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CHAPTER TEN

The GuptaPeriod(Fourth to Sixth Centuries)

Under the kings of the Gupra dynasty, an empire was formed that, with tributary stares, dominated most of northern and north-central India for approximately two hundred years, fiom about a.o. 3r9, when the Gupta era was proclaimed,l until the sixth century.The political strength of the Guptas and the cultural florescence that they apparently fostered are often compared to aspects of the Maurya dynasty, and, indeed, it has been suggested rhat the Guptas consciouslylooked back to the Maurya period for a model upon which ro base their own empire.2 Candragupta I (ca. 3r9-335) was probably the first to attain significant power and fame for his line, partially achie.rred through a marriage alliance with the Licchavis of northeastern India and Nepal. Under his son and successor, Samudragupta (ca. 1.35176), the empire expanded to include newly conquered teuitodes as well as numerous tributary states in northem and norrh-cenrrallndia. Few works of art are known that may be positively assigned to the reigns of the early

Gupta kings. However, an unusual, larqer than life-size stone scuJpture o[a horse(Fig. ro.r) is generally thought to be of this period, and, on the teruous basisof its very weathered inscription,3 has been said to represent a sacrificial horse used by Sarnudragupta for one of the aivamedhorituals he performed, an event also commemorated in lis aluamedha coin tvpe. The horse is carved of beige sandston. *". found at l(iairigarh in Utrar Pradesh."od near very che Nepal border, a region importanr to the early Gupta and Licchavi alliance. Its sryle rypifieswhar musr be considered rransitional rhe phase berween the Kugana-periodworks of the Mathura and related schoolsand the develooed Gupta srylesof the fifih cenrury. A sriff qualiry pervadesthe work, and the articulation of joints and the transidons from one parr of the body to the next seemabrupt, much like formulations of human figures at Mathure and other related sites during the Kulena period, and contrasting strongly with the naturalism of animal sculpture evidencedunder rhe Mauryas. Even rhough it

'88

DYNASTIXSOF THB MIDDTE PERIOD

ro.r. Horse. From Khairigalh, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. fourth Gupte period (reign of Samudragupta?). FI: century. Beige sandstone. about 2oo cm. SteteMu_ seurn, Lucknow.

is entirely free-standing, the horse is properly viewcd in pro61e.Its lack of implicit movement in spaceor torsion relatesit to the earlier Kusa4a formulations as well as other fourth-century examples. Three Jain images found at DurjanPura, near Vidi{a in north-central India, provide further important information about art under the early Guptas.They are datedby their inscriptionsto the reign of a previously little known Gupta king, Remagupta (ca. 37G38o),a and thus constitute an important document of Gupta history as well. All three sculptureswere nearly identical in their original state, although each is partially damaged. The best preserved (Fig. ro.z) shows a central figure sitting in vajnparyahkasana with his hands in dhyaxa nu&a, attended by nvo caurl bearers.A halo comprised of a scalloped flame morif around the perimeter reminiscent of Kugana formulations of the Mathura school and containing an open lotus blossom, appears behind his head. The pedestalincludes a wheel in the center and lions at the corners.In all, the conliguration is strikingly similar to that of Buddhist and Jain images of the Ku;ana period. But like the preceding horse sculpture, these late fotrrth-centuryimages representa transitional stage bctwein the Kugaqa works of Mathura and related sitesand the mature Gupta idiom. Abrupt, angular contours to the bodies and rather squat proportions recall the Kuqa4a idiom and yet, a movement toward what is consideredthe Gupta ideal is suggestedin the omamentation of the halo.

G-,::r: =on
::I:

=r-ie: ieieo:
=::1):3:;V ;: lli

ro.2. Ttrthaikaru.From Durjanpura,Madhya Pradesh, (ca. India. Gupta period, rcign of Rernagupta a.oBeigesandstonc. 66 cm. Archaeological H: 376-8o). Museum,Vidiia.

,i--

l:e

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A n t o r r n r E A R L YG U P T AP I R I o D the reign of Candragupta II (ca. 38o-4r5), the successor Ramagupta, who made imPortant of military campaignsin the region. At Udayagiri, only a few kilometers from Vidi6a, twenty rock-cut chambers were excavated during the

The Vidi6a region was an imPortant early GuPta art center, for in addition to the three Pieces from Remagupta's reign, numerous other remains have been located in the area,In particular, art seemsto have flourished there during

==-i:

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THE GUPTA PERIoD

169

i::operly
E-:aement

ts: Kusaqa t:-:r-ntury

fF::r. near E:-:er imI -3 early !:--s rothe l::: king, | -- -ritute

L.-ory as
Jr ::ntical
!::ftlally

E: ihows E':';a rvith li :t two r ;:lloped

:-* :rlscent :::' school E_ ;PPears b = rvheel . L all, the n ;hat of r+ period. t:::.. these f .: tmnsis..rks of rl::3 Gupta c: bodies &; Ku9a4a i rghat is s:i ir the

ro.3. Facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupta pedod. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).

ly a Pradesh, az (ce. A.D. 6-reological

o-4r5), the lnlPoftant Udayagiri, sa. twenty during the

Gupta period, two of which bear inscriptions from the reign of Candragupta II. These caves are yital documents since they constitute the earliest intact body of Hindu art in India, and demonstrate that by the early fifth century many Hindu iconographic flormulae were already well established.Securely dated because an inscription on the facade mentions Candragupta II and the year 8z (Gupta era), equivalent to A.D. 4or,5 Cave 6 (Fig. ro.3) consistsof a small chamber orecededbv a rock-cut veranda. The oFcenter doo.*"y i", decorated jambs and lintel, half-length pilastersat the sides,and representations two goddesses standing atop of makarcs above (Fig. io.a). These figures are precursors the depictionsofthe river goddesses to Gairga and Yamun5, who standatop the maleara and tortoise respectively, Here, however, the udhanas are identical, although the apparent individualiry of the two goddesses suggested is by the use of the trees above the figures, for the one to the left is associated with a maneo tree,the other with an aioka vee.Two quardian

ro.4. Doorway of Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupta period. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).

190

DYNASTIES OF I'HE MIDDLI

PERIOD

rc.S. Dt)ardpal.t to r ighr of Cavc 6 cntrancc. Uder'' agiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupt:r pcriod. CLrptr rr3 32(A.D.40r).

ro.6. I)urg. Mahisisurarnardirrron lacadc oi Cavc 6. Uda,r'agiri, Mrdh,ve Prrdcsh, I n d i r . G u p u p e r i o d . Guptxcra 32 (^.D.4c)r).

{ieurcs (draral,aias) l1ark the door, cech stxnding in a slightly ilcccntllatcd posturc with the arnr ncarcstthc door hclcl at dre hip, the other leanins upon lis rvcapon(Fig. ro.5). The husky boclies r. L r r d d i , p l ' . , r r o . l o t ' . , : . ' r n r c n r .t y p i f i r h c early Gupta style end clen(rrtratc a stylistic progressionfrom the iruagcs of the reign of Rtrnatlripta sone tl'enty-five ye:irs errlier. In spite of the nuscular physiqLres relnilllscent oi l{us-1ra pr-ecedcnts, thc figurcs show a new snloothnessto the fonrx oi their boclies,Iorcshndou'ing the rrore graceful depictions oi drc latc fifth ccrrtury. Thc claboratc coiflurcs :lre also cheracteristic developeclGuptx forns, of crr.iplusizirrgclclicrte iocks of heir rrrangecl in Iuxuriant profilsion atop the hcad. Othcr Iisurcs sculptccL into thc front rvalL of ,t.- -.... .. . . . . r : . .L r d r l l l L . . . n . 1 , the provide perlL;rps earliestsurvivinq exlmplc of l uniliccl rconogrlphic program in Hinclu rrt (Fig ro.3). A reprcsentation Garc(il, thc of

elcph:rnt-hcadeddcity, is carved into rhe lcli

,, , , l;,..,' ' . '1. .,. rr '1- c.r\c J'rJ It

forrn iurageof Durqa in her Mahistsuramerdini l - r . 5 e . , r \ .r' lr' r r i o l t r l i o . t o . ^ \ .L J ( r \ \ c (C . . l c . l .. r . . . - J . . . . , t .. . c . , l , c C o . , ri , . . rcprcscntatiolr of Visnu, :incl thcrc is anothcr inugc of this god Lrct\\'ccnDurga ancl the riglrt gLrardiu.ThLrs, spiteof drc sp.Ltixl irnbxlince in b c r r r , c nr l r " . l i f 1 . , r h , l . f t ' J r r 3 1 ' r r h . "[ l.., ,. ,. Lt. . .tt .,' (..rnc.. -l . , . , . . , . r ,. . , , , r 1 . , ., - . . ' . - r n . l r r t r c l t i , , ' y r r r r .r r i .- L G,rnc(a, rvho is thc sonofParvati (Sive's rvife), rs casily rccognizc.l by liis corpulcncy ancl , 1 , .J ' . ' r 1 r , . . . r .l , l . , r rr, . u p o o . . d c , l rrr.rl 1 . ,.,, \,\ . . ,., l , ^ ' . | ' f f L . r r, . . . r ' s "1. hcacl ancl rcplaccd it rvidr drc hc,rclof drc first r.rporr ll-tcr drc Lrnfortlrnate crciltrlrc hc happericcl in inciclenr.As the "Overconcr of Obstecles" IIindLr tliousht, Ganciais jnvarieblyinvokcd ar the beginninq of rr'orshipto hclp thc devotee

': \ :.::
::ta..::tt.:.: :

THE GUPTA?ERTOD 191 seeksrelease.Dtrrga's deGat of the asura, thet, in the buffalo form, might indicate the victory o.ver solhsara and the defeat of death, that is, the achievement of immortality. Her placement opposite Gar1eia, whose worship enables the devotee to begin this process, is therefore fitting. Indeed, the pairing of these two deities at rhe beginning and end of the circumambulatory path in later Hindu temple architecture is comnon. That this symbolism was apparently already present in the earliest extant corpus of Hindu art suggests that, asin the caseofBuddha and bodhisatwa imagery, a lengthy period of development occurred prior to its appearance ln stone. The Udayagiri image shows Durga in a f,welve-armed form, indicative of the trend toward increaseduse of multiple body parts in representations divinities during this period. of In her hands she holds weapons provided by various Hindu gods, who separatelyhad been unable to defeat the brffalo asxra, who is shown in this relief being upended by Durga. Her emergence as the suprme goddess, greater than the sum of all the male gods whose borrowed weapons she holds, pre{igures the growing emphasison female goddesses and personifications that is prorninent in much of postGupta arr and perhapsindicatesa continujty with the prehistoric emphasis on the fenale. In style, the rather stocky forms of her body and the details of her costume agree with the early fifth-century date provided by the inscription placed nearly directly above her head. The two representationsof Vipr-ru on the facade are similar but not identical. Both stand fiontally posed with all four arms placed in a lowered position, as is comrnonly seenin Vi9lu representations prior to the eighth century. In the caseof the representationto the dght of the door, his two rear hands are placed on the personified Iigures of two of his attributes (ayudhapunsa) the gada (Gadadevl) and caba 'fhe (Cakrapurn;a) (Fig. ro.7). gada (mace) symbolizes the power of knowledge, which destroys all that opposes it, while the cakn (discus) connotes the universal mind. In both sculptures, Visnu wears a high crown and a uanamala(garland of the forest) that reaches

G of Cave 6. uPra period.

ro.7. Vigr.ruon facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,India. Gupte period. Gupta era 8z (4.o. 4or).

trto the left ;ave and an Erdini form reen Ga{resa e door is a r is another nd the right rl imbalance right of the r of Ga4eia rent itself is srva s wrte). 'ulency and Llv acquired s rn bar-resa . of the first unfortunate )bstacles"in r invoked at the devotee

along his spiritual path. As such, his image usually occurs at the entrance to a shrine or temple, on the side where the devotee begins the circumambulation rite. It is likely, then, that the worshiper at this cave was to begin his devotions at the left of the facade. In contrast, Durga in her Mahisasuramardini form symbolizes conceptof religiousattainthe ment or victory and normally appearson the side of a temple that the vieq/er encounters after worship is conplete, that is, after the "victory" is achieved.In the MahiSasurarnardini story, an 4sut4,a type of demon, named Mahi5a was destroyed many times but kept reappearing in new forms until he was finally defeatedby Durga while he was a buffalo. The buffalo is a symbol associated with death in Hindu thought, for Yama, the god of death; rides a bufalo. It may be suggested that Mahisat numerous incarnations symbolize the realm of sahsdra, the cycle of rebirths from which the devotee

1g2

DYNISTITS Ol

',rIIl

llll)1)rl

PFItI(lD

ro.S. Clclrcrrl yic11'oi- Clrc j ("Virahr c:r\'c"). Udrvagiri, ,\1:td h r , . rl r . r d c s h , l n . l i : r . G u p r a p c r i o d . C r . c u r L l f l i h ( e n m r \ .

his knces, both of rvhich erc st:rnderd clctucnts of Vaisnavitc icorrosrephl'. In st1.lc.drc hcrit:rgc i11 oi I(Lrslrnr forrns is still prcsL'r1t thc srock,v. muscul,rr treetnrcnt ot thc bodics. E,rch iigulc on rlr, ...'lc| -r r,ro I f ( ....ri].rr -..r..1', in thc c,rsc of (l.rnc!1, .u1(l suqqcstivc o[ thc latcr pr':rcricc of pllcinq lnrjor icorr on thc c-\rcrior ol tc-rlplcs il nichcs. hr hfi:l rcrnplcs. thesc nic]res s()Llctinrcs bccrnrc nunrLrLrrc vr:r siotrs of tltc wholc t.rnUlc. bLrr hcrc. onlr. thc conccpt of thc si'peletion of cech hqurc is Pfcsarii. Thc right rv.rll ,r.ljrccrrt to thc crrvc {.icrrlt: belrs l nichc llitlr im.rgcso1'thc "scvcn nrothcr\" (rrryrtnrriafrlar). consorl of scvcr:rlprincip:rl I Iinclrr gocls, u'ho hc'lpccl Sir:r (lcstro\ rriLrltiplc rcprc'I hcv lrc scnt.rtiolr\ of tlrc rrrrira ArrJh:rkl. fittiugll'locrLcJ ,rpposirc (irnc(r ibr. likc DLrrqlr M . . i - . r . r . r' . . r . . I r ' . . . .r , 1 1 . . v r ' t r r . r r r tliis cesc rher of spirittnl uisJorl (r,1111,a) o1'61 ignolarce (,rlir/1,a)- thc pl:rcc'mcnt of tlicsc figuli's. .,'u-li]r: quiti srenderd in leter Ilirrclu :rrt.

is lurprcccclcrtccl cxtant rnonurlcnts. Horvil cr.cr.tlre rcliqio,.rs conccpts scerl u.cll clcvclopccl br rhis nrrrc'lnd ir rltrst bc ,rssLrnrcrl thc tlut
1..rirl to thc ' tl '.dtrt) antl . 't rl,' im:tgcs r,l.,tr,'n.l.rl clocurncrtts Ganci:r J)urql

. r . | . . ' . " . . ' l ' l r ', , c l c . r . . ' r . L ,r . l . . , r . r . ^ l r rlrc pr r-C,upte pcriocl. ()nc of thc rllost import:lrlt c:r\,c\:1tUdayrgiri is Crr-r' 5. Its proriliirv ro Clvc- 6. rvlrich rv:is c\c:r\.xte(l dLrrinq tlrc rcigr of Olnrlregupta Il ' I r'' ( ", . rr'' ' l r ' t r ' t r . 'r i 1 ' t^ ' r slrqqc\tiDq thlt it :rlso \r.a\ c\c]\'rtcd drlli[q thc rcigl of Cendlrquptl ll,rj is stroriq cvidcllcc thet C;rvc j, thc V:lrarlre c:lvc. wlis creitcd at t]rc semc :Lppro,\ir)ri1tctilrc. sincc thc rhrce sccln to f;rru .r clLrster'. Plopcrly speakltlg. tl-ris crcxvrti(rr js rrrorc.r nichc than a cavc, lts llrain fi'ltLrrc bcing i1 lilr!!e-\celc rcplcicntrti(u of V.rrahe.rlic boer lir ur oi-Visnu. *'idr acconlpxrlying sccncs(Fig. ro.8). EvclLurllv, V:rralu clmc ro bc rvorshipc.l as ouc of thc tcn rlrljor illc:rrrl:1tions of Visuu. eech of uhich hlcl thc prrrposc

