Vũ trụ trong một vỏ hạt (Stephen Hawking)

V TR
TRONG
MT V HT
T R
T R O N G
V TR TRONG MT V HT
Tc gi: Stephen Hawking Dch v trnh by: D Trch Hiu nh: V Quang Nhn Scan nh: Bunhia Nh xut bn Bantam, 2001
T R
T R O N G
GII THIU CA VIETSCIENCES
Thi gian gn y cc ngnh khoa hc c bit ngnh vt l lm c mt bc tin rt di. Kin thc ca ngnh vt l khng cn ri rc, xa vi m n dn tr thnh mt khoa hc thng nht. Cc l thuyt v ang kt ni vi nhau thnh mt bn trng ca. Bn trng ca ny khng ch nhm gii thch cc quan im trit hc cao siu ca con ngi vi v tr m n li cn thm nhp vo mi lnh vc mi ng ngch ng dng trong i sng. Mt trong nhng nh vt l ni bt nht sau Newton v Einstein sng cui thin nin k th hai ca nhn loi khng ai khc hn l Stephen Hawking (sinh nm 1942). Ngoi nhng ng gp v i ca ng trong n lc thng nht cc qui lut ca vt l th ng cn c mt kh nng truyn t t tng tuyt vi. Cc sch cu ng vit nhm gii thiu v trit hc, vt l cng nh v v tr quan sinh ng v d hiu n ni c nhiu ln nhng sch ny dc dch ra nhiu th ting v chng cn bn chy hn c nhng tiu thuyt hay ho hp dn nht. Vietsciences xin gii thiu vi cc bn tc phm V Tr Trong Mt V Ht cu dch gi D Trch t nguyn bn Anh ng The Universe in a Nutshell (2001). V l ngi lm vic nghin cu trong chuyn ngnh vt l nn anh D Trch hiu rt su, chnh xc, v r rng cc t tng m Hawking nu ra trong cun sch mi ny cu ng. Chng ti tin rng bn dch Vit ng m anh D Trch dy cng dch thut s mang n cho cc bn ng nhng cm gic v cc kin thc l th, hp dn, bt ng m Hawking em li cho hng triu c gi bng ting m l Anh ng. Trn Trng V Quang Nhn Vietsciences: http://vietsciences.free.fr
T R
T R O N G
GII THIU CA NH XUT BN Cun Lc s thi gian (A Brief History of Time), cun sch bn ra hng triu bn ca Stephen Hawking a nhng t tng ca nh vt l l thuyt thin ti ny ti bn c trn ton th gii. Cn y, trong ln xut bn ny, Hawking tr li vi phn tip theo vi mt cun sch c rt nhiu hnh minh ha h m b mt v nhng khm ph quan trng t c trong nhng nm k t khi cun sch u tin ca ng ra i. V TR TRONG MT V HT Mt trong nhng nh t tng v i nht ca thi i chng ta l Stephen Hawking, mt biu tng ca tr tu, ng c bit n khng ch qua nhng tng bt ng m cn v s trong sng v thng minh trong cch ng din gii cc tng . Cun sch mi ny s a chng ta n nhng vn mi nht ca vt l l thuyt, , theo nhng nguyn tc iu khin th gii ca ngi bnh thng, s tht cn k l hn c tr tng tng. Ging nh nhiu nh vt l l thuyt khc, gio s Hawking ang tm kim iu ct li ca khoa hc L thuyt v vn vt (Theory of Everything) nm tri tim ca v tr. Vi phong cch d tip cn v hi hc, ng a chng ta vo lnh vc nghin cu h m nhng b mt ca v tr - t hp dn n siu hp dn, t lng t n thuyt-M, t nh a chiu n lng tnh. ng a chng ta n bin gii ca khoa hc, thuyt siu dy v cc mng-p c th l u mi cui cng cho bi ton. ng cho php chng ta i cng mt trong nhng chuyn thm him tr tu th v nht ca ng khi ng tm cch kt hp thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein v tng ly tng theo cc lch s ca Feynman vo mt l thuyt thng nht m t tt c mi s kin xy ra trong v tr. Vi li vn y nhit huyt, gio s Hawking mi chng ta i theo bc chn ca nhng nh du hnh trong khng thi gian. Cun sch vi cc hnh minh ha mu gip lm sng t chuyn du hnh vo th gii siu thc ca cc ht, cc dy, cc mng chuyn ng trong khng thi gian mi mt chiu ny, cc h en bc hi v bin mt v mang nhng b mt i theo chng; v ht ging v tr nguyn thy m t v tr ca chng ta xut hin chnh l mt ci ht nh b. V tr trong mt v ht l mt cun sch cn thit vi tt c chng ta hiu v tr chng ta ang sng. Ging nh tp trc ca cun sch Lc s v thi gian, cun sch ny truyn ti iu th v trong khoa hc khi cc b mt t tit l bn thn chng.
Stephen Hawking l gio s Lucasian v ton hc ti i hc Cambridge v c coi l mt trong nhng nh vt l v i nht k t Einstein.
T R
T R O N G
Stephen Hawking nm 2001
T R
T R O N G
LI NI U
I KHNG NG CUN SCH KHOA HC PH THNG Lc s v thi gian li thnh cng n th. N nm trong danh sch nhng cun sch bn chy nht ca t bo Sunday Times trong hn bn nm, lu hn bt k cun sch bn chy khc, v c bit l sch v khoa hc li khng phi d dng g. Sau , mi ngi hi ti c tip tc ko di cun sch hay khng. Ti t chi v ti khng mun vit a con ca lc s v thi gian hay Lch s di hn v thi gian v bi v ti bn rn vi cng vic nghin cu. Nhng ti nhn ra rng c nhng vn cho mt loi sch khc c th hiu mt cch d dng hn. Lc s v thi gian c vit theo kiu trnh t, phi c cc chng u mi tip tc cc chng tip. Mt s ngi thch kiu c ny nhng mt s khc nu b tc cc chng u s khng bao gi c nhng phn th v hn ca chng tip theo. Ngc li, cun sch ny ging nh mt ci cy: chng mt v hai l ci thn v cc chng sau l cc cnh l. Cc cnh l kh c lp vi nhau v c th nm bt c sau khi c xong phn thn chnh. Chng lin quan n nhng vn ti nghin cu trong khong thi gian t sau khi xut bn cun Lc s v thi gian n nay. Do chng m t nhng vn nng bng nht ca khoa hc hin nay. Trong chng mt ti c trnh cu trc trnh t. Cc minh ha v cc ch thch cho cc hnh c th hin kh c lp vi li vit ging nh Lc s v thi gian: n bn minh ha xut bn nm 1996, cc thng tin b sung cung cp thm c hi o su thm ch c chng sch cp.
