350 BC RHETORIC by Aristotle translated by W. Rhys Roberts Book I 1 RHETORIC the co nter!art o" #ialectic.

Both alike are concerned $ith s ch thin%s as co&e' &ore or less' $ithin the %eneral ken o" all &en and belon% to no de"inite science. Accordin%ly all &en &ake se' &ore or less' o" both( "or to a certain e)tent all &en atte&!t to disc ss state&ents and to &aintain the&' to de"end the&sel*es and to attack others. Ordinary !eo!le do this either at rando& or thro %h !ractice and "ro& ac+ ired habit. Both $ays bein% !ossible' the s b,ect can !lainly be handled syste&atically' "or it is !ossible to in+ ire the reason $hy so&e s!eakers s cceed thro %h !ractice and others s!ontaneo sly( and e*ery one $ill at once a%ree that s ch an in+ iry is the " nction o" an art. -o$' the "ra&ers o" the c rrent treatises on rhetoric ha*e constr cted b t a s&all !ortion o" that art. The &odes o" !ers asion are the only tr e constit ents o" the art. e*erythin% else is &erely accessory. These $riters' ho$e*er' say nothin% abo t enthy&e&es' $hich are the s bstance o" rhetorical !ers asion' b t deal &ainly $ith non/essentials. The aro sin% o" !re, dice' !ity' an%er' and si&ilar e&otions has nothin% to do $ith the essential "acts' b t is &erely a !ersonal a!!eal to the &an $ho is , d%in% the case. Conse+ ently i" the r les "or trials $hich are no$ laid do$n so&e states/es!ecially in $ell/%o*erned states/$ere a!!lied e*ery$here' s ch !eo!le $o ld ha*e nothin% to say. All &en' no do bt' think that the la$s sho ld !rescribe s ch r les' b t so&e' as in the co rt o" Areo!a% s' %i*e !ractical e""ect to their tho %hts and "orbid talk abo t non/essentials. This is so nd la$ and c sto&. It is not ri%ht to !er*ert the , d%e by &o*in% hi& to an%er or en*y or !ity/one &i%ht as $ell $ar! a car!enter0s r le be"ore sin% it. A%ain' a liti%ant has clearly nothin% to do b t to sho$ that the alle%ed "act is so or is not so' that it has or has not ha!!ened. As to $hether a thin% is i&!ortant or ni&!ortant' , st or n, st' the , d%e & st s rely re" se to take his instr ctions "ro& the liti%ants. he & st decide "or hi&sel" all s ch !oints as the la$/%i*er has not already de"ined "or hi&. -o$' it is o" %reat &o&ent that $ell/dra$n la$s sho ld the&sel*es de"ine all the !oints they !ossibly can and lea*e as "e$ as &ay be to the decision o" the , d%es( and this "or se*eral reasons. 1irst' to "ind one &an' or a "e$ &en' $ho are sensible !ersons and ca!able o" le%islatin% and ad&inisterin% , stice is easier than to "ind a lar%e n &ber. -e)t' la$s are &ade a"ter lon% consideration' $hereas decisions in the co rts are %i*en at short notice' $hich &akes it hard "or those $ho try the case to satis"y the clai&s o" , stice and e)!ediency. The $ei%htiest reason o" all is that the decision o" the la$%i*er is not !artic lar b t !ros!ecti*e and %eneral' $hereas &e&bers o" the asse&bly and the , ry "ind it their d ty to decide on de"inite cases bro %ht be"ore the&. They $ill o"ten ha*e allo$ed the&sel*es to be so & ch in"l enced by "eelin%s o" "riendshi! or hatred or sel"/interest that they lose any clear *ision o" the tr th and ha*e their , d%e&ent obsc red by considerations o" !ersonal !leas re or !ain. In %eneral' then' the , d%e sho ld' $e say' be allo$ed to decide as "e$ thin%s as !ossible. B t + estions as to $hether so&ethin% has ha!!ened or has not ha!!ened' $ill be or $ill not be' is or is not' & st o" necessity be le"t to the , d%e' since the la$%i*er cannot "oresee the&. I" this is so' it is e*ident that any one $ho lays do$n r les abo t other &atters' s ch as $hat & st

be the contents o" the 0introd ction0 or the 0narration0 or any o" the other di*isions o" a s!eech' is theori2in% abo t non/essentials as i" they belon%ed to the art. The only + estion $ith $hich these $riters here deal is ho$ to ! t the , d%e into a %i*en "ra&e o" &ind. Abo t the orator0s !ro!er &odes o" !ers asion they ha*e nothin% to tell s( nothin%' that is' abo t ho$ to %ain skill in enthy&e&es. Hence it co&es that' altho %h the sa&e syste&atic !rinci!les a!!ly to !olitical as to "orensic oratory' and altho %h the "or&er is a nobler b siness' and "itter "or a citi2en' than that $hich concerns the relations o" !ri*ate indi*id als' these a thors say nothin% abo t !olitical oratory' b t try' one and all' to $rite treatises on the $ay to !lead in co rt. The reason "or this is that in !olitical oratory there is less ind ce&ent to talk abo t nonessentials. 3olitical oratory is less %i*en to nscr ! lo s !ractices than "orensic' beca se it treats o" $ider iss es. In a !olitical debate the &an $ho is "or&in% a , d%e&ent is &akin% a decision abo t his o$n *ital interests. There is no need' there"ore' to !ro*e anythin% e)ce!t that the "acts are $hat the s !!orter o" a &eas re &aintains they are. In "orensic oratory this is not eno %h( to conciliate the listener is $hat !ays here. It is other !eo!le0s a""airs that are to be decided' so that the , d%es' intent on their o$n satis"action and listenin% $ith !artiality' s rrender the&sel*es to the dis! tants instead o" , d%in% bet$een the&. Hence in &any !laces' as $e ha*e said already' irrele*ant s!eakin% is "orbidden in the la$/co rts. in the ! blic asse&bly those $ho ha*e to "or& a , d%e&ent are the&sel*es $ell able to % ard a%ainst that. It is clear' then' that rhetorical st dy' in its strict sense' is concerned $ith the &odes o" !ers asion. 3ers asion is clearly a sort o" de&onstration' since $e are &ost " lly !ers aded $hen $e consider a thin% to ha*e been de&onstrated. The orator0s de&onstration is an enthy&e&e' and this is' in %eneral' the &ost e""ecti*e o" the &odes o" !ers asion. The enthy&e&e is a sort o" syllo%is&' and the consideration o" syllo%is&s o" all kinds' $itho t distinction' is the b siness o" dialectic' either o" dialectic as a $hole or o" one o" its branches. It "ollo$s !lainly' there"ore' that he $ho is best able to see ho$ and "ro& $hat ele&ents a syllo%is& is !rod ced $ill also be best skilled in the enthy&e&e' $hen he has " rther learnt $hat its s b,ect/&atter is and in $hat res!ects it di""ers "ro& the syllo%is& o" strict lo%ic. The tr e and the a!!ro)i&ately tr e are a!!rehended by the sa&e "ac lty( it &ay also be noted that &en ha*e a s ""icient nat ral instinct "or $hat is tr e' and s ally do arri*e at the tr th. Hence the &an $ho &akes a %ood % ess at tr th is likely to &ake a %ood % ess at !robabilities. It has no$ been sho$n that the ordinary $riters on rhetoric treat o" non/essentials( it has also been sho$n $hy they ha*e inclined &ore to$ards the "orensic branch o" oratory. Rhetoric is se" l 415 beca se thin%s that are tr e and thin%s that are , st ha*e a nat ral tendency to !re*ail o*er their o!!osites' so that i" the decisions o" , d%es are not $hat they o %ht to be' the de"eat & st be d e to the s!eakers the&sel*es' and they & st be bla&ed accordin%ly. 6oreo*er' 475 be"ore so&e a diences not e*en the !ossession o" the e)actest kno$led%e $ill &ake it easy "or $hat $e say to !rod ce con*iction. 1or ar% &ent based on kno$led%e i&!lies instr ction' and there are !eo!le $ho& one cannot instr ct. Here' then' $e & st se' as o r &odes o" !ers asion and ar% &ent' notions !ossessed by e*erybody' as $e obser*ed in the To!ics $hen dealin% $ith the $ay to handle a !o! lar a dience. 1 rther' 435 $e & st be able to e&!loy !ers asion' , st as strict reasonin% can be e&!loyed' on o!!osite sides o" a + estion' not in order that $e &ay in !ractice e&!loy it in both $ays 4"or $e & st not &ake !eo!le belie*e $hat is $ron%5' b t in order that $e &ay see clearly $hat the "acts are' and that' i" another &an ar% es n"airly' $e on o r !art &ay be able to con" te hi&. -o other o" the arts dra$s o!!osite concl sions.

dialectic and rhetoric alone do this. Both these arts dra$ o!!osite concl sions i&!artially. -e*ertheless' the nderlyin% "acts do not lend the&sel*es e+ ally $ell to the contrary *ie$s. -o( thin%s that are tr e and thin%s that are better are' by their nat re' !ractically al$ays easier to !ro*e and easier to belie*e in. A%ain' 485 it is abs rd to hold that a &an o %ht to be asha&ed o" bein% nable to de"end hi&sel" $ith his li&bs' b t not o" bein% nable to de"end hi&sel" $ith s!eech and reason' $hen the se o" rational s!eech is &ore distincti*e o" a h &an bein% than the se o" his li&bs. And i" it be ob,ected that one $ho ses s ch !o$er o" s!eech n, stly &i%ht do %reat har&' that is a char%e $hich &ay be &ade in co&&on a%ainst all %ood thin%s e)ce!t *irt e' and abo*e all a%ainst the thin%s that are &ost se" l' as stren%th' health' $ealth' %eneralshi!. A &an can con"er the %reatest o" bene"its by a ri%ht se o" these' and in"lict the %reatest o" in, ries by sin% the& $ron%ly. It is clear' then' that rhetoric is not bo nd ! $ith a sin%le de"inite class o" s b,ects' b t is as ni*ersal as dialectic( it is clear' also' that it is se" l. It is clear' " rther' that its " nction is not si&!ly to s cceed in !ers adin%' b t rather to disco*er the &eans o" co&in% as near s ch s ccess as the circ &stances o" each !artic lar case allo$. In this it rese&bles all other arts. 1or e)a&!le' it is not the " nction o" &edicine si&!ly to &ake a &an + ite healthy' b t to ! t hi& as "ar as &ay be on the road to health( it is !ossible to %i*e e)cellent treat&ent e*en to those $ho can ne*er en,oy so nd health. 1 rther&ore' it is !lain that it is the " nction o" one and the sa&e art to discern the real and the a!!arent &eans o" !ers asion' , st as it is the " nction o" dialectic to discern the real and the a!!arent syllo%is&. What &akes a &an a 0so!hist0 is not his "ac lty' b t his &oral ! r!ose. In rhetoric' ho$e*er' the ter& 0rhetorician0 &ay describe either the s!eaker0s kno$led%e o" the art' or his &oral ! r!ose. In dialectic it is di""erent. a &an is a 0so!hist0 beca se he has a certain kind o" &oral ! r!ose' a 0dialectician0 in res!ect' not o" his &oral ! r!ose' b t o" his "ac lty. 9et s no$ try to %i*e so&e acco nt o" the syste&atic !rinci!les o" Rhetoric itsel"/o" the ri%ht &ethod and &eans o" s cceedin% in the ob,ect $e set be"ore s. We & st &ake as it $ere a "resh start' and be"ore %oin% " rther de"ine $hat rhetoric is. 7 Rhetoric &ay be de"ined as the "ac lty o" obser*in% in any %i*en case the a*ailable &eans o" !ers asion. This is not a " nction o" any other art. E*ery other art can instr ct or !ers ade abo t its o$n !artic lar s b,ect/&atter( "or instance' &edicine abo t $hat is healthy and nhealthy' %eo&etry abo t the !ro!erties o" &a%nit des' arith&etic abo t n &bers' and the sa&e is tr e o" the other arts and sciences. B t rhetoric $e look !on as the !o$er o" obser*in% the &eans o" !ers asion on al&ost any s b,ect !resented to s( and that is $hy $e say that' in its technical character' it is not concerned $ith any s!ecial or de"inite class o" s b,ects. O" the &odes o" !ers asion so&e belon% strictly to the art o" rhetoric and so&e do not. By the latter I &ean s ch thin%s as are not s !!lied by the s!eaker b t are there at the o tset/$itnesses' e*idence %i*en nder tort re' $ritten contracts' and so on. By the "or&er I &ean s ch as $e can o rsel*es constr ct by &eans o" the !rinci!les o" rhetoric. The one kind has &erely to be sed' the other has to be in*ented. O" the &odes o" !ers asion " rnished by the s!oken $ord there are three kinds. The "irst kind de!ends on the !ersonal character o" the s!eaker( the second on ! ttin% the a dience into a certain "ra&e o" &ind( the third on the !roo"' or a!!arent !roo"' !ro*ided by the $ords o" the s!eech itsel". 3ers asion is achie*ed by the s!eaker0s !ersonal character $hen the s!eech is so s!oken as to &ake s think hi&

credible. We belie*e %ood &en &ore " lly and &ore readily than others. this is tr e %enerally $hate*er the + estion is' and absol tely tr e $here e)act certainty is i&!ossible and o!inions are di*ided. This kind o" !ers asion' like the others' sho ld be achie*ed by $hat the s!eaker says' not by $hat !eo!le think o" his character be"ore he be%ins to s!eak. It is not tr e' as so&e $riters ass &e in their treatises on rhetoric' that the !ersonal %oodness re*ealed by the s!eaker contrib tes nothin% to his !o$er o" !ers asion( on the contrary' his character &ay al&ost be called the &ost e""ecti*e &eans o" !ers asion he !ossesses. :econdly' !ers asion &ay co&e thro %h the hearers' $hen the s!eech stirs their e&otions. O r , d%e&ents $hen $e are !leased and "riendly are not the sa&e as $hen $e are !ained and hostile. It is to$ards !rod cin% these e""ects' as $e &aintain' that !resent/day $riters on rhetoric direct the $hole o" their e""orts. This s b,ect shall be treated in detail $hen $e co&e to s!eak o" the e&otions. Thirdly' !ers asion is e""ected thro %h the s!eech itsel" $hen $e ha*e !ro*ed a tr th or an a!!arent tr th by &eans o" the !ers asi*e ar% &ents s itable to the case in + estion. There are' then' these three &eans o" e""ectin% !ers asion. The &an $ho is to be in co&&and o" the& & st' it is clear' be able 415 to reason lo%ically' 475 to nderstand h &an character and %oodness in their *ario s "or&s' and 435 to nderstand the e&otions/that is' to na&e the& and describe the&' to kno$ their ca ses and the $ay in $hich they are e)cited. It th s a!!ears that rhetoric is an o""shoot o" dialectic and also o" ethical st dies. Ethical st dies &ay "airly be called !olitical( and "or this reason rhetoric &as+ erades as !olitical science' and the !ro"essors o" it as !olitical e)!erts/so&eti&es "ro& $ant o" ed cation' so&eti&es "ro& ostentation' so&eti&es o$in% to other h &an "ailin%s. As a &atter o" "act' it is a branch o" dialectic and si&ilar to it' as $e said at the o tset. -either rhetoric nor dialectic is the scienti"ic st dy o" any one se!arate s b,ect. both are "ac lties "or !ro*idin% ar% &ents. This is !erha!s a s ""icient acco nt o" their sco!e and o" ho$ they are related to each other. With re%ard to the !ers asion achie*ed by !roo" or a!!arent !roo". , st as in dialectic there is ind ction on the one hand and syllo%is& or a!!arent syllo%is& on the other' so it is in rhetoric. The e)a&!le is an ind ction' the enthy&e&e is a syllo%is&' and the a!!arent enthy&e&e is an a!!arent syllo%is&. I call the enthy&e&e a rhetorical syllo%is&' and the e)a&!le a rhetorical ind ction. E*ery one $ho e""ects !ers asion thro %h !roo" does in "act se either enthy&e&es or e)a&!les. there is no other $ay. And since e*ery one $ho !ro*es anythin% at all is bo nd to se either syllo%is&s or ind ctions 4and this is clear to s "ro& the Analytics5' it & st "ollo$ that enthy&e&es are syllo%is&s and e)a&!les are ind ctions. The di""erence bet$een e)a&!le and enthy&e&e is &ade !lain by the !assa%es in the To!ics $here ind ction and syllo%is& ha*e already been disc ssed. When $e base the !roo" o" a !ro!osition on a n &ber o" si&ilar cases' this is ind ction in dialectic' e)a&!le in rhetoric( $hen it is sho$n that' certain !ro!ositions bein% tr e' a " rther and + ite distinct !ro!osition & st also be tr e in conse+ ence' $hether in*ariably or s ally' this is called syllo%is& in dialectic' enthy&e&e in rhetoric. It is !lain also that each o" these ty!es o" oratory has its ad*anta%es. Ty!es o" oratory' I say. "or $hat has been said in the 6ethodics a!!lies e+ ally $ell here( in so&e oratorical styles e)a&!les !re*ail' in others enthy&e&es( and in like &anner' so&e orators are better at the "or&er and so&e at the latter. :!eeches that rely on e)a&!les are as !ers asi*e as the other kind' b t those $hich rely on enthy&e&es e)cite the lo der a!!la se. The so rces o" e)a&!les and enthy&e&es' and their !ro!er ses' $e $ill disc ss later. O r ne)t ste! is to de"ine the !rocesses the&sel*es &ore clearly. A state&ent is !ers asi*e and credible either beca se it is directly sel"/e*ident or beca se it a!!ears to be !ro*ed "ro& other

state&ents that are so. In either case it is !ers asi*e beca se there is so&ebody $ho& it !ers ades. B t none o" the arts theori2e abo t indi*id al cases. 6edicine' "or instance' does not theori2e abo t $hat $ill hel! to c re :ocrates or Callias' b t only abo t $hat $ill hel! to c re any or all o" a %i*en class o" !atients. this alone is b siness. indi*id al cases are so in"initely *ario s that no syste&atic kno$led%e o" the& is !ossible. In the sa&e $ay the theory o" rhetoric is concerned not $ith $hat see&s !robable to a %i*en indi*id al like :ocrates or Hi!!ias' b t $ith $hat see&s !robable to &en o" a %i*en ty!e( and this is tr e o" dialectic also. #ialectic does not constr ct its syllo%is&s o t o" any ha!ha2ard &aterials' s ch as the "ancies o" cra2y !eo!le' b t o t o" &aterials that call "or disc ssion( and rhetoric' too' dra$s !on the re% lar s b,ects o" debate. The d ty o" rhetoric is to deal $ith s ch &atters as $e deliberate !on $itho t arts or syste&s to % ide s' in the hearin% o" !ersons $ho cannot take in at a %lance a co&!licated ar% &ent' or "ollo$ a lon% chain o" reasonin%. The s b,ects o" o r deliberation are s ch as see& to !resent s $ith alternati*e !ossibilities. abo t thin%s that co ld not ha*e been' and cannot no$ or in the " t re be' other than they are' nobody $ho takes the& to be o" this nat re $astes his ti&e in deliberation. It is !ossible to "or& syllo%is&s and dra$ concl sions "ro& the res lts o" !re*io s syllo%is&s( or' on the other hand' "ro& !re&isses $hich ha*e not been th s !ro*ed' and at the sa&e ti&e are so little acce!ted that they call "or !roo". Reasonin%s o" the "or&er kind $ill necessarily be hard to "ollo$ o$in% to their len%th' "or $e ass &e an a dience o" ntrained thinkers( those o" the latter kind $ill "ail to $in assent' beca se they are based on !re&isses that are not %enerally ad&itted or belie*ed. The enthy&e&e and the e)a&!le & st' then' deal $ith $hat is in the &ain contin%ent' the e)a&!le bein% an ind ction' and the enthy&e&e a syllo%is&' abo t s ch &atters. The enthy&e&e & st consist o" "e$ !ro!ositions' "e$er o"ten than those $hich &ake ! the nor&al syllo%is&. 1or i" any o" these !ro!ositions is a "a&iliar "act' there is no need e*en to &ention it( the hearer adds it hi&sel". Th s' to sho$ that #orie s has been *ictor in a contest "or $hich the !ri2e is a cro$n' it is eno %h to say 01or he has been *ictor in the Oly&!ic %a&es0' $itho t addin% 0And in the Oly&!ic %a&es the !ri2e is a cro$n0' a "act $hich e*erybody kno$s. There are "e$ "acts o" the 0necessary0 ty!e that can "or& the basis o" rhetorical syllo%is&s. 6ost o" the thin%s abo t $hich $e &ake decisions' and into $hich there"ore $e in+ ire' !resent s $ith alternati*e !ossibilities. 1or it is abo t o r actions that $e deliberate and in+ ire' and all o r actions ha*e a contin%ent character( hardly any o" the& are deter&ined by necessity. A%ain' concl sions that state $hat is &erely s al or !ossible & st be dra$n "ro& !re&isses that do the sa&e' , st as 0necessary0 concl sions & st be dra$n "ro& 0necessary0 !re&isses( this too is clear to s "ro& the Analytics. It is e*ident' there"ore' that the !ro!ositions "or&in% the basis o" enthy&e&es' tho %h so&e o" the& &ay be 0necessary0' $ill &ost o" the& be only s ally tr e. -o$ the &aterials o" enthy&e&es are 3robabilities and :i%ns' $hich $e can see & st corres!ond res!ecti*ely $ith the !ro!ositions that are %enerally and those that are necessarily tr e. A 3robability is a thin% that s ally ha!!ens( not' ho$e*er' as so&e de"initions $o ld s %%est' anythin% $hate*er that s ally ha!!ens' b t only i" it belon%s to the class o" the 0contin%ent0 or 0*ariable0. It bears the sa&e relation to that in res!ect o" $hich it is !robable as the ni*ersal bears to the !artic lar. O" :i%ns' one kind bears the sa&e relation to the state&ent it s !!orts as the !artic lar bears to the ni*ersal' the other the sa&e as the ni*ersal bears to the !artic lar. The in"allible kind is a 0co&!lete !roo"0 4tek&erhio 5( the "allible kind has no s!eci"ic na&e. By in"allible si%ns I &ean those on $hich syllo%is&s !ro!er &ay be based. and this sho$s s $hy this kind o"

:i%n is called 0co&!lete !roo"0. $hen !eo!le think that $hat they ha*e said cannot be re" ted' they then think that they are brin%in% "or$ard a 0co&!lete !roo"0' &eanin% that the &atter has no$ been de&onstrated and co&!leted 4!e!erhas&e o 5( "or the $ord 0!erhas0 has the sa&e &eanin% 4o" 0end0 or 0bo ndary05 as the $ord 0tek&arh0 in the ancient ton% e. -o$ the one kind o" :i%n 4that $hich bears to the !ro!osition it s !!orts the relation o" !artic lar to ni*ersal5 &ay be ill strated th s. : !!ose it $ere said' 0The "act that :ocrates $as $ise and , st is a si%n that the $ise are , st0. Here $e certainly ha*e a :i%n( b t e*en tho %h the !ro!osition be tr e' the ar% &ent is re" table' since it does not "or& a syllo%is&. : !!ose' on the other hand' it $ere said' 0The "act that he has a "e*er is a si%n that he is ill0' or' 0The "act that she is %i*in% &ilk is a si%n that she has lately borne a child0. Here $e ha*e the in"allible kind o" :i%n' the only kind that constit tes a co&!lete !roo"' since it is the only kind that' i" the !artic lar state&ent is tr e' is irre" table. The other kind o" :i%n' that $hich bears to the !ro!osition it s !!orts the relation o" ni*ersal to !artic lar' &i%ht be ill strated by sayin%' 0The "act that he breathes "ast is a si%n that he has a "e*er0. This ar% &ent also is re" table' e*en i" the state&ent abo t the "ast breathin% be tr e' since a &an &ay breathe hard $itho t ha*in% a "e*er. It has' then' been stated abo*e $hat is the nat re o" a 3robability' o" a :i%n' and o" a co&!lete !roo"' and $hat are the di""erences bet$een the&. In the Analytics a &ore e)!licit descri!tion has been %i*en o" these !oints( it is there sho$n $hy so&e o" these reasonin%s can be ! t into syllo%is&s and so&e cannot. The 0e)a&!le0 has already been described as one kind o" ind ction( and the s!ecial nat re o" the s b,ect/&atter that distin% ishes it "ro& the other kinds has also been stated abo*e. Its relation to the !ro!osition it s !!orts is not that o" !art to $hole' nor $hole to !art' nor $hole to $hole' b t o" !art to !art' or like to like. When t$o state&ents are o" the sa&e order' b t one is &ore "a&iliar than the other' the "or&er is an 0e)a&!le0. The ar% &ent &ay' "or instance' be that #ionysi s' in askin% as he does "or a body% ard' is sche&in% to &ake hi&sel" a des!ot. 1or in the !ast 3eisistrat s ke!t askin% "or a body% ard in order to carry o t s ch a sche&e' and did &ake hi&sel" a des!ot as soon as he %ot it( and so did Thea%enes at 6e%ara( and in the sa&e $ay all other instances kno$n to the s!eaker are &ade into e)a&!les' in order to sho$ $hat is not yet kno$n' that #ionysi s has the sa&e ! r!ose in &akin% the sa&e re+ est. all these bein% instances o" the one %eneral !rinci!le' that a &an $ho asks "or a body% ard is sche&in% to &ake hi&sel" a des!ot. We ha*e no$ described the so rces o" those &eans o" !ers asion $hich are !o! larly s !!osed to be de&onstrati*e. There is an i&!ortant distinction bet$een t$o sorts o" enthy&e&es that has been $holly o*erlooked by al&ost e*erybody/one that also s bsists bet$een the syllo%is&s treated o" in dialectic. One sort o" enthy&e&e really belon%s to rhetoric' as one sort o" syllo%is& really belon%s to dialectic( b t the other sort really belon%s to other arts and "ac lties' $hether to those $e already e)ercise or to those $e ha*e not yet ac+ ired. 6issin% this distinction' !eo!le "ail to notice that the &ore correctly they handle their !artic lar s b,ect the " rther they are %ettin% a$ay "ro& ! re rhetoric or dialectic. This state&ent $ill be clearer i" e)!ressed &ore " lly. I &ean that the !ro!er s b,ects o" dialectical and rhetorical syllo%is&s are the thin%s $ith $hich $e say the re% lar or ni*ersal 9ines o" Ar% &ent are concerned' that is to say those lines o" ar% &ent that a!!ly e+ ally to + estions o" ri%ht cond ct' nat ral science' !olitics' and &any other thin%s that ha*e nothin% to do $ith one another. Take' "or instance' the line o" ar% &ent concerned $ith 0the &ore or less0. On this line o" ar% &ent it is e+ ally easy to base a syllo%is& or enthy&e&e abo t any o" $hat ne*ertheless are essentially disconnected s b,ects/ri%ht cond ct' nat ral science' or

anythin% else $hate*er. B t there are also those s!ecial 9ines o" Ar% &ent $hich are based on s ch !ro!ositions as a!!ly only to !artic lar %ro !s or classes o" thin%s. Th s there are !ro!ositions abo t nat ral science on $hich it is i&!ossible to base any enthy&e&e or syllo%is& abo t ethics' and other !ro!ositions abo t ethics on $hich nothin% can be based abo t nat ral science. The sa&e !rinci!le a!!lies thro %ho t. The %eneral 9ines o" Ar% &ent ha*e no s!ecial s b,ect/&atter' and there"ore $ill not increase o r nderstandin% o" any !artic lar class o" thin%s. On the other hand' the better the selection one &akes o" !ro!ositions s itable "or s!ecial 9ines o" Ar% &ent' the nearer one co&es' nconscio sly' to settin% ! a science that is distinct "ro& dialectic and rhetoric. One &ay s cceed in statin% the re+ ired !rinci!les' b t one0s science $ill be no lon%er dialectic or rhetoric' b t the science to $hich the !rinci!les th s disco*ered belon%. 6ost enthy&e&es are in "act based !on these !artic lar or s!ecial 9ines o" Ar% &ent( co&!arati*ely "e$ on the co&&on or %eneral kind. As in the there"ore' so in this $ork' $e & st distin% ish' in dealin% $ith enthy&e&es' the s!ecial and the %eneral 9ines o" Ar% &ent on $hich they are to be "o nded. By s!ecial 9ines o" Ar% &ent I &ean the !ro!ositions !ec liar to each se*eral class o" thin%s' by %eneral those co&&on to all classes alike. We &ay be%in $ith the s!ecial 9ines o" Ar% &ent. B t' "irst o" all' let s classi"y rhetoric into its *arieties. Ha*in% distin% ished these $e &ay deal $ith the& one by one' and try to disco*er the ele&ents o" $hich each is co&!osed' and the !ro!ositions each & st e&!loy. 3 Rhetoric "alls into three di*isions' deter&ined by the three classes o" listeners to s!eeches. 1or o" the three ele&ents in s!eech/&akin%//s!eaker' s b,ect' and !erson addressed//it is the last one' the hearer' that deter&ines the s!eech0s end and ob,ect. The hearer & st be either a , d%e' $ith a decision to &ake abo t thin%s !ast or " t re' or an obser*er. A &e&ber o" the asse&bly decides abo t " t re e*ents' a , ry&an abo t !ast e*ents. $hile those $ho &erely decide on the orator0s skill are obser*ers. 1ro& this it "ollo$s that there are three di*isions o" oratory/415 !olitical' 475 "orensic' and 435 the cere&onial oratory o" dis!lay. 3olitical s!eakin% r%es s either to do or not to do so&ethin%. one o" these t$o co rses is al$ays taken by !ri*ate co nsellors' as $ell as by &en $ho address ! blic asse&blies. 1orensic s!eakin% either attacks or de"ends so&ebody. one or other o" these t$o thin%s & st al$ays be done by the !arties in a case. The cere&onial oratory o" dis!lay either !raises or cens res so&ebody. These three kinds o" rhetoric re"er to three di""erent kinds o" ti&e. The !olitical orator is concerned $ith the " t re. it is abo t thin%s to be done herea"ter that he ad*ises' "or or a%ainst. The !arty in a case at la$ is concerned $ith the !ast( one &an acc ses the other' and the other de"ends hi&sel"' $ith re"erence to thin%s already done. The cere&onial orator is' !ro!erly s!eakin%' concerned $ith the !resent' since all &en !raise or bla&e in *ie$ o" the state o" thin%s e)istin% at the ti&e' tho %h they o"ten "ind it se" l also to recall the !ast and to &ake % esses at the " t re. Rhetoric has three distinct ends in *ie$' one "or each o" its three kinds. The !olitical orator ai&s at establishin% the e)!ediency or the har&" lness o" a !ro!osed co rse o" action( i" he r%es its acce!tance' he does so on the %ro nd that it $ill do %ood( i" he r%es its re,ection' he does so on the %ro nd that it $ill do har&( and all other !oints' s ch as $hether the !ro!osal is , st or n, st' hono rable or dishono rable' he brin%s in as s bsidiary and relati*e to this &ain consideration. 3arties in a la$/case ai& at establishin% the , stice or in, stice o" so&e action' and they too brin% in all other !oints as s bsidiary and relati*e to this one.

Those $ho !raise or attack a &an ai& at !ro*in% hi& $orthy o" hono r or the re*erse' and they too treat all other considerations $ith re"erence to this one. That the three kinds o" rhetoric do ai& res!ecti*ely at the three ends $e ha*e &entioned is sho$n by the "act that s!eakers $ill so&eti&es not try to establish anythin% else. Th s' the liti%ant $ill so&eti&es not deny that a thin% has ha!!ened or that he has done har&. B t that he is % ilty o" in, stice he $ill ne*er ad&it( other$ise there $o ld be no need o" a trial. :o too' !olitical orators o"ten &ake any concession short o" ad&ittin% that they are reco&&endin% their hearers to take an ine)!edient co rse or not to take an e)!edient one. The + estion $hether it is not n, st "or a city to ensla*e its innocent nei%hbo rs o"ten does not tro ble the& at all. In like &anner those $ho !raise or cens re a &an do not consider $hether his acts ha*e been e)!edient or not' b t o"ten &ake it a %ro nd o" act al !raise that he has ne%lected his o$n interest to do $hat $as hono rable. Th s' they !raise Achilles beca se he cha&!ioned his "allen "riend 3atrocl s' tho %h he kne$ that this &eant death' and that other$ise he need not die. yet $hile to die th s $as the nobler thin% "or hi& to do' the e)!edient thin% $as to li*e on. It is e*ident "ro& $hat has been said that it is these three s b,ects' &ore than any others' abo t $hich the orator & st be able to ha*e !ro!ositions at his co&&and. -o$ the !ro!ositions o" Rhetoric are Co&!lete 3roo"s' 3robabilities' and :i%ns. E*ery kind o" syllo%is& is co&!osed o" !ro!ositions' and the enthy&e&e is a !artic lar kind o" syllo%is& co&!osed o" the a"oresaid !ro!ositions. :ince only !ossible actions' and not i&!ossible ones' can e*er ha*e been done in the !ast or the !resent' and since thin%s $hich ha*e not occ rred' or $ill not occ r' also cannot ha*e been done or be %oin% to be done' it is necessary "or the !olitical' the "orensic' and the cere&onial s!eaker alike to be able to ha*e at their co&&and !ro!ositions abo t the !ossible and the i&!ossible' and abo t $hether a thin% has or has not occ rred' $ill or $ill not occ r. 1 rther' all &en' in %i*in% !raise or bla&e' in r%in% s to acce!t or re,ect !ro!osals "or action' in acc sin% others or de"endin% the&sel*es' atte&!t not only to !ro*e the !oints &entioned b t also to sho$ that the %ood or the har&' the hono r or dis%race' the , stice or in, stice' is %reat or s&all' either absol tely or relati*ely( and there"ore it is !lain that $e & st also ha*e at o r co&&and !ro!ositions abo t %reatness or s&allness and the %reater or the lesser/!ro!ositions both ni*ersal and !artic lar. Th s' $e & st be able to say $hich is the %reater or lesser %ood' the %reater or lesser act o" , stice or in, stice( and so on. : ch' then' are the s b,ects re%ardin% $hich $e are ine*itably bo nd to &aster the !ro!ositions rele*ant to the&. We & st no$ disc ss each !artic lar class o" these s b,ects in t rn' na&ely those dealt $ith in !olitical' in cere&onial' and lastly in le%al' oratory. 8 1irst' then' $e & st ascertain $hat are the kinds o" thin%s' %ood or bad' abo t $hich the !olitical orator o""ers co nsel. 1or he does not deal $ith all thin%s' b t only $ith s ch as &ay or &ay not take !lace. Concernin% thin%s $hich e)ist or $ill e)ist ine*itably' or $hich cannot !ossibly e)ist or take !lace' no co nsel can be %i*en. -or' a%ain' can co nsel be %i*en abo t the $hole class o" thin%s $hich &ay or &ay not take !lace( "or this class incl des so&e %ood thin%s that occ r nat rally' and so&e that occ r by accident( and abo t these it is seless to o""er co nsel. Clearly co nsel can only be %i*en on &atters abo t $hich !eo!le deliberate( &atters' na&ely' that lti&ately de!end on o rsel*es' and $hich $e ha*e it in o r !o$er to set %oin%. 1or $e t rn a thin% o*er in o r &ind ntil $e ha*e reached the !oint o" seein% $hether $e can do it or not. -o$ to en &erate and classi"y acc rately the s al s b,ects o"

! blic b siness' and " rther to "ra&e' as "ar as !ossible' tr e de"initions o" the& is a task $hich $e & st not atte&!t on the !resent occasion. 1or it does not belon% to the art o" rhetoric' b t to a &ore instr cti*e art and a &ore real branch o" kno$led%e( and as it is' rhetoric has been %i*en a "ar $ider s b,ect/&atter than strictly belon%s to it. The tr th is' as indeed $e ha*e said already' that rhetoric is a co&bination o" the science o" lo%ic and o" the ethical branch o" !olitics( and it is !artly like dialectic' !artly like so!histical reasonin%. B t the &ore $e try to &ake either dialectic rhetoric not' $hat they really are' !ractical "ac lties' b t sciences' the &ore $e shall inad*ertently be destroyin% their tr e nat re( "or $e shall be re/"ashionin% the& and shall be !assin% into the re%ion o" sciences dealin% $ith de"inite s b,ects rather than si&!ly $ith $ords and "or&s o" reasonin%. E*en here' ho$e*er' $e $ill &ention those !oints $hich it is o" !ractical i&!ortance to distin% ish' their " ller treat&ent "allin% nat rally to !olitical science. The &ain &atters on $hich all &en deliberate and on $hich !olitical s!eakers &ake s!eeches are so&e "i*e in n &ber. $ays and &eans' $ar and !eace' national de"ence' i&!orts and e)!orts' and le%islation. As to Ways and 6eans' then' the intendin% s!eaker $ill need to kno$ the n &ber and e)tent o" the co ntry0s so rces o" re*en e' so that' i" any is bein% o*erlooked' it &ay be added' and' i" any is de"ecti*e' it &ay be increased. 1 rther' he sho ld kno$ all the e)!endit re o" the co ntry' in order that' i" any !art o" it is s !er"l o s' it &ay be abolished' or' i" any is too lar%e' it &ay be red ced. 1or &en beco&e richer not only by increasin% their e)istin% $ealth b t also by red cin% their e)!endit re. A co&!rehensi*e *ie$ o" these + estions cannot be %ained solely "ro& e)!erience in ho&e a""airs( in order to ad*ise on s ch &atters a &an & st be keenly interested in the &ethods $orked o t in other lands. As to 3eace and War' he & st kno$ the e)tent o" the &ilitary stren%th o" his co ntry' both act al and !otential' and also the &at re o" that act al and !otential stren%th( and " rther' $hat $ars his co ntry has $a%ed' and ho$ it has $a%ed the&. He & st kno$ these "acts not only abo t his o$n co ntry' b t also abo t nei%hbo rin% co ntries( and also abo t co ntries $ith $hich $ar is likely' in order that !eace &ay be &aintained $ith those stron%er than his o$n' and that his o$n &ay ha*e !o$er to &ake $ar or not a%ainst those that are $eaker. He sho ld kno$' too' $hether the &ilitary !o$er o" another co ntry is like or nlike that o" his o$n( "or this is a &atter that &ay a""ect their relati*e stren%th. With the sa&e end in *ie$ he & st' besides' ha*e st died the $ars o" other co ntries as $ell as those o" his o$n' and the $ay they ended( si&ilar ca ses are likely to ha*e si&ilar res lts. With re%ard to -ational #e"ence. he o %ht to kno$ all abo t the &ethods o" de"ence in act al se' s ch as the stren%th and character o" the de"ensi*e "orce and the !ositions o" the "orts/this last &eans that he & st be $ell ac+ ainted $ith the lie o" the co ntry/in order that a %arrison &ay be increased i" it is too s&all or re&o*ed i" it is not $anted' and that the strate%ic !oints &ay be % arded $ith s!ecial care. With re%ard to the 1ood : !!ly. he & st kno$ $hat o tlay $ill &eet the needs o" his co ntry( $hat kinds o" "ood are !rod ced at ho&e and $hat i&!orted( and $hat articles & st be e)!orted or i&!orted. This last he & st kno$ in order that a%ree&ents and co&&ercial treaties &ay be &ade $ith the co ntries concerned. There are' indeed' t$o sorts o" state to $hich he & st see that his co ntry&en %i*e no ca se "or o""ence' states stron%er than his o$n' and states $ith $hich it is ad*anta%eo s to trade. B t $hile he & st' "or sec rity0s sake' be able to take all this into acco nt' he & st be"ore all thin%s nderstand the s b,ect o" le%islation( "or it is on a co ntry0s la$s that its $hole $el"are de!ends. He & st' there"ore' kno$ ho$ &any di""erent "or&s o"

constit tion there are( nder $hat conditions each o" these $ill !ros!er and by $hat internal de*elo!&ents or e)ternal attacks each o" the& tends to be destroyed. When I s!eak o" destr ction thro %h internal de*elo!&ents I re"er to the "act that all constit tions' e)ce!t the best one o" all' are destroyed both by not bein% ! shed "ar eno %h and by bein% ! shed too "ar. Th s' de&ocracy loses its *i%o r' and "inally !asses into oli%archy' not only $hen it is not ! shed "ar eno %h' b t also $hen it is ! shed a %reat deal too "ar( , st as the a+ iline and the sn b nose not only t rn into nor&al noses by not bein% a+ iline or sn b eno %h' b t also by bein% too *iolently a+ iline or sn b arri*e at a condition in $hich they no lon%er look like noses at all. It is se" l' in "ra&in% la$s' not only to st dy the !ast history o" one0s o$n co ntry' in order to nderstand $hich constit tion is desirable "or it no$' b t also to ha*e a kno$led%e o" the constit tions o" other nations' and so to learn "or $hat kinds o" nation the *ario s kinds o" constit tion are s ited. 1ro& this $e can see that books o" tra*el are se" l aids to le%islation' since "ro& these $e &ay learn the la$s and c sto&s o" di""erent races. The !olitical s!eaker $ill also "ind the researches o" historians se" l. B t all this is the b siness o" !olitical science and not o" rhetoric. These' then' are the &ost i&!ortant kinds o" in"or&ation $hich the !olitical s!eaker & st !ossess. 9et s no$ %o back and state the !re&isses "ro& $hich he $ill ha*e to ar% e in "a*o r o" ado!tin% or re,ectin% &eas res re%ardin% these and other &atters. 5 It &ay be said that e*ery indi*id al &an and all &en in co&&on ai& at a certain end $hich deter&ines $hat they choose and $hat they a*oid. This end' to s & it ! brie"ly' is ha!!iness and its constit ents. 9et s' then' by $ay o" ill stration only' ascertain $hat is in %eneral the nat re o" ha!!iness' and $hat are the ele&ents o" its constit ent !arts. 1or all ad*ice to do thin%s or not to do the& is concerned $ith ha!!iness and $ith the thin%s that &ake "or or a%ainst it( $hate*er creates or increases ha!!iness or so&e !art o" ha!!iness' $e o %ht to do( $hate*er destroys or ha&!ers ha!!iness' or %i*es rise to its o!!osite' $e o %ht not to do. We &ay de"ine ha!!iness as !ros!erity co&bined $ith *irt e( or as inde!endence o" li"e( or as the sec re en,oy&ent o" the &a)i& & o" !leas re( or as a %ood condition o" !ro!erty and body' to%ether $ith the !o$er o" % ardin% one0s !ro!erty and body and &akin% se o" the&. That ha!!iness is one or &ore o" these thin%s' !retty $ell e*erybody a%rees. 1ro& this de"inition o" ha!!iness it "ollo$s that its constit ent !arts are./%ood birth' !lenty o" "riends' %ood "riends' $ealth' %ood children' !lenty o" children' a ha!!y old a%e' also s ch bodily e)cellences as health' bea ty' stren%th' lar%e stat re' athletic !o$ers' to%ether $ith "a&e' hono r' %ood l ck' and *irt e. A &an cannot "ail to be co&!letely inde!endent i" he !ossesses these internal and these e)ternal %oods( "or besides these there are no others to ha*e. 4;oods o" the so l and o" the body are internal. ;ood birth' "riends' &oney' and hono r are e)ternal.5 1 rther' $e think that he sho ld !ossess reso rces and l ck' in order to &ake his li"e really sec re. As $e ha*e already ascertained $hat ha!!iness in %eneral is' so no$ let s try to ascertain $hat o" these !arts o" it is. -o$ %ood birth in a race or a state &eans that its &e&bers are indi%eno s or ancient. that its earliest leaders $ere distin% ished &en' and that "ro& the& ha*e s!r n% &any $ho $ere distin% ished "or + alities that $e ad&ire. The %ood birth o" an indi*id al' $hich &ay co&e either "ro& the &ale or the "e&ale side' i&!lies that both !arents are "ree citi2ens' and that' as in the case o" the state' the "o nders o" the line ha*e

been notable "or *irt e or $ealth or so&ethin% else $hich is hi%hly !ri2ed' and that &any distin% ished !ersons belon% to the "a&ily' &en and $o&en' yo n% and old. The !hrases 0!ossession o" %ood children0 and 0o" &any children0 bear a + ite clear &eanin%. A!!lied to a co&& nity' they &ean that its yo n% &en are n &ero s and o" %ood a + ality. %ood in re%ard to bodily e)cellences' s ch as stat re' bea ty' stren%th' athletic !o$ers( and also in re%ard to the e)cellences o" the so l' $hich in a yo n% &an are te&!erance and co ra%e. A!!lied to an indi*id al' they &ean that his o$n children are n &ero s and ha*e the %ood + alities $e ha*e described. Both &ale and "e&ale are here incl ded( the e)cellences o" the latter are' in body' bea ty and stat re( in so l' sel"/co&&and and an ind stry that is not sordid. Co&& nities as $ell as indi*id als sho ld lack none o" these !er"ections' in their $o&en as $ell as in their &en. Where' as a&on% the 9acedae&onians' the state o" $o&en is bad' al&ost hal" o" h &an li"e is s!oilt. The constit ents o" $ealth are. !lenty o" coined &oney and territory( the o$nershi! o" n &ero s' lar%e' and bea ti" l estates( also the o$nershi! o" n &ero s and bea ti" l i&!le&ents' li*e stock' and sla*es. All these kinds o" !ro!erty are o r o$n' are sec re' %entle&anly' and se" l. The se" l kinds are those that are !rod cti*e' the %entle&anly kinds are those that !ro*ide en,oy&ent. By 0!rod cti*e0 I &ean those "ro& $hich $e %et o r inco&e( by 0en,oyable0' those "ro& $hich $e %et nothin% $orth &entionin% e)ce!t the se o" the&. The criterion o" 0sec rity0 is the o$nershi! o" !ro!erty in s ch !laces and nder s ch Conditions that the se o" it is in o r !o$er( and it is 0o r o$n0 i" it is in o r o$n !o$er to dis!ose o" it or kee! it. By 0dis!osin% o" it0 I &ean %i*in% it a$ay or sellin% it. Wealth as a $hole consists in sin% thin%s rather than in o$nin% the&( it is really the acti*ity/that is' the se/o" !ro!erty that constit tes $ealth. 1a&e &eans bein% res!ected by e*erybody' or ha*in% so&e + ality that is desired by all &en' or by &ost' or by the %ood' or by the $ise. Hono r is the token o" a &an0s bein% "a&o s "or doin% %ood. it is chie"ly and &ost !ro!erly !aid to those $ho ha*e already done %ood( b t also to the &an $ho can do %ood in " t re. #oin% %ood re"ers either to the !reser*ation o" li"e and the &eans o" li"e' or to $ealth' or to so&e other o" the %ood thin%s $hich it is hard to %et either al$ays or at that !artic lar !lace or ti&e/"or &any %ain hono r "or thin%s $hich see& s&all' b t the !lace and the occasion acco nt "or it. The constit ents o" hono r are. sacri"ices( co&&e&oration' in *erse or !rose( !ri*ile%es( %rants o" land( "ront seats at ci*ic celebrations( state b rial( stat es( ! blic &aintenance( a&on% "orei%ners' obeisances and %i*in% !lace( and s ch !resents as are a&on% *ario s bodies o" &en re%arded as &arks o" hono r. 1or a !resent is not only the besto$al o" a !iece o" !ro!erty' b t also a token o" hono r( $hich e)!lains $hy hono r/lo*in% as $ell as &oney/lo*in% !ersons desire it. The !resent brin%s to both $hat they $ant( it is a !iece o" !ro!erty' $hich is $hat the lo*ers o" &oney desire( and it brin%s hono r' $hich is $hat the lo*ers o" hono r desire. The e)cellence o" the body is health( that is' a condition $hich allo$s s' $hile kee!in% "ree "ro& disease' to ha*e the se o" o r bodies( "or &any !eo!le are 0healthy0 as $e are told Herodic s $as( and these no one can con%rat late on their 0health0' "or they ha*e to abstain "ro& e*erythin% or nearly e*erythin% that &en do./Bea ty *aries $ith the ti&e o" li"e. In a yo n% &an bea ty is the !ossession o" a body "it to end re the e)ertion o" r nnin% and o" contests o" stren%th( $hich &eans that he is !leasant to look at( and there"ore all/ro nd athletes are the &ost bea ti" l' bein% nat rally ada!ted both "or contests o" stren%th and "or s!eed also. 1or a &an in his !ri&e' bea ty is "itness "or the e)ertion o" $ar"are' to%ether $ith a !leasant b t at the sa&e ti&e "or&idable a!!earance. 1or an old &an' it is to be stron% eno %h "or s ch e)ertion as is necessary' and to be "ree "ro& all those de"or&ities o" old a%e

$hich ca se !ain to others. :tren%th is the !o$er o" &o*in% so&e one else at $ill( to do this' yo & st either ! ll' ! sh' li"t' !in' or %ri! hi&( th s yo & st be stron% in all o" those $ays or at least in so&e. E)cellence in si2e is to s r!ass ordinary !eo!le in hei%ht' thickness' and breadth by , st as & ch as $ill not &ake one0s &o*e&ents slo$er in conse+ ence. Athletic e)cellence o" the body consists in si2e' stren%th' and s$i"tness( s$i"tness i&!lyin% stren%th. He $ho can "lin% "or$ard his le%s in a certain $ay' and &o*e the& "ast and "ar' is %ood at r nnin%( he $ho can %ri! and hold do$n is %ood at $restlin%( he $ho can dri*e an ad*ersary "ro& his %ro nd $ith the ri%ht blo$ is a %ood bo)er. he $ho can do both the last is a %ood !ancratiast' $hile he $ho can do all is an 0all/ro nd0 athlete. Ha!!iness in old a%e is the co&in% o" old a%e slo$ly and !ainlessly( "or a &an has not this ha!!iness i" he %ro$s old either + ickly' or tardily b t !ain" lly. It arises both "ro& the e)cellences o" the body and "ro& %ood l ck. I" a &an is not "ree "ro& disease' or i" he is stron%' he $ill not be "ree "ro& s ""erin%( nor can he contin e to li*e a lon% and !ainless li"e nless he has %ood l ck. There is' indeed' a ca!acity "or lon% li"e that is + ite inde!endent o" health or stren%th( "or &any !eo!le li*e lon% $ho lack the e)cellences o" the body( b t "or o r !resent ! r!ose there is no se in %oin% into the details o" this. The ter&s 0!ossession o" &any "riends0 and 0!ossession o" %ood "riends0 need no e)!lanation( "or $e de"ine a 0"riend0 as one $ho $ill al$ays try' "or yo r sake' to do $hat he takes to be %ood "or yo . The &an to$ards $ho& &any "eel th s has &any "riends( i" these are $orthy &en' he has %ood "riends. 0;ood l ck0 &eans the ac+ isition or !ossession o" all or &ost' or the &ost i&!ortant' o" those %ood thin%s $hich are d e to l ck. :o&e o" the thin%s that are d e to l ck &ay also be d e to arti"icial contri*ance( b t &any are inde!endent o" art' as "or e)a&!le those $hich are d e to nat re/tho %h' to be s re' thin%s d e to l ck &ay act ally be contrary to nat re. Th s health &ay be d e to arti"icial contri*ance' b t bea ty and stat re are d e to nat re. All s ch %ood thin%s as e)cite en*y are' as a class' the o tco&e o" %ood l ck. 9 ck is also the ca se o" %ood thin%s that ha!!en contrary to reasonable e)!ectation. as $hen' "or instance' all yo r brothers are %ly' b t yo are handso&e yo rsel"( or $hen yo "ind a treas re that e*erybody else has o*erlooked( or $hen a &issile hits the ne)t &an and &isses yo ( or $hen yo are the only &an not to %o to a !lace yo ha*e %one to re% larly' $hile the others %o there "or the "irst ti&e and are killed. All s ch thin%s are reckoned !ieces o" %ood l ck. As to *irt e' it is &ost closely connected $ith the s b,ect o" E lo%y' and there"ore $e $ill $ait to de"ine it ntil $e co&e to disc ss that s b,ect. < It is no$ !lain $hat o r ai&s' " t re or act al' sho ld be in r%in%' and $hat in de!reciatin%' a !ro!osal( the latter bein% the o!!osite o" the "or&er. -o$ the !olitical or deliberati*e orator0s ai& is tility. deliberation seeks to deter&ine not ends b t the &eans to ends' i.e. $hat it is &ost se" l to do. 1 rther' tility is a %ood thin%. We o %ht there"ore to ass re o rsel*es o" the &ain "acts abo t ;oodness and =tility in %eneral. We &ay de"ine a %ood thin% as that $hich o %ht to be chosen "or its o$n sake( or as that "or the sake o" $hich $e choose so&ethin% else( or as that $hich is so %ht a"ter by all thin%s' or by all thin%s that ha*e sensation or reason' or $hich $ill be so %ht a"ter by any thin%s that ac+ ire reason( or as that $hich & st be !rescribed "or a %i*en indi*id al by reason %enerally' or is !rescribed "or hi& by his indi*id al reason' this bein% his indi*id al %ood( or as that $hose !resence brin%s anythin% into a satis"actory and

sel"/s ""icin% condition( or as sel"/s ""iciency( or as $hat !rod ces' &aintains' or entails characteristics o" this kind' $hile !re*entin% and destroyin% their o!!osites. One thin% &ay entail another in either o" t$o $ays/415 si& ltaneo sly' 475 s bse+ ently. Th s learnin% entails kno$led%e s bse+ ently' health entails li"e si& ltaneo sly. Thin%s are !rod cti*e o" other thin%s in three senses. "irst as bein% healthy !rod ces health( secondly' as "ood !rod ces health( and thirdly' as e)ercise does/i.e. it does so s ally. All this bein% settled' $e no$ see that both the ac+ isition o" %ood thin%s and the re&o*al o" bad thin%s & st be %ood( the latter entails "reedo& "ro& the e*il thin%s si& ltaneo sly' $hile the "or&er entails !ossession o" the %ood thin%s s bse+ ently. The ac+ isition o" a %reater in !lace o" a lesser %ood' or o" a lesser in !lace o" a %reater e*il' is also %ood' "or in !ro!ortion as the %reater e)ceeds the lesser there is ac+ isition o" %ood or re&o*al o" e*il. The *irt es' too' & st be so&ethin% %ood( "or it is by !ossessin% these that $e are in a %ood condition' and they tend to !rod ce %ood $orks and %ood actions. They & st be se*erally na&ed and described else$here. 3leas re' a%ain' & st be a %ood thin%' since it is the nat re o" all ani&als to ai& at it. Conse+ ently both !leasant and bea ti" l thin%s & st be %ood thin%s' since the "or&er are !rod cti*e o" !leas re' $hile o" the bea ti" l thin%s so&e are !leasant and so&e desirable in and "or the&sel*es. The "ollo$in% is a &ore detailed list o" thin%s that & st be %ood. Ha!!iness' as bein% desirable in itsel" and s ""icient by itsel"' and as bein% that "or $hose sake $e choose &any other thin%s. Also , stice' co ra%e' te&!erance' &a%nani&ity' &a%ni"icence' and all s ch + alities' as bein% e)cellences o" the so l. 1 rther' health' bea ty' and the like' as bein% bodily e)cellences and !rod cti*e o" &any other %ood thin%s. "or instance' health is !rod cti*e both o" !leas re and o" li"e' and there"ore is tho %ht the %reatest o" %oods' since these t$o thin%s $hich it ca ses' !leas re and li"e' are t$o o" the thin%s &ost hi%hly !ri2ed by ordinary !eo!le. Wealth' a%ain. "or it is the e)cellence o" !ossession' and also !rod cti*e o" &any other %ood thin%s. 1riends and "riendshi!. "or a "riend is desirable in hi&sel" and also !rod cti*e o" &any other %ood thin%s. :o' too' hono r and re! tation' as bein% !leasant' and !rod cti*e o" &any other %ood thin%s' and s ally acco&!anied by the !resence o" the %ood thin%s that ca se the& to be besto$ed. The "ac lty o" s!eech and action( since all s ch + alities are !rod cti*e o" $hat is %ood. 1 rther/%ood !arts' stron% &e&ory' rece!ti*eness' + ickness o" int ition' and the like' "or all s ch "ac lties are !rod cti*e o" $hat is %ood. :i&ilarly' all the sciences and arts. And li"e. since' e*en i" no other %ood $ere the res lt o" li"e' it is desirable in itsel". And , stice' as the ca se o" %ood to the co&& nity. The abo*e are !retty $ell all the thin%s ad&ittedly %ood. In dealin% $ith thin%s $hose %oodness is dis! ted' $e &ay ar% e in the "ollo$in% $ays./That is %ood o" $hich the contrary is bad. That is %ood the contrary o" $hich is to the ad*anta%e o" o r ene&ies( "or e)a&!le' i" it is to the !artic lar ad*anta%e o" o r ene&ies that $e sho ld be co$ards' clearly co ra%e is o" !artic lar *al e to o r co ntry&en. And %enerally' the contrary o" that $hich o r ene&ies desire' or o" that at $hich they re,oice' is e*idently *al able. Hence the !assa%e be%innin%. : rely $o ld 3ria& e) lt. This !rinci!le s ally holds %ood' b t not al$ays' since it &ay $ell be that o r interest is so&eti&es the sa&e as that o" o r ene&ies. Hence it is said that 0e*ils dra$ &en to%ether0( that is' $hen the sa&e thin% is h rt" l to the& both. 1 rther. that $hich is not in e)cess is %ood' and that $hich is %reater than it sho ld be is bad. That also is %ood on $hich & ch labo r or &oney has been s!ent( the &ere "act o" this &akes it see&

