

then gives both

Paliyans of Madura and Tinnevelly. on the Malai (hill) Paliyans of the Madura

In

a note

district,

the

PALIYAN
Rev.
J.

462
"
I

E. Tracy writes as follows.

went

to their
testify to

village at the foot of the Periyar hills,

and can

their being the

most

abject,

hopeless, and unpromising

I

specimens of humanity that

have ever seen.

little

There

were about forty of them

in

the

settlement, which

was situated

in

a lovely spot.

stream of pure water

was flowing within a few feet of their huts, and yet they were as foul and filthy in their personal appearance as if Rich they were mere animals, and very unclean ones. land that produced a luxuriant crop of rank reeds was
all

around them, and, with a

little

exertion on their part,

might have been abundantly

continuous crops of grain.

irrigated,

and produced
on
that
hills

Yet they

lived entirely

nuts and roots, and various kinds of

gum

they

gathered

in

the forest on the slopes of the

above

Only two of the community had ever been more than seven miles away from their village into the open country below them. Their huts were built entirely of grass, and consisted of only one room each, and that open at the ends. The chief man of the comtheir settlement.

munity was an old man with white

privilege

hair.

His

distinctive

was that he was allowed to sleep between two fires at night, while no one else was allowed to have but one a distinction that they were very complaisant about, perhaps because with the distinction was the accompanying obligation to see that the community's As he was also the only man in fire never went out. the community who was allowed to have two wives, I inferred that he delegated to them the privilege of look-

ing after the

fires,

while he did the sleeping, whereas, in

other families, the

man and
fire

wife

had

to take turn

and

turn about to see that the

in the
filthy.

had not to be re-lighted

ignorant as they were

morning.

They were

as

They had no

place of worship, but seemed to

4^3

TALIYAN

aoree that the demons of the forest around them were

the only beings that they had to fear besides the Forest

Department.

They were

barely clothed,

their

rags

being held about them, in one or two cases, with girdles

of twisted grass.
that

They had much

the

same appearance

many

a famine subject presented in the famine of

seemed to have had no better times to look back upon, and hence took their condition as a matter of course. The forest had been their home from time immemorial. Yet the forest seemed to have taught
1877, but they

them nothing more than

it

might have been supposed to

have taught the prowling jackal or the laughing hyaena. There were no domesticated animals about their place
strange to say, not even a pariah dog.
to have

They appeared

agriculture.

no idea of hunting, any more than they had of And, as for any ideas of the beauty or
selected

solemnity of the place that they had

village site, they

as their

were as innocent of such things as they

states

were of the beauties of Robert Browning's verse." In a note written in 181 7, Mr. T. Turnbull
that the

Madura Pulliers " are never seen unless when they come down to travellers to crave a piece of tobacco
or a rag of cloth, for which they have a great predilection.

The women

are said to lay their infants on

warm

ashes after delivery, as a substitute for

warm

clothing

and beds."

The

Palayans, or Pulleer, are described by General

Burton* as "good trackers, and many of them carried bows and arrows, and a few even possessed matchlocks. I met one of these villagers going out on a sporting He had on his head a great chatty (earthen excursion. pot) full of water, and an old brass-bound matchlock.
An

Indian Olio.

PALIYAN
It

464

was the height of the dry season. He was taking water to a hollow in a rock, which he kept carefullyreplenished, and then ensconced himself in a clump of bushes hard by, and waited all day, if necessary, with
true

native
his

patience,

for

hog,

deer,

or pea-fowl to

approach

ambush."
it is

In the

Madura Manual,
to

noted that " the Polei-

yans have always been the praedial slaves of the Kunuvans.

According

the survey account, they are the

aborigines of the Palni

consists merely of a

The marriage ceremony declaration of consent made by both

hills.

parties at a feast, to

which

all

their relatives are invited.

As soon
villages
locality,

as a case of small-pox occurs in one of their

villages, a
is

cordon

is

drawn round
all

it,

and access

to other

denied to
at

the inhabitants of the infected

who
to
it

once desert their homes, and camp out

for
is

a sufficiently long period.

left

The

individual attacked
is is

his
is

fate,

and no medicine

exhibited

to

him, as
solely

supposed that the malady

brought on

by the just displeasure of the gods.

They bury

their dead."

The Madura

Paliyans are described, in the Gazetteer of the

district, as

a " very backward caste,

who

reside

in small scattered parties

amid the jungles of the Upper

Palnis and the Varushanad valley.

They speak Tamil

it

with a peculiar
intelligible.

intonation,

which renders
less

scarcely

They

are

much

civilised

than the

Pulaiyans, but do not eat beef, and consequently carry

no pollution.

They sometimes

build themselves grass

trees, in caves,

huts, but often they live

on platforms up

or under rocks.
dirtiest,

Their clothes are of the scantiest and

leaves.

and are sometimes eked out with grass or They live upon roots (yams), leaves, and honey.
cook the roots by putting them into a
pit in the

They

ground,

TALI VAX.

465

PALIYAN

heaping wood upon them, and lighting it. The fire is usually kept burning all night as a protection against
wild beasts, and
it

is

often the only sign of the presence

folk,

of the Paliyans in a jungle, for they are shy

who

avoid other people.

steel,

They make

fire

with quartz and

using the

tioss

of the silk-cotton tree as tinder.

Weddings

are conducted without ceremonies, the under-

standing being that the

man

shall collect food,

and the

woman cook
the body as

it.

When

one of them

dies, the rest leave

it is,

and avoid the spot

for

some months."
hills

A
to
"

detailed account of the Paliyans of the Palni

by the Rev. F.
which
I

Dahmen

has recently been published, "^

am

indebted for the following information.