T R
T R O N G
Nm 1988, khi cun Lc s thi gian ra i th L thuyt v vn vt (Theory of Everything) va mi c pht trin. T n nay th hin trng thay i th no? Chng ta tin n gn mc ch ca chng ta cha? Cun sch ny m t t n nay chng ta i c rt xa. Nhng qung ng pha trc vn cn di cha bit bao gi c th kt thc c. Nhng nh ngi ta thng ni, i trong hy vng tt hn l n ch. Mong mun khm ph chnh l nhin liu cho s sng to ca chng ta, iu khng ch ng trong khoa hc. Nu chng ta n ch th tinh thn ca chng ta s teo li v cht. Nhng ti khng ngh rng chng ta chu dm chn ti ch: chng ta s lm tng phc tp, khng theo chiu su th chng ta cng l theo chiu rng ang gia tng. Ti mun chia s nim vui sng khi c c cc pht hin v bc tranh hin thc ang hp li vi nhau. Chi tit v cc cng trnh mang tnh k thut nhng ti tin cc tng chnh c chuyn ti m khg cn n cc cng c ton hc. Ti hy vng ti s thnh cng. Ti nhn c nhiu s gip khi vit cun sch ny. Ti c bit mun nhc n Thomas Hertog v Neel Shearer v gip son tho cc hnh v, ch thch, thng tin tham kho, Ann Harris v Kitty Ferguson v chun b bn tho (ng hn l cc le my tnh v tt c nhng iu ti vit u di dng in t) Philip Dunn Book Lab v Moonrunner Design v chun b cc hnh minh ha. Ngoi ra ti mun cm n tt c nhng ngi gip ti c mt cuc sng bnh thng v tip tc nghin cu khoa hc. Khng c h ti khng bao gi c th vit c cun sch ny. Stephen Hawking
Cambridge, 2/5/2001
T R
T R O N G
MC LC CHNG 1 - trang 3 LC S V THUYT TNG I Einstein thit lp hai l thuyt c bn ca th k hai mi: L thuyt tng i rng v L thuyt lng t nh th no? CHNG 2 - trang 29 HNH DNG CA THI GIAN Thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein cho thi gian mt hnh dng N c th tng hp vi thuyt lng t nh th no? CHNG 3 - trang 67 V TR TRONG MT V HT V tr c nhiu lch s, mi mt lch s c xc nh bng mt ht t hon. CHNG 4 - trang 101 TIN ON TNG LAI S bin mt ca thng tin trong cc h en c th lm gim kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta nh th no? CHNG 5 - trang 131 BO V QU KH Liu c th du hnh thi gian c khng? Mt nn vn minh tin tin c th quay li v thay i qu kh c khng? CHNG 6 - trang 155 U L TNG LAI CA CHNG TA? C TH L STAR TREK HAY KHNG? Lm th no m cuc sng sinh hc v in t s tip tc pht trin phc tp vi mt tc cha tng thy? CHNG 7 - trang 173 MNG V TR MI Chng ta ang sng trn mt mng hay chng ta ch l mt nh a chiu? THUT NG - trang 202
C hc lng t Thuyt-M Thuyt tng i rng
Cc mng-p
Mng 10 chiu Cc siu dy
Siu hp dn 11 chiu
H en
CHNG 1
L C S V T H UYT TNG I
Einstein thit lp hai l thuyt cn bn ca th k hai mi: L thuyt tng i rng v l thuyt lng t nh th no?
Trang 3
T R
T R O N G
lbert Einstein, cha ca thuyt tng i hp v thuyt tng i rng sinh ra Ulm, c vo nm 1879. Mt nm sau gia nh ng chuyn n Munich, ti , cha ng Herman v cu ng Jacob khi s kinh doanh v in nhng khng my thnh cng. Einstein khng phi l thn ng nhng c ngi cho rng ng l mt hc sinh c bit ph thng th li l mt s cng iu. Nm 1894 cng vic lm n ca cha ng b b nn gia nh chuyn n Milan. Gia nh quyt nh ng nn li hon thnh bc hc ph thng, nhng ng khng thch ch ngha c on ca trng hc nn ch sau my thng ng on t vi gia nh . Sau ng tt nghip ph thng Zurich v tt nghip i hc trng Bch khoa lin bang vo nm 1900. Bn tnh hay tranh lun v v c cm vi quyn lc khng mang cho ng mt chn gio s trng Bch khoa lin bang v khng mt gio s no ca trng mi ng lm tr ging, m thi by gi l con ng bnh thng theo ui s nghip khoa hc. Cui cng th hai nm sau ng cng xoay s c mt vic Vn phng sng ch Bern. ng lm vic ti trong thi gian ng vit ba bi bo, trong hai bi a ng tr thnh nh khoa hc hng u th gii v bt u hai cuc cch mng v t tng lm thay i hiu bit ca chng ta v khng gian, thi gian v bn thn thc ti vo nm 1905. Gn cui th k th 19, cc nh khoa hc tin rng h gn nh m t v tr mt cch ton vn. H cho rng khng gian c lp y bi mt loi vt cht lin tc gi l -te (ether). nh sng v cc tn hiu v tuyn l cc sng lan truyn trong -te ging nh sng m lan truyn trong khng kh. V tt c cc iu cn lm cho mt l thuyt hon thin l php o chnh xc xc nh tnh n hi ca -te. Thc ra cc php o nh th c xy dng hon chnh ti phng th nghim Jefferson trng i hc Harvard m khng dng n mt ci inh st no trnh lm nhiu cc php o t trng yu. Tuy vy nhng ngi xy dng h o qun rng cc vin gch nu xy nn phng th nghim v phn ln cc ta nh Harvard u cha mt lng ln st. Ngy nay cc ta nh vn c s dng, nhng h vn khng chc l nu khng c cc inh st th sn th vin ca trng c th nng c sc nng l bao nhiu.
Trang 4
Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com
H U Y
N G
Albert Einstein nm 1920

Trang 5
T R
T R O N G
nh sng chuyn ng trong -te
(Hnh 1.1, pha trn) L THUYT -TE C NH Nu nh sng l sng trong mt loi vt cht n hi c gi l -te th vn tc ca nh sng i vi ngi trn tu v tr chuyn ng ngc hng nh sng (a) s nhanh hn vn tc ca nh sng i vi ngi trong con tu chuyn ng cng hng vi nh sng (b). (Hnh 1.2, trang k) Ngi ta khng thy s khc bit v vn tc nh sng theo cc hng trong mt phng qu o ca tri t v hng vung gc vi mt phng qu o .