THE GUPTAPERIOD T9J of carrying out the god's role as the preserverof the universe, Here, Varaha appears in his NgVaraha form, with tle body of a man but the headofa boar. He lifts the earth (personified as the female goddess,P4hvi) with his tusks, thus saving her from submersion under the ocean. The precariousness her position as sculpted of in rhis example reinforces the dramatic aspects of the moment. Beneath Varaha's left foot is a ndga whose submission to the deity is shown by his aijali mudra,a gestureof respect.The body of Varaha shows the same husky muscularity that may be traced to Kuga{ra precedents of northerl India, especially ofthe Mathure school, and yet correlates fairly closely with textual sources (which may be later in date) that describe Varaha's broad shouldersand smooth, beautiful body. Varaha wears the uanamala cha:.acte:rLsnc of Vispu, and a lotus appearsabove his head. The iconographic schemeis completed on the back and side walls of the niche, although Varaha remains dominant due to his large size and three-dimensionalityin relation to the others. Water, that is, the ocean,is portrayed by a series of wavy lines on the three walls, and the sages who praised Varaha and acknowledged him as the supreme deity appear in rows on the back wall. The river goddesses, Gange and Yamuna, are depicted on both side walls. This impressive relief may be read on a number of levels, as is generally the case in religious art ofSouth Asia. In one sense, might it be taken literally as the story of the timely rescueof the earth by Vareha. However, Varaha is also the namc of a type of Vedic ritual. Thus, the sculptural representationmight be an allusion to the perforrlancc of thc Varaha rite as a means of extricating the world from a "dcluge of iniguity"? as opposed to an actual food. The suppiication of the earth goddess, Plthvi, to Varaha upon his descentinto the ocean,as given in the Vi54u Pufi4a, resentblesthc words an individual devotee might say in worship, such as "elevate me now from this placc, as thou hast upraised me in days of old,"8 further suggesting such a parallel. On srili anorherlevel.rhe Varaln conrposirion may be seento have associations with the secular realm. The Ganga and Yamuna figures on the right wall of the niche are shown on their respectivevehiclesagainstrepresentations the of two streams that meet in a confuence. It has been suggestedethat this may be a graphic representationof the region of Mad\ade{a, the heatland of the rising Gupta empire, through which the two rivers flow. In their role as protectors of their lands, symbolized by the GaigaYamuna relief, the Gupta kings are similar to Varaha, the rescuerofthe earth, and it is possible that such a conccpt is inherent in the popularly shown Varaha images of thc Gupta period. Perhaps Varaha here symbolizes Candragupta himself. These various interpretations of the Varaha relief should not be viewed as contradictory or mutually exclusive.Multiple levels are often intended by the creators of South Asian a!t, who use this type of allegory not only to distinguish the exoteric from the esotcric, but also becauseeach individual worshipcr is at his own stageof progress toward the religious goal and, as such, a single meaning might not be appropriate to all. Panllel consrrucrions on mulciplc levcls cxisr in Sanskrit lirerarrrrc and are used in religious texts and dramas with an identical purpose. A one-faced liirga (ekanukhalinga) the main is object of worship in Cave 4 at Udayagiri (Fig. ro.9), obviously a Saivite cave, but the date of this work is not ca.ily fixed. as rhcrc is no inscription associated with it. However, the simplicity of the treatnent of the facc, thc careful depiction of the separatclocks of hair, and thc relatively modest alnount ofjewelry suggcstthat it was n.radcin thc first quarter of the fifth century. The round face with rathcr heavy features is reminiscent of Kustna types rather than suggestive of the urore fuid, subtly modeled {brms of the late fifth centLrry. Thcrc i: pcrhaps.no more drauratic ymbol of the powcr o[ Siva s than the irnage ofthe /iiga, or phallus,j uxtaposed with a rcpresentation of one or more human heads,for it implies thc unification of the sexual encrgy, represeniarivc of the entirc crcatjve energy of the universe, with the intellect. It becomes,in a varicty of different forrns, one of the most cxpressivesymbols in Hindu art. The varietiesof Hindu subjects secnat Udaya-

Dt5. Howdeveloped ti rhat the elationship documents patern of Udayagiri rlhich was mdragupta rnscrlPhon tiuring the I evidence created at the three zJ<ing, this ie. its main ntation of ccomPanyuaha came or incamahe purpose

,94

D\ NASTITS OF IHh

MIDDIE

PFRIOD

Madhya lingab Czve 4. Udayagiri, ro.9. One-faced India. Gupta period. Ca- fust quarterIifth Pradesh, century.

India.Gupta ro.ro. Hai-Hara. Fron MadhyaPradesh, H: period.Ca. early 6fth century.Beige sandstone. New Delhi. Museum. r 57.7 crn.Nationai

gid are unusual among the early GuPta remains becausetheir contexts are preserved.However, isolatedGupta-period finds at a number of other sites reveal a vast repertoile of Hindu deities widespread by the fifth century. Most of these .onceptions reveal littlc of their forrnativc iconswhen as phasei. appearing flully developcd This in ih.y *.r. fitt, preserved stoncexamples. suggests that, like the Udayagiri sculptures, these works represent religious concepts that had been developing for a long time, and perhapshad been depicted in works of art that

early Gupta-period date. Iconographically, the image,is of interest as it shows the god who is half Siva (proper right side) and half Vis4u (proper left side). Not only are the two halves of the headdressdiferentiated but presumably the attibutes originally hcld in the handswould have been appropriate to each of the deities. The erect liiga charactedstic of Siva is represented on the proper right side on1y. Such an image indicates not only a well-developed iconography for each of the gods. but a srage of religious developnent in which both had been reconciled into a syncietic statement-that have not survived. u approximatelyhumcn-sjzerePresentation, o f u l t i m a t e n i t y i n s p i t eo f r p p a r c n td u o l i r y . An K1sr.ra, best known later as the eighth incarnagod Hari-Hara, the syncretic union of of the in tion ofVif+u, also appears sculpturesfiorn the Vi;o.t, fiom Madhya Pradeshmay be Sir," "oJ the first of early fifth century. A representation hin from of thc fifth century on the dated to Part Varanasidepictshim asK;5qa Govardhanadhara, to the more securely basis of its rescmblance or Bearer of Govardhana, in which the deity is dated Udayagiri sculPtures (Fig io.ro). Thc shown holding Mount Govardhanawith his left full face, and rather muscular but smooth body, hand, like a canoPyto protect the inhabitants of simplc omrmentation are indications of this

-l

THE GUPTApERTOD 195

t- --tra. Gupta
r:i-:ilone. E H:

ro.rr. Krtna Lifting Mount Govardhana.From Arra, Varetrasi, Ut.ar Pradesh, India. Gupra period. Ca. carly fifrh century. Beige sandstonc. 2r2 cu1.Bharat H:
r\ara rlnJvlll, vata!4s1.

ro.r2. Nr-Varaha. FromEran,MadhyaPradcsh, lDdiaGupta pcriod. Ca. carly fifth ccntury. Bcigc sandstonc. r86cn1H: Sagrr University Muscum, Sagar.

6-::a1ly, the : ::i rvho is L ::lr vl5qu r :-.r-o halves t ::esumably -:ds would f :ie deities. i:-.: is reprec--'-. Such an r,Jeveloped . :ut a stage c:- both had !::::1ent-that :-: Juality. sl:rh incarna;., from the r -.i him from rihanadhara, l- rhe deity is ; ..i'ith his left L-labitants of

Vrindevana fron.ra dcluge sentby Indra, who had b e e n . ' n g c r cb y t h e c o r r , r r r r r n i r i n r t t c n r i o n o d y' r him in their dcvotions (Fig. ro. r r). Krsna's namc (Thc Jllack One) is a probablc rcfcrencc to his Dravidian origin. His rolc as cowherd and protector of the pastoral pcoplc suggests further aflinities to the cor.v-r.vorshiping peoplc of preVcdic Indic society. His cncrgcncc dLrring the Gupta period as a popular god rcflects the resurfacing of an ancient conccpt rathcr rhan an irxlovation. In form, thc relationshipof this figure to early fifth-cenrirry images and Kusanaperiod prccedents, like those fron Mathnre, is cJcar, cspccially tJrcbody forrns ancldctaiis in of thc costulnc.lo At Eran, a Vaisnavite sitc approxin.ratcly cigl.rty kilometers from VidiSa, a grear couplcx of tcmplcs and accompanying sculptures was produced during thc Gupta pcriod. Inscriptions found at lran (ancicnt Erakaina) documcnt artistic activity thcrc fion the reign of Samudra-

gupta to the pcriod ofthe Huna invasion around thc beginning of the sixth ccntury.ll A large scuJpturc ofVaraha ftorn Eran suggcsts sculptural tics to artistic clevelopn.rcnts ncarby Uclayagiri at during the early fifth ccnnrry (Fig. ro.r2). The p o r n e ro I r l r e d e i t y i s c r p r c . ' c d i n r h c t i r i l . hcavy forrls offic body and the solidity of his posc, which lnust havc easily earncd l.im thc confidence of his human devotees. Latcr in datc is a pillar from lran bearing a double-sidcd iuage of Garudadrted in the ycar r6J (Gupta cra), ecluivalcntto A.D. 484 (Fig. ro.r3).12 Thc specificdatc, sivcn as the twclfth of d," liglrt fortniglrt of the nonth of {"y Asadha (June-JLrly), indicatcsthat astrolosicai considcrations wcrc taken into accorultin sclccting thc timc of thc dcdication,sincc Asadhais associatcdwith thc srulmcr solsticc and thc Iengthening days, which are considcred to be auspicious, as is the bright haif of the lunar nonth. Although this aspect of thc dcclication

r96

D\NA\TlL\ul Illl MIDDII PrqloD

of tcruplcs and religiorrssctllptureshas becn virtually ignorecl, sincc scholarsare often more conccrncd l,ith the ycar (an.l heirce thc chronolotical implications) than l'ith the actttal clate (n,rdth.r, t"ligio.,t and astrologicalimplications), n i r i . u c l l l n o u r r t l ' u r' t r c l t , o t t ' i d ' r ' r t i ow 'r r ( apparendy a nrajor part of religiousclcdications, f.o,ri -r.ty carly time. The inscription furthcr " revcals that tl.re pillar u'as clcdicatedto a lorm of Visrlu. It is interesting to note-in light of thc' datc of dre inscription that both Visnu and to Garuda arc considerec'l bc solal dcities.Two front viervs of Garud:r arc :rddorsed atop the pillrr. onc facinq west towxld :r ro\4' of templcs, tl.r" oth., facing-east. Each represcntationholds a vrakc, a syn.rbolof Garuda, who is said to be the natural enemy of snakcs Such Garuda -rlarrllas n-rust have bccn comtrronly placecl beforc V:tisnevitc temples frolu en carly date as by suggestcd the Heliodoruspillar of thc Sunga peirod (Fig. 5.r), I Practicecontinrrcdto the pr"r.nt d"-t in India and Nep;rl. In srylc, tl.re ir.rsky fontl, of the body revcal closc ties to nuch carlicr carvings frorl north-central Inclia, contrxstins strongly rvidr thc slencler' dclicate hgurcs of the latc fifth century xt a nunbcr of a oihcr sites(Fig. ro.r9) ancl possiblyinclicating regional stylistic prelerence

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Madhya pillar.At Eran, ro.r 3. Upperportiolrof GarLr!a lndia. Cupta pcriod (reign of Budhrgpta) Pradcsh, H: Cuptr era r6J (,l.o.484).Pinki$ sarrdskDe (of
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Attt ol rtr s FrlrH CsNr unv : Nonrs-CENrtar

INDIA (SINCi)

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An iuscriptior-raddecl to the castern lornna of tl.LcGrcrt SttlPaat Sanci rcfers to Canclragupta ll end thc year 93 (Gupta cra, cquivalent to a.o. 4.rz) and rccords i grant in favor of thc Iluclclhistcommunity by an individual r,vhorvas apparcntly an officer of Candmgupta lI s.13 Altho,1glt the 5;raut ciocs not specify altistic prtronagc (it simply providcs lor the lccding of ihc tren.licants ancl maintcnance of oii larnps), its dcdication coincidcs rvith x rcsurllence of artisticactivity in stoncat thc site.Thc neu'burst

in p:Lrtmiqlit have bccn clncto rcucrvedirlperial . p o r r c r . , t t Jr t , . , l t l 'i r r t h ( r , S i u l l' u l ' . i 1 , t t t t r ' r t c ' l,vc"Prltcnof t\c i ' . u . . , . o ' t i r r r r t l . . r t l oc ncarby Hindu tnollLlnlents lt Udayagiri and as other sitcs rvell).Apparently,aftcr the Satavxmatcrials hata peliod, artisticactivity tn dLrrablc cinle to a virtual halt at Sanci sincethc only rvorks that sccnl to.lxte from rhe pcriocl of north arc a lcrv scttlpturcs l{uslne rulc in tl-Le importecl llrom Methnra rvorkshops.la obviotrsly The .cncrved cllort at Sanci durins thc fifth

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As p:: rhc ir:rlr phcc.r.: licint i -: ,rcldc.l r:

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THE GUPTA PERIOD

197

h.:: been ft: more

t ::onor::l date , ;&.---rions) i-:-s were t: rrently nc :urther tr a form b .ight of \-i nu and r-..:s. Two I :top the o: remples, rrion holds said to be i Garuda n1r' placed rlt date as rhe )unga ued to the L style, the iose tres to nrral India, er. delicate number of mdicating a

r:n, Madhya Budhagupta).

ici) ,;cd imperial ..hich must ncnt of the Lavagiri and r the Setavat ie materials r.e tl.Leonly re period of .t sculptures .r'orkshops.la ing the Iifth

century involved both the creation of new monuments and the refurbishing ofold. Certain additions, for example, were made to St[pa I that considerablyalteredthe iconographic program to more typical Mahayana forms. Since there is evidenccof Mahdydna pracrices at the site from earlier periods, tbese modifications may not refect a real change in thought but only in form. A pillar crowned by a representation of the Bodhisattva VajraPali was set up near the northern gateway of the ancient rftpa. Now detachedfrom the pillar, the Iigure is broken of at the knees(Fig. ro.r4) The main portions ofthe arms are alsolost but the damaged right hand Lolds a uajra, still vhible at the dght bry . Clad h a dhott that is carved with sonewhat irregular but delicate grooves representing the folds of the garment, the body is smooth and reflects a development toward the mature Gupta formulations of the mid-fifth century, although still reflecting Kusa4a-period precedents. The figure, though carved in the round, strongly relates to the depictions of the duardpalos at C^ve 6, Udayagiri, and a date in the ro.r4. Vajrapani. Capital of pillar set up nearnorth early Iifth century, perhaps slightly later than India.Gupta Pradesh, gateway, Stipa I. S,ffci,Madhya may be suggestedfor the Udayagiri materials, period.Ca. early Iifth centuly. Seici Site Museulnr this work. An interestingfeature ofthis sculpture Beigcsandstone. r55 cm. H: Saflci. is the halo behind the head with its twelve holes piercing the rim. Thesemay evenly spaced have becn intended to hold nctal tenons for lay worshiper named Harisvtmini to a Buddhist the attachment of a larger, morc grandiosehalo community (at Sanci) for keeping lamps at the whose metal spokes might have suggestedrays jewel house as well as at the "place of the four of light emanating fron.r the figure. Tiny holes Buddhas." This inscription may refer to the in the nccklace (which is strikingly similar to four Buddha imageslocated at thc entranceways that on the liiga at Cave 4, Udayagiri, Fig. ro.9) to th"' sttpa, providing proof that they were and on the belt also indicate that n.retal or r n e x i s t e n c b y a . o . 4 s o ( C u p t ac r a t 3 L ) , t } e jewels had been addcd to enhancethe sculpture. c date given in the epigraph.ls The best preserved Vajrapani signifiesthe power ofBuddha-knowlof these images (Fig. ro.r5) demonstratesthe cdge. His location at the north cntrance to the delicacy, grace, and tranquility of the sculptural stapo is significant, for it is through the north style, which is often said to characterize the side of a cosmological diagram known as a art of the mature Gupta period. With eyes cast in ma4dala, this case,the sfapa compound itself, downward and a gently smiling expressionon to that access enlightenment is gained. thc his [ace.rhc Buddhr crnbodies inrrospection As part of the refurbishing of Saiici during and harmony of Buddhist thought. An intrithe fifrh ccntury. four Buddha irrtagcswcrc cately carved halo, almost lacelike in eft-ect,is placed at the entrancesof the Great StuPa, one centered behind the head. In design consistsof facing each ofthe four directions. An inscription a rim of triangular rays reminiscent of Mathura added to a crossbar of the ground balustrade of the stupa recolds an endowment by a fen-rale or KuFta precedents(although not scalloped),