The

Paliyans are a nomadic tribe,

who

for the

most

part rove in small parties through the jungle-clad gorges

that fringe the

Upper
etc.),

Palnis plateau.

tain themselves mostly

on roots (yams,
the

There they mainon the products of the chase and leaves and wild fruits (e.-., of the

wild date tree), at times also by hiring their labour to

Kunnuvan

hive in

them.

Mannadi villagers. The find of a beethe hollow of some tree is a veritable feast for No sooner have they smoked the bees out than
or
spot, with

they greedily snatch at the combs, and ravenously devour

them on the

wax, grubs, and

all.
:

Against
in fact,

ailments the Paliyans have their

own remedies

some Paliyans have made a name for themselves by their knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and
roots.

Thus,

for instance, they

(periya uri katti ver) a

effective

make from certain roots white powder known as a very

which
as

purgative.

Against snake-bite they always

carry with

them

certain leavx-s (naru valli ver),

they hold to be a very efficient antidote.

As soon

* Anthropos, III, 1908.

V-30

PALIYAN
one of them
is

466
bitten,

he chews these, and also applies

Patience and cunning above
all

them

to the

wound.

are required in their

devices, used for big

hunting-methods.
e.g.,

One

of their

game,

against the sambar (deer),

pitfalls, carefully-

or against the boar, consists in digging

covered up with twigs and leaves.

entrapped,
(sickle).
it

On
in

the animal being

is

dispatched with clubs or the aruval

Another means consists

to rest

arranging a heap

of big stones on a kind of platform, one end of which

is

made

on higher ground, the other

it

skilfully-

equipoised by a stick resting on a fork, where

fixed
least

remains

by means of strong twine so disposed that the

movement makes
a crash.

the lever-like stick on the fork

fly off,

while the platform and the stones come rapidly

down with
is

The

string which secures the lever

so arranged as to unloose itself at the least touch, and

the intended victim can hardly taste the food that serves
for bait without bringing the platform with all its

weight

down upon

itself.

Similar traps, but on a smaller scale,

:

are used to catch smaller animals

hares, wild fowl, etc.

trees,

Flying squirrels are smoked out of the hollows of

and porcupines out of their burrows, and then captured or

clubbed
to

death on their coming out.

The
kill

first

drops

of blood of any animal the Paliyans

their god.

are offered to

A good catch is a great

boon

for the

famished

The meat obtained therefrom must be divided the families of the settlement. The skins, if valuable, are preserved to barter for the little commodities they may stand in need of, or to give as a tribute One of their methods for procuring fish to their chief
Paliyan.

between

all

consists in throwing the leaves of a creeper called in

Tamil

karungakodi, after rubbing them, into the water.

the
fish is

Soon

seen floating on the surface.

Rough

fashioned

hooks are also used.

When

not

enoag^ed

on

some

467

PALIYAN

expedition, or not working for hire, the Paliyans at times

occupy themselves

in

the fabrication of small bird-cages,

or in weaving a rough kind of mat, or in basket-making.

The

small nicknacks they turn out are

made according

to rather ingenious patterns,

and partly coloured with

These, with the skins of
the

red and green vegetable dyes.

animals, and the odoriferous resin collected from

dammer
barter or

tree,
sell

are about the only articles which they

to the inhabitants of the plains, or to the

Mannadis."

Concerning the religion

Paliyans, the Rev. F.

and

superstitions

of

the

Dahmen

writes as follows.

"The

ceremony takes place about the Mayandi (the god) is usually represented by a stone, preferably one to which nature has given some curious shape, the serpent form being
principal
religious

beginning of March.

especially valued.

said

'

represented,'

for,

according

to our Paliyans, the stone

itself is

not the god,

supposed to
where.

live

somewhere, they do not

who is exactly know

its

The

stone that represents him has

is

shrine at

the foot of a tree, or

covering.

simply sheltered by a small thatched

There, on the appointed day, the Paliyans

Fire
is

gather before sunrise.

made

in

a hole in front
in,

of the sacred stone, a fine cock brought

decapitated

amidst the music of horn and drum and the blood made The head of the fowl ought to be to drip on the fire.
severed at one blow, as this
of the
future.
is

a sign of the satisfaction

god

and of further protection for the Should the head still hang, this would be held
for the past,

a bad omen, foreboding calamities for the year ensuing. The instrument used in this sacred operation is the
aruval, but the sacrificial aruval cannot be used but for
this holy purpose.

attributed to

Powers of witchcraft and magic are the Paliyans by other castes, and probably

PALIYAN
believed in by themselves.

468

The

following device adopted

by them

to protect

themselves from the attacks of wild

in

animals, the panther

illustration.

particular,
tails

may be given
planted
in

as an
four

Four
to

jackals'

are

different spots, chosen so as

to

include the area within

which they wish

This
is

be safe from the claws of the brute.

deemed
their

protection

enough

though panthers
noted by the

should enter the magic square, they could do the Paliyans

no harm
Rev. F.

mouths are locked."

It

is

Dahmen

that Paliyans sometimes go on a pilgrimat Palni.

live

age to the Hindu shrine of Subrahmaniyam

Writing concerning the Paliyans
states *
that, at

who

on the

Travancore frontier near Shenkotta, Mr. G. .

that

DTenha

they account for their origin by saying

period, an

some very remote

in

Eluvan took refuge

to wife a

during a famine
Palliyar

the

hills,

and there took

woman, and
"

that the Palliyars are descended

Palliyar,"

from these two.

The

he continues,

" is just

a shade lower than the Eluvan.