%ood' and s ch a %ood is ass &ed to be an end/an end reached thro %h a lon% chain o" &eans( and any end is a %ood. Hence the lines be%innin%. And "or 3ria& 4and Troy/to$n0s "olk5 sho ld they lea*e behind the& a boast( and Oh' it $ere sha&e To ha*e tarried so lon% and ret rn e&!ty/handed as erst $e ca&e(

and there is also the !ro*erb abo t 0breakin% the !itcher at the door0. That $hich &ost !eo!le seek a"ter' and $hich is ob*io sly an ob,ect o" contention' is also a %ood( "or' as has been sho$n' that is %ood $hich is so %ht a"ter by e*erybody' and 0&ost !eo!le0 is taken to be e+ i*alent to 0e*erybody0. That $hich is !raised is %ood' since no one !raises $hat is not %ood. :o' a%ain' that $hich is !raised by o r ene&ies >or by the $orthless? "or $hen e*en those $ho ha*e a %rie*ance think a thin% %ood' it is at once "elt that e*ery one & st a%ree $ith the&( o r ene&ies can ad&it the "act only beca se it is e*ident' , st as those & st be $orthless $ho& their "riends cens re and their ene&ies do not. 41or this reason the Corinthians concei*ed the&sel*es to be ins lted by :i&onides $hen he $rote. A%ainst the Corinthians hath Ili & no co&!laint.5 A%ain' that is %ood $hich has been distin% ished by the "a*o r o" a discernin% or *irt o s &an or $o&an' as Odysse s $as distin% ished by Athena' Helen by These s' 3aris by the %oddesses' and Achilles by Ho&er. And' %enerally s!eakin%' all thin%s are %ood $hich &en deliberately choose to do( this $ill incl de the thin%s already &entioned' and also $hate*er &ay be bad "or their ene&ies or %ood "or their "riends' and at the sa&e ti&e !racticable. Thin%s are 0!racticable0 in t$o senses. 415 it is !ossible to do the&' 475 it is easy to do the&. Thin%s are done 0easily0 $hen they are done either $itho t !ain or + ickly. the 0di""ic lty0 o" an act lies either in its !ain" lness or in the lon% ti&e it takes. A%ain' a thin% is %ood i" it is as &en $ish( and they $ish to ha*e either no e*il at an or at least a balance o" %ood o*er e*il. This last $ill ha!!en $here the !enalty is either i&!erce!tible or sli%ht. ;ood' too' are thin%s that are a &an0s *ery o$n' !ossessed by no one else' e)ce!tional( "or this increases the credit o" ha*in% the&. :o are thin%s $hich be"it the !ossessors' s ch as $hate*er is a!!ro!riate to their birth or ca!acity' and $hate*er they "eel they o %ht to ha*e b t lack/s ch thin%s &ay indeed be tri"lin%' b t none the less &en deliberately &ake the& the %oal o" their action. And thin%s easily e""ected( "or these are !racticable 4in the sense o" bein% easy5( s ch thin%s are those in $hich e*ery one' or &ost !eo!le' or one0s e+ als' or one0s in"eriors ha*e s cceeded. ;ood also are the thin%s by $hich $e shall %rati"y o r "riends or annoy o r ene&ies( and the thin%s chosen by those $ho& $e ad&ire. and the thin%s "or $hich $e are "itted by nat re or e)!erience' since $e think $e shall s cceed &ore easily in these. and those in $hich no $orthless &an can s cceed' "or s ch thin%s brin% %reater !raise. and those $hich $e do in "act desire' "or $hat $e desire is taken to be not only !leasant b t also better. 1 rther' a &an o" a %i*en dis!osition &akes chie"ly "or the corres!ondin% thin%s. lo*ers o" *ictory &ake "or *ictory' lo*ers o" hono r "or hono r' &oney/lo*in% &en "or &oney' and so $ith the rest. These' then' are the so rces "ro& $hich $e & st deri*e o r &eans o" !ers asion abo t ;ood and =tility. @

:ince' ho$e*er' it o"ten ha!!ens that !eo!le a%ree that t$o thin%s are both se" l b t do not a%ree abo t $hich is the &ore so' the ne)t ste! $ill be to treat o" relati*e %oodness and relati*e tility. A thin% $hich s r!asses another &ay be re%arded as bein% that other thin% !l s so&ethin% &ore' and that other thin% $hich is s r!assed as bein% $hat is contained in the "irst thin%. -o$ to call a thin% 0%reater0 or 0&ore0 al$ays i&!lies a co&!arison o" it $ith one that is 0s&aller0 or 0less0' $hile 0%reat0 and 0s&all0' 0& ch0 and 0little0' are ter&s sed in co&!arison $ith nor&al &a%nit de. The 0%reat0 is that $hich s r!asses the nor&al' the 0s&all0 is that $hich is s r!assed by the nor&al( and so $ith 0&any0 and 0"e$0. -o$ $e are a!!lyin% the ter& 0%ood0 to $hat is desirable "or its o$n sake and not "or the sake o" so&ethin% else( to that at $hich all thin%s ai&( to $hat they $o ld choose i" they co ld ac+ ire nderstandin% and !ractical $isdo&( and to that $hich tends to !rod ce or !reser*e s ch %oods' or is al$ays acco&!anied by the&. 6oreo*er' that "or the sake o" $hich thin%s are done is the end 4an end bein% that "or the sake o" $hich all else is done5' and "or each indi*id al that thin% is a %ood $hich " l"ils these conditions in re%ard to hi&sel". It "ollo$s' then' that a %reater n &ber o" %oods is a %reater %ood than one or than a s&aller n &ber' i" that one or that s&aller n &ber is incl ded in the co nt( "or then the lar%er n &ber s r!asses the s&aller' and the s&aller + antity is s r!assed as bein% contained in the lar%er. A%ain' i" the lar%est &e&ber o" one class s r!asses the lar%est &e&ber o" another' then the one class s r!asses the other( and i" one class s r!asses another' then the lar%est &e&ber o" the one s r!asses the lar%est &e&ber o" the other. Th s' i" the tallest &an is taller than the tallest $o&an' then &en in %eneral are taller than $o&en. Con*ersely' i" &en in %eneral are taller than $o&en' then the tallest &an is taller than the tallest $o&an. 1or the s !eriority o" class o*er class is !ro!ortionate to the s !eriority !ossessed by their lar%est s!eci&ens. A%ain' $here one %ood is al$ays acco&!anied by another' b t does not al$ays acco&!any it' it is %reater than the other' "or the se o" the second thin% is i&!lied in the se o" the "irst. A thin% &ay be acco&!anied by another in three $ays' either si& ltaneo sly' s bse+ ently' or !otentially. 9i"e acco&!anies health si& ltaneo sly 4b t not health li"e5' kno$led%e acco&!anies the act o" learnin% s bse+ ently' cheatin% acco&!anies sacrile%e !otentially' since a &an $ho has co&&itted sacrile%e is al$ays ca!able o" cheatin%. A%ain' $hen t$o thin%s each s r!ass a third' that $hich does so by the %reater a&o nt is the %reater o" the t$o( "or it & st s r!ass the %reater as $ell as the less o" the other t$o. A thin% !rod cti*e o" a %reater %ood than another is !rod cti*e o" is itsel" a %reater %ood than that other. 1or this conce!tion o" 0!rod cti*e o" a %reater0 has been i&!lied in o r ar% &ent. 9ike$ise' that $hich is !rod ced by a %reater %ood is itsel" a %reater %ood( th s' i" $hat is $holeso&e is &ore desirable and a %reater %ood than $hat %i*es !leas re' health too & st be a %reater %ood than !leas re. A%ain' a thin% $hich is desirable in itsel" is a %reater %ood than a thin% $hich is not desirable in itsel"' as "or e)a&!le bodily stren%th than $hat is $holeso&e' since the latter is not ! rs ed "or its o$n sake' $hereas the "or&er is( and this $as o r de"inition o" the %ood. A%ain' i" one o" t$o thin%s is an end' and the other is not' the "or&er is the %reater %ood' as bein% chosen "or its o$n sake and not "or the sake o" so&ethin% else( as' "or e)a&!le' e)ercise is chosen "or the sake o" !hysical $ell/bein%. And o" t$o thin%s that $hich stands less in need o" the other' or o" other thin%s' is the %reater %ood' since it is &ore sel"/s ""icin%. 4That $hich stands 0less0 in need o" others is that $hich needs either "e$er or easier thin%s.5 :o $hen one thin% does not e)ist or cannot co&e into e)istence $itho t a second' $hile the second can e)ist $itho t the "irst' the second is the better. That $hich does not need so&ethin% else is &ore sel"/s ""icin% than that $hich does' and !resents itsel" as a

%reater %ood "or that reason. A%ain' that $hich is a be%innin% o" other thin%s is a %reater %ood than that $hich is not' and that $hich is a ca se is a %reater %ood than that $hich is not( the reason bein% the sa&e in each case' na&ely that $itho t a ca se and a be%innin% nothin% can e)ist or co&e into e)istence. A%ain' $here there are t$o sets o" conse+ ences arisin% "ro& t$o di""erent be%innin%s or ca ses' the conse+ ences o" the &ore i&!ortant be%innin% or ca se are the&sel*es the &ore i&!ortant( and con*ersely' that be%innin% or ca se is itsel" the &ore i&!ortant $hich has the &ore i&!ortant conse+ ences. -o$ it is !lain' "ro& all that has been said' that one thin% &ay be sho$n to be &ore i&!ortant than another "ro& t$o o!!osite !oints o" *ie$. it &ay a!!ear the &ore i&!ortant 415 beca se it is a be%innin% and the other thin% is not' and also 475 beca se it is not a be%innin% and the other thin% is/on the %ro nd that the end is &ore i&!ortant and is not a be%innin%. :o 9eoda&as' $hen acc sin% Callistrat s' said that the &an $ho !ro&!ted the deed $as &ore % ilty than the doer' since it $o ld not ha*e been done i" he had not !lanned it. On the other hand' $hen acc sin% Chabrias he said that the doer $as $orse than the !ro&!ter' since there $o ld ha*e been no deed $itho t so&e one to do it( &en' said he' !lot a thin% only in order to carry it o t. 1 rther' $hat is rare is a %reater %ood than $hat is !lenti" l. Th s' %old is a better thin% than iron' tho %h less se" l. it is harder to %et' and there"ore better $orth %ettin%. Re*ersely' it &ay be ar% ed that the !lenti" l is a better thin% than the rare' beca se $e can &ake &ore se o" it. 1or $hat is o"ten se" l s r!asses $hat is seldo& se" l' $hence the sayin%. The best o" thin%s is $ater. 6ore %enerally. the hard thin% is better than the easy' beca se it is rarer. and re*ersely' the easy thin% is better than the hard' "or it is as $e $ish it to be. That is the %reater %ood $hose contrary is the %reater e*il' and $hose loss a""ects s &ore. 3ositi*e %oodness and badness are &ore i&!ortant than the &ere absence o" %oodness and badness. "or !ositi*e %oodness and badness are ends' $hich the &ere absence o" the& cannot be. 1 rther' in !ro!ortion as the " nctions o" thin%s are noble or base' the thin%s the&sel*es are %ood or bad. con*ersely' in !ro!ortion as the thin%s the&sel*es are %ood or bad' their " nctions also are %ood or bad( "or the nat re o" res lts corres!onds $ith that o" their ca ses and be%innin%s' and con*ersely the nat re o" ca ses and be%innin%s corres!onds $ith that o" their res lts. 6oreo*er' those thin%s are %reater %oods' s !eriority in $hich is &ore desirable or &ore hono rable. Th s' keenness o" si%ht is &ore desirable than keenness o" s&ell' si%ht %enerally bein% &ore desirable than s&ell %enerally( and si&ilarly' n s ally %reat lo*e o" "riends bein% &ore hono rable than n s ally %reat lo*e o" &oney' ordinary lo*e o" "riends is &ore hono rable than ordinary lo*e o" &oney. Con*ersely' i" one o" t$o nor&al thin%s is better or nobler than the other' an n s al de%ree o" that thin% is better or nobler than an n s al de%ree o" the other. A%ain' one thin% is &ore hono rable or better than another i" it is &ore hono rable or better to desire it( the i&!ortance o" the ob,ect o" a %i*en instinct corres!onds to the i&!ortance o" the instinct itsel"( and "or the sa&e reason' i" one thin% is &ore hono rable or better than another' it is &ore hono rable and better to desire it. A%ain' i" one science is &ore hono rable and *al able than another' the acti*ity $ith $hich it deals is also &ore hono rable and *al able( as is the science' so is the reality that is its ob,ect' each science bein% a thoritati*e in its o$n s!here. :o' also' the &ore *al able and hono rable the ob,ect o" a science' the &ore *al able and hono rable the science itsel" is/in conse+ ence. A%ain' that $hich $o ld be , d%ed' or $hich has been , d%ed' a %ood thin%' or a better thin% than so&ethin% else' by all or &ost !eo!le o" nderstandin%' or by the

&a,ority o" &en' or by the ablest' & st be so( either $itho t + ali"ication' or in so "ar as they se their nderstandin% to "or& their , d%e&ent. This is indeed a %eneral !rinci!le' a!!licable to all other , d%e&ents also( not only the %oodness o" thin%s' b t their essence' &a%nit de' and %eneral nat re are in "act , st $hat kno$led%e and nderstandin% $ill declare the& to be. Here the !rinci!le is a!!lied to , d%e&ents o" %oodness' since one de"inition o" 0%ood0 $as 0$hat bein%s that ac+ ire nderstandin% $ill choose in any %i*en case0. "ro& $hich it clearly "ollo$s that that thin% is hetter $hich nderstandin% declares to be so. That' a%ain' is a better thin% $hich attaches to better &en' either absol tely' or in *irt e o" their bein% better( as co ra%e is better than stren%th. And that is a %reater %ood $hich $o ld be chosen by a better &an' either absol tely' or in *irt e o" his bein% better. "or instance' to s ""er $ron% rather than to do $ron%' "or that $o ld be the choice o" the , ster &an. A%ain' the !leasanter o" t$o thin%s is the better' since all thin%s ! rs e !leas re' and thin%s instincti*ely desire !leas rable sensation "or its o$n sake( and these are t$o o" the characteristics by $hich the 0%ood0 and the 0end0 ha*e been de"ined. One !leas re is %reater than another i" it is &ore n&i)ed $ith !ain' or &ore lastin%. A%ain' the nobler thin% is better than the less noble' since the noble is either $hat is !leasant or $hat is desirable in itsel". And those thin%s also are %reater %oods $hich &en desire &ore earnestly to brin% abo t "or the&sel*es or "or their "riends' $hereas those thin%s $hich they least desire to brin% abo t are %reater e*ils. And those thin%s $hich are &ore lastin% are better than those $hich are &ore "leetin%' and the &ore sec re than the less( the en,oy&ent o" the lastin% has the ad*anta%e o" bein% lon%er' and that o" the sec re has the ad*anta%e o" s itin% o r $ishes' bein% there "or s $hene*er $e like. 1 rther' in accordance $ith the r le o" co/ordinate ter&s and in"le)ions o" the sa&e ste&' $hat is tr e o" one s ch related $ord is tr e o" all. Th s i" the action + ali"ied by the ter& 0bra*e0 is &ore noble and desirable than the action + ali"ied by the ter& 0te&!erate0' then 0bra*ery0 is &ore desirable than 0te&!erance0 and 0bein% bra*e0 than 0bein% te&!erate0. That' a%ain' $hich is chosen by all is a %reater %ood than that $hich is not' and that chosen by the &a,ority than that chosen by the &inority. 1or that $hich all desire is %ood' as $e ha*e said(0 and so' the &ore a thin% is desired' the better it is. 1 rther' that is the better thin% $hich is considered so by co&!etitors or ene&ies' or' a%ain' by a thori2ed , d%es or those $ho& they select to re!resent the&. In the "irst t$o cases the decision is *irt ally that o" e*ery one' in the last t$o that o" a thorities and e)!erts. And so&eti&es it &ay be ar% ed that $hat all share is the better thin%' since it is a dishono r not to share in it( at other ti&es' that $hat none or "e$ share is better' since it is rarer. The &ore !raise$orthy thin%s are' the nobler and there"ore the better they are. :o $ith the thin%s that earn %reater hono rs than others/hono r is' as it $ere' a &eas re o" *al e( and the thin%s $hose absence in*ol*es co&!arati*ely hea*y !enalties( and the thin%s that are better than others ad&itted or belie*ed to be %ood. 6oreo*er' thin%s look better &erely by bein% di*ided into their !arts' since they then see& to s r!ass a %reater n &ber o" thin%s than be"ore. Hence Ho&er says that 6elea%er $as ro sed to battle by the tho %ht o" All horrors that li%ht on a "olk $hose city is ta0en o" their "oes' When they sla %hter the &en' $hen the b r% is $asted $ith ra*enin% "la&e' When stran%ers are halin% yo n% children to thraldo&' 4"air $o&en to sha&e.5 The sa&e e""ect is !rod ced by !ilin% ! "acts in a cli&a) a"ter the &anner o" E!ichar& s. The reason is !artly the sa&e as in the case

o" di*ision 4"or co&bination too &akes the i&!ression o" %reat s !eriority5' and !artly that the ori%inal thin% a!!ears to be the ca se and ori%in o" i&!ortant res lts. And since a thin% is better $hen it is harder or rarer than other thin%s' its s !eriority &ay be d e to seasons' a%es' !laces' ti&es' or one0s nat ral !o$ers. When a &an acco&!lishes so&ethin% beyond his nat ral !o$er' or beyond his years' or beyond the &eas re o" !eo!le like hi&' or in a s!ecial $ay' or at a s!ecial !lace or ti&e' his deed $ill ha*e a hi%h de%ree o" nobleness' %oodness' and , stice' or o" their o!!osites. Hence the e!i%ra& on the *ictor at the Oly&!ic %a&es. In ti&e !ast' hearin% a Aoke on &y sho lders' o" $ood nsha*en' I carried &y loads o" "ish "ro&' Ar%os to Te%ea to$n. :o I!hicrates sed to e)tol hi&sel" by describin% the lo$ estate "ro& $hich he had risen. A%ain' $hat is nat ral is better than $hat is ac+ ired' since it is harder to co&e by. Hence the $ords o" Ho&er. I ha*e learnt "ro& none b t &ysell. And the best !art o" a %ood thin% is !artic larly %ood( as $hen 3ericles in his " neral oration said that the co ntry0s loss o" its yo n% &en in battle $as 0as i" the s!rin% $ere taken o t o" the year0. :o $ith those thin%s $hich are o" ser*ice $hen the need is !ressin%( "or e)a&!le' in old a%e and ti&es o" sickness. And o" t$o thin%s that $hich leads &ore directly to the end in *ie$ is the better. :o too is that $hich is better "or !eo!le %enerally as $ell as "or a !artic lar indi*id al. A%ain' $hat can be %ot is better than $hat cannot' "or it is %ood in a %i*en case and the other thin% is not. And $hat is at the end o" li"e is better than $hat is not' since those thin%s are ends in a %reater de%ree $hich are nearer the end. What ai&s at reality is better than $hat ai&s at a!!earance. We &ay de"ine $hat ai&s at a!!earance as $hat a &an $ill not choose i" nobody is to kno$ o" his ha*in% it. This $o ld see& to sho$ that to recei*e bene"its is &ore desirable than to con"er the&' since a &an $ill choose the "or&er e*en i" nobody is to kno$ o" it' b t it is not the %eneral *ie$ that he $ill choose the latter i" nobody kno$s o" it. What a &an $ants to be is better than $hat a &an $ants to see&' "or in ai&in% at that he is ai&in% &ore at reality. Hence &en say that , stice is o" s&all *al e' since it is &ore desirable to see& , st than to be , st' $hereas $ith health it is not so. That is better than other thin%s $hich is &ore se" l than they are "or a n &ber o" di""erent ! r!oses( "or e)a&!le' that $hich !ro&otes li"e' %ood li"e' !leas re' and noble cond ct. 1or this reason $ealth and health are co&&only tho %ht to be o" the hi%hest *al e' as !ossessin% all these ad*anta%es. A%ain' that is better than other thin%s $hich is acco&!anied both $ith less !ain and $ith act al !leas re( "or here there is &ore than one ad*anta%e( and so here $e ha*e the %ood o" "eelin% !leas re and also the %ood o" not "eelin% !ain. And o" t$o %ood thin%s that is the better $hose addition to a third thin% &akes a better $hole than the addition o" the other to the sa&e thin% $ill &ake. A%ain' those thin%s $hich $e are seen to !ossess are better than those $hich $e are not seen to !ossess' since the "or&er ha*e the air o" reality. Hence $ealth &ay be re%arded as a %reater %ood i" its e)istence is kno$n to others. That $hich is dearly !ri2ed is better than $hat is not/the sort o" thin% that so&e !eo!le ha*e only one o"' tho %h others ha*e &ore like it. Accordin%ly' blindin% a one/eyed &an in"licts $orse in, ry than hal"/blindin% a &an $ith t$o eyes( "or the one/eyed &an has been robbed o" $hat he dearly !ri2ed. The %ro nds on $hich $e & st base o r ar% &ents' $hen $e are s!eakin% "or or a%ainst a !ro!osal' ha*e no$ been set "orth &ore or less co&!letely.

B The &ost i&!ortant and e""ecti*e + ali"ication "or s ccess in !ers adin% a diences and s!eakin% $ell on ! blic a""airs is to nderstand all the "or&s o" %o*ern&ent and to discri&inate their res!ecti*e c sto&s' instit tions' and interests. 1or all &en are !ers aded by considerations o" their interest' and their interest lies in the &aintenance o" the established order. 1 rther' it rests $ith the s !re&e a thority to %i*e a thoritati*e decisions' and this *aries $ith each "or& o" %o*ern&ent( there are as &any di""erent s !re&e a thorities as there are di""erent "or&s o" %o*ern&ent. The "or&s o" %o*ern&ent are "o r/de&ocracy' oli%archy' aristocracy' &onarchy. The s !re&e ri%ht to , d%e and decide al$ays rests' there"ore' $ith either a !art or the $hole o" one or other o" these %o*ernin% !o$ers. A #e&ocracy is a "or& o" %o*ern&ent nder $hich the citi2ens distrib te the o""ices o" state a&on% the&sel*es by lot' $hereas nder oli%archy there is a !ro!erty + ali"ication' nder aristocracy one o" ed cation. By ed cation I &ean that ed cation $hich is laid do$n by the la$( "or it is those $ho ha*e been loyal to the national instit tions that hold o""ice nder an aristocracy. These are bo nd to be looked !on as 0the best &en0' and it is "ro& this "act that this "or& o" %o*ern&ent has deri*ed its na&e 40the r le o" the best05. 6onarchy' as the $ord i&!lies' is the constit tion a in $hich one &an has a thority o*er all. There are t$o "or&s o" &onarchy. kin%shi!' $hich is li&ited by !rescribed conditions' and 0tyranny0' $hich is not li&ited by anythin%. We & st also notice the ends $hich the *ario s "or&s o" %o*ern&ent ! rs e' since !eo!le choose in !ractice s ch actions as $ill lead to the reali2ation o" their ends. The end o" de&ocracy is "reedo&( o" oli%archy' $ealth( o" aristocracy' the &aintenance o" ed cation and national instit tions( o" tyranny' the !rotection o" the tyrant. It is clear' then' that $e & st distin% ish those !artic lar c sto&s' instit tions' and interests $hich tend to reali2e the ideal o" each constit tion' since &en choose their &eans $ith re"erence to their ends. B t rhetorical !ers asion is e""ected not only by de&onstrati*e b t by ethical ar% &ent( it hel!s a s!eaker to con*ince s' i" $e belie*e that he has certain + alities hi&sel"' na&ely' %oodness' or %ood$ill to$ards s' or both to%ether. :i&ilarly' $e sho ld kno$ the &oral + alities characteristic o" each "or& o" %o*ern&ent' "or the s!ecial &oral character o" each is bo nd to !ro*ide s $ith o r &ost e""ecti*e &eans o" !ers asion in dealin% $ith it. We shall learn the + alities o" %o*ern&ents in the sa&e $ay as $e learn the + alities o" indi*id als' since they are re*ealed in their deliberate acts o" choice( and these are deter&ined by the end that ins!ires the&. We ha*e no$ considered the ob,ects' i&&ediate or distant' at $hich $e are to ai& $hen r%in% any !ro!osal' and the %ro nds on $hich $e are to base o r ar% &ents in "a*o r o" its tility. We ha*e also brie"ly considered the &eans and &ethods by $hich $e shall %ain a %ood kno$led%e o" the &oral + alities and instit tions !ec liar to the *ario s "or&s o" %o*ern&ent/only' ho$e*er' to the e)tent de&anded by the !resent occasion( a detailed acco nt o" the s b,ect has been %i*en in the 3olitics. C We ha*e no$ to consider Dirt e and Dice' the -oble and the Base' since these are the ob,ects o" !raise and bla&e. In doin% so' $e shall at the sa&e ti&e be "indin% o t ho$ to &ake o r hearers take the re+ ired *ie$ o" o r o$n characters/o r second &ethod o" !ers asion. The $ays in $hich to &ake the& tr st the %oodness o" other !eo!le are also the $ays in $hich to &ake the& tr st o r o$n. 3raise' a%ain' &ay be serio s or "ri*olo s( nor is it al$ays o" a h &an or di*ine bein% b t o"ten o" inani&ate thin%s' or o" the h &blest o"

the lo$er ani&als. Here too $e & st kno$ on $hat %ro nds to ar% e' and & st' there"ore' no$ disc ss the s b,ect' tho %h by $ay o" ill stration only. The -oble is that $hich is both desirable "or its o$n sake and also $orthy o" !raise( or that $hich is both %ood and also !leasant beca se %ood. I" this is a tr e de"inition o" the -oble' it "ollo$s that *irt e & st be noble' since it is both a %ood thin% and also !raise$orthy. Dirt e is' accordin% to the s al *ie$' a "ac lty o" !ro*idin% and !reser*in% %ood thin%s( or a "ac lty o" con"errin% &any %reat bene"its' and bene"its o" all kinds on all occasions. The "or&s o" Dirt e are , stice' co ra%e' te&!erance' &a%ni"icence' &a%nani&ity' liberality' %entleness' !r dence' $isdo&. I" *irt e is a "ac lty o" bene"icence' the hi%hest kinds o" it & st be those $hich are &ost se" l to others' and "or this reason &en hono r &ost the , st and the co ra%eo s' since co ra%e is se" l to others in $ar' , stice both in $ar and in !eace. -e)t co&es liberality( liberal !eo!le let their &oney %o instead o" "i%htin% "or it' $hereas other !eo!le care &ore "or &oney than "or anythin% else. E stice is the *irt e thro %h $hich e*erybody en,oys his o$n !ossessions in accordance $ith the la$( its o!!osite is in, stice' thro %h $hich &en en,oy the !ossessions o" others in de"iance o" the la$. Co ra%e is the *irt e that dis!oses &en to do noble deeds in sit ations o" dan%er' in accordance $ith the la$ and in obedience to its co&&ands( co$ardice is the o!!osite. Te&!erance is the *irt e that dis!oses s to obey the la$ $here !hysical !leas res are concerned( incontinence is the o!!osite. 9iberality dis!oses s to s!end &oney "or others0 %ood( illiberality is the o!!osite. 6a%nani&ity is the *irt e that dis!oses s to do %ood to others on a lar%e scale( >its o!!osite is &eanness o" s!irit?. 6a%ni"icence is a *irt e !rod cti*e o" %reatness in &atters in*ol*in% the s!endin% o" &oney. The o!!osites o" these t$o are s&allness o" s!irit and &eanness res!ecti*ely. 3r dence is that *irt e o" the nderstandin% $hich enables &en to co&e to $ise decisions abo t the relation to ha!!iness o" the %oods and e*ils that ha*e been !re*io sly &entioned. The abo*e is a s ""icient acco nt' "or o r !resent ! r!ose' o" *irt e and *ice in %eneral' and o" their *ario s "or&s. As to " rther as!ects o" the s b,ect' it is not di""ic lt to discern the "acts( it is e*ident that thin%s !rod cti*e o" *irt e are noble' as tendin% to$ards *irt e( and also the e""ects o" *irt e' that is' the si%ns o" its !resence and the acts to $hich it leads. And since the si%ns o" *irt e' and s ch acts as it is the &ark o" a *irt o s &an to do or ha*e done to hi&' are noble' it "ollo$s that all deeds or si%ns o" co ra%e' and e*erythin% done co ra%eo sly' & st be noble thin%s( and so $ith $hat is , st and actions done , stly. 4-ot' ho$e*er' actions , stly done to s( here , stice is nlike the other *irt es( 0, stly0 does not al$ays &ean 0nobly0( $hen a &an is ! nished' it is &ore sha&e" l that this sho ld be , stly than n, stly done to hi&5. The sa&e is tr e o" the other *irt es. A%ain' those actions are noble "or $hich the re$ard is si&!ly hono r' or hono r &ore than &oney. :o are those in $hich a &an ai&s at so&ethin% desirable "or so&e one else0s sake( actions %ood absol tely' s ch as those a &an does "or his co ntry $itho t thinkin% o" hi&sel"( actions %ood in their o$n nat re( actions that are not %ood si&!ly "or the indi*id al' since indi*id al interests are sel"ish. -oble also are those actions $hose ad*anta%e &ay be en,oyed a"ter death' as o!!osed to those $hose ad*anta%e is en,oyed d rin% one0s li"eti&e. "or the latter are &ore likely to be "or one0s o$n sake only. Also' all actions done "or the sake o" others' since less than other actions are done "or one0s o$n sake( and all s ccesses $hich bene"it others and not onesel"( and ser*ices done to one0s bene"actors' "or this is , st( and %ood deeds %enerally' since they are not directed to one0s o$n !ro"it. And the o!!osites o" those thin%s o" $hich &en "eel asha&ed' "or &en are asha&ed o" sayin%' doin%' or intendin% to do sha&e" l thin%s. :o $hen Alcac s said

:o&ethin% I "ain $o ld say to thee' Only sha&e restraineth &e' :a!!ho $rote I" "or thin%s %ood and noble tho $ert yearnin%' I" to s!eak baseness $ere thy ton% e not b rnin%' -o load o" sha&e $o ld on thine eyelids $ei%h( What tho $ith hono r $ishest tho $o ldst say. Those thin%s' also' are noble "or $hich &en stri*e an)io sly' $itho t "eelin% "ear( "or they "eel th s abo t the %ood thin%s $hich lead to "air "a&e. A%ain' one + ality or action is nobler than another i" it is that o" a nat rally "iner bein%. th s a &an0s $ill be nobler than a $o&an0s. And those + alities are noble $hich %i*e &ore !leas re to other !eo!le than to their !ossessors( hence the nobleness o" , stice and , st actions. It is noble to a*en%e onesel" on one0s ene&ies and not to co&e to ter&s $ith the&( "or re+ ital is , st' and the , st is noble( and not to s rrender is a si%n o" co ra%e. Dictory' too' and hono r belon% to the class o" noble thin%s' since they are desirable e*en $hen they yield no "r its' and they !ro*e o r s !eriority in %ood + alities. Thin%s that deser*e to be re&e&bered are noble' and the &ore they deser*e this' the nobler they are. :o are the thin%s that contin e e*en a"ter death( those $hich are al$ays attended by hono r( those $hich are e)ce!tional( and those $hich are !ossessed by one !erson alone/these last are &ore readily re&e&bered than others. :o a%ain are !ossessions that brin% no !ro"it' since they are &ore "ittin% than others "or a %entle&an. :o are the distincti*e + alities o" a !artic lar !eo!le' and the sy&bols o" $hat it s!ecially ad&ires' like lon% hair in :!arta' $here this is a &ark o" a "ree &an' as it is not easy to !er"or& any &enial task $hen one0s hair is lon%. A%ain' it is noble not to !ractise any sordid cra"t' since it is the &ark o" a "ree &an not to li*e at another0s beck and call. We are also to ass &e $hen $e $ish either to !raise a &an or bla&e hi& that + alities closely allied to those $hich he act ally has are identical $ith the&( "or instance' that the ca tio s &an is cold/blooded and treachero s' and that the st !id &an is an honest "ello$ or the thick/skinned &an a %ood/te&!ered one. We can al$ays ideali2e any %i*en &an by dra$in% on the *irt es akin to his act al + alities( th s $e &ay say that the !assionate and e)citable &an is 0o ts!oken0( or that the arro%ant &an is 0s !erb0 or 0i&!ressi*e0. Those $ho r n to e)tre&es $ill be said to !ossess the corres!ondin% %ood + alities( rashness $ill be called co ra%e' and e)tra*a%ance %enerosity. That $ill be $hat &ost !eo!le think( and at the sa&e ti&e this &ethod enables an ad*ocate to dra$ a &isleadin% in"erence "ro& the &oti*e' ar% in% that i" a &an r ns into dan%er needlessly' & ch &ore $ill he do so in a noble ca se( and i" a &an is o!en/handed to any one and e*ery one' he $ill be so to his "riends also' since it is the e)tre&e "or& o" %oodness to be %ood to e*erybody. We & st also take into acco nt the nat re o" o r !artic lar a dience $hen &akin% a s!eech o" !raise( "or' as :ocrates sed to say' 0it is not di""ic lt to !raise the Athenians to an Athenian a dience.0 I" the a dience estee&s a %i*en + ality' $e & st say that o r hero has that + ality' no &atter $hether $e are addressin% :cythians or :!artans or !hiloso!hers. E*erythin%' in "act' that is estee&ed $e are to re!resent as noble. A"ter all' !eo!le re%ard the t$o thin%s as & ch the sa&e. All actions are noble that are a!!ro!riate to the &an $ho does the&. i"' "or instance' they are $orthy o" his ancestors or o" his o$n !ast career. 1or it &akes "or ha!!iness' and is a noble thin%' that he sho ld add to the hono r he already has. E*en ina!!ro!riate actions are noble i" they are better and nobler than the a!!ro!riate ones

$o ld be( "or instance' i" one $ho $as , st an a*era%e !erson $hen all $ent $ell beco&es a hero in ad*ersity' or i" he beco&es better and easier to %et on $ith the hi%her he rises. Co&!are the sayin% o" l!hicrates' 0Think $hat I $as and $hat I a&0( and the e!i%ra& on the *ictor at the Oly&!ic %a&es' In ti&e !ast' bearin% a yoke on &y sho lders' o" $ood nsha*en' and the enco&i & o" :i&onides' A $o&an $hose "ather' $hose h sband' $hose brethren $ere !rinces all. :ince $e !raise a &an "or $hat he has act ally done' and "ine actions are distin% ished "ro& others by bein% intentionally %ood' $e & st try to !ro*e that o r hero0s noble acts are intentional. This is all the easier i" $e can &ake o t that he has o"ten acted so be"ore' and there"ore $e & st assert coincidences and accidents to ha*e been intended. 3rod ce a n &ber o" %ood actions' all o" the sa&e kind' and !eo!le $ill think that they & st ha*e been intended' and that they !ro*e the %ood + alities o" the &an $ho did the&. 3raise is the e)!ression in $ords o" the e&inence o" a &an0s %ood + alities' and there"ore $e & st dis!lay his actions as the !rod ct o" s ch + alities. Enco&i & re"ers to $hat he has act ally done( the &ention o" accessories' s ch as %ood birth and ed cation' &erely hel!s to &ake o r story credible/%ood "athers are likely to ha*e %ood sons' and %ood trainin% is likely to !rod ce %ood character. Hence it is only $hen a &an has already done so&ethin% that $e besto$ enco&i &s !on hi&. Aet the act al deeds are e*idence o" the doer0s character. e*en i" a &an has not act ally done a %i*en %ood thin%' $e shall besto$ !raise on hi&' i" $e are s re that he is the sort o" &an $ho $o ld do it. To call any one blest is' it &ay be added' the sa&e thin% as to call hi& ha!!y( b t these are not the sa&e thin% as to besto$ !raise and enco&i & !on hi&( the t$o latter are a !art o" 0callin% ha!!y0' , st as %oodness is a !art o" ha!!iness. To !raise a &an is in one res!ect akin to r%in% a co rse o" action. The s %%estions $hich $o ld be &ade in the latter case beco&e enco&i &s $hen di""erently e)!ressed. When $e kno$ $hat action or character is re+ ired' then' in order to e)!ress these "acts as s %%estions "or action' $e ha*e to chan%e and re*erse o r "or& o" $ords. Th s the state&ent 0A &an sho ld be !ro d not o" $hat he o$es to "ort ne b t o" $hat he o$es to hi&sel"0' i" ! t like this' a&o nts to a s %%estion( to &ake it into !raise $e & st ! t it th s' 0:ince he is !ro d not o" $hat he o$es to "ort ne b t o" $hat he o$es to hi&sel".0 Conse+ ently' $hene*er yo $ant to !raise any one' think $hat yo $o ld r%e !eo!le to do( and $hen yo $ant to r%e the doin% o" anythin%' think $hat yo $o ld !raise a &an "or ha*in% done. :ince s %%estion &ay or &ay not "orbid an action' the !raise into $hich $e con*ert it & st ha*e one or other o" t$o o!!osite "or&s o" e)!ression accordin%ly. There are' also' &any se" l $ays o" hei%htenin% the e""ect o" !raise. We & st' "or instance' !oint o t that a &an is the only one' or the "irst' or al&ost the only one $ho has done so&ethin%' or that he has done it better than any one else( all these distinctions are hono rable. And $e & st' " rther' &ake & ch o" the !artic lar season and occasion o" an action' ar% in% that $e co ld hardly ha*e looked "or it , st then. I" a &an has o"ten achie*ed the sa&e s ccess' $e & st &ention this( that is a stron% !oint( he hi&sel"' and not l ck' $ill then be %i*en the credit. :o' too' i" it is on his acco nt that obser*ances ha*e been de*ised and instit ted to enco ra%e or hono r s ch achie*e&ents as his o$n. th s $e &ay !raise Hi!!oloch s beca se the "irst enco&i & e*er &ade $as "or hi&' or Har&odi s and Aristo%eiton beca se their stat es $ere the "irst to be ! t ! in

the &arket/!lace. And $e &ay cens re bad &en "or the o!!osite reason. A%ain' i" yo cannot "ind eno %h to say o" a &an hi&sel"' yo &ay !it hi& a%ainst others' $hich is $hat Isocrates sed to do o$in% to his $ant o" "a&iliarity $ith "orensic !leadin%. The co&!arison sho ld be $ith "a&o s &en( that $ill stren%then yo r case( it is a noble thin% to s r!ass &en $ho are the&sel*es %reat. It is only nat ral that &ethods o" 0hei%htenin% the e""ect0 sho ld be attached !artic larly to s!eeches o" !raise( they ai& at !ro*in% s !eriority o*er others' and any s ch s !eriority is a "or& o" nobleness. Hence i" yo cannot co&!are yo r hero $ith "a&o s &en' yo sho ld at least co&!are hi& $ith other !eo!le %enerally' since any s !eriority is held to re*eal e)cellence. And' in %eneral' o" the lines o" ar% &ent $hich are co&&on to all s!eeches' this 0hei%htenin% o" e""ect0 is &ost s itable "or decla&ations' $here $e take o r hero0s actions as ad&itted "acts' and o r b siness is si&!ly to in*est these $ith di%nity and nobility. 0E)a&!les0 are &ost s itable to deliberati*e s!eeches( "or $e , d%e o" " t re e*ents by di*ination "ro& !ast e*ents. Enthy&e&es are &ost s itable to "orensic s!eeches( it is o r do bts abo t !ast e*ents that &ost ad&it o" ar% &ents sho$in% $hy a thin% & st ha*e ha!!ened or !ro*in% that it did ha!!en. The abo*e are the %eneral lines on $hich all' or nearly all' s!eeches o" !raise or bla&e are constr cted. We ha*e seen the sort o" thin% $e & st bear in &ind in &akin% s ch s!eeches' and the &aterials o t o" $hich enco&i &s and cens res are &ade. -o s!ecial treat&ent o" cens re and *it !eration is needed. Fno$in% the abo*e "acts' $e kno$ their contraries( and it is o t o" these that s!eeches o" cens re are &ade. 10 We ha*e ne)t to treat o" Acc sation and #e"ence' and to en &erate and describe the in%redients o" the syllo%is&s sed therein. There are three thin%s $e & st ascertain "irst' the nat re and n &ber o" the incenti*es to $ron%/doin%( second' the state o" &ind o" $ron%doers( third' the kind o" !ersons $ho are $ron%ed' and their condition. We $ill deal $ith these + estions in order. B t be"ore that let s de"ine the act o" 0$ron%/doin%0. We &ay describe 0$ron%/doin%0 as in, ry *ol ntarily in"licted contrary to la$. 09a$0 is either s!ecial or %eneral. By s!ecial la$ I &ean that $ritten la$ $hich re% lates the li"e o" a !artic lar co&& nity( by %eneral la$' all those n$ritten !rinci!les $hich are s !!osed to be ackno$led%ed e*ery$here. We do thin%s 0*ol ntarily0 $hen $e do the& conscio sly and $itho t constraint. 4-ot all *ol ntary acts are deliberate' b t all deliberate acts are conscio s/no one is i%norant o" $hat he deliberately intends.5 The ca ses o" o r deliberately intendin% har&" l and $icked acts contrary to la$ are 415 *ice' 475 lack o" sel"/control. 1or the $ron%s a &an does to others $ill corres!ond to the bad + ality or + alities that he hi&sel" !ossesses. Th s it is the &ean &an $ho $ill $ron% others abo t &oney' the !ro"li%ate in &atters o" !hysical !leas re' the e""e&inate in &atters o" co&"ort' and the co$ard $here dan%er is concerned/his terror &akes hi& abandon those $ho are in*ol*ed in the sa&e dan%er. The a&bitio s &an does $ron% "or sake o" hono r' the + ick/te&!ered "ro& an%er' the lo*er o" *ictory "or the sake o" *ictory' the e&bittered &an "or the sake o" re*en%e' the st !id &an beca se he has &is% ided notions o" ri%ht and $ron%' the sha&eless &an beca se he does not &ind $hat !eo!le think o" hi&( and so $ith the rest/any $ron% that any one does to others corres!onds to his !artic lar "a lts o" character. Ho$e*er' this s b,ect has already been cleared ! in !art in o r disc ssion o" the *irt es and $ill be " rther e)!lained later $hen $e treat o" the e&otions. We ha*e no$ to consider the &oti*es and states o" &ind o" $ron%doers' and to $ho& they do $ron%. 9et s "irst decide $hat sort o" thin%s !eo!le are tryin% to %et

or a*oid $hen they set abo t doin% $ron% to others. 1or it is !lain that the !rosec tor & st consider' o t o" all the ai&s that can e*er ind ce s to do $ron% to o r nei%hbo rs' ho$ &any' and $hich' a""ect his ad*ersary( $hile the de"endant & st consider ho$ &any' and $hich' do not a""ect hi&. -o$ e*ery action o" e*ery !erson either is or is not d e to that !erson hi&sel". O" those not d e to hi&sel" so&e are d e to chance' the others to necessity( o" these latter' a%ain' so&e are d e to co&! lsion' the others to nat re. Conse+ ently all actions that are not d e to a &an hi&sel" are d e either to chance or to nat re or to co&! lsion. All actions that are d e to a &an hi&sel" and ca sed by hi&sel" are d e either to habit or to rational or irrational cra*in%. Rational cra*in% is a cra*in% "or %ood' i.e. a $ish/nobody $ishes "or anythin% nless he thinks it %ood. Irrational cra*in% is t$o"old' *i2. an%er and a!!etite. Th s e*ery action & st be d e to one or other o" se*en ca ses. chance' nat re' co&! lsion' habit' reasonin%' an%er' or a!!etite. It is s !er"l o s " rther to distin% ish actions accordin% to the doers0 a%es' &oral states' or the like( it is o" co rse tr e that' "or instance' yo n% &en do ha*e hot te&!ers and stron% a!!etites( still' it is not thro %h yo th that they act accordin%ly' b t thro %h an%er or a!!etite. -or' a%ain' is action d e to $ealth or !o*erty( it is o" co rse tr e that !oor &en' bein% short o" &oney' do ha*e an a!!etite "or it' and that rich &en' bein% able to co&&and needless !leas res' do ha*e an a!!etite "or s ch !leas res. b t here' a%ain' their actions $ill be d e not to $ealth or !o*erty b t to a!!etite. :i&ilarly' $ith , st &en' and n, st &en' and all others $ho are said to act in accordance $ith their &oral + alities' their actions $ill really be d e to one o" the ca ses &entioned/either reasonin% or e&otion. d e' indeed' so&eti&es to %ood dis!ositions and %ood e&otions' and so&eti&es to bad( b t that %ood + alities sho ld be "ollo$ed by %ood e&otions' and bad by bad' is &erely an accessory "act/it is no do bt tr e that the te&!erate &an' "or instance' beca se he is te&!erate' is al$ays and at once attended by healthy o!inions and a!!etites in re%ard to !leasant thin%s' and the inte&!erate &an by nhealthy ones. :o $e & st i%nore s ch distinctions. :till $e & st consider $hat kinds o" actions and o" !eo!le s ally %o to%ether( "or $hile there are no de"inite kinds o" action associated $ith the "act that a &an is "air or dark' tall or short' it does &ake a di""erence i" he is yo n% or old' , st or n, st. And' %enerally s!eakin%' all those accessory + alities that ca se distinctions o" h &an character are i&!ortant. e.%. the sense o" $ealth or !o*erty' o" bein% l cky or nl cky. This shall be dealt $ith later/let s no$ deal "irst $ith the rest o" the s b,ect be"ore s. The thin%s that ha!!en by chance are all those $hose ca se cannot be deter&ined' that ha*e no ! r!ose' and that ha!!en neither al$ays nor s ally nor in any "i)ed $ay. The de"inition o" chance sho$s , st $hat they are. Those thin%s ha!!en by nat re $hich ha*e a "i)ed and internal ca se( they take !lace ni"or&ly' either al$ays or s ally. There is no need to disc ss in e)act detail the thin%s that ha!!en contrary to nat re' nor to ask $hether they ha!!en in so&e sense nat rally or "ro& so&e other ca se( it $o ld see& that chance is at least !artly the ca se o" s ch e*ents. Those thin%s ha!!en thro %h co&! lsion $hich take !lace contrary to the desire or reason o" the doer' yet thro %h his o$n a%ency. Acts are done "ro& habit $hich &en do beca se they ha*e o"ten done the& be"ore. Actions are d e to reasonin% $hen' in *ie$ o" any o" the %oods already &entioned' they a!!ear se" l either as ends or as &eans to an end' and are !er"or&ed "or that reason. 0"or that reason'0 since e*en licentio s !ersons !er"or& a certain n &ber o" se" l actions' b t beca se they are !leasant and not beca se they are se" l. To !assion and an%er are d e all acts o" re*en%e. Re*en%e and ! nish&ent are di""erent thin%s. 3 nish&ent is in"licted "or the sake o" the !erson ! nished( re*en%e "or that o" the ! nisher' to satis"y his "eelin%s. 4What an%er is $ill be &ade clear $hen $e co&e to disc ss the e&otions.5

A!!etite is the ca se o" all actions that a!!ear !leasant. Habit' $hether ac+ ired by &ere "a&iliarity or by e""ort' belon%s to the class o" !leasant thin%s' "or there are &any actions not nat rally !leasant $hich &en !er"or& $ith !leas re' once they ha*e beco&e sed to the&. To s & ! then' all actions d e to o rsel*es either are or see& to be either %ood or !leasant. 6oreo*er' as all actions d e to o rsel*es are done *ol ntarily and actions not d e to o rsel*es are done in*ol ntarily' it "ollo$s that all *ol ntary actions & st either be or see& to be either %ood or !leasant( "or I reckon a&on% %oods esca!e "ro& e*ils or a!!arent e*ils and the e)chan%e o" a %reater e*il "or a less 4since these thin%s are in a sense !ositi*ely desirable5' and like$ise I co nt a&on% !leas res esca!e "ro& !ain" l or a!!arently !ain" l thin%s and the e)chan%e o" a %reater !ain "or a less. We & st ascertain' then' the n &ber and nat re o" the thin%s that are se" l and !leasant. The se" l has been !re*io sly e)a&ined in conne)ion $ith !olitical oratory( let s no$ !roceed to e)a&ine the !leasant. O r *ario s de"initions & st be re%arded as ade+ ate' e*en i" they are not e)act' !ro*ided they are clear. 11 We &ay lay it do$n that 3leas re is a &o*e&ent' a &o*e&ent by $hich the so l as a $hole is conscio sly bro %ht into its nor&al state o" bein%( and that 3ain is the o!!osite. I" this is $hat !leas re is' it is clear that the !leasant is $hat tends to !rod ce this condition' $hile that $hich tends to destroy it' or to ca se the so l to be bro %ht into the o!!osite state' is !ain" l. It & st there"ore be !leasant as a r le to &o*e to$ards a nat ral state o" bein%' !artic larly $hen a nat ral !rocess has achie*ed the co&!lete reco*ery o" that nat ral state. Habits also are !leasant( "or as soon as a thin% has beco&e habit al' it is *irt ally nat ral( habit is a thin% not nlike nat re( $hat ha!!ens o"ten is akin to $hat ha!!ens al$ays' nat ral e*ents ha!!enin% al$ays' habit al e*ents o"ten. A%ain' that is !leasant $hich is not "orced on s( "or "orce is nnat ral' and that is $hy $hat is co&! lsory' !ain" l' and it has been ri%htly said All that is done on co&! lsion is bitterness nto the so l.