rg6

DYNASTTES OF THE MIDDLE PF.RTOD

these bear depictions of lotus petals. Flanking cach Buddha is a pair of attcndant figrres and above are uidyadharas bearing offerings. In tlrrce of the stelae,the attendantsappear to be calr!bearing bodhisattvas.(The figure to the proper left of the central Buddl.rain Fig. ro.r5, for exanrple, may be identificd asVajrapani because hc lrolds a njrc at his lcft hip.) Thc fourth sculpture,that at the south gate,bearsrepresentations of Indra and Brahn.ra instead. Thus, the carly link betwecn bodhisattva and Indra and Brahn.rl imagery seen in the Kusaqa period sccmsto havc pcrsisted. Rcncwal ofart production at Saici during the fifth century did not only include sculpture. Sevcral new temples wcre addcd and earlier architectural stmct[res were remodcled or rcfurbishcd, although thc Great Stupa rcmaincd by far the most dominating feature of the community and the esteen.r which it was iu throughheld docs not sccmto havc din.rinishcd panelon side, Madhya out thc ccntLrrics. By the fifth ccntLuy, the ro.r J. Buddha east SrtpaI. Safrci, India. Guptapcriod- Ca. Drid-fifthcentrrry. Prrdesh, site had a complex plan including numerous Bcigesandslor1c- 162.5 H: cnr. stipas fron early periods, rlilaras with identical cclls surrounding a central space, and other brdldings. deeply undercut One ofthc rr.rost irnportant aswcil aspcrfcctly but thc intcrior is {illed with prcscrvcd of the Gupta-period structtres at cxcmpiifying the cxloliatc and scroll desigl.Ls, 5 : n . r i 5 t l r c . r r r : r l.l l r r i n , k n o r v n r . f e r r r p l ct r quisitc work emerging fion.r Gupta-pcriod sites (Figs.ro.16, ro.r7), whicl.ris uenerallythouglrt throughout northern and north-ccntral India to datc ftom tl.rcfirst quartcr ofthc fifth ccnttuy. at thxt til.r1c. The smooth contoLrn of thc form, and simplicity Buddl.ra'sbody, with in graccfully r.nodulatcd Its small size,r.rnpretentior,ls are ciraracteristicof early Gupta-period arcl.ritransitions, also mark thc dcvclopmcnt away c l c (r r r r c . I l ) c r c r r r p l c o r r r i r r ro f t w o r r r r i r . . a fiour tl-rcn-rore angular forms of earlier Gupta pillarcd porch (uundapa) aud a slrrinc (garllaformulations. grha). Each of thc two scctions is articul;rted Iconographically, thc four sculpturesare also of jntercstlor tlrcl nr.,1bc c.,rJyrcprcscntariont clcarly and there is no attcnpt to disguisc thc r . o of llucldhas having directional significance. j o i n r b e r w c c n l r e r r rT l r i ' c l . ' r i L 1 f p a r t sc l t " r actcrizes this and otbcr carly Gupta-period While thc dircctional Buddhas orjlras (literally, "victors," rcfcrring to thcir spiritual achicvcteurplcs.Tbc structurc restson a Jow plinth wit]r stcps at either end of tl.rc porch. Howcvcr, a rlcr.Lt) popularized in latcr Buddhist art are r l ' g c n c r . , l l y c c o g r r i z . r bb.y r l r c i r d i ' t i n c t i v cr r r r , - widcr intcrcolun-rniationbctwccn thc two ccnthat tl.retenple tral pillars of thc porch sLrggcsts /ras and thc bodhisattvaswl.ro oftcn accorrpany was propcrly approached along its longitudinal thcm, thc Sancr stclac arc comparativcly stanclaxis, as is the cascgcncrally iu latcr tct'nplcs,ancl ardizcd.lGln cach case,the Buddha is seatedin not fronl thc sidcs.Massivc slabsof stone, some ar,.d uajraparyaikdsana drsphystlhyau nnrlra with as rDuch astwcnty-fivc centinrete{sthick, pl^ccd his hands, inclicating a statc of dccp mcditation. sidc to sidc rcross the sanctlrtrrand porch con-rThc figurcs sit upon cushions that rcst on prrst rhe roofof rhc .tnrtrlrc .rndcrcrtc cornices rectangular bascsand, in two of thc carvings,

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THE CUITA PTRTOD lgg

10-16. Temple 17. Sancl,Madhya pradosh, I11die. Guprapcriod. Ca. first quarccrfifth ccntury.

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[:: i. 5()111C tr::. Placco r :-_:t co111E::Jrlliccs

that relieve the plain ashiar cxtcrior of the building.rz Although this temple appears to be solidly built, severai features inply that the craft of building in stone was still in its infant stagc; the sructrue totally lacks foundations, which resulted in buckling of the walls and partial collapseof the roof (both corrected by modern restoration). Furthcr, thc walls are made of rubble tl.rat has been faced with stone, both inside and out, giving tbe appearance wcight of and solidity but not thc stability of solid stonc. It is aln.rostas though thc practice of erecting solid structuresllke *upas with rubble that was then faced with stone was bcing adoptcd for use in buildings such as this. Eventually, solid

O5 O1 M, I

,9

ro.r7. Plan of Tcmpte rZ. Safrcl, Madhya pradesh, l)dia. GuDra period.Cr. 6rrc quarrer fifth ccnrury.

2OO

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE

PERIOD

stone structures without the rubble core came to be used in lndic architecture, Simplicity and understatement characterize the de-.oration of Sanci Temple 17, for sculptural ornamentation is confined to the doorway and to the pillars, which have square basesthat ch"ns. into an eight- and rhen sixteen-sided lotus capitals' form"rrr-ounred 6y bell-shaped Certain Gatures of the pillars, such as the addorsed reclining lions, whjch forur the decorathe lotus bells recall tion of the capit"ls, "nd Maurya-period Prcedents. No' iiage w", found in the srnall cubical shrine, noi has any other clue come to light that can reveal the original dedication of the

structure. Furthermore, the simple form of the buildine, with its ma4lapo and gafthag1ho, is general enouqh to relate to both Buddhist and i{irrdu -ooo-*.n,r. Its shrine and antechamber format, for example, is found in Buddhist arihitecture in the rear worship area of caves such as at Aja+!a, and a similar plan is also used in Gupta-period (and later) Hindu structures' Theseiactors have led some authorities to claim that the building was in fact a Hindu temple'18 It is likelv, however, that the structure was erected to ierve the needs of the Buddhist communiw. lts form, however, may be seen as containing certain essential Gatures of both Buddhist and Hindu architecture.

, relaxation righ of the ment, for Gupta-pe unified th,

Jancr (rlg. depicted ir

Buolurst

A R T o F T H EF r r r n C r u r u n v :

NoRTH INDIA (MATHURA AND SIRNATH)

The florescenceof Ku94a art in the Mathura reEion seemsto have ended by the late third ^.o. when the Kuqalraslost their hold "rirt,ry and were replaced by the Yaudheyas, Nagas, and other minor dynasties. Wlren Samudragupta defeatedthe Nagas, the Marhurd region into the Gupta domain The i""i it "o.por"t.d infuence is little understood, extent of Ntga that some conalthouqh rheir coinagesuggests of Indic art might rribution to the tnainstream by havebeenn.rade then.In addition, the heritage of Kugana art of both the Mathura and the Bactro-Gandhtuaregioqs remains visible in the Mathura GuPta style. On the basis of its strong similarities to a recently discovered Buddha sculpture frorr a Mathuia dated to a.o. 434,1e standing Buddha imaqe fiom Mathura may be used to de{ine the Maihura Gupta style of about the mid-fifth century (Fig. ro.r8). An inscription on the pedestalstatesthat the image was dedicatedby I mook n"-.d Ya{adinna.2oCarved in the red sandstonetypical of the Mathura region, the fiqure of the Buddha stands approximately himan-size, although the total height of the sculprure including halo and base imparcs a to it. Compared with ..nr-" of -onr,-.ntality sculptures of the Mathura style Kugaq.ra-period (Fig.8.z9). contours the body rre more lluid of the gt"..ful and the body is slenderer'The "nJ

ridges on were abse period Ma on draper the Bactrc garment r( not Mathr body is c that clings characteris period an the rwo b reconcilinl emphasizi love of th Mathur India wa Kusaga p sitesrose I Kugala (

ro.r8. Buddha.FromJamalpur,Mathure, Uttar Pradesh, India. Gupta period. Ca. mid-fifth century. Reddish sandstone.FI: 22o cm. Mathura Museum, Mathure.

)amattr, performe< of the le: Chinese t in the 6ft and two r but by * arrived, tl erably, fo a commu school lir tne oe justly far third qua by a seri is shown by a mor sculpture gupta II while th, yeer r57 Budhagu

THE GUPTAPERIOD 2O1 r:r of the lirc_.-rla, is iJ:ist and B::amber i loorust r :: caves I -l.o Used giclures. rs :,-, clairn i::nple.18 r:i:e was tL-t comE iaen as r :i both

t\iTH)

:.r: Pradesh, cr. Reddish L \'lathure.

relaxation of the pose, seenin the slight bending of the right leg, and the great delicacy of treatment, for example, of the halo, reveal that a Gupta-period aesthetic had developed and unified the art at distant Buddhist sites like Saf,ci (Fig. io.rJ) and Mathura. The drapery is depicted in a series of regular folds shown as ridges on the surface of the body. Such folds were absentfron.r the typical drapery of Kugar.raperiod Mathura sculptures, although an cmphasis on drapery folds prcvailcd in the Kusana art of the Bactro-Gandhara region. The style of the garment too is reminiscentofthe westem Asiatic, not Mathure, fashion. However, the Buddha's body is clearly revealed through the drapery that clings between thc ridges of the folds in a characteristically Indic manner. Thus, the Guptaperiod artists of Mathurd seem to have unified thc two traditions into a harmonious synthesis, reconciling the classicistic sryle ofthe northwcst, emphasizing garment depiction, with thc Indic love of the human form. Mathura's cultural dominance in northern India was virtually unchallengcd during the Kusaqa period. But under the Guptas, other sitesrose to prominence and eclipsedthe former Kusana capital's preeminence. In particular, Samath, the site where Sakyarnuni Buddha performed his first preaching, cn.rergedas one of the leading Buddhist centers of India. The Chinese traveler Fa-hsien,who visited Sernatl.l in the fifth century, noted only two largc stapas and two nronasteries (sathgharauas) thc site,2r at but by the sevcnth century, when Hsiian-tsang arrived, the establishment had cxpanded considerably, for he describeda vast cornplex in which a community of r,5oo monks of the Sammitiya school lived.22 The developed style for which Serneth is so justly farnous apparently emerged around the third quarter of thc fifth century, asdocumented by a seriesof three datcd in.rages, onc of which is shown here (Fig. ro.r9). All were dedicated by a monk named Abhayamitra, but one of the sculptureswas given during the reign of Kumaragupta Ii in the Gupta year r54 (ca. a.r. 473) while the other two, dedicated in the Gupta year r57 (ca. t.o. 476), fell within the reign of Budhagupta as indicated in the inscriptions.23

In each of the three inscriptions, Abhayamitra the expressed wish that the merit accruedby the good deed of this gift should go toward the obtaining of extinction of worldly existence (the goal of Buddhism) for all sentient beings, includhg his mother, father, and teachers. Such wishes were. by rhis tinre, common in Mahayana Buddhist dedications,for they rcfect the basic doctrinc of the transfcr of merit frorn one individual to another. Thc elongated, slender, graceful bodies and the re{ined exccution of the details of thc halos, robes, and facesof thcseimages have long been considereda measureof Gupta art. Even in the period of their creation, the two images dated to about A.D.476 must have been considcred masterful works, sincetheir identical inscriptions state that they were madc bcautiful through drc scienceof cirra.In this context, cirl4 seemsto refcr to the technical achievementsof the artist as well as the artistic exprcssionitsell Thus, the acclaim that modem art historians lavish on theseworks is perhapsreflective of the renown they achieved in their own time. Part of the bear,rty thc contemporary eye lies in the pale to buf-colored Chunar sandstone out of which they (and most other Sarnath sculptures) are cawed, although it is likely that odginally they were painted, likc n.rost othcr ancient Indian images. The sculptures pinpoint a moment in the stylistic continuum betwccn the stiffer KusenaMathula-type formulations and the more dynamic representations the post-Gupta pcriods. of Each central Buddha stands in thc abhaiga posture with a slight flexion to the body, as indicated by the bent position ofone leg and the gentle thrust of the liip to one side. Thc forms appear to bc rhytlrmic and natural. (Tbis general senseof relaxation is also seen in the position of the right hand of the Buddha figure dating from abotrt ^,D. 473, as the abhaya uudra is considerably lowered in position from thc shoulder height of Kusar.ra-periodexamples; thus ell-ecting a less rigid, less commanding position.2a) significant featlrrc of the latc fifthA century Samath Gupta style is the treatnent of the drapery. Though fully dressed,the figures are clad in drapcry so clinging that it reveals

2'2

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT PEIIIOD

io.r9. Buddha.Fronl Srrnath,Uttar Pradesh, India. Guptapcriod (reign of Budhagupta). Gupta cr. rJ7 (A.D.476).Buff sandsronc. r93 crrr.Sanfth Site H: /vruseum, Jarnrtn.

virnrally all of thc forn.rsof thc bodies bcncath, almost as if thc figures rvcrc unclothed. The drapcry is n.rostvisiblc at the neck, sidcs, end hcrr. Horvcvcr. .rs.rrrnirrg rhrr rhc irnges rvcre originally paintcd, rvith the robes in a color contrasting with that of thc ski[, thc prcscnr "invisibility" of the garrlrentq may havc bccn

obviated. Thc gxrrlcnt irsclf lns tlvo lxyers, at lcast from thc waist down, as may bc scen by thc two hems, and might rcilcct thc specific costunlc of a pxrticular Brlddhist scct rt Sernath. Thc faciai fcatures of thcse figcrrcs rcpresent what mLrst havc bccn an idcal typc in this sctlpturel school, charactcrizedby the downcast cycs, gently sniling cxpression,and refiuemcnt of the treatmcnt of d.rc individual elcments of the face. A feeling of quicsccnceand introspection is conveyed by the facc, cxprcssive of the pcxce and inncr tranquility posscssed by all Buddhas. Alrhouglrtlrc [ornr.rrs f rlrc rwo irrragcs o dated to abont 476 arc virtually identical, thcy diffcr fiom that of thc slightly carlicr ir.nagcof 473, but this should not suggcsta chronological dcvcloprhent. The 473 figurc stands atop a plain lcdge of stonc that is inciscd with a lengthy inscriptionand has.lrrge round halo, derived from Kusala types, centcrcd directly bchind his hcad, sin.ilar to that of tlic ir.nages placed at the four cntrancewaysto Seicl St[pa I (Fig. ro.r5). Tl.re halo containsthe scalloped ray motif around the rim, within which are pcarls,a garland, and floral motifs that according to Brrddhist rexlu.ll sorlrcesrre prrt of rlrc radiant splctdor of the Buddha. The pieces clating from 476 do not llave round halos, but insteadcachhasan clongatedaura that is rounded at the top (Fig. ro.r9).Thesc Buddhas stand atop vcry thrce-dinensional lotuscs,and are attcnded by figurcs on cach sidc, flying uitlyatlharas abovc, and small dcvotccsbclorv. All figures subsidiary to thc rr.rrin Buddl.ra in each sculpturc are dcpicted in hicrarchic scalerclative not only to the Buddha but to each othcr, rcflecting textual descriptionsof the sizcsof bcings according to their rclativc spiritual achievencnt, not thcir physiques. Such hierarchic scaling pcrvadcs the art of Sorrt]l Asie, and is charlcteristic of most R r r J J l L i ' rH i n d u . , r n dJ . r i r r r r r i . r i c o n c c p r i o n s . . . c Undoubtcdly dating fror.n around the same time, about A.D.47j (althoughuninscribcd), a is rcprescnhtion ofa scatccl ll[ddha t]rat epironlizes both thc high style of thc latc fifth ccntury at Samath and the Buddhological mcssage of Sarnad.ritself, that is, the First Preacl.ringof SakyamuniBuddha at thc dccr park at Sarnath

l:.:4,

Cx:-

Fig, e!Fecr

Kus-l Cu:r.r

lLr,lri.. :ir -..e

eli oi !ctin-il

.ire ic ji.crpi,

:ane] i .-'irie r ro r5a rea'ra:a

alea:]iJ

THE GUPTA PTIiIOD -: . irs. at

2OJ

I ::-'n by ::r.'cific
' \::nath. r:::c'Sent : : - ahis i: .,.-ncast i:::inent = ::1!S Of -r L-_: jPccr-. -.i dre all i il r rrlagcs .. .t-^., ---,--l -:oP a | '.'' ith a r--:- halo, c rrlages

i.: Srupr
,--t^..^l

i:ch are c:crding : -,i the c pieces ;--.s.but r-'undcd

-- I ^,^-

ro.zo. Buddha- From Samith, Uttar pradesh, India. Gupta pcriod. Ca. 47J. Buff sandstone. H: 160 cm. SamethSite Museum,Sarnath.