He

is

permitted to

enter the houses of Eluvans, Elavanians (betel-growers),

and even of Maravars, and

of the social code
is

in the hills,

where the rigour

relaxed to suit circumstances, the

higher castes mentioned will even drink water given by

Palliyars,

and eat roots cooked by them.

the tribe's
is

The
when

Palliyars

regard sylvan deities with great veneration.

Kurupua great
at

swami
shrine.

is

tutelary god,

and,

haul of wild honey

made, offerings are given

to be followers of Siva,

some

They pretend

and always

attend the

Adi Amavasai ceremonies

at Courtallum.

The

Palliyar cultivates nothing, not even a sweet potato.

He keeps no

animal, except a stray dog or two.

all

An

axe,

a knife, and a pot are

the impedimenta he
XXX,

carries.

An

* Ind. Ant.,

1902.

1!^

4-^

^^--i^^^^i
r*;!?'

i'ALnAX.

469

PALIYAN

expert honey-hunter, he will risk his neck climbing lofty

precipices or precipitous
cliffs.

species of sago-palm

furnishes

him with a
and the

glairy glutinous lluid on

which he

thrives, and such small animals as the iguana {Varanus),

the tortoise,
luxuries."

larvae

of hives are never-failing

The
velly,

Paliyans,

whom

investigated in North Tinne-

were living
in

in the

jungles near the base of the

mountains,

small isolated communities separated from

each other by a distance of several miles.

They speak
mind
to

Tamil with a peculiar intonation, which

the Irulas.

recalls to

They

are wholly

illiterate,

and only a few

father, taking

can count up to ten.

forget her

A woman

has been known

own name.
"
I

At a marriage, the
it

the hand of the bride, and putting

into that of the

bridegroom, says

give this girl to you.

Give her

The value of a roots and leaves, and protect her." bride or bridegroom depends very much on the quantity
of roots,
etc.,

which he

or she can

collect.

When

widow does not remarry,

Marriages
are, as

the males of the

community

supply her with roots and other products of the jungle.

a rule, contracted within the settle-

ment, and complications occasionally occur owing to the

absence of a

girl

of suitable age
I

for

a young man.
brothers,

Indeed, in one settlement

came across two

who had
if

for this
It

reason resorted to the adelphous form

of polyandry.
this

would be interesting

to note hereafter

custom, thus casually introduced, becomes estabthe

tribe.

lished in

As an exception
it

to the

rule

of

was noted that a party of Paliyans had wandered from the Gandamanaikanur forests to the jungle of Ayanarkoil, and there intermarriage within the settlement,
married with the members of the local
they became incorporated.
tribe,

with which

The

Paliyans admit

members

PALI VAN

470

of other castes into their ranks.

case was narrated to

me,

for some time with a PaHya woman, who bore children by him. In this way
in

which a Maravan cohabited

is

the purity of tyj)e amono- the jungle tribes lost as the

result of civilisation,

and their nasal index reduced from

Paliyans say that Valli, the wife of

platyrhine to mesorhine dimensions.

The Tiimevclly

the 2^od Subramaniya, was a Paliyan

woman.
at the

As

they
in

carry no pollution, they are sometimes employed,

return for food, as night

watchmen

Vaishnavite
hills.

temple known as Azhagar Koil

at the

base of the

They
in

collect

for the

Forest Department minor produce

the form of root-bark of Ventilago madraspatana and

Anisochilits cm-nosiis, the fruit of Temninalia

Chebula

(myrabolams), honey, bees- wax,

over to a contractor
in

etc.,

which are handed

betel
salt.

exchange

for rice, tobacco,

leaves and nuts, chillies, tamarinds and

thus earned as wages

of Dioscorea) and
digging-stick, and
the contractor, and
that
I

is

The food supplemented by yams (tubers

which

roots,

forest fruits.
it

dug up with a They implicitly obey

are
his influence

was mainly through

and measure their bodies, in return for a banquet, whereof they partook seated on the grass in two semicircles, the men in front and women in the rear, and eating off teak leaf plates Though the piled high with rice and vegetables.
was enabled
to interview them,

prodigious mass of food provided was greedily devoured

till

considerable abdominal distension was visible, dis-

satisfaction

(mutton), and

was expressed because I had not brought new

it

included no meat

loin-cloths for them.

They

laughed, however,

when

expressed a hope that

they would abandon their dirty cloths, turkey-red turbans

and European bead necklaces, and revert to the primitive A struggle ensued for leafy garment of their forbears.

471

PALIYAN

the limited supply of sandal paste, with which a group

of

men smeared

their bodies, in imitation of the hicrher

classes, before they

were photographed.

feast

given
at the

to the Paliyans by sonic missionaries

was marred

outset by the unfortunate circumstance that betel and

tobacco were placed by the side of the food, these

articles

being of

evil

omen

as they are placed in the

grave with the dead.

A
to

question whether they eat beef

produced

marked

displeasure,

and

even

roused an

apathetic old
fair.

woman

grunt

"

Your other questions are

ask that."
If a

You have no
to

right to

Paliyan

happens

come
it

across the carcase of a

is

cow

or buffalo
for a

near a stream,

abandoned, and not approached

long time.

Leather they absolutely refuse to touch, and

one of them declined to carry my camera box, because he detected that it had a leather strap.

They make
and the
bariaini).
floss

fire

with a quartz strike-a-light and steel

of the silk-cotton tree

(Bombax mala-

They have no means

of catching or killing

animals, birds, or fish

if

with nets, traps, or weapons, but.

in

they come across the carcase of a goat or deer

the

forest,

they

will roast
field

and eat

(presumably

rats)

They catch vermin " by smoking them out of their

it.