:o all acts o" concentration' stron% e""ort' and strain are necessarily !ain" l( they all in*ol*e co&! lsion and "orce' nless $e are acc sto&ed to the&' in $hich case it is c sto& that &akes the& !leasant. The o!!osites to these are !leasant( and hence ease' "reedo& "ro& toil' rela)ation' a& se&ent' rest' and slee! belon% to the class o" !leasant thin%s( "or these are all "ree "ro& any ele&ent o" co&! lsion. E*erythin%' too' is !leasant "or $hich $e ha*e the desire $ithin s' since desire is the cra*in% "or !leas re. O" the desires so&e are irrational' so&e associated $ith reason. By irrational I &ean those $hich do not arise "ro& any o!inion held by the &ind. O" this kind are those kno$n as 0nat ral0( "or instance' those ori%inatin% in the body' s ch as the desire "or no rish&ent' na&ely h n%er and thirst' and a se!arate kind o" desire ans$erin% to each kind o" no rish&ent( and the desires connected $ith taste and se) and sensations o" to ch in %eneral( and those o" s&ell' hearin%' and *ision. Rational desires are those $hich $e are ind ced to ha*e( there are &any thin%s $e desire to see or %et beca se $e ha*e been told o" the& and ind ced to belie*e the& %ood. 1 rther' !leas re is the conscio sness thro %h the senses o" a certain kind o" e&otion( b t i&a%ination is a "eeble sort o" sensation' and there $ill al$ays be in the &ind o" a &an $ho re&e&bers or e)!ects so&ethin% an i&a%e or !ict re o" $hat he re&e&bers or e)!ects. I" this is so' it is clear that &e&ory and e)!ectation also' bein% acco&!anied by sensation' &ay be acco&!anied by !leas re. It "ollo$s that anythin% !leasant is

either !resent and !ercei*ed' !ast and re&e&bered' or " t re and e)!ected' since $e !ercei*e !resent !leas res' re&e&ber !ast ones' and e)!ect " t re ones. -o$ the thin%s that are !leasant to re&e&ber are not only those that' $hen act ally !ercei*ed as !resent' $ere !leasant' b t also so&e thin%s that $ere not' !ro*ided that their res lts ha*e s bse+ ently !ro*ed noble and %ood. Hence the $ords :$eet 0tis $hen resc ed to re&e&ber !ain' and E*en his %rie"s are a ,oy lon% a"ter to one that re&e&bers All that he $ro %ht and end red.

The reason o" this is that it is !leasant e*en to be &erely "ree "ro& e*il. The thin%s it is !leasant to e)!ect are those that $hen !resent are "elt to a""ord s either %reat deli%ht or %reat b t not !ain" l bene"it. And in %eneral' all the thin%s that deli%ht s $hen they are !resent also do so' as a r le' $hen $e &erely re&e&ber or e)!ect the&. Hence e*en bein% an%ry is !leasant/Ho&er said o" $rath that :$eeter it is by "ar than the honeyco&b dri!!in% $ith s$eetness/ "or no one %ro$s an%ry $ith a !erson on $ho& there is no !ros!ect o" takin% *en%eance' and $e "eel co&!arati*ely little an%er' or none at all' $ith those $ho are & ch o r s !eriors in !o$er. :o&e !leasant "eelin% is associated $ith &ost o" o r a!!etites $e are en,oyin% either the &e&ory o" a !ast !leas re or the e)!ectation o" a " t re one' , st as !ersons do$n $ith "e*er' d rin% their attacks o" thirst' en,oy re&e&berin% the drinks they ha*e had and lookin% "or$ard to ha*in% &ore. :o also a lo*er en,oys talkin% or $ritin% abo t his lo*ed one' or doin% any little thin% connected $ith hi&( all these thin%s recall hi& to &e&ory and &ake hi& act ally !resent to the eye o" i&a%ination. Indeed' it is al$ays the "irst si%n o" lo*e' that besides en,oyin% so&e one0s !resence' $e re&e&ber hi& $hen he is %one' and "eel !ain as $ell as !leas re' beca se he is there no lon%er. :i&ilarly there is an ele&ent o" !leas re e*en in &o rnin% and la&entation "or the de!arted. There is %rie"' indeed' at his loss' b t !leas re in re&e&berin% hi& and as it $ere seein% hi& be"ore s in his deeds and in his li"e. We can $ell belie*e the !oet $hen he says He s!ake' and in each &an0s heart he a$akened the lo*e o" la&ent. Re*en%e' too' is !leasant( it is !leasant to %et anythin% that it is !ain" l to "ail to %et' and an%ry !eo!le s ""er e)tre&e !ain $hen they "ail to %et their re*en%e( b t they en,oy the !ros!ect o" %ettin% it. Dictory also is !leasant' and not &erely to 0bad losers0' b t to e*ery one( the $inner sees hi&sel" in the li%ht o" a cha&!ion' and e*erybody has a &ore or less keen a!!etite "or bein% that. The !leasantness o" *ictory i&!lies o" co rse that co&bati*e s!orts and intellect al contests are !leasant 4since in these it o"ten ha!!ens that so&e one $ins5 and also %a&es like kn ckle/bones' ball' dice' and dra %hts. And si&ilarly $ith the serio s s!orts( so&e o" these beco&e !leasant $hen one is acc sto&ed to the&( $hile others are !leasant "ro& the "irst' like h ntin% $ith ho nds' or indeed any kind o" h ntin%. 1or $here there is co&!etition' there is *ictory. That is $hy "orensic !leadin% and debatin% contests are !leasant to those $ho are acc sto&ed to the& and ha*e the ca!acity "or the&. Hono r and %ood re! te are a&on% the &ost !leasant thin%s o" all( they &ake a &an see hi&sel" in the character o" a "ine "ello$' es!ecially $hen he is credited $ith it by !eo!le $ho& he thinks %ood , d%es. His nei%hbo rs are better , d%es than !eo!le at a distance( his associates and "ello$/co ntry&en better than stran%ers( his conte&!oraries better than !osterity( sensible !ersons better than

"oolish ones( a lar%e n &ber o" !eo!le better than a s&all n &ber. those o" the "or&er class' in each case' are the &ore likely to be %ood , d%es o" hi&. Hono r and credit besto$ed by those $ho& yo think & ch in"erior to yo rsel"/e.%. children or ani&als/yo do not *al e. not "or its o$n sake' anyho$. i" yo do *al e it' it is "or so&e other reason. 1riends belon% to the class o" !leasant thin%s( it is !leasant to lo*e/i" yo lo*e $ine' yo certainly "ind it deli%ht" l. and it is !leasant to be lo*ed' "or this too &akes a &an see hi&sel" as the !ossessor o" %oodness' a thin% that e*ery bein% that has a "eelin% "or it desires to !ossess. to be lo*ed &eans to be *al ed "or one0s o$n !ersonal + alities. To be ad&ired is also !leasant' si&!ly beca se o" the hono r i&!lied. 1lattery and "latterers are !leasant. the "latterer is a &an $ho' yo belie*e' ad&ires and likes To do the sa&e thin% o"ten is !leasant' since' as $e sa$' anythin% habit al is !leasant. And to chan%e is also !leasant. chan%e &eans an a!!roach to nat re' $hereas in*ariable re!etition o" anythin% ca ses the e)cessi*e !rolon%ation o" a settled condition. there"ore' says the !oet' Chan%e is in all thin%s s$eet. That is $hy $hat co&es to s only at lon% inter*als is !leasant' $hether it be a !erson or a thin%( "or it is a chan%e "ro& $hat $e had be"ore' and' besides' $hat co&es only at lon% inter*als has the *al e o" rarity. 9earnin% thin%s and $onderin% at thin%s are also !leasant as a r le( $onderin% i&!lies the desire o" learnin%' so that the ob,ect o" $onder is an ob,ect o" desire( $hile in learnin% one is bro %ht into one0s nat ral condition. Con"errin% and recei*in% bene"its belon% to the class o" !leasant thin%s( to recei*e a bene"it is to %et $hat one desires( to con"er a bene"it i&!lies both !osses sion and s !eriority' both o" $hich are thin%s $e try to attain. It is beca se bene"icent acts are !leasant that !eo!le "ind it !leasant to ! t their nei%hbo rs strai%ht a%ain and to s !!ly $hat they lack. A%ain' since learnin% and $onderin% are !leasant' it "ollo$s that s ch thin%s as acts o" i&itation & st be !leasant/"or instance' !aintin%' sc l!t re' !oetry and e*ery !rod ct o" skil" l i&itation( this latter' e*en i" the ob,ect i&itated is not itsel" !leasant( "or it is not the ob,ect itsel" $hich here %i*es deli%ht( the s!ectator dra$s in"erences 40That is a so/and/so05 and th s learns so&ethin% "resh. #ra&atic t rns o" "ort ne and hairbreadth esca!es "ro& !erils are !leasant' beca se $e "eel all s ch thin%s are $onder" l. And since $hat is nat ral is !leasant' and thin%s akin to each other see& nat ral to each other' there"ore all kindred and si&ilar thin%s are s ally !leasant to each other( "or instance' one &an' horse' or yo n% !erson is !leasant to another &an' horse' or yo n% !erson. Hence the !ro*erbs 0&ate deli%hts &ate0' 0like to like0' 0beast kno$s beast0' 0,ackda$ to ,ackda$0' and the rest o" the&. B t since e*erythin% like and akin to onesel" is !leasant' and since e*ery &an is hi&sel" &ore like and akin to hi&sel" than any one else is' it "ollo$s that all o" s & st be &ore or less "ond o" o rsel*es. 1or all this rese&blance and kinshi! is !resent !artic larly in the relation o" an indi*id al to hi&sel". And beca se $e are all "ond o" o rsel*es' it "ollo$s that $hat is o r o$n is !leasant to all o" s' as "or instance o r o$n deeds and $ords. That is $hy $e are s ally "ond o" o r "latterers' >o r lo*ers'? and hono r( also o" o r children' "or o r children are o r o$n $ork. It is also !leasant to co&!lete $hat is de"ecti*e' "or the $hole thin% there !on beco&es o r o$n $ork. And since !o$er o*er others is *ery !leasant' it is !leasant to be tho %ht $ise' "or !ractical $isdo& sec res s !o$er o*er others. 4:cienti"ic $isdo& is also !leasant' beca se it is the kno$led%e o" &any $onder" l thin%s.5 A%ain' since &ost o" s are a&bitio s' it & st be !leasant to dis!ara%e o r nei%hbo rs as $ell as to ha*e !o$er o*er the&. It is !leasant "or a &an to s!end his ti&e o*er $hat he "eels he can do

best( , st as the !oet says' To that he bends hi&sel"' To that each day allots &ost ti&e' $herein He is indeed the best !art o" hi&sel". :i&ilarly' since a& se&ent and e*ery kind o" rela)ation and la %hter too belon% to the class o" !leasant thin%s' it "ollo$s that l dicro s thin%s are !leasant' $hether &en' $ords' or deeds. We ha*e disc ssed the l dicro s se!arately in the treatise on the Art o" 3oetry. :o & ch "or the s b,ect o" !leasant thin%s. by considerin% their o!!osites $e can easily see $hat thin%s are n!leasant. 17 The abo*e are the &oti*es that &ake &en do $ron% to others( $e are ne)t to consider the states o" &ind in $hich they do it' and the !ersons to $ho& they do it. They & st the&sel*es s !!ose that the thin% can be done' and done by the&. either that they can do it $itho t bein% "o nd o t' or that i" they are "o nd o t they can esca!e bein% ! nished' or that i" they are ! nished the disad*anta%e $ill be less than the %ain "or the&sel*es or those they care "or. The %eneral s b,ect o" a!!arent !ossibility and i&!ossibility $ill be handled later on' since it is rele*ant not only to "orensic b t to all kinds o" s!eakin%. B t it &ay here be said that !eo!le think that they can the&sel*es &ost easily do $ron% to others $itho t bein% ! nished "or it i" they !ossess elo+ ence' or !ractical ability' or & ch le%al e)!erience' or a lar%e body o" "riends' or a %reat deal o" &oney. Their con"idence is %reatest i" they !ersonally !ossess the ad*anta%es &entioned. b t e*en $itho t the& they are satis"ied i" they ha*e "riends or s !!orters or !artners $ho do !ossess the&. they can th s both co&&it their cri&es and esca!e bein% "o nd o t and ! nished "or co&&ittin% the&. They are also sa"e' they think' i" they are on %ood ter&s $ith their *icti&s or $ith the , d%es $ho try the&. Their *icti&s $ill in that case not be on their % ard a%ainst bein% $ron%ed' and $ill &ake so&e arran%e&ent $ith the& instead o" !rosec tin%( $hile their , d%es $ill "a*o r the& beca se they like the&' either lettin% the& o"" alto%ether or i&!osin% li%ht sentences. They are not likely to be "o nd o t i" their a!!earance contradicts the char%es that &i%ht be bro %ht a%ainst the&. "or instance' a $eaklin% is nlikely to be char%ed $ith *iolent assa lt' or a !oor and %ly &an $ith ad ltery. 3 blic and o!en in, ries are the easiest to do' beca se nobody co ld at all s !!ose the& !ossible' and there"ore no !reca tions are taken. The sa&e is tr e o" cri&es so %reat and terrible that no &an li*in% co ld be s s!ected o" the&. here too no !reca tions are taken. 1or all &en % ard a%ainst ordinary o""ences' , st as they % ard a%ainst ordinary diseases( b t no one takes !reca tions a%ainst a disease that nobody has e*er had. Ao "eel sa"e' too' i" yo ha*e either no ene&ies or a %reat &any( i" yo ha*e none' yo e)!ect not to be $atched and there"ore not to be detected( i" yo ha*e a %reat &any' yo $ill be $atched' and there"ore !eo!le $ill think yo can ne*er risk an atte&!t on the&' and yo can de"end yo r innocence by !ointin% o t that yo co ld ne*er ha*e taken s ch a risk. Ao &ay also tr st to hide yo r cri&e by the $ay yo do it or the !lace yo do it in' or by so&e con*enient &eans o" dis!osal. Ao &ay "eel that e*en i" yo are "o nd o t yo can sta*e o"" a trial' or ha*e it !ost!oned' or corr !t yo r , d%es. or that e*en i" yo are sentenced yo can a*oid !ayin% da&a%es' or can at least !ost!one doin% so "or a lon% ti&e. or that yo are so badly o"" that yo $ill ha*e nothin% to lose. Ao &ay "eel that the %ain to be %ot by $ron%/doin% is %reat or certain or i&&ediate' and that the !enalty is s&all or ncertain or distant. It &ay be that the ad*anta%e to be

%ained is %reater than any !ossible retrib tion. as in the case o" des!otic !o$er' accordin% to the !o! lar *ie$. Ao &ay consider yo r cri&es as brin%in% yo solid !ro"it' $hile their ! nish&ent is nothin% &ore than bein% called bad na&es. Or the o!!osite ar% &ent &ay a!!eal to yo . yo r cri&es &ay brin% yo so&e credit 4th s yo &ay' incidentally' be a*en%in% yo r "ather or &other' like Geno5' $hereas the ! nish&ent &ay a&o nt to a "ine' or banish&ent' or so&ethin% o" that sort. 3eo!le &ay be led on to $ron% others by either o" these &oti*es or "eelin%s( b t no &an by both/they $ill a""ect !eo!le o" + ite o!!osite characters. Ao &ay be enco ra%ed by ha*in% o"ten esca!ed detection or ! nish&ent already( or by ha*in% o"ten tried and "ailed( "or in cri&e' as in $ar' there are &en $ho $ill al$ays re" se to %i*e ! the str %%le. Ao &ay %et yo r !leas re on the s!ot and the !ain later' or the %ain on the s!ot and the loss later. That is $hat a!!eals to $eak/$illed !ersons//and $eakness o" $ill &ay be sho$n $ith re%ard to all the ob,ects o" desire. It &ay on the contrary a!!eal to yo as it does a!!eal to sel"/controlled and sensible !eo!le//that the !ain and loss are i&&ediate' $hile the !leas re and !ro"it co&e later and last lon%er. Ao &ay "eel able to &ake it a!!ear that yo r cri&e $as d e to chance' or to necessity' or to nat ral ca ses' or to habit. in "act' to ! t it %enerally' as i" yo had "ailed to do ri%ht rather than act ally done $ron%. Ao &ay be able to tr st other !eo!le to , d%e yo e+ itably. Ao &ay be sti& lated by bein% in $ant. $hich &ay &ean that yo $ant necessaries' as !oor !eo!le do' or that yo $ant l ) ries' as rich !eo!le do. Ao &ay be enco ra%ed by ha*in% a !artic larly %ood re! tation' beca se that $ill sa*e yo "ro& bein% s s!ected. or by ha*in% a !artic larly bad one' beca se nothin% yo are likely to do $ill &ake it $orse. The abo*e' then' are the *ario s states o" &ind in $hich a &an sets abo t doin% $ron% to others. The kind o" !eo!le to $ho& he does $ron%' and the $ays in $hich he does it' & st be considered ne)t. The !eo!le to $ho& he does it are those $ho ha*e $hat he $ants hi&sel"' $hether this &eans necessities or l ) ries and &aterials "or en,oy&ent. His *icti&s &ay be "ar o"" or near at hand. I" they are near' he %ets his !ro"it + ickly( i" they are "ar o""' *en%eance is slo$' as those think $ho !l nder the Cartha%inians. They &ay be those $ho are tr st" l instead o" bein% ca tio s and $atch" l' since all s ch !eo!le are easy to el de. Or those $ho are too easy/%oin% to ha*e eno %h ener%y to !rosec te an o""ender. Or sensiti*e !eo!le' $ho are not a!t to sho$ "i%ht o*er + estions o" &oney. Or those $ho ha*e been $ron%ed already by &any !eo!le' and yet ha*e not !rosec ted( s ch &en & st s rely be the !ro*erbial 06ysian !rey0. Or those $ho ha*e either ne*er or o"ten been $ron%ed be"ore( in neither case $ill they take !reca tions( i" they ha*e ne*er been $ron%ed they think they ne*er $ill' and i" they ha*e o"ten been $ron%ed they "eel that s rely it cannot ha!!en a%ain. Or those $hose character has been attacked in the !ast' or is e)!osed to attack in the " t re. they $ill be too & ch "ri%htened o" the , d%es to &ake ! their &inds to !rosec te' nor can they $in their case i" they do. this is tr e o" those $ho are hated or n!o! lar. Another likely class o" *icti& is those $ho their in, rer can !retend ha*e' the&sel*es or thro %h their ancestors or "riends' treated badly' or intended to treat badly' the &an hi&sel"' or his ancestors' or those he cares "or( as the !ro*erb says' 0$ickedness needs b t a !rete)t0. A &an &ay $ron% his ene&ies' beca se that is !leasant. he &ay e+ ally $ron% his "riends' beca se that is easy. Then there are those $ho ha*e no "riends' and those $ho lack elo+ ence and !ractical ca!acity( these $ill either not atte&!t to !rosec te' or they $ill co&e to ter&s' or "ailin% that they $ill lose their case. There are those $ho& it does not !ay to $aste ti&e in $aitin% "or trial or da&a%es' s ch as "orei%ners and s&all "ar&ers( they $ill settle "or a tri"le' and al$ays be ready to lea*e o"". Also those $ho ha*e the&sel*es $ron%ed others' either o"ten' or in the sa&e $ay as they are no$ bein% $ron%ed the&sel*es/"or it is "elt that ne)t to no $ron% is done to !eo!le $hen it is the sa&e $ron%

as they ha*e o"ten the&sel*es done to others. i"' "or instance' yo assa lt a &an $ho has been acc sto&ed to beha*e $ith *iolence to others. :o too $ith those $ho ha*e done $ron% to others' or ha*e &eant to' or &ean to' or are likely to do so( there is so&ethin% "ine and !leasant in $ron%in% s ch !ersons' it see&s as tho %h al&ost no $ron% $ere done. Also those by doin% $ron% to $ho& $e shall be %rati"yin% o r "riends' or those $e ad&ire or lo*e' or o r &asters' or in %eneral the !eo!le by re"erence to $ho& $e &o ld o r li*es. Also those $ho& $e &ay $ron% and yet be s re o" e+ itable treat&ent. Also those a%ainst $ho& $e ha*e had any %rie*ance' or any !re*io s di""erences $ith the&' as Calli!! s had $hen he beha*ed as he did to #ion. here too it see&s as i" al&ost no $ron% $ere bein% done. Also those $ho are on the !oint o" bein% $ron%ed by others i" $e "ail to $ron% the& o rsel*es' since here $e "eel $e ha*e no ti&e le"t "or thinkin% the &atter o*er. :o Aeneside& s is said to ha*e sent the 0cottab s0 !ri2e to ;elon' $ho had , st red ced a to$n to sla*ery' beca se ;elon had %ot there "irst and "orestalled his o$n atte&!t. Also those by $ron%in% $ho& $e shall be able to do &any ri%hteo s acts( "or $e "eel that $e can then easily c re the har& done. Th s Eason the Thessalian said that it is a d ty to do so&e n, st acts in order to be able to do &any , st ones. A&on% the kinds o" $ron% done to others are those that are done ni*ersally' or at least co&&only. one e)!ects to be "or%i*en "or doin% these. Also those that can easily be ke!t dark' as $here thin%s that can ra!idly be cons &ed like eatables are concerned' or thin%s that can easily be chan%ed in sha!e' colo r' or co&bination' or thin%s that can easily be sto$ed a$ay al&ost any$here/!ortable ob,ects that yo can sto$ a$ay in s&all corners' or thin%s so like others o" $hich yo ha*e !lenty already that nobody can tell the di""erence. There are also $ron%s o" a kind that sha&e !re*ents the *icti& s!eakin% abo t' s ch as o tra%es done to the $o&en in his ho sehold or to hi&sel" or to his sons. Also those "or $hich yo $o ld be tho %ht *ery liti%io s to !rosec te any one/tri"lin% $ron%s' or $ron%s "or $hich !eo!le are s ally e)c sed. The abo*e is a "airly co&!lete acco nt o" the circ &stances nder $hich &en do $ron% to others' o" the sort o" $ron%s they do' o" the sort o" !ersons to $ho& they do the&' and o" their reasons "or doin% the&. 13 It $ill no$ be $ell to &ake a co&!lete classi"ication o" , st and n, st actions. We &ay be%in by obser*in% that they ha*e been de"ined relati*ely to t$o kinds o" la$' and also relati*ely to t$o classes o" !ersons. By the t$o kinds o" la$ I &ean !artic lar la$ and ni*ersal la$. 3artic lar la$ is that $hich each co&& nity lays do$n and a!!lies to its o$n &e&bers. this is !artly $ritten and !artly n$ritten. =ni*ersal la$ is the la$ o" -at re. 1or there really is' as e*ery one to so&e e)tent di*ines' a nat ral , stice and in, stice that is bindin% on all &en' e*en on those $ho ha*e no association or co*enant $ith each other. It is this that :o!hocles0 Anti%one clearly &eans $hen she says that the b rial o" 3olyneices $as a , st act in s!ite o" the !rohibition. she &eans that it $as , st by nat re. -ot o" to/day or yesterday it is' B t li*es eternal. none can date its birth. And so E&!edocles' $hen he bids s kill no li*in% creat re' says that doin% this is not , st "or so&e !eo!le $hile n, st "or others' -ay' b t' an all/e&bracin% la$' thro %h the real&s o" the sky =nbroken it stretcheth' and o*er the earth0s i&&ensity. And as Alcida&as says in his 6esseniac Oration.... The actions that $e o %ht to do or not to do ha*e also been

di*ided into t$o classes as a""ectin% either the $hole co&& nity or so&e one o" its &e&bers. 1ro& this !oint o" *ie$ $e can !er"or& , st or n, st acts in either o" t$o $ays/to$ards one de"inite !erson' or to$ards the co&& nity. The &an $ho is % ilty o" ad ltery or assa lt is doin% $ron% to so&e de"inite !erson( the &an $ho a*oids ser*ice in the ar&y is doin% $ron% to the co&& nity. Th s the $hole class o" n, st actions &ay be di*ided into t$o classes' those a""ectin% the co&& nity' and those a""ectin% one or &ore other !ersons. We $ill ne)t' be"ore %oin% " rther' re&ind o rsel*es o" $hat 0bein% $ron%ed0 &eans. :ince it has already been settled that 0doin% a $ron%0 & st be intentional' 0bein% $ron%ed0 & st consist in ha*in% an in, ry done to yo by so&e one $ho intends to do it. In order to be $ron%ed' a &an & st 415 s ""er act al har&' 475 s ""er it a%ainst his $ill. The *ario s !ossible "or&s o" har& are clearly e)!lained by o r !re*io s' se!arate disc ssion o" %oods and e*ils. We ha*e also seen that a *ol ntary action is one $here the doer kno$s $hat he is doin%. We no$ see that e*ery acc sation & st be o" an action a""ectin% either the co&& nity or so&e indi*id al. The doer o" the action & st either nderstand and intend the action' or not nderstand and intend it. In the "or&er case' he & st be actin% either "ro& deliberate choice or "ro& !assion. 4An%er $ill be disc ssed $hen $e s!eak o" the !assions the &oti*es "or cri&e and the state o" &ind o" the cri&inal ha*e already been disc ssed.5 -o$ it o"ten ha!!ens that a &an $ill ad&it an act' b t $ill not ad&it the !rosec tor0s label "or the act nor the "acts $hich that label i&!lies. He $ill ad&it that he took a thin% b t not that he 0stole0 it( that he str ck so&e one "irst' b t not that he co&&itted 0o tra%e0( that he had interco rse $ith a $o&an' b t not that he co&&itted 0ad ltery0( that he is % ilty o" the"t' b t not that he is % ilty o" 0sacrile%e0' the ob,ect stolen not bein% consecrated( that he has encroached' b t not that he has 0encroached on :tate lands0( that he has been in co&& nication $ith the ene&y' b t not that he has been % ilty o" 0treason0. Here there"ore $e & st be able to distin% ish $hat is the"t' o tra%e' or ad ltery' "ro& $hat is not' i" $e are to be able to &ake the , stice o" o r case clear' no &atter $hether o r ai& is to establish a &an0s % ilt or to establish his innocence. Where*er s ch char%es are bro %ht a%ainst a &an' the + estion is $hether he is or is not % ilty o" a cri&inal o""ence. It is deliberate ! r!ose that constit tes $ickedness and cri&inal % ilt' and s ch na&es as 0o tra%e0 or 0the"t0 i&!ly deliberate ! r!ose as $ell as the &ere action. A blo$ does not al$ays a&o nt to 0o tra%e0' b t only i" it is str ck $ith so&e s ch ! r!ose as to ins lt the &an str ck or %rati"y the striker hi&sel". -or does takin% a thin% $itho t the o$ner0s kno$led%e al$ays a&o nt to 0the"t0' b t only i" it is taken $ith the intention o" kee!in% it and in, rin% the o$ner. And as $ith these char%es' so $ith all the others. We sa$ that there are t$o kinds o" ri%ht and $ron% cond ct to$ards others' one !ro*ided "or by $ritten ordinances' the other by n$ritten. We ha*e no$ disc ssed the kind abo t $hich the la$s ha*e so&ethin% to say. The other kind has itsel" t$o *arieties. 1irst' there is the cond ct that s!rin%s "ro& e)ce!tional %oodness or badness' and is *isited accordin%ly $ith cens re and loss o" hono r' or $ith !raise and increase o" hono r and decorations. "or instance' %ratit de to' or re+ ital o"' o r bene"actors' readiness to hel! o r "riends' and the like. The second kind &akes ! "or the de"ects o" a co&& nity0s $ritten code o" la$. This is $hat $e call e+ ity( !eo!le re%ard it as , st( it is' in "act' the sort o" , stice $hich %oes beyond the $ritten la$. Its e)istence !artly is and !artly is not intended by le%islators( not intended' $here they ha*e noticed no de"ect in the la$( intended' $here "ind the&sel*es nable to de"ine thin%s e)actly' and are obli%ed to le%islate as i" that held %ood al$ays $hich in "act only holds %ood s ally( or $here it is not easy to be co&!lete o$in% to the endless !ossible cases !resented' s ch as the kinds and si2es o" $ea!ons that &ay be sed to in"lict

$o nds/a li"eti&e $o ld be too short to &ake o t a co&!lete list o" these. I"' then' a !recise state&ent is i&!ossible and yet le%islation is necessary' the la$ & st be e)!ressed in $ide ter&s( and so' i" a &an has no &ore than a "in%er/rin% on his hand $hen he li"ts it to strike or act ally strikes another &an' he is % ilty o" a cri&inal act accordin% to the n$ritten $ords o" the la$( b t he is innocent really' and it is e+ ity that declares hi& to be so. 1ro& this de"inition o" e+ ity it is !lain $hat sort o" actions' and $hat sort o" !ersons' are e+ itable or the re*erse. E+ ity & st be a!!lied to "or%i*able actions( and it & st &ake s distin% ish bet$een cri&inal acts on the one hand' and errors o" , d%e&ent' or &is"ort nes' on the other. 4A 0&is"ort ne0 is an act' not d e to &oral badness' that has ne)!ected res lts. an 0error o" , d%e&ent0 is an act' also not d e to &oral badness' that has res lts that &i%ht ha*e been e)!ected. a 0cri&inal act0 has res lts that &i%ht ha*e been e)!ected' b t is d e to &oral badness' "or that is the so rce o" all actions ins!ired by o r a!!etites.5 E+ ity bids s be &erci" l to the $eakness o" h &an nat re( to think less abo t the la$s than abo t the &an $ho "ra&ed the&' and less abo t $hat he said than abo t $hat he &eant( not to consider the actions o" the acc sed so & ch as his intentions' nor this or that detail so & ch as the $hole story( to ask not $hat a &an is no$ b t $hat he has al$ays or s ally been. It bids s re&e&ber bene"its rather than in, ries' and bene"its recei*ed rather than bene"its con"erred( to be !atient $hen $e are $ron%ed( to settle a dis! te by ne%otiation and not by "orce( to !re"er arbitration to &otion/"or an arbitrator %oes by the e+ ity o" a case' a , d%e by the strict la$' and arbitration $as in*ented $ith the e)!ress ! r!ose o" sec rin% " ll !o$er "or e+ ity. The abo*e &ay be taken as a s ""icient acco nt o" the nat re o" e+ ity. 18 The $orse o" t$o acts o" $ron% done to others is that $hich is !ro&!ted by the $orse dis!osition. Hence the &ost tri"lin% acts &ay be the $orst ones( as $hen Callistrat s char%ed 6elano! s $ith ha*in% cheated the te&!le/b ilders o" three consecrated hal"/obols. The con*erse is tr e o" , st acts. This is beca se the %reater is here !otentially contained in the less. there is no cri&e that a &an $ho has stolen three consecrated hal"/obols $o ld shrink "ro& co&&ittin%. :o&eti&es' ho$e*er' the $orse act is reckoned not in this $ay b t by the %reater har& that it does. Or it &ay be beca se no ! nish&ent "or it is se*ere eno %h to be ade+ ate( or the har& done &ay be inc rable/a di""ic lt and e*en ho!eless cri&e to de"end( or the s ""erer &ay not be able to %et his in, rer le%ally ! nished' a "act that &akes the har& inc rable' since le%al ! nish&ent and chastise&ent are the !ro!er c re. Or a%ain' the &an $ho has s ""ered $ron% &ay ha*e in"licted so&e "ear" l ! nish&ent on hi&sel"( then the doer o" the $ron% o %ht in , stice to recei*e a still &ore "ear" l ! nish&ent. Th s :o!hocles' $hen !leadin% "or retrib tion to E cte&on' $ho had c t his o$n throat beca se o" the o tra%e done to hi&' said he $o ld not "i) a !enalty less than the *icti& had "i)ed "or hi&sel". A%ain' a &an0s cri&e is $orse i" he has been the "irst &an' or the only &an' or al&ost the only &an' to co&&it it. or i" it is by no &eans the "irst ti&e he has %one serio sly $ron% in the sa&e $ay. or i" his cri&e has led to the thinkin%/o t and in*ention o" &eas res to !re*ent and ! nish si&ilar cri&es/th s in Ar%os a !enalty is in"licted on a &an on $hose acco nt a la$ is !assed' and also on those on $hose acco nt the !rison $as b ilt. or i" a cri&e is s!ecially br tal' or s!ecially deliberate. or i" the re!ort o" it a$akes &ore terror than !ity. There are also s ch rhetorically e""ecti*e $ays o" ! ttin% it as the "ollo$in%. That the acc sed has disre%arded and broken not one b t &any sole&n obli%ations like oaths' !ro&ises' !led%es' or ri%hts o" inter&arria%e bet$een states/here the cri&e is $orse beca se it consists o" &any cri&es( and that the cri&e $as co&&itted in the

*ery !lace $here cri&inals are ! nished' as "or e)a&!le !er, rers do/it is ar% ed that a &an $ho $ill co&&it a cri&e in a la$/co rt $o ld co&&it it any$here. 1 rther' the $orse deed is that $hich in*ol*es the doer in s!ecial sha&e( that $hereby a &an $ron%s his bene"actors/"or he does &ore than one $ron%' by not &erely doin% the& har& b t "ailin% to do the& %ood( that $hich breaks the n$ritten la$s o" , stice/the better sort o" &an $ill be , st $itho t bein% "orced to be so' and the $ritten la$s de!end on "orce $hile the n$ritten ones do not. It &ay ho$e*er be ar% ed other$ise' that the cri&e is $orse $hich breaks the $ritten la$s. "or the &an $ho co&&its cri&es "or $hich terrible !enalties are !ro*ided $ill not hesitate o*er cri&es "or $hich no !enalty is !ro*ided at all./:o & ch' then' "or the co&!arati*e badness o" cri&inal actions. 15 There are also the so/called 0non/technical0 &eans o" !ers asion( and $e & st no$ take a c rsory *ie$ o" these' since they are s!ecially characteristic o" "orensic oratory. They are "i*e in n &ber. la$s' $itnesses' contracts' tort res' oaths. 1irst' then' let s take la$s and see ho$ they are to be sed in !ers asion and diss asion' in acc sation and de"ence. I" the $ritten la$ tells a%ainst o r case' clearly $e & st a!!eal to the ni*ersal la$' and insist on its %reater e+ ity and , stice. We & st ar% e that the , ror0s oath 0I $ill %i*e &y *erdict accordin% to honest o!inion0 &eans that one $ill not si&!ly "ollo$ the letter o" the $ritten la$. We & st r%e that the !rinci!les o" e+ ity are !er&anent and chan%eless' and that the ni*ersal la$ does not chan%e either' "or it is the la$ o" nat re' $hereas $ritten la$s o"ten do chan%e. This is the bearin% the lines in :o!hocles0 Anti%one' $here Anti%one !leads that in b ryin% her brother she had broken Creon0s la$' b t not the n$ritten la$. -ot o" to/day or yesterday they are' B t li*e eternal. 4none can date their birth.5 -ot I $o ld "ear the $rath o" any &an 4And bra*e ;od0s *en%eance5 "or de"yin% these. We shall ar% e that , stice indeed is tr e and !ro"itable' b t that sha& , stice is not' and that conse+ ently the $ritten la$ is not' beca se it does not " l"il the tr e ! r!ose o" la$. Or that , stice is like sil*er' and & st be assayed by the , d%es' i" the %en ine is to be distin% ished "ro& the co nter"eit. Or that the better a &an is' the &ore he $ill "ollo$ and abide by the n$ritten la$ in !re"erence to the $ritten. Or !erha!s that the la$ in + estion contradicts so&e other hi%hly/estee&ed la$' or e*en contradicts itsel". Th s it &ay be that one la$ $ill enact that all contracts & st be held bindin%' $hile another "orbids s e*er to &ake ille%al contracts. Or i" a la$ is a&bi% o s' $e shall t rn it abo t and consider $hich constr ction best "its the interests o" , stice or tility' and then "ollo$ that $ay o" lookin% at it. Or i"' tho %h the la$ still e)ists' the sit ation to &eet $hich it $as !assed e)ists no lon%er' $e & st do o r best to !ro*e this and to co&bat the la$ thereby. I" ho$e*er the $ritten la$ s !!orts o r case' $e & st r%e that the oath 0to %i*e &y *erdict accordin% to &y honest o!inion0 not &eant to &ake the , d%es %i*e a *erdict that is contrary to the la$' b t to sa*e the& "ro& the % ilt o" !er, ry i" they &is nderstand $hat the la$ really &eans. Or that no one chooses $hat is absol tely %ood' b t e*ery one $hat is %ood "or hi&sel". Or that not to se the la$s is as ahas to ha*e no la$s at all. Or that' as in the other arts' it does not !ay to try to be cle*erer than the doctor. "or less har& co&es "ro& the doctor0s &istakes than "ro& the %ro$in% habit o" disobeyin% a thority. Or that tryin% to be cle*erer than the la$s is , st $hat is "orbidden by those codes o" la$ that are acco nted best./:o "ar as the la$s are concerned' the abo*e disc ssion

is !robably s ""icient. As to $itnesses' they are o" t$o kinds' the ancient and the recent( and these latter' a%ain' either do or do not share in the risks o" the trial. By 0ancient0 $itnesses I &ean the !oets and all other notable !ersons $hose , d%e&ents are kno$n to all. Th s the Athenians a!!ealed to Ho&er as a $itness abo t :ala&is( and the &en o" Tenedos not lon% a%o a!!ealed to 3eriander o" Corinth in their dis! te $ith the !eo!le o" :i%e &( and Cleo!hon s !!orted his acc sation o" Critias by + otin% the ele%iac *erse o" :olon' &aintainin% that disci!line had lon% been slack in the "a&ily o" Critias' or :olon $o ld ne*er ha*e $ritten' 3ray thee' bid the red/haired Critias do $hat his "ather co&&ands hi&. These $itnesses are concerned $ith !ast e*ents. As to " t re e*ents $e shall also a!!eal to soothsayers. th s The&istocles + oted the oracle abo t 0the $ooden $all0 as a reason "or en%a%in% the ene&y0s "leet. 1 rther' !ro*erbs are' as has been said' one "or& o" e*idence. Th s i" yo are r%in% so&ebody not to &ake a "riend o" an old &an' yo $ill a!!eal to the !ro*erb' -e*er sho$ an old &an kindness. Or i" yo are r%in% that he $ho has &ade a$ay $ith "athers sho ld also &ake a$ay $ith their sons' + ote' 1ool' $ho slayeth the "ather and lea*eth his sons to a*en%e hi&. 0Recent0 $itnesses are $ell/kno$n !eo!le $ho ha*e e)!ressed their o!inions abo t so&e dis! ted &atter. s ch o!inions $ill be se" l s !!ort "or s bse+ ent dis! tants on the sa&e oints. th s E b l s sed in the la$/co rts a%ainst the re!ly 3lato had &ade to Archibi s' 0It has beco&e the re% lar c sto& in this co ntry to ad&it that one is a sco ndrel0. There are also those $itnesses $ho share the risk o" ! nish&ent i" their e*idence is !rono nced "alse. These are *alid $itnesses to the "act that an action $as or $as not done' that so&ethin% is or is not the case( they are not *alid $itnesses to the + ality o" an action' to its bein% , st or n, st' se" l or har&" l. On s ch + estions o" + ality the o!inion o" detached !ersons is hi%hly tr st$orthy. 6ost tr st$orthy o" all are the 0ancient0 $itnesses' since they cannot be corr !ted. In dealin% $ith the e*idence o" $itnesses' the "ollo$in% are se" l ar% &ents. I" yo ha*e no $itnesses on yo r side' yo $ill ar% e that the , d%es & st decide "ro& $hat is !robable( that this is &eant by 0%i*in% a *erdict in accordance $ith one0s honest o!inion0( that !robabilities cannot be bribed to &islead the co rt( and that !robabilities are ne*er con*icted o" !er, ry. I" yo ha*e $itnesses' and the other &an has not' yo $ill ar% e that !robabilities cannot be ! t on their trial' and that $e co ld do $itho t the e*idence o" $itnesses alto%ether i" $e need do no &ore than balance the !leas ad*anced on either side. The e*idence o" $itnesses &ay re"er either to o rsel*es or to o r o!!onent( and either to + estions o" "act or to + estions o" !ersonal character. so' clearly' $e need ne*er be at a loss "or se" l e*idence. 1or i" $e ha*e no e*idence o" "act s !!ortin% o r o$n case or tellin% a%ainst that o" o r o!!onent' at least $e can al$ays "ind e*idence to !ro*e o r o$n $orth or o r o!!onent0s $orthlessness. Other ar% &ents abo t a $itness/that he is a "riend or an ene&y or ne tral' or has a %ood' bad' or indi""erent re! tation' and any other s ch distinctions/$e & st constr ct !on the sa&e %eneral lines as $e se "or the re% lar rhetorical !roo"s. Concernin% contracts ar% &ent can be so "ar e&!loyed as to increase or di&inish their i&!ortance and their credibility( $e

shall try to increase both i" they tell in o r "a*o r' and to di&inish both i" they tell in "a*o r o" o r o!!onent. -o$ "or con"ir&in% or !settin% the credibility o" contracts the !roced re is , st the sa&e as "or dealin% $ith $itnesses' "or the credit to be attached to contracts de!ends !on the character o" those $ho ha*e si%ned the& or ha*e the c stody o" the&. The contract bein% once ad&itted %en ine' $e & st insist on its i&!ortance' i" it s !!orts o r case. We &ay ar% e that a contract is a la$' tho %h o" a s!ecial and li&ited kind( and that' $hile contracts do not o" co rse &ake the la$ bindin%' the la$ does &ake any la$" l contract bindin%' and that the la$ itsel" as a $hole is a o" contract' so that any one $ho disre%ards or re! diates any contract is re! diatin% the la$ itsel". 1 rther' &ost b siness relations/those' na&ely' that are *ol ntary/are re% lated by contracts' and i" these lose their bindin% "orce' h &an interco rse ceases to e)ist. We need not %o *ery dee! to disco*er the other a!!ro!riate ar% &ents o" this kind. I"' ho$e*er' the contract tells a%ainst s and "or o r o!!onents' in the "irst !lace those ar% &ents are s itable $hich $e can se to "i%ht a la$ that tells a%ainst s. We do not re%ard o rsel*es as bo nd to obser*e a bad la$ $hich it $as a &istake e*er to !ass. and it is ridic lo s to s !!ose that $e are bo nd to obser*e a bad and &istaken contract. A%ain' $e &ay ar% e that the d ty o" the , d%e as &!ire is to decide $hat is , st' and there"ore he & st ask $here , stice lies' and not $hat this or that doc &ent &eans. And that it is i&!ossible to !er*ert , stice by "ra d or by "orce' since it is "o nded on nat re' b t a !arty to a contract &ay be the *icti& o" either "ra d or "orce. 6oreo*er' $e & st see i" the contract contra*enes either ni*ersal la$ or any $ritten la$ o" o r o$n or another co ntry( and also i" it contradicts any other !re*io s or s bse+ ent contract( ar% in% that the s bse+ ent is the bindin% contract' or else that the !re*io s one $as ri%ht and the s bse+ ent one "ra d lent/$hiche*er $ay s its s. 1 rther' $e & st consider the + estion o" tility' notin% $hether the contract is a%ainst the interest o" the , d%es or not( and so on/these ar% &ents are as ob*io s as the others. E)a&ination by tort re is one "or& o" e*idence' to $hich %reat $ei%ht is o"ten attached beca se it is in a sense co&! lsory. Here a%ain it is not hard to !oint o t the a*ailable %ro nds "or &a%ni"yin% its *al e' i" it ha!!ens to tell in o r "a*o r' and ar% in% that it is the only "or& o" e*idence that is in"allible( or' on the other hand' "or re" tin% it i" it tells a%ainst s and "or o r o!!onent' $hen $e &ay say $hat is tr e o" tort re o" e*ery kind alike' that !eo!le nder its co&! lsion tell lies + ite as o"ten as they tell the tr th' so&eti&es !ersistently re" sin% to tell the tr th' so&eti&es recklessly &akin% a "alse char%e in order to be let o"" sooner. We o %ht to be able to + ote cases' "a&iliar to the , d%es' in $hich this sort o" thin% has act ally ha!!ened. >We & st say that e*idence nder tort re is not tr st$orthy' the "act bein% that &any &en $hether thick/$itted' to %h/skinned' or sto t o" heart end re their ordeal nobly' $hile co$ards and ti&id &en are " ll o" boldness till they see the ordeal o" these others. so that no tr st can be !laced in e*idence nder tort re.? In re%ard to oaths' a "o r"old di*ision can be &ade. A &an &ay either both o""er and acce!t an oath' or neither' or one $itho t the other/that is' he &ay o""er an oath b t not acce!t one' or acce!t an oath b t not o""er one. There is also the sit ation that arises $hen an oath has already been s$orn either by hi&sel" or by his o!!onent. I" yo re" se to o""er an oath' yo &ay ar% e that &en do not hesitate to !er, re the&sel*es( and that i" yo r o!!onent does s$ear' yo lose yo r &oney' $hereas' i" he does not' yo think the , d%es $ill decide a%ainst hi&( and that the risk o" an n"a*o rable *erdict is !re"er' able' since yo tr st the , d%es and do not tr st hi&. I" yo re" se to acce!t an oath' yo &ay ar% e that an oath is al$ays !aid "or( that yo $o ld o" co rse ha*e taken it i" yo had

been a rascal' since i" yo are a rascal yo had better &ake so&ethin% by it' and yo $o ld in that case ha*e to s$ear in order to s cceed. Th s yo r re" sal' yo ar% e' & st be d e to hi%h !rinci!le' not to "ear o" !er, ry. and yo &ay a!tly + ote the sayin% o" Heno!hanes' 0Tis not "air that he $ho "ears not ;od sho ld challen%e hi& $ho doth. It is as i" a stron% &an $ere to challen%e a $eaklin% to strike' or be str ck by' hi&. I" yo a%ree to acce!t an oath' yo &ay ar% e that yo tr st yo rsel" b t not yo r o!!onent( and that 4to in*ert the re&ark o" Heno!hanes5 the "air thin% is "or the i&!io s &an to o""er the oath and "or the !io s &an to acce!t it( and that it $o ld be &onstro s i" yo yo rsel" $ere n$illin% to acce!t an oath in a case $here yo de&and that the , d%es sho ld do so be"ore %i*in% their *erdict. I" yo $ish to o""er an oath' yo &ay ar% e that !iety dis!oses yo to co&&it the iss e to the %ods( and that yo r o!!onent o %ht not to $ant other , d%es than hi&sel"' since yo lea*e the decision $ith hi&( and that it is o tra%eo s "or yo r o!!onents to re" se to s$ear abo t this + estion' $hen they insist that others sho ld do so. -o$ that $e see ho$ $e are to ar% e in each case se!arately' $e see also ho$ $e are to ar% e $hen they occ r in !airs' na&ely' $hen yo are $illin% to acce!t the oath b t not to o""er it( to o""er it b t not to acce!t it( both to acce!t and to o""er it( or to do neither. These are o" co rse co&binations o" the cases already &entioned' and so yo r ar% &ents also & st be co&binations o" the ar% &ents already &entioned. I" yo ha*e already s$orn an oath that contradicts yo r !resent one' yo & st ar% e that it is not !er, ry' since !er, ry is a cri&e' and a cri&e & st be a *ol ntary action' $hereas actions d e to the "orce or "ra d o" others are in*ol ntary. Ao & st " rther reason "ro& this that !er, ry de!ends on the intention and not on the s!oken $ords. B t i" it is yo r o!!onent $ho has already s$orn an oath that contradicts his !resent one' yo & st say that i" he does not abide by his oaths he is the ene&y o" society' and that this is the reason $hy &en take an oath be"ore ad&inisterin% the la$s. 06y o!!onents insist that yo ' the , d%es' & st abide by the oath yo ha*e s$orn' and yet they are not abidin% by their o$n oaths.0 And there are other ar% &ents $hich &ay be sed to &a%ni"y the i&!ortance o" the oath. >:o & ch' then' "or the 0non/technical0 &odes o" !ers asion.? Book II 1 WE ha*e no$ considered the &aterials to be sed in s !!ortin% or o!!osin% a !olitical &eas re' in !rono ncin% e lo%ies or cens res' and "or !rosec tion and de"ence in the la$ co rts. We ha*e considered the recei*ed o!inions on $hich $e &ay best base o r ar% &ents so as to con*ince o r hearers/those o!inions $ith $hich o r enthy&e&es deal' and o t o" $hich they are b ilt' in each o" the three kinds o" oratory' accordin% to $hat &ay be called the s!ecial needs o" each. B t since rhetoric e)ists to a""ect the %i*in% o" decisions/the hearers decide bet$een one !olitical s!eaker and another' and a le%al *erdict is a decision/the orator & st not only try to &ake the ar% &ent o" his s!eech de&onstrati*e and $orthy o" belie"( he & st also &ake his o$n character look ri%ht and ! t his hearers' $ho are to decide' into the ri%ht "ra&e o" &ind. 3artic larly in !olitical oratory' b t also in la$s its' it adds & ch to an orator0s in"l ence that his o$n character sho ld look ri%ht and that he sho ld be tho %ht to entertain the ri%ht "eelin%s to$ards his hearers( and also that his hearers the&sel*es sho ld be in , st the ri%ht "ra&e o" &ind. That the orator0s o$n character sho ld look ri%ht is !artic larly i&!ortant

in !olitical s!eakin%. that the a dience sho ld be in the ri%ht "ra&e o" &ind' in la$s its. When !eo!le are "eelin% "riendly and !lacable' they think one sort o" thin%( $hen they are "eelin% an%ry or hostile' they think either so&ethin% totally di""erent or the sa&e thin% $ith a di""erent intensity. $hen they "eel "riendly to the &an $ho co&es be"ore the& "or , d%e&ent' they re%ard hi& as ha*in% done little $ron%' i" any( $hen they "eel hostile' they take the o!!osite *ie$. A%ain' i" they are ea%er "or' and ha*e %ood ho!es o"' a thin% that $ill be !leasant i" it ha!!ens' they think that it certainly $ill ha!!en and be %ood "or the&. $hereas i" they are indi""erent or annoyed' they do not think so. There are three thin%s $hich ins!ire con"idence in the orator0s o$n character/the three' na&ely' that ind ce s to belie*e a thin% a!art "ro& any !roo" o" it. %ood sense' %ood &oral character' and %ood$ill. 1alse state&ents and bad ad*ice are d e to one or &ore o" the "ollo$in% three ca ses. 6en either "or& a "alse o!inion thro %h $ant o" %ood sense( or they "or& a tr e o!inion' b t beca se o" their &oral badness do not say $hat they really think( or "inally' they are both sensible and !ri%ht' b t not $ell dis!osed to their hearers' and &ay "ail in conse+ ence to reco&&end $hat they kno$ to be the best co rse. These are the only !ossible cases. It "ollo$s that any one $ho is tho %ht to ha*e all three o" these %ood + alities $ill ins!ire tr st in his a dience. The $ay to &ake o rsel*es tho %ht to be sensible and &orally %ood & st be %athered "ro& the analysis o" %oodness already %i*en. the $ay to establish yo r o$n %oodness is the sa&e as the $ay to establish that o" others. ;ood $ill and "riendliness o" dis!osition $ill "or& !art o" o r disc ssion o" the e&otions' to $hich $e & st no$ t rn. The E&otions are all those "eelin%s that so chan%e &en as to a""ect their , d%e&ents' and that are also attended by !ain or !leas re. : ch are an%er' !ity' "ear and the like' $ith their o!!osites. We & st arran%e $hat $e ha*e to say abo t each o" the& nder three heads. Take' "or instance' the e&otion o" an%er. here $e & st disco*er 415 $hat the state o" &ind o" an%ry !eo!le is' 475 $ho the !eo!le are $ith $ho& they s ally %et an%ry' and 435 on $hat %ro nds they %et an%ry $ith the&. It is not eno %h to kno$ one or e*en t$o o" these !oints( nless $e kno$ all three' $e shall be nable to aro se an%er in any one. The sa&e is tr e o" the other e&otions. :o , st as earlier in this $ork $e dre$ ! a list o" se" l !ro!ositions "or the orator' let s no$ !roceed in the sa&e $ay to analyse the s b,ect be"ore s. 7 An%er &ay be de"ined as an i&! lse' acco&!anied by !ain' to a cons!ic o s re*en%e "or a cons!ic o s sli%ht directed $itho t , sti"ication to$ards $hat concerns onesel" or to$ards $hat concerns one0s "riends. I" this is a !ro!er de"inition o" an%er' it & st al$ays be "elt to$ards so&e !artic lar indi*id al' e.%. Cleon' and not 0&an0 in %eneral. It & st be "elt beca se the other has done or intended to do so&ethin% to hi& or one o" his "riends. It & st al$ays be attended by a certain !leas re/that $hich arises "ro& the e)!ectation o" re*en%e. 1or since nobody ai&s at $hat he thinks he cannot attain' the an%ry &an is ai&in% at $hat he can attain' and the belie" that yo $ill attain yo r ai& is !leasant. Hence it has been $ell said abo t $rath' :$eeter it is by "ar than the honeyco&b dri!!in% $ith s$eetness' And s!reads thro %h the hearts o" &en. It is also attended by a certain !leas re beca se the tho %hts d$ell !on the act o" *en%eance' and the i&a%es then called ! ca se !leas re' like the i&a%es called ! in drea&s.

