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Fluid Mechanics Manual
Fluid Mechanics Manual
Fluid Mechanics Manual
FLUID MECHANICS
LABORATORY MANUAL
BY
ENGR. TOMAS U. GANIRON, JR.
MARCH 1997
EXPERIMENT
TITLE
4A
4B
5A
5B
DETERMINATION OF CENTER OF
PRESSURE
6A
6B
METACENTRIC HEIGHT
GRAVITY DAMS
10
11
VENTURIMETER
12
13
Experiment No.
Title
Objective
Theory/General
Lab. Apparatus/Materials
Procedure
Table of Computation
Discussion
Sketch
Conclusion
Reference/s
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
OBJECTIVE:
To establish a relation between specific weight and pressure intensity of water.
Specific Weight
Acceleration due to gravity
In eqn = p = w
g
It should be noted that density is absolute since it depends on mass which is
independent of location. Specific weight on the other hand, is not absolute for it depends
on the value of the gravitational acceleration, which varies with location, primarily on
latitude and elevation above main sea level. The unit pressure, meaning the intensity of
pressure at any point in a fluid is the amount of pressure per unit area A, on which the
total pressure is Pt.
P=F/A
APPARATUS:
Platform balance
Flow can container
Ruler and water
LABORATORY PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the weight of the container at its base area.
2. Place the container on the Platform balance and load it with a known
quantity of water.
3. Measure the height of the water in the container.
4. Increase the amount of water in the container.
5. Make at least 5 trials.
EQUATION:
Volume of water
Specific Weight
Weight of water
Volume of water
Pressure
Weight of water
Base Area
1
2
3
4
5
Weight
Weight Weight
Ht.
Base Volume Specific Pressure
of
of
of
Of
Area Of H2O Weight
(KPa)
Contain
Water
Water Water (m)
(m)
(KPa)
er
and
(KN)
(m)
(KN)
Container
(KN)
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the specific gravity of liquid by means of U-tube.
GENERAL:
Specific gravity of liquid is the ratio of its density to that pure water. A standard
temperature universally it is the ratio of the unit weight of the liquid to the unit weight of
the water at 4 C or 39.2 F. Physicist use 1.0g km equivalent to 100kg/cm, and hence the
specific gravity (w/c is dimensionless) has the same numerical value for a liquid as its
density in that system. As the density of fluid varies with temperature, specific gravity
must be determined and specified at particular temperature.
In the petroleum industry, it is the customary to specific to specify the specific
gravity of oil at 60 F relative to water at 60 F, indicated by 60/60 specific gravity is
usually determined by reading on hydrometer standardized by American Petroleum
Institute (API) w/c is graduated to read degrees (API), specific gravity at 60 F maybe
obtained from degrees API at 60 F by:
S = 141.5 / 131.5 + API
Experimentally the specific gravity of liquid and solids can be determine by
several methods.
U-tube
Ruler
Oil
Water
PROCEDURE:
1. Pour a quantity of water into the U-tube. Then pour a certain amount of oil
into one leg of the U-tube. Observe the point of contact between water and oil.
Then measure its height on both legs of the U-tube. Make at least three (3)
trials.
2. Pour a quantity of oil on both legs of the U-tube. Do it at least three (3) trials.
3. Determine the specific gravity of oil.
4. Determine the percentage of error.
DATA AND COMPUTATION:
DATA 1
TRIALS
HEIGHT 1
(CM)
HEIGHT 2
(CM)
St
1
2
3
DATA 2
TRIALS
1
2
3
DATA 1
HEIGHT 1
HEIGHT 2
(CM)
HEIGHT 3
(CM)
St
St
= H1 / H2
% ERROR
St ave.
= (St 1 + St 2 + St 3) / 3
Where:
H1
H2
H3
Ss
St
DATA 2
St
= H3/H2
EXPERIMENT NO. 03
The manometer to be made of the static pressure in a pipe. (See Figs. 2a,3b and 3c).
A. Piezometer
1. Connect the piezometer to a top of pipe.
2. Turn on valve so fluid (water) will flow in pipe and will rise in the
piezometer.