"

holes, or diorainor

them out with

for eating

their dioorinsf-sticks.
letting a

Crabs are caught

hole,

by children, by

string with a piece of cloth tied to the end

down

the

and

lifting

it

out thereof
claws.

of the cloth with

afraid,

its

when the crab seizes hold Of wild beasts they are nox.

and scare them away by screaming, clapping the hands, and rolling down stones into the valleys. I saw

one man, who had been badly mauled by a tiger on the buttock and thigh when he was asleep with his wife

and

child in a cave.

During the dry season they

in rocks, but,
if

live

in natural

caves and crevices

these leak

PALLAN

472

during the rains, they erect a rough shed with the floor
raised on poles off the ground, and sloping grass roof,

beneath which a

fire is

kept burning at night, not only for

warmth, but also

to

keep

off wild

beasts.

They

are

expert at making rapidly improvised shelters at the base

of hollow trees by cutting

away the wood on one

side with

snug and happy during a heavy shower, while we were miserable amid the drippings from an umbrella and a mango tree.
a bill-hook.
protected, they were quite

Thus

Savari

is

Paliyans as

a common name among among other Tamils. It

the
is

Tinnevelly
to

said

be a

corruption of Xavier,
nised

but Savari or Sabari are recog-

names of Siva and Parvati, There is a temple called Savari malayan on the Travancore boundary, whereat the festival takes place at the same time as the festival in
St.

honour of

Xavier among

Roman
;

Catholics.

The

women

are very timid in the presence of Europeans, and

suffer further

from hippophobia
is

the sight of a horse,

which they say

jungle.

as

tall

as a mountain, like an elephant,

producing a regular stampede into the depths of the

They

carry their babies slung

in a cloth

on the

back,

and not astride the hips according

to the

common
is

practice of the plains.

to sit

The

position, in confinement,

on a rock with legs dependent.

tied

Many

of these

Paliyans suffer from jungle fever, as a protection against

which they wear a piece of turmeric

round the neck.

The dead
which
stature
is

are buried,

and a stone

is

placed on the grave,

never re-visited.
tribes, the

Like other primitive

Paliyans are short of

and dolichocephalic, and the archaic type of nose

100).

persists in

some individuals. Average height i50'9 cm. Nasal index S^ (max.

Pallan.

The

Pallans are

" a

class of agricultural

labourers found chiefly in Tanjore, Trichinopoly,

Madura

i'

ALLAN.

473

PALLAN
fairly
in

and Tinnevelly. They are also of Salem and Coimbatore, but

numerous

in parts

the rcmaininof Tamil districts they are found only in very small numbers." *

The name

is

said to be derived from pallam, a pit, as

they were standing on low ground when the castes were

originally formed.
It is

further suggested that the

name

may

be connected with the wet cultivation, at which they

is

are experts, and which

always carried out on low

district

ground.

In the

Manual of the Madura

race,
little,
if

(1868),

the Pallans are described as

"a very numerous,

but a
all,

most abject and despised

superior to the
is

indeed at

Paraiyas.

Their principal occupation

ploughing the lands of more fortunate Tamils, and,

free,

though nominally
of their

they are usually slaves in almost

every sense of the word, earning by the ceaseless sweat

brow a bare handful of grain

which

to stay the

pangs of

hunger, and a rag with

to partly

cover their

nakedness.
toiling

They are

to be found in almost every village,

and moiling

for

the benefit

of

Yellalans

and
all

others,

and with the Paraiyas doing patiently nearly

avoided by

the hard and dirty work that has to be done.

contact with them
is

Personal

all

respectable men, and

they are never permitted to dwell within the limits of a

village nattam.

Their huts form a small detached hamlet,

removed from a considerable distance from the houses of the respectable inhabitants, and barely
the Pallacheri,

separated

from that of the Paraiyas, the

Parei-cheri.

The

some to have sprung from the Others intercourse of a Sudra and a Brahman woman. say Devendra created them for the purpose of labouring Whatever may have been their in behalf of Vellalans. origin, it seems to be tolerably certain that in ancient
Pallans are said by
*

Madras Census Report, 1891.

V-31

PALLAN

474

times they were the slaves of the Vellalans, and regarded

by them merely as
by the Vellalans

chattels,

into

and that they were brought the Pandya-mandala." Some

Pallans say that they are, like the Kalians, of the lineage
of Indra, and that their brides wear a wreath of flowers
in

token thereof.

They

consider themselves superior to

Paraiyans and Chakkiliyans, as they do not eat beef

It is

stated in the

Manual

of Tanjore (1S83) that the

" Pallan

and Paraiya are rival castes,

;

each

claiming

superiority over the other

conflict in the

and a deadly and never-ending

matter of caste privileges exists between

of paddy

them.

They

are prsedial labourers, and arc employed

the
cultivation
(rice)

exclusively

in

lands.

Their

women

are considered to be particularly skilled in

planting and weeding, and, in most parts of the delta,

they alone are employed in those operations.

The

Palla

women expose
mark

their

body above the waist

exists."
It is

a distinctive

of their primitive condition of slavery, of which,

however, no trace

now

noted by Mr. G. T.

Mackenzie

* that " in the first quarter of the nineteenth

century, the

female

converts

to

Christianity

in

the

extreme south ventured, contrary to the old rules

lower castes, to clothe themselves above the waist.
innovation was

for the

This

made

the occasion for threats, violence,

and a series of disturbances.

in

Similar disturbances arose

thirty

from the same cause nearly

1859,
interfered,

years

later,

and,

Sir Charles Trevelyan,

Governor of Madras,
to the

and granted permission

to

women

of

lower

caste

wear a cloth over

the

breasts

and

shoulders."
In connection with disputes between the right-hand

and left-hand

factions,

it is

stated t that "whatever the

* Christianity in Travancore, 1901.

t Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly

district.

