Flight Dynamics and Aircraft

Performance
Lecture 1:
Introduction Longitudinal
Static Stability
G. Dimitriadis
University of Liege
What is it about?
Introduction
The study of the mechanics and
dynamics of flight is the means by
which :
We can design an airplane to accomplish
efficiently a specific task
We can make the task of the pilot easier by
ensuring good handling qualities
We can avoid unwanted or unexpected
phenomena that can be encountered in
flight
Reference material
Lecture Notes
Flight Dynamics Principles, M.V. Cook,
Arnold, 1997
Fundamentals of Airplane Flight
Mechanics, David G. Hull, Berlin,
Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-540-46573-7
Aircraft description
Pilot
Flight Control
System
Airplane Response Task
The pilot has direct control only of the Flight Control
System. However, he can tailor his inputs to the FCS by
observing the airplanes response while always keeping an
eye on the task at hand.
Control Surfaces
Aircraft control is accomplished through
control surfaces and power
Ailerons
Elevators
Rudder
Throttle
Control deflections were first developed by
the Wright brothers from watching birds
Wright Flyer
The Flyer did not have
separate control surfaces.
The trailing edges of the
windtips could be bent by
a system of cables
Modern control surfaces
Elevator
Rudder
Aileron
Elevon
(elevator+aileron)
Rudderon
(rudder+aileron)
Other devices
Flaps
Spoilers
Combinations of control surfaces and other devices: flaperons,
spoilerons, decelerons (aileron and airbrake)
Vectored thrust
Airbreak
Mathematical Model
Input
Aileron
Elevator
Rudder
Throttle
Aircraft
equations of
motion
Output
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Flight Condition
Atmospheric Condition
Aircraft degrees of freedom
Six degrees of
freedom:
3 displacements
x: horizontal motion
y: side motion
z: vertical motion
3 rotations
x: roll
y: pitch
z: yaw
x
z
y
v

v: resultant linear velocity, cg: centre of gravity
: resultant angular velocity
cg
Aircraft frames of reference
There are many possible coordinate systems:
Inertial (immobile and far away)
Earth-fixed (rotates with the earths surface)
Vehicle carried vertical frame (fixed on aircraft cg,
vertical axis parallel to gravity)
Air-trajectory (fixed on aircraft cg, parallel to the
direction of motion of the aircraft)
Body-fixed (fixed on aircraft cg, parallel to a
geometric datum line on the aircraft)
Stability axes (fixed on aircraft cg, parallel to a
reference flight condition)
Others
Airplane geometry
cg
c
c
c / 4
s = b/2
c / 4
l
T
l
t
y
c(y)
Airplane references (1)
Standard mean chord (smc)
Mean aerodynamic chord (mac)
Wing area
Aspect Ratio
c = c
2
y
( )
s
s

dy / c y
( )
s
s

dy
c = c y
( )
s
s

dy / dy
s
s

AR = b
2
/ S
S = bc
Asymmetric Aircraft
Blohm und Voss 141
Ruttan Bumerang
Blohm und Voss 237
Wing geometry example

R
/3
Given this wing
calculate:
1. The Standard
Mean Chord
2. The Mean
Aerodynamic
Chord
3. The wing area
4. The Aspect Ratio
5. The Mean
Aerodynamic
Centre
R=0.8, =30
o

Airplane references (2)
Centre of gravity (cg)
Tailplane area (S
T
)
Tail moment arm (l
T
)
Tail volume ratio: A measure of the
aerodynamic effectiveness of the
tailplane
V
T
=
S
T
l
T
Sc
Airplane references (3)
Fin moment arm (l
F
)
Fin volume ratio
c / 4
c / 4
cg
l
F
l
f
V
F
=
S
F
l
F
Sc
Aerodynamic Reference Centres
Centre of pressure (cp): The point at which
the resultant aerodynamic force F acts. There
is no aerodynamic moment around the cp.
Half-chord: The point at which the
aerodynamic force due to camber, F
c
, acts
Quarter-chord (or aerodynamic centre): The
point at which the aerodynamic force due to
angle of attack, F
a
, acts. The aerodynamic
moment around the quarter-chord, M
0
, is
constant with angle of attack
Airfoil with centres
ac
D
c

cp
D
D
a

L
c

L
L
a

F
c

F
F
a

L
D
M
0

c / 4 c /2
h
n
c
c
Camber line
V
0

By placing all of
the lift and drag
on the
aerodynamic
centre we move
the lift and drag
due to camber
from the half-
chord to the
quarter chord.
This is
balanced by the
moment M
0

Static Stability
Most aircraft (apart from high performance
fighters) are statically stable
Static stability implies:
All the forces and moments around the aircrafts
cg at a fixed flight condition and attitude are
balanced
After any small perturbation in flight attitude the
aircraft returns to its equilibrium position
The equilibrium position is usually called the
trim position and is adjusted using the trim
tabs
Pitching moment equation
cg
mg
c
ac
L
T