-o$ sli%htin% is the acti*ely entertained o!inion o" so&ethin% as ob*io sly o" no i&!ortance. We think bad thin%s' as $ell as %ood ones' ha*e serio s i&!ortance( and $e think the sa&e o" anythin% that tends to !rod ce s ch thin%s' $hile those $hich ha*e little or no s ch tendency $e consider ni&!ortant. There are three kinds o" sli%htin%/conte&!t' s!ite' and insolence. 415 Conte&!t is one kind o" sli%htin%. yo "eel conte&!t "or $hat yo consider ni&!ortant' and it is , st s ch thin%s that yo sli%ht. 475 :!ite is another kind( it is a th$artin% another &an0s $ishes' not to %et so&ethin% yo rsel" b t to !re*ent his %ettin% it. The sli%ht arises , st "ro& the "act that yo do not ai& at so&ethin% "or yo rsel". clearly yo do not think that he can do yo har&' "or then yo $o ld be a"raid o" hi& instead o" sli%htin% hi&' nor yet that he can do yo any %ood $orth &entionin%' "or then yo $o ld be an)io s to &ake "riends $ith hi&. 435 Insolence is also a "or& o" sli%htin%' since it consists in doin% and sayin% thin%s that ca se sha&e to the *icti&' not in order that anythin% &ay ha!!en to yo rsel"' or beca se anythin% has ha!!ened to yo rsel"' b t si&!ly "or the !leas re in*ol*ed. 4Retaliation is not 0insolence0' b t *en%eance.5 The ca se o" the !leas re th s en,oyed by the insolent &an is that he thinks hi&sel" %reatly s !erior to others $hen ill/treatin% the&. That is $hy yo ths and rich &en are insolent( they think the&sel*es s !erior $hen they sho$ insolence. One sort o" insolence is to rob !eo!le o" the hono r d e to the&( yo certainly sli%ht the& th s( "or it is the ni&!ortant' "or %ood or e*il' that has no hono r !aid to it. :o Achilles says in an%er. He hath taken &y !ri2e "or hi&sel" and hath done &e dishono r' and 9ike an alien hono red by none' &eanin% that this is $hy he is an%ry. A &an e)!ects to be s!ecially res!ected by his in"eriors in birth' in ca!acity' in %oodness' and %enerally in anythin% in $hich he is & ch their s !erior. as $here &oney is concerned a $ealthy &an looks "or res!ect "ro& a !oor &an( $here s!eakin% is concerned' the &an $ith a t rn "or oratory looks "or res!ect "ro& one $ho cannot s!eak( the r ler de&ands the res!ect o" the r led' and the &an $ho thinks he o %ht to be a r ler de&ands the res!ect o" the &an $ho& he thinks he o %ht to be r lin%. Hence it has been said ;reat is the $rath o" kin%s' $hose "ather is Ge s al&i%hty' and Aea' b t his ranco r abideth lon% a"ter$ard also' their %reat resent&ent bein% d e to their %reat s !eriority. Then a%ain a &an looks "or res!ect "ro& those $ho he thinks o$e hi& %ood treat&ent' and these are the !eo!le $ho& he has treated or is treatin% $ell' or &eans or has &eant to treat $ell' either hi&sel"' or thro %h his "riends' or thro %h others at his re+ est. It $ill be !lain by no$' "ro& $hat has been said' 415 in $hat "ra&e o" &ind' 475 $ith $hat !ersons' and 435 on $hat %ro nds !eo!le %ro$ an%ry. 415 The "ra&e o" &ind is that o" one in $hich any !ain is bein% "elt. In that condition' a &an is al$ays ai&in% at so&ethin%. Whether' then' another &an o!!oses hi& either directly in any $ay' as by !re*entin% hi& "ro& drinkin% $hen he is thirsty' or indirectly' the act a!!ears to hi& , st the sa&e( $hether so&e one $orks a%ainst hi&' or "ails to $ork $ith hi&' or other$ise *e)es hi& $hile he is in this &ood' he is e+ ally an%ry in all these cases. Hence !eo!le $ho are a""licted by sickness or !o*erty or lo*e or

thirst or any other nsatis"ied desires are !rone to an%er and easily ro sed. es!ecially a%ainst those $ho sli%ht their !resent distress. Th s a sick &an is an%ered by disre%ard o" his illness' a !oor &an by disre%ard o" his !o*erty' a &an a%in% $ar by disre%ard o" the $ar he is $a%in%' a lo*er by disre%ard o" his lo*e' and so thro %ho t' any other sort o" sli%ht bein% eno %h i" s!ecial sli%hts are $antin%. Each &an is !redis!osed' by the e&otion no$ controllin% hi&' to his o$n !artic lar an%er. 1 rther' $e are an%ered i" $e ha!!en to be e)!ectin% a contrary res lt. "or a + ite ne)!ected e*il is s!ecially !ain" l' , st as the + ite ne)!ected " l"il&ent o" o r $ishes is s!ecially !leasant. Hence it is !lain $hat seasons' ti&es' conditions' and !eriods o" li"e tend to stir &en easily to an%er' and $here and $hen this $ill ha!!en( and it is !lain that the &ore $e are nder these conditions the &ore easily $e are stirred. These' then' are the "ra&es o" &ind in $hich &en are easily stirred to an%er. The !ersons $ith $ho& $e %et an%ry are those $ho la %h' &ock' or ,eer at s' "or s ch cond ct is insolent. Also those $ho in"lict in, ries !on s that are &arks o" insolence. These in, ries & st be s ch as are neither retaliatory nor !ro"itable to the doers. "or only then $ill they be "elt to be d e to insolence. Also those $ho s!eak ill o" s' and sho$ conte&!t "or s' in conne)ion $ith the thin%s $e o rsel*es &ost care abo t. th s those $ho are ea%er to $in "a&e as !hiloso!hers %et an%ry $ith those $ho sho$ conte&!t "or their !hiloso!hy( those $ho !ride the&sel*es !on their a!!earance %et an%ry $ith those $ho sho$ conte&!t "or their a!!earance and so on in other cases. We "eel !artic larly an%ry on this acco nt i" $e s s!ect that $e are in "act' or that !eo!le think $e are' lackin% co&!letely or to any e""ecti*e e)tent in the + alities in + estion. 1or $hen $e are con*inced that $e e)cel in the + alities "or $hich $e are ,eered at' $e can i%nore the ,eerin%. A%ain' $e are an%rier $ith o r "riends than $ith other !eo!le' since $e "eel that o r "riends o %ht to treat s $ell and not badly. We are an%ry $ith those $ho ha*e s ally treated s $ith hono r or re%ard' i" a chan%e co&es and they beha*e to s other$ise. "or $e think that they "eel conte&!t "or s' or they $o ld still be beha*in% as they did be"ore. And $ith those $ho do not ret rn o r kindnesses or "ail to ret rn the& ade+ ately' and $ith those $ho o!!ose s tho %h they are o r in"eriors. "or all s ch !ersons see& to "eel conte&!t "or s( those $ho o!!ose s see& to think s in"erior to the&sel*es' and those $ho do not ret rn o r kindnesses see& to think that those kindnesses $ere con"erred by in"eriors. And $e "eel !artic larly an%ry $ith &en o" no acco nt at all' i" they sli%ht s. 1or' by o r hy!othesis' the an%er ca sed by the sli%ht is "elt to$ards !eo!le $ho are not , sti"ied in sli%htin% s' and o r in"eriors are not th s , sti"ied. A%ain' $e "eel an%ry $ith "riends i" they do not s!eak $ell o" s or treat s $ell( and still &ore' i" they do the contrary( or i" they do not !ercei*e o r needs' $hich is $hy 3le)i!! s is an%ry $ith 6elea%er in Anti!hon0s !lay( "or this $ant o" !erce!tion sho$s that they are sli%htin% s/$e do not "ail to !ercei*e the needs o" those "or $ho& $e care. A%ain $e are an%ry $ith those $ho re,oice at o r &is"ort nes or si&!ly kee! cheer" l in the &idst o" o r &is"ort nes' since this sho$s that they either hate s or are sli%htin% s. Also $ith those $ho are indi""erent to the !ain they %i*e s. this is $hy $e %et an%ry $ith brin%ers o" bad ne$s. And $ith those $ho listen to stories abo t s or kee! on lookin% at o r $eaknesses( this see&s like either sli%htin% s or hatin% s( "or those $ho lo*e s share in all o r distresses and it & st distress any one to kee! on lookin% at his o$n $eaknesses. 1 rther' $ith those $ho sli%ht s be"ore "i*e classes o" !eo!le. na&ely' 415 o r ri*als' 475 those $ho& $e ad&ire' 435 those $ho& $e $ish to ad&ire s' 485 those "or $ho& $e "eel re*erence' 455 those $ho "eel re*erence "or s. i" any one sli%hts s be"ore s ch !ersons' $e "eel !artic larly an%ry. A%ain' $e "eel an%ry $ith those $ho sli%ht s in conne)ion $ith $hat $e are as hono rable &en bo nd to cha&!ion/o r !arents' children' $i*es' or

s b,ects. And $ith those $ho do not ret rn a "a*o r' since s ch a sli%ht is n, sti"iable. Also $ith those $ho re!ly $ith h &oro s le*ity $hen $e are s!eakin% serio sly' "or s ch beha*io r indicates conte&!t. And $ith those $ho treat s less $ell than they treat e*erybody else( it is another &ark o" conte&!t that they sho ld think $e do not deser*e $hat e*ery one else deser*es. 1or%et" lness' too' ca ses an%er' as $hen o r o$n na&es are "or%otten' tri"lin% as this &ay be( since "or%et" lness is "elt to be another si%n that $e are bein% sli%hted( it is d e to ne%li%ence' and to ne%lect s is to sli%ht s. The !ersons $ith $ho& $e "eel an%er' the "ra&e o" &ind in $hich $e "eel it' and the reasons $hy $e "eel it' ha*e no$ all been set "orth. Clearly the orator $ill ha*e to s!eak so as to brin% his hearers into a "ra&e o" &ind that $ill dis!ose the& to an%er' and to re!resent his ad*ersaries as o!en to s ch char%es and !ossessed o" s ch + alities as do &ake !eo!le an%ry. 3 :ince %ro$in% cal& is the o!!osite o" %ro$in% an%ry' and cal&ness the o!!osite o" an%er' $e & st ascertain in $hat "ra&es o" &ind &en are cal&' to$ards $ho& they "eel cal&' and by $hat &eans they are &ade so. ;ro$in% cal& &ay be de"ined as a settlin% do$n or + ietin% o" an%er. -o$ $e %et an%ry $ith those $ho sli%ht s( and since sli%htin% is a *ol ntary act' it is !lain that $e "eel cal& to$ards those $ho do nothin% o" the kind' or $ho do or see& to do it in*ol ntarily. Also to$ards those $ho intended to do the o!!osite o" $hat they did do. Also to$ards those $ho treat the&sel*es as they ha*e treated s. since no one can be s !!osed to sli%ht hi&sel". Also to$ards those $ho ad&it their "a lt and are sorry. since $e acce!t their %rie" at $hat they ha*e done as satis"action' and cease to be an%ry. The ! nish&ent o" ser*ants sho$s this. those $ho contradict s and deny their o""ence $e ! nish all the &ore' b t $e cease to be incensed a%ainst those $ho a%ree that they deser*ed their ! nish&ent. The reason is that it is sha&eless to deny $hat is ob*io s' and those $ho are sha&eless to$ards s sli%ht s and sho$ conte&!t "or s. anyho$' $e do not "eel sha&e be"ore those o" $ho& $e are thoro %hly conte&!t o s. Also $e "eel cal& to$ards those $ho h &ble the&sel*es be"ore s and do not %ainsay s( $e "eel that they th s ad&it the&sel*es o r in"eriors' and in"eriors "eel "ear' and nobody can sli%ht any one so lon% as he "eels a"raid o" hi&. That o r an%er ceases to$ards those $ho h &ble the&sel*es be"ore s is sho$n e*en by do%s' $ho do not bite !eo!le $hen they sit do$n. We also "eel cal& to$ards those $ho are serio s $hen $e are serio s' beca se then $e "eel that $e are treated serio sly and not conte&!t o sly. Also to$ards those $ho ha*e done s &ore kindnesses than $e ha*e done the&. Also to$ards those $ho !ray to s and be% "or &ercy' since they h &ble the&sel*es by doin% so. Also to$ards those $ho do not ins lt or &ock at or sli%ht any one at all' or not any $orthy !erson or any one like o rsel*es. In %eneral' the thin%s that &ake s cal& &ay be in"erred by seein% $hat the o!!osites are o" those that &ake s an%ry. We are not an%ry $ith !eo!le $e "ear or res!ect' as lon% as $e "ear or res!ect the&( yo cannot be a"raid o" a !erson and also at the sa&e ti&e an%ry $ith hi&. A%ain' $e "eel no an%er' or co&!arati*ely little' $ith those $ho ha*e done $hat they did thro %h an%er. $e do not "eel that they ha*e done it "ro& a $ish to sli%ht s' "or no one sli%hts !eo!le $hen an%ry $ith the&' since sli%htin% is !ainless' and an%er is !ain" l. -or do $e %ro$ an%ry $ith those $ho re*erence s. As to the "ra&e o" &ind that &akes !eo!le cal&' it is !lainly the o!!osite to that $hich &akes the& an%ry' as $hen they are a& sin% the&sel*es or la %hin% or "eastin%( $hen they are "eelin% !ros!ero s or s ccess" l or satis"ied( $hen' in "ine' they are en,oyin% "reedo& "ro& !ain' or ino""ensi*e !leas re' or , sti"iable ho!e. Also $hen

ti&e has !assed and their an%er is no lon%er "resh' "or ti&e ! ts an end to an%er. And *en%eance !re*io sly taken on one !erson ! ts an end to e*en %reater an%er "elt a%ainst another !erson. Hence 3hilocrates' bein% asked by so&e one' at a ti&e $hen the ! blic $as an%ry $ith hi&' 0Why don0t yo de"end yo rsel"I0 did ri%ht to re!ly' 0The ti&e is not yet.0 0Why' $hen is the ti&eI0 0When I see so&eone else cal &niated.0 1or &en beco&e cal& $hen they ha*e s!ent their an%er on so&ebody else. This ha!!ened in the case o" Er%o!hil s. tho %h the !eo!le $ere &ore irritated a%ainst hi& than a%ainst Callisthenes' they ac+ itted hi& beca se they had conde&ned Callisthenes to death the day be"ore. A%ain' &en beco&e cal& i" they ha*e con*icted the o""ender( or i" he has already s ""ered $orse thin%s than they in their an%er $o ld ha*e the&sel*es in"licted !on hi&( "or they "eel as i" they $ere already a*en%ed. Or i" they "eel that they the&sel*es are in the $ron% and are s ""erin% , stly 4"or an%er is not e)cited by $hat is , st5' since &en no lon%er think then that they are s ""erin% $itho t , sti"ication( and an%er' as $e ha*e seen' &eans this. Hence $e o %ht al$ays to in"lict a !reli&inary ! nish&ent in $ords. i" that is done' e*en sla*es are less a%%rie*ed by the act al ! nish&ent. We also "eel cal& i" $e think that the o""ender $ill not see that he is ! nished on o r acco nt and beca se o" the $ay he has treated s. 1or an%er has to do $ith indi*id als. This is !lain "ro& the de"inition. Hence the !oet has $ell $ritten. :ay that it $as Odysse s' sacker o" cities' i&!lyin% that Odysse s $o ld not ha*e considered hi&sel" a*en%ed nless the Cyclo!s !ercei*ed both by $ho& and "or $hat he had been blinded. Conse+ ently $e do not %et an%ry $ith any one $ho cannot be a$are o" o r an%er' and in !artic lar $e cease to be an%ry $ith !eo!le once they are dead' "or $e "eel that the $orst has been done to the&' and that they $ill neither "eel !ain nor anythin% else that $e in o r an%er ai& at &akin% the& "eel. And there"ore the !oet has $ell &ade A!ollo say' in order to ! t a sto! to the an%er o" Achilles a%ainst the dead Hector' 1or behold in his " ry he doeth des!ite to the senseless clay. It is no$ !lain that $hen yo $ish to cal& others yo & st dra$ !on these lines o" ar% &ent( yo & st ! t yo r hearers into the corres!ondin% "ra&e o" &ind' and re!resent those $ith $ho& they are an%ry as "or&idable' or as $orthy o" re*erence' or as bene"actors' or as in*ol ntary a%ents' or as & ch distressed at $hat they ha*e done. 8 9et s no$ t rn to 1riendshi! and En&ity' and ask to$ards $ho& these "eelin%s are entertained' and $hy. We $ill be%in by de"inin% and "riendly "eelin%. We &ay describe "riendly "eelin% to$ards any one as $ishin% "or hi& $hat yo belie*e to be %ood thin%s' not "or yo r o$n sake b t "or his' and bein% inclined' so "ar as yo can' to brin% these thin%s abo t. A "riend is one $ho "eels th s and e)cites these "eelin%s in ret rn. those $ho think they "eel th s to$ards each other think the&sel*es "riends. This bein% ass &ed' it "ollo$s that yo r "riend is the sort o" &an $ho shares yo r !leas re in $hat is %ood and yo r !ain in $hat is n!leasant' "or yo r sake and "or no other reason. This !leas re and !ain o" his $ill be the token o" his %ood $ishes "or yo ' since $e all "eel %lad at %ettin% $hat $e $ish "or' and !ained at %ettin% $hat $e do not. Those' then' are "riends to $ho& the sa&e thin%s are %ood and e*il( and those $ho are' &oreo*er' "riendly or n"riendly to the sa&e !eo!le( "or in that case they & st ha*e the sa&e $ishes' and th s by $ishin% "or each

other $hat they $ish "or the&sel*es' they sho$ the&sel*es each other0s "riends. A%ain' $e "eel "riendly to those $ho ha*e treated s $ell' either o rsel*es or those $e care "or' $hether on a lar%e scale' or readily' or at so&e !artic lar crisis( !ro*ided it $as "or o r o$n sake. And also to those $ho $e think $ish to treat s $ell. And also to o r "riends0 "riends' and to those $ho like' or are liked by' those $ho& $e like o rsel*es. And also to those $ho are ene&ies to those $hose ene&ies $e are' and dislike' or are disliked by' those $ho& $e dislike. 1or all s ch !ersons think the thin%s %ood $hich $e think %ood' so that they $ish $hat is %ood "or s( and this' as $e sa$' is $hat "riends & st do. And also to those $ho are $illin% to treat s $ell $here &oney or o r !ersonal sa"ety is concerned. and there"ore $e *al e those $ho are liberal' bra*e' or , st. The , st $e consider to be those $ho do not li*e on others( $hich &eans those $ho $ork "or their li*in%' es!ecially "ar&ers and others $ho $ork $ith their o$n hands. We also like te&!erate &en' beca se they are not n, st to others( and' "or the sa&e reason' those $ho &ind their o$n b siness. And also those $hose "riends $e $ish to be' i" it is !lain that they $ish to be o r "riends. s ch are the &orally %ood' and those $ell tho %ht o" by e*ery one' by the best &en' or by those $ho& $e ad&ire or $ho ad&ire s. And also those $ith $ho& it is !leasant to li*e and s!end o r days. s ch are the %ood/te&!ered' and those $ho are not too ready to sho$ s o r &istakes' and those $ho are not cantankero s or + arrelso&e/s ch !eo!le are al$ays $antin% to "i%ht s' and those $ho "i%ht s $e "eel $ish "or the o!!osite o" $hat $e $ish "or o rsel*es/and those $ho ha*e the tact to &ake and take a ,oke( here both !arties ha*e the sa&e ob,ect in *ie$' $hen they can stand bein% &ade " n o" as $ell as do it !rettily the&sel*es. And $e also "eel "riendly to$ards those $ho !raise s ch %ood + alities as $e !ossess' and es!ecially i" they !raise the %ood + alities that $e are not too s re $e do !ossess. And to$ards those $ho are cleanly in their !erson' their dress' and all their $ay o" li"e. And to$ards those $ho do not re!roach s $ith $hat $e ha*e done a&iss to the& or they ha*e done to hel! s' "or both actions sho$ a tendency to critici2e s. And to$ards those $ho do not n rse %r d%es or store ! %rie*ances' b t are al$ays ready to &ake "riends a%ain( "or $e take it that they $ill beha*e to s , st as $e "ind the& beha*in% to e*ery one else. And to$ards those $ho are not e*il s!eakers and $ho are a$are o" neither their nei%hbo rs0 bad !oints nor o r o$n' b t o" o r %ood ones only' as a %ood &an al$ays $ill be. And to$ards those $ho do not try to th$art s $hen $e are an%ry or in earnest' $hich $o ld &ean bein% ready to "i%ht s. And to$ards those $ho ha*e so&e serio s "eelin% to$ards s' s ch as ad&iration "or s' or belie" in o r %oodness' or !leas re in o r co&!any( es!ecially i" they "eel like this abo t + alities in s "or $hich $e es!ecially $ish to be ad&ired' estee&ed' or liked. And to$ards those $ho are like o rsel*es in character and occ !ation' !ro*ided they do not %et in o r $ay or %ain their li*in% "ro& the sa&e so rce as $e do/"or then it $ill be a case o" 0!otter a%ainst !otter0. 3otter to !otter and b ilder to b ilder be%r d%e their re$ard. And those $ho desire the sa&e thin%s as $e desire' i" it is !ossible "or s both to share the& to%ether( other$ise the sa&e tro ble arises here too. And to$ards those $ith $ho& $e are on s ch ter&s that' $hile $e res!ect their o!inions' $e need not bl sh be"ore the& "or doin% $hat is con*entionally $ron%. as $ell as to$ards those be"ore $ho& $e sho ld be asha&ed to do anythin% really $ron%. A%ain' o r ri*als' and those $ho& $e sho ld like to en*y s//tho %h $itho t ill/"eelin%//either $e like these !eo!le or at least $e $ish the& to like s. And $e "eel "riendly to$ards those $ho& $e hel! to sec re %ood "or the&sel*es' !ro*ided $e are not likely to s ""er hea*ily by it o rsel*es. And those $ho "eel as "riendly to s $hen $e are not $ith the& as $hen $e are/$hich is $hy all &en "eel "riendly to$ards

those $ho are "aith" l to their dead "riends. And' s!eakin% %enerally' to$ards those $ho are really "ond o" their "riends and do not desert the& in tro ble( o" all %ood &en' $e "eel &ost "riendly to those $ho sho$ their %oodness as "riends. Also to$ards those $ho are honest $ith s' incl din% those $ho $ill tell s o" their o$n $eak !oints. it has , st said that $ith o r "riends $e are not asha&ed o" $hat is con*entionally $ron%' and i" $e do ha*e this "eelin%' $e do not lo*e the&( i" there"ore $e do not ha*e it' it looks as i" $e did lo*e the&. We also like those $ith $ho& $e do not "eel "ri%htened or nco&"ortable/nobody can like a &an o" $ho& he "eels "ri%htened. 1riendshi! has *ario s "or&s/co&radeshi!' inti&acy' kinshi!' and so on. Thin%s that ca se "riendshi! are. doin% kindnesses( doin% the& nasked( and not !roclai&in% the "act $hen they are done' $hich sho$s that they $ere done "or o r o$n sake and not "or so&e other reason. En&ity and Hatred sho ld clearly be st died by re"erence to their o!!osites. En&ity &ay be !rod ced by an%er or s!ite or cal &ny. -o$ $hereas an%er arises "ro& o""ences a%ainst onesel"' en&ity &ay arise e*en $itho t that( $e &ay hate !eo!le &erely beca se o" $hat $e take to be their character. An%er is al$ays concerned $ith indi*id als/a Callias or a :ocrates/$hereas hatred is directed also a%ainst classes. $e all hate any thie" and any in"or&er. 6oreo*er' an%er can be c red by ti&e( b t hatred cannot. The one ai&s at %i*in% !ain to its ob,ect' the other at doin% hi& har&( the an%ry &an $ants his *icti&s to "eel( the hater does not &ind $hether they "eel or not. All !ain" l thin%s are "elt( b t the %reatest e*ils' in, stice and "olly' are the least "elt' since their !resence ca ses no !ain. And an%er is acco&!anied by !ain' hatred is not( the an%ry &an "eels !ain' b t the hater does not. 6 ch &ay ha!!en to &ake the an%ry &an !ity those $ho o""end hi&' b t the hater nder no circ &stances $ishes to !ity a &an $ho& he has once hated. "or the one $o ld ha*e the o""enders s ""er "or $hat they ha*e done( the other $o ld ha*e the& cease to e)ist. It is !lain "ro& all this that $e can !ro*e !eo!le to be "riends or ene&ies( i" they are not' $e can &ake the& o t to be so( i" they clai& to be so' $e can re" te their clai&( and i" it is dis! ted $hether an action $as d e to an%er or to hatred' $e can attrib te it to $hiche*er o" these $e !re"er. 5 To t rn ne)t to 1ear' $hat "ollo$s $ill sho$ thin%s and !ersons o" $hich' and the states o" &ind in $hich' $e "eel a"raid. 1ear &ay be de"ined as a !ain or dist rbance d e to a &ental !ict re o" so&e destr cti*e or !ain" l e*il in the " t re. O" destr cti*e or !ain" l e*ils only( "or there are so&e e*ils' e.%. $ickedness or st !idity' the !ros!ect o" $hich does not "ri%hten s. I &ean only s ch as a&o nt to %reat !ains or losses. And e*en these only i" they a!!ear not re&ote b t so near as to be i&&inent. $e do not "ear thin%s that are a *ery lon% $ay o"". "or instance' $e all kno$ $e shall die' b t $e are not tro bled thereby' beca se death is not close at hand. 1ro& this de"inition it $ill "ollo$ that "ear is ca sed by $hate*er $e "eel has %reat !o$er o" destroyin% or o" har&in% s in $ays that tend to ca se s %reat !ain. Hence the *ery indications o" s ch thin%s are terrible' &akin% s "eel that the terrible thin% itsel" is close at hand( the a!!roach o" $hat is terrible is , st $hat $e &ean by 0dan%er0. : ch indications are the en&ity and an%er o" !eo!le $ho ha*e !o$er to do so&ethin% to s( "or it is !lain that they ha*e the $ill to do it' and so they are on the !oint o" doin% it. Also in, stice in !ossession o" !o$er( "or it is the n, st &an0s $ill to do e*il that &akes hi& n, st. Also o tra%ed *irt e in !ossession o" !o$er( "or it is !lain that' $hen o tra%ed' it al$ays has the $ill to retaliate' and no$ it has the !o$er to do so. Also "ear "elt by

those $ho ha*e the !o$er to do so&ethin% to s' since s ch !ersons are s re to be ready to do it. And since &ost &en tend to be bad/sla*es to %reed' and co$ards in dan%er/it is' as a r le' a terrible thin% to be at another &an0s &ercy( and there"ore' i" $e ha*e done anythin% horrible' those in the secret terri"y s $ith the tho %ht that they &ay betray or desert s. And those $ho can do s $ron% are terrible to s $hen $e are liable to be $ron%ed( "or as a r le &en do $ron% to others $hene*er they ha*e the !o$er to do it. And those $ho ha*e been $ron%ed' or belie*e the&sel*es to be $ron%ed' are terrible( "or they are al$ays lookin% o t "or their o!!ort nity. Also those $ho ha*e done !eo!le $ron%' i" they !ossess !o$er' since they stand in "ear o" retaliation. $e ha*e already said that $ickedness !ossessin% !o$er is terrible. A%ain' o r ri*als "or a thin% ca se s "ear $hen $e cannot both ha*e it at once( "or $e are al$ays at $ar $ith s ch &en. We also "ear those $ho are to be "eared by stron%er !eo!le than o rsel*es. i" they can h rt those stron%er !eo!le' still &ore can they h rt s( and' "or the sa&e reason' $e "ear those $ho& those stron%er !eo!le are act ally a"raid o". Also those $ho ha*e destroyed !eo!le stron%er than $e are. Also those $ho are attackin% !eo!le $eaker than $e are. either they are already "or&idable' or they $ill be so $hen they ha*e th s %ro$n stron%er. O" those $e ha*e $ron%ed' and o" o r ene&ies or ri*als' it is not the !assionate and o ts!oken $ho& $e ha*e to "ear' b t the + iet' disse&blin%' nscr ! lo s( since $e ne*er kno$ $hen they are !on s' $e can ne*er be s re they are at a sa"e distance. All terrible thin%s are &ore terrible i" they %i*e s no chance o" retrie*in% a bl nder either no chance at all' or only one that de!ends on o r ene&ies and not o rsel*es. Those thin%s are also $orse $hich $e cannot' or cannot easily' hel!. :!eakin% %enerally' anythin% ca ses s to "eel "ear that $hen it ha!!ens to' or threatens' others ca se s to "eel !ity. The abo*e are' ro %hly' the chie" thin%s that are terrible and are "eared. 9et s no$ describe the conditions nder $hich $e o rsel*es "eel "ear. I" "ear is associated $ith the e)!ectation that so&ethin% destr cti*e $ill ha!!en to s' !lainly nobody $ill be a"raid $ho belie*es nothin% can ha!!en to hi&( $e shall not "ear thin%s that $e belie*e cannot ha!!en to s' nor !eo!le $ho $e belie*e cannot in"lict the& !on s( nor shall $e be a"raid at ti&es $hen $e think o rsel*es sa"e "ro& the&. It "ollo$s there"ore that "ear is "elt by those $ho belie*e so&ethin% to be likely to ha!!en to the&' at the hands o" !artic lar !ersons' in a !artic lar "or&' and at a !artic lar ti&e. 3eo!le do not belie*e this $hen they are' or think they a are' in the &idst o" %reat !ros!erity' and are in conse+ ence insolent' conte&!t o s' and reckless/the kind o" character !rod ced by $ealth' !hysical stren%th' ab ndance o" "riends' !o$er. nor yet $hen they "eel they ha*e e)!erienced e*ery kind o" horror already and ha*e %ro$n callo s abo t the " t re' like &en $ho are bein% "lo%%ed and are already nearly dead/i" they are to "eel the an% ish o" ncertainty' there & st be so&e "aint e)!ectation o" esca!e. This a!!ears "ro& the "act that "ear sets s thinkin% $hat can be done' $hich o" co rse nobody does $hen thin%s are ho!eless. Conse+ ently' $hen it is ad*isable that the a dience sho ld be "ri%htened' the orator & st &ake the& "eel that they really are in dan%er o" so&ethin%' !ointin% o t that it has ha!!ened to others $ho $ere stron%er than they are' and is ha!!enin%' or has ha!!ened' to !eo!le like the&sel*es' at the hands o" ne)!ected !eo!le' in an ne)!ected "or&' and at an ne)!ected ti&e. Ha*in% no$ seen the nat re o" "ear' and o" the thin%s that ca se it' and the *ario s states o" &ind in $hich it is "elt' $e can also see $hat Con"idence is' abo t $hat thin%s $e "eel it' and nder $hat conditions. It is the o!!osite o" "ear' and $hat ca ses it is the o!!osite o" $hat ca ses "ear( it is' there"ore' the e)!ectation associated $ith a &ental !ict re o" the nearness o" $hat kee!s s sa"e and the absence or re&oteness o" $hat is terrible. it &ay be d e either to the near !resence o" $hat ins!ires con"idence or to the

absence o" $hat ca ses alar&. We "eel it i" $e can take ste!s/&any' or i&!ortant' or both/to c re or !re*ent tro ble( i" $e ha*e neither $ron%ed others nor been $ron%ed by the&( i" $e ha*e either no ri*als at all or no stron% ones( i" o r ri*als $ho are stron% are o r "riends or ha*e treated s $ell or been treated $ell by s( or i" those $hose interest is the sa&e as o rs are the &ore n &ero s !arty' or the stron%er' or both. As "or o r o$n state o" &ind' $e "eel con"idence i" $e belie*e $e ha*e o"ten s cceeded and ne*er s ""ered re*erses' or ha*e o"ten &et dan%er and esca!ed it sa"ely. 1or there are t$o reasons $hy h &an bein%s "ace dan%er cal&ly. they &ay ha*e no e)!erience o" it' or they &ay ha*e &eans to deal $ith it. th s $hen in dan%er at sea !eo!le &ay "eel con"ident abo t $hat $ill ha!!en either beca se they ha*e no e)!erience o" bad $eather' or beca se their e)!erience %i*es the& the &eans o" dealin% $ith it. We also "eel con"ident $hene*er there is nothin% to terri"y other !eo!le like o rsel*es' or !eo!le $eaker than o rsel*es' or !eo!le than $ho& $e belie*e o rsel*es to be stron%er/and $e belie*e this i" $e ha*e con+ ered the&' or con+ ered others $ho are as stron% as they are' or stron%er. Also i" $e belie*e o rsel*es s !erior to o r ri*als in the n &ber and i&!ortance o" the ad*anta%es that &ake &en "or&idable/$ealth' !hysical stren%th' stron% bodies o" s !!orters' e)tensi*e territory' and the !ossession o" all' or the &ost i&!ortant' a!!liances o" $ar. Also i" $e ha*e $ron%ed no one' or not &any' or not those o" $ho& $e are a"raid( and %enerally' i" o r relations $ith the %ods are satis"actory' as $ill be sho$n es!ecially by si%ns and oracles. The "act is that an%er &akes s con"ident/that an%er is e)cited by o r kno$led%e that $e are not the $ron%ers b t the $ron%ed' and that the di*ine !o$er is al$ays s !!osed to be on the side o" the $ron%ed. Also $hen' at the o tset o" an enter!rise' $e belie*e that $e cannot and shall not "ail' or that $e shall s cceed co&!letely./:o & ch "or the ca ses o" "ear and con"idence. < We no$ t rn to :ha&e and :ha&elessness( $hat "ollo$s $ill e)!lain the thin%s that ca se these "eelin%s' and the !ersons be"ore $ho&' and the states o" &ind nder $hich' they are "elt. :ha&e &ay be de"ined as !ain or dist rbance in re%ard to bad thin%s' $hether !resent' !ast' or " t re' $hich see& likely to in*ol*e s in discredit( and sha&elessness as conte&!t or indi""erence in re%ard to these sa&e bad thin%s. I" this de"inition be %ranted' it "ollo$s that $e "eel sha&e at s ch bad thin%s as $e think are dis%race" l to o rsel*es or to those $e care "or. These e*ils are' in the "irst !lace' those d e to &oral badness. : ch are thro$in% a$ay one0s shield or takin% to "li%ht( "or these bad thin%s are d e to co$ardice. Also' $ithholdin% a de!osit or other$ise $ron%in% !eo!le abo t &oney( "or these acts are d e to in, stice. Also' ha*in% carnal interco rse $ith "orbidden !ersons' at $ron% ti&es' or in $ron% !laces( "or these thin%s are d e to licentio sness. Also' &akin% !ro"it in !etty or dis%race" l $ays' or o t o" hel!less !ersons' e.%. the !oor' or the dead/$hence the !ro*erb 0He $o ld !ick a cor!se0s !ocket0( "or all this is d e to lo$ %reed and &eanness. Also' in &oney &atters' %i*in% less hel! than yo &i%ht' or none at all' or acce!tin% hel! "ro& those $orse o"" than yo rsel"( so also borro$in% $hen it $ill see& like be%%in%( be%%in% $hen it $ill see& like askin% the ret rn o" a "a*o r( askin% s ch a ret rn $hen it $ill see& like be%%in%( !raisin% a &an in order that it &ay see& like be%%in%( and %oin% on be%%in% in s!ite o" "ail re. all s ch actions are tokens o" &eanness. Also' !raisin% !eo!le to their "ace' and !raisin% e)tra*a%antly a &an0s %ood !oints and %lo2in% o*er his $eaknesses' and sho$in% e)tra*a%ant sy&!athy $ith his %rie" $hen yo are in his !resence' and all that sort o" thin%( all this sho$s the dis!osition o" a "latterer. Also' re" sin% to end re hardshi!s that are end red by !eo!le $ho are older' &ore

delicately bro %ht !' o" hi%her rank' or %enerally less ca!able o" end rance than o rsel*es. "or all this sho$s e""e&inacy. Also' acce!tin% bene"its' es!ecially acce!tin% the& o"ten' "ro& another &an' and then ab sin% hi& "or con"errin% the&. all this sho$s a &ean' i%noble dis!osition. Also' talkin% incessantly abo t yo rsel"' &akin% lo d !ro"essions' and a!!ro!riatin% the &erits o" others( "or this is d e to boast" lness. The sa&e is tr e o" the actions d e to any o" the other "or&s o" badness o" &oral character' o" the tokens o" s ch badness' Jc.. they are all dis%race" l and sha&eless. Another sort o" bad thin% at $hich $e "eel sha&e is' lackin% a share in the hono rable thin%s shared by e*ery one else' or by all or nearly all $ho are like o rsel*es. By 0those like o rsel*es0 I &ean those o" o r o$n race or co ntry or a%e or "a&ily' and %enerally those $ho are on o r o$n le*el. Once $e are on a le*el $ith others' it is a dis%race to be' say' less $ell ed cated than they are( and so $ith other ad*anta%es. all the &ore so' in each case' i" it is seen to be o r o$n "a lt. $here*er $e are o rsel*es to bla&e "or o r !resent' !ast' or " t re circ &stances' it "ollo$s at once that this is to a %reater e)tent d e to o r &oral badness. We are &oreo*er asha&ed o" ha*in% done to s' ha*in% had done' or bein% abo t to ha*e done to s acts that in*ol*e s in dishono r and re!roach( as $hen $e s rrender o r !ersons' or lend o rsel*es to *ile deeds' e.%. $hen $e s b&it to o tra%e. And acts o" yieldin% to the l st o" others are sha&e" l $hether $illin% or n$illin% 4yieldin% to "orce bein% an instance o" n$illin%ness5' since nresistin% s b&ission to the& is d e to n&anliness or co$ardice. These thin%s' and others like the&' are $hat ca se the "eelin% o" sha&e. -o$ since sha&e is a &ental !ict re o" dis%race' in $hich $e shrink "ro& the dis%race itsel" and not "ro& its conse+ ences' and $e only care $hat o!inion is held o" s beca se o" the !eo!le $ho "or& that o!inion' it "ollo$s that the !eo!le be"ore $ho& $e "eel sha&e are those $hose o!inion o" s &atters to s. : ch !ersons are. those $ho ad&ire s' those $ho& $e ad&ire' those by $ho& $e $ish to be ad&ired' those $ith $ho& $e are co&!etin%' and those $hose o!inion o" s $e res!ect. We ad&ire those' and $ish those to ad&ire s' $ho !ossess any %ood thin% that is hi%hly estee&ed( or "ro& $ho& $e are *ery an)io s to %et so&ethin% that they are able to %i*e s/as a lo*er "eels. We co&!ete $ith o r e+ als. We res!ect' as tr e' the *ie$s o" sensible !eo!le' s ch as o r elders and those $ho ha*e been $ell ed cated. And $e "eel &ore sha&e abo t a thin% i" it is done o!enly' be"ore all &en0s eyes. Hence the !ro*erb' 0sha&e d$ells in the eyes0. 1or this reason $e "eel &ost sha&e be"ore those $ho $ill al$ays be $ith s and those $ho notice $hat $e do' since in both cases eyes are !on s. We also "eel it be"ore those not o!en to the sa&e i&! tation as o rsel*es. "or it is !lain that their o!inions abo t it are the o!!osite o" o rs. Also be"ore those $ho are hard on any one $hose cond ct they think $ron%( "or $hat a &an does hi&sel"' he is said not to resent $hen his nei%hbo rs do it. so that o" co rse he does resent their doin% $hat he does not do hi&sel". And be"ore those $ho are likely to tell e*erybody abo t yo ( not tellin% others is as %ood as not be lie*in% yo $ron%. 3eo!le are likely to tell others abo t yo i" yo ha*e $ron%ed the&' since they are on the look o t to har& yo ( or i" they s!eak e*il o" e*erybody' "or those $ho attack the innocent $ill be still &ore ready to attack the % ilty. And be"ore those $hose &ain occ !ation is $ith their nei%hbo rs0 "ailin%s/!eo!le like satirists and $riters o" co&edy( these are really a kind o" e*il/s!eakers and tell/tales. And be"ore those $ho ha*e ne*er yet kno$n s co&e to %rie"' since their attit de to s has a&o nted to ad&iration so "ar. that is $hy $e "eel asha&ed to re" se those a "a*o r $ho ask one "or the "irst ti&e/$e ha*e not as yet lost credit $ith the&. : ch are those $ho are , st be%innin% to $ish to be o r "riends( "or they ha*e seen o r best side only 4hence the a!!ro!riateness o" E ri!ides0 re!ly to the :yrac sans5. and s ch also are those a&on% o r old ac+ aintances $ho kno$ nothin% to o r

discredit. And $e are asha&ed not &erely o" the act al sha&e" l cond ct &entioned' b t also o" the e*idences o" it. not &erely' "or e)a&!le' o" act al se) al interco rse' b t also o" its e*idences( and not &erely o" dis%race" l acts b t also o" dis%race" l talk. :i&ilarly $e "eel sha&e not &erely in !resence o" the !ersons &entioned b t also o" those $ho $ill tell the& $hat $e ha*e done' s ch as their ser*ants or "riends. And' %enerally' $e "eel no sha&e be"ore those !on $hose o!inions $e + ite look do$n as ntr st$orthy 4no one "eels sha&e be"ore s&all children or ani&als5( nor are $e asha&ed o" the sa&e thin%s be"ore inti&ates as be"ore stran%ers' b t be"ore the "or&er o" $hat see& %en ine "a lts' be"ore the latter o" $hat see& con*entional ones. The conditions nder $hich $e shall "eel sha&e are these. "irst' ha*in% !eo!le related to s like those be"ore $ho&' as has been said' $e "eel sha&e. These are' as $as stated' !ersons $ho& $e ad&ire' or $ho ad&ire s' or by $ho& $e $ish to be ad&ired' or "ro& $ho& $e desire so&e ser*ice that $e shall not obtain i" $e "or"eit their %ood o!inion. These !ersons &ay be act ally lookin% on 4as Cydias re!resented the& in his s!eech on land assi%n&ents in :a&os' $hen he told the Athenians to i&a%ine the ;reeks to be standin% all aro nd the&' act ally seein% the $ay they *oted and not &erely %oin% to hear abo t it a"ter$ards5. or a%ain they &ay be near at hand' or &ay be likely to "ind o t abo t $hat $e do. This is $hy in &is"ort ne $e do not $ish to be seen by those $ho once $ished the&sel*es like s( "or s ch a "eelin% i&!lies ad&iration. And &en "eel sha&e $hen they ha*e acts or e)!loits to their credit on $hich they are brin%in% dishono r' $hether these are their o$n' or those o" their ancestors' or those o" other !ersons $ith $ho& they ha*e so&e close conne)ion. ;enerally' $e "eel sha&e be"ore those "or $hose o$n &iscond ct $e sho ld also "eel it/those already &entioned( those $ho take s as their &odels( those $hose teachers or ad*isers $e ha*e been( or other !eo!le' it &ay be' like o rsel*es' $hose ri*als $e are. 1or there are &any thin%s that sha&e be"ore s ch !eo!le &akes s do or lea*e ndone. And $e "eel &ore sha&e $hen $e are likely to be contin ally seen by' and %o abo t nder the eyes o"' those $ho kno$ o" o r dis%race. Hence' $hen Anti!hon the !oet $as to be c d%elled to death by order o" #ionysi s' and sa$ those $ho $ere to !erish $ith hi& co*erin% their "aces as they $ent thro %h the %ates' he said' 0Why do yo co*er yo r "acesI Is it lest so&e o" these s!ectators sho ld see yo to/&orro$I0 :o & ch "or :ha&e( to nderstand :ha&elessness' $e need only consider the con*erse cases' and !lainly $e shall ha*e all $e need. @ To take Findness ne)t. the de"inition o" it $ill sho$ s to$ards $ho& it is "elt' $hy' and in $hat "ra&es o" &ind. Findness/ nder the in"l ence o" $hich a &an is said to 0be kind0 &ay be de"ined as hel!" lness to$ards so&e one in need' not in ret rn "or anythin%' nor "or the ad*anta%e o" the hel!er hi&sel"' b t "or that o" the !erson hel!ed. Findness is %reat i" sho$n to one $ho is in %reat need' or $ho needs $hat is i&!ortant and hard to %et' or $ho needs it at an i&!ortant and di""ic lt crisis( or i" the hel!er is the only' the "irst' or the chie" !erson to %i*e the hel!. -at ral cra*in%s constit te s ch needs( and in !artic lar cra*in%s' acco&!anied by !ain' "or $hat is not bein% attained. The a!!etites are cra*in%s "or this kind. se) al desire' "or instance' and those $hich arise d rin% bodily in, ries and in dan%ers( "or a!!etite is acti*e both in dan%er and in !ain. Hence those $ho stand by s in !o*erty or in banish&ent' e*en i" they do not hel! s & ch' are yet really kind to s' beca se o r need is %reat and the occasion !ressin%( "or instance' the &an $ho %a*e the &at in the 9yce &. The hel!" lness & st there"ore &eet' !re"erably' , st this kind o" need( and "ailin% , st this kind' so&e other kind as %reat or %reater. We no$ see to $ho&' $hy'

and nder $hat conditions kindness is sho$n( and these "acts & st "or& the basis o" o r ar% &ents. We & st sho$ that the !ersons hel!ed are' or ha*e been' in s ch !ain and need as has been described' and that their hel!ers %a*e' or are %i*in%' the kind o" hel! described' in the kind o" need described. We can also see ho$ to eli&inate the idea o" kindness and &ake o r o!!onents a!!ear nkind. $e &ay &aintain that they are bein% or ha*e been hel!" l si&!ly to !ro&ote their o$n interest/this' as has been stated' is not kindness( or that their action $as accidental' or $as "orced !on the&( or that they $ere not doin% a "a*o r' b t &erely ret rnin% one' $hether they kno$ this or not/in either case the action is a &ere ret rn' and is there"ore not a kindness e*en i" the doer does not kno$ ho$ the case stands. In considerin% this s b,ect $e & st look at all the cate%ories. an act &ay be an act o" kindness beca se 415 it is a !artic lar thin%' 475 it has a !artic lar &a%nit de or 435 + ality' or 485 is done at a !artic lar ti&e or 455 !lace. As e*idence o" the $ant o" kindness' $e &ay !oint o t that a s&aller ser*ice had been re" sed to the &an in need( or that the sa&e ser*ice' or an e+ al or %reater one' has been %i*en to his ene&ies( these "acts sho$ that the ser*ice in + estion $as not done "or the sake o" the !erson hel!ed. Or $e &ay !oint o t that the thin% desired $as $orthless and that the hel!er kne$ it. no one $ill ad&it that he is in need o" $hat is $orthless. B :o & ch "or Findness and =nkindness. 9et s no$ consider 3ity' askin% o rsel*es $hat thin%s e)cite !ity' and "or $hat !ersons' and in $hat states o" o r &ind !ity is "elt. 3ity &ay be de"ined as a "eelin% o" !ain ca sed by the si%ht o" so&e e*il' destr cti*e or !ain" l' $hich be"alls one $ho does not deser*e it' and $hich $e &i%ht e)!ect to be"all o rsel*es or so&e "riend o" o rs' and &oreo*er to be"all s soon. In order to "eel !ity' $e & st ob*io sly be ca!able o" s !!osin% that so&e e*il &ay ha!!en to s or so&e "riend o" o rs' and &oreo*er so&e s ch e*il as is stated in o r de"inition or is &ore or less o" that kind. It is there"ore not "elt by those co&!letely r ined' $ho s !!ose that no " rther e*il can be"all the&' since the $orst has be"allen the& already( nor by those $ho i&a%ine the&sel*es i&&ensely "ort nate/their "eelin% is rather !res &!t o s insolence' "or $hen they think they !ossess all the %ood thin%s o" li"e' it is clear that the i&!ossibility o" e*il be"allin% the& $ill be incl ded' this bein% one o" the %ood thin%s in + estion. Those $ho think e*il &ay be"all the& are s ch as ha*e already had it be"all the& and ha*e sa"ely esca!ed "ro& it( elderly &en' o$in% to their %ood sense and their e)!erience( $eak &en' es!ecially &en inclined to co$ardice( and also ed cated !eo!le' since these can take lon% *ie$s. Also those $ho ha*e !arents li*in%' or children' or $i*es( "or these are o r o$n' and the e*ils &entioned abo*e &ay easily be"all the&. And those $ho neither &o*ed by any co ra%eo s e&otion s ch as an%er or con"idence 4these e&otions take no acco nt o" the " t re5' nor by a dis!osition to !res &!t o s insolence 4insolent &en' too' take no acco nt o" the !ossibility that so&ethin% e*il $ill ha!!en to the&5' nor yet by %reat "ear 4!anic/stricken !eo!le do not "eel !ity' beca se they are taken ! $ith $hat is ha!!enin% to the&sel*es5( only those "eel !ity $ho are bet$een these t$o e)tre&es. In order to "eel !ity $e & st also belie*e in the %oodness o" at least so&e !eo!le( i" yo think nobody %ood' yo $ill belie*e that e*erybody deser*es e*il "ort ne. And' %enerally' $e "eel !ity $hene*er $e are in the condition o" re&e&berin% that si&ilar &is"ort nes ha*e ha!!ened to s or o rs' or e)!ectin% the& to ha!!en in the " t re. :o & ch "or the &ental conditions nder $hich $e "eel !ity. What $e !ity is stated clearly in the de"inition. All n!leasant and !ain" l thin%s e)cite !ity i" they tend to destroy !ain and annihilate( and all s ch e*ils as are d e to chance' i" they are

serio s. The !ain" l and destr cti*e e*ils are. death in its *ario s "or&s' bodily in, ries and a""lictions' old a%e' diseases' lack o" "ood. The e*ils d e to chance are. "riendlessness' scarcity o" "riends 4it is a !iti" l thin% to be torn a$ay "ro& "riends and co&!anions5' de"or&ity' $eakness' & tilation( e*il co&in% "ro& a so rce "ro& $hich %ood o %ht to ha*e co&e( and the "re+ ent re!etition o" s ch &is"ort nes. Also the co&in% o" %ood $hen the $orst has ha!!ened. e.%. the arri*al o" the ;reat Fin%0s %i"ts "or #io!eithes a"ter his death. Also that either no %ood sho ld ha*e be"allen a &an at all' or that he sho ld not be able to en,oy it $hen it has. The %ro nds' then' on $hich $e "eel !ity are these or like these. The !eo!le $e !ity are. those $ho& $e kno$' i" only they are not *ery closely related to s/in that case $e "eel abo t the& as i" $e $ere in dan%er o rsel*es. 1or this reason A&asis did not $ee!' they say' at the si%ht o" his son bein% led to death' b t did $ee! $hen he sa$ his "riend be%%in%. the latter si%ht $as !iti" l' the "or&er terrible' and the terrible is di""erent "ro& the !iti" l( it tends to cast o t !ity' and o"ten hel!s to !rod ce the o!!osite o" !ity. A%ain' $e "eel !ity $hen the dan%er is near o rsel*es. Also $e !ity those $ho are like s in a%e' character' dis!osition' social standin%' or birth( "or in all these cases it a!!ears &ore likely that the sa&e &is"ort ne &ay be"all s also. Here too $e ha*e to re&e&ber the %eneral !rinci!le that $hat $e "ear "or o rsel*es e)cites o r !ity $hen it ha!!ens to others. 1 rther' since it is $hen the s ""erin%s o" others are close to s that they e)cite o r !ity 4$e cannot re&e&ber $hat disasters ha!!ened a h ndred cent ries a%o' nor look "or$ard to $hat $ill ha!!en a h ndred cent ries herea"ter' and there"ore "eel little !ity' i" any' "or s ch thin%s5. it "ollo$s that those $ho hei%hten the e""ect o" their $ords $ith s itable %est res' tones' dress' and dra&atic action %enerally' are es!ecially s ccess" l in e)citin% !ity. they th s ! t the disasters be"ore o r eyes' and &ake the& see& close to s' , st co&in% or , st !ast. Anythin% that has , st ha!!ened' or is %oin% to ha!!en soon' is !artic larly !iteo s. so too there"ore are the tokens and the actions o" s ""erers/the %ar&ents and the like o" those $ho ha*e already s ""ered( the $ords and the like o" those act ally s ""erin%/o" those' "or instance' $ho are on the !oint o" death. 6ost !iteo s o" all is it $hen' in s ch ti&es o" trial' the *icti&s are !ersons o" noble character. $hene*er they are so' o r !ity is es!ecially e)cited' beca se their innocence' as $ell as the settin% o" their &is"ort nes be"ore o r eyes' &akes their &is"ort nes see& close to o rsel*es. C 6ost directly o!!osed to !ity is the "eelin% called Indi%nation. 3ain at n&erited %ood "ort ne is' in one sense' o!!osite to !ain at n&erited bad "ort ne' and is d e to the sa&e &oral + alities. Both "eelin%s are associated $ith %ood &oral character( it is o r d ty both to "eel sy&!athy and !ity "or n&erited distress' and to "eel indi%nation at n&erited !ros!erity( "or $hate*er is ndeser*ed is n, st' and that is $hy $e ascribe indi%nation e*en to the %ods. It &i%ht indeed be tho %ht that en*y is si&ilarly o!!osed to !ity' on the %ro nd that en*y it closely akin to indi%nation' or e*en the sa&e thin%. B t it is not the sa&e. It is tr e that it also is a dist rbin% !ain e)cited by the !ros!erity o" others. B t it is e)cited not by the !ros!erity o" the ndeser*in% b t by that o" !eo!le $ho are like s or e+ al $ith s. The t$o "eelin%s ha*e this in co&&on' that they & st be d e not to so&e nto$ard thin% bein% likely to be"all o rsel*es' b t only to $hat is ha!!enin% to o r nei%hbo r. The "eelin% ceases to be en*y in the one case and indi%nation in the other' and beco&es "ear' i" the !ain and dist rbance are d e to the !ros!ect o" so&ethin% bad "or o rsel*es as the res lt o" the other &an0s %ood "ort ne. The "eelin%s o" !ity and indi%nation $ill ob*io sly be attended by the con*erse "eelin%s o" satis"action. I" yo are !ained by the