::rendcd
u ibovc, r'rsidiary tr:re arc

ro.zr. Life Events of SakyarnuniBudclha. Frorn Sar_ 'rathUnar Prrdcsh.India. Cuptapcriod. Cr. rfurdquar_ L e rl r t t hc e n l u r y .B r f f . r r r d s r o n H.: e 7o.r . Narional Muscnm, New Delhi.

.,.'] ."
I rc\tual !'i thcir -:.:es the .-: nrost ::fnons. :: sllne ::.1), is a l:.rIl1tzes

l.rrnatn

(Fig. ro.zo). Although several hand postures (especiallyabhayamudra) were used during the Kusana period to signify this event, by the Gnpta period, variations on the dharmacakrQ mudra, one of which is shown herc, bccame by far the most common indicators of the event and of Buddhist teachingsin general. Also characteristic of scenesdepicting the First Sermon a r e l h e p a i r o [ d e e r . f l r n k i n gt h c w h e c l, n d t h e disciplcsto whom Sakyarnunipre.'chcdin rhc panel beneath the main figure.2t The treatnent ofthe ccntral figure and its halo is nearly identical to that of the 473 ir.nage. The throne bears rcpresentations of rarnpant winged lconine creatwes (ladilas) supporting the makarq-end.s

of the

crossbar, both

presumably

auspicious

syrnbols. Several stelae recovered from Sarnath and stylistically relatcd to works known to date from the late fifth century stress what had comc to be considered the major events in the last life of Sakyamuni Buddha. One examplc shows a serie-s events, arranged in chronological of order frorn the lower ro the opper rcgistersand l i o m l e f r t o r i g l r r( F i g . ' o . r , i . A , , h " b o , r o , , . , l e f r .Q u e e nM a y a r e c l i n c s n . r c o r r c ha r r c n d c d o , by maidservants, while the elcpl.rant that heralds her- conccption of thc Buddha-to-be appears to her. At the lower right, Maya gr"rpr th" jal tree while thc Buddha-to-bc emcrges fron hcr

2'4

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT

PERIOD

righr side.ln the cenrer the lower register. of the infant bodhisatwa stands with his right nudra while being given his hand in the abhaya The secondregister first bath by two nagas. atop his horse,Kanthaka, shorvs bodhisattva the then cutting his episode, in the GreatDeparture hair when he takesthe vow of the ascetic,and finally, at the right, he is in the final meditation

ro.zz. Khasarpa4a Avalokite(vara From Samath, India. Gupraperiod. Ca. 475. Buff sandUttar Pradesh, r37 cm. National Museurn, New Delhi stone. H:

leading to enlightenment. Here, his greatness at tJfs stage of his life is distinguishedfrom the earlier events by the relative increase in scale in his depiction. The upper scenes show the victory over Mera at the left and the First Preaching at the dght. A fourth level may have depicted thc parinirva7a at the toP. The rather free arrangement of sceneswith one blending into the next is characteristic of fifth-century life-scene stelae,although by about the eighth century and later it was replaced by a rnore ordered arrangement with separate comPartments for each scene. A particularly fine cxample of the Sarnath treatment of the bodhisattva (Fig. ro zz) shows Klasarpapa Avalokiteivara standing in the slightly relaxed abhaiga pose. In accordance with textual descriptions,this form of Avalokiteivara is decked with ornaments, has a smiling face, apPearsto be about sixteen years of age, and holds a lotus stem in his left hand, while lris right displays the uarada (gift-bestowing) nuilra. Adorning his jotlnukuta hair style is a representation of Amitabha/Amitayus in his characteristicdhyana mudra, signifying the family from which the bodhisattva emanates. Beneath the right hand of Avalokiteivara are two preta figures, ghosts of beings who were greedy in past lives and whose doorn it is to be for hungry forever. Avalokiteivara's cornpassion is dcmonstrated by the nectar that all crcatures flows from his gift-bestowing hand to feed these ravenous beings. A somewhat parallel generosiry cxpresscd the donariveinscripin is offeringrhe Ion ^t the bottorrrof thc scttlpttrre. the giving of the image merit accrued from for the attainment of supreme knowledge for all sentient beings. The slender, elegant body garbed in diaphanous draPery suggeststres to the three late fifth century Buddha figures, and probably indicates a similar date for this image. Lik" thir. Buddhas, the gentle countenanceof this in.rage with half-closed eyes suggests an inner calm that makes the Gupta idiom at Samath one of the most appealing of Indic art styles. A relative sinplicity in terrr,s of adomment parallels the treatnent in Gupta temple architecturein which a balanceis struck between the rnain forrrt. and surfacedecoration.

O$er bdds and sir cailf p nnF.er Brcrra

flfe t

isEcro:
EIi:L u.i rt
Sgrco iE

i!. loEre (

iil*-r ' :iut ir H:dd2iooeir l(fI o[ Bo.ldh

fu-r

C'andh de Bu

TIII
::l !-s\ : IC

CUTTA p!RIOD

205

BUDDHIST RT IN A Othcr sitcs in thc lorruer KtLsanl tcrritolics , b c s i . l cM . r t l l r r .p r o . l r . c , l , n J , r r i q r l r , f r f h . r and sixth centuries, but thcse l'erc not spccifica1lypert of thc Gupta cnpirc. Thc histor'1of this pcriorlin thc northu,cst rcgiousof Glrrclhaue, Bectrie.end essoci;Lted ercesis still unclelr. but r-stablishurcllts sccnrs p:ltro[:rgc of tsudc]hist to havc continuccl. lnstcacl of stoilcj 1r()wcvcrl rvhich hed bccn rvidcly nscclfir :rchitccrLrrc and sculpturcin thc sccolclnd thirrl ccnturics. stllccobecanc a major rrtistic mccLiurn. Pcrhaps the inerpensivencss this nnteriei xccoLtnls of to sonlc dcsrcc for its popLrlarity, although it is likely drar thc grcatcr llcxibilit,v aucLftcccloru thxt it 1 lolr'e.l the artist rvas also a factor. At H:rdcle, Afghenistell, in stuccofrcingsthat oltcu contaiircdclcea[t sculpttrral col]1posrtlo11s were . r r 1 ' d . r . , \ r l . ) fl c . l t . \ i . r ,, O L \ . 1 1l rl r U l . ) c | o r 1 \ lSudclhe :rttcndctlby nralc enclby fcrullc clcvotccs (Fig. ro.z3). Clcer c'r'idcnccof thc BactroCiandhlra hcritagc is sccn in tirc clepictionof rhc Buclclha's robc, his hail stvlc, and evcn in

TIII

N OR T I { W I S T

..ilc lllc rlr\t :lrtc .iurg l:llr-I : tlrth

''tIt

:tllLl1l

thc
-.:l1c:c

. .rlcr '-cilrs :.rn11. ' lvtc

:. iu
: the iiltcs. :.1 lrc 1i ere be : ,:1 for r tlLlt .io

the vely classicized iices of thc three |qures, a qreetc'r softnessllnc] reltncment ere also Ict prcscDt,sugqcstirq drat thc Cuptr stylc hacl ' r r P u r i r e ' c r r c p r r i f i r c rrl . r f t l r c c r l l l i r c . A r M . r ; , r r r ( ' r ' i r r r i ' r ' 1 .P . ' \ i . 'rr ' . . ' . r , ' p . r l lvas lodncl thlt hed numerous tcrr:l-cortl rc, r p r c . r r i.r r l - r .,.' f . , . . r ',r L l r 1. r , . f r c r r r ' t l . ' t . r k . sculptures iionr Haddr. bctrrv a blcnding of northwest Kr-rsatra end Gupte idionrs. AlthoLrch thc cl:Lting thcsc filc1s rs lrnccrtilln, of thc figurcsslLqgcst (1atc x aroun,l thc nridtllc to i l r t c f i t r l r. c r r r r l b c . . , . r ' o f r l r , . l . n , l ,r r r , . r , L . the di:rph:Lrrous qu:rlitvof thc cLapcry(elthough tr c B . ' c t r u - C . ' r r ' 1 1 . " r . , - * ^lll r r r r , . r l l p r e . . r r r ) . and tlte ovcrrll dclicrcyofthc fomx (Fig. ro.z4). Thc style ol thc robc, rvhich covcrs botll shorrlclcrs. clc:rly rcletcs this l'ork to thc cllssicisticB.rctro-Grriclhira stylcsof thc sccondanrl thirLl ccntllries. A lcmarkable sericsof caves that iitcrellv honcvconib 11 cllorrrroLrs clilliiclc r,ves cxcavatcdat ljdmivar. in A{gh:Lnist:Ln, arounclthc

r lcccl -:r:Lllcl .\.1]p_

:rig fhc :irilgc

-'

:.'for :: body
: L a s! o :'-':.:rnc] inllqc, .rcc of :. ':\ ln .aLrl nt . :,:ic ltt rcDrple _-t\\'ccn

.,; :-.

i-'
to.-ua.Buddhr. Fro.r I4npur Kh:rs, Prkist:ru.Ce. nicl-to-lete lLfih ccrrtLrrl'. Terrr corr:r- n: /o cnr. Princeoi Wrlcs,Musclnn Wcstcrn lndia. Bornb:rv. ol

t o . : r . B u d d h : r a n d d c v o t c c s . t lrrlch, Aigh:urntrn. C:r. lifth sixth ccnnrrv. Snrcco-

Dw\A\lll.

Ol lHr \

DD|I lt.RlL)!

li

4',
'*' . ..4.' _:..:

,i;
l: ..

r o . r \ . l J L . . l d. l , \ . J " . 1 r . . : , .l j r r . r . . . \ I r f r l tr ! r r ) r | \ . H r r . ) r , r .

r : rrrrr ,l

fifth ccntrrry. Onc oi thc uost imprcssivc clrvings is thc cnormous Budclha tlrlrt stands ncarl) flfty-five mctcrs tall c^rvecr :lr orlc cl1cl ofthc vrllcy (Fig. ro.:5). A sirrilrr figurc on r sliqhtly slrrallcrscr]cis locetccl thc othcr si.lc at of the groLrp of clvcs ebout a kilornc,tcr ancla l r r l i . , r r , v .l r r c c o l o . . , r j . . r r . . ,l.rr,r. r e. n . , rj r r . r i e siqn of grruciioscconccptiorrbut is a clclibeiatc xtlcnrpl to cxpressin :rs litcral lrtntlcr 1ls " possiblc spiriturl sizcof a Budclha thc comparccl to thilt of iitr orclineryhuman. Thus, t]rc sm:rll sizc of thc clevotees shorvn acconlpllylrlq

L']uJdhas nranv snr:r]lcrerristic conccptions in (Fig. ro.r9) is sivcn e lircrriucsshcrc as thc lrunrur t'orshipcr finds hirusclf drvrrfcd by thc gi{:irrtic im:rgc. Thc creltion of such cnorrnous inegcs is associ:rtcrl u'ith thc cu]t of thc Brlrol ((lierutic) Brrdrlhn,rvhich rvas prcvalcnr in South Asia ls rvcll ls in othcr rcqronsrn:rt wcrc iuflucrcc-cl by Incliln Mahayana liucl_ -Ihc <lhisnr.?6 avaihblc cviclcncc ihc iuscripof tior-rs encliconogrephic contcrts of thc survivilg inragcs inclicatctlut this cult rvrs spccifically rclxtcrl to Vailocane,thc Bucldhe whom thc in totality ol thc univcrscis pcrsonificci, ancl rvls cxprcsseddrrough drc siganric sizc of thc trqLucs.Oniy roLrqhly carvcd fi.onr thc soft stonc-nlatrix, drc rlcteiling of thc clrepcry rvas crcltcd by molding :r mucl rnixttrrc oir thc surhcc of thc imlgc th;it rvas thcn coverccl with iinrc plastcrencl paiDt."Ihc dr.rpcryfolds rvcrc creetccl by suspcndilq ropcs that wcrc thcn covcrccl r,vith mucl plistct to forn-r thc riclqrs of thc qxrmcrlt. Thc chuuing eppc:Lrancrot thc qxrnrent, rvhich rcvc:rls thc forn-r o[ tjrc IJuddha's body bcnceth,suqqcsts tics to Gupt.r irt in Lr.lix propcr. alrhoireh tire folds ltr..d style of thc robc erc clearly brscd upon cariier Kusera-periocl nro.lclsof thc nortLwcsrrcgron. A l . r . q et r , j r , , r c . r r i n ..tr r r p , . , t I t " l o 1i,r,rblra, t . ' . a n t lo lt o L , t t d l ' . l r . . , , l . , r r . l . , . , d y , r l r c D r r d _ J . r 1 dlre wxs piilstcrcd.rnd pailrtc(lto complctc thc iconogr:rphyof the frgurc. J)ropcrly spcakrnu, tlrls lniirqe :lnd othcr rcluaiiltsit1 t]rc northtvcsl reqion ntay bc studiccl ls p:rrt of thc art of lntrcr Asia rather thin ancicnt Inclia,althouqh thcy reprcscrlr logicai outgrorvrh of what is r , ' . . n r r . ' l l y . r r I n d i r r c l i 3 i . , u .c o r ) . ( p f i ^ r .

Ht r,rl u TE I,rp rr A t t c H l t t c t u n t As part of tirc grorvingpopuhrity of Hinduism, tcrnplcs tlcdicetccl veriousHindu clcirics ro lvc-re corlstrLlctcd throtqhout nortjrcm ano norttr_ ccntrrl lnclir.clur.ing Gupre pcriod. Usuxlly, thc t l r . . ,' r r . r r r r r . i . r - c rr 5 , r l - l ( , J . r r icn : rr , ,c e r r i n , , l o , phvsicelchar:rctcristics rvcll as thelr rctatron_ as ship to latcr forms. Regionalpxttcrnsrnry luve :rccouDtccl hlr sorne of thc clifcrcuces betu,.ccn rcmpic rypes. but, in adclirion,rirurl necdsof thc grorving Hindu relision, ls rvcll es scctlriln rirttcrenccs, ucccssitatcd thc dcvcloprncut of indiviclLr.ri ) P \ 5 ^ r r ( ^ [ r h . . l o r r . r . r . . r ] c , r t
stnlctrlres t]rar ntust hevc existcd prior to thc fifth ccntury but l,hich hlvc bccn lost, atd o r l t c r ' r . t . r r 'l r . r r r .b r r ' n c , , n p l , r . . l y r r r n n r . r t i r , . A. I rr ,.,'.r;,i.., .,g:crr ,,cl"crcd ot tlre Llcvcloprnq lorrr\. r 1 . , .r i c l . r r c . ,

Siirci Tcnrplc r7 (Figs. ro.i6, ro.r7) servcs as

THE GUPTA PEP.IOD 202 :- a:ftlons ::: .1r d1C , -,-I 1., i:, - !-nor::-: ..[ the :::r'elent = :ri rnat

i.
-

B.rdrl..ll.,

!::iJcrtP-

s.: rrn thc

,rl rvas .rf the ::a soft

was tl1c

L::i| e nn

. -_ovcrcd

r.1'folds
:_-:: were ir::l the i::]rancc :-- oi thc :--. and ir :: errher

** *":-' ..--..'Y',
India.Ca.eat)ysixthccntury.

.:-.a:,;r:,.

10.26. Vig4u templc, frorn sourhwcst. Deogarh, Urtar pradesh,

:--: Bud!:.r'!e tlle r r:ahwest :: art of : '.r'hat is

I l:1.