M
0

M
T

L
w

l
T
hc
h
0
c
h denotes the cg
position
Equilibrium equations
Steady level flight is assumed
Thrust balances drag and they both
pass by the cg
Force equilibrium:
Pitching moment around cg equilibrium:
L
w
+ L
T
mg = 0
M = M
0
+ L
w
(h h
0
)c L
T
l
T
+ M
T
= 0
(nose up moment is taken to be positive)
Stable or Unstable?
An equilibrium point can be stable,
unstable or neutrally stable
A stable equilibrium point is
characterized by
A more general condition (takes into
account compressibility effects) is
M = 0 and
dM
d
< 0
M = 0 and
dM
dL
< 0
or
C
m
= 0 and
dC
m
dC
L
< 0
Degree of stability
Trim point
1
2
3
4
1: Very stable
2: Stable
3: Neutrally stable
4: Unstable
C
m


Pitching moment stability (1)
The pitching moment equation can be
written as
Where
And the tailplane is assumed to be
symmetric so that M
T
=0
C
m
= C
m
0
+ C
L
w
(h h
0
) C
L
T
V
T
= 0
C
m
=
M
1
2
V
0
2
Sc
, C
L
w
=
L
w
1
2
V
0
2
S
, C
L
T
=
L
T
1
2
V
0
2
S
T
Pitching moment stability (2)
For static stability or,
approximately,
Then
Since M
0
is a constant.
Unfortunately, the derivative of the tail
lift with respect to the wing lift is
unknown
dC
m
/dC
L
< 0
dC
m
/dC
L
w
< 0
dC
m
/dC
L
w
= (h h
0
) V
T
dC
L
T
/dC
L
w
Wing-tail flow geometry

V
0

V
0

Tailplane
Elevator
Trim tab
Wing
The downwash effect of the wing deflects the
free stream flow seen by the tailplane by an
angle .
Total angle of attack of tail:
T
=-+
T

The total lift on the tailplane is given by:
C
L
T
=
0
+ a
1

T
+ a
2
+ a
3

Thin Airfoil Theory

Thin Airfoil Theory is the main tool for
modelling incompressible aerodynamic
forces on 2D wing sections.
It shows that c
l
=2 (A
0
+A
1
/2), where
and z is the tails camber line
Aerodynamics example
Prove that for a tailplane
C
L
T
=
0
+ a
1

T
+ a
2
+ a
3

Pitching moment stability (3)

For small disturbances the downwash
angle is a linear function of wing
incidence :
Wing lift is also a linear function of :
So that
=
d
d

C
L
w
= a or = C
L
w
/ a
o
T
=
C
L
w
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
+
T
Pitching moment stability (4)
The tail lift coefficient can the be written
as
The pitching moment equation becomes
And the derivative of the pitching
moment coefficient becomes
since
T
is a constant
C
L
T
= C
L
w
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
1

T
+ a
2
+ a
3

dC
m
dC
L
w
= (h ~ h
0
) ~V
T
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
2
d
dC
L
w
+ a
3
d

dC
L
w
[
\
|
|

)
j
j
C
m
= C
m
0
+ C
L
w
(h ~ h
0
) ~V
T
C
L
w
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
2
+ a
3

+ a
1

T
[
\
|

)
j
Elevator angle to trim
In order to trim the aircraft, C
m
=0
The elevator angle required to achieve
this is given by
i.e. it depends only on lift coefficient and
trim tab angle for a chosen angle of
attack
Elevator and trim tab are
interchangeable (up to a point)
=
1
V
T
a
2
C
m0
+ C
L
w
(h ~ h
0
)
( )
~
C
L
w
a
a
1
a
2
[
\
|

)
j
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
~
a
3
a
2

~
a
1
a
2

T
Controls fixed stability
Assume that the aircraft has reached
trim position and the controls are locked
What will happen if there is a small
perturbation to the aircrafts position
(due to a gust, say)?
The pitching moment equation becomes
dC
m
dC
L
w
= (h ~ h
0
) ~V
T
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
Stability margin
Define the controls fixed stability margin as
And the controls fixed neutral point as
A stable aircraft has positive stability margin.
The more positive, the more stable.
If the cg position (h) is ahead of the neutral
point (h
n
) the aircraft will by definition be
stable
Too much stability can be a bad thing!
K
n
=
dC
m
dC
L
w
K
n
= h
n
~ h, so that h
n
= h
0
+V
T
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
Stability margin (2)
Certification authorities specify that
at all times
Of course, the stability margin can change:
If fuel is used up
If payload is released:
Bombs
Missiles
External fuel tanks
Paratroopers
Anything else you can dump from a plane
K
n
0.05c
Elevator angle to trim
Setting the tab angle to zero (