475
origin of the factions, feeling
cially
still

PALLAN
runs very high, espe-

between

the

Pallans

and the Paraiyans.

The

violent scenes which occurred in days

occur, but quarrels occur
arise (as

gone by * no longer
of precedence

when questions
is if

when holy food

distributed at festivals to

the village goddesses), or

man

of one faction takes a

procession

down

a street inhabited chiefly by

members

of the other.
faction
this

In former times,
live in
still

would not
are

the

members of the opposite same street, and traces of

feeling

observable.

members
other,

of one faction

Formerly also the would not salute those of the

;

however much

their superiors in station

etc.)

and the

menials employed at funerals (Paraiyans,

salute the funeral party
if it

would not
" the

belonged to the
it

rival faction."

In

the Coimbatore
all

Manual

is

noted that
in

Pallan has in

times been a

serf,

labouring

the low

wet lands

(pal lam) for his masters, the

Brahmans and

Goundans.
habit
is

The

Pallan

is

a stout, shortish black man,

sturdy, a meat-eater, and not over clean in person or

;

very industrious

in his favourite

wet lands. were

He

no longer a serf." whom I examined

collector,
etc.),

The
at

occupations of the Pallans,

cultivator,

Coimbatore,

gardener, cooly, blacksmith, railway porter, tandal (tax-

and masalchi

(office

peon,

who

looks

after lamps, ink-bottles, etc.).

Some
family

Pallans are mani-

yagarans (village munsifs or magistrates).

In

some

places

Pallan

is

attached to a

land-holder, for

whom

they work, and, under ordinary

conditions, they do not change masters.

The
is

attach-

ment of the Pallan

to a particular individual

maintained

by the master paying a sum of money as an advance, which the Pallan is unable to repay.
See

Nelson,

the

Madura Country,

II,

47, and Coimbatore

District

Manual, 477.

V-31 B


PALLAN
The
476
Pallans are the Jati Pillais of the

Pandya Kamcountry.

malans, or

Kammalans

of the

Madura

The

story goes that a long while ago the headman of the

came begging to the Kollan section of the Pandya Kammalans, which was employed in the manuPallans
facture of ploughs

and other agricultural implements, and

sirs,

said "
If

Worshipful

we

are destitute to the last degree.

you would but take pity on us, we would become your slaves. Give us ploughs and other implements,

and we
they

shall ever afterwards

obey you."
the

The

Kollans,

taking pity on them, gave them

implements and

commenced an
it

agricultural

life.

When

the harvest

was

over, they brought the best portion of the crop,

to the

and

gave

Kollans.
of the

From
in

that time,

the Pallans
to

became the "sons"

crop.

Pandya Kammrdans,
gratitude for a

whom

even now they make offerings

bumper

At times of census the Pallans return a number of

sub-divisions,

and there

is

a proverb that one can count

it

the

number of

varieties of rice, but

is

impossible to
of the

count the divisions of the Pallans.

sub-divisions, the following

As examples may be quoted

:

Aiya, father.

Amma,

mother.

Anja, father.
Atta, mother.

Devendra.
gods,
is

The

sweat of Devendra, the king

of

said to have fallen

child,

on a plant growing

in

water

from which arose a

who
last.

is

said to have been the

original ancestor of the Pallans.

Kadaiyan, lowest or

Konga.
marriage

The

Kongas

of Coimbatore wear a big

tali,

said to be the

emblem

of Sakti, while the

other sections wear a small

tali.

477
Mcinganadu,
territorial.

P ALLAN

Sozhia, territorial.

Tondaman, territorial. These sub-divisions are endogamous, and Aiya and

Amma
or

Pallans of the Sivaganga zemindari and adjacent

parts of the
kilais,

Madura

district

possess exogamous septs

which, Hke those of the Maravans, Kalians,

castes, run in the female line.
kilai

and some other

Children

belong to the same

as that of their mother and

father.
is,

maternal uncle, and not of their

The headman
country,
called

of the

Pallans

in
is

the

Madura
by a

Kudumban, and he

assisted

Kaladi, and, in large settlements, by a caste messenger

entitled Variyan,

who summons

people to attend council-

meetings, festivals, marriages and funerals.

of
is

The

offices

Kudumban and

Kaladi are hereditary.

When a family
and otherwise

under a ban of excommunication, pending enquiry,

fire,

the caste people refuse to give them help them, and even the barber

and washerman are

a sign of excommuof margosa

not permitted to work for them.

nication,

As

bunch of
is

leafy
in

twigs

[Melia

Azadirachta)
house.

stuck

the roof over the entrance to the

Restoration to caste necessitates a purificatory

in

ceremony,
Variyan.
offending

which cow's urine

a

is

sprinkled by the

When
man
is

woman

is

charged with adultery, the

brought

into the midst of the assembly,

and

tied to a

harrow or hoeing plank.

The woman
is

has

to carry a basket of earth or rubbish, with her cloth tied

so as to reach above her knees.

addition,
If

She

sometimes,

in

beaten on the back with tamarind switches.

guilt,

she confesses her

and promises not

to

misconduct

herself again, the Variyan cuts the waist-thread of her

paramour,

who

ties

it

round her neck as

if it

was a

tali

(marriage badge).