Vo cui th k 19, cc tng tri ngc nhau v s c mt ca -te bt u xut hin. Ngi ta tin rng nh sng chuyn ng vi mt tc xc nh so vi -te v nu bn chuyn ng cng hng vi nh sng trong -te th bn s thy nh sng chuyn ng chm hn, v nu bn chuyn ng ngc hng vi nh sng th bn s thy nh sng di chuyn nhanh hn (hnh 1.1). V mt lot cc th nghim chng minh iu tht bi. Albert Michelson v Edward Morley ca trng khoa hc ng dng Cleveland, bang Ohio thc hin cc th nghim cn thn v chnh xc nht vo nm 1887. H so snh tc nh sng ca hai chm sng vung gc vi nhau. V tri t t quay quanh mnh v quay quanh mt tri nn dng c th nghim s di chuyn trong -te vi tc v hng thay i. Nhng Michelson v Morley cho thy rng khng c s khc bit gia hai chm sng . Hnh nh l nh sng truyn vi tc nh nhau i vi ngi quan st, khng ph thuc vo tc v hng ca ngi chuyn ng (hnh 1.3). Da trn th nghim Michelson-Morley, mt nh vt l ngi Ai-len tn l George Fitzgerald v nh vt l ngi H Lan tn l Hendrik Lorentz gi thit rng cc vt th chuyn ng trong -te s co li v thi gian s b chm i. S co v s chm li ca ng h lm cho tt c mi ngi s o c mt tc nh sng nh nhau khng ph thuc vo vic h chuyn ng nh th no i vi te (George Fitzgerald v Hendrik Lorentz vn coi -te l mt loi vt cht c thc). Tuy vy, nm 1905, Einstein vit mt bi bo ch ra rng nu ngi ta khng th bit c ngi ta chuyn ng
Trang 6
H U Y
N G
Tri t quay t ty sang ng
nh sng vung gc vi qu o ca tri t quanh mt tri
Cc tia sng vung gc vi nhau v i theo chiu quay ca tri t cng khng th hin s khc nhau v vn tc
Trang 7
T R
T R O N G
(HNH 1.3) O VN TC NH SNG Trong giao thoa k Michenson-Morley, nh sng t ngun sng c tch thnh hai chm bng mt gng bn m. Hai chm sng i theo hai hng vung gc vi nhau sau li kt hp thnh mt chm sng sau khi p vo gng bn m mt ln na. S sai khc v tc nh sng ca hai chm sng i theo hai hng c th lm cho cc nh sng ca chm sng ny trng vi y sng ca chm sng kia v chng trit tiu nhau.
Hnh phi: s th nghim c v li t s c in trn tp ch Scientic American nm 1887.
Trang 8
H U Y
N G
Bay t ng sang ty
ng h trn phi c bay v hng ty ghi nhn mt khong thi gian lu hn ngi anh sinh i ca n bay v hng ngc li
Bay t ty sang ng
Thi gian ca cc hnh khch trn phi c bay v hng ng s ngn hn thi gian ca nhng hnh khch trn phi c bay v hng ty (Hnh 1.4) Mt phin bn v nghch l anh em sinh i (hnh 1.5) c kim tra bng thc nghim t hai chic ng h chnh xc bay ngc chiu nhau vng quanh tri t. Khi chng gp nhau th ng h bay v hng ng ghi li thi gian ngn hn cht t.
trong khng gian hay khng th khi nim -te khng cn cn thit na. Thay vo , ng bt u bng mt gi thuyt rng cc nh lut khoa hc xut hin nh nhau i vi tt c nhng ngi quan st chuyn ng t do. c bit l h s o c tc nh snh nh nhau khng ph thuc vo tc chuyn ng ca h. Tc ca nh sng c lp vi chuyn ng ca ngi quan st v nh nhau theo tt c cc hng. tng ny i hi phi t b ngh cho rng tn ti mt i lng ph qut c gi l thi gian c th o c bng tt c cc ng h. Thay vo , mi ngi c mt thi gian ring ca h. Thi gian ca hai ngi s ging nhau nu hai ngi ng yn tng i vi nhau, nhng thi gian s khc nhau nu hai ngi chuyn ng tng i vi nhau. Gi thuyt ny c khng nh bng rt nhiu th nghim, trong c mt th nghim gm hai ng h chnh xc bay theo hng ngc nhau vng quanh tri t v quay li cho thy thi gian c sai lch cht t. Gi thuyt gi rng nu ai mun sng lu hn th ngi nn bay v hng ng v nh th th tc ca tri t s b sung vo tc ca my bay. Tuy vy, cc ba n trn my bay s rt ngn cuc sng ca bn gp nhiu ln mt phn nh ca giy m bn c c.
Trang 9
T R
T R O N G
Trang 10
H U Y
N G
(Hnh 1.7)
Gi thuyt ca Einstein cho rng cc nh lut khoa hc xut hin nh nhau i vi tt c cc ngi quan st chuyn ng t do l c s ca thuyt tng i. Gi nh vy v n ng rng ch c chuyn ng tng i l quan trng. V p v s n gin ca gi thuyt ny thuyt phc rt nhiu cc nh t tng, tuy nhin, vn c rt nhiu cc kin tri ngc. Einstein vt b hai khi nim tuyt i ca khoa hc th k 19: ng yn tuyt i i din l -te v thi gian tuyt i v ph qut m tt c cc ng h o c. Rt nhiu ngi thy rng y l mt khi nim khng bnh thng. H hi, gi thuyt ng rng tt c mi th u tng i, rng khng c mt tiu chun o c tuyt i? S bt rt ny tip din trong sut nhng nm 20 v 30 ca th k 20. Khi Einstein c trao gii Nobel vo nm 1921 v mt cng trnh km quan trng hn cng c ng cho ra i vo nm 1905. Lc , thuyt tng i khng c nhc n v n vn cn gy nhiu tranh ci (n by gi ti vn nhn c vi ba bc th hng tun ni rng Einstein sai). Tuy vy, hin nay, cc nh vt l hon ton chp nhn thuyt tng i, v cc tin on ca n c kim chng trong v vn ng dng.