3. Measure the height, h of the fluid column in piezometer above the tap.
This height is called the piezometer height. Pressure in the pipe at the
point of tap is equal to h.
4. If tap (of piezometer) is on top of pipe, add pipe diameter to h.
B. U-tube Manometer
1. Connect U-tube manometer to tap of pipe. (Preferably, manometer
fluid should be mercury, specific gravity = 13.55)
2. Turn on valve so fluid will flow in pipe.
3. Measure height, h1, and h2 (see Fig. 3b). Calculate pressure pipe.
P = Hg (h2 h1) = SHg w (h2 h1) =
C. Differential Manometer
1. Connect the two (2) arms of the differential manometer to two points
(taps) along a pipeline (in this particular case, use the taps of the
upstream section of the pipe and the throat of a venture meter).
2. Turn on flow.
3. Measure h , h , (see fig. 2c). Calculate pressure differences.
4. Use Formula as Shown in figure.
Meter Stick
Sea water
Vernier Caliper
3 Marbles
3-6inch tall transparent cylinders
Graduated Cylinder
PROCEDURE:
1. Weight each three (3) colored marbles diameter.
2. Fill each cylinder of the fall velocity apparatus w/ an equal and measure the
height of water of cylinder A, cylinder B, and cylinder C.
3. Drop each time marble three (3) times in each cylinder and take note of the
elapsed time trial w/ the use of stop watch.
= ______________________KN
Fresh water
Sea Water
Oil
Elapsed
Marble
1
A
Fresh Sea
water water
Oil
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the depth of the center of pressure, Yc of a rectangular
plane immersed in water.
APPARATUS:
Hydrostatic pressure apparatus and accessories (A schematic diagram
of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 4)
GENERAL:
P = A N YO
FH = P
FV =
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure L1, (QR), vertical distance Ro, EG (vertical height of rectangle, and
2.
3. Fill tank with water to depth such that pt. E at top of rectangular are is flushed
with the water surface.
4. Since the beam QRS will swing clockwise on account of the moment of the
buoyant force, Fv, maintain equilibrium by adding weight on tray at Q,
Record the added weight, W.
COMPUTATIONS:
P = A w (Yo) = FH
Area
= EG x z
Yo
MR = 0
W x L1 = FV x X
(FV weight of displaced volume as determined. See Fig. 4)
F1 and P are equal in magnitude and collinear.
Since GJ is a circular are, the pressure vector at each point is concentric at R, thus
the resultant of FV and FH passes at B.
Thus, moment at R as a center equals zero:
FH Yc = FV X
Y = FV X
FH
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
BUOYANCY FORCE
(ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE)
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the buoyancy force on a floating object.
GENERAL:
When an object floats in liquid, the weight of the object is balanced by the
buoyancy force.
APPARATUS:
Test tube
Mate stick
Sand
Graduated cylinder
Liquids (water, oil, kerosene)
LAB. PROCEDURE:
1. Place grains of sand in the test tube, just enough so that the test tube will float
upright when placed in the liquid.
2. Weigh the test tube and sand; Wo = mass of test tube and sand x gravity.
3. Fill the graduated cylinder with the liquid to about 3/4. Determine the level of
the liquid in the scale. Mark level as Vi = ________________ml.
4. Allow the test tube with sand to float in the liquid. Note that the level of liquid
changes. Mark new level as Vf = ________________ml.
5. Determine V = Vf Vi in ml.
ANALYSIS:
Wo Bf when the object floats in liquid
W (Dynes)
V (ml)
Where:
Wo
Wi
W (Dynes)
Wo/Wi
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
METACENTRIC HEIGHT
OBJECTIVE :
To measure metacentric height of a floating body.
APPARATUS :
Metacentric apparatus
Plumb bomb
Meter stick
Protractor
GENERAL:
A body will be in its upright positions if the weight and the force are collinear.
Due to wind or wave action, the body is made to tilt and the two forces (W and BF) are
longer collinear producing a couple which is equal to W (X) or BF (X).
The point of intersection between the lines of action of the BF and the axis is
called the Metacenter, M and the distance from metacenter to the center of gravity of the
body is the metacentric height.