n&erited distress o" others' yo $ill be !leased' or at least not !ained' by their &erited distress. Th s no %ood &an can be !ained by the ! nish&ent o" !arricides or & rderers. These are thin%s $e are bo nd to re,oice at' as $e & st at the !ros!erity o" the deser*in%( both these thin%s are , st' and both %i*e !leas re to any honest &an' since he cannot hel! e)!ectin% that $hat has ha!!ened to a &an like hi& $ill ha!!en to hi& too. All these "eelin%s are associated $ith the sa&e ty!e o" &oral character. And their contraries are associated $ith the contrary ty!e( the &an $ho is deli%hted by others0 &is"ort nes is identical $ith the &an $ho en*ies others0 !ros!erity. 1or any one $ho is !ained by the occ rrence or e)istence o" a %i*en thin% & st be !leased by that thin%0s non/e)istence or destr ction. We can no$ see that all these "eelin%s tend to !re*ent !ity 4tho %h they di""er a&on% the&sel*es' "or the reasons %i*en5' so that all are e+ ally se" l "or ne trali2in% an a!!eal to !ity. We $ill "irst consider Indi%nation/reser*in% the other e&otions "or s bse+ ent disc ssion/and ask $ith $ho&' on $hat %ro nds' and in $hat states o" &ind $e &ay be indi%nant. These + estions are really ans$ered by $hat has been said already. Indi%nation is !ain ca sed by the si%ht o" ndeser*ed %ood "ort ne. It is' then' !lain to be%in $ith that there are so&e "or&s o" %ood the si%ht o" $hich cannot ca se it. Th s a &an &ay be , st or bra*e' or ac+ ire &oral %oodness. b t $e shall not be indi%nant $ith hi& "or that reason' any &ore than $e shall !ity hi& "or the contrary reason. Indi%nation is ro sed by the si%ht o" $ealth' !o$er' and the like/by all those thin%s' ro %hly s!eakin%' $hich are deser*ed by %ood &en and by those $ho !ossess the %oods o" nat re/noble birth' bea ty' and so on. A%ain' $hat is lon% established see&s akin to $hat e)ists by nat re( and there"ore $e "eel &ore indi%nation at those !ossessin% a %i*en %ood i" they ha*e as a &atter o" "act only , st %ot it and the !ros!erity it brin%s $ith it. The ne$ly rich %i*e &ore o""ence than those $hose $ealth is o" lon% standin% and inherited. The sa&e is tr e o" those $ho ha*e o""ice or !o$er' !lenty o" "riends' a "ine "a&ily' Jc. We "eel the sa&e $hen these ad*anta%es o" theirs sec re the& others. 1or here a%ain' the ne$ly rich %i*e s &ore o""ence by obtainin% o""ice thro %h their riches than do those $hose $ealth is o" lon% standin%( and so in all other cases. The reason is that $hat the latter ha*e is "elt to be really their o$n' b t $hat the others ha*e is not( $hat a!!ears to ha*e been al$ays $hat it is is re%arded as real' and so the !ossessions o" the ne$ly rich do not see& to be really their o$n. 1 rther' it is not any and e*ery &an that deser*es any %i*en kind o" %ood( there is a certain corres!ondence and a!!ro!riateness in s ch thin%s( th s it is a!!ro!riate "or bra*e &en' not "or , st &en' to ha*e "ine $ea!ons' and "or &en o" "a&ily' not "or !ar*en s' to &ake distin% ished &arria%es. Indi%nation &ay there"ore !ro!erly be "elt $hen any one %ets $hat is not a!!ro!riate "or hi&' tho %h he &ay be a %ood &an eno %h. It &ay also be "elt $hen any one sets hi&sel" ! a%ainst his s !erior' es!ecially a%ainst his s !erior in so&e !artic lar res!ect/$hence the lines Only "ro& battle he shrank $ith Aias Tela&on0s son( Ge s had been an%ered $ith hi&' had he "o %ht $ith a &i%htier one( b t also' e*en a!art "ro& that' $hen the in"erior in any sense contends $ith his s !erior( a & sician' "or instance' $ith a , st &an' "or , stice is a "iner thin% than & sic. Eno %h has been said to &ake clear the %ro nds on $hich' and the !ersons a%ainst $ho&' Indi%nation is "elt/they are those &entioned' and others like hi&. As "or the !eo!le $ho "eel it( $e "eel it i" $e do o rsel*es deser*e the %reatest !ossible %oods and &oreo*er ha*e the&' "or it is an in, stice that those $ho are not o r e+ als sho ld ha*e been held to deser*e as & ch as $e ha*e. Or' secondly' $e "eel it i" $e are really %ood and honest !eo!le( o r , d%e&ent is

then so nd' and $e loathe any kind o" in, stice. Also i" $e are a&bitio s and ea%er to %ain !artic lar ends' es!ecially i" $e are a&bitio s "or $hat others are %ettin% $itho t deser*in% to %et it. And' %enerally' i" $e think that $e o rsel*es deser*e a thin% and that others do not' $e are dis!osed to be indi%nant $ith those others so "ar as that thin% is concerned. Hence ser*ile' $orthless' na&bitio s !ersons are not inclined to Indi%nation' since there is nothin% they can belie*e the&sel*es to deser*e. 1ro& all this it is !lain $hat sort o" &en those are at $hose &is"ort nes' distresses' or "ail res $e o %ht to "eel !leased' or at least not !ained. by considerin% the "acts described $e see at once $hat their contraries are. I" there"ore o r s!eech ! ts the , d%es in s ch a "ra&e o" &ind as that indicated and sho$s that those $ho clai& !ity on certain de"inite %ro nds do not deser*e to sec re !ity b t do deser*e not to sec re it' it $ill be i&!ossible "or the , d%es to "eel !ity. 10 To take En*y ne)t. $e can see on $hat %ro nds' a%ainst $hat !ersons' and in $hat states o" &ind $e "eel it. En*y is !ain at the si%ht o" s ch %ood "ort ne as consists o" the %ood thin%s already &entioned( $e "eel it to$ards o r e+ als( not $ith the idea o" %ettin% so&ethin% "or o rsel*es' b t beca se the other !eo!le ha*e it. We shall "eel it i" $e ha*e' or think $e ha*e' e+ als( and by 0e+ als0 I &ean e+ als in birth' relationshi!' a%e' dis!osition' distinction' or $ealth. We "eel en*y also i" $e "all b t a little short o" ha*in% e*erythin%( $hich is $hy !eo!le in hi%h !lace and !ros!erity "eel it/they think e*ery one else is takin% $hat belon%s to the&sel*es. Also i" $e are e)ce!tionally distin% ished "or so&e !artic lar thin%' and es!ecially i" that thin% is $isdo& or %ood "ort ne. A&bitio s &en are &ore en*io s than those $ho are not. :o also those $ho !ro"ess $isdo&( they are a&bitio s to be tho %ht $ise. Indeed' %enerally' those $ho ai& at a re! tation "or anythin% are en*io s on this !artic lar !oint. And s&all/&inded &en are en*io s' "or e*erythin% see&s %reat to the&. The %ood thin%s $hich e)cite en*y ha*e already been &entioned. The deeds or !ossessions $hich aro se the lo*e o" re! tation and hono r and the desire "or "a&e' and the *ario s %i"ts o" "ort ne' are al&ost all s b,ect to en*y( and !artic larly i" $e desire the thin% o rsel*es' or think $e are entitled to it' or i" ha*in% it ! ts s a little abo*e others' or not ha*in% it a little belo$ the&. It is clear also $hat kind o" !eo!le $e en*y( that $as incl ded in $hat has been said already. $e en*y those $ho are near s in ti&e' !lace' a%e' or re! tation. Hence the line. Ay' kin can e*en be ,ealo s o" their kin. Also o r "ello$/co&!etitors' $ho are indeed the !eo!le , st &entioned/$e do not co&!ete $ith &en $ho li*ed a h ndred cent ries a%o' or those not yet born' or the dead' or those $ho d$ell near the 3illars o" Herc les' or those $ho&' in o r o!inion or that o" others' $e take to be "ar belo$ s or "ar abo*e s. :o too $e co&!ete $ith those $ho "ollo$ the sa&e ends as o rsel*es. $e co&!ete $ith o r ri*als in s!ort or in lo*e' and %enerally $ith those $ho are a"ter the sa&e thin%s( and it is there"ore these $ho& $e are bo nd to en*y beyond all others. Hence the sayin%. 3otter a%ainst !otter. We also en*y those $hose !ossession o" or s ccess in a thin% is a re!roach to s. these are o r nei%hbo rs and e+ als( "or it is clear that it is o r o$n "a lt $e ha*e &issed the %ood thin% in + estion( this annoys s' and e)cites en*y in s. We also en*y those $ho ha*e $hat $e o %ht to ha*e' or ha*e %ot $hat $e did ha*e once. Hence old

&en en*y yo n%er &en' and those $ho ha*e s!ent & ch en*y those $ho ha*e s!ent little on the sa&e thin%. And &en $ho ha*e not %ot a thin%' or not %ot it yet' en*y those $ho ha*e %ot it + ickly. We can also see $hat thin%s and $hat !ersons %i*e !leas re to en*io s !eo!le' and in $hat states o" &ind they "eel it. the states o" &ind in $hich they "eel !ain are those nder $hich they $ill "eel !leas re in the contrary thin%s. I" there"ore $e o rsel*es $ith $ho& the decision rests are ! t into an en*io s state o" &ind' and those "or $ho& o r !ity' or the a$ard o" so&ethin% desirable' is clai&ed are s ch as ha*e been described' it is ob*io s that they $ill $in no !ity "ro& s. 11 We $ill ne)t consider E& lation' sho$in% in $hat "ollo$s its ca ses and ob,ects' and the state o" &ind in $hich it is "elt. E& lation is !ain ca sed by seein% the !resence' in !ersons $hose nat re is like o r o$n' o" %ood thin%s that are hi%hly *al ed and are !ossible "or o rsel*es to ac+ ire( b t it is "elt not beca se others ha*e these %oods' b t beca se $e ha*e not %ot the& o rsel*es. It is there"ore a %ood "eelin% "elt by %ood !ersons' $hereas en*y is a bad "eelin% "elt by bad !ersons. E& lation &akes s take ste!s to sec re the %ood thin%s in + estion' en*y &akes s take ste!s to sto! o r nei%hbo r ha*in% the&. E& lation & st there"ore tend to be "elt by !ersons $ho belie*e the&sel*es to deser*e certain %ood thin%s that they ha*e not %ot' it bein% nderstood that no one as!ires to thin%s $hich a!!ear i&!ossible. It is accordin%ly "elt by the yo n% and by !ersons o" lo"ty dis!osition. Also by those $ho !ossess s ch %ood thin%s as are deser*ed by &en held in hono r/these are $ealth' ab ndance o" "riends' ! blic o""ice' and the like( on the ass &!tion that they o %ht to be %ood &en' they are e& lo s to %ain s ch %oods beca se they o %ht' in their belie"' to belon% to &en $hose state o" &ind is %ood. Also by those $ho& all others think deser*in%. We also "eel it abo t anythin% "or $hich o r ancestors' relati*es' !ersonal "riends' race' or co ntry are s!ecially hono red' lookin% !on that thin% as really o r o$n' and there"ore "eelin% that $e deser*e to ha*e it. 1 rther' since all %ood thin%s that are hi%hly hono red are ob,ects o" e& lation' &oral %oodness in its *ario s "or&s & st be s ch an ob,ect' and also all those %ood thin%s that are se" l and ser*iceable to others. "or &en hono r those $ho are &orally %ood' and also those $ho do the& ser*ice. :o $ith those %ood thin%s o r !ossession o" $hich can %i*e en,oy&ent to o r nei%hbo rs/$ealth and bea ty rather than health. We can see' too' $hat !ersons are the ob,ects o" the "eelin%. They are those $ho ha*e these and si&ilar thin%s/those already &entioned' as co ra%e' $isdo&' ! blic o""ice. Holders o" ! blic o""ice/%enerals' orators' and all $ho !ossess s ch !o$ers/can do &any !eo!le a %ood t rn. Also those $ho& &any !eo!le $ish to be like( those $ho ha*e &any ac+ aintances or "riends( those $ho& ad&ire' or $ho& $e o rsel*es ad&ire( and those $ho ha*e been !raised and e lo%i2ed by !oets or !rose/$riters. 3ersons o" the contrary sort are ob,ects o" conte&!t. "or the "eelin% and notion o" conte&!t are o!!osite to those o" e& lation. Those $ho are s ch as to e& late or be e& lated by others are ine*itably dis!osed to be conte&!t o s o" all s ch !ersons as are s b,ect to those bad thin%s $hich are contrary to the %ood thin%s that are the ob,ects o" e& lation. des!isin% the& "or , st that reason. Hence $e o"ten des!ise the "ort nate' $hen l ck co&es to the& $itho t their ha*in% those %ood thin%s $hich are held in hono r. This co&!letes o r disc ssion o" the &eans by $hich the se*eral e&otions &ay be !rod ced or dissi!ated' and !on $hich de!end the !ers asi*e ar% &ents connected $ith the e&otions. 17 9et s no$ consider the *ario s ty!es o" h &an character' in relation to the e&otions and &oral + alities' sho$in% ho$ they

corres!ond to o r *ario s a%es and "ort nes. By e&otions I &ean an%er' desire' and the like( these $e ha*e disc ssed already. By &oral + alities I &ean *irt es and *ices( these also ha*e been disc ssed already' as $ell as the *ario s thin%s that *ario s ty!es o" &en tend to $ill and to do. By a%es I &ean yo th' the !ri&e o" li"e' and old a%e. By "ort ne I &ean birth' $ealth' !o$er' and their o!!osites/in "act' %ood "ort ne and ill "ort ne. To be%in $ith the Ao th" l ty!e o" character. Ao n% &en ha*e stron% !assions' and tend to %rati"y the& indiscri&inately. O" the bodily desires' it is the se) al by $hich they are &ost s$ayed and in $hich they sho$ absence o" sel"/control. They are chan%eable and "ickle in their desires' $hich are *iolent $hile they last' b t + ickly o*er. their i&! lses are keen b t not dee!/rooted' and are like sick !eo!le0s attacks o" h n%er and thirst. They are hot/te&!ered' and + ick/te&!ered' and a!t to %i*e $ay to their an%er( bad te&!er o"ten %ets the better o" the&' "or o$in% to their lo*e o" hono r they cannot bear bein% sli%hted' and are indi%nant i" they i&a%ine the&sel*es n"airly treated. While they lo*e hono r' they lo*e *ictory still &ore( "or yo th is ea%er "or s !eriority o*er others' and *ictory is one "or& o" this. They lo*e both &ore than they lo*e &oney' $hich indeed they lo*e *ery little' not ha*in% yet learnt $hat it &eans to be $itho t it/this is the !oint o" 3ittac s0 re&ark abo t A&!hiara s. They look at the %ood side rather than the bad' not ha*in% yet $itnessed &any instances o" $ickedness. They tr st others readily' beca se they ha*e not yet o"ten been cheated. They are san% ine( nat re $ar&s their blood as tho %h $ith e)cess o" $ine( and besides that' they ha*e as yet &et $ith "e$ disa!!oint&ents. Their li*es are &ainly s!ent not in &e&ory b t in e)!ectation( "or e)!ectation re"ers to the " t re' &e&ory to the !ast' and yo th has a lon% " t re be"ore it and a short !ast behind it. on the "irst day o" one0s li"e one has nothin% at all to re&e&ber' and can only look "or$ard. They are easily cheated' o$in% to the san% ine dis!osition , st &entioned. Their hot te&!ers and ho!e" l dis!ositions &ake the& &ore co ra%eo s than older &en are( the hot te&!er !re*ents "ear' and the ho!e" l dis!osition creates con"idence( $e cannot "eel "ear so lon% as $e are "eelin% an%ry' and any e)!ectation o" %ood &akes s con"ident. They are shy' acce!tin% the r les o" society in $hich they ha*e been trained' and not yet belie*in% in any other standard o" hono r. They ha*e e)alted notions' beca se they ha*e not yet been h &bled by li"e or learnt its necessary li&itations( &oreo*er' their ho!e" l dis!osition &akes the& think the&sel*es e+ al to %reat thin%s/and that &eans ha*in% e)alted notions. They $o ld al$ays rather do noble deeds than se" l ones. their li*es are re% lated &ore by &oral "eelin% than by reasonin%( and $hereas reasonin% leads s to choose $hat is se" l' &oral %oodness leads s to choose $hat is noble. They are "onder o" their "riends' inti&ates' and co&!anions than older &en are' beca se they like s!endin% their days in the co&!any o" others' and ha*e not yet co&e to *al e either their "riends or anythin% else by their se" lness to the&sel*es. All their &istakes are in the direction o" doin% thin%s e)cessi*ely and *ehe&ently. They disobey Chilon0s !rece!t by o*erdoin% e*erythin%' they lo*e too & ch and hate too & ch' and the sa&e thin% $ith e*erythin% else. They think they kno$ e*erythin%' and are al$ays + ite s re abo t it( this' in "act' is $hy they o*erdo e*erythin%. I" they do $ron% to others' it is beca se they &ean to ins lt the&' not to do the& act al har&. They are ready to !ity others' beca se they think e*ery one an honest &an' or anyho$ better than he is. they , d%e their nei%hbo r by their o$n har&less nat res' and so cannot think he deser*es to be treated in that $ay. They are "ond o" " n and there"ore $itty' $it bein% $ell/bred insolence. 13 : ch' then is the character o" the Ao n%. The character o" Elderly

6en/&en $ho are !ast their !ri&e/&ay be said to be "or&ed "or the &ost !art o" ele&ents that are the contrary o" all these. They ha*e li*ed &any years( they ha*e o"ten been taken in' and o"ten &ade &istakes( and li"e on the $hole is a bad b siness. The res lt is that they are s re abo t nothin% and nder/do e*erythin%. They 0think0' b t they ne*er 0kno$0( and beca se o" their hesitation they al$ays add a 0!ossibly0or a 0!erha!s0' ! ttin% e*erythin% this $ay and nothin% !ositi*ely. They are cynical( that is' they tend to ! t the $orse constr ction on e*erythin%. 1 rther' their e)!erience &akes the& distr st" l and there"ore s s!icio s o" e*il. Conse+ ently they neither lo*e $ar&ly nor hate bitterly' b t "ollo$in% the hint o" Bias they lo*e as tho %h they $ill so&e day hate and hate as tho %h they $ill so&e day lo*e. They are s&all/&inded' beca se they ha*e been h &bled by li"e. their desires are set !on nothin% &ore e)alted or n s al than $hat $ill hel! the& to kee! ali*e. They are not %enero s' beca se &oney is one o" the thin%s they & st ha*e' and at the sa&e ti&e their e)!erience has ta %ht the& ho$ hard it is to %et and ho$ easy to lose. They are co$ardly' and are al$ays antici!atin% dan%er( nlike that o" the yo n%' $ho are $ar&/blooded' their te&!era&ent is chilly( old a%e has !a*ed the $ay "or co$ardice( "ear is' in "act' a "or& o" chill. They lo*e li"e( and all the &ore $hen their last day has co&e' beca se the ob,ect o" all desire is so&ethin% $e ha*e not %ot' and also beca se $e desire &ost stron%ly that $hich $e need &ost r%ently. They are too "ond o" the&sel*es( this is one "or& that s&all/&indedness takes. Beca se o" this' they % ide their li*es too & ch by considerations o" $hat is se" l and too little by $hat is noble/"or the se" l is $hat is %ood "or onesel"' and the noble $hat is %ood absol tely. They are not shy' b t sha&eless rather( carin% less "or $hat is noble than "or $hat is se" l' they "eel conte&!t "or $hat !eo!le &ay think o" the&. They lack con"idence in the " t re( !artly thro %h e)!erience/"or &ost thin%s %o $ron%' or anyho$ t rn o t $orse than one e)!ects( and !artly beca se o" their co$ardice. They li*e by &e&ory rather than by ho!e( "or $hat is le"t to the& o" li"e is b t little as co&!ared $ith the lon% !ast( and ho!e is o" the " t re' &e&ory o" the !ast. This' a%ain' is the ca se o" their lo+ acity( they are contin ally talkin% o" the !ast' beca se they en,oy re&e&berin% it. Their "its o" an%er are s dden b t "eeble. Their sens al !assions ha*e either alto%ether %one or ha*e lost their *i%o r. conse+ ently they do not "eel their !assions & ch' and their actions are ins!ired less by $hat they do "eel than by the lo*e o" %ain. Hence &en at this ti&e o" li"e are o"ten s !!osed to ha*e a sel"/controlled character( the "act is that their !assions ha*e slackened' and they are sla*es to the lo*e o" %ain. They % ide their li*es by reasonin% &ore than by &oral "eelin%( reasonin% bein% directed to tility and &oral "eelin% to &oral %oodness. I" they $ron% others' they &ean to in, re the&' not to ins lt the&. Old &en &ay "eel !ity' as $ell as yo n% &en' b t not "or the sa&e reason. Ao n% &en "eel it o t o" kindness( old &en o t o" $eakness' i&a%inin% that anythin% that be"alls any one else &i%ht easily ha!!en to the&' $hich' as $e sa$' is a tho %ht that e)cites !ity. Hence they are + er lo s' and not dis!osed to ,estin% or la %hter/the lo*e o" la %hter bein% the *ery o!!osite o" + er lo sness. : ch are the characters o" Ao n% 6en and Elderly 6en. 3eo!le al$ays think $ell o" s!eeches ada!ted to' and re"lectin%' their o$n character. and $e can no$ see ho$ to co&!ose o r s!eeches so as to ada!t both the& and o rsel*es to o r a diences. 18 As "or 6en in their 3ri&e' clearly $e shall "ind that they ha*e a character bet$een that o" the yo n% and that o" the old' "ree "ro& the e)tre&es o" either. They ha*e neither that e)cess o" con"idence $hich a&o nts to rashness' nor too & ch ti&idity' b t the ri%ht a&o nt o" each. They neither tr st e*erybody nor distr st e*erybody' b t

, d%e !eo!le correctly. Their li*es $ill be % ided not by the sole consideration either o" $hat is noble or o" $hat is se" l' b t by both( neither by !arsi&ony nor by !rodi%ality' b t by $hat is "it and !ro!er. :o' too' in re%ard to an%er and desire( they $ill be bra*e as $ell as te&!erate' and te&!erate as $ell as bra*e( these *irt es are di*ided bet$een the yo n% and the old( the yo n% are bra*e b t inte&!erate' the old te&!erate b t co$ardly. To ! t it %enerally' all the *al able + alities that yo th and a%e di*ide bet$een the& are nited in the !ri&e o" li"e' $hile all their e)cesses or de"ects are re!laced by &oderation and "itness. The body is in its !ri&e "ro& thirty to "i*e/and/thirty( the &ind abo t "orty/nine. 15 :o & ch "or the ty!es o" character that distin% ish yo th' old a%e' and the !ri&e o" li"e. We $ill no$ t rn to those ;i"ts o" 1ort ne by $hich h &an character is a""ected. 1irst let s consider ;ood Birth. Its e""ect on character is to &ake those $ho ha*e it &ore a&bitio s( it is the $ay o" all &en $ho ha*e so&ethin% to start $ith to add to the !ile' and %ood birth i&!lies ancestral distinction. The $ell/born &an $ill look do$n e*en on those $ho are as %ood as his o$n ancestors' beca se any "ar/o"" distinction is %reater than the sa&e thin% close to s' and better to boast abo t. Bein% $ell/born' $hich &eans co&in% o" a "ine stock' & st be distin% ished "ro& nobility' $hich &eans bein% tr e to the "a&ily nat re/a + ality not s ally "o nd in the $ell/born' &ost o" $ho& are !oor creat res. In the %enerations o" &en as in the "r its o" the earth' there is a *aryin% yield( no$ and then' $here the stock is %ood' e)ce!tional &en are !rod ced "or a $hile' and then decadence sets in. A cle*er stock $ill de%enerate to$ards the insane ty!e o" character' like the descendants o" Alcibiades or o" the elder #ionysi s( a steady stock to$ards the "at o s and tor!id ty!e' like the descendants o" Ci&on' 3ericles' and :ocrates. 1< The ty!e o" character !rod ced by Wealth lies on the s r"ace "or all to see. Wealthy &en are insolent and arro%ant( their !ossession o" $ealth a""ects their nderstandin%( they "eel as i" they had e*ery %ood thin% that e)ists( $ealth beco&es a sort o" standard o" *al e "or e*erythin% else' and there"ore they i&a%ine there is nothin% it cannot b y. They are l ) rio s and ostentatio s( l ) rio s' beca se o" the l ) ry in $hich they li*e and the !ros!erity $hich they dis!lay( ostentatio s and * l%ar' beca se' like other !eo!le0s' their &inds are re% larly occ !ied $ith the ob,ect o" their lo*e and ad&iration' and also beca se they think that other !eo!le0s idea o" ha!!iness is the sa&e as their o$n. It is indeed + ite nat ral that they sho ld be a""ected th s( "or i" yo ha*e &oney' there are al$ays !lenty o" !eo!le $ho co&e be%%in% "ro& yo . Hence the sayin% o" :i&onides abo t $ise &en and rich &en' in ans$er to Hiero0s $i"e' $ho asked hi& $hether it $as better to %ro$ rich or $ise. 0Why' rich'0 he said( 0"or I see the $ise &en s!endin% their days at the rich &en0s doors.0 Rich &en also consider the&sel*es $orthy to hold ! blic o""ice( "or they consider they already ha*e the thin%s that %i*e a clai& to o""ice. In a $ord' the ty!e o" character !rod ced by $ealth is that o" a !ros!ero s "ool. There is indeed one di""erence bet$een the ty!e o" the ne$ly/enriched and those $ho ha*e lon% been rich. the ne$ly/enriched ha*e all the bad + alities &entioned in an e)a%%erated and $orse "or&//to be ne$ly/enriched &eans' so to s!eak' no ed cation in riches. The $ron%s they do others are not &eant to in, re their *icti&s' b t s!rin% "ro& insolence or sel"/ind l%ence' e.%. those that end in assa lt or in ad ltery. 1@

As to 3o$er. here too it &ay "airly be said that the ty!e o" character it !rod ces is &ostly ob*io s eno %h. :o&e ele&ents in this ty!e it shares $ith the $ealthy ty!e' others are better. Those in !o$er are &ore a&bitio s and &ore &anly in character than the $ealthy' beca se they as!ire to do the %reat deeds that their !o$er !er&its the& to do. Res!onsibility &akes the& &ore serio s. they ha*e to kee! !ayin% attention to the d ties their !osition in*ol*es. They are di%ni"ied rather than arro%ant' "or the res!ect in $hich they are held ins!ires the& $ith di%nity and there"ore $ith &oderation/di%nity bein% a &ild and beco&in% "or& o" arro%ance. I" they $ron% others' they $ron% the& not on a s&all b t on a %reat scale. ;ood "ort ne in certain o" its branches !rod ces the ty!es o" character belon%in% to the conditions , st described' since these conditions are in "act &ore or less the kinds o" %ood "ort ne that are re%arded as &ost i&!ortant. It &ay be added that %ood "ort ne leads s to %ain all $e can in the $ay o" "a&ily ha!!iness and bodily ad*anta%es. It does indeed &ake &en &ore s !ercilio s and &ore reckless( b t there is one e)cellent + ality that %oes $ith it/!iety' and res!ect "or the di*ine !o$er' in $hich they belie*e beca se o" e*ents $hich are really the res lt o" chance. This acco nt o" the ty!es o" character that corres!ond to di""erences o" a%e or "ort ne &ay end here( "or to arri*e at the o!!osite ty!es to those described' na&ely' those o" the !oor' the n"ort nate' and the !o$erless' $e ha*e only to ask $hat the o!!osite + alities are. 1B The se o" !ers asi*e s!eech is to lead to decisions. 4When $e kno$ a thin%' and ha*e decided abo t it' there is no " rther se in s!eakin% abo t it.5 This is so e*en i" one is addressin% a sin%le !erson and r%in% hi& to do or not to do so&ethin%' as $hen $e scold a &an "or his cond ct or try to chan%e his *ie$s. the sin%le !erson is as & ch yo r 0, d%e0 as i" he $ere one o" &any( $e &ay say' $itho t + ali"ication' that any one is yo r , d%e $ho& yo ha*e to !ers ade. -or does it &atter $hether $e are ar% in% a%ainst an act al o!!onent or a%ainst a &ere !ro!osition( in the latter case $e still ha*e to se s!eech and o*erthro$ the o!!osin% ar% &ents' and $e attack these as $e sho ld attack an act al o!!onent. O r !rinci!le holds %ood o" cere&onial s!eeches also( the 0onlookers0 "or $ho& s ch a s!eech is ! t to%ether are treated as the , d%es o" it. Broadly s!eakin%' ho$e*er' the only sort o" !erson $ho can strictly be called a , d%e is the &an $ho decides the iss e in so&e &atter o" ! blic contro*ersy( that is' in la$ s its and in !olitical debates' in both o" $hich there are iss es to be decided. In the section on !olitical oratory an acco nt has already been %i*en o" the ty!es o" character that &ark the di""erent constit tions. The &anner and &eans o" in*estin% s!eeches $ith &oral character &ay no$ be re%arded as " lly set "orth. Each o" the &ain di*isions o" oratory has' $e ha*e seen' its o$n distinct ! r!ose. With re%ard to each di*ision' $e ha*e noted the acce!ted *ie$s and !ro!ositions !on $hich $e &ay base o r ar% &ents/"or !olitical' "or cere&onial' and "or "orensic s!eakin%. We ha*e " rther deter&ined co&!letely by $hat &eans s!eeches &ay be in*ested $ith the re+ ired &oral character. We are no$ to !roceed to disc ss the ar% &ents co&&on to all oratory. All orators' besides their s!ecial lines o" ar% &ent' are bo nd to se' "or instance' the to!ic o" the 3ossible and I&!ossible( and to try to sho$ that a thin% has ha!!ened' or $ill ha!!en in " t re. A%ain' the to!ic o" :i2e is co&&on to all oratory( all o" s ha*e to ar% e that thin%s are bi%%er or s&aller than they see&' $hether $e are &akin% !olitical s!eeches' s!eeches o" e lo%y or attack' or !rosec tin% or de"endin% in

the la$/co rts. Ha*in% analysed these s b,ects' $e $ill try to say $hat $e can abo t the %eneral !rinci!les o" ar% in% by 0enthy&e&e0 and 0e)a&!le0' by the addition o" $hich $e &ay ho!e to co&!lete the !ro,ect $ith $hich $e set o t. O" the abo*e/&entioned %eneral lines o" ar% &ent' that concerned $ith A&!li"ication is/as has been already said/&ost a!!ro!riate to cere&onial s!eeches( that concerned $ith the 3ast' to "orensic s!eeches' $here the re+ ired decision is al$ays abo t the !ast( that concerned $ith 3ossibility and the 1 t re' to !olitical s!eeches. 1C 9et s "irst s!eak o" the 3ossible and I&!ossible. It &ay !la sibly be ar% ed. That i" it is !ossible "or one o" a !air o" contraries to be or ha!!en' then it is !ossible "or the other. e.%. i" a &an can be c red' he can also "all ill( "or any t$o contraries are e+ ally !ossible' in so "ar as they are contraries. That i" o" t$o si&ilar thin%s one is !ossible' so is the other. That i" the harder o" t$o thin%s is !ossible' so is the easier. That i" a thin% can co&e into e)istence in a %ood and bea ti" l "or&' then it can co&e into e)istence %enerally( th s a ho se can e)ist &ore easily than a bea ti" l ho se. That i" the be%innin% o" a thin% can occ r' so can the end( "or nothin% i&!ossible occ rs or be%ins to occ r( th s the co&&ens rability o" the dia%onal o" a s+ are $ith its side neither occ rs nor can be%in to occ r. That i" the end is !ossible' so is the be%innin%( "or all thin%s that occ r ha*e a be%innin%. That i" that $hich is !osterior in essence or in order o" %eneration can co&e into bein%' so can that $hich is !rior. th s i" a &an can co&e into bein%' so can a boy' since the boy co&es "irst in order o" %eneration( and i" a boy can' so can a &an' "or the &an also is "irst. That those thin%s are !ossible o" $hich the lo*e or desire is nat ral( "or no one' as a r le' lo*es or desires i&!ossibilities. That thin%s $hich are the ob,ect o" any kind o" science or art are !ossible and e)ist or co&e into e)istence. That anythin% is !ossible the "irst ste! in $hose !rod ction de!ends on &en or thin%s $hich $e can co&!el or !ers ade to !rod ce it' by o r %reater stren%th' o r control o" the&' or o r "riendshi! $ith the&. That $here the !arts are !ossible' the $hole is !ossible( and $here the $hole is !ossible' the !arts are s ally !ossible. 1or i" the slit in "ront' the toe/!iece' and the !!er leather can be &ade' then shoes can be &ade( and i" shoes' then also the "ront slit and toe/!iece. That i" a $hole %en s is a thin% that can occ r' so can the s!ecies( and i" the s!ecies can occ r' so can the %en s. th s' i" a sailin% *essel can be &ade' so also can a trire&e( and i" a trire&e' then a sailin% *essel also. That i" one o" t$o thin%s $hose e)istence de!ends on each other is !ossible' so is the other( "or instance' i" 0do ble0' then 0hal"0' and i" 0hal"0' then 0do ble0. That i" a thin% can be !rod ced $itho t art or !re!aration' it can be !rod ced still &ore certainly by the care" l a!!lication o" art to it. Hence A%athon has said. To so&e thin%s $e by art & st needs attain' Others by destiny or l ck $e %ain. That i" anythin% is !ossible to in"erior' $eaker' and st !ider !eo!le' it is &ore so "or their o!!osites( th s Isocrates said that it $o ld be a stran%e thin% i" he co ld not disco*er a thin% that E thyn s had "o nd o t. As "or I&!ossibility' $e can clearly %et $hat $e $ant by takin% the contraries o" the ar% &ents stated abo*e. K estions o" 3ast 1act &ay be looked at in the "ollo$in% $ays. 1irst' that i" the less likely o" t$o thin%s has occ rred' the &ore likely & st ha*e occ rred also. That i" one thin% that s ally "ollo$s another has ha!!ened' then that other thin% has ha!!ened( that' "or instance' i" a &an has "or%otten a thin%' he has also once learnt

it. That i" a &an had the !o$er and the $ish to do a thin%' he has done it( "or e*ery one does do $hate*er he intends to do $hene*er he can do it' there bein% nothin% to sto! hi&. That' " rther' he has done the thin% in + estion either i" he intended it and nothin% e)ternal !re*ented hi&( or i" he had the !o$er to do it and $as an%ry at the ti&e( or i" he had the !o$er to do it and his heart $as set !on it/"or !eo!le as a r le do $hat they lon% to do' i" they can( bad !eo!le thro %h lack o" sel"/control( %ood !eo!le' beca se their hearts are set !on %ood thin%s. A%ain' that i" a thin% $as 0%oin% to ha!!en0' it has ha!!ened( i" a &an $as 0%oin% to do so&ethin%0' he has done it' "or it is likely that the intention $as carried o t. That i" one thin% has ha!!ened $hich nat rally ha!!ens be"ore another or $ith a *ie$ to it' the other has ha!!ened( "or instance' i" it has li%htened' it has also th ndered( and i" an action has been atte&!ted' it has been done. That i" one thin% has ha!!ened $hich nat rally ha!!ens a"ter another' or $ith a *ie$ to $hich that other ha!!ens' then that other 4that $hich ha!!ens "irst' or ha!!ens $ith a *ie$ to this thin%5 has also ha!!ened( th s' i" it has th ndered it has li%htened' and i" an action has been done it has been atte&!ted. O" all these se+ ences so&e are ine*itable and so&e &erely s al. The ar% &ents "or the non/occ rrence o" anythin% can ob*io sly be "o nd by considerin% the o!!osites o" those that ha*e been &entioned. Ho$ + estions o" 1 t re 1act sho ld be ar% ed is clear "ro& the sa&e considerations. That a thin% $ill be done i" there is both the !o$er and the $ish to do it( or i" alon% $ith the !o$er to do it there is a cra*in% "or the res lt' or an%er' or calc lation' !ro&!tin% it. That the thin% $ill be done' in these cases' i" the &an is act ally settin% abo t it' or e*en i" he &eans to do it later/"or s ally $hat $e &ean to do ha!!ens rather than $hat $e do not &ean to do. That a thin% $ill ha!!en i" another thin% $hich nat rally ha!!ens be"ore it has already ha!!ened( th s' i" it is clo din% o*er' it is likely to rain. That i" the &eans to an end ha*e occ rred' then the end is likely to occ r( th s' i" there is a "o ndation' there $ill be a ho se. 1or ar% &ents abo t the ;reatness and :&allness o" thin%s' the %reater and the lesser' and %enerally %reat thin%s and s&all' $hat $e ha*e already said $ill sho$ the line to take. In disc ssin% deliberati*e oratory $e ha*e s!oken abo t the relati*e %reatness o" *ario s %oods' and abo t the %reater and lesser in %eneral. :ince there"ore in each ty!e oratory the ob,ect nder disc ssion is so&e kind o" %ood/$hether it is tility' nobleness' or , stice/it is clear that e*ery orator & st obtain the &aterials o" a&!li"ication thro %h these channels. To %o " rther than this' and try to establish abstract la$s o" %reatness and s !eriority' is to ar% e $itho t an ob,ect( in !ractical li"e' !artic lar "acts co nt &ore than %enerali2ations. Eno %h has no$ been said abo t these + estions o" !ossibility and the re*erse' o" !ast or " t re "act' and o" the relati*e %reatness or s&allness o" thin%s. 70 The s!ecial "or&s o" oratorical ar% &ent ha*in% no$ been disc ssed' $e ha*e ne)t to treat o" those $hich are co&&on to all kinds o" oratory. These are o" t$o &ain kinds' 0E)a&!le0 and 0Enthy&e&e0( "or the 06a)i&0 is !art o" an enthy&e&e. We $ill "irst treat o" ar% &ent by E)a&!le' "or it has the nat re o" ind ction' $hich is the "o ndation o" reasonin%. This "or& o" ar% &ent has t$o *arieties( one consistin% in the &ention o" act al !ast "acts' the other in the in*ention o" "acts by the s!eaker. O" the latter' a%ain' there are t$o *arieties' the ill strati*e !arallel and the "able 4e.%. the "ables o" Aeso!' those "ro& 9ibya5. As an instance o" the &ention o" act al "acts' take the "ollo$in%. The s!eaker &ay ar% e th s. 0We & st !re!are "or $ar a%ainst the kin% o" 3ersia and

not let hi& s bd e E%y!t. 1or #ari s o" old did not cross the Ae%ean ntil he had sei2ed E%y!t( b t once he had sei2ed it' he did cross. And Her)es' a%ain' did not attack s ntil he had sei2ed E%y!t( b t once he had sei2ed it' he did cross. I" there"ore the !resent kin% sei2es E%y!t' he also $ill cross' and there"ore $e & st not let hi&.0 The ill strati*e !arallel is the sort o" ar% &ent :ocrates sed. e.%. 03 blic o""icials o %ht not to be selected by lot. That is like sin% the lot to select athletes' instead o" choosin% those $ho are "it "or the contest( or sin% the lot to select a steers&an "ro& a&on% a shi!0s cre$' as i" $e o %ht to take the &an on $ho& the lot "alls' and not the &an $ho kno$s &ost abo t it.0 Instances o" the "able are that o" :tesichor s abo t 3halaris' and that o" Aeso! in de"ence o" the !o! lar leader. When the !eo!le o" Hi&era had &ade 3halaris &ilitary dictator' and $ere %oin% to %i*e hi& a body% ard' :tesichor s $o nd ! a lon% talk by tellin% the& the "able o" the horse $ho had a "ield all to hi&sel". 3resently there ca&e a sta% and be%an to s!oil his !ast ra%e. The horse' $ishin% to re*en%e hi&sel" on the sta%' asked a &an i" he co ld hel! hi& to do so. The &an said' 0Aes' i" yo $ill let &e bridle yo and %et on to yo r back $ith ,a*elins in &y hand0. The horse a%reed' and the &an &o nted( b t instead o" %ettin% his re*en%e on the sta%' the horse "o nd hi&sel" the sla*e o" the &an. 0Ao too0' said :tesichor s' 0take care lest yo r desire "or re*en%e on yo r ene&ies' yo &eet the sa&e "ate as the horse. By &akin% 3halaris &ilitary dictator' yo ha*e already let yo rsel*es be bridled. I" yo let hi& %et on to yo r backs by %i*in% hi& a body% ard' "ro& that &o&ent yo $ill be his sla*es.0 Aeso!' de"endin% be"ore the asse&bly at :a&os a !o lar leader $ho $as bein% tried "or his li"e' told this story. A "o)' in crossin% a ri*er' $as s$e!t into a hole in the rocks( and' not bein% able to %et o t' s ""ered &iseries "or a lon% ti&e thro %h the s$ar&s o" "leas that "astened on her. A hed%eho%' $hile roa&in% aro nd' noticed the "o)( and "eelin% sorry "or her asked i" he &i%ht re&o*e the "leas. B t the "o) declined the o""er( and $hen the hed%eho% asked $hy' she re!lied' 0These "leas are by this ti&e " ll o" &e and not s ckin% & ch blood( i" yo take the& a$ay' others $ill co&e $ith "resh a!!etites and drink ! all the blood I ha*e le"t.0 0:o' &en o" :a&os0' said Aeso!' 0&y client $ill do yo no " rther har&( he is $ealthy already. B t i" yo ! t hi& to death' others $ill co&e alon% $ho are not rich' and their !ec lations $ill e&!ty yo r treas ry co&!letely.0 1ables are s itable "or addresses to !o! lar asse&blies( and they ha*e one ad*anta%e/they are co&!arati*ely easy to in*ent' $hereas it is hard to "ind !arallels a&on% act al !ast e*ents. Ao $ill in "act "ra&e the& , st as yo "ra&e ill strati*e !arallels. all yo re+ ire is the !o$er o" thinkin% o t yo r analo%y' a !o$er de*elo!ed by intellect al trainin%. B t $hile it is easier to s !!ly !arallels by in*entin% "ables' it is &ore *al able "or the !olitical s!eaker to s !!ly the& by + otin% $hat has act ally ha!!ened' since in &ost res!ects the " t re $ill be like $hat the !ast has been. Where $e are nable to ar% e by Enthy&e&e' $e & st try to de&onstrate o r !oint by this &ethod o" E)a&!le' and to con*ince o r hearers thereby. I" $e can ar% e by Enthy&e&e' $e sho ld se o r E)a&!les as s bse+ ent s !!le&entary e*idence. They sho ld not !recede the Enthy&e&es. that $ill %i*e the ar% &ent an ind cti*e air' $hich only rarely s its the conditions o" s!eech/&akin%. I" they "ollo$ the enthy&e&es' they ha*e the e""ect o" $itnesses %i*in% e*idence' and this al$ay tells. 1or the sa&e reason' i" yo ! t yo r e)a&!les "irst yo & st %i*e a lar%e n &ber o" the&( i" yo ! t the& last' a sin%le one is s ""icient( e*en a sin%le $itness $ill ser*e i" he is a %ood one. It has no$ been stated ho$ &any *arieties o" ar% &ent by E)a&!le there are' and ho$ and $hen they are to be e&!loyed. 71 We no$ t rn to the se o" 6a)i&s' in order to see !on $hat s b,ects

and occasions' and "or $hat kind o" s!eaker' they $ill a!!ro!riately "or& !art o" a s!eech. This $ill a!!ear &ost clearly $hen $e ha*e de"ined a &a)i&. It is a state&ent( not a !artic lar "act' s ch as the character o" l!hicrates' b t o" a %eneral kind( nor is it abo t any and e*ery s b,ect//e.%. 0strai%ht is the contrary o" c r*ed0 is not a &a)i&//b t only abo t + estions o" !ractical cond ct' co rses o" cond ct to be chosen or a*oided. -o$ an Enthy&e&e is a syllo%is& dealin% $ith s ch !ractical s b,ects. It is there"ore ro %hly tr e that the !re&isses or concl sions o" Enthy&e&es' considered a!art "ro& the rest o" the ar% &ent' are 6a)i&s. e.%. -e*er sho ld any &an $hose $its are so nd Ha*e his sons ta %ht &ore $isdo& than their "ello$s. Here $e ha*e a 6a)i&( add the reason or e)!lanation' and the $hole thin% is an Enthy&e&e( th s/ It &akes the& idle( and there$ith they earn Ill/$ill and ,ealo sy thro %ho t the city. A%ain' There is no &an in all thin%s !ros!ero s' and There is no &an a&on% s all is "ree'

are &a)i&s( b t the latter' taken $ith $hat "ollo$s it' is an Enthy&e&e/ 1or all are sla*es o" &oney or o" chance. 1ro& this de"inition o" a &a)i& it "ollo$s that there are "o r kinds o" &a)i&s. In the "irst 3lace' the &a)i& &ay or &ay not ha*e a s !!le&ent. 3roo" is needed $here the state&ent is !arado)ical or dis! table( no s !!le&ent is $anted $here the state&ent contains nothin% !arado)ical' either beca se the *ie$ e)!ressed is already a kno$n tr th' e.%. Chie"est o" blessin%s is health "or a &an' as it see&eth to &e' this bein% the %eneral o!inion. or beca se' as soon as the *ie$ is stated' it is clear at a %lance' e.%. -o lo*e is tr e sa*e that $hich lo*es "or e*er. O" the 6a)i&s that do ha*e a s !!le&ent attached' so&e are !art o" an Enthy&e&e' e.%. -e*er sho ld any &an $hose $its are so nd' Jc. Others ha*e the essential character o" Enthy&e&es' b t are not stated as !arts o" Enthy&e&es( these latter are reckoned the best( they are those in $hich the reason "or the *ie$ e)!ressed is si&!ly i&!lied' e.%. O &ortal &an' n rse not i&&ortal $rath. To say 0it is not ri%ht to n rse i&&ortal $rath0 is a &a)i&( the added $ords 0&ortal &an0 %i*e the reason. :i&ilarly' $ith the $ords 6ortal creat res o %ht to cherish &ortal' not i&&ortal tho %hts. What has been said has sho$n s ho$ &any kinds o" 6a)i&s there

are' and to $hat s b,ects the *ario s kinds are a!!ro!riate. They & st not be %i*en $itho t s !!le&ent i" they e)!ress dis! ted or !arado)ical *ie$s. $e & st' in that case' either ! t the s !!le&ent "irst and &ake a &a)i& o" the concl sion' e.%. yo &i%ht say' 01or &y !art' since both n!o! larity and idleness are ndesirable' I hold that it is better not to be ed cated0( or yo &ay say this "irst' and then add the !re*io s cla se. Where a state&ent' $itho t bein% !arado)ical' is not ob*io sly tr e' the reason sho ld be added as concisely as !ossible. In s ch cases both laconic and eni%&atic sayin%s are s itable. th s one &i%ht say $hat :tesichor s said to the 9ocrians' 0Insolence is better a*oided' lest the cicalas chir! on the %ro nd0. The se o" 6a)i&s is a!!ro!riate only to elderly &en' and in handlin% s b,ects in $hich the s!eaker is e)!erienced. 1or a yo n% &an to se the& is/like tellin% stories/ nbeco&in%( to se the& in handlin% thin%s in $hich one has no e)!erience is silly and ill/bred. a "act s ""iciently !ro*ed by the s!ecial "ondness o" co ntry "ello$s "or strikin% o t &a)i&s' and their readiness to air the&. To declare a thin% to be ni*ersally tr e $hen it is not is &ost a!!ro!riate $hen $orkin% ! "eelin%s o" horror and indi%nation in o r hearers( es!ecially by $ay o" !re"ace' or a"ter the "acts ha*e been !ro*ed. E*en hackneyed and co&&on!lace &a)i&s are to be sed' i" they s it one0s ! r!ose. , st beca se they are co&&on!lace' e*ery one see&s to a%ree $ith the&' and there"ore they are taken "or tr th. Th s' any one $ho is callin% on his &en to risk an en%a%e&ent $itho t obtainin% "a*o rable o&ens &ay + ote One o&en o" all is hest' that $e "i%ht "or o r "atherland. Or' i" he is callin% on the& to attack a stron%er "orce/ The War/;od sho$eth no "a*o r. Or' i" he is ene&ies/ r%in% !eo!le to destroy the innocent children o" their

1ool' $ho slayeth the "ather and lea*eth his sons to a*en%e hi&. :o&e !ro*erbs are also &a)i&s' e.%. the !ro*erb 0An Attic nei%hbo r0. Ao are not to a*oid tterin% &a)i&s that contradict s ch sayin%s as ha*e beco&e ! blic !ro!erty 4I &ean s ch sayin%s as 0kno$ thysel"0 and 0nothin% in e)cess05 i" doin% so $ill raise yo r hearers0 o!inion o" yo r character' or con*ey an e""ect o" stron% e&otion//e.%. an an%ry s!eaker &i%ht $ell say' 0It is not tr e that $e o %ht to kno$ o rsel*es. anyho$' i" this &an had kno$n hi&sel"' he $o ld ne*er ha*e tho %ht hi&sel" "it "or an ar&y co&&and.0 It $ill raise !eo!le0s o!inion o" o r character to say' "or instance' 0We o %ht not to "ollo$ the sayin% that bids s treat o r "riends as " t re ene&ies. & ch better to treat o r ene&ies as " t re "riends.0 The &oral ! r!ose sho ld be i&!lied !artly by the *ery $ordin% o" o r &a)i&. 1ailin% this' $e sho ld add o r reason. e.%. ha*in% said 0We sho ld treat o r "riends' not as the sayin% ad*ises' b t as i" they $ere %oin% to be o r "riends al$ays0' $e sho ld add 0"or the other beha*io r is that o" a traitor0. or $e &i%ht ! t it' I disa!!ro*e o" that sayin%. A tr e "riend $ill treat his "riend as i" he $ere %oin% to be his "riend "or e*er0( and a%ain' 0-or do I a!!ro*e o" the sayin% Lnothin% in e)cessL. $e are bo nd to hate bad &en e)cessi*ely.0 One %reat ad*anta%e o" 6a)i&s to a s!eaker is d e to the $ant o" intelli%ence in his hearers' $ho lo*e to hear hi& s cceed in e)!ressin% as a ni*ersal tr th the o!inions $hich they hold the&sel*es abo t !artic lar cases. I $ill e)!lain $hat I &ean by this' indicatin% at the sa&e ti&e ho$ $e are to h nt do$n the &a)i&s re+ ired. The &a)i&' as has been already said' a %eneral state&ent and

!eo!le lo*e to hear stated in %eneral ter&s $hat they already belie*e in so&e !artic lar conne)ion. e.%. i" a &an ha!!ens to ha*e bad nei%hbo rs or bad children' he $ill a%ree $ith any one $ho tells hi&' 0-othin% is &ore annoyin% than ha*in% nei%hbo rs0' or' 0-othin% is &ore "oolish than to be the !arent o" children.0 The orator has there"ore to % ess the s b,ects on $hich his hearers really hold *ie$s already' and $hat those *ie$s are' and then & st e)!ress' as %eneral tr ths' these sa&e *ie$s on these sa&e s b,ects. This is one ad*anta%e o" sin% &a)i&s. There is another $hich is &ore i&!ortant/it in*ests a s!eech $ith &oral character. There is &oral character in e*ery s!eech in $hich the &oral ! r!ose is cons!ic o s. and &a)i&s al$ays !rod ce this e""ect' beca se the tterance o" the& a&o nts to a %eneral declaration o" &oral !rinci!les. so that' i" the &a)i&s are so nd' they dis!lay the s!eaker as a &an o" so nd &oral character. :o & ch "or the 6a)i&/its nat re' *arieties' !ro!er se' and ad*anta%es. 77 We no$ co&e to the Enthy&e&es' and $ill be%in the s b,ect $ith so&e %eneral consideration o" the !ro!er $ay o" lookin% "or the&' and then !roceed to $hat is a distinct + estion' the lines o" ar% &ent to be e&bodied in the&. It has already been !ointed o t that the Enthy&e&e is a syllo%is&' and in $hat sense it is so. We ha*e also noted the di""erences bet$een it and the syllo%is& o" dialectic. Th s $e & st not carry its reasonin% too "ar back' or the len%th o" o r ar% &ent $ill ca se obsc rity. nor & st $e ! t in all the ste!s that lead to o r concl sion' or $e shall $aste $ords in sayin% $hat is &ani"est. It is this si&!licity that &akes the ned cated &ore e""ecti*e than the ed cated $hen addressin% !o! lar a diences/&akes the&' as the !oets tell s' 0char& the cro$d0s ears &ore "inely0. Ed cated &en lay do$n broad %eneral !rinci!les( ned cated &en ar% e "ro& co&&on kno$led%e and dra$ ob*io s concl sions. We & st not' there"ore' start "ro& any and e*ery acce!ted o!inion' b t only "ro& those $e ha*e de"ined/those acce!ted by o r , d%es or by those $hose a thority they reco%ni2e. and there & st' &oreo*er' be no do bt in the &inds o" &ost' i" not all' o" o r , d%es that the o!inions ! t "or$ard really are o" this sort. We sho ld also base o r ar% &ents !on !robabilities as $ell as !on certainties. The "irst thin% $e ha*e to re&e&ber is this. Whether o r ar% &ent concerns ! blic a""airs or so&e other s b,ect' $e & st kno$ so&e' i" not all' o" the "acts abo t the s b,ect on $hich $e are to s!eak and ar% e. Other$ise $e can ha*e no &aterials o t o" $hich to constr ct ar% &ents. I &ean' "or instance' ho$ co ld $e ad*ise the Athenians $hether they sho ld %o to $ar or not' i" $e did not kno$ their stren%th' $hether it $as na*al or &ilitary or both' and ho$ %reat it is( $hat their re*en es a&o nt to( $ho their "riends and ene&ies are( $hat $ars' too' they ha*e $a%ed' and $ith $hat s ccess( and so onI Or ho$ co ld $e e lo%i2e the& i" $e kne$ nothin% abo t the sea/"i%ht at :ala&is' or the battle o" 6arathon' or $hat they did "or the Heracleidae' or any other "acts like thatI All e lo%y is based !on the noble deeds//real or i&a%inary//that stand to the credit o" those e lo%i2ed. On the sa&e !rinci!le' in*ecti*es are based on "acts o" the o!!osite kind. the orator looks to see $hat base deeds//real or i&a%inary//stand to the discredit o" those he is attackin%' s ch as treachery to the ca se o" Hellenic "reedo&' or the ensla*e&ent o" their %allant allies a%ainst the barbarians 4Ae%ina' 3otidaea' Jc.5' or any other &isdeeds o" this kind that are recorded a%ainst the&. :o' too' in a co rt o" la$. $hether $e are !rosec tin% or de"endin%' $e & st !ay attention to the e)istin% "acts o" the case. It &akes no di""erence $hether the s b,ect is the 9acedae&onians or the Athenians' a &an or a %od( $e & st do the sa&e thin%. : !!ose it to be Achilles $ho& $e are to ad*ise' to !raise or bla&e' to acc se or de"end( here too $e & st take the "acts' real or

i&a%inary( these & st be o r &aterial' $hether $e are to !raise or bla&e hi& "or the noble or base deeds he has done' to acc se or de"end hi& "or his , st or n, st treat&ent o" others' or to ad*ise hi& abo t $hat is or is not to his interest. The sa&e thin% a!!lies to any s b,ect $hate*er. Th s' in handlin% the + estion $hether , stice is or is not a %ood' $e & st start $ith the real "acts abo t , stice and %oodness. We see' then' that this is the only $ay in $hich any one e*er !ro*es anythin%' $hether his ar% &ents are strictly co%ent or not. not all "acts can "or& his basis' b t only those that bear on the &atter in hand. nor' !lainly' can !roo" be e""ected other$ise by &eans o" the s!eech. Conse+ ently' as a!!ears in the To!ics' $e & st "irst o" all ha*e by s a selection o" ar% &ents abo t + estions that &ay arise and are s itable "or s to handle( and then $e & st try to think o t ar% &ents o" the sa&e ty!e "or s!ecial needs as they e&er%e( not *a% ely and inde"initely' b t by kee!in% o r eyes on the act al "acts o" the s b,ect $e ha*e to s!eak on' and %atherin% in as &any o" the& as $e can that bear closely !on it. "or the &ore act al "acts $e ha*e at o r co&&and' the &ore easily $e !ro*e o r case( and the &ore closely they bear on the s b,ect' the &ore they $ill see& to belon% to that s!eech only instead o" bein% co&&on!laces. By 0co&&on!laces0 I &ean' "or e)a&!le' e lo%y o" Achilles beca se he is a h &an bein% or a de&i/%od' or beca se he ,oined the e)!edition a%ainst Troy. these thin%s are tr e o" &any others' so that this kind o" e lo%y a!!lies no better to Achilles than to #io&ede. The s!ecial "acts here needed are those that are tr e o" Achilles alone( s ch "acts as that he sle$ Hector' the bra*est o" the Tro,ans' and Cycn s the in* lnerable' $ho !re*ented all the ;reeks "ro& landin%' and a%ain that he $as the yo n%est &an $ho ,oined the e)!edition' and $as not bo nd by oath to ,oin it' and so on. Here' a%ain' $e ha*e o r "irst !rinci!le o" selection o" Enthy&e&es/that $hich re"ers to the lines o" ar% &ent selected. We $ill no$ consider the *ario s ele&entary classes o" enthy&e&es. 4By an 0ele&entary class0 o" enthy&e&e I &ean the sa&e thin% as a 0line o" ar% &ent0.5 We $ill be%in' as $e & st be%in' by obser*in% that there are t$o kinds o" enthy&e&es. One kind !ro*es so&e a""ir&ati*e or ne%ati*e !ro!osition( the other kind dis!ro*es one. The di""erence bet$een the t$o kinds is the sa&e as that bet$een syllo%istic !roo" and dis!roo" in dialectic. The de&onstrati*e enthy&e&e is "or&ed by the con, nction o" co&!atible !ro!ositions( the re" tati*e' by the con, nction o" inco&!atible !ro!ositions. We &ay no$ be said to ha*e in o r hands the lines o" ar% &ent "or the *ario s s!ecial s b,ects that it is se" l or necessary to handle' ha*in% selected the !ro!ositions s itable in *ario s cases. We ha*e' in "act' already ascertained the lines o" ar% &ent a!!licable to enthy&e&es abo t %ood and e*il' the noble and the base' , stice and in, stice' and also to those abo t ty!es o" character' e&otions' and &oral + alities. 9et s no$ lay hold o" certain "acts abo t the $hole s b,ect' considered "ro& a di""erent and &ore %eneral !oint o" *ie$. In the co rse o" o r disc ssion $e $ill take note o" the distinction bet$een lines o" !roo" and lines o" dis!roo". and also o" those lines o" ar% &ent sed in $hat see&s to be enthy&e&es' b t are not' since they do not re!resent *alid syllo%is&s. Ha*in% &ade all this clear' $e $ill !roceed to classi"y Ob,ections and Re" tations' sho$in% ho$ they can be bro %ht to bear !on enthy&e&es. 73 1. One line o" !ositi*e !roo" is based !on consideration o" the o!!osite o" the thin% in + estion. Obser*e $hether that o!!osite has the o!!osite + ality. I" it has not' yo re" te the ori%inal !ro!osition( i" it has' yo establish it. E.%. 0Te&!erance is bene"icial( "or licentio sness is h rt" l0. Or' as in the 6essenian s!eech' 0I" $ar is the ca se o" o r !resent tro bles' !eace is $hat $e need to ! t thin%s ri%ht a%ain0. Or/

1or i" not e*en e*il/doers sho ld An%er s i" they &eant not $hat they did' Then can $e o$e no %ratit de to s ch As $ere constrained to do the %ood they did Or/

s.