(Hnh 1.5, trang trc) NGHCH L ANH EM SINH I Trong thuyt tng i, mi ngi quan st s o thi gian khc nhau. iu ny c th dn n nghch l anh em sinh i (twin paradox). Mt ngi trong cp anh em sinh i (a) trong mt phi thuyn thm him khng gian chuyn ng vi vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng (c) trong khi ngi anh em ca anh ta (b) vn trn mt t. V thi gian ca (a) trong phi thuyn chm hn thi gian ca (b) trn tri t. Nn khi ngi (a) tr v (a2) anh ta s thy ngi anh em ca anh ta trn tri t (b2) gi hn anh ta. Mc d n c v chng li cm nhn chung ca chng ta, rt nhiu th nghim chng minh rng trong kch bn ny, ngi du hnh v tr s tr hn ngi cn li. (Hnh 1.6, hnh bn) Mt phi thuyn i ngang qua tri t t tri sang phi vi vn tc bng bn phn nm vn tc nh sng. Mt xung nh sng pht ra t cabin v phn x li u kia (a). Ngi trn tri t nhn nh sng trn phi thuyn. V phi thuyn chuyn ng nn hai ngi s quan st khong cch m nh sng i c khi phn x li khng bng nhau(b). V vi h thi gian m nh sng dng truyn cng khng bng nhau, v theo gi thuyt ca Einstein, tc nh sng l nh nhau i vi tt c cc ngi quan st chuyn ng t do. Trang 11
T R
T R O N G
Mt h qu quan trng ca thuyt tng i l h thc gia khi lng v nng lng. Gi thit ca Einstein v tc ca nh sng l nh nhau i vi tt c cc ngi quan st ng rng khng c g c th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng. Nu ta dng nng lng gia tc mt vt no , d l mt ht hay mt tu v tr, th khi lng ca vt s gia tng cng vi tc v do s kh c th gia tc thm c na. Ta khng th gia tc mt ht n tc nh sng v ta cn mt nng lng ln v cng lm iu . Khi lng v nng lng l tng ng v iu c tng kt trong mt phng trnh ni ting E = mc2 (hnh 1.7). C l y l phng trnh vt l duy nht m chng ta c th nhn thy n c vit trn ng ph. Mt trong s cc h qu ca phng trnh trn l ht nhn ca nguyn t Uranium phn r thnh 2 ht nhn nh hn c tng khi lng nh hn khi lng ca ht nhn ban u, vic ny s gii ta mt nng lng v cng ln (hnh 1.8). Vo nm 1939, khi m kh nng mt cuc chin tranh th gii na ang l m xut hin, mt nhm cc nh khoa hc nhn ra tm
Trang 12
H U Y
N G
Bc th tin on ca Einstein gi tng thng Roosevelt nm 1939 Trong thi gian bn thng qua, thng qua cc cng trnh ca Joliot Php cng nh Fermi v Szilard Hoa K, chng ta c th xy dng mt phn ng ht nhn vi mt khi lng ln Uranium, nh m sinh ra mt ngun nng lng ln. By gi, chng ta c th lm iu ny trong mt tng lai gn. Mc d cha chc chn, nhng hin tng mi ny c kh nng dn n vic to ra cc qu bom c sc cng ph cc ln.
quan trng v thuyt phc Einstein vt qua s lng l ca bn thn in tn ca ng vo mt bc th gi Tng thng Roosevelt nhm thc gic Hoa K khi ng chng trnh nghin cu ht nhn. Vic ny dn n d n Manhattan v kt qu ca n l 2 qu bom nguyn t c nm xung Hiroshima v Nagasaki vo nm 1945. Mt s ngi ti cho Einstein v bom nguyn t bi v ng khm ph ra mi lin h gia khi lng v nng lng; nhng iu ny ging nh l ti cho Newton gy ra cc v tai nn my bay v pht hin ra nh lut hp dn. Sau cc bi bo gy chn ng vo nm 1905, Einstein tr ln ni tin trn th gii. Nhng n tn nm 1909 ng mi c mi vo lm vic ti trng i hc Zurich v do , ng c th t b cng vic vn phng sng ch Thy S. Hai nm sau, ng chuyn sang i hc c Prague, nhng ng quay tr li Zurich vo nm 1912, nhng ln ny ng v trng Bch khoa lin bang. Mc d ch
Trang 13
T R
T R O N G
Uranium (U-236)
(n)
Uranium (U-235) Tia gamma
(n)
Neutron (n) bn ph ht nhn (U-235) Ht nhn t hp dao ng v bt n nh (Ba-144) Ht nhn t hp dao ng v bt n nh
(Hnh 1.8) NNG LNG LIN KT HT NHN Ht nhn c to thnh t proton v neutron lin kt vi nhau nh lc ht nhn mnh. Nhng khi lng ca ht nhn lun nh hn tng khi lng ca cc proton v neutron ring l to nn chng. S khc nhau chnh l mt php o nng lng lin kt ht nhn m gi ht nhn li vi nhau. Nng lng lin kt ny c th c tnh t h thc Einstein: nng lng lin kt ht nhn = mc2 trong m l s khc nhau gia khi lng ht nhn v tng cc thnh phn. N gii thot mt lng nng lng to nn mt sc cng ph khng l.
ngha bi Do thi (anti-semitism) ang ph bin chu u, ngay c trong cc trng i hc, nhng ng vn l mt ti sn qu ca trng i hc. C nhiu ngh lm vic n t Vienna v Utrecht, nhng ng chp nhn mt v tr Vin hn lm khoa hc Prussian Berlin v ng khng phi m nhim cng vic ging dy. ng chuyn n Berlin vo thng 4 nm 1914 v sau t lu v v hai con ca ng cng chuyn n vi ng. Cuc hn nhn ca ng gp nhiu sng gi, do vy, v v cc con ng nhanh chng tr li Zurich. Mc du thnh thong ng vn tr li thm h nhng cui cng cuc hn nhn ca h cng tan v. Sau Einstein ly mt ngi em h tn l Elsa sng Berlin. Trong nhng nm chin tranh ng sng c thn v khng c rng buc v gia nh, c l chnh v th y l thi k thng hoa nht ca ng v mt khoa hc. Mc du thuyt tng i rt ph hp vi cc nh lut in v t nhng n li khng tng hp vi nh lut hp dn ca Newton. nh lut ca Newton ni rng nu mt lng vt cht trong mt vng ca khng gian b thay i th trng hp dn m n to ra trong ton v tr cng thay i ngay lp tc. iu ny c ngha l ngi ta c th gi cc tn hiu nhanh hn nh sng (mu thun vi thuyt tng i); hiu tc thi c ngha l g, ngi ta li cn n khi nim thi gian tuyt i v ph qut, chnh iu ny li loi b thi gian c nhn.