,iictarlan nlnt of :. rellect r: to thc -osr. and :oYattvc. richness lr-MS aS

an examplc of one charactcristictypc_of Gupta featurcs in this rcgard,.sinccits tall, apparently tc'rple. Although its ties to Buddhism arc curvilinear shapc a'ticipatcs tlr" j"',r"lop"i evident, structurcs si'rilar in form, size, and northcrn-style ir[,Lar,l. Its danage.l st"t", hiwdecoration from the G'pta period are found in ever, precrudesfulr anarysis,,ni rho, rrr" pr".c a Hindn contcxt as well.z?whilc the issueof of thii tcmple in thc devclopnrcnr rhe nirrhof whctlrer or not this ty-peof tcr'plc originally etn-style likharc rnay nevcr bc knorvn. ludasuPerstILrcturc-ofcphenrcraln-ratcria]sorThemains1rrineoccupresthcccnterofa onc.that was planned but never cxccuted is not squareplinth (Fig. ro.z7) tirat is accessibrc arl on scttled, by the cnd of thc fifth ccntury or the four siJes by rt"-i.c"r", witir senricircular bases bcginning of thc sixth, a type of templc with sonetiurcs rcferre,r ro asrDoonsroncs. orisina|va tot'er (-i1fr/rara) r,vell developcd. was four smallcr subsidr:rry ,hrir,", *".. i..r"ri, Onc exarnplc is dre Visn'tcr.nple at onc at each .or,,.. of thc plinth,,o ir"r,h" _such Dcoglrlr (fig ro.z6). corrrrronly irnd rrrisrernprc of rhepanrayaraaa i" (i-rvc-sJrrrne) variery. takerrly) called .],1eDaia^tarc bccarse it was Each shrine w", proirbJy dcJicrtcd ro a di'foriginally tholght that the iconographicprogram fercnt Hindrr deity, although their iclentitiesare referred to tlre ten incarnatio's (daiauataru) of unknown beca'se rhe si'ctrrrcs arc corallv visnu. Although thc patronsand donorsinvolvcd destroycd cxcept for rheir bascs.Further, it i's in its ercction arc not kno*'n, on stylistic imposibrc to dctermine the origi'al forms of grounds,. the structurc may be dated thc thc buildings, although thcy nr"ay havc bcen -to carly sixth ccnt'ry.28 In many ways, the for.r of miniature vcrsions of the nr"i' t"rrroi". thc templc shows considcrableadvancemcnt in The tcmp]e is oricntecl to thc ivcst, whcre the deveiop.rcnt of.Hindu tcr.nplearchitecnrrc, thc i'rprcsive, decorated doorway to thc a factor tl.t has lcd somc to conclude that its shrinc is locatcd (Fig. ro.zg). In contiast to the datc is much later. Thc forn.r of thc tower is carly Gupra-typc enrraIrce sccn at Udayagiri one of the most intcrcsting and highly dcbated (Fig. ro.aJ, th.-D"og"rh ,loorw"y i, g."""tly "

r , i ii ]

ll

2Od

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

0525 05 10

to.2j. PlalJ of Visnu temple. Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ca. early sixth century.

elaboratedensemble.The lintels and jambs have been multiplied, and these are replete with well-oldered foliate motifs, mithunas, guardian figures, and the river goddesses,Ganga and Yamuna, placed respectively at the top left and right of the doorway and clearly defined by theii nahara and tortoise vehicles. At the center, above the entrancCway, is a panel showing Visr.ruin an unusual form, seatedatop the coiled body of a serpent with the open serpent hood behind his head while Lakgmi, Vi5gu's consort, massageshis foot, and two other forms of Visqru hirnself appear, the man-lion (Nrsirirha) and the dwarf (Vamana). The multiple figures in this small relief demonstrate the growing complexity of Vaisnavite iconography, and perhapsprovide a clue to the original dedication of the temple. Before entering the single-celled shrine through the decorated doorway, ritual practice

probably required the devoteeto circumambulate the temple to view the three major sculptural panels on the exterior. lach of the three ieliefs decorating the main body of the temple is placed in a niche that consistsof decoraied lintels andjambs flanled by pilasters (Fig. ro.z9). The subject matter of the sculpturesreveals the order in which the devotee would view them. In this case, the viewing order of the major sculprures would be the reliefofVisnu Nareyaqa as Anantaiayana (or Sela:iayana) the soLrrh on (Fig. ro.z9), that of Nara and Narayana on the east (Fig. ro.3o), and the sculpture of G_ajendramokga on the north (Fig. ro.3r), thus moving the devotee in a counterclockwise direction (pra-yuya).This assertion,which is contrary to the commonly held belief that in Hindu worship circumambulation is alwavs oerformed in a clockwise marner (pradaksira), is based on the internaJ message the reliefs, their accompanyof

TrrE GUpIA PTRTOD 209 ro.28.Doorway, or1wcsr, Viylu tcr)rplc. Dcogarh,Urtar h-adcsh, Lrdia. Ca. carly sixrh ccrlrury.

... . l)cogerh, : .',lrl1 sixth

ro.29. VisnLrAuanta(ay:rn:rclicl on south, Vjsnu tcnrplc. l)cogarh, Uttar Pradcsh, Indir. Ca. early

- -:::rrlrbulate : :hc three : decorated . Frq. ro.z9). :, :r-1'cals the .-rawthcm. . : :h. rDajor .:: \irayana :: rhc soutir .. rla on the : G.r.jcndra:-:r nloving , -' .lirection ' - rnarxry ro :::r.'il in a .,.- on the I ,,:,)nlPany-

rl

,fY'

J3

2] d

DYNASI'IES oF

'I'I{E

MIDDLE PERIOT)

ing clcrucuts,ancl :rn an,rlysisof cit'cLurumbulazl) tion practiccsin Hindu ritutrls thc clcvotcc bcgen l-ris An inclication that u o r . ] t i n ' r r t h , . ' ' r r h i ' ' l c " r r l y' ' c t r i t ' t l t c ' . , . 1 , p i c r i . r rf ( , . r n e i r r l t L. l c 1 ' hn r- l r cd ' J q o ' l ' o the An:urta(:ryana on- a pilester to thc lcft of ''Ovcrcortrcr of rclicf (Fig. ro.29). As thi-' rr thc start of t)Lrr".i"r,;' Geucie is ilvokcd rvorship. ancl bccxrllc a stendxrcl clenrcnt in rhc iconoe'.^phicProgr:rlrs of Hinclu tcmples ltcl p , . r l i i " . 1 , l . ' J , , o , , - ' ' o , , ': o r ' t r A s :r ' l l t e 4 , t " , , , . , i , r ' u '..,' r b 1 t , irr c l f i i r r i t i c 'r l " b e g i r r nine. loi it is cot,ccrne.l rvidr thc birth of froru the urvel of Vistru Sincc Brahmllr;r'irn-La is the crcator of rhc tlnivcrsc, his own birth signifies thc bcgimring of rhc bcgir.iuing or thc ..-""tion ,rf thc creltor. ln this fornr' Visnn is callcd Narayrna (Movine on thc Watcrs' or irl.thc Abocleof Meu) rs hc rcstsor thc serPcnt es orirncv"l .vatcrs,and hc is clcscribccl olclcr ih"n tlt" .,1.1"rt. ln thc rclicl the fottr-artued rclicl. orr c.rst, Vi94u tcnrplc ro.lo. N]rr-Nrri-vrnr on Visntt sccmsto rcsr cou-rforttrbly the coilcd l ) c o g : r r h . U t a r P r r d e s h .I l r d i i C r ' c r r l , v s r \ t h c t n t u r y bo,lv nf tl.t" scrpc[t Sesx(Rcm:rinclcr),rvho is rnd t'hosc hoorl also crllcd An,rit" (Endlcss). bchinrl Visn s lreacl like a halo Thc archcs his right lce' god's wife Laksmi urassagcs r r r r , , L o r r . c r r ) r r q t n fq o r l lV r ' n u' n ' r c l ) r r l t c r r tl.re bliaArl tcaching in rvhiclt thc epito,,rizirte d , s r r u y c Jt l i n r ' I n r l r i ' r c l i e f ' t h c L ' r r r Vi.nrr clcvotee sccks ref,.rgc rt tl-rc fect o[ Ntrayana' of personifications Virndt *.capons (ayrrlla(Gocldessof FortLrne) is conFurthcr, Laksuri as s'ith ,tr".1,ttt"p,rscd thc two dcruons if prr,,ro-r) sidcreclto bc tltc ruc.liator betrvecu thc dcvotec might ageinstthc*r, althor-rgh in,l,o"t Virnn', jttst to dtc vtclvcr s ancl drc lorcl. Glrudl stancis auclqrlcc of rhc figures his -rutg"ttt n'car-ing sttlkc otnantcttts' thc clcgantpositioniug riqlrt of Llksnli, inpcncling bartlc From the an h"r,llv -pc.ronificd . 1 1 i 1 1r' c r r r . r , h , . r i .l j t . l t t t t . 1 1 . l 'It' ' o ' r c tl l c ' , wclpous are Gedaclcvi' right, tirc bc i'lcntified b'v his elso callcclNlrivene) cen fthc fcnralc.rccoqnizcdb\-thc nracecncrlilllg :rntclope-skit't grrlllcllt, his thrcc laccs (the i-ronrt1.,.tot, of lier hc'r.l),Crkrrpuruse (recogfourtli is i,rrplii'.l) rncl his sittinq iltoP ,r lottrs ' r ' t t r o t t t' t r c t r t ) ,",,'l L, Ii,' ,alrn lr'lr.ill .rftcrhavingjtst eurergctitrortr Vistru's trlvcl tll",..''o.,r,,.',''i.l ll,' p"'rri""' l'r' rtqllt 'rltr Hc is ll.urki by thc ri.boruc tigtrresof Indrr (rvho rs if it'.ucr.i ,r bor"J. "nd I(hrdqap'''rusa urottntccl anclKar-ttikcveto his riqlrt, rcsl'rcctively prepxrcs dralv his srvord)' to on their rardl/.i-r,thc elcphant and pcacock' On thc cast.tbc ulrjor rclicf sho*'strvo salnts' on his :ro.l to his lcft, Siva, rvith his rvilc Parveti (vierver-s Nera (viervcr's riaht) and Nara,vena lzlrnna Neutli end lnothcr tlliLlcntificd frqLrrc' of lcft). who b.ing tie nrc,,s,rqc clivinclovc ancl Ilelorv, r scprrrtc slab bcers dccply carvecl .lcvotion rs an instrtttncntof spiritullizationto reDfcscntxtioln of fivc uulcs ltltl onc fcnrle' -fl.,"r" thc rvotL{ (Fiq. ro.3o). Thcsc trvo' rvho erc MrdhLr and KriLebh'r :rt thc lcit "r" cousiclcrcrito lrc thc foLLttlt of thc trvcnty-r*'o rvith thc fbrrr pcrsonificdattributesof Visurt oi ntinor incatnations VisnLr,wcrc thc sorlsot at drc right. Medl.ru an.l Keitrbhe s'crc nvcr l)harlra (Ilighteousness)atd his rviFe Ahirirsi frottr Vivru's ctr u'hilc hc .l"u,nttr.i'ltn spranQ (Nonviolcncc).'fhcy pertormccl rtlstcrltresxs ^tt.l .u"," abotrt ro kill Llrahlna rves :rslccp.

THE GUPTA ?ERIOD

21I

Yitnu tenple. i:\dr century.

ro.3r. Gajendramok;arelief, on norch, Vigqu ternple. Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ca. early sixth century.

navel) when lieL thc four ons (ayudhar demonsasif em. although oi the {igurcs rle. From the Lre Gadadevi, ace emerging (rccogr'-rrnsa r omament), ris right arm ap.rrusa(who lrs two saints, ;:la (viewer's itinc love and ii..lalization to $ !r. who are rwenty-two L(re rhc sons of '.', Anlmsa rie rs "ustcritics

part of their devotions, and their ascettcnature : . ,. in is indicated rhe relief by their lack ofjewelry by the wearing of their hair in topknots and (jatanukula)- Like other ascetics who have forsaken the comforts of society, they appear in a wilderness setting suggestedby the rocky landscaoe with deer and lions beneath and bowers oftrees above. The {igures hold peaceful attributes in their hands, including the rosary, as-symbols of their devotion. A female figure in the center above is Urva(r, who was created when Naraya4a struck his thigh to demonstrate nymphs, that he could not be tempted by celestial in and tbat he was sreadfast his devorions. The niche on the north depicts the story of Gajendramoksa, conceming a king who had been changed into an elephant (Cajexfua) by a curse (Fig. ro.3r). One day, while wading in a lotus pond, a water beast seizedthe leg of the elephant and a tug of war ensuedbetween them that lasted for a thousand years. Finally, the elephant invoked NaFyana and was saved.The moment just after deliveranceis depicted clearly

in the relie{ for the water beast (herc a naga accompanied by his xagint) is depicted in .aiijali nxdra, payirrg respectto the victors. Essentially, the story is a parable about a devotee who had been cursed becausehis untrained intellect was deliverance like an elephant's,and his subsequent through faith, which representsthe attalnment o{ nok5a ar.d serves as a model to the worshiper at the temple. A crown borne aloft by vidyadharasabove signifies this fiual achievement. The overall messageof the temple is thus clearly indicated in the sculptural program, revealed through a sequential arrangernent of the the reliefs, for the Anantabyana rePresents denote the begiuring, Nara and Naraya4a means through which rro&;a may be achieved, and dre Gajendrarnokga story expressesthe final result. In contrast to earlier Gupta tcmplcs, sculpture has a much morc important role in the overall scheme of the monument, including the major reliefs as well as the decoration of the doorway. Still, sculpture is conJincd to certain areasof the ternplc and a balanceis struck between ornamentation and the sirnplicity of the architecture. The rather largc blocks of stone used to construct the teraple are easily visible, as therc has been no attempt to disguise them with the ten.rpledecoration. The beauty of the monument is carried out in the grace and delicacy of the.sculpturesthenselves, which representa high point in the developnrentoflndic art, refecting what has come to be known as the Gupta ideal. Smooth body contours, relieved by moderate amounts of jewelry, peaceful facial cxprcssions,graceful poses, and elegant hair styles characterizethe figures. Each composition is carefully balanccd, and seerns to come alive with the deep, three-dimensional carvrng. The so-called Pervati ternple at Ntchnacontemporaneous with Kulhara is approxin.rately the Viqru temple at Deogarh, ca. A.D. Joo or perhaps slightly later, and likc it, is a notable achievement of Gupta art. The name Parvati is undoubtedly a late apellation, for the temple was probably originally dedicated to Siva. Its form offers insight into a con.rpletelydifferent

212

DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDIE

PERIOD

ro.33. Plan of "Paffar1" temple as it existed in r884-8j. N,chna-Krfhara, Madhya Pradesh,lndia. Ca. early sixth

:::-_i:::

0r030 o5

temple format in use at the time, howcver, for it is a double-storiedstructure resting on a plinth the with an enclosedcircumanbulatory P:rssagc, of which are norv lost (Figs. ro.3z, outer walls ro.33). This buiiding is apparently the earlicst surviving examplc of a structural temple with and th.rs an cnclosedcircumambulatory passage,

it is the oldest known temple of thc sandhara class of Hindu tcmplcs that are in fact characterized by this feature. Light was admitted into the ambulatory by three windows, one on eachside cxccpt that of the entrance,which was opcn, and some light was also admitted into the main shrine through windorvs in the am-

THE GUpTAPERTOD 21' bulatory passage wall. The secondstory covered only the temple shrine (not the passageway) and may have contained a representation oi a deity. Perhaps specilic ritual needs necessitated the double-storied form. No signs of a iikharu or other fugh supersrrucnrre exrst, "forms although the original of the roofs of rhe temple are unknown. The doorway of the structure. which is orienred thc west.is Jmong to the finrst in all Cupte an (Fig. ro.34). and ii general, rhe rrcllislikc carved windows and miscellaneous sculpturesfound at thc site testify to a high quality ofworkmanship. An intercsting Gature of the plinth is the delibcratelyrusticate; blocks ofstone that have beencarved io resemble a rocky landscape,complete with animal life (Fig- ro.3z). The depiciion of such stylized landscapes, although unusual in this location, is also seen_ the paintings of Ajanta (pl. 8) and in in carved renditions of stylized landscape,for example,in the Nara-Narayana reliefat Deogarh (Fig. _ro.3o).Here, a rcGrence to the tempi-eas a replica of Kailasa, the mounrain abode of the god Siva, secmsto be implied.

ro.34. Doorway, on west, "ptrvatt,, temple. Nachna_ Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. cariy sixrh century.