:ince in this $orld liars &ay $in belie"' Be s re o" the o!!osite like$ise/that this $orld Hears &any a tr e $ord and belie*es it not. 7. Another line o" !roo" is %ot by considerin% so&e &odi"ication o" the key/$ord' and ar% in% that $hat can or cannot be said o" the one' can or cannot be said o" the other. e.%. 0, st0 does not al$ays &ean 0bene"icial0' or 0, stly0 $o ld al$ays &ean 0bene"icially0' $hereas it is not desirable to be , stly ! t to death. 3. Another line o" !roo" is based !on correlati*e ideas. I" it is tr e that one &an noble or , st treat&ent to another' yo ar% e that the other & st ha*e recei*ed noble or , st treat&ent( or that $here it is ri%ht to co&&and obedience' it & st ha*e been ri%ht to obey the co&&and. Th s #io&edon' the ta)/"ar&er' said o" the ta)es. 0I" it is no dis%race "or yo to sell the&' it is no dis%race "or s to b y the&0. 1 rther' i" 0$ell0 or 0, stly0 is tr e o" the !erson to $ho& a thin% is done' yo ar% e that it is tr e o" the doer. B t it is !ossible to dra$ a "alse concl sion here. It &ay be , st that A sho ld be treated in a certain $ay' and yet not , st that he sho ld be so treated by B. Hence yo & st ask yo rsel" t$o distinct + estions. 415 Is it ri%ht that A sho ld be th s treatedI 475 Is it ri%ht that B sho ld th s treat hi&I and a!!ly yo r res lts !ro!erly' accordin% as yo r ans$ers are Aes or -o. :o&eti&es in s ch a case the t$o ans$ers di""er. yo &ay + ite easily ha*e a !osition like that in the Alc&aeon o" Theodectes. And $as there none to loathe thy &other0s cri&eI to $hich + estion Alc&aeon in re!ly says' Why' there are t$o thin%s to e)a&ine here. And $hen Al!hesiboea asks $hat he &eans' he re,oins. They , d%ed her "it to die' not &e to slay her. A%ain there is the la$s it abo t #e&osthenes and the &en $ho killed -icanor( as they $ere , d%ed to ha*e killed hi& , stly' it $as tho %ht that he $as killed , stly. And in the case o" the &an $ho $as killed at Thebes' the , d%es $ere re+ ested to decide $hether it $as n, st that he sho ld be killed' since i" it $as not' it $as ar% ed that it co ld not ha*e been n, st to kill hi&. 8. Another line o" !roo" is the 0a "ortiori0. Th s it &ay be ar% ed that i" e*en the %ods are not o&niscient' certainly h &an bein%s are not. The !rinci!le here is that' i" a + ality does not in "act e)ist $here it is &ore likely to e)ist' it clearly does not e)ist $here it is less likely. A%ain' the ar% &ent that a &an $ho strikes his "ather also strikes his nei%hbo rs "ollo$s "ro& the !rinci!le that' i" the less likely thin% is tr e' the &ore likely thin% is tr e also( "or a &an is less likely to strike his "ather than to strike his nei%hbo rs. The ar% &ent' then' &ay r n th s. Or it &ay be r%ed that' i" a thin% is not tr e $here it is &ore likely' it is not tr e $here it is less likely( or that' i" it is tr e $here it is less likely' it is tr e $here it is &ore likely. accordin% as $e ha*e to sho$ that a thin% is or is not tr e. This ar% &ent &i%ht also be sed in a case o" !arity' as in the lines.

Tho hast !ity "or thy sire' $ho has lost his sons. Hast none "or Oene s' $hose bra*e son is deadI And' a%ain' 0i" These s did no $ron%' neither did 3aris0( or 0the sons o" Tyndare s did no $ron%' neither did 3aris0( or 0i" Hector did $ell to slay 3atrocl s' 3aris did $ell to slay Achilles0. And 0i" other "ollo$ers o" an art are not bad &en' neither are !hiloso!hers0. And 0i" %enerals are not bad &en beca se it o"ten ha!!ens that they are conde&ned to death' neither are so!hists0. And the re&ark that 0i" each indi*id al a&on% yo o %ht to think o" his o$n city0s re! tation' yo o %ht all to think o" the re! tation o" ;reece as a $hole0. 5. Another line o" ar% &ent is based on considerations o" ti&e. Th s I!hicrates' in the case a%ainst Har&odi s' said' 0i" be"ore doin% the deed I had bar%ained that' i" I did it' I sho ld ha*e a stat e' yo $o ld ha*e %i*en &e one. Will yo not %i*e &e one no$ that I ha*e done the deedI Ao & st not &ake !ro&ises $hen yo are e)!ectin% a thin% to be done "or yo ' and re" se to " l"il the& $hen the thin% has been done.0 And' a%ain' to ind ce the Thebans to let 3hili! !ass thro %h their territory into Attica' it $as ar% ed that 0i" he had insisted on this be"ore he hel!ed the& a%ainst the 3hocians' they $o ld ha*e !ro&ised to do it. It is &onstro s' there"ore' that , st beca se he thre$ a$ay his ad*anta%e then' and tr sted their hono r' they sho ld not let hi& !ass thro %h no$0. <. Another line is to a!!ly to the other s!eaker $hat he has said a%ainst yo rsel". It is an e)cellent t rn to %i*e to a debate' as &ay be seen in the Te cer. It $as e&!loyed by I!hicrates in his re!ly to Aristo!hon. 0Wo ld yo 0' he asked' 0take a bribe to betray the "leetI0 0-o0' said Aristo!hon( and I!hicrates re!lied' 0Dery %ood. i" yo ' $ho are Aristo!hon' $o ld not betray the "leet' $o ld I' $ho a& I!hicratesI0 Only' it & st be reco%ni2ed be"orehand that the other &an is &ore likely than yo are to co&&it the cri&e in + estion. Other$ise yo $ill &ake yo rsel" ridic lo s( it is Aristeides $ho is !rosec tin%' yo cannot say that sort o" thin% to hi&. The ! r!ose is to discredit the !rosec tor' $ho as a r le $o ld ha*e it a!!ear that his character is better than that o" the de"endant' a !retension $hich it is desirable to !set. B t the se o" s ch an ar% &ent is in all cases ridic lo s i" yo are attackin% others "or $hat yo do or $o ld do yo rsel"' or are r%in% others to do $hat yo neither do nor $o ld do yo rsel". @. Another line o" !roo" is sec red by de"inin% yo r ter&s. Th s' 0What is the s !ernat ralI : rely it is either a %od or the $ork o" a %od. Well' any one $ho belie*es that the $ork o" a %od e)ists' cannot hel! also belie*in% that %ods e)ist.0 Or take the ar% &ent o" I!hicrates' 0;oodness is tr e nobility( neither Har&odi s nor Aristo%eiton had any nobility be"ore they did a noble deed0. He also ar% ed that he hi&sel" $as &ore akin to Har&odi s and Aristo%eiton than his o!!onent $as. 0At any rate' &y deeds are &ore akin to those o" Har&odi s and Aristo%eiton than yo rs are0. Another e)a&!le &ay be "o nd in the Ale)ander. 0E*ery one $ill a%ree that by incontinent !eo!le $e &ean those $ho are not satis"ied $ith the en,oy&ent o" one lo*e.0 A " rther e)a&!le is to be "o nd in the reason %i*en by :ocrates "or not %oin% to the co rt o" Archela s. He said that 0one is ins lted by bein% nable to re+ ite bene"its' as $ell as by bein% nable to re+ ite in, ries0. All the !ersons &entioned de"ine their ter& and %et at its essential &eanin%' and then se the res lt $hen reasonin% on the !oint at iss e. B. Another line o" ar% &ent is "o nded !on the *ario s senses o" a $ord. : ch a $ord is 0ri%htly0' as has been e)!lained in the To!ics. Another line is based !on lo%ical di*ision. Th s' 0All &en do $ron% "ro& one o" three &oti*es' A' B' or C. in &y case A and B are o t o" the + estion' and e*en the acc sers do not alle%e C0. 10. Another line is based !on ind ction. Th s "ro& the case o"

the $o&an o" 3e!areth s it &i%ht be ar% ed that $o&en e*ery$here can settle correctly the "acts abo t their children. Another e)a&!le o" this occ rred at Athens in the case bet$een the orator 6antias and his son' $hen the boy0s &other re*ealed the tr e "acts. and yet another at Thebes' in the case bet$een Is&enias and :tilbon' $hen #odonis !ro*ed that it $as Is&enias $ho $as the "ather o" her son Thettalisc s' and he $as in conse+ ence al$ays re%arded as bein% so. A " rther instance o" ind ction &ay be taken "ro& the 9a$ o" Theodectes. 0I" $e do not hand o*er o r horses to the care o" &en $ho ha*e &ishandled other !eo!le0s horses' nor shi!s to those $ho ha*e $recked other !eo!le0s shi!s' and i" this is tr e o" e*erythin% else alike' then &en $ho ha*e "ailed to sec re other !eo!le0s sa"ety are not to be e&!loyed to sec re o r o$n.0 Another instance is the ar% &ent o" Alcida&as. 0E*ery one hono rs the $ise0. Th s the 3arians ha*e hono red Archiloch s' in s!ite o" his bitter ton% e( the Chians Ho&er' tho %h he $as not their co ntry&an( the 6ytilenaeans :a!!ho' tho %h she $as a $o&an( the 9acedae&onians act ally &ade Chilon a &e&ber o" their senate' tho %h they are the least literary o" &en( the Italian ;reeks hono red 3ytha%oras( the inhabitants o" 9a&!sac s %a*e ! blic b rial to Ana)a%oras' tho %h he $as an alien' and hono r hi& e*en to this day. 4It &ay be ar% ed that !eo!les "or $ho& !hiloso!hers le%islate are al$ays !ros!ero s5 on the %ro nd that the Athenians beca&e !ros!ero s nder :olon0s la$s and the 9acedae&onians nder those o" 9yc r% s' $hile at Thebes no sooner did the leadin% &en beco&e !hiloso!hers than the co ntry be%an to !ros!er. 11. Another line o" ar% &ent is "o nded !on so&e decision already !rono nced' $hether on the sa&e s b,ect or on one like it or contrary to it. : ch a !roo" is &ost e""ecti*e i" e*ery one has al$ays decided th s( b t i" not e*ery one' then at any rate &ost !eo!le( or i" all' or &ost' $ise or %ood &en ha*e th s decided' or the act al , d%es o" the !resent + estion' or those $hose a thority they acce!t' or any one $hose decision they cannot %ainsay beca se he has co&!lete control o*er the&' or those $ho& it is not see&ly to %ainsay' as the %ods' or one0s "ather' or one0s teachers. Th s A tocles said' $hen attackin% 6i)ide&ides' that it $as a stran%e thin% that the #read ;oddesses co ld $itho t loss o" di%nity s b&it to the , d%e&ent o" the Areo!a% s' and yet 6i)ide&ides co ld not. Or as :a!!ho said' 0#eath is an e*il thin%( the %ods ha*e so , d%ed it' or they $o ld die0. Or a%ain as Aristi!! s said in re!ly to 3lato $hen he s!oke so&e$hat too do%&atically' as Aristi!! s tho %ht. 0Well' anyho$' o r "riend0' &eanin% :ocrates' 0ne*er s!oke like that0. And He%esi!! s' ha*in% !re*io sly cons lted Ge s at Oly&!ia' asked A!ollo at #el!hi 0$hether his o!inion $as the sa&e as his "ather0s0' i&!lyin% that it $o ld be sha&e" l "or hi& to contradict his "ather. Th s too Isocrates ar% ed that Helen & st ha*e been a %ood $o&an' beca se These s decided that she $as( and 3aris a %ood &an' beca se the %oddesses chose hi& be"ore all others( and E*a%oras also' says Isocrates' $as %ood' since $hen Conon &et $ith his &is"ort ne he betook hi&sel" to E*a%oras $itho t tryin% any one else on the $ay. 17. Another line o" ar% &ent consists in takin% se!arately the !arts o" a s b,ect. : ch is that %i*en in the To!ics. 0What sort o" &otion is the so lI "or it & st be this or that.0 The :ocrates o" Theodectes !ro*ides an e)a&!le. 0What te&!le has he !ro"anedI What %ods reco%ni2ed by the state has he not hono redI0 13. :ince it ha!!ens that any %i*en thin% s ally has both %ood and bad conse+ ences' another line o" ar% &ent consists in sin% those conse+ ences as a reason "or r%in% that a thin% sho ld or sho ld not be done' "or !rosec tin% or de"endin% any one' "or e lo%y or cens re. E.%. ed cation leads both to n!o! larity' $hich is bad' and to $isdo&' $hich is %ood. Hence yo either ar% e' 0It is there"ore not $ell to be ed cated' since it is not $ell to be n!o! lar0. or yo ans$er' 0-o' it is $ell to be ed cated' since it is $ell to be $ise0. The Art o" Rhetoric o" Calli!! s is &ade ! o" this line o"

ar% &ent' $ith the addition o" those o" 3ossibility and the others o" that kind already described. 18. Another line o" ar% &ent is sed $hen $e ha*e to r%e or disco ra%e a co rse o" action that &ay be done in either o" t$o o!!osite $ays' and ha*e to a!!ly the &ethod , st &entioned to both. The di""erence bet$een this one and the last is that' $hereas in the last any t$o thin%s are contrasted' here the thin%s contrasted are o!!osites. 1or instance' the !riestess en,oined !on her son not to take to ! blic s!eakin%. 01or0' she said' 0i" yo say $hat is ri%ht' &en $ill hate yo ( i" yo say $hat is $ron%' the %ods $ill hate yo .0 The re!ly &i%ht be' 0On the contrary' yo o %ht to take to ! blic s!eakin%. "or i" yo say $hat is ri%ht the %ods $ill lo*e yo ( i" yo say $hat is $ron%' &en $ill lo*e yo .0 This a&o nts to the !ro*erbial 0b yin% the &arsh $ith the salt0. It is , st this sit ation' *i2. $hen each o" t$o o!!osites has both a %ood and a bad conse+ ence o!!osite res!ecti*ely to each other' that has been ter&ed di*arication. 15. Another line o" ar% &ent is this. The thin%s !eo!le a!!ro*e o" o!enly are not those $hich they a!!ro*e o" secretly. o!enly' their chie" !raise is %i*en to , stice and nobleness( b t in their hearts they !re"er their o$n ad*anta%e. Try' in "ace o" this' to establish the !oint o" *ie$ $hich yo r o!!onent has not ado!ted. This is the &ost e""ecti*e o" the "or&s o" ar% &ent that contradict co&&on o!inion. 1<. Another line is that o" rational corres!ondence. E.%. I!hicrates' $hen they $ere tryin% to co&!el his son' a yo th nder the !rescribed a%e' to !er"or& one o" the state d ties beca se he $as tall' said 0I" yo co nt tall boys &en' yo $ill ne)t be *otin% short &en boys0. And Theodectes in his 9a$ said' 0Ao &ake citi2ens o" s ch &ercenaries as :traba) and Charide& s' as a re$ard o" their &erits( $ill yo not &ake e)iles o" s ch citi2ens as those $ho ha*e done irre!arable har& a&on% the &ercenariesI0 1@. Another line is the ar% &ent that i" t$o res lts are the sa&e their antecedents are also the sa&e. 1or instance' it $as a sayin% o" Heno!hanes that to assert that the %ods had birth is as i&!io s as to say that they die( the conse+ ence o" both state&ents is that there is a ti&e $hen the %ods do not e)ist. This line o" !roo" ass &es %enerally that the res lt o" any %i*en thin% is al$ays the sa&e. e.%. 0yo are %oin% to decide not abo t Isocrates' b t abo t the *al e o" the $hole !ro"ession o" !hiloso!hy.0 Or' 0to %i*e earth and $ater0 &eans sla*ery( or' 0to share in the Co&&on 3eace0 &eans obeyin% orders. We are to &ake either s ch ass &!tions or their o!!osite' as s its s best. 1B. Another line o" ar% &ent is based on the "act that &en do not al$ays &ake the sa&e choice on a later as on an earlier occasion' b t re*erse their !re*io s choice. E.%. the "ollo$in% enthy&e&e. 0When $e $ere e)iles' $e "o %ht in order to ret rn( no$ $e ha*e ret rned' it $o ld be stran%e to choose e)ile in order not to ha*e to "i%ht.0 one occasion' that is' they chose to be tr e to their ho&es at the cost o" "i%htin%' and on the other to a*oid "i%htin% at the cost o" desertin% their ho&es. 1C. Another line o" ar% &ent is the assertion that so&e !ossible &oti*e "or an e*ent or state o" thin%s is the real one. e.%. that a %i"t $as %i*en in order to ca se !ain by its $ithdra$al. This notion nderlies the lines. ;od %i*es to &any %reat !ros!erity' -ot o" %ood ;od to$ards the&' b t to &ake The r in o" the& &ore cons!ic o s. Or take the !assa%e "ro& the 6elea%er o" Anti!hon. To slay no boar' b t to be $itnesses O" 6elea%er0s !ro$ess nto ;reece.

Or the ar% &ent in the A,a) o" Theodectes' that #io&ede chose o t Odysse s not to do hi& hono r' b t in order that his co&!anion &i%ht be a lesser &an than hi&sel"/s ch a &oti*e "or doin% so is + ite !ossible. 70. Another line o" ar% &ent is co&&on to "orensic and deliberati*e oratory' na&ely' to consider ind ce&ents and deterrents' and the &oti*es !eo!le ha*e "or doin% or a*oidin% the actions in + estion. These are the conditions $hich &ake s bo nd to act i" they are "or s' and to re"rain "ro& action i" they are a%ainst s. that is' $e are bo nd to act i" the action is !ossible' easy' and se" l to o rsel*es or o r "riends or h rt" l to o r ene&ies( this is tr e e*en i" the action entails loss' !ro*ided the loss is o t$ei%hed by the solid ad*anta%e. A s!eaker $ill r%e action by !ointin% to s ch conditions' and disco ra%e it by !ointin% to the o!!osite. These sa&e ar% &ents also "or& the &aterials "or acc sation or de"ence/the deterrents bein% !ointed o t by the de"ence' and the ind ce&ents by the !rosec tion. As "or the de"ence'...This to!ic "or&s the $hole Art o" Rhetoric both o" 3a&!hil s and o" Calli!! s. 71. Another line o" ar% &ent re"ers to thin%s $hich are s !!osed to ha!!en and yet see& incredible. We &ay ar% e that !eo!le co ld not ha*e belie*ed the&' i" they had not been tr e or nearly tr e. e*en that they are the &ore likely to be tr e beca se they are incredible. 1or the thin%s $hich &en belie*e are either "acts or !robabilities. i"' there"ore' a thin% that is belie*ed is i&!robable and e*en incredible' it & st be tr e' since it is certainly not belie*ed beca se it is at all !robable or credible. An e)a&!le is $hat Androcles o" the de&e 3itth s said in his $ell/kno$n arrai%n&ent o" the la$. The a dience tried to sho t hi& do$n $hen he obser*ed that the la$s re+ ired a la$ to set the& ri%ht. 0Why0' he $ent on' 0"ish need salt' i&!robable and incredible as this &i%ht see& "or creat res reared in salt $ater( and oli*e/cakes need oil' incredible as it is that $hat !rod ces oil sho ld need it.0 77. Another line o" ar% &ent is to re" te o r o!!onent0s case by notin% any contrasts or contradictions o" dates' acts' or $ords that it any$here dis!lays( and this in any o" the three "ollo$in% conne)ions. 415 Re"errin% to o r o!!onent0s cond ct' e.%. 0He says he is de*oted to yo ' yet he cons!ired $ith the Thirty.0 475 Re"errin% to o r o$n cond ct' e.%. 0He says I a& liti%io s' and yet he cannot !ro*e that I ha*e been en%a%ed in a sin%le la$s it.0 435 Re"errin% to both o" s to%ether' e.%. 0He has ne*er e*en lent any one a !enny' b t I ha*e ranso&ed + ite a n &ber o" yo .0 73. Another line that is se" l "or &en and ca ses that ha*e been really or see&in%ly slandered' is to sho$ $hy the "acts are not as s !!osed( !ointin% o t that there is a reason "or the "alse i&!ression %i*en. Th s a $o&an' $ho had !al&ed o"" her son on another $o&an' $as tho %ht to be the lad0s &istress beca se she e&braced hi&( b t $hen her action $as e)!lained the char%e $as sho$n to be %ro ndless. Another e)a&!le is "ro& the A,a) o" Theodectes' $here Odysse s tells A,a) the reason $hy' tho %h he is really bra*er than A,a)' he is not tho %ht so. 78. Another line o" ar% &ent is to sho$ that i" the ca se is !resent' the e""ect is !resent' and i" absent' absent. 1or by !ro*in% the ca se yo at once !ro*e the e""ect' and con*ersely nothin% can e)ist $itho t its ca se. Th s Thrasyb l s acc sed 9eoda&as o" ha*in% had his na&e recorded as a cri&inal on the slab in the Acro!olis' and o" erasin% the record in the ti&e o" the Thirty Tyrants. to $hich 9eoda&as re!lied' 0I&!ossible. "or the Thirty $o ld ha*e tr sted &e all the &ore i" &y + arrel $ith the co&&ons had been inscribed on the slab.0 75. Another line is to consider $hether the acc sed !erson can take or co ld ha*e taken a better co rse than that $hich he is reco&&endin% or takin%' or has taken. I" he has not taken this

better co rse' it is clear that he is not % ilty' since no one deliberately and conscio sly chooses $hat is bad. This ar% &ent is' ho$e*er' "allacio s' "or it o"ten beco&es clear a"ter the e*ent ho$ the action co ld ha*e been done better' tho %h be"ore the e*ent this $as "ar "ro& clear. 7<. Another line is' $hen a conte&!lated action is inconsistent $ith any !ast action' to e)a&ine the& both to%ether. Th s' $hen the !eo!le o" Elea asked Heno!hanes i" they sho ld or sho ld not sacri"ice to 9e cothea and &o rn "or her' he ad*ised the& not to &o rn "or her i" they tho %ht her a %oddess' and not to sacri"ice to her i" they tho %ht her a &ortal $o&an. 7@. Another line is to &ake !re*io s &istakes the %ro nds o" acc sation or de"ence. Th s' in the 6edea o" Carcin s the acc sers alle%e that 6edea has slain her children( 0at all e*ents0' they say' 0they are not to be seen0/6edea ha*in% &ade the &istake o" sendin% her children a$ay. In de"ence she ar% es that it is not her children' b t Eason' $ho& she $o ld ha*e slain( "or it $o ld ha*e been a &istake on her !art not to do this i" she had done the other. This s!ecial line o" ar% &ent "or enthy&e&e "or&s the $hole o" the Art o" Rhetoric in se be"ore Theodor s. Another line is to dra$ &eanin%s "ro& na&es. :o!hocles' "or instance' says' O steel in heart as tho art steel in na&e.

This line o" ar% &ent is co&&on in !raises o" the %ods. Th s' too' Conon called Thrasyb l s rash in co nsel. And Herodic s said o" Thrasy&ach s' 0Ao are al$ays bold in battle0( o" 3ol s' 0yo are al$ays a colt0( and o" the le%islator #raco that his la$s $ere those not o" a h &an bein% b t o" a dra%on' so sa*a%e $ere they. And' in E ri!ides' Hec ba says o" A!hrodite' Her na&e and 1olly0s 4a!hros ns5 li%htly be%in alike' and Chaere&on $rites 3enthe s/a na&e "oreshado$in% %rie" 4!enthos5 to co&e. The Re" tati*e Enthy&e&e has a %reater re! tation than the #e&onstrati*e' beca se $ithin a s&all s!ace it $orks o t t$o o!!osin% ar% &ents' and ar% &ents ! t side by side are clearer to the a dience. B t o" all syllo%is&s' $hether re" tati*e or de&onstrati*e' those are &ost a!!la ded o" $hich $e "oresee the concl sions "ro& the be%innin%' so lon% as they are not ob*io s at "irst si%ht/"or !art o" the !leas re $e "eel is at o r o$n intelli%ent antici!ation( or those $hich $e "ollo$ $ell eno %h to see the !oint o" the& as soon as the last $ord has been ttered. 78 Besides %en ine syllo%is&s' there &ay be syllo%is&s that look %en ine b t are not( and since an enthy&e&e is &erely a syllo%is& o" a !artic lar kind' it "ollo$s that' besides %en ine enthy&e&es' there &ay be those that look %en ine b t are not. 1. A&on% the lines o" ar% &ent that "or& the :! rio s Enthy&e&e the "irst is that $hich arises "ro& the !artic lar $ords e&!loyed. 4a5 One *ariety o" this is $hen/as in dialectic' $itho t ha*in% %one thro %h any reasonin% !rocess' $e &ake a "inal state&ent as i" it $ere the concl sion o" s ch a !rocess' 0There"ore so/and/so is not tr e0' 0There"ore also so/and/so & st be tr e0/so too in rhetoric a co&!act and antithetical tterance !asses "or an enthy&e&e' s ch lan% a%e bein% the !ro!er !ro*ince o" enthy&e&e' so that it is see&in%ly the "or& o" $ordin% here that ca ses the ill sion &entioned. In order to !rod ce the e""ect o" %en ine reasonin% by o r "or& o" $ordin% it is

se" l to s &&ari2e the res lts o" a n &ber o" !re*io s reasonin%s. as 0so&e he sa*ed/others he a*en%ed/the ;reeks he "reed0. Each o" these state&ents has been !re*io sly !ro*ed "ro& other "acts( b t the &ere collocation o" the& %i*es the i&!ression o" establishin% so&e "resh concl sion. 4b5 Another *ariety is based on the se o" si&ilar $ords "or di""erent thin%s( e.%. the ar% &ent that the &o se & st be a noble creat re' since it %i*es its na&e to the &ost a % st o" all reli%io s rites/"or s ch the 6ysteries are. Or one &ay introd ce' into a e lo%y o" the do%' the do%/star( or 3an' beca se 3indar said. O tho blessed oneM Tho $ho& they o" Oly&! s call The ho nd o" &ani"old sha!e That "ollo$s the 6other o" Hea*en. or $e &ay ar% e that' beca se there is & ch dis%race in there not bein% a do% abo t' there is hono r in bein% a do%. Or that Her&es is readier than any other %od to %o shares' since $e ne*er say 0shares all ro nd0 e)ce!t o" hi&. Or that s!eech is a *ery e)cellent thin%' since %ood &en are not said to be $orth &oney b t to be $orthy o" estee&/the !hrase 0$orthy o" estee&0 also ha*in% the &eanin% o" 0$orth s!eech0. 7. Another line is to assert o" the $hole $hat is tr e o" the !arts' or o" the !arts $hat is tr e o" the $hole. A $hole and its !arts are s !!osed to be identical' tho %h o"ten they are not. Ao ha*e there"ore to ado!t $hiche*er o" these t$o lines better s its yo r ! r!ose. That is ho$ E thyde& s ar% es. e.%. that any one kno$s that there is a trire&e in the 3eirae s' since he kno$s the se!arate details that &ake ! this state&ent. There is also the ar% &ent that one $ho kno$s the letters kno$s the $hole $ord' since the $ord is the sa&e thin% as the letters $hich co&!ose it( or that' i" a do ble !ortion o" a certain thin% is har&" l to health' then a sin%le !ortion & st not be called $holeso&e' since it is abs rd that t$o %ood thin%s sho ld &ake one bad thin%. 3 t th s' the enthy&e&e is re" tati*e( ! t as "ollo$s( de&onstrati*e. 01or one %ood thin% cannot be &ade ! o" t$o bad thin%s.0 The $hole line o" ar% &ent is "allacio s. A%ain' there is 3olycrates0 sayin% that Thrasyb l s ! t do$n thirty tyrants' $here the s!eaker adds the& ! one by one. Or the ar% &ent in the Orestes o" Theodectes' $here the ar% &ent is "ro& !art to $hole. 0Tis ri%ht that she $ho slays her lord sho ld die. 0It is ri%ht' too' that the son sho ld a*en%e his "ather. Dery %ood. these t$o thin%s are $hat Orestes has done.0 :till' !erha!s the t$o thin%s' once they are ! t to%ether' do not "or& a ri%ht act. The "allacy &i%ht also be said to be d e to o&ission' since the s!eaker "ails to say by $hose hand a h sband/slayer sho ld die. 3. Another line is the se o" indi%nant lan% a%e' $hether to s !!ort yo r o$n case or to o*erthro$ yo r o!!onent0s. We do this $hen $e !aint a hi%hly/colo red !ict re o" the sit ation $itho t ha*in% !ro*ed the "acts o" it. i" the de"endant does so' he !rod ces an i&!ression o" his innocence( and i" the !rosec tor %oes into a !assion' he !rod ces an i&!ression o" the de"endant0s % ilt. Here there is no %en ine enthy&e&e. the hearer in"ers % ilt or innocence' b t no !roo" is %i*en' and the in"erence is "allacio s accordin%ly. 8. Another line is to se a 0:i%n0' or sin%le instance' as certain e*idence( $hich' a%ain' yields no *alid !roo". Th s' it &i%ht be said that lo*ers are se" l to their co ntries' since the lo*e o" Har&odi s and Aristo%eiton ca sed the do$n"all o" the tyrant Hi!!arch s. Or' a%ain' that #ionysi s is a thie"' since he is a *icio s &an/there is' o" co rse' no *alid !roo" here( not e*ery *icio s &an is a thie"' tho %h e*ery thie" is a *icio s &an.

5. Another line re!resents the accidental as essential. An instance is $hat 3olycrates says o" the &ice' that they 0ca&e to the resc e0 beca se they %na$ed thro %h the bo$strin%s. Or it &i%ht be &aintained that an in*itation to dinner is a %reat hono r' "or it $as beca se he $as not in*ited that Achilles $as 0an%ered0 $ith the ;reeks at TenedosI As a "act' $hat an%ered hi& $as the ins lt in*ol*ed( it $as a &ere accident that this $as the !artic lar "or& that the ins lt took. <. Another is the ar% &ent "ro& conse+ ence. In the Ale)ander' "or instance' it is ar% ed that 3aris & st ha*e had a lo"ty dis!osition' since he des!ised society and li*ed by hi&sel" on 6o nt Ida. beca se lo"ty !eo!le do this kind o" thin%' there"ore 3aris too' $e are to s !!ose' had a lo"ty so l. Or' i" a &an dresses "ashionably and roa&s aro nd at ni%ht' he is a rake' since that is the $ay rakes beha*e. Another si&ilar ar% &ent !oints o t that be%%ars sin% and dance in te&!les' and that e)iles can li*e $here*er they !lease' and that s ch !ri*ile%es are at the dis!osal o" those $e acco nt ha!!y and there"ore e*ery one &i%ht be re%arded as ha!!y i" only he has those !ri*ile%es. What &atters' ho$e*er' is the circ &stances nder $hich the !ri*ile%es are en,oyed. Hence this line too "alls nder the head o" "allacies by o&ission. @. Another line consists in re!resentin% as ca ses thin%s $hich are not ca ses' on the %ro nd that they ha!!ened alon% $ith or be"ore the e*ent in + estion. They ass &e that' beca se B ha!!ens a"ter A' it ha!!ens beca se o" A. 3oliticians are es!ecially "ond o" takin% this line. Th s #e&ades said that the !olicy o" #e&osthenes $as the ca se o" all the &ischie"' 0"or a"ter it the $ar occ rred0. B. Another line consists in lea*in% o t any &ention o" ti&e and circ &stances. E.%. the ar% &ent that 3aris $as , sti"ied in takin% Helen' since her "ather le"t her "ree to choose. here the "reedo& $as !res &ably not !er!et al( it co ld only re"er to her "irst choice' beyond $hich her "ather0s a thority co ld not %o. Or a%ain' one &i%ht say that to strike a "ree &an is an act o" $anton o tra%e( b t it is not so in e*ery case/only $hen it is n!ro*oked. C. A%ain' a s! rio s syllo%is& &ay' as in 0eristical0 disc ssions' be based on the con" sion o" the absol te $ith that $hich is not absol te b t !artic lar. As' in dialectic' "or instance' it &ay be ar% ed that $hat/is/not is' on the %ro nd that $hat/is/not is $hat/is/not. or that the nkno$n can be kno$n' on the %ro nd that it can be kno$n to he nkno$n. so also in rhetoric a s! rio s enthy&e&e &ay be based on the con" sion o" so&e !artic lar !robability $ith absol te !robability. -o$ no !artic lar !robability is ni*ersally !robable. as A%athon says' One &i%ht !erchance say that $as !robable/ That thin%s i&!robable o"t $ill ha! to &en. 1or $hat is i&!robable does ha!!en' and there"ore it is !robable that i&!robable thin%s $ill ha!!en. ;ranted this' one &i%ht ar% e that 0$hat is i&!robable is !robable0. B t this is not tr e absol tely. As' in eristic' the i&!ost re co&es "ro& not addin% any cla se s!eci"yin% relationshi! or re"erence or &anner( so here it arises beca se the !robability in + estion is not %eneral b t s!eci"ic. It is o" this line o" ar% &ent that Cora)0s Art o" Rhetoric is co&!osed. I" the acc sed is not o!en to the char%e/"or instance i" a $eaklin% be tried "or *iolent assa lt/the de"ence is that he $as not likely to do s ch a thin%. B t i" he is o!en to the char%e/i.e. i" he is a stron% &an/the de"ence is still that he $as not likely to do s ch a thin%' since he co ld be s re that !eo!le $o ld think he $as likely to do it. And so $ith any other char%e. the acc sed & st be either o!en or not o!en to it. there is in either case an a!!earance o" !robable innocence' b t $hereas in the latter case the !robability is %en ine' in the "or&er it can only be asserted in the s!ecial sense &entioned. This sort o" ar% &ent ill strates $hat is &eant by &akin%

the $orse ar% &ent see& the better. Hence !eo!le $ere ri%ht in ob,ectin% to the trainin% 3rota%oras ndertook to %i*e the&. It $as a "ra d( the !robability it handled $as not %en ine b t s! rio s' and has a !lace in no art e)ce!t Rhetoric and Eristic. 75 Enthy&e&es' %en ine and a!!arent' ha*e no$ been described( the ne)t s b,ect is their Re" tation. An ar% &ent &ay be re" ted either by a co nter/syllo%is& or by brin%in% an ob,ection. It is clear that co nter/syllo%is&s can be b ilt ! "ro& the sa&e lines o" ar% &ents as the ori%inal syllo%is&s. "or the &aterials o" syllo%is&s are the ordinary o!inions o" &en' and s ch o!inions o"ten contradict each other. Ob,ections' as a!!ears in the To!ics' &ay be raised in "o r $ays/either by directly attackin% yo r o!!onent0s o$n state&ent' or by ! ttin% "or$ard another state&ent like it' or by ! ttin% "or$ard a state&ent contrary to it' or by + otin% !re*io s decisions. 1. By 0attackin% yo r o!!onent0s o$n state&ent0 I &ean' "or instance' this. i" his enthy&e&e sho ld assert that lo*e is al$ays %ood' the ob,ection can be bro %ht in t$o $ays' either by &akin% the %eneral state&ent that 0all $ant is an e*il0' or by &akin% the !artic lar one that there $o ld be no talk o" 0Ca nian lo*e0 i" there $ere not e*il lo*es as $ell as %ood ones. 7. An ob,ection 0"ro& a contrary state&ent0 is raised $hen' "or instance' the o!!onent0s enthy&e&e ha*in% concl ded that a %ood &an does %ood to all his "riends' yo ob,ect' 0That !ro*es nothin%' "or a bad &an does not do e*il to all his "riends0. 3. An e)a&!le o" an ob,ection 0"ro& a like state&ent0 is' the enthy&e&e ha*in% sho$n that ill/ sed &en al$ays hate their ill/ sers' to re!ly' 0That !ro*es nothin%' "or $ell/ sed &en do not al$ays lo*e those $ho sed the& $ell0. 8. The 0decisions0 &entioned are those !roceedin% "ro& $ell/kno$n &en( "or instance' i" the enthy&e&e e&!loyed has concl ded that 0that allo$ance o %ht to be &ade "or dr nken o""enders' since they did not kno$ $hat they $ere doin%0' the ob,ection $ill be' 03ittac s' then' deser*es no a!!ro*al' or he $o ld not ha*e !rescribed s!ecially se*ere !enalties "or o""ences d e to dr nkenness0. Enthy&e&es are based !on one or other o" "o r kinds o" alle%ed "act. 415 3robabilities' 475 E)a&!les' 435 In"allible :i%ns' 485 Ordinary :i%ns. 415 Enthy&e&es based !on 3robabilities are those $hich ar% e "ro& $hat is' or is s !!osed to be' s ally tr e. 475 Enthy&e&es based !on E)a&!le are those $hich !roceed by ind ction "ro& one or &ore si&ilar cases' arri*e at a %eneral !ro!osition' and then ar% e ded cti*ely to a !artic lar in"erence. 435 Enthy&e&es based !on In"allible :i%ns are those $hich ar% e "ro& the ine*itable and in*ariable. 485 Enthy&e&es based !on ordinary :i%ns are those $hich ar% e "ro& so&e ni*ersal or !artic lar !ro!osition' tr e or "alse. -o$ 415 as a 3robability is that $hich ha!!ens s ally b t not al$ays' Enthy&e&es "o nded !on 3robabilities can' it is clear' al$ays be re" ted by raisin% so&e ob,ection. The re" tation is not al$ays %en ine. it &ay be s! rio s. "or it consists in sho$in% not that yo r o!!onent0s !re&iss is not !robable' b t Only in sho$in% that it is not ine*itably tr e. Hence it is al$ays in de"ence rather than in acc sation that it is !ossible to %ain an ad*anta%e by sin% this "allacy. 1or the acc ser ses !robabilities to !ro*e his case. and to re" te a concl sion as i&!robable is not the sa&e thin% as to re" te it as not ine*itable. Any ar% &ent based !on $hat s ally ha!!ens is al$ays o!en to ob,ection. other$ise it $o ld not be a !robability b t an in*ariable and necessary tr th. B t the , d%es think' i" the re" tation takes this "or&' either that the acc ser0s case is not !robable or that they & st not decide it( $hich' as $e said' is a "alse !iece o" reasonin%. 1or they o %ht to decide by considerin% not &erely $hat & st be tr e b t also $hat is likely to be

tr e. this is' indeed' the &eanin% o" 0%i*in% a *erdict in accordance $ith one0s honest o!inion0. There"ore it is not eno %h "or the de"endant to re" te the acc sation by !ro*in% that the char%e is not ho nd to be tr e. he & st do so by sho$in% that it is not likely to be tr e. 1or this ! r!ose his ob,ection & st state $hat is &ore s ally tr e than the state&ent attacked. It &ay do so in either o" t$o $ays. either in res!ect o" "re+ ency or in res!ect o" e)actness. It $ill be &ost con*incin% i" it does so in both res!ects( "or i" the thin% in + estion both ha!!ens o"tener as $e re!resent it and ha!!ens &ore as $e re!resent it' the !robability is !artic larly %reat. 475 1allible :i%ns' and Enthy&e&es based !on the&' can be re" ted e*en i" the "acts are correct' as $as said at the o tset. 1or $e ha*e sho$n in the Analytics that no 1allible :i%n can "or& !art o" a *alid lo%ical !roo". 435 Enthy&e&es de!endin% on e)a&!les &ay be re" ted in the sa&e $ay as !robabilities. I" $e ha*e a ne%ati*e instance' the ar% &ent is re" ted' in so "ar as it is !ro*ed not ine*itable' e*en tho %h the !ositi*e e)a&!les are &ore si&ilar and &ore "re+ ent. And i" the !ositi*e e)a&!les are &ore n &ero s and &ore "re+ ent' $e & st contend that the !resent case is dissi&ilar' or that its conditions are dissi&ilar' or that it is di""erent in so&e $ay or other. 485 It $ill be i&!ossible to re" te In"allible :i%ns' and Enthy&e&es restin% on the&' by sho$in% in any $ay that they do not "or& a *alid lo%ical !roo". this' too' $e see "ro& the Analytics. All $e can do is to sho$ that the "act alle%ed does not e)ist. I" there is no do bt that it does' and that it is an In"allible :i%n' re" tation no$ beco&es i&!ossible. "or this is e+ i*alent to a de&onstration $hich is clear in e*ery res!ect. 7< A&!li"ication and #e!reciation are not an ele&ent o" enthy&e&e. By 0an ele&ent o" enthy&e&e0 I &ean the sa&e thin% as a line o" enthy&e&atic ar% &ent/a %eneral class e&bracin% a lar%e n &ber o" !artic lar kinds o" enthy&e&e. A&!li"ication and #e!reciation are one kind o" enthy&e&e' *i2. the kind sed to sho$ that a thin% is %reat or s&all( , st as there are other kinds sed to sho$ that a thin% is %ood or bad' , st or n, st' and anythin% else o" the sort. All these thin%s are the s b,ect/&atter o" syllo%is&s and enthy&e&es( none o" these is the line o" ar% &ent o" an enthy&e&e( no &ore' there"ore' are A&!li"ication and #e!reciation. -or are Re" tati*e Enthy&e&es a di""erent s!ecies "ro& Constr cti*e. 1or it is clear that re" tation consists either in o""erin% !ositi*e !roo" or in raisin% an ob,ection. In the "irst case $e !ro*e the o!!osite o" o r ad*ersary0s state&ents. Th s' i" he sho$s that a thin% has ha!!ened' $e sho$ that it has not( i" he sho$s that it has not ha!!ened' $e sho$ that it has. This' then' co ld not be the distinction i" there $ere one' since the sa&e &eans are e&!loyed by both !arties' enthy&e&es bein% add ced to sho$ that the "act is or is not so/and/so. An ob,ection' on the other hand' is not an enthy&e&e at all' as $as said in the To!ics' consists in statin% so&e acce!ted o!inion "ro& $hich it $ill be clear that o r o!!onent has not reasoned correctly or has &ade a "alse ass &!tion. Three !oints & st be st died in &akin% a s!eech( and $e ha*e no$ co&!leted the acco nt o" 415 E)a&!les' 6a)i&s' Enthy&e&es' and in %eneral the tho %ht/ele&ent the $ay to in*ent and re" te ar% &ents. We ha*e ne)t to disc ss 475 :tyle' and 435 Arran%e&ent. Book III 1

I- &akin% a s!eech one & st st dy three !oints. "irst' the &eans o" !rod cin% !ers asion( second' the style' or lan% a%e' to be sed( third' the !ro!er arran%e&ent o" the *ario s !arts o" the s!eech. We ha*e already s!eci"ied the so rces o" !ers asion. We ha*e sho$n that these are three in n &ber( $hat they are( and $hy there are only these three. "or $e ha*e sho$n that !ers asion & st in e*ery case be e""ected either 415 by $orkin% on the e&otions o" the , d%es the&sel*es' 475 by %i*in% the& the ri%ht i&!ression o" the s!eakers0 character' or 435 by !ro*in% the tr th o" the state&ents &ade. Enthy&e&es also ha*e been described' and the so rces "ro& $hich they sho ld be deri*ed( there bein% both s!ecial and %eneral lines o" ar% &ent "or enthy&e&es. O r ne)t s b,ect $ill be the style o" e)!ression. 1or it is not eno %h to kno$ $hat $e o %ht to say( $e & st also say it as $e o %ht( & ch hel! is th s a""orded to$ards !rod cin% the ri%ht i&!ression o" a s!eech. The "irst + estion to recei*e attention $as nat rally the one that co&es "irst nat rally/ho$ !ers asion can be !rod ced "ro& the "acts the&sel*es. The second is ho$ to set these "acts o t in lan% a%e. A third $o ld be the !ro!er &ethod o" deli*ery( this is a thin% that a""ects the s ccess o" a s!eech %reatly( b t hitherto the s b,ect has been ne%lected. Indeed' it $as lon% be"ore it "o nd a $ay into the arts o" tra%ic dra&a and e!ic recitation. at "irst !oets acted their tra%edies the&sel*es. It is !lain that deli*ery has , st as & ch to do $ith oratory as $ith !oetry. 4In conne)ion $ith !oetry' it has been st died by ;la con o" Teos a&on% others.5 It is' essentially' a &atter o" the ri%ht &ana%e&ent o" the *oice to e)!ress the *ario s e&otions/o" s!eakin% lo dly' so"tly' or bet$een the t$o( o" hi%h' lo$' or inter&ediate !itch( o" the *ario s rhyth&s that s it *ario s s b,ects. These are the three thin%s/*ol &e o" so nd' &od lation o" !itch' and rhyth&/that a s!eaker bears in &ind. It is those $ho do bear the& in &ind $ho s ally $in !ri2es in the dra&atic contests( and , st as in dra&a the actors no$ co nt "or &ore than the !oets' so it is in the contests o" ! blic li"e' o$in% to the de"ects o" o r !olitical instit tions. -o syste&atic treatise !on the r les o" deli*ery has yet been co&!osed( indeed' e*en the st dy o" lan% a%e &ade no !ro%ress till late in the day. Besides' deli*ery is/*ery !ro!erly/not re%arded as an ele*ated s b,ect o" in+ iry. :till' the $hole b siness o" rhetoric bein% concerned $ith a!!earances' $e & st !ay attention to the s b,ect o" deli*ery' n$orthy tho %h it is' beca se $e cannot do $itho t it. The ri%ht thin% in s!eakin% really is that $e sho ld be satis"ied not to annoy o r hearers' $itho t tryin% to deli%ht the&. $e o %ht in "airness to "i%ht o r case $ith no hel! beyond the bare "acts. nothin%' there"ore' sho ld &atter e)ce!t the !roo" o" those "acts. :till' as has been already said' other thin%s a""ect the res lt considerably' o$in% to the de"ects o" o r hearers. The arts o" lan% a%e cannot hel! ha*in% a s&all b t real i&!ortance' $hate*er it is $e ha*e to e)!o nd to others. the $ay in $hich a thin% is said does a""ect its intelli%ibility. -ot' ho$e*er' so & ch i&!ortance as !eo!le think. All s ch arts are "anci" l and &eant to char& the hearer. -obody ses "ine lan% a%e $hen teachin% %eo&etry. When the !rinci!les o" deli*ery ha*e been $orked o t' they $ill !rod ce the sa&e e""ect as on the sta%e. B t only *ery sli%ht atte&!ts to deal $ith the& ha*e been &ade and by a "e$ !eo!le' as by Thrasy&ach s in his 0A!!eals to 3ity0. #ra&atic ability is a nat ral %i"t' and can hardly be syste&atically ta %ht. The !rinci!les o" %ood diction can be so ta %ht' and there"ore $e ha*e &en o" ability in this direction too' $ho $in !ri2es in their t rn' as $ell as those s!eakers $ho e)cel in deli*ery/s!eeches o" the $ritten or literary kind o$e &ore o" their e""ect to their direction than to their tho %ht. It $as nat rally the !oets $ho "irst set the &o*e&ent %oin%( "or $ords re!resent thin%s' and they had also the h &an *oice at their dis!osal' $hich o" all o r or%ans can best re!resent other thin%s.