On

the following day, the

man and

PALLAN

478
are taken early in the

morning to a tank (pond) or well, near which seven small pits are made, and filled with water. The Varlyan sprinkles some of the water

woman

over their heads, and has subsequently to be fed at their

expense.
If

the pair are in prosperous circumstances, a

is

general feast

insisted on.

At Coimbatore, the headman is called Pattakaran^ and he is assisted by various subordinate officers and a
caste messenger called Odumpillai.
guilty person has to carry a

In cases of theft, the

his

man on

back round the

assembly, while two persons hang on to his back-hair.

He

is

beaten on the cheeks, and the Odumpillai

in his face.

may be

ordered to spit

somewhat

similar form of

on a man proved guilty of having intercourse with a married woman.

punishment
is

inflicted

In connection with the caste organisation of the Pallans

in

the Trichinopoly
"

as follows.

Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes They generally have three or more headdistrict,

men

for

each village, over

whom

is

the Nattu

Muppan.
runner).
council-

Each village also has a peon called Odumpillai (the The main body of the caste, when attending
meetings,
village
is

called ilam katchi (the inexperienced).

The
the

councils are attended by the

the Between the ordinary Muppans, there is, in the Karur taluk, a Pulli Muppan. All these offices are hereditary. In this taluk

Nattu Muppan.

Muppans and Nattu Muppan and

a rather different organisation

is

in

force,

to regulate

the supply of labour to the landholders.

village

Each
is

of the

Muppans has a number

all

of karais or sections of

the wet-land of the village under him, and he

to

bound
is

supply labourers for

the land in his karai, and

remunerated by the landowner with ij marakkals of The Muppans do grain for every 20 kalams harvested.
not work themselves, but maintain discipline

among

their

479

P ALLAN
In the

men by
Karur

flogging or expulsion from the caste.

taluk, the ordinary Pallans are called

Manvettai-

karans (mamoty or digging-tool men)."

The Pallans have their own washermen and barbers, who are said to be mainly recruited from the Sozhia
section, which, in consequence, holds aii inferior position
;

and a Pallan belonging to another section would

insulted
if

feel

he was called a Sozhian.

a Pallan
girl, at

When
she
is

Coimbatore, attains puberty,

bathed, dressed in a cloth brought by a washer-

woman, and presented with flowers and fruits by her relations. She occupies a hut constructed of cocoanut leaves, branches of Pongamia glabra, and wild sugarcane {Saccharum aj'undinace^tvi).
seventh day she
another cloth.

Her

dietary includes

jaggery (crude sugar) and milk and plantains.

is

On

the

again bathed, and presented with

hut
is

The

burnt down, and for three

days she occupies a corner of the pial of her home.

the eleventh day she
is

On

once more bathed, presented

with

new
is

cloths by her relations,

and permitted
*^

to enter

the house.
It

stated by Dr. G.

Oppert
is

that "at a Pallar

wedding, before the wedding

actually performed, the

bridegroom suddenly leaves

his

house and

starts for his

some

distant place, as

if

he had suddenly abandoned

wedding.

intention of marrying, in spite of the preparations that

had been made

in-law

for the

His intended
his
his

father-

intercepts

the

young man on

way,

and
have

persuades him to return, promising to give

as a wife.

daughter
I

To

this the

bridegroom consents."

not met with this custom in the localities in which the

Pallans have been examined.

* Orio-inal Inhabilanls of Bharatavarsa or India.

PALLAN

480

In one form of marriage

among

the Pallans of the

sister

Madura

district,

the bridegroom's

goes to the

house of the bride on an auspicious day, taking with her

the taH string, a
ties

new

cloth, betel, fruits

and flowers.
if

She
then

the

tali

round the neck of the bride, who,

it.

a milkis

post has been set up, goes round

The

bride

conducted to the house of the bridegroom, where the

couple
sit

together on the marriage dais, and coloured

water, or coloured rice balls with lighted wicks, are

waved

round them.
round the

They

then go, with linked fingers, thrice

more complicated form of marriage ceremonial, the parents and maternal uncle of the bridedais.

In a

groom, proceed, on the occasion of the betrothal, to

the bride's house with
rice, fruit, plantains,

a cocoanut,

handed These over, with the bride's money, to the Kudumban or Early in the morning of the wedKaladi of her village.
sandal paste, and turmeric.
articles are

ding day, a pandal (booth)

is

erected,

and the milk-post,

made
set

of Thespesia populnea or Miimtsops kexandra, is up by the maternal uncles of the contracting couple.

The

bride

and

bridegroom
is

bring

which the marriage dais

and,
after

made.

some earth, with These preliminaries

concluded, they are anointed by their maternal uncles,

bathing, the wrist-threads (kankanam) are

tied to

the bridegroom's wrist

that

by

his

brother-in-law,

and

to

of the

bride by her sister-in-law.

Four

betel leaves

the dais,

and areca nuts are placed at each corner of and the pair go round it three times, saluting
as they pass.

the betel

They then

take

their place

on the
heads.

dais,

and two men stretch a cloth over their They hold out their hands, into the palms of
little

which the Kudumban or Kaladi pours a

from a vessel, some of which
heads.
is

water

sprinkled over their

The

vessel

is

then waved before them, and they

481

PALLAN

are garlanded by the maternal uncles, headmen, and

others.

The

bride
sits at

is

taken into

the house,

and her

maternal uncle
cloth,

the entrance, and measures a

to her.

new
in
it,

which he gives

She clads herself

and her
dais,

uncle, lifting her in his arms, carries her to the

is

where she

placed by the side of the bridegroom.

contracting couple are linked together

The fingers of the

is

beneath a cloth held by the maternal uncles.