Brrcx Truprrs ANDTERRA-corrAART Although brick and terra corta have been popularly used since the eariy discovery of pottery tchriques in ancient India, the fragile nature of the material has led to the destruction of nost early examples. However, during the Gupta period, interest in brick and terra cotta led to the construction ofa number of important monumnts, some of which have survived. The brick temple at Bhitargaon (Fig. ro.35) o one ol the besrpreserved cxamples.in spire of the lact that it was damaged by lightning in the .lastcentury. Its date is difiicult to fix as therc is no inscriptional or other evidence of its dedica_ lion. but on stylistic grounds. a datc of the firsrhallofthe fifth centurymight bc suggested. Burnr bricksjoined by mud rnorrar were used in the conshuction of the building, and the walls reached a thickness of -ore than two meters. The temple faceseast, as may be deter_ niTi by the remains of a portico on rhat side, and rt rests upon a square plir.th (jegati; Fig. ro.3o). Eachside of rhe remplehasa projecring tay. creatrngwhat is known as a triratha (three rutha) dcsigtt.Thc number three is obtained by co-untingthe two sectionsto the ]eft and right of the bay, which form the wall of the str"ucture itself, aswell asthe outer surfaceof thc bay, whiclr run. parallel tl:cm. (ln five rarftn, ro seven rathd.anCt othcr systemswhere addirionalbayr extend out from the centcr of each preceding bay,..the count cxpands to include tbe lengti of all new parallcl wall sectionsformed.) S;h ofiietting of the walis of a tcmplc bccame a standard feature in many later schools of architecture. A secondary shrine chamber is present above the main shrine, although this feature is not readily apparentfrom the e-xterior because of the rising, vcrtical shape of the iikhara, which is one of the earlGst extant examplcs of a northem-style tower. Niches on the exterior of the body of the temple and the supersrructure contained sculpted panels,

I
te sardhara iact charr admitted I'S, One on rvhich was rined into n the am-

2-1I

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PTRIOD ro.3J. Brick temple from southeast. Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh,Indii. Ca. fust half 6fth century.

some .o are ?art the con

true all

preferer Froqr e ancient date bu sroDs.P lhet a ,temp. terra co temples rmPrss slze re G,;'g, rle ent probab dxth ( besn h, o'hich I $one (

10.36. Plan of brick temPle. Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh, Lrdia. Ca. first half fifth century.

THE GUPTA?ERIOD 2'5 some .of which are missing and rrany of which are partially destroyed.An interesting Gature of the constiuction in this building is the use of ffue arches in the shrines and the porch in oreference to rhe usual Indic corbellid vauft. From examoles like this. it is evident that the ancient Indians knew of the arch at an early date but elected to use it only on cettarn occasions,preferring trabeatedforms, The type of sculptural decoration usedin such a temple is perhaps best seen in a number of teira cottas that are better oreservedfrom other temples, such as that ai Ahicchattra. Most impressive among them are the nearly humansize representations of the river goddesses, Gairga and Yamuna, -which originally fanled the entrance to the Siva temple (Fig. ro.37), probably dating from the late fifth or early sixth century. Although these figures have been heavily restored, their original animation, which perhaps exceedsthat seenin contemporary stone carving and nay be due in part to the nature of the tera-cotta medium, is preserved. Their positions, tuming inward toward the devotee who would enter a doorway between them, provide a sense of immediacy to the viewer. The costumes, with the heavy drapery folds and tight bodices, and the very fully rnodeled facial featuressuggesta departure from the more tranquil, delicate forms of Gupta stone sculpture. Each goddess, now easily recognizedby her respectiveuahana,the mdkard and the tortoise, holds a water vessel and is anended by a diminutive figure holding a thattra alofcOther terra cottas recovered from northem India hint at what must have been the widespread and highly developed art of terra-cotta sculpture in the Gupta period. In contrast to the surviving terra cottas from the prehistoric and early historic periods (Figs.2.6, 5.39), Gupta terra cottas are often large (though not always as large as the two river goddesses from Ahicchattra). Many formed panels that were used

ro.37. Gaige (left) and Yamuna (right); much restored. From Ahicchattra, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. late fifth or early sixch century. Tena cotta.F{i r7o cm (lefr); r7J.2 crn (right). National Museum,New Delhi.

216

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

-i-j:

F-r sPDr Or
irn!1
T--.

rr.-n .-:

in:rc, eI:];a ::i,

5S(

:ierc, ro.38.Vitnu on Garuda. FrorrrnorthernIndia,probabiy Uttar Pradcshregion. Ca. Iifth century. Terra cotta.H: 3r crn.BrooklynMuseum, New York (Gift of Dr. Bertraur Schaffner). ro.39.Rarna Lak;ma4a. and Fromnorthcrn India, probably Uttar Pradesh region. Ca. fifth century.Tena cotta.H: 40.6cln. Asia Society, New York (Mr. and Mrs.John D. Rocke6ller3rd Collection).

t ci r:e (

A-E-a -.osr as decoration on temples,One such architectural fragment shows the god Vifr.rrl riding atop his winged vehicle, the bird-rnan Garuda (Fig. ro.38). Only Visnu's two left arms are preserved; one holds a bow while the o-ther brings his conch to his lips, as if the god is characteristic blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose fleeting sound sometimesservesas a symbol of the transience of the physical world, here probably indicates a war call, for the god and his companion seem to be in battle-ready positions that suggest that dre relief representsan attack on an unseen adversary. Although its findspot is not knowr, the piece is of a type generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh region, and such works are generally attributed to the site of Ahicchattra or, alternatively, to Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and well preserved sites that have yielded Guptaperiod terra cottas in northern India. But it is likely that the monuments at these two centers were not urique at the time of their creation, and that sculptures like this may document a broadly based style and art forrn current throughout north-central India. The curly hair style of Garu{a suggests aesthetic associations with stone art of the Gupta period, though the techniques used by the terra-cotta artist differ considerably from those of his fellow craftsmenwho worked in stone. The outlines of the eyesand eyebrows, for example, have been createdsimply by using a sharp tool ro incise in wet clay. crearinga senseof dynamism and calligraphic line that is not apparent in works produced by the slower and more painstaking process stonecarving. of A secondterra-cotta sculpture, also probably intended to be used as architectural adornment and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayatla, and his yorurger brother, Lakgmana, as if in conversatioll (Fig. ro.39). Rema came to be considered the seventh incarnation of Visnu, and stories narrating events involving him are commonly included in the repertoire of subjects adorning a Vaigqavite temple. However, as a cult deity, he never acfuevedthe statureofother incarnations of Villu, such as K1gqra.When depicted in art, he is generally showr, as here, in a two-armed form that stresses hunan, his rather than his godly, characteristics. The panel apparently records the period narrated in the Ra rayqltdwhen, after Rama had been banished from the kingdom to which he was rightful heir, he lived in the forest, for the two brothers are dressed forest dwellers,rather than princes; as their earlobes,stretched from years of wearing heaq' ornaments,are unadorned, and their hair is tied into simple topknots. The figures are
"*t'

6rou iifrcr

5s.el 5 CU ani r eleEe

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&oug aldot

Fnor at De( -uller

P)-raf curse( ie re brick . nger iuced

r:+I_ \-aiot

THE GUPTA PERIOD 217

probE:- India, I :k (Mr. and

md eyebrows, nolv by using t\-. creating a Lic line that is tv the slower stone carvrng. also probably d adornment --:--ar ?radesh t:- Ka|tfiyqt|a, r.a:a. as if in ,-:ine to be on of Vi9nu, lsing hirn are ri: of subjects Iolvever, as a r:rure ofother I\r!na. wnen har", ,o..rr, ", es his human, ics- The panel rrated in the t'een banished : .r'as rightful : trvo brothers r rhan princes; rs of wearing ird their hair re llgures are

strikingly naturalistic and lifelike, an impression perhaps partly created by the freedorn and spontaneityaccordedby the terra-cotta mediurn. One of the most dramatic and realistic of all the terra cottas surviying fiom the Gupta period representsa Saivite deity (Fig. ro.4o). The relief, broken at the waist of the figure, is from Sahegh-Maheth,Sravasti, Uttar Piadesh, and shows an ascetic whose divinc nature rs indicated by the presence of four arms. His emaciated body, matted locks, and piled-up hair style (jata), as well as his lack of jewelry (especially noticeable due to the distended, pierced earlobes that conspicuously lack earrings),all signify his ascetic nature. A very problematic monument that may along with terra-cotta remains of be discussed the Gupta period is the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaye (Fig. ro.4r). Since it is one of the most sacred of all Buddhist shrines, this brick temple has been repaired numerous times throughout history and its form is therefore difticult to assess terms of the art of any in given period. Much of its present appearance is due to renovations as recent as the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although the essential elements may have been determined as early as the late-Kuge4aor Gupta periods..The relationship between the present structure and the original building erectedby A6oka is unknown. As it now stands,the temple consists ofa large central shrine surmounted by a high tower, surrounded by four smaller shrines. These are thought to have been added fairly recently, although certainly, the concept of the paficayatana format was well developed by the Gupta period as demonstrated by the Visnu temple at Deogarh. The presenttower is probably much taller than the original superstructure,and its pyramidal profile, which differs from the typical, curved, northern-style iikhara, is possibly also the result of later modifications. The type of brick work and useofcertain vaulting techniques suggestties to Iranian methods, possibly introduced into the Indic region by the Ku9a4as.

3,:;*

ro.4o. Saivite dcity. From Saheth-Maheth, Sravasti, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. fifth century. Terra cotta. H: 30 cm. StateMuseum, Lucknow.

ro.4r. Mahabodhi temple.Bodh Gay:, Biher, India. Various periods.

?]8

DYNASTTTSOF THI] MIDDLE PI1RIOD

Mrr.tr IuacEs Although some metal images are knorvn frour carly periods of South Asian history, few have survived, and thcrefore they providc only a very incon.Lplete picture of this art. Even Guptapcriod remains arc scant. Howcvcr, a hoar.l of metal images found at Chausa, Bihar, contained examplesthat cierrly sccnr to be of Gupta date. One reprcsentatiolr of !.sabhanatha, the Jain tirthahkart, espcciailyreveals the grace of form with Gupta art (Fig. and naturaiism associated ro.4z). Certain fe"turcs, such as the arms that reach to the knees,are dictated by iconographic Yet considerations. the scnsitivity to the anaton-ical forms is remarkablc, although not controlled by an adhercncc to rules of anatony ot a scientific approach to thc hunlan figurc. Some srlggestion of thc later Jain preference for abstract, gcometric forrns is seen in thc chest, which, fiom the front, aln.rostanticipates the trianguiar form so charactctistic of latcr Jain exan-rples.

to.tz. Trrthaikara Riabhanatha.Frorl Chausa, Bihar, Iudia. Ca. fifth century. Mctxl. H: 2I.2 cul. Pahu Mlrscunl, Patna.

Corqcrusrox Works of art surviving fron.r pre-Gupta pcriods provide an inconrplete picturc of thc n.rajor artistic trcnds in style and iconography. In contrast, the Gupta period is rclatively rvcil rcprcsented by architectural :rncl sculptural renuins. Although cphemer:Ll n:lterials must have continucclto bc used for art production clurinq Gupta tirncs, the usc ofstone had bccorne so rvidcspreadthat it mry be essurnedthat thc surviving lnonuments provide r fairly dctailed ovcrviclv of the rnajor lrtistic trcnds. Yet thc survivilg rvolLs, especiallv from the early be Gupta period, shoulclnot necessaril,v viervcd partices narking rvholly ne*' developments,

THE GUPTA PERTOD 219

onograplnc he anatorut controlled lomy or a zure. some ierence for r rhe chest, icipates the f later Jain

ularly in the Hindu religion. For just as the earliest survivins Buddha and bodhisattva images of the Sak-a+"rthi"n and Ku;dga periods may not represent the initial formulations of such icons, early Gupta-period Hindu works, like the examples at Udayagiri, may reflect the crystallization of trends that had been developing for decades,if not centuries. By

the Guptaperiod,however,thereis little doubt that all threemajor Indic religions,Buddhism, Hinduism, andJainism, werenot only foudshing but were also fostering the development of significant artistic creations, though they are perhaps unevenlyreflected the survivngart in works.

had become rei that the :.v detailed .is. Yet the ; be viewed ::1rt. Paruc-

t
CHAPTER ELEVEN
E

The GuptaAftermath

v-

Tur DrsrNrrcnarloN The Gupta king Budhagupta probably lived until around a.D. Joo. This date serves as a turning point althoughnot absolute. convenient, in South Asian history, for it marks the beginning of the disintegration of the Gupta political state, after whiah northem India wai fragmented into numerous principalities. The turn of the sixth century also may be seen as a kind of watershedin the history oflndic art after which regional developmentsbecameincreasingly well defined, undoubtedly as a corollary of the decentralizationthat occurred upon the breakup of the Gupta empire. Although intemal problems, especially the disputed succession after Bu&agupta, may have accounted for some of the weakening of the empire, a rnajor factor orWhire Hdnas wastheadventof the Epthalires. into had begun to make incursions (Huns). who the mid-fifth century. the Indic regions in Skandagupia(reigned ca. 45s-467)is reputed to have been victorious in holdinq back the Hu4as

o F T H EE M P T R T

in India, while another branch of the Hu4a family, led by the famous Anila (d. 453), was wreakins havoc at the courts of Ravenna and Constantinople. But in spite of Skandagupta's defeat of the invaders, the difiicult military efforts must have drained the royal treasury, as suggested by the fact that fewer eold coins were minted under him and the lold employ.d was lesspure. BudhaguPta,who ruled in the last quarter of the fifth century, also managed to hold the empire together althoush he faced the extemal threat and internal difiicultles as well since feudatories and minor rulers in the eastemportions of the empire and in the west were gaining strength, and the were already a strong political factor. Vakagakas By the closeof his reign, it was evident that the Gupta enpire was past its glory. Evidence of the Huqa incursion is found at Eran, where a large image of Varaha (Fig. rr.r) bears an inscription dated in the first year of

Tonm: Fdhi.aj The de(

ooce et

s,tro. q up Se Budhag
lDe tlr

gu]rr s r$a.ra < colossal

ro,tf+
IlreErS

h!- R srating his brn

and qi on rle r lEg- r oi &e r on de

THI GUPTA AITIRMATH

?27

rr.r. Varthx. Eran, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ycar r of reigr of Toraufna, dre Huna (ca. lete lifth or carly sixrh century).Sandstone. H: 34J c111.

:::1! Hina :_i:), was Lavenna : Skanda-

,. Jiilicult
: :-:i royal : : _,rfewer : .rnd the r r'-rl, who _: aencury, - ::rher al.: - internal :.-l minor :::ire and , ,nd the lactor. , :.1 : :hat the : Irnd at r-1,I r. r.) - : r'ear of

Toramana, the Hur.ra,who is called a Maharajadhiraja, indicating his rulc in thc region.l The dedication ofthc boar and the templc which once enshrined it was n.radeby Dhanyavisr.ru, who, with his elder brother Matrvisnu, had sct up the Garuda pillar at Eran in the rcign of Budhagupta sonre years carlier (Fir. ro.r3). The templc, now in ruins, was a small rcctangular structurc prcccded by a portico w'ith a torana on tltc cast. Once cnshrincd rvithin, thc colossal representation of Varaha, sirown as a fourJeggcd theriomolph, is morc than lour nleters it1 length and stands ovcr three nletcrs high, Rows of figures cover his body, representing the sages who sought shelter anong his bristles, as dcscribed irt the Visnu Purdna2 and which arc comparablcto the figures arrangecl on the rear $,'all of thc Var-ha cave at Udayagiri (Fig. to.8). As in anthropomorphic vcrsions of the subject, the carth godcless borne aloft is on the tusk of the boar.

Toramlna's first rcgnal year, the datc given on the inlge, rurst have occrirred around the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth centriry, at lvhich time the donor Dhanyavisnris allegianceapparcntly transfcrrcd fiom lludhagLlpm to Torandna. Such shifts arc not unusual in South Asian history, and were it not {br the common belief that thc H[na incursion had a dran-raticallydestrucrive impact on the culturc of ancicnt India, this dcdication lvould sccnl p e r l e c t J y o r r n . ' 1l.n r d d i t i o r r .' i n , , r h e i r r a g c n and thc tcrnplc (as nuch as can be determincd of it) easily fall within thc paranctcrs of Indic iconography lrld style of the late fifth :rnd carly sixth centudes, is not possible suggcst it to an inflLrenceon tlle art that is specifically ass o c i a r c Jr v i r - r t l r c H u n . r s .5 i n . p l 1 . t l r e r r u c c f f c c ro f H t r r ' . ,r L r l e r r ; n c i e n t I n J i . ro n . L r r i . t i c i devclopr-ncnts remains to be cxaminccl, but it is likely that rnuch untruth surrounds the conrm o n l l I L c l dv i c w r h a r r h c . c L , r e i g n e r s v c r e r

222

DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDLT

PERIOD F_:-t:\c.-rsnt

I
I I

intolerant of the Indic religions and that they in sysrcmaticallydestroyed tenples and images -iconoclastic fury. Torarrlan^ continued to rule until around his son' a.l. 5r5, when he was succeededby an individual But around 53o, rttl.tii"["t". and named YaSodharman rose to prominence region freed the north-central Indian Malwa lasting from Hona control. This king's briefrule' a decade,did rrot succeedtotally in Lnlv "bout pose desiroying the Hu4as, who continued to ttr..",J f"i some tirne. In sPite of the political diffrculties after the reign of Budhagupta until -the first the rise of Ya(oclharman, art produced in the part of the sixth century is the logical culminaiioo offifth-century trends.The site of Mandasor fancientDaiapura)in Mdlwa was an rmPortant ceniul,ur.l ..n,.r. during the frfth and sixrh lirrle-remains-o[ the glory.of ,"ri"t. ,t,ttougL "-entioned in the several lithic th. ,.rr-rpl., from the vicinity However' ,".o..ls r'e.ov"red frag,ro*b., of sculptures and architectural " with Ya(odharman's reign ments associated ,n" artistic developments of the second "Utify of the sixth centurY' quarter ' (Fi1' rr'z), one of a pair dvarapalo A "olorr"l now at Sofrdni, sit" once part of the metro" the oolitan Da6apura area, may have flan-ked '.orr"o.",o in the Mandasor a Saivite temple area. The Saivite nature of thesealmost mirroreach i-"g" {igor", is indicated by the trilala "well of the diminutive as the presence hold"sas figure from which the trilila seems to emerge 3 (tTiirrlopuruso) tn style' rhe figtrres clearly at seen Deogarhand Nachndi.lrt. io.*r-p|., before' and the same Kr:rhara a few decades refineurent and delicacy noted in late frfthcenturv art is present.An increasein the height .iaboratiin of the headdres, however' "nd suggests Progrqss toward the more ofnate periods' Further' the ti pir,-copr" {b;tt

--: \le':r
:=afr\. -(

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::lL1lTli i:: ;l-<{o

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:.aD ci

:=aa
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:ts LL' t

51- . .': '--^'.

i.2. Dtarapald sondni, Mandasorarea, Madhya sixth century Beige quarler India.Ca.second Pradesh, H: sandstone. u6ocrn.