Trang 14
H U Y
N G
(Kr-89) Ht nhn t hp dao ng v bt n nh Tnh trung bnh, phn r thu c 2,4 neutron v nng lng 215 MeV
Phng trnh Einstein gia nng lng (E), khi lng (m), v vn tc nh sng (c) cho thy mt lng nh khi lng tng ng vi mt nng lng khng l: E=mc2
Neutron lin kt Proton
Neutron t do
Neutron (n) c th khi ng mt phn ng dy truyn
Tia gamma
(n)
PHN NG DY TRUYN Mt neutron t phn r U-235 ban u s bn ph cc ht nhn khc. Qu trnh ny to ra mt phn r ht nhn khc v mt phn ng dy truyn gm cc va chm tip theo bt u Nu phn ng ny t duy tr th n c gi l ti hn v khi lng U-235 c gi l khi lng ti hn.
Trang 15
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 1.9) Mt ngi quan st ng trong mt ci hp khng th nhn ra s khc nhau khi ng trong mt chic thang my tnh trn tri t (a) hoc b gia tc bi mt tn la trong khng gian t do (b). Nu ngi ta tt ng c ca tn la (c) cm gic s ging nh trong mt chic thang my ri t do xung t.
Nm 1907, Einstein nhn ra kh khn ny khi ng cn lm vic vn phng sng ch Bern, nhng phi n khi ng Prague vo nm 1911 ng mi suy ngh v vn ny mt cch nghim tc. ng nhn ra rng c mt mi lin h mt thit gia gia tc v trng hp dn. Mt ngi no trong mt ci hp ng kn nh l trong mt ci thang my chng hn khng th nhn bit c ci hp ang ng yn trong trng hp dn ca tri t hay ang b gia tc bi mt tn la trong khng gian (tt nhin lc ny l trc k nguyn ca Star Trek, v Einstein ngh v nhng ngi ng trong thang my hn l v nhng con tu v tr). Nhng ngi ta khng th gia tc hoc ri t do lu c trong ci thang my trc khi tai nn xy ra! (hnh 1.9)
Trang 16
H U Y
N G
Hnh (1.10)
Hnh (1.11)
Nu tri t phng th ta c th ni rng qu to ri xung u Newton l do hp dn hoc Newton v b mt tri t b gia tc ln trn, hai cch ni trn l tng ng (hnh 1.10). S tng ng gia gia tc v hp dn khng s cn ng khi tri t l hnh cu, tuy vy- ngi mt kia tri t c th b gia tc theo cc chiu ngc li nhng vn ng nhng khong cch khng i vi nhau (hnh 1.11). Nhng khi ng quay li Zurich vo nm 1912, ng c mt bc t ph khi nhn ra rng s tng ng l ng nu hnh dng ca khng thi gian b b cong ch khng thng nh ngi ta vn ngh cho ti thi im y. tng ca ng l khi lng v nng lng
(Hnh 1.12) CONG CA KHNG THI GIAN Gia tc v hp dn ch c th tng ng vi nhau nu mt vt th c khi lng ln b cong khng thi gian, do b cong c l trnh ca cc vt th xung quanh n.
Trang 17
T R
T R O N G
Nu tri t phng (hnh 1.10) th ngi ta c th gii thch bng mt trong hai cch tng ng sau: qu to ri xung u Newton do lc hp dn hoc do Newton gia tc ln pha trn. S tng ng ny khng cn ng khi tri t hnh cu (hnh 1.11) v nhng ngi mt kia ca tri t s ri xa nhau. Einstein gii quyt bi ton ny bng vic gi thit khng gian v thi gian b cong.
lm cong khng thi gian theo mt cch c th xc nh c. Cc vt th nh l qu to hoc l hnh tinh s c gng chuyn ng thng trong khng thi gian, nhng qu o ca chng s b b cong bi mt trng hp dn do khng thi gian b cong (hnh 1.12). Vi s gip ca Marcel Grossmann, Einstein nghin cu l thuyt khng gian v mt phng cong do Georg Friedrich Riemann pht trin trc . Tuy vy, Riemann ngh rng ch c khng gian b b cong. iu lm cho Einstein ngh rng khng thi gian cng b b cong. Einstein v Grossmann vit chung mt bi bo vo nm 1913, trong h y tng m chng ta ngh v lc hp dn ch l nhng biu hin ca s cong ca khng thi gian. Tuy vy, v mt sai lm do Einstein gy ra (Einstein cng rt con
Trang 18
H U Y
N G
ngi v c th nhm ln), h khng th tm ra cc phng trnh lin h cong ca khng gian vi khi lng v nng lng trong . Einstein vn tip tc nghin cu vn ny Berlin, khng b nh hng bi cc vn gia nh v ch yu l khng b nh hng bi chin tranh, cho n khi ng tm thy cc phng trnh vo thng 11 nm 1915. ng trao i cc tng ca ng vi nh ton hc David Hilbert trong chuyn thm trng i hc Gottingen vo ma h nm 1915, v Hilbert cng tm ra cc phng trnh tng t mt cch c lp trc Einstein vi ngy. Tuy nhin, ngay c bn thn Hilbert cng tha nhn, tc quyn ca l thuyt mi l thuc v Einstein. tng lin h hp dn vi cong ca khng thi gian chnh l ca ng. y cng l mt li khen cho nc c vo thi im khi cc cuc trao i v tho lun khoa hc c th din ra m khng b nh hng bi chin tranh. iu ny hon ton tri ngc vi k nguyn c quc x (Nazi) 20 nm sau . L thuyt mi v s cong ca khng thi gian c gi l thuyt tng i rng phn bit vi l thuyt ban u khng c lc hp dn c mi ngi bit n vi ci tn l thuyt tng i hp. L thuyt ny c khng nh trong mt th nghim rt n tng vo nm 1919, trong mt cuc thm him ca cc nh khoa hc ngi Anh v pha Ty chu Phi quan st c lch rt nh ca nh
Trang 19
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 1.13) NH SNG B B CONG nh sng t cc ngi sao i n gn mt tri lch hng do khi lng ca mt tri lm cong khng thi gian (a). iu ny lm dch chuyn v tr biu kin ca ngi sao khi nhn t tri t (b). Hin tng ny c th quan st khi nht thc.