The

tali

taken up by the bridegroom, and placed by him

bride's neck, to

round the
sister.

be tightly tied thereon by his

is

Just before the

tali

tied,

the

headman bawls
presents
" ?

out "
and,
"

May

look into the bride's

money and

on receiving permission to do so, says thrice Seven bags of nuts, seven bags of rice, etc., have been

brought."

At a marriage among
home,
after

the

Konga

Pallans of Coimis

batore, the bridegroom's wrist-thread

tied

on

at his

a lamp has been worshipped.

He

and

his

party proceed to the house of the bride, taking with

them a new
Tirucalli).

cloth, a garland of flowers,

is

and the
sit

tali.

The

milk-post of the pandal

made

of milk-hedge {^Euphorbia
side

The

bride and bridegroom

by side

and close together on planks within the pandal. The bridegroom ties the wrist-thread on the bride's wrist, and
the caste barber receives betel from their mouths in a

metal vessel.
of Ganesa)

In front of them are placed a Pillayar (figure

made

of cow-dung,

two

plantains, seven

cocoanuts, a measure of paddy, a stalk of Andropogon

Sorghum with a
betel leaves

betel leaf stuck

nuts.

on

it,

and seven
is

sets of

and areca

Camphor

burnt,

and two
one of

cocoanuts are broken, and placed

before the Pillayar,

in a piece of

The

tali is

taken round to be blessed

the cocoanuts.

The Mannadi

(assistant

headman) hands
ties
it

over the

tali

to the bridegroom,

who

round the

PALLAN
bride's neck.

482

Another cocoanut

is

then broken.

Three

vessels containing, respectively, raw rice, turmeric water

and milk, each with pieces of betel

leaf,

are brought.

The

hands of the

contracting

couple are

then linked

together beneath a cloth,

broken.

and the fourth cocoanut is The Mannadi, taking up a little of the rice,

turmeric water, milk, and betel leaves, waves them before

the bride and bridegroom, and throws

them over

their

heads.

This
fifth

is

likewise
is

done by
broken.

five

other individuals,
bride and bride-

and the

cocoanut

The

groom go round
and thrown
is

the plank, and again seat tliemselves.

Their hands are unlinked, the wrist-threads are untied,

into a vessel of milk.

The

sixth cocoanut

then broken.

Cooked

rice

with plantains and ghl

(clarified butter) is offered to Alii Arasani, the wife of

Arjuna,

who was famed The

for

her virtue.

offered three times to the contracting

The rice is couple, who do not

which they

eat

it.

caste barber brings water, with

cleanse their mouths.

They exchange garlands, and the seventh cocoanut is broken. They are then taken within the house, and sit on a new mat. The bridegroom is
rice

again conducted to the pandal, where cooked

and

other articles are served to him on a tripod stool.

They
is

are handed over to the Odumpillai as a perquisite, and

all

the guests are fed.

In the evening a single cloth

tied to the

newly married couple, who bathe, and pour

water over each other's heads.

placed before the guests.

The

Pillayar,

lamp,

paddy, Andropogon stalk, and two trays with betel, are

The Mannadi

receives four

annas from the bridegroom's

the

father, and, after

mentioning

names
it

of the bridegroom, his father

and grandfather,
bride's

places
party.
father,

in

one of the

trays,

which belongs to the

He

then receives four annas from the bride's

bride, her father

and mentions the names of the

483

PALLAN

and grandfather, before placing the money in the tray which belongs to the bridegrooni's party. The relations
then make presents of money to the bride and bridegroom.

When

widow

remarries, her
ties

new husband gives her a

in

white cloth, and

the presence of

a yellow string round her neck

of the castemen.

some

At a marriage among the Kadaiya Pallans of Coimbatore, the wrist-thread of the bride
is

tied

on by the

Mannadi.

She goes
full

to a Pillayar shrine,

and brings

back three trays

of sand from the courtyard thereof,

in

which

is

heaped up
in

the marriage

pandal.

Three

painted earthen pots, and seven small earthen trays, are

brought

procession from the Mannadi's house by the

in the pandal.

bridegroom, and placed

To each

of the

two larger pots a piece of turmeric and betel leaf are tied, and nine kinds of grain are placed in them. The bridegroom has brought with him the tali tied to a
cocoanut, seven rolls of betel, seven plantains,
pieces of turmeric, a garland, a
etc.

seven

new

cloth for the bride,

The

linked fingers of the contracting couple are

placed on a tray containing salt and a ring.

thrice

They go
is

round a lamp and the plank within the pandal, and

house where the bridegroom
served

retire within the

with food on a
thereof
is

leaf.

What remains

after he has

partaken

given to the bride on the same

leaf.

The

wrist-threads are untied on the third day, and a Pillayar

made
In

of

cow-dung

is

carried to a river,

whence the bride

required to steal

brings back a pot of water.

some

places, the

bridegroom

is

something from the

after the marriage,

bride's

house when they return home

to

and the other party has

repay the
Pallans of

compliment on some future occasion.

When

a death occurs

among

the

Konga

Coimbatore, the big toes and thumbs of the corpse arc

PALLAN
tied together.
rice,

484

lighted lamp, a metal vessel with

raw
its

jaggery, and a broken cocoanut are placed near

head,

l^hree pieces of firewood, arranged in the form

is

of a triangle, are lighted, and a small pot

placed on

them, wherein some rice

Tiie corpse
is

is

cooked

in

turmeric water.

bathed, and placed in a pandal

four plantain trees,

and four green

place
a

leafy branches.

made of The
If

nearest

relations
left

new
is

cloth

over

it.

the

deceased has

a widow, she

presented with a
is

new
the

cloth by her brother.