;; sr:n:}
-::aart
:!a'.1efe

relaxed but somewhat angular posture is suggestive of the exaggerated Posescharactedstic of figures in Post-GuPta art.

r;:- Ii =asel 6i'& d

O u r c s o w r n s o r r s t G u p r ' t I D I o M S( c A J J o - 7 o o ) by The polirical unity imposed- the Guptas on and norrh-centralIndia was -ucli o[ no.th"m emonly ternporary, for upon the collapseof the pire. regionalPatternsalong Iinguistic' artistic' lnd culi.,r"l lines increasingly became the hallmark o[ lndic civilization. While such regional

Tbe \t oi hori
=; qq

regirJ h -,ie ,

TH3 GUPTA AFTERMATH

22'

vadations have been identifiable in South Asia vinually from the earliest human remains known, the unity of the political state under the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an apparent overlay of commonality that was quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This

was particularlytrue after the decline of the imperial Guptas in the eastem ancl western branches of wheredifferent extremes the empire, after of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously and clearly defined the death of Budhagupta, artisticschools quickly emerged.

I e sr ; n x I l o r e
The Gupta empire reached as far east as what ate today the Indian statesof Bihar and West Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar, which includes the ancient Magadha heartland ofthe Buddhist and Jain religions, had long been important in the mainstream of Indic artistic and historical developments.But Bengal, further to the east, emerged as a force on the political and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought furto the GuPta sphere primarily by Budhagupta during the fifth century. Aftet the cessadon of strong imperial control by the Guptas in the east, there was a scramble for power among numerous competing dynasts, many of whose only apparent claim to fame is the presence of their names in the lists of dynastiesin ancient history books. The situation became clearer duriug the seventh century when two notable rulers emerged, Sa{anka,who is reputed to be the Iirst king of Bengal, and Harga (r. 6oG 647), of the Vardhana family, who established hegemony over much ofnorthem India including parts of present day Uttar ?radesh, the easternPafljab, and western Bihar. These early seventh-centuryrulers are known mole through literary and historical sourcesthan through art, however, and much legend surrounds their rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose travels throushout Buddhist India coincided with the perlod of Harga's rule, and whose travel account4 is a main source of historical that Saianka information for the period, asserted was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism, and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist himself. While Har;a's capital was at Kanauj, in what is now lJttar Pradedr, his influence in easternIndia, especiallyMagadha, seemsto have been significant. Although archaeological evidence has not vcrified Harsa'sputative association with the artistic developmentsat nunerous in sires, in particular Buddhist monasteries. Magadha during fus reign, it is probable that rhat occrrrredwere in some the developments ways indebted to his tolerance and encouragenent. Saianka is also credited with artistic activities, as he is said to have founded the Lingaraja temple in Orissa,but he is alsoblamed for the destruction of some Buddhist rernains such as the Mahabodhi tcn.rple at Bodh Gaya, which has since been restored on nLrmcrous occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha was formalized in his assumption of the title "King of Magadha," an appellation possibly chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside of the Indic regions and thus such a titlc was perhapsusefulin the forrnulations ofhis "foreign his policy," especially relationswith the emperor
or t -ntna-

lf:.

ls sug-

l-::acteristic

BUDDHIST Ant tN rur

Elst

sic, artistic, me the halloch regional

The Magadha region had remained a stronghold of both Buddhism and Jainism virtually since the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira, regardlessof political situations in the region. oI ln the case Buddhism,the region was materi-

ally helped by Buddhistsfiom other parts of Asia, and Asia, such as China and Southeast not dependent thus the Buddhistholy land was solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to maintain itself. During the Gupta period and

THX GUPTA AFTERMATH 22' variations have been identifiable in South Asia virtually from the earliest human remarns known, the unity of the political state under the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an apparent overlay of commonaliry that was quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This was particularly true after the decline of the imperial Guptas in the eastern and western extremesofthe empire, where different branches of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously after the death of Budhagupta, and clearly defined artistic schoolsquickly emerged.

EAsTIRN INDIA

:, Madhya rturl'. Beige

rre rs sugaracteristic

The Gupta enpire reached as far east as what are today the Indian statesof Bihar ard Wesr Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar, which includes the ancient Masadha heartland ofthe Buddhist and Jain religioni, had long been important in the mainstream of Indic artistic and historical developments.But Bengal, further to the east, emerged as a force on the political and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought into the Gupta sphere prirnarily by Budhagupta during the fifth century. After the cessation of strong imperial control by the Guptas in the east, there was a scramble for power among numerous comPeting dynasts, many of whose only apparent claim to fame is the presence of tleir names in the lists of dynastiesin ancient history books. The situation became clearer during the seventh century 'when two notable rulers emerged, Sa5anka, who is reputed to be the first king of Bengal, and Harsa (r. 6o6647), of the Vardhana farnily, who established hegernony over much of northern India including parts of present day Uttar Pradesh, the easten Pafrj-b, and western Bihar. These early seventh-centuryrulers are known more through literary and historical sourcesthan through art, however, and much legend surrounds their rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose travels throughout Buddhist India coincided with the period of Harsa's rule, and whose

travel account4 is a main source of historical information for the period, asserted that Sa6anka was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism, and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist himself. While Harsa's capital was at Kanauj, in what is now ljttar Pradesh,his influence in eastemIndia, espcciallyMagadha, seemsro have been significant. Although archaeological evidence has not verified Harga'sputative association with the artistic developmentsat numeroLts sires. in parricular Buddhist monasteries. in Magadha during his reign, it is probable that the developments thar occurred were in some ways indebted to his tolerance and encouragement. Sasairka is also credited with artistic activities, as he is said to have founded the Lingaraja temple in Orissa, but he is also blan.red for the destruction of some Buddhist remains such as the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya, which has since been restored orr numerous occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha was formalized in his assumption of the title "King of Magadha," an appellation possibly chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside of the Indic regions and thus such a title was perhapsusefulin the formulations ofhis "foreign policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor or \-nlne.

Buorltlst

AxT rN rnr East

rc, altlsttc, e the hall:h regional

The Magadha region had remained a stronghold of both Bu.{j'lhism and Jainism virtually since the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira, regardlessof political situations in the region. In the caseof Buddhisn, the reqion was maten-

ally helped by Buddhistsfrom other parts of Asia, such as China and Sorrtheasr Aiia, and thus the Buddhistholy land was not dependent solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to maintain itself. During the Gupta period and

224

DYNAS'fIIS OF THE MIDDI I IEITIOD

colsistins of a sqlrarc plinth rvith a rocky lanclscapedesign surmountcd by a round lotus into which the figurc is set, rnuch as if it wcrc a netal image placed iuto a base.Elegaut, monunental, and finely carved, this image docuneuts a little ltnolvt pcriocl of Indic art ticd to norMagaclhan sourccs but clcarly of local manufactnrc, as indicated by the grey black stone out of rvhich it is carved. One of the nlost rcnorrncd Bucldhist insritutions in eastcrn India aftcr thc Gtpta pcriod \r'as the rnonastic univcrsity of Nalanda. A number of modcrn villagcs prcscndy occupy 'I tirc cxtcnsivc arca of the ancicrt site, and only a smali portion of thc once hugc monastery has bcen revealecl cxcavation. Ancient Budby dhist tr:rclitior-rs known lron eariy canonical rexts refer to Nalanda es a suburb of Rajgir ancl it is like1yth:rt thc sitc, rvhich was not historically associatccl rvith an cvcnt in the life of Sakyamuni Buddha, r'as not promincnt rrntil the Gupta ro fl:rnking entrancc MahtbodhiteIrrple. period, although it was apparently founded rr.3. Buddha, Black Bodh Gayt, Bilur, Indie.Ca. sevelthccrrrurv. carlicr. stone. ca,rJocrn. H: Thc Nalancll cstablishurentis rlost properly .i r r r l r , r l . r r i d l , airl n r a ( g t c , t ra i l r a r n ) . n c c i r w a . Although aD aqgregxtion of scverll n-ronastcrics. may bc latcr, ancicnt holy places such asBodh Gaya 'r''ere for prcccclcr.rts this typc of cstablishr.rrcnt refurbished or maintained and ner,v oncs were ofthc Iksr'tku remaitrs,in Bactrofound in sor-nc founded. By thc Pala pcriod, bcginning in the Glnclhera and other areas, it is not until dre 4.o., so m:r1ry lludclliistcstablish- Gtrpta pcriod t)nt nnlndharas, rvhich oftcn eighth ccntr.rry ments or tiharas dottctl drc rcgion that its c : r r r c r o b . ' c . . r r o I J t , ' r r l e . , r r r ig . ' r r Cl r L , c r . ' l tclls n-roclcm nlrnc, Bihar, is a rnclnory of that schol;rrsl-rip, beclrDcthc norm. Hsiien-tsang of tlrc fonnrling.ofthis nalfirilnra.i Supposcdly, phcnonrcnon. e king nrmcrl Sekraditya, u,ho hes bccn iclcnMost of thc sculpturc thrt nr.lst hAvc bccn I tificcl :rs KLuraregupt.L (cx. +rS-+ss), laid the procluced in the sixth end sevcnth ccnturics hxs terrl cotta rvcrc lounchtions lncl built a nlonastery thcrc. Tliis been lost; possibly,stucco:inc1 trrveling il drc is supportedin that Fa-hsien, co1l1ll1or1ly used but rvere sir-r-Lp1y strong not carly fitth ccntury, onlv mcntions thc place :rs cllough to sulvive the centurics :l11c1 periodic thc birthplecc of Sariputra, tht' clisciplc of clcstmctiolls the r'egion sullcr'cd. Hou'cvc-r, an Sdkyamuni lluclclha.and rclers to a rttipa there.6 image of a strncling Uuddhe in abhoya nudrc flrnkirlg thc cnt|ncc to thc Mahaboclhi That grcatcr rloticc is not given by Fa-irsien prcsently the sugccsts that indeecl eror,vthofthis monastcry ar Ilodh Caya sLrggests somcthing of ten.rplc .,r p p c . r r . L r rL , J t l p i c , . l " t l p r . t r c r t t . r d c occurrecl in thc l.lter Gupta pcriocl and aftcr. rr 111. Horvcvcr, since Fa-hsicu's clcscriptionsare freaftcr thc (inpta period, pcrlnps in thc scvcnth skctchy,tlis cal]rot bc takc[ as a ru]c. qrrerrtly cennrry (Fig. rr.j). The debt to Sarnathidioms - t , . r ( . d ( \( d I n . T - r .. | . . . c T , t l Hsiiln-tseng'sstorv rcvclls that aftcr the kinq . r h c , r . , n c c' r r db ^ d ) 1 ' p c . , , r r , l . r . t l r c r r L . r r l y Sakradityr, othcrs (some of r'honr are not knowr in othcr historical clocuments)sr,rches invisiblc clrapcry and snriling facc. Thc figute Buclhagnptn, T.thagrt., I3alaclitye, Vrjr,i, and a stands on an u[r]sLiel tlrlcc-rliruensionalpcdcstal

-'tr

c
=! _l

I I

THE GUPTA AFTMMATH

22J

rockt landC iotus into f it s.-ere a pnt. monuiocuments ied to nonocal manublack stone hirr institurpa period
\alanda,1!

dr- occupy e- and only monastery rcient Budr canonical 'Ralgir and hisrorically Sakvamuni rhe Gupta v founded sr properly ince it was i Although enr may be . in Bactro,{ until the 'hich often ard liberal r-rsang tells iupposedly, been idenr. _; laid the rhere. This Iinq in the he place as iisciple of trga there.6 rv ra-nslen i fronastery :nJ after. ,n: are fren :-. a rule. :r rhe king t :re not Lt' such as ei:.:.. and a

king of central India extended their patronage to the site. According to Hsiian-tsang, Budhagupta built a monastery to the south of the first one; Tathagata erected one to rhe.easr of Budhagupta's; Baladirya erected a three-storied pavilion; and Vajra construcreda monastery to the west of that of Baladitya. Thus, according to tradition, within a span of about one cenrury, at least five monastic units had been built. The king of central India later erected a high wall and gate around the earlier structures,and thus the site becarne a truly unified aggregate. However, if Nalanda was patronized by the GupJas,it was brought to prominence during the reign of Harsa. Hsiian-tsangdescribes in life the monastery during this period, saying that rules were strictly obeyed and that rebellion simply never occurred. Strict policies of admission were followed and prospective students were screened before entering the monastery

by gatekeepers honorific position for highly (an learnedmonls). The most dominant structure at Nalandt today is the one designatedas Stupa/Temple 3 at the southem end of the complex (Fig. ri.4). This monument is the product of several dill ferent phascsof ionstruction. At the core is a sr,l.all stipa with a square base mcasurrng r73 centimeters on each side and a height of r37 cenrimeters. dare is not known, nor is it Tts known to whom it is dedicated,since no relic was found within, but it hasbeen suggested, due to the obvious care and expense lavished on this monument, that it rcpresents the caitya of Sariputra over which A6oka is reputed to have built a temple, Three more rather modest enlargementswere made to this core, but in the creation of the 6fth shell, the structure took on a ncw appearancc and form, Large in sizc. and having four corner towers, this layer was

rr.4. Stnpa/ Temple 3. Nalanda, Bihar, tndia. Ca. late sixth,early seventhcentr,rry, Brick and stucco,

?26

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE

PERIOD

rr.J. Figureson Stdpa / Temple 3. Nilande, Bihar, India. Ca. late sixth--early seventh century. Stucco.

!1_:Jer

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'Es. :

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lavislrly decorated with stucco architectural mouldings and niches containing figures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas (Fig. rr.5). Bricks with Buddhist inscriptions used in this phase are believed to date from the late sixth or early seventh century, around the time of Harga's reign or slightly earlier, on the basis of paleography. In style, the sculptures also fit this attribution, for while they still strongly relateto Gupta material from sitessuch as Sarnathin the slender,gracefully posed figures, their clinging, near transparent drapery, and the style of their costumes, the slendemessis perhaps greater than that seen at Samath. This is visible in the very thin faces especially, wbich anticipate the sryle to be seen in subsequentsculpture at Nalanda. This core, revealed by archaeologists, was not the latest addition to this monument, for two more layers were added, posibly not long after the fifth. Stucco, like terra cotta, n r highly frrgile medium. lts nse. as tllat of brick, was popularized during the Gupta period, both in the eastern and western outreachesof the former Gupta empire, possibly as an ecoThe populariry oF stucco may nomic measure. be relatcd to Inner Asian practicesthat grew up where stone was scarce.However, its adoPtion at Nelanda and other sites in Magadha where

shors , rng inr AtM archire the sir

t
rr.6. Buddha. From Sultengeflj, Bihar, India. Ca. seventh century. Metal. H: ca. zoo cm. Birrningham Museurn and Art Gal-

fl
.eveoth PaBla -\ll

{.. rr--- Ka

THE GUpTA AETERMAT]J 227

npa / Temple '. lndi:. Ca. 'enrh century.

stone was abundant nust have been due to other considerations. Metal must have also been a popular artistic medium in eastern India, although it too is barely representedamong the known exarnples of post-Gupta art. However, an extraordinary image of a Buddha from Sultanganj in eastern Bihar indicatesthat not only was metal technology an advanced sciencein ancient India, but that craftsmen were able to use it to advantage (Fig. rr.6). The image, which is larger than

human-size and weighs more than a ton, was found during railway excavationsin the nineteenth century. Undoubtedly, it was not a unique creation and others of similar ambitiousness must have existed, but since metal corrodes and can be melted down and reused for other purposes, many of the rrnages presumed to have been produced have been lost. Stylistically, the figure strongly relates to the Nalanda stuccos and a seventh-century date may be suggested its production. for

HrNou Anr rN rnr last

In spiteof the fact that Magadha wasprimarily controversial inscription from Mu4de$ari gives Buddhist, otherportions the easrcrn of regions the year thirry of an unspecified era,? often show evidence that Hindu worshipwas becom- thought to be the Harsa era, which began in ing increasingly popularin post-Gupta pedods. A.D.606, thus giving a date equivalent to 636; At Mundefuari Hill in Bihar, for example, and it is possiblethat some ofthe artistic producarchirecrura] sculptural and remains srrggest that tions found at Mundeivari date from this period. the site was an important Hindu center, A An image of Karttikeya (Fig. rl.7) and another