Trang 20
H U Y
N G
sng n t mt ngi sao i gn mt tri trong qu trnh nht thc (hnh 1.13). y l mt bng chng trc tip cho thy rng khng thi gian b b cong, v n khch l s thay i ln nht ca con ngi trong nhn thc ca chng ta v v tr m chng ta ang sng t khi Euclid vit cun sch Hnh hc c s vo khong 300 nm trc Cng nguyn. Thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein bin khng thi gian t vai tr l mt khung nn th ng trong cc hin tng xy ra tr thnh mt tc nhn ch ng trong chuyn ng ca v tr. iu dn ti mt bi ton rt ln v l mi quan tm hng u ca vt l th k 20. V tr trn y vt cht v vt cht b cong khng thi gian theo mt cch lm cho cc vt th ri vo nhau. Einstein thy rng cc phng trnh ca ng khng c nghim m t mt v tr tnh ti v khng thay i theo thi gian. Thay v vic t b mt v tr vnh cu m ng v phn ln nhng ngi khc tin, ng thm vo mt s hng gi l hng s v tr mt cch khin cng. Hng s ny lm cong khng thi gian theo hng ngc li, do , cc vt th s chuyn ng ra xa nhau. Hiu ng y ca hng s v tr c th cn bng vi hiu ng ht ca vt cht, cho php ng thu c mt v tr tnh ti. y l mt trong nhng c may b mt ng tic nht trong vt l thuyt. Nu Einstein dng li cc phng trnh ban u ca ng, ng c th tin on rng v tr s gin n hoc co li. Kh nng v tr thay i theo thi gian ch c xem xt mt cch nghim tc cho n khi c c nhng quan st thu c t knh thin vn 2,5 m t trn nh Wilson vo nhng nm 1920. Nhng quan st ny cho thy rng cc thin h cng xa nhau th chuyn ng ra xa nhau cng nhanh. V tr ang gin n vi khong cch gia 2 thin h tng dn theo thi gian (hnh 1.14). Pht hin ny loi b s c mt ca hng s v tr c c mt v tr tnh. Sau ny Einstein ni rng hng s v tr l sai lm ln nht ca i ng. Tuy vy, ngy nay, ngi ta thy rng hng s v tr hon ton khng phi l mt sai lm: nhng quan st gn y s c m t trong chng 3 gi rng thc ra l c mt hng s v tr c gi tr rt nh.
Trang 21
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 1.14) Quan st v cc thin h ch ra rng v tr ang gin n: khong cch gia hu ht cc cp thin h ang gia tng.
Thuyt tng i rng thay i hon ton vic bn lun ngun gc v s phn ca v tr. Mt v tr tnh ti c th tn ti mi mi hoc c th c to ra vi hnh dng hin nay ca n ti mt thi im trong qu kh. Tuy vy, nu by gi cc thin h ang ri xa nhau, iu c ngha l trong qu kh chng tng rt gn nhau. Khong 15 t nm trc y, chng tng chp li vi nhau v mt rt ln. Trng thi ny c mt linh mc Cng gio tn l Georges Lemaitre, ngi u tin nghin cu v ngun gc ca v tr gi l nguyn t nguyn thy m ngy nay chng ta gi l v n ln. Dng nh Einstein cha bao gi nghin cu v n ln mt cch nghim tc. R rng l ng ngh rng m hnh n gin v v tr gin n ng nht s khng ng nu ngi ta theo di chuyn ng ca cc thin h trong qu kh v rng cc vn tc bin ca cc thin h c th lm cho chng khng chm vo nhau. ng ngh rng trc v tr pha co li v trt qua nhau chuyn sang pha dn n hin nay vi mt mt trung bnh. Tuy vy, by gi
Trang 22
H U Y
N G
chng ta bit rng cho cc phn ng ht nhn trong v tr ban u to ra mt lng ln cc nguyn t nh m chng ta quan st c xung quanh, th mt cn phi ln hn 0,64 tn/cm3 v nhit phi trn mt t . Hn na cc quan st v phng vi sng ch ra rng c th mt t n 1026 tn/cm3. Ngy nay chng ta bit rng thuyt tng i rng cua Einstein khng cho php v tr trt qua nhau n pha dn n hin ti. Nh s c tho lun trong chng 2, Roger Pensose v ti c th ch ra rng thuyt tng i rng tin on v tr bt u bng mt v n ln. Do , l thuyt ca Einstein tin on rng thi gian, c s khi u mc d ng khng thch tng ny cho lm. Thm ch Einstein cn min cng hn tha nhn rng thuyt tng i rng tin on thi gian s kt thc i vi cc ngi sao nng khi chng giai on cui ca cuc i v khi chng khng cn nhit lng cn bng vi lc hp dn ca bn thn chng. Lc hp dn ny ang c lm chng nh i. Einstein ngh rng, cc ngi sao nh vy s kt thc cuc i mt trng thi cui cng, nhng
Knh vin vng 100-inch ti i quan st Mount Wilson.
Trang 23
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 1.15, trang k) Mt ngi sao ln cn kit nguyn liu ht nhn s mt i nhit lng v co li. cong ca khng gian s tr ln ln n mc to ra mt h en m nh sng khng th thot ra c. Thi gian kt thc trong lng h en.
ngy nay chng ta bit rng s khng c trng thi cui cng cho cc ngi sao c khi lng ln hn hai ln khi lng mt tri. Cc ngi sao nh vy s tip tc co li cho n khi chng tr thnh cc h en, nhng vng m khng thi gian b b cong n ni nh sng khng th thot ra khi c (hnh 1.15). Penrose v ti cho thy rng thuyt tng i rng tin on thi gian s kt thc trong mt h en, i vi bn thn ngi sao v i vi mt nh du hnh v tr khng may b ri vo n. Nhng c im khi u v kt thc ca thi gian l nhng ni m cc phng trnh ca thuyt tng i rng khng th c xc nh. Do , l thuyt khng tin on c ci g tham gia v n ln. Mt s ngi thy rng y l biu hin cho t do ca Cha sng to th gii theo bt k cch no m ngi mun, nhng nhng ngi khc (trong c ti) cm thy rng s khi u ca v tr cng c iu khin bi cc nh lut khoa hc m iu khin v tr ti cc thi im sau khi v tr hnh thnh. Chng ta t c mt s tin b trong vn ny, nh s c m t trong chng 3, nhng chng ta vn cha hiu hon ton ngun gc ca v tr. L do m thuyt tng i khng cn ng ti thi im v n ln l thuyt tng i khng tng hp c vi l thuyt lng t, mt cuc cch mng khc v t tng vo thi im u th k 20. Bc u tin ti thuyt lng t c thc hin vo nm 1900, khi Max Plank Berlin khm ph ra rng bc x pht ra t cc vt th nng c th c gii thch nu nh sng ch c th c pht ra hoc b hp th theo nhng lng ri rc c gi l cc lng t (quanta). Mt trong s cc bi bo cch mng ca ng c vit nm 1905, khi ng cn lm vic vn phng sng ch, Einstein chng minh rng gi thuyt lng t ca Plank c th gii thch mt hiu ng gi l hiu ng quang in, trong hiu ng ny, cc kim loi s pht ra cc in t khi b nh sng chiu vo. Hiu ng l l c s ca cc u thu nh sng v v tuyn, v cng nh cng trnh ny Einstein c trao gii Nobel vt l. Einstein tip tc nghin cu l thuyt lng t cho n nhng nm 1920, nhng ng rt bn khon v cng trnh ca Heisenberg Copenhagen, Paul Dirac Cambridge v Erwin Schrodinger Zurich, l nhng ngi pht trin mt bc tranh mi v thc
Trang 24
H U Y
N G
3) Thi gian s kt thc trong mt h en.