The

corpse

laid

on a

bier,

widow washes
is

its

feet,

anc'

drinks some of the water.

She then throws her

tali-string

on the corpse.
is

Her

face

covered with a cloth, and she

corpse
is

taken into the house.

The
in

is

then removed to the burial-ground, where

the corpse.

the son the

shaved, and the relations place rice and water

It is

mouth of
is filled in,
it.

then laid in the grave,

which

and a stone and some thorny twigs are

earthen pot
full

placed over

An

of water
carries
it

is

placed on

the right shoulder of the son,

who

three times

Each time that he reaches the head end thereof, a hole is made in the pot with a knife by one of the elders. The pot is then thrown down, and broken near the spot beneath which the head lies. Near
round the grave.
this spot the son places a lighted firebrand,

and goes

away without looking back.

He

bathes and returns to

the house, where he touches a

little

cow-dung placed
a brinjal

at the entrance with his right foot,

and worships a lamp.

of rice,

On

the

third

day,

three
fruit

handfuls
cut
into

[Solanuut Melongena)

three pieces, and

leaves of Sesbania grandiflora are cooked in a pot, and

carried to the grave together with a tender cocoanut,
cigar,
betel,

and other things.

are

The son

[)laccs three

leaves on the grave, and spreads the

thereon.

various articles

Crows

attracted by clapping the hands.

485

PALI.AN
if

and

it

is

considered a good

omen

they come and

sits

eat.

On He

the fourth day the son bathes, and

on a mat.
salt
fish

then

bites,

and

spits out

some roasted
This
is

three times into a pot of water.

supposed to and

show

that

mourning has been

cast away, or at the end.

cloths

He

is

then presented with

new

by

his uncle

other relations.
rice, betel, etc.,

On

the ninth or eleventh day, cooked

are placed near a babul {Acacia arabica)

is

or other thorny tree, which

made

to

represent the

deceased.

Seven small

stones, representing the seven

Hindu

sages, are set up.

cocoanut

is

broken, and

puja performed.

The

rice is

served on a

leaf,

and eaten

by the son and

other near relations.

The

Pallans are nominally Saivites, but in reality

devil worshippers,

and do puja

to the

Grama Devata

(vil-

lage deities), especially those

whose worship requires

the consumption of flesh and It is recorded, * in connection with a biennial festival

liquor.
in

honour of the
that
"

local

goddess at Attur

in

the

Madura

district,

Pallans of

some time before the feast begins, the the place go round to the adjoining villages,
the

and

collect

many

buffaloes,

which
last

have
years,

been

dedicated to the goddess during the

two

and

have been allowed to graze unmolested, and where they These are brought in to Attur, and willed, in the fields.
one of them
temple.
is

selected, garlanded,

and placed
this

in the
is

On

the day of the

festival,

animal

brought

out, led

round the village

is

in state,

and then,

in

front of the temple,

given three cuts with a knife by a

Chakkiliyan,
for the rite.

who The

has fasted that day, to purify himself

privilege of actually killing the animal

belongs by immemorial usage to the head of the family

Madura

* Gazetteer of the

district.

PALLAVARAYAN

486

of the former poligar of Nilakkottai, but he deputes

certain Pallans to take his place,

and they

fall

upon the

animal and slay

It is

it."

noted by Mr.
class of

and the

Hemingway * that the Valaiyans Pallans known as Kaladis who live in

They
occasionally take
to

the south-western portion of the Pudukkottai State are

professional
cattle-lifters.

burglary for a change.

"

The common titles of the Pallans are saidf to be Muppan and Kudumban, and some style themselves Mannadi. Kudumban is probably a form of Kurumban,
is

and Mannadi

a corruption of Manradi, a

title

borne

by the Pallava (Kurumban) people. It thus seems not improbable that the Pallas are representatives of the old Pallavas or Kurumbas."

Pallavarayan.
Pallavas,

The
leader

title,

meaning

chief of the
in

of

the

of the

Krishnavakakkar

Travancore.

Also a sub-division of Occhans.

the

Palle. In
and

Telugu country, there are two classes

former,

of Palles, which are employed respectively in sea-fishing

agriculture.

The

who

are the

Min
as

(fish)

Palles

of previous

writers,

are also

known

Palle
latter.

Kariyalu, and do not mingle or intermarry with the

They
which

claim for themselves a higher position than that

is

accorded to them by other castes, and

call

themselves Agnikula Kshatriyas.

places, Reddi.

Their

title is, in

some
is

All belong to one gotra called Ravikula.

is

The
In

caste

headman

entitled

Pedda Kapu, and he

assisted by an Oomadi.

puberty, marriage,

and death ceremonies, the

Palles follow the

is,

Telugu form of ceremonial.

There

however, one

rite in

the marriage ceremonies, which

op

cit,

t Madras Census Report, 1891.

4S7
is

PALLE

said to be peculiar to the fishing section.

On

the

fifth

day

after

marriage,

a Golla

perantalu (married

woman)

is brought to the house in procession, walking on cloths spread on the ground (nadapavada). She

anoints the bridal couple with ghl (clarified butter), and

after receiving a cloth as a present,

goes away.

The
water a

fishing class worship the

gods) periodically by
fiat

fioating

Akka Devatalu (sister on the surface of the

sticks tied together,
in

framework made of
articles

on which the various

placed.

used

the worship are

Printed by thr Superintendent,

Government

Tress,

Madras.
*^-

DS ^30 T6 V.5

Thurston, Edgar Castes and tribes- of southern India

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