=0), it can be
shown that the elevator angle to trim
characteristic is given by
It is therefore proportional to the controls fixed
stability margin.
Therefore, the stability margin can be
obtained using measurements of the elevator
angle to trim at various flight conditions
d
dC
L
w
=
1
V
T
a
2
(h
n
h) =
1
V
T
a
2
K
n
Controls Fixed Example
Calculate the controls fixed stability margin
and neutral point
Is the aircraft stable?
These values of
elevator angle to trim
were obtained from a
Handley Page
Jetstream aircraft
Controls Free Stability
Pilots dont want to hold the controls
throughout the flight.
The trim tab can be adjusted such that, if the
elevator is allowed to float freely, it will at an
angle corresponding to the desired trim
condition.
This is sometimes called a hands-off trim
condition.
Therefore the pilot can take his hands off the
elevator control and the aircraft will remain in
trim.
Elevator Hinge Moment (1)
The pitching moment equation is (earlier
slides)
The elevator angle, , is unknown and
must be eliminated from the equation
Consider the elevator hinge moment
C
m
= C
m
0
+ C
L
w
(h ~ h
0
) ~V
T
C
L
w
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
2
+ a
3

+ a
1

T
[
\
|

)
j
V
0

Tailplane
Elevator
Trim tab
H
Elevator hinge
Elevator Hinge Moment (2)
Since the elevator is free to rotate, the
elevator hinge moment must be equal to zero.
Assuming small displacement, the elevator
hinge moment is a linear function of total
angle of attack, elevator angle and trim tab
angle, exactly like the lift. Therefore:
Where b
1
, b
2
and b
3
are known constants
Substituting for
T
and solving for the elevator
angle gives
C
H
= b
1

T
+ b
2
+ b
3

=
1
b
2
C
H
~
C
L
w
a
b
1
b
2
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
~
b
3
b
2

~
b
1
b
2

T
Controls Free Stability Margin
This is an expression for that can be
substituted into the pitching moment
equation.
Differentiating the latter with respect to wing
lift coefficient gives
Define the Controls Free Stability Margin, K'
n
,
such that
With h'
n
being the controls free neutral point
dC
m
dC
L
w
= h ~ h
0
( )
~V
T
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
1~
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
K
n
=
dC
m
dC
L
w
= h
n
h
Controls Free Neutral Point
The controls free neutral point is then
Using the expression for the controls
fixed neutral point gives
' h
n
= h
0
+V
T
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
1~
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
h
n
= h
0
+V
T
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
' h
n
= h
n
~V
T
a
2
b
1
ab
2
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
Discussion
As with the controls fixed stability margin, the
controls free stability margin is positive when
the aircraft is stable.
Similarly, the centre of gravity position must
be ahead of the controls free neutral point if
the aircraft is to be stable.
Usually, the constants of the elevator and tab
are such that h'
n
>h
n
.
An aircraft that is stable controls fixed will
usually be also stable controls free
Hands-off trim positions
Assume that the aircraft is trimmed at a
hands-off position (elevator is free)
If the pilot changes elevator angle and then
releases the control stick, the aircraft will
return to the old trim position.
In order to adopt a new hands off trim position
the pilot must first move the elevator to the
desired angle and then adjust the trim tab.
The correct tab angle is the one that requires
zero control force. The pilot can then take his
hands off the control stick.
Tab angle to trim
At a hands off trim position
Differentiating with respect to wing lift
coefficient but allowing

to vary gives
Therefore, the controls free stability margin
can be estimated by measuring the tab angle
to trim at various lift coefficients
C
m
= C
m
0
+ C
L
w
(h ~ h
0
) ~V
T
C
L
w
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
1~
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
3

1~
a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
1

T
1~
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j = 0
d

dC
L
w
=
~1
a
3
V
T
1~
a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
( ' h
n
~ h) =
~1
a
3
V
T
1~
a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
' K
n
Control force to trim
The control force to trim is the parameter
more relevant to the pilot.
Consider an aircraft at a hands-off trim
position. If the pilot moves the stick to
assume a new position
This time

is constant but C
H
is non-zero
since the pilot is applying a force to the
control stick
Differentiate with respect to lift to obtain
C
m
= C
m
0
+ C
L
w
(h ~ h
0
) ~V
T
C
L
w
a
1
a
1~
dr
do
[
\
|

)
j
1~
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
3

1~
a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
+ a
1

T
1~
a
2
b
1
a
1
b
2
[
\
|

)
j
+
a
2
b
2
C
H
[
\
|

)
j = 0
dC
H
dC
L
w
=
1
V
T
a
2
b
2
( h
n
h) =
1
V
T
a
2
b
2
K
n
Measuring Controls Free Stability
Therefore, the measurement of the controls
free stability margin and controls free neutral
point can be performed by measuring the
elevator hinge moment required to trim
around a given trim position
The elevator hinge moment can be obtained
from the mechanical gearing between the
control stick and the elevator, g

, as well as
the control force applied, F

.
F

= g

H =
1
2
V
2
S

C
H
Controls free example
Calculate the controls free stability margin
and neutral point
Is the aircraft stable?
These values of hinge
moment coefficient to
trim were obtained from
a Handley Page
Jetstream aircraft
Summary of Longitudinal
Stability
cg
c
hc
h
0
c
ac
h
n
c
h
n
c
K
n
c
K
n
c
Longitudinal stability when cg ahead of ac
ac cg
L
w

L
T

All the equations that have been derived up to now still
hold. The only difference is in the signs of h and
T
.
Notice that this configuration is inherently stable. An
increase in angle of attack causes an increase in lift (i.e.
nose down moment) and a decrees in tail downforce (again
a nose down moment).