2) Khi ngi sao co li th cong tng ln
1) Ngi sao ang t chy nhin liu ht nhn lm cong khng thi gian xung quanh n.
Trang 25
T R
T R O N G
ti c gi l c hc lng t. Nhng ht t hon khng cn c v tr v tc chnh xc na. Thay vo , nu ngi ta xc nh v tr ca ht cng chnh xc bao nhiu th ngi ta cng kh xc nh vn tc ca n by nhiu v ngc li. Einstein rt kh chu v nhng yu t ngu nhin, bt nh trong cc nh lut c bn v ng cha bao gi chp nhn hon ton c hc lng t. Suy ngh ca ng c th hin trong cu chm ngn Cha khng chi tr xc sc. Tuy vy, phn ln cc nh khoa hc chp nhn tnh ng n ca l thuyt lng t mi ny bi v chng gii thch c mt lot cc hin tng kh hiu trc v rt ph hp vi cc quan st. Cc quy lut lng t l c s cho s pht trin ca ha hc, sinh hc phn t, v in t hin i v l c s cho nn cng ngh thay i th gii trong 50 nm qua. Thng 12 nm 1932, nhn thy c quc x v Hitler sp ln nm quyn, Einstein ri nc c v 4 thng sau ng t b quyn cng dn ginh trn 20 nm cuc i cn li ca mnh cho Vin nghin cu cp cao Princeton, bang New Jersey.
Albert Einstein cng con ri m phng chnh ng ngay sau khi n Hoa K nh c lu di.
c, ng Quc x tin hnh mt chin dch chng li khoa hc Do thi v v rt nhiu cc nh khoa hc c l ngi Do thi, nn y cng l mt nguyn nhn lm cho ngi c khng ch to c bom nguyn t. Einstein v thuyt tng i ca ng l i tng chnh ca chin dch ny. Khi c hi v mt cun sch c xut bn vi tiu 100 tc gi chng li Einstein th ng tr li: Ti sao li mt trm? Nu ti sai th mt cng . Sau th chin hai, ng thc gic cc nc ng minh thit lp mt t chc quc t kim sot bom nguyn t. Nm 1948, ng c mi lm tng thng ca nh nc Israel non tr nhng ng t chi. Mt ln ng ni: Chnh tr l nht thi, ch c cc phng trnh mi l vnh cu. Cc phng trnh thuyt tng i ca Einstein l tm bia ghi nhn cng lao ca ng. Chng s tn ti mi mi cng v tr. Trong vi trm nm qua, th gii thay i nhiu hn bt k th k no trc . Nguyn nhn khng phi l cc thnh tu v kinh t hay chnh tr m l s pht trin vt bc v cng ngh c xy dng trn nn khoa hc c bn. Vy th ai xng ng l biu tng cho s tin b hn Einstein?
Trang 26
H U Y
N G
Trang 27
CHNG 2
H NH D N G CA THI GIAN
Thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein cho thi gian mt hnh dng N c th tng hp vi thuyt lng t nh th no?
Trang 29
T R
T R O N G
Cc vng nhnh kh c th xy ra hay khng th xy ra?
ng ray xe la chnh chy t qu kh n tng lai
Thi gian c th phn nhnh v quay li c khng?
(Hnh 2.1) M HNH THI GIAN GING NH NHNG NG RAY XE LA Nhng ng ray chnh ch c tc dng v mt pha v tng lai hay n c th quay li nhp vi n ti cc giao im trc ?
Trang 30
Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com
N H
N G
I A N
hi gian l g? Mt bi thnh ca ni: thi gian l mt lung chy v tn cun theo bao m c ca chng ta. N c phi l mt tuyn ng ray xe la hay khng? C th thi gian c nhng vng lp v phn nhnh v nh chng ta c th i ti v li cn c th quay li mt ga no trc trn ng ray (hnh 2.1). Mt tc gi th k 19 tn l Charles Lamb vit: khng c g lm ti bi ri hn thi gian v khng gian, bi v ti cha bao gi ngh v n. Hu ht mi ngi trong chng ta chng mt th gi bn tm v thi gian v khng gian, chng l g cng c, nhng i lc tt c chng ta t hi thi gian l g, n bt u th no v n ang dn chng ta v u. Theo ti, bt k mt l thuyt mang tnh khoa hc no v thi gian hoc v bt k mt khi nim no khc u da trn mt trit l khoa hc hiu qu nht: phng php thc chng (positivism) do nh trit hc Karl Popper v cng s a ra. Theo phng php t duy ny th mt l thuyt khoa hc l mt m hnh ton hc m t v gii m cc quan st m chng ta thu c. Mt l thuyt tt s m t c nhiu hin tng da trn mt s t cc gi thit v s tin on c cc hin tng c th kim chng c. Nu cc tin on ph hp vi thc nghim th l thuyt s vt qua c t kim chng mc d c th ngi ta khng bao gi chng minh rng l thuyt l chnh xc. Mt khc, nu cc l thuyt khng ph hp vi cc tin on th chng ta cn loi b hoc sa i l thuyt (t nht l nhng iu cn xy ra. Trn thc t, ngi ta thng t cu hi v chnh xc ca cc quan st v kha cnh o c ca nhng ngi thc hin cc quan st ). Nu ngi ta ng trn quan im thc chng ging nh ti th ngi ta khng th ni thc s thi gian l g. Tt c nhng vic m ngi ta c th l m t cc s kin c tm ra cc m hnh ton hc v thi gian ph hp tt vi thc nghim v tin on cc s kin mi. Isaac Newton cho chng ta m hnh ton hc u tin v thi gian v khng gian trong cun Cc nguyn l ton hc (Principia
Trang 31
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 2.2) Thi gian ca Newton b tch khi khng gian nh l nhng ng ray xe la tri di n v tn theo hai hng.
Isaac Newton xut bn m hnh ton hc v khng gian v thi gian cch y 300 nm.