Th s the arts o" recitation and actin% $ere "or&ed' and others as $ell. -o$ it $as beca se !oets see&ed to $in "a&e thro %h their "ine lan% a%e $hen their tho %hts $ere si&!le eno %h' that the lan% a%e o" oratorical !rose at "irst took a !oetical colo r' e.%. that o" ;or%ias. E*en no$ &ost ned cated !eo!le think that !oetical lan% a%e &akes the "inest disco rses. That is not tr e. the lan% a%e o" !rose is distinct "ro& that o" !oetry. This is sho$n by the state o" thin%s to/day' $hen e*en the lan% a%e o" tra%edy has altered its character. E st as ia&bics $ere ado!ted' instead o" tetra&eters' beca se they are the &ost !rose/like o" all &etres' so tra%edy has %i*en ! all those $ords' not sed in ordinary talk' $hich decorated the early dra&a and are still sed by the $riters o" he)a&eter !oe&s. It is there"ore ridic lo s to i&itate a !oetical &anner $hich the !oets the&sel*es ha*e dro!!ed( and it is no$ !lain that $e ha*e not to treat in detail the $hole + estion o" style' b t &ay con"ine o rsel*es to that !art o" it $hich concerns o r !resent s b,ect' rhetoric. The other//the !oetical//!art o" it has been disc ssed in the treatise on the Art o" 3oetry. 7 We &ay' then' start "ro& the obser*ations there &ade' incl din% the de"inition o" style. :tyle to be %ood & st be clear' as is !ro*ed by the "act that s!eech $hich "ails to con*ey a !lain &eanin% $ill "ail to do , st $hat s!eech has to do. It & st also be a!!ro!riate' a*oidin% both &eanness and nd e ele*ation( !oetical lan% a%e is certainly "ree "ro& &eanness' b t it is not a!!ro!riate to !rose. Clearness is sec red by sin% the $ords 4no ns and *erbs alike5 that are c rrent and ordinary. 1reedo& "ro& &eanness' and !ositi*e adorn&ent too' are sec red by sin% the other $ords &entioned in the Art o" 3oetry. : ch *ariation "ro& $hat is s al &akes the lan% a%e a!!ear &ore stately. 3eo!le do not "eel to$ards stran%ers as they do to$ards their o$n co ntry&en' and the sa&e thin% is tr e o" their "eelin% "or lan% a%e. It is there"ore $ell to %i*e to e*eryday s!eech an n"a&iliar air. !eo!le like $hat strikes the&' and are str ck by $hat is o t o" the $ay. In *erse s ch e""ects are co&&on' and there they are "ittin%. the !ersons and thin%s there s!oken o" are co&!arati*ely re&ote "ro& ordinary li"e. In !rose !assa%es they are "ar less o"ten "ittin% beca se the s b,ect/&atter is less e)alted. E*en in !oetry' it is not + ite a!!ro!riate that "ine lan% a%e sho ld be sed by a sla*e or a *ery yo n% &an' or abo t *ery tri*ial s b,ects. e*en in !oetry the style' to be a!!ro!riate' & st so&eti&es be toned do$n' tho %h at other ti&es hei%htened. We can no$ see that a $riter & st dis% ise his art and %i*e the i&!ression o" s!eakin% nat rally and not arti"icially. -at ralness is !ers asi*e' arti"iciality is the contrary( "or o r hearers are !re, diced and think $e ha*e so&e desi%n a%ainst the&' as i" $e $ere &i)in% their $ines "or the&. It is like the di""erence bet$een the + ality o" Theodor s0 *oice and the *oices o" all other actors. his really see&s to be that o" the character $ho is s!eakin%' theirs do not. We can hide o r ! r!ose s ccess" lly by takin% the sin%le $ords o" o r co&!osition "ro& the s!eech o" ordinary li"e. This is done in !oetry by E ri!ides' $ho $as the "irst to sho$ the $ay to his s ccessors. 9an% a%e is co&!osed o" no ns and *erbs. -o ns are o" the *ario s kinds considered in the treatise on 3oetry. :tran%e $ords' co&!o nd $ords' and in*ented $ords & st be sed s!arin%ly and on "e$ occasions. on $hat occasions $e shall state later. The reason "or this restriction has been already indicated. they de!art "ro& $hat is s itable' in the direction o" e)cess. In the lan% a%e o" !rose' besides the re% lar and !ro!er ter&s "or thin%s' &eta!horical ter&s only can be sed $ith ad*anta%e. This $e %ather "ro& the "act that these t$o classes o" ter&s' the !ro!er or re% lar and the &eta!horical/these and no others/are sed by e*erybody in con*ersation. We can no$ see that a %ood $riter can !rod ce a style

that is distin% ished $itho t bein% obtr si*e' and is at the sa&e ti&e clear' th s satis"yin% o r de"inition o" %ood oratorical !rose. Words o" a&bi% o s &eanin% are chie"ly se" l to enable the so!hist to &islead his hearers. :ynony&s are se" l to the !oet' by $hich I &ean $ords $hose ordinary &eanin% is the sa&e' e.%. 0!orhe eseai0 4ad*ancin%5 and 0badi2ein0 4!roceedin%5( these t$o are ordinary $ords and ha*e the sa&e &eanin%. In the Art o" 3oetry' as $e ha*e already said' $ill be "o nd de"initions o" these kinds o" $ords( a classi"ication o" 6eta!hors( and &ention o" the "act that &eta!hor is o" %reat *al e both in !oetry and in !rose. 3rose/$riters & st' ho$e*er' !ay s!ecially care" l attention to &eta!hor' beca se their other reso rces are scantier than those o" !oets. 6eta!hor' &oreo*er' %i*es style clearness' char&' and distinction as nothin% else can. and it is not a thin% $hose se can be ta %ht by one &an to another. 6eta!hors' like e!ithets' & st be "ittin%' $hich &eans that they & st "airly corres!ond to the thin% si%ni"ied. "ailin% this' their ina!!ro!riateness $ill be cons!ic o s. the $ant o" har&ony bet$een t$o thin%s is e&!hasi2ed by their bein% !laced side by side. It is like ha*in% to ask o rsel*es $hat dress $ill s it an old &an( certainly not the cri&son cloak that s its a yo n% &an. And i" yo $ish to !ay a co&!li&ent' yo & st take yo r &eta!hor "ro& so&ethin% better in the sa&e line( i" to dis!ara%e' "ro& so&ethin% $orse. To ill strate &y &eanin%. since o!!osites are in the sa&e class' yo do $hat I ha*e s %%ested i" yo say that a &an $ho be%s 0!rays0' and a &an $ho !rays 0be%s0( "or !rayin% and be%%in% are both *arieties o" askin%. :o I!hicrates called Callias a 0&endicant !riest0 instead o" a 0torch/bearer0' and Callias re!lied that I!hicrates & st be ninitiated or he $o ld ha*e called hi& not a 0&endicant !riest0 b t a 0torch/bearer0. Both are reli%io s titles' b t one is hono rable and the other is not. A%ain' so&ebody calls actors 0han%ers/on o" #ionys s0' b t they call the&sel*es 0artists0. each o" these ter&s is a &eta!hor' the one intended to thro$ dirt at the actor' the other to di%ni"y hi&. And !irates no$ call the&sel*es 0! r*eyors0. We can th s call a cri&e a &istake' or a &istake a cri&e. We can say that a thie" 0took0 a thin%' or that he 0!l ndered0 his *icti&. An e)!ression like that o" E ri!ides0 Tele!h s' Fin% o" the oar' on 6ysia0s coast he landed' is ina!!ro!riate( the $ord 0kin%0 %oes beyond the di%nity o" the s b,ect' and so the art is not concealed. A &eta!hor &ay be a&iss beca se the *ery syllables o" the $ords con*eyin% it "ail to indicate s$eetness o" *ocal tterance. Th s #ionysi s the Bra2en in his ele%ies calls !oetry 0Callio!e0s screech0. 3oetry and screechin% are both' to be s re' *ocal tterances. B t the &eta!hor is bad' beca se the so nds o" 0screechin%0' nlike those o" !oetry' are discordant and n&eanin%. 1 rther' in sin% &eta!hors to %i*e na&es to na&eless thin%s' $e & st dra$ the& not "ro& re&ote b t "ro& kindred and si&ilar thin%s' so that the kinshi! is clearly !ercei*ed as soon as the $ords are said. Th s in the celebrated riddle I &arked ho$ a &an %l ed bron2e $ith "ire to another &an0s body' the !rocess is na&eless( b t both it and %l in% are a kind o" a!!lication' and that is $hy the a!!lication o" the c !!in%/%lass is here called a 0%l in%0. ;ood riddles do' in %eneral' !ro*ide s $ith satis"actory &eta!hors. "or &eta!hors i&!ly riddles' and there"ore a %ood riddle can " rnish a %ood &eta!hor. 1 rther' the &aterials o" &eta!hors & st be bea ti" l( and the bea ty' like the %liness' o" all $ords &ay' as 9icy&ni s says' lie in their so nd or in their &eanin%. 1 rther' there is a third consideration/one that !sets the "allacio s ar% &ent o" the so!hist Bryson' that there is no s ch thin%

as "o l lan% a%e' beca se in $hate*er $ords yo ! t a %i*en thin% yo r &eanin% is the sa&e. This is ntr e. One ter& &ay describe a thin% &ore tr ly than another' &ay be &ore like it' and set it &ore inti&ately be"ore o r eyes. Besides' t$o di""erent $ords $ill re!resent a thin% in t$o di""erent li%hts( so on this %ro nd also one ter& & st be held "airer or "o ler than another. 1or both o" t$o ter&s $ill indicate $hat is "air' or $hat is "o l' b t not si&!ly their "airness or their "o lness' or i" so' at any rate not in an e+ al de%ree. The &aterials o" &eta!hor & st be bea ti" l to the ear' to the nderstandin%' to the eye or so&e other !hysical sense. It is better' "or instance' to say 0rosy/"in%ered &orn0' than 0cri&son/"in%ered0 or' $orse still' 0red/"in%ered &orn0. The e!ithets that $e a!!ly' too' &ay ha*e a bad and %ly as!ect' as $hen Orestes is called a 0&other/slayer0( or a better one' as $hen he is called his 0"ather0s a*en%er0. :i&onides' $hen the *ictor in the & le/race o""ered hi& a s&all "ee' re" sed to $rite hi& an ode' beca se' he said' it $as so n!leasant to $rite odes to hal"/asses. b t on recei*in% an ade+ ate "ee' he $rote Hail to yo ' da %hters o" stor&/"ooted steedsI tho %h o" co rse they $ere da %hters o" asses too. The sa&e e""ect is attained by the se o" di&in ti*es' $hich &ake a bad thin% less bad and a %ood thin% less %ood. Take' "or instance' the banter o" Aristo!hanes in the Babylonians $here he ses 0%oldlet0 "or 0%old0' 0cloaklet0 "or 0cloak0' 0sco""iet0 "or 0sco""' and 0!la% elet0. B t alike in sin% e!ithets and in sin% di&in ti*es $e & st be $ary and & st obser*e the &ean. 3 Bad taste in lan% a%e &ay take any o" "o r "or&s. 415 The &is se o" co&!o nd $ords. 9yco!hron' "or instance' talks o" the 0&any *isa%ed hea*en0 abo*e the 0%iant/crested earth0' and a%ain the 0strait/!athed shore0( and ;or%ias o" the 0!a !er/!oet "latterer0 and 0oath/breakin% and o*er/oath/kee!in%0. Alcida&as ses s ch e)!ressions as 0the so l "illin% $ith ra%e and "ace beco&in% "la&e/"l shed0' and 0he tho %ht their enth sias& $o ld be iss e/"ra %ht0 and 0iss e/"ra %ht he &ade the !ers asion o" his $ords0' and 0so&bre/h ed is the "loor o" the sea0.The $ay all these $ords are co&!o nded &akes the&' $e "eel' "it "or *erse only. This' then' is one "or& in $hich bad taste is sho$n. 475 Another is the e&!loy&ent o" stran%e $ords. 1or instance' 9yco!hron talks o" 0the !rodi%io s Her)es0 and 0s!oliati*e :ciron0( Alcida&as o" 0a toy "or !oetry0 and 0the $itlessness o" nat re0' and says 0$hetted $ith the n&iti%ated te&!er o" his s!irit0. 435 A third "or& is the se o" lon%' nseasonable' or "re+ ent e!ithets. It is a!!ro!riate eno %h "or a !oet to talk o" 0$hite &ilk0' in !rose s ch e!ithets are so&eti&es lackin% in a!!ro!riateness or' $hen s!read too thickly' !lainly re*eal the a thor t rnin% his !rose into !oetry. O" co rse $e & st se so&e e!ithets' since they li"t o r style abo*e the s al le*el and %i*e it an air o" distinction. B t $e & st ai& at the d e &ean' or the res lt $ill be $orse than i" $e took no tro ble at all( $e shall %et so&ethin% act ally bad instead o" so&ethin% &erely not %ood. That is $hy the e!ithets o" Alcida&as see& so tasteless( he does not se the& as the seasonin% o" the &eat' b t as the &eat itsel"' so n &ero s and s$ollen and a%%ressi*e are they. 1or instance' he does not say 0s$eat0' b t 0the &oist s$eat0( not 0to the Isth&ian %a&es0' b t 0to the $orld/conco rse o" the Isth&ian %a&es0( not 0la$s0' b t 0the la$s that are &onarchs o" states0( not 0at a r n0' b t 0his heart i&!ellin% hi& to s!eed o" "oot0( not 0a school o" the 6 ses0' b t 0-at re0s school o" the 6 ses had he inherited0( and so 0"ro$nin% care o" heart0' and 0achie*er0 not o" 0!o! larity0 b t o" 0 ni*ersal !o! larity0' and

0dis!enser o" !leas re to his a dience0' and 0he concealed it0 not 0$ith bo %hs0 b t 0$ith bo %hs o" the "orest trees0' and 0he clothed0 not 0his body0 b t 0his body0s nakedness0' and 0his so l0s desire $as co nter i&itati*e0 4this0s at one and the sa&e ti&e a co&!o nd and an e!ithet' so that it see&s a !oet0s e""ort5' and 0so e)tra*a%ant the e)cess o" his $ickedness0. We th s see ho$ the ina!!ro!riateness o" s ch !oetical lan% a%e i&!orts abs rdity and tastelessness into s!eeches' as $ell as the obsc rity that co&es "ro& all this *erbosity/"or $hen the sense is !lain' yo only obsc re and s!oil its clearness by !ilin% ! $ords. The ordinary se o" co&!o nd $ords is $here there is no ter& "or a thin% and so&e co&!o nd can be easily "or&ed' like 0!asti&e0 4chronotribein5( b t i" this is & ch done' the !rose character disa!!ears entirely. We no$ see $hy the lan% a%e o" co&!o nds is , st the thin% "or $riters o" dithyra&bs' $ho lo*e sonoro s noises( stran%e $ords "or $riters o" e!ic !oetry' $hich is a !ro d and stately a""air( and &eta!hor "or ia&bic *erse' the &etre $hich 4as has been already0 said5 is $idely sed to/day. 485 There re&ains the "o rth re%ion in $hich bad taste &ay be sho$n' &eta!hor. 6eta!hors like other thin%s &ay be ina!!ro!riate. :o&e are so beca se they are ridic lo s( they are indeed sed by co&ic as $ell as tra%ic !oets. Others are too %rand and theatrical( and these' i" they are "ar/"etched' &ay also be obsc re. 1or instance' ;or%ias talks o" 0e*ents that are %reen and " ll o" sa!0' and says 0"o l $as the deed yo so$ed and e*il the har*est yo rea!ed0. That is too & ch like !oetry. Alcida&as' a%ain' called !hiloso!hy 0a "ortress that threatens the !o$er o" la$0' and the Odyssey 0a %oodly lookin%/%lass o" h &an li"e0'0 talked abo t 0o""erin% no s ch toy to !oetry0. all these e)!ressions "ail' "or the reasons %i*en' to carry the hearer $ith the&. The address o" ;or%ias to the s$allo$' $hen she had let her dro!!in%s "all on hi& as she "le$ o*erhead' is in the best tra%ic &anner. He said' 0-ay' sha&e' O 3hilo&ela0. Considerin% her as a bird' yo co ld not call her act sha&e" l( considerin% her as a %irl' yo co ld( and so it $as a %ood %ibe to address her as $hat she $as once and not as $hat she is. 8 The :i&ile also is a &eta!hor( the di""erence is b t sli%ht. When the !oet says o" Achilles that he 9ea!t on the "oe as a lion' this is a si&ile( $hen he says o" hi& 0the lion lea!t0' it is a &eta!hor/here' since both are co ra%eo s' he has trans"erred to Achilles the na&e o" 0lion0. :i&iles are se" l in !rose as $ell as in *erse( b t not o"ten' since they are o" the nat re o" !oetry. They are to be e&!loyed , st as &eta!hors are e&!loyed' since they are really the sa&e thin% e)ce!t "or the di""erence &entioned. The "ollo$in% are e)a&!les o" si&iles. Androtion said o" Idrie s that he $as like a terrier let o"" the chain' that "lies at yo and bites yo /Idrie s too $as sa*a%e no$ that he $as let o t o" his chains. Theoda&as co&!ared Archida& s to an E )en s $ho co ld not do %eo&etry/a !ro!ortional si&ile' i&!lyin% that E )en s is an Archida& s $ho can do %eo&etry. In 3lato0s Re! blic those $ho stri! the dead are co&!ared to c rs $hich bite the stones thro$n at the& b t do not to ch the thro$er' and there is the si&ile abo t the Athenian !eo!le' $ho are co&!ared to a shi!0s ca!tain $ho is stron% b t a little dea"( and the one abo t !oets0 *erses' $hich are likened to !ersons $ho lack bea ty b t !ossess yo th" l "reshness/$hen the "reshness has "aded the char& !erishes' and so $ith *erses $hen broken ! into !rose. 3ericles co&!ared the :a&ians to children $ho take their !a! b t %o on cryin%( and the Boeotians to hol&/oaks' beca se they $ere r inin% one another by ci*il $ars , st as one oak ca ses

another oak0s "all. #e&osthenes said that the Athenian !eo!le $ere like sea/sick &en on board shi!. A%ain' #e&osthenes co&!ared the !olitical orators to n rses $ho s$allo$ the bit o" "ood the&sel*es and then s&ear the children0s li!s $ith the s!ittle. Antisthenes co&!ared the lean Ce!hisodot s to "rankincense' beca se it $as his cons &!tion that %a*e one !leas re. All these ideas &ay be e)!ressed either as si&iles or as &eta!hors( those $hich s cceed as &eta!hors $ill ob*io sly do $ell also as si&iles' and si&iles' $ith the e)!lanation o&itted' $ill a!!ear as &eta!hors. B t the !ro!ortional &eta!hor & st al$ays a!!ly reci!rocally to either o" its co/ordinate ter&s. 1or instance' i" a drinkin%/bo$l is the shield o" #ionys s' a shield &ay "ittin%ly be called the drinkin%/bo$l o" Ares. 5 : ch' then' are the in%redients o" $hich s!eech is co&!osed. The "o ndation o" %ood style is correctness o" lan% a%e' $hich "alls nder "i*e heads. 415 1irst' the !ro!er se o" connectin% $ords' and the arran%e&ent o" the& in the nat ral se+ ence $hich so&e o" the& re+ ire. 1or instance' the connecti*e 0&en0 4e.%. e%o &en5 re+ ires the correlati*e de 4e.%. o de5. The ans$erin% $ord & st be bro %ht in be"ore the "irst has been "or%otten' and not be $idely se!arated "ro& it( nor' e)ce!t in the "e$ cases $here this is a!!ro!riate' is another connecti*e to be introd ced be"ore the one re+ ired. Consider the sentence' 0B t as soon as he told &e 4"or Cleon had co&e be%%in% and !rayin%5' took the& alon% and set o t.0 In this sentence &any connectin% $ords are inserted in "ront o" the one re+ ired to co&!lete the sense( and i" there is a lon% inter*al be"ore 0set o t0' the res lt is obsc rity. One &erit' then' o" %ood style lies in the ri%ht se o" connectin% $ords. 475 The second lies in callin% thin%s by their o$n s!ecial na&es and not by *a% e %eneral ones. 435 The third is to a*oid a&bi% ities( nless' indeed' yo de"initely desire to be a&bi% o s' as those do $ho ha*e nothin% to say b t are !retendin% to &ean so&ethin%. : ch !eo!le are a!t to ! t that sort o" thin% into *erse. E&!edocles' "or instance' by his lon% circ &loc tions i&!oses on his hearers( these are a""ected in the sa&e $ay as &ost !eo!le are $hen they listen to di*iners' $hose a&bi% o s tterances are recei*ed $ith nods o" ac+ iescence/ Croes s by crossin% the Halys $ill r in a &i%hty real&. #i*iners se these *a% e %eneralities abo t the &atter in hand beca se their !redictions are th s' as a r le' less likely to be "alsi"ied. We are &ore likely to be ri%ht' in the %a&e o" 0odd and e*en0' i" $e si&!ly % ess 0e*en0 or 0odd0 than i" $e % ess at the act al n &ber( and the oracle/&on%er is &ore likely to be ri%ht i" he si&!ly says that a thin% $ill ha!!en than i" he says $hen it $ill ha!!en' and there"ore he re" ses to add a de"inite date. All these a&bi% ities ha*e the sa&e sort o" e""ect' and are to be a*oided nless $e ha*e so&e s ch ob,ect as that &entioned. 485 A "o rth r le is to obser*e 3rota%oras0 classi"ication o" no ns into &ale' "e&ale' and inani&ate( "or these distinctions also & st be correctly %i*en. 0=!on her arri*al she said her say and de!arted 4e d eltho sa kai dialechtheisa ocheto5.0 455 A "i"th r le is to e)!ress !l rality' "e$ness' and nity by the correct $ordin%' e.%. 0Ha*in% co&e' they str ck &e 4oi d elthontes et !ton &e5.0 It is a %eneral r le that a $ritten co&!osition sho ld be easy to read and there"ore easy to deli*er. This cannot be so $here there are &any connectin% $ords or cla ses' or $here ! nct ation is hard' as in the $ritin%s o" Heracleit s. To ! nct ate Heracleit s is no easy task' beca se $e o"ten cannot tell $hether a !artic lar $ord belon%s to $hat !recedes or $hat "ollo$s it. Th s' at the o tset o" his treatise he says' 0Tho %h this tr th is al$ays &en nderstand it not0' $here it is not clear $ith $hich o" the t$o cla ses the $ord

0al$ays0 sho ld be ,oined by the ! nct ation. 1 rther' the "ollo$in% "act leads to solecis&' *i2. that the sentence does not $ork o t !ro!erly i" yo anne) to t$o ter&s a third $hich does not s it the& both. Th s either 0so nd0 or 0colo r0 $ill "ail to $ork o t !ro!erly $ith so&e *erbs. 0!ercei*e0 $ill a!!ly to both' 0see0 $ill not. Obsc rity is also ca sed i"' $hen yo intend to insert a n &ber o" details' yo do not "irst &ake yo r &eanin% clear( "or instance' i" yo say' 0I &eant' a"ter tellin% hi& this' that and the other thin%' to set o t0' rather than so&ethin% o" this kind 0I &eant to set o t a"ter tellin% hi&( then this' that' and the other thin% occ rred.0 < The "ollo$in% s %%estions $ill hel! to %i*e yo r lan% a%e i&!ressi*eness. 415 #escribe a thin% instead o" na&in% it. do not say 0circle0' b t 0that s r"ace $hich e)tends e+ ally "ro& the &iddle e*ery $ay0. To achie*e conciseness' do the o!!osite/! t the na&e instead o" the descri!tion. When &entionin% anythin% %ly or nsee&ly' se its na&e i" it is the descri!tion that is %ly' and describe it i" it is the na&e that is %ly. 475 Re!resent thin%s $ith the hel! o" &eta!hors and e!ithets' bein% care" l to a*oid !oetical e""ects. 435 =se !l ral "or sin% lar' as in !oetry' $here one "inds =nto ha*ens Achaean' tho %h only one ha*en is &eant' and Here are &y letter0s &any/lea*ed "olds. 485 #o not bracket t$o $ords nder one article' b t ! t one article $ith each( e.%. 0that $i"e o" o rs.0 The re*erse to sec re conciseness( e.%. 0o r $i"e.0 =se !lenty o" connectin% $ords( con*ersely' to sec re conciseness' dis!ense $ith connecti*es' $hile still !reser*in% conne)ion( e.%. 0ha*in% %one and s!oken0' and 0ha*in% %one' I s!oke0' res!ecti*ely. 4<5 And the !ractice o" Anti&ach s' too' is se" l/to describe a thin% by &entionin% attrib tes it does not !ossess( as he does in talkin% o" Te &ess s There is a little $ind/s$e!t knoll... A s b,ect can be de*elo!ed inde"initely alon% these lines. Ao &ay a!!ly this &ethod o" treat&ent by ne%ation either to %ood or to bad + alities' accordin% to $hich yo r s b,ect re+ ires. It is "ro& this so rce that the !oets dra$ e)!ressions s ch as the 0strin%less0 or 0lyreless0 &elody' th s "or&in% e!ithets o t o" ne%ations. This de*ice is !o! lar in !ro!ortional &eta!hors' as $hen the tr &!et0s note is called 0a lyreless &elody0. @ Ao r lan% a%e $ill be a!!ro!riate i" it e)!resses e&otion and character' and i" it corres!onds to its s b,ect. 0Corres!ondence to s b,ect0 &eans that $e & st neither s!eak cas ally abo t $ei%hty &atters' nor sole&nly abo t tri*ial ones( nor & st $e add orna&ental e!ithets to co&&on!lace no ns' or the e""ect $ill be co&ic' as in the $orks o" Cleo!hon' $ho can se !hrases as abs rd as 0O + eenly "i%/tree0. To e)!ress e&otion' yo $ill e&!loy the lan% a%e o" an%er in s!eakin% o" o tra%e( the lan% a%e o" dis% st and discreet rel ctance to tter a $ord $hen s!eakin% o" i&!iety or "o lness( the lan% a%e o" e) ltation "or a tale o" %lory' and that o" h &iliation "or a tale o" and so in all other cases. This a!tness o" lan% a%e is one thin% that &akes !eo!le belie*e in the tr th o" yo r story. their &inds dra$ the "alse concl sion that

yo are to be tr sted "ro& the "act that others beha*e as yo do $hen thin%s are as yo describe the&( and there"ore they take yo r story to be tr e' $hether it is so or not. Besides' an e&otional s!eaker al$ays &akes his a dience "eel $ith hi&' e*en $hen there is nothin% in his ar% &ents( $hich is $hy &any s!eakers try to o*er$hel& their a dience by &ere noise. 1 rther&ore' this $ay o" !ro*in% yo r story by dis!layin% these si%ns o" its %en ineness e)!resses yo r !ersonal character. Each class o" &en' each ty!e o" dis!osition' $ill ha*e its o$n a!!ro!riate $ay o" lettin% the tr th a!!ear. =nder 0class0 I incl de di""erences o" a%e' as boy' &an' or old &an( o" se)' as &an or $o&an( o" nationality' as :!artan or Thessalian. By 0dis!ositions0 I here &ean those dis!ositions only $hich deter&ine the character o" a &an0s "or it is not e*ery dis!osition that does this. I"' then' a s!eaker ses the *ery $ords $hich are in kee!in% $ith a !artic lar dis!osition' he $ill re!rod ce the corres!ondin% character( "or a r stic and an ed cated &an $ill not say the sa&e thin%s nor s!eak in the sa&e $ay. A%ain' so&e i&!ression is &ade !on an a dience by a de*ice $hich s!eech/$riters e&!loy to na seo s e)cess' $hen they say 0Who does not kno$ thisI0 or 0It is kno$n to e*erybody.0 The hearer is asha&ed o" his i%norance' and a%rees $ith the s!eaker' so as to ha*e a share o" the kno$led%e that e*erybody else !ossesses. All the *ariations o" oratorical style are ca!able o" bein% sed in season or o t o" season. The best $ay to co nteract any e)a%%eration is the $ell/$orn de*ice by $hich the s!eaker ! ts in so&e criticis& o" hi&sel"( "or then !eo!le "eel it & st be all ri%ht "or hi& to talk th s' since he certainly kno$s $hat he is doin%. 1 rther' it is better not to ha*e e*erythin% al$ays , st corres!ondin% to e*erythin% else/yo r hearers $ill see thro %h yo less easily th s. I &ean "or instance' i" yo r $ords are harsh' yo sho ld not e)tend this harshness to yo r *oice and yo r co ntenance and ha*e e*erythin% else in kee!in%. I" yo do' the arti"icial character o" each detail beco&es a!!arent( $hereas i" yo ado!t one de*ice and not another' yo are sin% art all the sa&e and yet nobody notices it. 4To be s re' i" &ild senti&ents are e)!ressed in harsh tones and harsh senti&ents in &ild tones' yo beco&e co&!arati*ely ncon*incin%.5 Co&!o nd $ords' "airly !lenti" l e!ithets' and stran%e $ords best s it an e&otional s!eech. We "or%i*e an an%ry &an "or talkin% abo t a $ron% as 0hea*en/hi%h0 or 0colossal0( and $e e)c se s ch lan% a%e $hen the s!eaker has his hearers already in his hands and has stirred the& dee!ly either by !raise or bla&e or an%er or a""ection' as Isocrates' "or instance' does at the end o" his 3ane%yric' $ith his 0na&e and "a&e0 and 0in that they brooked0. 6en do s!eak in this strain $hen they are dee!ly stirred' and so' once the a dience is in a like state o" "eelin%' a!!ro*al o" co rse "ollo$s. This is $hy s ch lan% a%e is "ittin% in !oetry' $hich is an ins!ired thin%. This lan% a%e' then' sho ld be sed either nder stress o" e&otion' or ironically' a"ter the &anner o" ;or%ias and o" the !assa%es in the 3haedr s. B The "or& o" a !rose co&!osition sho ld be neither &etrical nor destit te o" rhyth&. The &etrical "or& destroys the hearer0s tr st by its arti"icial a!!earance' and at the sa&e ti&e it di*erts his attention' &akin% hi& $atch "or &etrical rec rrences' , st as children catch ! the herald0s + estion' 0Who& does the "reed&an choose as his ad*ocateI0' $ith the ans$er 0CleonM0 On the other hand' nrhyth&ical lan% a%e is too nli&ited( $e do not $ant the li&itations o" &etre' b t so&e li&itation $e & st ha*e' or the e""ect $ill be *a% e and nsatis"actory. -o$ it is n &ber that li&its all thin%s( and it is the n &erical li&itation o" the "or&s o" a co&!osition that constit tes rhyth&' o" $hich &etres are de"inite sections. 3rose' then' is to be rhyth&ical' b t not &etrical' or it $ill beco&e not

!rose b t *erse. It sho ld not e*en ha*e too !recise a !rose rhyth&' and there"ore sho ld only be rhyth&ical to a certain e)tent. O" the *ario s rhyth&s' the heroic has di%nity' b t lacks the tones o" the s!oken lan% a%e. The ia&bic is the *ery lan% a%e o" ordinary !eo!le' so that in co&&on talk ia&bic lines occ r o"tener than any others. b t in a s!eech $e need di%nity and the !o$er o" takin% the hearer o t o" his ordinary sel". The trochee is too & ch akin to $ild dancin%. $e can see this in tetra&eter *erse' $hich is one o" the trochaic rhyth&s. There re&ains the !aean' $hich s!eakers be%an to se in the ti&e o" Thrasy&ach s' tho %h they had then no na&e to %i*e it. The !aean is a third class o" rhyth&' closely akin to both the t$o already &entioned( it has in it the ratio o" three to t$o' $hereas the other t$o kinds ha*e the ratio o" one to one' and t$o to one res!ecti*ely. Bet$een the t$o last ratios co&es the ratio o" one/and/a/hal" to one' $hich is that o" the !aean. -o$ the other t$o kinds o" rhyth& & st be re,ected in $ritin% !rose' !artly "or the reasons %i*en' and !artly beca se they are too &etrical( and the !aean & st be ado!ted' since "ro& this alone o" the rhyth&s &entioned no de"inite &etre arises' and there"ore it is the least obtr si*e o" the&. At !resent the sa&e "or& o" !aean is e&!loyed at the be%innin% a at the end o" sentences' $hereas the end sho ld di""er "ro& the be%innin%. There are t$o o!!osite kinds o" !aean' one o" $hich is s itable to the be%innin% o" a sentence' $here it is indeed act ally sed( this is the kind that be%ins $ith a lon% syllable and ends $ith three short ones' as #alo%enes N eite 9 ki N an' and Chr seoko& N a Ekate N !ai #ios. The other !aean be%ins' con*ersely' $ith three short syllables and ends $ith a lon% one' as &eta de lan N data t ok N eanon e N oanise n ).

This kind o" !aean &akes a real close. a short syllable can %i*e no e""ect o" "inality' and there"ore &akes the rhyth& a!!ear tr ncated. A sentence sho ld break o"" $ith the lon% syllable. the "act that it is o*er sho ld be indicated not by the scribe' or by his !eriod/&ark in the &ar%in' b t by the rhyth& itsel". We ha*e no$ seen that o r lan% a%e & st be rhyth&ical and not destit te o" rhyth&' and $hat rhyth&s' in $hat !artic lar sha!e' &ake it so. C The lan% a%e o" !rose & st be either "ree/r nnin%' $ith its !arts nited by nothin% e)ce!t the connectin% $ords' like the !rel des in dithyra&bs( or co&!act and antithetical' like the stro!hes o" the old !oets. The "ree/r nnin% style is the ancient one' e.%. 0Herein is set "orth the in+ iry o" Herodot s the Th rian.0 E*ery one sed this &ethod "or&erly( not &any do so no$. By 0"ree/r nnin%0 style I &ean the kind that has no nat ral sto!!in%/!laces' and co&es to a sto! only beca se there is no &ore to say o" that s b,ect. This style is nsatis"yin% , st beca se it %oes on inde"initely/one al$ays likes to si%ht a sto!!in%/!lace in "ront o" one. it is only at the %oal that &en in a race "aint and colla!se( $hile they see the end o" the co rse be"ore the&' they can kee! on %oin%. : ch' then' is the "ree/r nnin% kind o" style( the co&!act is that $hich is in !eriods. By a !eriod I &ean a !ortion o" s!eech that has in itsel" a be%innin% and an end' bein% at the sa&e ti&e not too bi% to be taken in at a %lance.

9an% a%e o" this kind is satis"yin% and easy to "ollo$. It is satis"yin%' beca se it is , st the re*erse o" inde"inite( and &oreo*er' the hearer al$ays "eels that he is %ras!in% so&ethin% and has reached so&e de"inite concl sion( $hereas it is nsatis"actory to see nothin% in "ront o" yo and %et no$here. It is easy to "ollo$' beca se it can easily be re&e&bered( and this beca se lan% a%e $hen in !eriodic "or& can be n &bered' and n &ber is the easiest o" all thin%s to re&e&ber. That is $hy *erse' $hich is &eas red' is al$ays &ore easily re&e&bered than !rose' $hich is not. the &eas res o" *erse can be n &bered. The !eriod & st' " rther' not be co&!leted ntil the sense is co&!lete. it & st not be ca!able o" breakin% o"" abr !tly' as &ay ha!!en $ith the "ollo$in% ia&bic lines o" :o!hocles/ Calydon0s soil is this( o" 3elo!s0 land 4The s&ilin% !lains "ace s across the strait.5 By a $ron% di*ision o" the $ords the hearer &ay take the &eanin% to be the re*erse o" $hat it is. "or instance' in the !assa%e + oted' one &i%ht i&a%ine that Calydon is in the 3elo!onnes s. A 3eriod &ay be either di*ided into se*eral &e&bers or si&!le. The !eriod o" se*eral &e&bers is a !ortion o" s!eech 415 co&!lete in itsel"' 475 di*ided into !arts' and 435 easily deli*ered at a sin%le breath/as a $hole' that is( not by "resh breath bein% taken at the di*ision. A &e&ber is one o" the t$o !arts o" s ch a !eriod. By a 0si&!le0 !eriod' I &ean that $hich has only one &e&ber. The &e&bers' and the $hole !eriods' sho ld be neither c rt nor lon%. A &e&ber $hich is too short o"ten &akes the listener st &ble( he is still e)!ectin% the rhyth& to %o on to the li&it his &ind has "i)ed "or it( and i" &ean$hile he is ! lled back by the s!eaker0s sto!!in%' the shock is bo nd to &ake hi&' so to s!eak' st &ble. I"' on the other hand' yo %o on too lon%' yo &ake hi& "eel le"t behind' , st as !eo!le $ho $hen $alkin% !ass beyond the bo ndary be"ore t rnin% back lea*e their co&!anions behind :o too i" a !eriod is too lon% yo t rn it into a s!eech' or so&ethin% like a dithyra&bic !rel de. The res lt is & ch like the !rel des that #e&ocrit s o" Chios ,eered at 6elani!!ides "or $ritin% instead o" antistro!hic stan2as/ He that sets tra!s "or another &an0s "eet Is like to "all into the& "irst( And lon%/$inded !rel des do har& to s all' B t the !rel der catches it $orst. Which a!!lies like$ise to lon%/&e&bered orators. 3eriods $hose &e&bers are alto%ether too short are not !eriods at all( and the res lt is to brin% the hearer do$n $ith a crash. The !eriodic style $hich is di*ided into &e&bers is o" t$o kinds. It is either si&!ly di*ided' as in 0I ha*e o"ten $ondered at the con*eners o" national %atherin%s and the "o nders o" athletic contests0( or it is antithetical' $here' in each o" the t$o &e&bers' one o" one !air o" o!!osites is ! t alon% $ith one o" another !air' or the sa&e $ord is sed to bracket t$o o!!osites' as 0They aided both !arties/not only those $ho stayed behind b t those $ho acco&!anied the&. "or the latter they ac+ ired ne$ territory lar%er than that at ho&e' and to the "or&er they le"t territory at ho&e that $as lar%e eno %h0. Here the contrasted $ords are 0stayin% behind0 and 0acco&!anyin%0' 0eno %h0 and 0lar%er0. :o in the e)a&!le' 0Both to those $ho $ant to %et !ro!erty and to those $ho desire to en,oy it0 $here 0en,oy&ent0 is contrasted $ith 0%ettin%0. A%ain' 0it o"ten ha!!ens in s ch enter!rises that the $ise &en "ail and the "ools s cceed0( 0they $ere a$arded the !ri2e o" *alo r i&&ediately' and $on the co&&and o" the sea not lon% a"ter$ards0( 0to sail thro %h the &ainland and &arch thro %h the sea' by brid%in% the Helles!ont and c ttin% thro %h Athos0( 0nat re %a*e the& their co ntry and la$ took it a$ay a%ain0( 0o" the& !erished in &isery' others $ere sa*ed in

dis%race0( 0Athenian citi2ens kee! "orei%ners in their ho ses as ser*ants' $hile the city o" Athens allo$s her allies by tho sands to li*e as the "orei%ner0s sla*es0( and 0to !ossess in li"e or to be+ eath at death0. There is also $hat so&e one said abo t 3eithola s and 9yco!hron in a la$/co rt' 0These &en sed to sell yo $hen they $ere at ho&e' and no$ they ha*e co&e to yo here and bo %ht yo 0. All these !assa%es ha*e the str ct re described abo*e. : ch a "or& o" s!eech is satis"yin%' beca se the si%ni"icance o" contrasted ideas is easily "elt' es!ecially $hen they are th s ! t side by side' and also beca se it has the e""ect o" a lo%ical ar% &ent( it is by ! ttin% t$o o!!osin% concl sions side by side that yo !ro*e one o" the& "alse. : ch' then' is the nat re o" antithesis. 3arisosis is &akin% the t$o &e&bers o" a !eriod e+ al in len%th. 3aro&oeosis is &akin% the e)tre&e $ords o" both &e&bers like each other. This & st ha!!en either at the be%innin% or at the end o" each &e&ber. I" at the be%innin%' the rese&blance & st al$ays be bet$een $hole $ords( at the end' bet$een "inal syllables or in"le)ions o" the sa&e $ord or the sa&e $ord re!eated. Th s' at the be%innin% a%ron %ar elaben arlon !ar0 a to and dorhetoi t e!elonto !ararretoi t e!eessin At the end o k $ethesan a ton !aidion tetokenai' all a to aitlon lelonenai' and en !leiotals de o!ontisi kai en elachistais el!isin An e)a&!le o" in"le)ions o" the sa&e $ord is a)ios de staoenai chalko s o k a)ios on chalko ( O" the sa&e $ord re!eated' s d0 a ton kai 2onta ele%es kakos kai n n %ra"eis kakos.

O" one syllable' ti d0 an e!aoes deinon' ei andrh0 eides arh%on( It is !ossible "or the sa&e sentence to ha*e all these "eat res to%ether/antithesis' !arison' and ho&oeotele ton. 4The !ossible be%innin%s o" !eriods ha*e been !retty " lly en &erated in the Theodectea.5 There are also s! rio s antitheses' like that o" E!ichar& s/ There one ti&e I as their % est did stay' And they $ere &y hosts on another day. 10 We &ay no$ consider the abo*e !oints settled' and !ass on to say so&ethin% abo t the $ay to de*ise li*ely and takin% sayin%s. Their act al in*ention can only co&e thro %h nat ral talent or lon% !ractice( b t this treatise &ay indicate the $ay it is done. We &ay deal $ith the& by en &eratin% the di""erent kinds o" the&. We $ill be%in by re&arkin% that $e all nat rally "ind it a%reeable to %et hold

o" ne$ ideas easily. $ords e)!ress ideas' and there"ore those $ords are the &ost a%reeable that enable s to %et hold o" ne$ ideas. -o$ stran%e $ords si&!ly ! 22le s( ordinary $ords con*ey only $hat $e kno$ already( it is "ro& &eta!hor that $e can best %et hold o" so&ethin% "resh. When the !oet calls 0old a%e a $ithered stalk0' he con*eys a ne$ idea' a ne$ "act' to s by &eans o" the %eneral notion o" bloo&' $hich is co&&on to both thin%s. The si&iles o" the !oets do the sa&e' and there"ore' i" they are %ood si&iles' %i*e an e""ect o" brilliance. The si&ile' as has been said be"ore' is a &eta!hor' di""erin% "ro& it only in the $ay it is ! t( and , st beca se it is lon%er it is less attracti*e. Besides' it does not say o tri%ht that 0this0 is 0that0' and there"ore the hearer is less interested in the idea. We see' then' that both s!eech and reasonin% are li*ely in !ro!ortion as they &ake s sei2e a ne$ idea !ro&!tly. 1or this reason !eo!le are not & ch taken either by ob*io s ar% &ents 4 sin% the $ord 0ob*io s0 to &ean $hat is !lain to e*erybody and needs no in*esti%ation5' nor by those $hich ! 22le s $hen $e hear the& stated' b t only by those $hich con*ey their in"or&ation to s as soon as $e hear the&' !ro*ided $e had not the in"or&ation already( or $hich the &ind only , st "ails to kee! ! $ith. These t$o kinds do con*ey to s a sort o" in"or&ation. b t the ob*io s and the obsc re kinds con*ey nothin%' either at once or later on. It is these + alities' then' that' so "ar as the &eanin% o" $hat is said is concerned' &ake an ar% &ent acce!table. :o "ar as the style is concerned' it is the antithetical "or& that a!!eals to s' e.%. 0, d%in% that the !eace co&&on to all the rest $as a $ar !on their o$n !ri*ate interests0' $here there is an antithesis bet$een $ar and !eace. It is also %ood to se &eta!horical $ords( b t the &eta!hors & st not be "ar/"etched' or they $ill be di""ic lt to %ras!' nor ob*io s' or they $ill ha*e no e""ect. The $ords' too' o %ht to set the scene be"ore o r eyes( "or e*ents o %ht to be seen in !ro%ress rather than in !ros!ect. :o $e & st ai& at these three !oints. Antithesis' 6eta!hor' and Act ality. O" the "o r kinds o" 6eta!hor the &ost takin% is the !ro!ortional kind. Th s 3ericles' "or instance' said that the *anishin% "ro& their co ntry o" the yo n% &en $ho had "allen in the $ar $as 0as i" the s!rin% $ere taken o t o" the year0. 9e!tines' s!eakin% o" the 9acedae&onians' said that he $o ld not ha*e the Athenians let ;reece 0lose one o" her t$o eyes0. When Chares $as !ressin% "or lea*e to be e)a&ined !on his share in the Olynthiac $ar' Ce!hisodot s $as indi%nant' sayin% that he $anted his e)a&ination to take !lace 0$hile he had his "in%ers !on the !eo!le0s throat0. The sa&e s!eaker once r%ed the Athenians to &arch to E boea' 0$ith 6iltiades0 decree as their rations0. I!hicrates' indi%nant at the tr ce &ade by the Athenians $ith E!ida r s and the nei%hbo rin% sea/board' said that they had stri!!ed the&sel*es o" their tra*ellin% &oney "or the ,o rney o" $ar. 3eithola s called the state/%alley 0the !eo!le0s bi% stick0' and :estos 0the corn/bin o" the 3eirae s0. 3ericles bade his co ntry&en re&o*e Ae%ina' 0that eyesore o" the 3eirae s.0 And 6oerocles said he $as no &ore a rascal than $as a certain res!ectable citi2en he na&ed' 0$hose rascality $as $orth o*er thirty !er cent !er ann & to hi&' instead o" a &ere ten like his o$n0.There is also the ia&bic line o" Ana)andrides abo t the $ay his da %hters ! t o"" &arryin%/ 6y da %hters0 &arria%e/bonds are o*erd e. 3olye ct s said o" a !aralytic &an na&ed :!e si!! s that he co ld not kee! + iet' 0tho %h "ort ne had "astened hi& in the !illory o" disease0. Ce!hisodot s called $arshi!s 0!ainted &illstones0. #io%enes the #o% called ta*erns 0the &ess/roo&s o" Attica0. Aesion said that the Athenians had 0e&!tied0 their to$n into :icily. this is a %ra!hic &eta!hor. 0Till all Hellas sho ted alo d0 &ay be re%arded as a &eta!hor' and a %ra!hic one a%ain. Ce!hisodot s bade the Athenians take care not to hold too &any 0!arades0. Isocrates sed the

sa&e $ord o" those $ho 0!arade at the national "esti*als.0 Another e)a&!le occ rs in the 1 neral :!eech. 0It is "ittin% that ;reece sho ld c t o"" her hair beside the to&b o" those $ho "ell at :ala&is' since her "reedo& and their *alo r are b ried in the sa&e %ra*e.0 E*en i" the s!eaker here had only said that it $as ri%ht to $ee! $hen *alo r $as bein% b ried in their %ra*e' it $o ld ha*e been a &eta!hor' and a %ra!hic one( b t the co !lin% o" 0their *alo r0 and 0her "reedo&0 !resents a kind o" antithesis as $ell. 0The co rse o" &y $ords0' said I!hicrates' 0lies strai%ht thro %h the &iddle o" Chares0 deeds0. this is a !ro!ortional &eta!hor' and the !hrase 0strai%ht thro %h the &iddle0 &akes it %ra!hic. The e)!ression 0to call in one dan%er to resc e s "ro& another0 is a %ra!hic &eta!hor. 9ycoleon said' de"endin% Chabrias' 0They did not res!ect e*en that bron2e stat e o" his that intercedes "or hi& yonder0.This $as a &eta!hor "or the &o&ent' tho %h it $o ld not al$ays a!!ly( a *i*id &eta!hor' ho$e*er( Chabrias is in dan%er' and his stat e intercedes "or hi&/that li"eless yet li*in% thin% $hich records his ser*ices to his co ntry. 03ractisin% in e*ery $ay littleness o" &ind0 is &eta!horical' "or !ractisin% a + ality i&!lies increasin% it. :o is 0;od kindled o r reason to be a la&! $ithin o r so l0' "or both reason and li%ht re*eal thin%s. :o is 0$e are not ! ttin% an end to o r $ars' b t only !ost!onin% the&0' "or both literal !ost!one&ent and the &akin% o" s ch a !eace as this a!!ly to " t re action. :o is s ch a sayin% as 0This treaty is a "ar nobler tro!hy than those $e set ! on "ields o" battle( they celebrate s&all %ains and sin%le s ccesses( it celebrates o r tri &!h in the $ar as a $hole0( "or both tro!hy and treaty are si%ns o" *ictory. :o is 0A co ntry !ays a hea*y reckonin% in bein% conde&ned by the , d%e&ent o" &ankind0' "or a reckonin% is da&a%e deser*edly inc rred. 11 It has already been &entioned that li*eliness is %ot by sin% the !ro!ortional ty!e o" &eta!hor and bein% &akin% 4ie. &akin% yo r hearers see thin%s5. We ha*e still to e)!lain $hat $e &ean by their 0seein% thin%s0' and $hat & st be done to e""ect this. By 0&akin% the& see thin%s0 I &ean sin% e)!ressions that re!resent thin%s as in a state o" acti*ity. Th s' to say that a %ood &an is 0"o r/s+ are0 is certainly a &eta!hor( both the %ood &an and the s+ are are !er"ect( b t the &eta!hor does not s %%est acti*ity. On the other hand' in the e)!ression 0$ith his *i%o r in " ll bloo&0 there is a notion o" acti*ity( and so in 0B t yo & st roa& as "ree as a sacred *icti&0( and in Thereas ! s!ran% the Hellenes to their "eet'

$here 0 ! s!ran%0 %i*es s acti*ity as $ell as &eta!hor' "or it at once s %%ests s$i"tness. :o $ith Ho&er0s co&&on !ractice o" %i*in% &eta!horical li"e to li"eless thin%s. all s ch !assa%es are distin% ished by the e""ect o" acti*ity they con*ey. Th s' #o$n$ard anon to the *alley rebo nded the bo lder re&orseless( and The 4bitter5 arro$ "le$( and and 1lyin% on ea%erly(

:t ck in the earth' still !antin% to "eed on the "lesh o" the heroes( and

And the !oint o" the s!ear in its " ry dro*e " ll thro %h his breastbone. In all these e)a&!les the thin%s ha*e the e""ect o" bein% acti*e beca se they are &ade into li*in% bein%s( sha&eless beha*io r and " ry and so on are all "or&s o" acti*ity. And the !oet has attached these ideas to the thin%s by &eans o" !ro!ortional &eta!hors. as the stone is to :isy!h s' so is the sha&eless &an to his *icti&. In his "a&o s si&iles' too' he treats inani&ate thin%s in the sa&e $ay. C r*in% and crested $ith $hite' host "ollo$in% host $itho t ceasin%. Here he re!resents e*erythin% as &o*in% and li*in%( and acti*ity is &o*e&ent. 6eta!hors & st be dra$n' as has been said already' "ro& thin%s that are related to the ori%inal thin%' and yet not ob*io sly so related/, st as in !hiloso!hy also an ac te &ind $ill !ercei*e rese&blances e*en in thin%s "ar a!art. Th s Archytas said that an arbitrator and an altar $ere the sa&e' since the in, red "ly to both "or re" %e. Or yo &i%ht say that an anchor and an o*erhead hook $ere the sa&e' since both are in a $ay the sa&e' only the one sec res thin%s "ro& belo$ and the other "ro& abo*e. And to s!eak o" states as 0le*elled0 is to identi"y t$o $idely di""erent thin%s' the e+ ality o" a !hysical s r"ace and the e+ ality o" !olitical !o$ers. 9i*eliness is s!ecially con*eyed by &eta!hor' and by the " rther !o$er o" s r!risin% the hearer( beca se the hearer e)!ected so&ethin% di""erent' his ac+ isition o" the ne$ idea i&!resses hi& all the &ore. His &ind see&s to say' 0Aes' to be s re( I ne*er tho %ht o" that0. The li*eliness o" e!i%ra&&atic re&arks is d e to the &eanin% not bein% , st $hat the $ords say. as in the sayin% o" :tesichor s that 0the cicalas $ill chir! to the&sel*es on the %ro nd0. Well/constr cted riddles are attracti*e "or the sa&e reason( a ne$ idea is con*eyed' and there is &eta!horical e)!ression. :o $ith the 0no*elties0 o" Theodor s. In these the tho %ht is startlin%' and' as Theodor s ! ts it' does not "it in $ith the ideas yo already ha*e. They are like the b rles+ e $ords that one "inds in the co&ic $riters. The e""ect is !rod ced e*en by ,okes de!endin% !on chan%es o" the letters o" a $ord( this too is a s r!rise. Ao "ind this in *erse as $ell as in !rose. The $ord $hich co&es is not $hat the hearer i&a%ined. th s On$ard he ca&e' and his "eet $ere shod $ith his/chilblains' $here one i&a%ined the $ord $o ld be 0sandals0. B t the !oint sho ld be clear the &o&ent the $ords are ttered. Eokes &ade by alterin% the letters o" a $ord consist in &eanin%' not , st $hat yo say' b t so&ethin% that %i*es a t$ist to the $ord sed( e.%. the re&ark o" Theodor s abo t -icon the har!ist Thratt0 ei s 40yo Thracian sla*ey05' $here he !retends to &ean Thratteis s 40yo har!!layer05' and s r!rises s $hen $e "ind he &eans so&ethin% else. :o yo en,oy the !oint $hen yo see it' tho %h the re&ark $ill "all "lat nless yo are a$are that -icon is Thracian. Or a%ain. Bo lei a ton !ersai. In both these cases the sayin% & st "it the "acts. This is also tr e o" s ch li*ely re&arks as the one to the e""ect that to the Athenians their e&!ire 4arche5 o" the sea $as not the be%innin% 4arche5 o" their tro bles' since they %ained by it. Or the o!!osite one o" Isocrates' that their e&!ire 4arche5 $as the be%innin% 4arche5 o" their tro bles. Either $ay' the s!eaker says so&ethin% ne)!ected' the so ndness o" $hich is there !on reco%ni2ed. There $o ld be nothin% cle*er is sayin% 0e&!ire is e&!ire0. Isocrates &eans &ore than that' and ses the $ord $ith a ne$ &eanin%. :o too $ith the "or&er sayin%' $hich denies that arche in one sense $as arche in another sense. In all these

,okes' $hether a $ord is sed in a second sense or &eta!horically' the ,oke is %ood i" it "its the "acts. 1or instance' Anaschetos 4!ro!er na&e5 o k anaschetos. $here yo say that $hat is so/and/so in one sense is not so/and/so in another( $ell' i" the &an is n!leasant' the ,oke "its the "acts. A%ain' take/ Tho & st not be a stran%er stran%er than Tho sho ld0st.