EQUATION:
MG
= Metacentric height
= Length
= Depth of Floatation
= Center of buoyancy
MG
= MG + GB
MB
GB
= Measure
The criterion for stability of a submerged body is that the center of buoyancy must
be above the center of mass of the body.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the container with water
2. Take the following measurement.
b = ________________
a = ________________
L = ________________
3. Tilt the body and measure the angle using a protractor.
Record 0 = _______________
COMPUTATION:
SUMMARY:
EXPERIMENT NO. 08
APPARATUS:
Hydro synthetic machine with container
Meter stick
Stop watch
Stirring rod
LAB. PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the cross section of an empty container in SI units.
L = _______________________cm
W = _______________________cm
H = _______________________cm
A.
B.
TABULATION:
Type of open
Vessel
1. Fully filled
w/ water
2. Partially
filled w/ water
Vol. of empty
container
(cm3)
Ht. of
Water
(cm)
Angular
velocity
(rad/s)
Vol. of
Water
(cm3)
PRACTICAL QUESTION:
1. How much area at the top is not covered by water during and after rotation?
2. (Refer to Procedure B)
3. Is the volume spilled out in Procedure A and B? By how much?
CALCULATION:
DISCUSSION:
FIGURE/SKETCH:
RECOMMENDATION:
CONCLUSION:
EXPERIMENT NO. 09
GRAVITY DAMS
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the stability against sliding and over turning under
a. FS vs. Overturning
b. FS vs. Sliding
GENERAL:
Any dam that does not depend on arch action to resist the various forces to which
it is subjected is called gravity dams.
Dams are built for the primary purpose of impounding water in the reservoir
upstream of its location according, the main external forces which must be taken into
consideration when designing gravity dam, the greatest is the gravity force of the dam
itself.
APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
LAB. APPARATUS:
1. Measure the cross section of the electronic power plants in SI units
approximate a triangle.
2. Allow the water to flow the cross section of the dam until it reaches its
constant height.
3. Determine the height of the water and the hydrostatic, gravity and uplift force
of dam.
4. Locate the total hydrostatic pressure above the heel of dam.
This is the eccentricity (e)
5. Calculate the following:
RV =
RH =
RM =
OM =
FS vs. Sliding
FS vs. Overturning
Where coefficient of friction is 0.75
6. Determine the point where resultant intersects the base and the maximum and
minimum pressure developed in the foundation.
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
GENERAL:
Q1
in m3/s
= Total volume
Elapsed time
Q = volume discharge
M2
Weight
Elapsed time
in kg-wt/s
M = mass discharge
Q2
LAB. PROCEDURE:
A. For Q1:
1. Measure volume of tank/container in m
2. Turn on flow reservoir or source od steady flow.
3. Catch flow into container at same time that stopwatch is started.
4. Determine time in seconds to fill tank/container.
5. Repeat at least two (2) times with different opening of pipe measure.
B. For M2 (if weighing scale is available for use)
1. Place container on weighing scale and determine weight of empty
container, Wo,
in kg-wt.
2. Turn on flow from reservoir or source.
3. Record time that the mass-weight of container and flow reach several
values of W1, W2... etc.
DATA AND COMPUTATIONS:
PART A:
3
Volume = ________________________ m
t1 = _________________ m
t2 = ______________________ s
t3 = _________________ s
Q1
= Vol.
t1
= __________________ m3/s
= Vol.
t2
= ____________________m3/s
= Vol.
t3
= ___________________m3/s
Q3
= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = ____________________m3/s
3
or
Q1
1 1 1
= V (t1 + t2 + t3) = ______________________m3/s
PART B:
W
:
M=
: time = t
Wn Wo
W/t :
Wo :
:
t0 = 0
:
0
________________________________________________________________________
W1
:
:
t1 =
:
M1 =
W2
:
t2 =
t3 =
M2 =
W3
M3 =
M2
= M
3
= ____________________
= M2
= ____________________
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the pressure by measurement of the head and apply Bernoullis
equation and determining pressure in venturimeter.