529,

GJ-

rr.7. Kartrikeya. Fron Mundeivan, Bihar, India. Ca. seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H: 68.5 cm. PatnaMuseurn,Petna.

rr.8. Surya. Frorn Mun{e(varr. Bihar. India. Ca. seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H:48,5 cm. Patna Museum, Paha,

226

DYNASTITS OF THE MIDDLE

PERIOD

of Surya (Fig. r r.8) from the vicinity of Munde6vari demonstrate the stylistic idiom of the severth century. These Hindu figures reveal sorneof the graceand delicacy of Sameth Gupta imagery, although the figurcs are nlore stocky and short in their proportions and perhapsrnore accentulredrn rheir posture.. In stylc. rhcy rcveal associations n.rorewith north-central Indian Gupta modes, sccn,for cxample, at Eran and other sites, rathcr than the Buddhist Sarnath idcal. A t A p s a d h . l ' o i n B i l r a r .a n i n s c r i p t i o tw a s a r found that tells of a king Adityasena of the Later Gupta dynasty who is tl.rotght to havc ruled in the third quarter of the seventhcentury, around a.r. 672. A lengthy genealogy of this family, which is also knowl as tlle Guptx line of Magadha but whose relationship to the imperial Guptas is unclear, is included, and the inscription further records the building of a Visnu temple by Adityasena, the erection of a rcligious college or r.nonastery by his mother, and the excavation of a tank by his wife.8 Although no trace of the religious college or tank have been identified in modern times, it is believed that thc large mound at the site i s t h e r e m . r i r r 'o [ A d i r y e . e n a . t e r n p l e .T h c mound has not been fuily excav?ted but one side has been cleared to reveal a nurnber of fine stucco sculpturesthat have becn idcntified as scenes from the great Hindu epic, the Rarrayana (Fig. rr.9). The san.rcfrcc stylc sccn in Gupta-pcriod tcrra cottas such as those frotr Ahicchattra is present here, and nust bc in sorDe part dlre to the rralleable natruc of thc materill. A numbcr of stonc sculptures have al,o bccn rccoverc.rfronr Ap.rdlr tlrat. for thc nost part, sccrn to datc fror-n thc period of Adity"sena as well. Oue of the most bcautiful of thcsc is a standing male figure, presumably Visnu, carved of the local black stone typically usedin the sculpture ofthis rcgion (Fig. rr.ro).e The refinenent and delicacy of thc dctaiiing and the gentle colrntenanceof thc god owc a clear dcbt to Gupta art, but thc incrcascclomadegree of softnessand mcntatioll, and lessened f l r r i d i t yi n t l r c r r . r n s i r i o bre t r r e e r r h c p a r t . o f r thc body sLrggest departure froln the earlier a idiorr.

.g. Ranaya'la scene.Apsedh,Biher, India. Ca. third quarter seventhcentury, Stucco.H: 96 cm,

rr.ro. Vittu. From Apsaclh,Bih.r, India. Ca. third quater seventhcentury. Black stonc. H: 9r.J clll. Mrs. John D. Rockefellcr3rd Collcction.

THE GUPTA AFTXRMATH

229

'Wtsrrnx

IltoIlt't DlvrropurNts rather stark and plain. Further, the use of large, heavy blocks of stone in the construction of the temple, often also seenasan "early" element refecting associations with Gupta temple architecture, seems this caseto be a regional form, in since later ternples as well maintain this type of construction. It is not known to whom the temple was originally dedicated, as no image was found in the shrine and most ofthc extcrior decoration is lost. Originally, thts sandhara shrine was enclosed a circumambulatory pasby sage, as was the "P-rvati" temple at NachnaKuthara, although, like that of the earlier temple, this enclosureis now in rurns. The Maitraka dynasty, which may have been ruling SauresFa the time the Gop tcmple was at built, forms a puzz\ng chapter in the history of South Asian art. One of the most durable ofthe new statesthat arose upon the ruin of the imperial Guptas, the Maitrakas seem to have been established the late fifth century (their earliest by presently known land grant is dated to around Jo2). Yet, in spite ofa rule ofover two hundred and {ifty years, little is known about the art of this dynasty. Over one hundred temples in Saura;ga have been identified as bclonging to the Maitraka period, although none can be specifically tied to the patronage of the rulers themselvesand none is datableon the basisofinscriptional evidence. This pcculiarity is especially notable becausethe Maitrakas in general left extensive epigraphic records, many of which describe their generosity to and patronage of religious establishnents. By all standards, the rulers must have been wealthy, since Valabhi, the now-ruined Maitraka capital, was at that time a seaport and a major tradc center linking ancientIndia with the Persianand Mediterranean worlds. Recordsdating from between about J3J and 7oo document donationsmade by individuals to specifically nan.red Buddhist establishments.ll Hsiian-tsang, who travelled to Valabhi in 64o, spoke of the flourishing of Buddhism in the area.lz And yet, virtually nothing has been recoveredfiom Valabhi and its vicinity to testify to its former glory. I-tsing, another Chinese traveler, who visited India during the Maitraka

lia. Ca- third

D.

ta. Ca. third 9r.5 crn. Mrs.

Certain artistic developments in the western regions of ancient India that arosein the wake of the decline of the imperial Guptas provide important insights into the earlier history of the region, especially the heritage of Western classicistic syles. Probably the oldest surviving structural temple in the Sauraspra peninsula of Gujarat state is the so-called Old Temple at cop (Fig. rr.ii), which is thought to have been built between 575 and 6oo, when this region was under the sway of the Maitraka dynasty. Its form and style, while unusual in terms of the mainstream developments in northem temple architecture(nagara). an inreresting is episode in the development of westem Indic styles, deriving both fiom earlier traditions in the west, as well as from Gupta modes. Relationships between the Gop tenple and later Ka6miri forms, as well as earlier BactroGandhara architecture, have been observed by scholars,and the temple is usually classi{iedas belonging ro the "Candheric" type since it preserves number of elementsfiom the northa westem tradition of the Kusana period. One of these is the so-called "penthouse-type" roof (actually a pyramidal roof rising from a square base), known as the phathsanatype. This forn is laterro bc seen in Kairnrr, suggesring an early widespread dispersalof the convention-10 The temple at Gop sits atop a high terrace (jogati) that ts squarein plan except for a projection on the east (Fig. rr.rz). Originally, steps at either side of the extensionwould have given the devotee access the templc. The increased to plinth height, in comparison, for exanple, with the Visnu temple at Deogarh and the "Parvati" temple at Nechn5-Kuthara, anticipates later developments in northem temple architecture. The bold form of three false dornlcr windows (cadraiala) decorateseach slope of the peaked roof, creating a dominant motif on the monument. In general, relative simplicity prevails, perhaps indicating the early date of the temple, although in this casecaution should be exercised in making such a judgment, as numerous later templs in this region are also

rr.r2. PhD of Old T.nrpic. Gop, GLUar.t, Lrdi:r.Mritrrka pcriod.

THE GUPTA AFTTRMATH

2'T

supremacy (although he did not visit Valabhr), mcntions that the two pron-rinent centers of learning in India at the time (lateseventhcentury) were Nalanda in the east and Valabhi in the west,13 Thus, an important chapter in the development of Indic art as known Gom historical sourcesis a virtua] blanl<to us. A good portion of the materials must have been plundered, for the collapse of the Maitraka enlprrc was accelerated by a marine invasion of Arabs from Sind, and this was only a prelude to the largcscaleadvent of Muslims whose iconoclastic zeal is well known as onc of the contributing causes of the decline and destruction of nonumental art in northern India. But undoubtedly, future discoveries will help us to better understand this important phaseoflndic art. The distinctiveregionalcharacterofart in western India and the merging of the earlier BactroGandhara inlluence with north-central Indian Gupta modes is visible in sculptureand architecture alike. A number of sites in Rajasthanand northem Gujarat have yielded interesring sculptural remains, usually carved of the distinctive greenishblue or greyish blue schistIocally known ^s pireua stone. SeveralGmalc figures found at Tanesara-Mahadeva, about fi fty kilometers from Udaipur, reveal aspectsof thc style that was apparently current throughout southwestern Rajasthanafter the Gupta period, in around the sixth century. Although they are usually identifrcd as matykas and have been presuned to have been part of a sapta,flabl<a group, they may insteadrepresentthe six &rrrl&as foster mothers or of Karttikeya, also called the Skandamatas (Mothers of Skanda).ra Supposedly,Karttikeya's six faces developed so that he could drinl the milk of the six mothers, who comprise the constellation Pleiades.lsIn style, the figures betray a Hellenistic flavor combined with the Gupta heritage. The depiction of one Skandamata,for example(Fig. r r. r3), shows a rather solidly built, almost muscular looking female reminiscent of Ku954a and post-Kus-na portrayals of won.ren from the northwest. The drapery is highly rr.rJ. Skandam:ta. From Tanesara-Mahadeva. R:_ naturalistic,with heavy, three-dimensionalfolds jasthan, India. Ca. sixth century. Greenishblue schist. that recall Bactro-Gandhara types, as does H:76.4 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the curly hair. The child al.o ha, a Hellenized Los Angeles (Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection).

2J2

DYNASTIESOl: THr MIDDIE PERIOD

rr.r4. Sxivite kst,dpald.Ftot.lrSa rxl:ji, Gujartr, India' Ca. secondquarter sixth ccntury. Grey schist H: 93 J cln. Princeof WalesMuseurnof WcsternIndia, Bon1bsy'

tcDAt rr.rJ. Vilnu VlavartPa. Nilaka4lhaMahadcva ple. Samalaji,Grjarat, India. Ce. sccondquartcr sixrh centurl'. Blue-grcy schist.H: ror.6 cn.

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appearance,undoubtedly based on crotes and oiher .hild depictions that had been freely incorporated into the western Asiatic rePertore' Yci clearly, these forms, lvhile indebted to Bactro-Gaudhara precedcnts, reveal the grace, chanr.r,and delicacy of the Gupta tradition, as doesthe dcpiction of the clinging.garments' At Samalaji in Gujarat, a nutnber of impressive stone sculpturcs wcre found- T}Leir datc and patronagc remain controvcrsial However, "they seem to bclong to thc sixth stylisticaily, ..lrarry, ,ttort probably thc second quarter of pcrhaPsrePresentthat century. A Saivite in.rage rrtg a ksetrapalo(r kind of Protective deity)

shows thc rem:rrkably high quality ofcraftsrnanship of the westernIndian sculPtor(Fig. rr.r4). Thi hcavy drapery, like that of thc figurcs from Tarcsara-Mahadcva, revcals a classicisticheritage, but thc delicatecarving and graceful forlns d e r i v c f r o r n t l r e C u p t a r r . r d i r i o nl.h c ' t r o n g rclationship of this {igurc and other sir.niiaroncs to cxanplcs frorn the Mandasor region (Fig s r t . . z )' r r g g e , tb r o . ' d t r r t . t i c t i c ' . r r l t o n g i r c ' i n regions.Howevcr, and northr,vcstcrn thc rl,'estern {igure is even more exagthe posc of the rnair-r gerltcd and thc entire configuration more orn'lte t r . r l ' . r r r h c M r n d : r o r . c t r l p t t r r cs e c t t i i n go a n r i cipate more fully d.re stylistic directions of the

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THE GUPTA AFTERMATH 2,' r'elief in the center), Brahma (beneath him), auata$ and tyuhas ol yisnu. himself, and India and Surya.r6As Viivarupa (Having All Forms), Visnu appears as the Universal in whom ail things are embodied and from whom all thines emanate.This form of Vi5nu, while known in a number of Hhdu texts, is describedperhaos mosr poignantly in the Bhagavad Glr;, a woik appended to,rhe Mahabharai, which is basically a dialogue berween Arjuna and hjs charioteei. who is none other rhan Visnu in his Krsna in_ carnation.The dialoguerakesplaceon the eve of rhe great battie of Kuruk5eria, when Arjuna is overcome wirh doubt about rhe righteouiness of the.killing that will occur the ne"xrday and begins ro-questionKrsna. In response Arjrrna.. to request that he reveal himself Krsga manifests himself in a forrn that embodies every asoectof the universe, and rhus fills Arjuna with awe. All various coiors. alJ moving ind unmoving trungs,many mouths.eyes, ornaments. weapons. marvelous garlands,garments, perfumes, and olntments are contained within Arjuna,s visionWhile such a vision would be impossible to porrray in a work of arr, the ard;rs of this carving. have clearly attenpted to suggest the multiplicity inherent in it. The stvli-of the figures, though somewhat dificult io discern. fall: wthm rhe definitionsof the sixrh-cenrury school at SamalaiiThe -regional styles developing rr vanous parts of westem India following the breakup of the Gupra empire were _highJ/dependenroi wnat must have been earlier artistic traditions irr each locale. Thus, while some general .,post_ Gupta" featuresmight be common to works of art produced *noughourthe region, Iocal peculi_ an esare atsolound. and these turn form the in basis the highJy distilcrive sryles*ut emerged for rn- arouncl. the seventh century. A huge stele (Fig. rr.16) found at parel in the Bomb--ay area migk appearat first glanceto relare stron;ly to the Viivarupa image from Samalaji (fig. ilr5), but this is largely due to the coincidence of their emanarory iconographies a:rd the general similarities arising from rhe lact rhat bJrh are western Indian works ofabout the sixth centurvThe Parel stele,however, finds its closeststylistic counterparrs in the caves at Elephanta lFigs.

l:hadeva temquafter sixth

rr.16. Stele. Ar Baredeviche Deul. parel (Bombay), Maharasfra, Irdia. Ca. frst half sixth cenrury. Stone. H: 348 cm.

,f craftsman(Fig. rr.r4). tgures from icistic herirceful forms The strong siadlar ones region (Fig. ong sites in s. However, more exagrDoreomate ing to antitions of the

next centuries,particularly those to be seen in the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Thus, the Samalaji sculpture rnay be slightly later, and may have been made as late as around a.u. 55o. The trend towards increased elaboration is even clearer in a representation of Visnu Vijv_arBpa.also from Semaldji, which probably dates from around the same rime (Fig-. rr.r5j. Xight-armed and four-faced (the fourth implied at the rear), Vis4u sits atop the serpentAn-nta, wears an elaborate crown, and is accompanied by a seemingmuJtirudeoffigures, most ofwhom seem to emanate from his head. These fisures inclode the ayudhapttrr^, SiV" (.t th" top of th"

2)4

D Y N A \ T I L \ O I T H T M I D D IL P I R I O D

rr.r7. Dratupald. Ltkharlrandal, Uftar pradcsh, India. Ca. sixth or seventhcentury. Illack stone.H: r78 cm.

r r . r 8 . B r a h r ) a . F r o r l B r a h m a n a b a d ,p a k i s t a n . C a . s i x t h ccntury. Mfial. H: 96.5 cnr. National Muscum, Karachi.

THX GUPTA AFTERMATH

2'J

r3.J-8) and related sires, indicating a regional style probably current around the Bombay area during the first half of the sixth century. In general, this style reflects the rather heavy, fullfigured body type prevalent in the sculptural stylesthat evolved in the westem Deccan "iound the fifth century, as at Aja+Ia, and contrasts with the figure types developed in Gr{arat and Rajasthan identifiable in. the images from Tanesar-Mahadeva and Samalali. ih" t igh hcaddressesand elaborate coiffures are also characteristicof this style. The identification of the subjectofthis reliefis controversial,although most authorities agree that it is Saivite rather than Vaig4avite. The three cntral figurcs apparenrlyreprescnt manifesrations er)raflations or of the main diviniry.lT lvidence of Gupta aesthetics affecting art production in outlying regions is found in a life+ize, black stone irnage of a duirapala, one ofa pair,18found at Lakhrmandal in the Siwalik Range (LesserHimalaya$ in the far north of India (Fig. rr.i7). Although the rmages are of uncertain age, the delicate forms, graceful poses,and diaphanousdrapery betray the penetration of the Gupta ideal into what rnay have been an isolated pocket of the Indic regions. A date of the sixth or posibly seventh century may be suggestedfor the figures, which are virtually identical, each showing a standing male dressed a finely delineateJ//rori, with I in simple necklaceand ornate crown. The articulation of the knee, the treatment and pose of the body. end the unu.ual rype of qarmint do nor find prrrlJelsin other styicsof ;dic arr ofposr Gupta ages, but instead, find ties with Cambodian sculpturesof the early seventhcentury.te As in easternIndia and Bangladesh,a number of metal images from the weit provide further evidence of sculptural idioms and indicate the supposedpopularity of meml as a medium, in spite of the paucity of remains. A very large statue of Brahma2o(Fig. rr.r8) found at Brah-

rr.r9. Tithaikara.Ftom Vasantagadh, Rajastban, Irdia.

Year 744 Vikrama era (A.D.687). Mcral; grass eyesand eye _paint added lacer. H: r37 cn. In Jain temple at Pi4davad., Rajasrhan, India.