#o not the $ords 0tho & st not be0' Jc.' a&o nt to sayin% that the stran%er & st not al$ays be stran%eI Here a%ain is the se o" one $ord in di""erent senses. O" the sa&e kind also is the & ch/!raised *erse o" Ana)andrides. #eath is &ost "it be"ore yo do #eeds that $o ld &ake death "it "or yo . This a&o nts to sayin% 0it is a "it thin% to die $hen yo are not "it to die0' or 0it is a "it thin% to die $hen death is not "it "or yo 0' i.e. $hen death is not the "it ret rn "or $hat yo are doin%. The ty!e o" lan% a%e e&!loyed/is the sa&e in all these e)a&!les( b t the &ore brie"ly and antithetically s ch sayin%s can be e)!ressed' the &ore takin% they are' "or antithesis i&!resses the ne$ idea &ore "ir&ly and bre*ity &ore + ickly. They sho ld al$ays ha*e either so&e !ersonal a!!lication or so&e &erit o" e)!ression' i" they are to be tr e $itho t bein% co&&on!lace/t$o re+ ire&ents not al$ays satis"ied si& ltaneo sly. Th s 0a &an sho ld die ha*in% done no $ron%0 is tr e b t d ll. 0the ri%ht &an sho ld &arry the ri%ht $o&an0 is also tr e b t d ll. -o' there & st be both %ood + alities to%ether' as in 0it is "ittin% to die $hen yo are not "it "or death0. The &ore a sayin% has these + alitis' the li*elier it a!!ears. i"' "or instance' its $ordin% is &eta!horical' &eta!horical in the ri%ht $ay' antithetical' and balanced' and at the sa&e ti&e it %i*es an idea o" acti*ity. : ccess" l si&iles also' as has been said abo*e' are in a sense &eta!hors' since they al$ays in*ol*e t$o relations like the !ro!ortional &eta!hor. Th s. a shield' $e say' is the 0drinkin%/bo$l o" Ares0' and a bo$ is the 0chordless lyre0. This $ay o" ! ttin% a &eta!hor is not 0si&!le0' as it $o ld be i" $e called the bo$ a lyre or the shield a drinkin%/bo$l. There are 0si&!le0 si&iles also. $e &ay say that a "l te/!layer is like a &onkey' or that a short/si%hted &an0s eyes are like a la&!/"la&e $ith $ater dro!!in% on it' since both eyes and "la&e kee! $inkin%. A si&ile s cceeds best $hen it is a con*erted &eta!hor' "or it is !ossible to say that a shield is like the drinkin%/bo$l o" Ares' or that a r in is like a ho se in ra%s' and to say that -icerat s is like a 3hiloctetes st n% by 3ratys/the si&ile &ade by Thrasyniach s $hen he sa$ -icerat s' $ho had been beaten by 3ratys in a recitation co&!etition' still %oin% abo t nke&!t and n$ashed. It is in these res!ects that !oets "ail $orst $hen they "ail' and s cceed best $hen they s cceed' i.e. $hen they %i*e the rese&blance !at' as in Those le%s o" his c rl , st like !arsley lea*es( and E st like 3hila&&on str %%lin% $ith his ! nchball. These are all si&iles( and that si&iles are &eta!hors has been stated o"ten already. 3ro*erbs' a%ain' are &eta!hors "ro& one s!ecies to another. : !!ose' "or instance' a &an to start so&e ndertakin% in ho!e o" %ain and then to lose by it later on' 0Here $e ha*e once &ore the &an o" Car!ath s and his hare0' says he. 1or both alike $ent thro %h the said e)!erience. It has no$ been e)!lained "airly co&!letely ho$ li*eliness is

sec red and $hy it has the e""ect it has. : ccess" l hy!erboles are also &eta!hors' e.%. the one abo t the &an $ith a black eye' 0yo $o ld ha*e tho %ht he $as a basket o" & lberries0( here the 0black eye0 is co&!ared to a & lberry beca se o" its colo r' the e)a%%eration lyin% in the + antity o" & lberries s %%ested. The !hrase 0like so/and/so0 &ay introd ce a hy!erbole nder the "or& o" a si&ile. Th s E st like 3hila&&on str %%lin% $ith his ! nchball is e+ i*alent to 0yo $o ld ha*e tho %ht he $as 3hila&&on str %%lin% $ith his ! nchball0( and Those le%s o" his c rl , st like !arsley lea*es is e+ i*alent to 0his le%s are so c rly that yo $o ld ha*e tho %ht they $ere not le%s b t !arsley lea*es0. Hy!erboles are "or yo n% &en to se( they sho$ *ehe&ence o" character( and this is $hy an%ry !eo!le se the& &ore than other !eo!le. -ot tho %h he %a*e &e as & ch as the d st or the sands o" the sea... B t her' the da %hter o" Atre s0 son' I ne*er $ill &arry' -ay' not tho %h she $ere "airer than A!hrodite the ;olden' #e"ter o" hand than Athene... 4The Attic orators are !artic larly "ond o" this &ethod o" s!eech.5 Conse+ ently it does not s it an elderly s!eaker. 17 It sho ld be obser*ed that each kind o" rhetoric has its o$n a!!ro!riate style. The style o" $ritten !rose is not that o" s!oken oratory' nor are those o" !olitical and "orensic s!eakin% the sa&e. Both $ritten and s!oken ha*e to be kno$n. To kno$ the latter is to kno$ ho$ to s!eak %ood ;reek. To kno$ the "or&er &eans that yo are not obli%ed' as other$ise yo are' to hold yo r ton% e $hen yo $ish to co&& nicate so&ethin% to the %eneral ! blic. The $ritten style is the &ore "inished. the s!oken better ad&its o" dra&atic deli*ery/like the kind o" oratory that re"lects character and the kind that re"lects e&otion. Hence actors look o t "or !lays $ritten in the latter style' and !oets "or actors co&!etent to act in s ch !lays. Aet !oets $hose !lays are &eant to be read are read and circ lated. Chaere&on' "or instance' $ho is as "inished as a !ro"essional s!eech/$riter( and 9icy&ni s a&on% the dithyra&bic !oets. Co&!ared $ith those o" others' the s!eeches o" !ro"essional $riters so nd thin in act al contests. Those o" the orators' on the other hand' are %ood to hear s!oken' b t look a&ate rish eno %h $hen they !ass into the hands o" a reader. This is , st beca se they are so $ell s ited "or an act al t ssle' and there"ore contain &any dra&atic to ches' $hich' bein% robbed o" all dra&atic renderin%' "ail to do their o$n !ro!er $ork' and conse+ ently look silly. Th s strin%s o" nconnected $ords' and constant re!etitions o" $ords and !hrases' are *ery !ro!erly conde&ned in $ritten s!eeches. b t not in s!oken s!eeches/s!eakers se the& "reely' "or they ha*e a dra&atic e""ect. In this re!etition there & st be *ariety o" tone' !a*in% the $ay' as it $ere' to dra&atic e""ect( e.%. 0This is the *illain a&on% yo $ho decei*ed yo ' $ho cheated yo ' $ho &eant to betray yo co&!letely0. This is the sort o" thin% that 3hile&on the actor sed to do in the Old 6en0s 6adness o" Ana)andrides $hene*er he s!oke the $ords 0Rhada&anth s and 3ala&edes0' and also in the !rolo% e to the :aints $hene*er he !rono nced the !rono n 0I0. I" one does not deli*er s ch thin%s cle*erly' it beco&es a case o" 0the &an $ho s$allo$ed a !oker0. :o too $ith strin%s o" nconnected $ords' e.%.0I ca&e to hi&( I &et hi&( I beso %ht hi&0. : ch !assa%es

& st be acted' not deli*ered $ith the sa&e + ality and !itch o" *oice' as tho %h they had only one idea in the&. They ha*e the " rther !ec liarity o" s %%estin% that a n &ber o" se!arate state&ents ha*e been &ade in the ti&e s ally occ !ied by one. E st as the se o" con, nctions &akes &any state&ents into a sin%le one' so the o&ission o" con, nctions acts in the re*erse $ay and &akes a sin%le one into &any. It th s &akes e*erythin% &ore i&!ortant. e.%. 0I ca&e to hi&( I talked to hi&( I entreated hi&0/$hat a lot o" "actsM the hearer thinks/0he !aid no attention to anythin% I said0. This is the e""ect $hich Ho&er seeks $hen he $rites' -ire s like$ise "ro& :y&e 4three $ell/"ashioned shi!s did brin%5' -ire s' the son o" A%laia 4and Charo! s' bri%ht/"aced kin%5' -ire s' the co&eliest &an 4o" all that to Ili &0s strand5. I" &any thin%s are said abo t a &an' his na&e & st be &entioned &any ti&es( and there"ore !eo!le think that' i" his na&e is &entioned &any ti&es' &any thin%s ha*e been said abo t hi&. :o that Ho&er' by &eans o" this ill sion' has &ade a %reat deal o" tho %h he has &entioned hi& only in this one !assa%e' and has !reser*ed his &e&ory' tho %h he no$here says a $ord abo t hi& a"ter$ards. -o$ the style o" oratory addressed to ! blic asse&blies is really , st like scene/!aintin%. The bi%%er the thron%' the &ore distant is the !oint o" *ie$. so that' in the one and the other' hi%h "inish in detail is s !er"l o s and see&s better a$ay. The "orensic style is &ore hi%hly "inished( still &ore so is the style o" lan% a%e addressed to a sin%le , d%e' $ith $ho& there is *ery little roo& "or rhetorical arti"ices' since he can take the $hole thin% in better' and , d%e o" $hat is to the !oint and $hat is not( the str %%le is less intense and so the , d%e&ent is ndist rbed. This is $hy the sa&e s!eakers do not distin% ish the&sel*es in all these branches at once( hi%h "inish is $anted least $here dra&atic deli*ery is $anted &ost' and here the s!eaker & st ha*e a %ood *oice' and abo*e all' a stron% one. It is cere&onial oratory that is &ost literary' "or it is &eant to be read( and ne)t to it "orensic oratory. To analyse style still " rther' and add that it & st be a%reeable or &a%ni"icent' is seless( "or $hy sho ld it ha*e these traits any &ore than 0restraint0' 0liberality0' or any other &oral e)cellenceI Ob*io sly a%reeableness $ill be !rod ced by the + alities already &entioned' i" o r de"inition o" e)cellence o" style has been correct. 1or $hat other reason sho ld style be 0clear0' and 0not &ean0 b t 0a!!ro!riate0I I" it is !roli)' it is not clear( nor yet i" it is c rt. 3lainly the &iddle $ay s its best. A%ain' style $ill be &ade a%reeable by the ele&ents &entioned' na&ely by a %ood blendin% o" ordinary and n s al $ords' by the rhyth&' and by/the !ers asi*eness that s!rin%s "ro& a!!ro!riateness. This concl des o r disc ssion o" style' both in its %eneral as!ects and in its s!ecial a!!lications to the *ario s branches o" rhetoric. We ha*e no$ to deal $ith Arran%e&ent. 13 A s!eech has t$o !arts. Ao & st state yo r case' and yo & st !ro*e it. Ao cannot either state yo r case and o&it to !ro*e it' or !ro*e it $itho t ha*in% "irst stated it( since any !roo" & st be a !roo" o" so&ethin%' and the only se o" a !reli&inary state&ent is the !roo" that "ollo$s it. O" these t$o !arts the "irst !art is called the :tate&ent o" the case' the second !art the Ar% &ent' , st as $e distin% ish bet$een En nciation and #e&onstration. The c rrent di*ision is abs rd. 1or 0narration0 s rely is !art o" a "orensic s!eech only. ho$ in a !olitical s!eech or a s!eech o" dis!lay can there be 0narration0 in the technical senseI or a re!ly to a "orensic o!!onentI or an e!ilo% e in closely/reasoned s!eechesI A%ain' introd ction' co&!arison o" con"lictin% ar% &ents' and

reca!it lation are only "o nd in !olitical s!eeches $hen there is a str %%le bet$een t$o !olicies. They &ay occ r then( so &ay e*en acc sation and de"ence' o"ten eno %h( b t they "or& no essential !art o" a !olitical s!eech. E*en "orensic s!eeches do not al$ays need e!ilo% es( not' "or instance' a short s!eech' nor one in $hich the "acts are easy to re&e&ber' the e""ect o" an e!ilo% e bein% al$ays a red ction in the a!!arent len%th. It "ollo$s' then' that the only necessary !arts o" a s!eech are the :tate&ent and the Ar% &ent. These are the essential "eat res o" a s!eech( and it cannot in any case ha*e &ore than Introd ction' :tate&ent' Ar% &ent' and E!ilo% e. 0Re" tation o" the O!!onent0 is !art o" the ar% &ents. so is 0Co&!arison0 o" the o!!onent0s case $ith yo r o$n' "or that !rocess is a &a%ni"yin% o" yo r o$n case and there"ore a !art o" the ar% &ents' since one $ho does this !ro*es so&ethin%. The Introd ction does nothin% like this( nor does the E!ilo% e/it &erely re&inds s o" $hat has been said already. I" $e &ake s ch distinctions $e shall end' like Theodor s and his "ollo$ers' by distin% ishin% 0narration0 !ro!er "ro& 0!ost/narration0 and 0!re/narration0' and 0re" tation0 "ro& 0"inal re" tation0. B t $e o %ht only to brin% in a ne$ na&e i" it indicates a real s!ecies $ith distinct s!eci"ic + alities( other$ise the !ractice is !ointless and silly' like the $ay 9icy&ni s in*ented na&es in his Art o" Rhetoric/0:ec ndation0' 0#i*a%ation0' 0Ra&i"ication0. 18 The Introd ction is the be%innin% o" a s!eech' corres!ondin% to the !rolo% e in !oetry and the !rel de in "l te/& sic( they are all be%innin%s' !a*in% the $ay' as it $ere' "or $hat is to "ollo$. The & sical !rel de rese&bles the introd ction to s!eeches o" dis!lay( as "l te !layers !lay "irst so&e brilliant !assa%e they kno$ $ell and then "it it on to the o!enin% notes o" the !iece itsel"' so in s!eeches o" dis!lay the $riter sho ld !roceed in the sa&e $ay( he sho ld be%in $ith $hat best takes his "ancy' and then strike ! his the&e and lead into it( $hich is indeed $hat is al$ays done. 4Take as an e)a&!le the introd ction to the Helen o" Isocrates/there is nothin% in co&&on bet$een the 0eristics0 and Helen.5 And here' e*en i" yo tra*el "ar "ro& yo r s b,ect' it is "ittin%' rather than that there sho ld be sa&eness in the entire s!eech. The s al s b,ect "or the introd ctions to s!eeches o" dis!lay is so&e !iece o" !raise or cens re. Th s ;or%ias $rites in his Oly&!ic :!eech' 0Ao deser*e $ides!read ad&iration' &en o" ;reece0' !raisin% th s those $ho start'ed the "esti*al %atherin%s.0 Isocrates' on the other hand' cens res the& "or a$ardin% distinctions to "ine athletes b t %i*in% no !ri2e "or intellect al ability. Or one &ay be%in $ith a !iece o" ad*ice' th s. 0We o %ht to hono r %ood &en and so I &ysel" a& !raisin% Aristeides0 or 0We o %ht to hono r those $ho are n!o! lar b t not bad &en' &en $hose %ood + alities ha*e ne*er been noticed' like Ale)ander son o" 3ria&.0 Here the orator %i*es ad*ice. Or $e &ay be%in as s!eakers do in the la$/co rts( that is to say' $ith a!!eals to the a dience to e)c se s i" o r s!eech is abo t so&ethin% !arado)ical' di""ic lt' or hackneyed( like Choeril s in the lines/ B t no$ $hen allot&ent o" all has been &ade... Introd ctions to s!eeches o" dis!lay' then' &ay be co&!osed o" so&e !iece o" !raise or cens re' o" ad*ice to do or not to do so&ethin%' or o" a!!eals to the a dience( and yo & st choose bet$een &akin% these !reli&inary !assa%es connected or disconnected $ith the s!eech itsel". Introd ctions to "orensic s!eeches' it & st be obser*ed' ha*e the sa&e *al e as the !rolo% es o" dra&as and the introd ctions to e!ic !oe&s( the dithyra&bic !rel de rese&blin% the introd ction to a s!eech

o" dis!lay' as 1or thee' and thy %ilts' and thy battle/s!oils.... In !rolo% es' and in e!ic !oetry' a "oretaste o" the the&e is %i*en' intended to in"or& the hearers o" it in ad*ance instead o" kee!in% their &inds in s s!ense. Anythin% *a% e ! 22les the&. so %i*e the& a %ras! o" the be%innin%' and they can hold "ast to it and "ollo$ the ar% &ent. :o $e "ind/ :in%' O %oddess o" son%' o" the Wrath... Tell &e' O 6 se' o" the hero... 9ead &e to tell a ne$ tale' ho$ there ca&e %reat $ar"are to E ro!e O t o" the Asian land... The tra%ic !oets' too' let s kno$ the !i*ot o" their !lay( i" not at the o tset like E ri!ides' at least so&e$here in the !re"ace to a s!eech like :o!hocles/ 3olyb s $as &y "ather...( and so in Co&edy. This' then' is the &ost essential " nction and distincti*e !ro!erty o" the introd ction' to sho$ $hat the ai& o" the s!eech is( and there"ore no introd ction o %ht to be e&!loyed $here the s b,ect is not lon% or intricate. The other kinds o" introd ction e&!loyed are re&edial in ! r!ose' and &ay be sed in any ty!e o" s!eech. They are concerned $ith the s!eaker' the hearer' the s b,ect' or the s!eaker0s o!!onent. Those concerned $ith the s!eaker hi&sel" or $ith his o!!onent are directed to re&o*in% or e)citin% !re, dice. B t $hereas the de"endant $ill be%in by dealin% $ith this sort o" thin%' the !rosec tor $ill take + ite another line and deal $ith s ch &atters in the closin% !art o" his s!eech. The reason "or this is not "ar to seek. The de"endant' $hen he is %oin% to brin% hi&sel" on the sta%e' & st clear a$ay any obstacles' and there"ore & st be%in by re&o*in% any !re, dice "elt a%ainst hi&. B t i" yo are to e)cite !re, dice' yo & st do so at the close' so that the , d%es &ay &ore easily re&e&ber $hat yo ha*e said. The a!!eal to the hearer ai&s at sec rin% his %ood$ill' or at aro sin% his resent&ent' or so&eti&es at %ainin% his serio s attention to the case' or e*en at distractin% it/"or %ainin% it is not al$ays an ad*anta%e' and s!eakers $ill o"ten "or that reason try to &ake hi& la %h. Ao &ay se any &eans yo choose to &ake yo r hearer rece!ti*e( a&on% others' %i*in% hi& a %ood i&!ression o" yo r character' $hich al$ays hel!s to sec re his attention. He $ill be ready to attend to anythin% that to ches hi&sel" and to anythin% that is i&!ortant' s r!risin%' or a%reeable( and yo sho ld accordin%ly con*ey to hi& the i&!ression that $hat yo ha*e to say is o" this nat re. I" yo $ish to distract his attention' yo sho ld i&!ly that the s b,ect does not a""ect hi&' or is tri*ial or disa%reeable. B t obser*e' all this has nothin% to do $ith the s!eech itsel". It &erely has to do $ith the $eak/&inded tendency o" the hearer to listen to $hat is beside the !oint. Where this tendency is absent' no introd ction $anted beyond a s &&ary state&ent o" yo r s b,ect' to ! t a sort o" head on the &ain body o" yo r s!eech. 6oreo*er' calls "or attention' $hen re+ ired' &ay co&e e+ ally $ell in any !art o" a s!eech( in "act' the be%innin% o" it is , st $here there is least slackness o" interest( it is there"ore ridic lo s to ! t this kind o" thin% at the be%innin%' $hen e*ery one is listenin% $ith &ost attention. Choose there"ore any !oint in the s!eech $here s ch an a!!eal is needed' and then say 0-o$ I be% yo to note this !oint/it concerns yo + ite as & ch as &ysel"0( or I $ill tell yo that $hose like yo ha*e ne*er yet

heard "or terror' or "or $onder. This is $hat 3rodic s called 0sli!!in% in a bit o" the "i"ty/drach&a sho$/lect re "or the a dience $hene*er they be%an to nod0. It is !lain that s ch introd ctions are addressed not to ideal hearers' b t to hearers as $e "ind the&. The se o" introd ctions to e)cite !re, dice or to dis!el &is%i*in%s is ni*ersal/ 6y lord' I $ill not say that ea%erly... or Why all this !re"aceI Introd ctions are !o! lar $ith those $hose case is $eak' or looks $eak( it !ays the& to d$ell on anythin% rather than the act al "acts o" it. That is $hy sla*es' instead o" ans$erin% the + estions ! t to the&' &ake indirect re!lies $ith lon% !rea&bles. The &eans o" e)citin% in yo r hearers %ood$ill and *ario s other "eelin%s o" the sa&e kind ha*e already been described. The !oet "inely says 6ay I "ind in 3haeacian hearts' at &y co&in%' %ood$ill and co&!assion( and these are the t$o thin%s $e sho ld ai& at. In s!eeches o" dis!lay $e & st &ake the hearer "eel that the e lo%y incl des either hi&sel" or his "a&ily or his $ay o" li"e or so&ethin% or other o" the kind. 1or it is tr e' as :ocrates says in the 1 neral :!eech' that 0the di""ic lty is not to !raise the Athenians at Athens b t at :!arta0. The introd ctions o" !olitical oratory $ill be &ade o t o" the sa&e &aterials as those o" the "orensic kind' tho %h the nat re o" !olitical oratory &akes the& *ery rare. The s b,ect is kno$n already' and there"ore the "acts o" the case need no introd ction( b t yo &ay ha*e to say so&ethin% on acco nt o" yo rsel" or to yo r o!!onents( or those !resent &ay be inclined to treat the &atter either &ore or less serio sly than yo $ish the& to. Ao &ay accordin%ly ha*e to e)cite or dis!el so&e !re, dice' or to &ake the &atter nder disc ssion see& &ore or less i&!ortant than be"ore. "or either o" $hich ! r!oses yo $ill $ant an introd ction. Ao &ay also $ant one to add ele%ance to yo r re&arks' "eelin% that other$ise they $ill ha*e a cas al air' like ;or%ias0 e lo%y o" the Eleans' in $hich' $itho t any !reli&inary s!arrin% or "encin%' he be%ins strai%ht o"" $ith 0Ha!!y city o" ElisM0 15 In dealin% $ith !re, dice' one class o" ar% &ent is that $hereby yo can dis!el ob,ectionable s !!ositions abo t yo rsel". It &akes no !ractical di""erence $hether s ch a s !!osition has been ! t into $ords or not' so that this distinction &ay be i%nored. Another $ay is to &eet any o" the iss es directly. to deny the alle%ed "act( or to say that yo ha*e done no har&' or none to hi&' or not as & ch as he says( or that yo ha*e done hi& no in, stice' or not & ch( or that yo ha*e done nothin% dis%race" l' or nothin% dis%race" l eno %h to &atter. these are the sort o" + estions on $hich the dis! te hin%es. Th s I!hicrates re!lyin% to -a sicrates' ad&itted that he had done the deed alle%ed' and that he had done -a sicrates har&' b t not that he had done hi& $ron%. Or yo &ay ad&it the $ron%' b t balance it $ith other "acts' and say that' i" the deed har&ed hi&' at any rate it $as hono rable( or that' i" it %a*e hi& !ain' at least it did hi& %ood( or so&ethin% else like that. Another $ay is to alle%e that yo r action $as d e to &istake' or bad l ck' or necessity as :o!hocles said he $as not tre&blin%' as his trad cer &aintained' in order to &ake !eo!le think hi& an old &an' b t beca se he co ld not hel! it( he $o ld rather not be ei%hty years old. Ao &ay balance yo r &oti*e

a%ainst yo r act al deed( sayin%' "or instance' that yo did not &ean to in, re hi& b t to do so/and/so( that yo did not do $hat yo are "alsely char%ed $ith doin%/the da&a%e $as accidental/0I sho ld indeed be a detestable !erson i" I had deliberately intended this res lt.0 Another $ay is o!en $hen yo r cal &niator' or any o" his conne)ions' is or has been s b,ect to the sa&e %ro nds "or s s!icion. Aet another' $hen others are s b,ect to the sa&e %ro nds "or s s!icion b t are ad&itted to be in "act innocent o" the char%e. e.%. 06 st I be a !ro"li%ate beca se I a& $ell/%roo&edI Then so/and/so & st be one too.0 Another' i" other !eo!le ha*e been cal &niated by the sa&e &an or so&e one else' or' $itho t bein% cal &niated' ha*e been s s!ected' like yo rsel" no$' and yet ha*e been !ro*ed innocent. Another $ay is to ret rn cal &ny "or cal &ny and say' 0It is &onstro s to tr st the &an0s state&ents $hen yo cannot tr st the &an hi&sel".0 Another is $hen the + estion has been already decided. :o $ith E ri!ides0 re!ly to Hy%iaenon' $ho' in the action "or an e)chan%e o" !ro!erties' acc sed hi& o" i&!iety in ha*in% $ritten a line enco ra%in% !er, ry/ 6y ton% e hath s$orn. no oath is on &y so l. E ri!ides said that his o!!onent hi&sel" $as % ilty in brin%in% into the la$/co rts cases $hose decision belon%ed to the #ionysiac contests. 0I" I ha*e not already ans$ered "or &y $ords there' I a& ready to do so i" yo choose to !rosec te &e there.0 Another &ethod is to deno nce cal &ny' sho$in% $hat an enor&ity it is' and in !artic lar that it raises "alse iss es' and that it &eans a lack o" con"idence in the &erits o" his case. The ar% &ent "ro& e*idential circ &stances is a*ailable "or both !arties. th s in the Te cer Odysse s says that Te cer is closely bo nd to 3ria&' since his &other Hesione $as 3ria&0s sister. Te cer re!lies that Tela&on his "ather $as 3ria&0s ene&y' and that he hi&sel" did not betray the s!ies to 3ria&. Another &ethod' s itable "or the cal &niator' is to !raise so&e tri"lin% &erit at %reat len%th' and then attack so&e i&!ortant "ailin% concisely( or a"ter &entionin% a n &ber o" %ood + alities to attack one bad one that really bears on the + estion. This is the &ethod o" thoro %hly skil" l and nscr ! lo s !rosec tors. By &i)in% ! the &an0s &erits $ith $hat is bad' they do their best to &ake se o" the& to da&a%e hi&. There is another &ethod o!en to both cal &niator and a!olo%ist. :ince a %i*en action can be done "ro& &any &oti*es' the "or&er & st try to dis!ara%e it by selectin% the $orse &oti*e o" t$o' the latter to ! t the better constr ction on it. Th s one &i%ht ar% e that #io&edes chose Odysse s as his co&!anion beca se he s !!osed Odysse s to be the best &an "or the ! r!ose( and yo &i%ht re!ly to this that it $as' on the contrary' beca se he $as the only hero so $orthless that #io&edes need not "ear his ri*alry. 1< We &ay no$ !ass "ro& the s b,ect o" cal &ny to that o" -arration. -arration in cere&onial oratory is not contin o s b t inter&ittent. There & st' o" co rse' be so&e s r*ey o" the actions that "or& the s b,ect/&atter o" the s!eech. The s!eech is a co&!osition containin% t$o !arts. One o" these is not !ro*ided by the orator0s art' *i2. the actions the&sel*es' o" $hich the orator is in no sense a thor. The other !art is !ro*ided by his na&ely' the !roo" 4$here !roo" is needed5 that the actions $ere done' the descri!tion o" their + ality or o" their e)tent' or e*en all these three thin%s to%ether. -o$ the reason $hy so&eti&es it is not desirable to &ake the $hole narrati*e contin o s is that the case th s e)!o nded is hard to kee! in &ind. :ho$' there"ore' "ro& one set o" "acts that yo r hero is' e.%. bra*e' and "ro& other sets o" "acts that he is able' , st' Jc. A s!eech th s arran%ed is co&!arati*ely si&!le' instead o" bein% co&!licated and elaborate. Ao $ill ha*e to

recall $ell/kno$n deeds a&on% others( and beca se they are $ell/kno$n' the hearer s ally needs no narration o" the&( none' "or instance' i" yo r ob,ect is the !raise o" Achilles( $e all kno$ the "acts o" his li"e/$hat yo ha*e to do is to a!!ly those "acts. B t i" yo r ob,ect is the !raise o" Critias' yo & st narrate his deeds' $hich not &any !eo!le kno$ o"... -o$adays it is said' abs rdly eno %h' that the narration sho ld be ra!id. Re&e&ber $hat the &an said to the baker $ho asked $hether he $as to &ake the cake hard or so"t. 0What' can0t yo &ake it ri%htI0 E st so here. We are not to &ake lon% narrations' , st as $e are not to &ake lon% introd ctions or lon% ar% &ents. Here' a%ain' ri%htness does not consist either in ra!idity or in conciseness' b t in the ha!!y &ean( that is' in sayin% , st so & ch as $ill &ake the "acts !lain' or $ill lead the hearer to belie*e that the thin% has ha!!ened' or that the &an has ca sed in, ry or $ron% to so&e one' or that the "acts are really as i&!ortant as yo $ish the& to be tho %ht. or the o!!osite "acts to establish the o!!osite ar% &ents. Ao &ay also narrate as yo %o anythin% that does credit to yo rsel"' e.%. 0I ke!t tellin% hi& to do his d ty and not abandon his children0( or discredit to yo r ad*ersary' e.%. 0B t he ans$ered &e that' $here*er he &i%ht "ind hi&sel"' there he $o ld "ind other children0' the ans$er Herodot s0 records o" the E%y!tian & tineers. :li! in anythin% else that the , d%es $ill en,oy. The de"endant $ill &ake less o" the narration. He has to &aintain that the thin% has not ha!!ened' or did no har&' or $as not n, st' or not so bad as is alle%ed. He & st there"or snot $aste ti&e abo t $hat is ad&itted "act' nless this bears on his o$n contention( e.%. that the thin% $as done' b t $as not $ron%. 1 rther' $e & st s!eak o" e*ents as !ast and %one' e)ce!t $here they e)cite !ity or indi%nation by bein% re!resented as !resent. The :tory told to Alcino s is an e)a&!le o" a brie" chronicle' $hen it is re!eated to 3enelo!e in si)ty lines. Another instance is the E!ic Cycle as treated by 3hayll s' and the !rolo% e to the Oene s. The narration sho ld de!ict character( to $hich end yo & st kno$ $hat &akes it do so. One s ch thin% is the indication o" &oral ! r!ose( the + ality o" ! r!ose indicated deter&ines the + ality o" character de!icted and is itsel" deter&ined by the end ! rs ed. Th s it is that &athe&atical disco rses de!ict no character( they ha*e nothin% to do $ith &oral ! r!ose' "or they re!resent nobody as ! rs in% any end. On the other hand' the :ocratic dialo% es do de!ict character' bein% concerned $ith &oral + estions. This end $ill also be %ained by describin% the &ani"estations o" *ario s ty!es o" character' e.%. 0he ke!t $alkin% alon% as he talked0' $hich sho$s the &an0s recklessness and ro %h &anners. #o not let yo r $ords see& ins!ired so & ch by intelli%ence' in the &anner no$ c rrent' as by &oral ! r!ose. e.%. 0I $illed this( aye' it $as &y &oral ! r!ose( tr e' I %ained nothin% by it' still it is better th s.0 1or the other $ay sho$s %ood sense' b t this sho$s %ood character( %ood sense &akin% s %o a"ter $hat is se" l' and %ood character a"ter $hat is noble. Where any detail &ay a!!ear incredible' then add the ca se o" it( o" this :o!hocles !ro*ides an e)a&!le in the Anti%one' $here Anti%one says she had cared &ore "or her brother than "or h sband or children' since i" the latter !erished they &i%ht be re!laced' B t since &y "ather and &other in their %ra*es 9ie dead' no brother can be born to &e. I" yo ha*e no s ch ca se to s %%est' , st say that yo are a$are that no one $ill belie*e yo r $ords' b t the "act re&ains that s ch is o r nat re' ho$e*er hard the $orld &ay "ind it to belie*e that a &an deliberately does anythin% e)ce!t $hat !ays hi&. A%ain' yo & st &ake se o" the e&otions. Relate the "a&iliar &ani"estations o" the&' and those that distin% ish yo rsel" and yo r

o!!onent( "or instance' 0he $ent a$ay sco$lin% at &e0. :o Aeschines described Cratyl s as 0hissin% $ith " ry and shakin% his "ists0. These details carry con*iction. the a dience take the tr th o" $hat they kno$ as so & ch e*idence "or the tr th o" $hat they do not. 3lenty o" s ch details &ay be "o nd in Ho&er. Th s did she say. b t the old $o&an b ried her "ace in her hands. a tr e to ch/!eo!le be%innin% to cry do ! t their hands o*er their eyes. Brin% yo rsel" on the sta%e "ro& the "irst in the ri%ht character' that !eo!le &ay re%ard yo in that li%ht( and the sa&e $ith yo r ad*ersary( b t do not let the& see $hat yo are abo t. Ho$ easily s ch i&!ressions &ay be con*eyed $e can see "ro& the $ay in $hich $e %et so&e inklin% o" thin%s $e kno$ nothin% o" by the &ere look o" the &essen%er brin%in% ne$s o" the&. Ha*e so&e narrati*e in &any di""erent !arts o" yo r s!eech( and so&eti&es let there be none at the be%innin% o" it. In !olitical oratory there is *ery little o!enin% "or narration( nobody can 0narrate0 $hat has not yet ha!!ened. I" there is narration at all' it $ill be o" !ast e*ents' the recollection o" $hich is to hel! the hearers to &ake better !lans "or the " t re. Or it &ay be e&!loyed to attack so&e one0s character' or to e lo%i2e hi&/only then yo $ill not be doin% $hat the !olitical s!eaker' as s ch' has to do. I" any state&ent yo &ake is hard to belie*e' yo & st % arantee its tr th' and at once o""er an e)!lanation' and then " rnish it $ith s ch !artic lars as $ill be e)!ected. Th s Carcin s0 Eocasta' in his Oedi! s' kee!s % aranteein% the tr th o" her ans$ers to the in+ iries o" the &an $ho is seekin% her son( and so $ith Hae&on in :o!hocles. 1@ The d ty o" the Ar% &ents is to atte&!t de&onstrati*e !roo"s. These !roo"s & st bear directly !on the + estion in dis! te' $hich & st "all nder one o" "o r heads. 415 I" yo &aintain that the act $as not co&&itted' yo r &ain task in co rt is to !ro*e this. 475 I" yo &aintain that the act did no har&' !ro*e this. I" yo &aintain that 435 the act $as less than is alle%ed' or 485 , sti"ied' !ro*e these "acts' , st as yo $o ld !ro*e the act not to ha*e been co&&itted i" yo $ere &aintainin% that. It sho ld be noted that only $here the + estion in dis! te "alls nder the "irst o" these heads can it be tr e that one o" the t$o !arties is necessarily a ro% e. Here i%norance cannot be !leaded' as it &i%ht i" the dis! te $ere $hether the act $as , sti"ied or not. This ar% &ent & st there"ore be sed in this case only' not in the others. In cere&onial s!eeches yo $ill de*elo! yo r case &ainly by ar% in% that $hat has been done is' e.%.' noble and se" l. The "acts the&sel*es are to be taken on tr st( !roo" o" the& is only s b&itted on those rare occasions $hen they are not easily credible or $hen they ha*e been set do$n to so&e one else. In !olitical s!eeches yo &ay &aintain that a !ro!osal is i&!racticable( or that' tho %h !racticable' it is n, st' or $ill do no %ood' or is not so i&!ortant as its !ro!oser thinks. -ote any "alsehoods abo t irrele*ant &atters/they $ill look like !roo" that his other state&ents also are "alse. Ar% &ent by 0e)a&!le0 is hi%hly s itable "or !olitical oratory' ar% &ent by 0enthy&e&e0 better s its "orensic. 3olitical oratory deals $ith " t re e*ents' o" $hich it can do no &ore than + ote !ast e*ents as e)a&!les. 1orensic oratory deals $ith $hat is or is not no$ tr e' $hich can better be de&onstrated' beca se not contin%ent/there is no contin%ency in $hat has no$ already ha!!ened. #o not se a contin o s s ccession o"

enthy&e&es. inters!erse the& $ith other &atter' or they $ill s!oil one another0s e""ect. There are li&its to their n &ber/ 1riend' yo ha*e s!oken as & ch as a sensible &an $o ld ha*e s!oken.

'as & ch0 says Ho&er' not 0as $ell0. -or sho ld yo try to &ake enthy&e&es on e*ery !oint( i" yo do' yo $ill be actin% , st like so&e st dents o" !hiloso!hy' $hose concl sions are &ore "a&iliar and belie*able than the !re&isses "ro& $hich they dra$ the&. And a*oid the enthy&e&e "or& $hen yo are tryin% to ro se "eelin%( "or it $ill either kill the "eelin% or $ill itsel" "all "lat. all si& ltaneo s &otions tend to cancel each other either co&!letely or !artially. -or sho ld yo %o a"ter the enthy&e&e "or& in a !assa%e $here yo are de!ictin% character/the !rocess o" de&onstration can e)!ress neither &oral character nor &oral ! r!ose. 6a)i&s sho ld be e&!loyed in the Ar% &ents/and in the -arration too/since these do e)!ress character. 0I ha*e %i*en hi& this' tho %h I a& + ite a$are that one sho ld LTr st no &anL.0 Or i" yo are a!!ealin% to the e&otions. 0I do not re%ret it' tho %h I ha*e been $ron%ed( i" he has the !ro"it on his side' I ha*e , stice on &ine.0 3olitical oratory is a &ore di""ic lt task than "orensic( and nat rally so' since it deals $ith the " t re' $hereas the !leader deals $ith the !ast' $hich' as E!i&enides o" Crete said' e*en the di*iners already kno$. 4E!i&enides did not !ractise di*ination abo t the " t re( only abo t the obsc rities o" the !ast.5 Besides' in "orensic oratory yo ha*e a basis in the la$( and once yo ha*e a startin%/!oint' yo can !ro*e anythin% $ith co&!arati*e ease. Then a%ain' !olitical oratory a""ords "e$ chances "or those leis rely di%ressions in $hich yo &ay attack yo r ad*ersary' talk abo t yo rsel"' or $ork on yo r hearers0 e&otions( "e$er chances indeed' than any other a""ords' nless yo r set ! r!ose is to di*ert yo r hearers0 attention. Accordin%ly' i" yo "ind yo rsel" in di""ic lties' "ollo$ the lead o" the Athenian s!eakers' and that o" Isocrates' $ho &akes re% lar attacks !on !eo!le in the co rse o" a !olitical s!eech' e.%. !on the 9acedae&onians in the 3ane%yric s' and !on Chares in the s!eech abo t the allies. In cere&onial oratory' inters!erse yo r s!eech $ith bits o" e!isodic e lo%y' like Isocrates' $ho is al$ays brin%in% so&e one "or$ard "or this ! r!ose. And this is $hat ;or%ias &eant by sayin% that he al$ays "o nd so&ethin% to talk abo t. 1or i" he s!eaks o" Achilles' he !raises 3ele s' then Aeac s' then Ge s( and in like &anner the *irt e o" *alo r' describin% its %ood res lts' and sayin% $hat it is like. -o$ i" yo ha*e !roo"s to brin% "or$ard' brin% the& "or$ard' and yo r &oral disco rse as $ell( i" yo ha*e no enthy&e&es' then "all back !on &oral disco rse. a"ter all' it is &ore "ittin% "or a %ood &an to dis!lay hi&sel" as an honest "ello$ than as a s btle reasoner. Re" tati*e enthy&e&es are &ore !o! lar than de&onstrati*e ones. their lo%ical co%ency is &ore strikin%. the "acts abo t t$o o!!osites al$ays stand o t clearly $hen the t$o are n t side by side. The 0Re!ly to the O!!onent0 is not a se!arate di*ision o" the s!eech( it is !art o" the Ar% &ents to break do$n the o!!onent0s case' $hether by ob,ection or by co nter/syllo%is&. Both in !olitical s!eakin% and $hen !leadin% in co rt' i" yo are the "irst s!eaker yo sho ld ! t yo r o$n ar% &ents "or$ard "irst' and then &eet the ar% &ents on the other side by re" tin% the& and ! llin% the& to !ieces be"orehand. I"' ho$e*er' the case "or the other side contains a %reat *ariety o" ar% &ents' be%in $ith these' like Callistrat s in the 6essenian asse&bly' $hen he de&olished the ar% &ents likely to be sed a%ainst hi& be"ore %i*in% his o$n. I" yo s!eak later' yo & st "irst' by &eans o" re" tation and co nter/syllo%is&' atte&!t so&e ans$er to yo r o!!onent0s s!eech' es!ecially i" his ar% &ents ha*e been $ell recei*ed. 1or , st as o r &inds re" se a "a*o rable rece!tion to a !erson a%ainst $ho& they are !re, diced' so they re" se it to a s!eech $hen they ha*e been "a*o rably i&!ressed by the s!eech on the other

side. Ao sho ld' there"ore' &ake roo& in the &inds o" the a dience "or yo r co&in% s!eech( and this $ill be done by %ettin% yo r o!!onent0s s!eech o t o" the $ay. :o attack that "irst/either the $hole o" it' or the &ost i&!ortant' s ccess" l' or * lnerable !oints in it' and th s ins!ire con"idence in $hat yo ha*e to say yo rsel"/ 1irst' cha&!ion $ill I be o" ;oddesses... -e*er' I $een' $o ld Hera... $here the s!eaker has attacked the silliest ar% &ent "irst. :o & ch "or the Ar% &ents. With re%ard to the ele&ent o" &oral character. there are assertions $hich' i" &ade abo t yo rsel"' &ay e)cite dislike' a!!ear tedio s' or e)!ose yo to the risk o" contradiction( and other thin%s $hich yo cannot say abo t yo r o!!onent $itho t see&in% ab si*e or ill/bred. 3 t s ch re&arks' there"ore' into the &o th o" so&e third !erson. This is $hat Isocrates does in the 3hili!! s and in the Antidosis' and Archiloch s in his satires. The latter re!resents the "ather hi&sel" as attackin% his da %hter in the la&!oon Think no %ht i&!ossible at all' -or s$ear that it shall not be"all... and ! ts into the &o th o" Charon the car!enter the la&!oon $hich be%ins -ot "or the $ealth o" ;yes... :o too :o!hocles &akes Hae&on a!!eal to his "ather on behal" o" Anti%one as i" it $ere others $ho $ere s!eakin%. A%ain' so&eti&es yo sho ld restate yo r enthy&e&es in the "or& o" &a)i&s( e.%. 0Wise &en $ill co&e to ter&s in the ho r o" s ccess( "or they $ill %ain &ost i" they do0. E)!ressed as an enthy&e&e' this $o ld r n' 0I" $e o %ht to co&e to ter&s $hen doin% so $ill enable s to %ain the %reatest ad*anta%e' then $e o %ht to co&e to ter&s in the ho r o" s ccess.0 1B -e)t as to Interro%ation. The best &o&ent to a e&!loy this is $hen yo r o!!onent has so ans$ered one + estion that the ! ttin% o" , st one &ore lands hi& in abs rdity. Th s 3ericles + estioned 9a&!on abo t the $ay o" celebratin% the rites o" the :a*io r ;oddess. 9a&!on declared that no ninitiated !erson co ld be told o" the&. 3ericles then asked' 0#o yo kno$ the& yo rsel"I0 0Aes0' ans$ered 9a&!on. 0Why'0 said 3ericles' 0ho$ can that be' $hen yo are ninitiatedI0 Another %ood &o&ent is $hen one !re&iss o" an ar% &ent is ob*io sly tr e' and yo can see that yo r o!!onent & st say 0yes0 i" yo ask hi& $hether the other is tr e. Ha*in% "irst %ot this ans$er abo t the other' do not %o on to ask hi& abo t the ob*io sly tr e one' b t , st state the concl sion yo rsel". Th s' $hen 6elet s denied that :ocrates belie*ed in the e)istence o" %ods b t ad&itted that he talked abo t a s !ernat ral !o$er' :ocrates !roceeded to to ask $hether 0s !ernat ral bein%s $ere not either children o" the %ods or in so&e $ay di*ineI0 0Aes0' said 6elet s. 0Then0' re!lied :ocrates' 0is there any one $ho belie*es in the e)istence o" children o" the %ods and yet not in the e)istence o" the %ods the&sel*esI0 Another %ood occasion is $hen yo e)!ect to sho$ that yo r o!!onent is contradictin% either his o$n $ords or $hat e*ery one belie*es. A "o rth is $hen it is i&!ossible "or hi& to &eet yo r + estion e)ce!t by an e*asi*e ans$er. I" he ans$ers 0Tr e' and yet not tr e0' or 03artly tr e and !artly not tr e0' or 0Tr e in one sense b t not in another0' the a dience thinks he is in di""ic lties' and a!!la ds his disco&"it re. In other cases do not atte&!t interro%ation( "or

i" yo r o!!onent %ets in an ob,ection' yo are "elt to ha*e been $orsted. Ao cannot ask a series o" + estions o$in% to the inca!acity o" the a dience to "ollo$ the&( and "or this reason yo sho ld also &ake yo r enthy&e&es as co&!act as !ossible. In re!lyin%' yo & st &eet a&bi% o s + estions by dra$in% reasonable distinctions' not by a c rt ans$er. In &eetin% + estions that see& to in*ol*e yo in a contradiction' o""er the e)!lanation at the o tset o" yo r ans$er' be"ore yo r o!!onent asks the ne)t + estion or dra$s his concl sion. 1or it is not di""ic lt to see the dri"t o" his ar% &ent in ad*ance. This !oint' ho$e*er' as $ell as the *ario s &eans o" re" tation' &ay be re%arded as kno$n to s "ro& the To!ics. When yo r o!!onent in dra$in% his concl sion ! ts it in the "or& o" a + estion' yo & st , sti"y yo r ans$er. Th s $hen :o!hocles $as asked by 3eisander $hether he had' like the other &e&bers o" the Board o" :a"ety' *oted "or settin% ! the 1o r H ndred' he said 0Aes.0/0Why' did yo not think it $ickedI0/0Aes.0/0:o yo co&&itted this $ickednessI0 0Aes0' said :o!hocles' 0"or there $as nothin% better to do.0 A%ain' the 9acedae&onian' $hen he $as bein% e)a&ined on his cond ct as e!hor' $as asked $hether he tho %ht that the other e!hors had been , stly ! t to death. 0Aes0' he said. 0Well then0' asked his o!!onent' 0did not yo !ro!ose the sa&e &eas res as theyI0/0Aes.0/0Well then' $o ld not yo too be , stly ! t to deathI0/0-ot at all0' said he( 0they $ere bribed to do it' and I did it "ro& con*iction0. Hence yo sho ld not ask any " rther + estions a"ter dra$in% the concl sion' nor ! t the concl sion itsel" in the "or& o" a " rther + estion' nless there is a lar%e balance o" tr th on yo r side. As to ,ests. These are s !!osed to be o" so&e ser*ice in contro*ersy. ;or%ias said that yo sho ld kill yo r o!!onents0 earnestness $ith ,estin% and their ,estin% $ith earnestness( in $hich he $as ri%ht. ,ests ha*e been classi"ied in the 3oetics. :o&e are beco&in% to a %entle&an' others are not( see that yo choose s ch as beco&e yo . Irony better be"its a %entle&an than b ""oonery( the ironical &an ,okes to a& se hi&sel"' the b ""oon to a& se other !eo!le. 1C The E!ilo% e has "o r !arts. Ao & st 415 &ake the a dience $ell/dis!osed to$ards yo rsel" and ill/dis!osed to$ards yo r o!!onent 475 &a%ni"y or &ini&i2e the leadin% "acts' 435 e)cite the re+ ired state o" e&otion in yo r hearers' and 485 re"resh their &e&ories. 415 Ha*in% sho$n yo r o$n tr th" lness and the ntr th" lness o" yo r o!!onent' the nat ral thin% is to co&&end yo rsel"' cens re hi&' and ha&&er in yo r !oints. Ao & st ai& at one o" t$o ob,ects/yo & st &ake yo rsel" o t a %ood &an and hi& a bad one either in yo rsel*es or in relation to yo r hearers. Ho$ this is to be &ana%ed/by $hat lines o" ar% &ent yo are to re!resent !eo!le as %ood or bad/this has been already e)!lained. 475 The "acts ha*in% been !ro*ed' the nat ral thin% to do ne)t is to &a%ni"y or &ini&i2e their i&!ortance. The "acts & st be ad&itted be"ore yo can disc ss ho$ i&!ortant they are( , st as the body cannot %ro$ e)ce!t "ro& so&ethin% already !resent. The !ro!er lines o" ar% &ent to be sed "or this ! r!ose o" a&!li"ication and de!reciation ha*e already been set "orth. 435 -e)t' $hen the "acts and their i&!ortance are clearly nderstood' yo & st e)cite yo r hearers0 e&otions. These e&otions are !ity' indi%nation' an%er' hatred' en*y' e& lation' ! %nacity. The lines o" ar% &ent to be sed "or these ! r!oses also ha*e been !re*io sly &entioned. 485 1inally yo ha*e to re*ie$ $hat yo ha*e already said. Here yo &ay !ro!erly do $hat so&e $ron%ly reco&&end doin% in the introd ction/re!eat yo r !oints "re+ ently so as to &ake the& easily

nderstood. What yo sho ld do in yo r introd ction is to state yo r s b,ect' in order that the !oint to be , d%ed &ay be + ite !lain( in the e!ilo% e yo sho ld s &&ari2e the ar% &ents by $hich yo r case has been !ro*ed. The "irst ste! in this re*ie$in% !rocess is to obser*e that yo ha*e done $hat yo ndertook to do. Ao & st' then' state $hat yo ha*e said and $hy yo ha*e said it. Ao r &ethod &ay be a co&!arison o" yo r o$n case $ith that o" yo r o!!onent( and yo &ay co&!are either the $ays yo ha*e both handled the sa&e !oint or &ake yo r co&!arison less direct. 06y o!!onent said so/and/so on this !oint( I said so/and/so' and this is $hy I said it0. Or $ith &odest irony' e.%. 0He certainly said so/and/so' b t I said so/and/so0. Or 0Ho$ *ain he $o ld ha*e been i" he had !ro*ed all this instead o" thatM0 Or ! t it in the "or& o" a + estion. 0What has not been !ro*ed by &eI0 or 0What has &y o!!onent !ro*edI0 Ao &ay !roceed then' either in this $ay by settin% !oint a%ainst !oint' or by "ollo$in% the nat ral order o" the ar% &ents as s!oken' "irst %i*in% yo r o$n' and then se!arately' i" yo $ish' those o" yo r o!!onent. 1or the concl sion' the disconnected style o" lan% a%e is a!!ro!riate' and $ill &ark the di""erence bet$een the oration and the !eroration. 0I ha*e done. Ao ha*e heard &e. The "acts are be"ore yo . I ask "or yo r , d%e&ent.0 /THE E-#/ .