GENERAL:
Pressure is the outward force, which a substance exerts on its surroundings. It is
defined as the force on a unit surface area and is commonly measured in pounds per
square inch or in dryness per square centimeter. Generally, the pressure of a gas is due to
the collisions of the gas molecules with the walls of the container. For an ideal gas the
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature and inversely proportional to
the volume. the pressure of the liquid gas that is not moving is called hydrostatic pressure
and is due to the weight of the fluid and the reactive forces applied by the containing
walls. Hydrostatic pressure is constant for all points at the same depth and is independent
of the shape or cross section of the container. Also, pressure is important in the science of
fluids in motion, or hydrodynamics. Bernoullis equation is the basic relation between
streamline flow of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid and its pressure, velocity, crosssection, the higher velocities and lower pressures occur when the cross-section is smaller.
The reduced pressure near a constriction is the basis for several types of fluid pumps,
including the automobile carburetor, in which this effect is used to draw gasoline vapor.
APPARATUS:
Hydro synthetic machine
Vernier caliper
Meter stick
Stop watch
LAB. PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter of large and small pipes.
2. Allow the water to flow through the venturimeter.
Compute the rate of the volume discharge or Q.
3. After each trial, adjust the value to increase the Q. Record the data.
4. Compute the pressure from the gathered data and use of the Bernoullis
equation.
DATA AND COMPUTATIONS:
Dia. big pipe
= _____________________________ mm.
= _____________________________ mm.
No. of Trials
1
2
3
h1
h2
Q (m3/s)
EXPERIMENT NO. 12
VENTURI METERS
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the rate of flow in a pipe and to determine the coefficient of discharge Cd.
GENERAL:
A contraction in a stream tube tend to produce an accelerated flow and fall of
pressure which is directly related to flow rate and thus is an excellent meter in which rate
of flow maybe calculated from pressure measurements.
The form of the venture tube is usually a conical nozzle like reducer followed by
a more general enlargement to the original size. It is generally a casting consisting of an
upstream section which is the same size as the pipe, has a bronze lining, and contains a
piezometer ring for measuring static pressure; a converging conical section; a short
conical or cylindrical section containing a piezometer ring, and a diffuser on order to
minimized head loss.
The pressures at the base of the meter (section 0) and at the throat (section 2) are
ontained by the piezometer rings and a differential manometer usually measures the
pressure difference. The pressure at the upstream section and throat are actual pressures,
the velocities from Bernoullis equation are theoretical velocities. If losses are considered
in the energy equation, the velocities are then the actual velocities. New, from the
principle of continuity, Q = AV, the actual velocity times the actual area of the throat
determines the actual discharge.
Because of streamlining the flow passage, any jet contraction beyond the smallest
section is eliminated; consequently the coefficient of contraction has a value of unity and
the basic discharge equation for the venture meter for incompressible flow is
Where
R = gauge difference
S = specific gravity of manometer liquid
Si = specific gravity of flowing liquid
Note: that since contraction coefficient is unity; hence
LAB. APPARATUS:
Hydro synthetic machine
Stop watch
Ruler
Container
Hose
PROCEDURE:
1. Run the pump to let the water flow through the pipelines.
2. Allow the liquid to collect in a container and note the rise in the liquid
surfaced in a measured time.
3. Read the manometer gauge difference.
4. Make five (5) trials.
H
(cm)
R
(cm)
Time
(sec)
Cd
gauge difference
D1
D2
Pipe thickness
= _________________
Area of container
= _________________
EXPERIMENT NO. 13
L
f
V
D2g
LAB. APPARATUS:
1. Select the pipelines to be considered in the experiment.
2. Take note of the pipe diameter involved.
3. Measure the lengths of the pipes involved.
4.
5. Allow the water to flow.
6. Measure the head loss and determine the discharge by taking note of the
volume of flow and the time taken.
7. Repeat for the other pipes selected.
Length
Dia.
Velocity
Exp. hf
Theo. hf
1
2
3
The values of friction factor (f) were obtained by solving for the Reynolds
Number and assuming that the pipes were hydraulically smooth.
EXPERIMENT NO. 14
OBJECTIVE:
To determine velocity of flow by use of a Pitot tube.
APPARATUS:
Pitot tube
Meter stick
Equipment used in experiment work of volumetric discharge measurement
Drawing a Pitot tube