Mathematica), xut bn nm 1687. Newton tng gi gh gio s Lucasian ti trng i hc Cambridge, v tr m ti ang gi hin nay, mc d lc chic gh ca Newton khng c iu khin bng in nh ca ti! Trong m hnh ca Newton, thi gian v khng gian l khung nn cho cc s kin xy ra v khng gian v thi gian khng lm nh hng n cc s kin xy ra trong . Thi gian tch bit khi khng gian v c coi l n tuyn, hoc c coi l ng ray tu ha di v tn theo hai hng (hnh 2.2). Bn thn thi gian c xem l vnh cu theo ngha n tn ti, v n s tn ti mi mi. Nhng ngc li, phn ln mi ngi u ngh rng v tr vi trng thi gn ging hin ti c sng to cch y vi ngn nm. iu ny lm cc nh trit hc nh Immanuel Kant, mt nh t tng ngi c, trn tr. Nu thc s v tr c sng to ti mt thi im th ti sao li phi i mt khong thi gian v tn trc ? Mt khc, nu v tr tn ti mi mi th ti sao nhng s kin s xy ra trong tng lai li khng xy ra trong qu kh, ng lch s kt thc? c bit l, ti sao v tr li khng t n trng thi cn bng nhit trong mi vt u c cng nhit ?
Trang 32
N H
N G
I A N
(Hnh 2.3) HNH DNG V HNG CA THI GIAN Thuyt tng i ca Einstein l thuyt ph hp vi rt nhiu thc nghim cho thy rng thi gian v khng gian lin h cht ch vi nhau. Ngi ta khng th b cong khng gian m khng nh hng n thi gian. Do , thi gian c mt hnh dng. Tuy vy, dng nh n ch c mt hng ging nh cc u my xe la trong hnh minh ha trn.
Trang 33
T R
T R O N G
Hnh 2.4: TM CAO SU V TR Hn bi ln trung tm i din cho mt vt th nng nh l mt ngi sao. Khi lng ca n lm cong tm cao su xung quanh. Nhng hn bi khc ln trn tm cao su s b nh hng bi cong v chuyn ng xung quanh hn bi ln, cc hnh tinh trong trng hp dn ca mt ngi sao cng chuyn ng xung quanh n ging nh trn. Trang 34
Kant gi vn ny l mt s t mu thun ca l tnh thun ty (antinomy of pure reason), bi v dng nh l mt mu thun l-gc; n khng c li gii. Nhng n ch l mt mu thun trong bi cnh ca m hnh ton hc ca Newton, trong thi gian l mt ng thng, c lp vi cc s kin xy ra trong v tr. Tuy nhin, nh chng ta thy trong chng 1, Einstein xut mt m hnh ton hc hon ton mi: thuyt tng i rng. K t khi bi bo ca Einstein ra i n nay, chng ta b sung mt vi sa i nhng m hnh v khng gian v thi gian vn da trn m hnh m Einstein xut. Chng ny v cc chng sau s m t cc t tng ca chng ta pht trin nh th no k t khi bi bo cch mng ca Einstein. l cu chuyn v thnh cng ca rt nhiu ngi, v ti t ho ng gp mt phn nh cng sc vo cu chuyn .
N H
N G
I A N
Thuyt tng i rng kt hp chiu thi gian vi ba chiu ca khng gian to thnh ci gi l khng thi gian (spacetime hnh 2.3). L thuyt gii thch hiu ng hp dn l s phn b ca vt cht v nng lng trong v tr lm cong v bin dng khng thi gian, do khng thi gian khng phng. Cc vt th trong khng thi gian c gng chuyn ng theo cc ng thng, nhng v khng thi gian b cong nn cc qu o ca chng b cong theo. Cc vt th chuyn ng nh th chng b nh hng bi trng hp dn. Mt cch hnh dung th thin, khng thi gian ging nh mt tm cao su. Khi ta t mt vin bi ln tng trng cho mt tri ln tm cao su . Trng lng ca vin bi s ko tm cao su v lm cho n b cong gn mt tri. Nu by gi ta ln cc vin bi nh ln tm cao su th chng s khng ln thng qua ch vin bi ln m thay vo chng s di chuyn xung quanh n, ging nh cc hnh tinh chuyn ng xung quanh mt tri (hnh 2.4). S hnh dung khng hon ton ng bi v ch mt phn hai chiu ca khng gian b b cong, v thi gian khng b bin i ging nh trong l thuyt ca Newton. Trong thuyt tng i rng, l thuyt ph php vi rt nhiu thc nghim, thi gian v khng gian gn lin vi nhau. Ngi ta khng th lm cong khng gian m khng lm bin i thi gian. Do thi gian c mt hnh dng. Bng cch lm cong khng gian v thi gian, thuyt tng i bin chng t khung nn th ng m trong cc s kin xy ra thnh tc nhn nng ng tham gia vo cc s kin . Trong l thuyt ca Newton thi gian tn ti c lp vi tt c mi s vt khc, ta c th hi: Cha lm g trc khi sng to ra v tr? Nh thnh Augustin tr li rng, ta khng nn ni a v iu , nu c ai trt hi vy th ng tr li Ngi chun b a ngc cho nhng k qu t m. l mt cu hi nghim tc m con ngi suy ngh trong nhiu th k. Theo thnh Augustin, trc khi Cha to thin ng v tri t, Ngi khng lm g c. Thc ra tng ny rt gn vi cc t tng hin i. Trong thuyt tng i rng, khng thi gian v v tr khng tn ti c lp vi nhau. Chng c xc nh bng cc php o trong v tr nh l s cc dao ng ca tinh th thch anh trong ng h hoc chiu di ca mt ci thc. Trong v tr, thi gian c nh ngha nh th ny cng l iu d hiu, n cn c mt gi tr b nht v ln nht hay ni cch khc, c mt s khi u v kt thc. Vic hi ci g xy ra trc khi thi gian bt u v ci g s xy ra sau khi thi gian kt thc l v ngha v lc n khng c xc nh.
Thnh Augustine, nh t tng th k th nm cho rng thi gian khng tn ti trc khi th gii ra i.
Trang 35
T R
T R O N G
Ngi quan st
Vic xc nh m hnh ton hc ca thuyt tng i rng tin on v tr v bn thn thi gian c bt u hay kt thc hay khng hin nhin l mt vn quan trng. nh kin cho rng thi gian l v tn theo hai hng l ph bin i vi cc nh vt l l thuyt trong c Einstein. Mt khc, c nhiu cu hi rc ri v s sng th, cc cu hi ny c v nm ngoi phm vi nghin cu ca khoa hc. Trong cc nghim ca cc phng trnh ca Einstein, thi gian c bt u v c kt thc, nhng tt c cc nghim u rt c bit, c nhiu php i xng. Ngi ta cho rng, trong mt vt th ang suy sp di lc hp dn ca chnh bn thn n, th cc p lc hoc cc vn tc bin (sideway) trnh cho vt cht khng cng nhau ri vo mt im mt vt cht s tr nn v hn. Tng t nh th, nu ngi ta theo di s dn n ca v tr trong qu kh, ngi ta s thy rng vt cht ca v tr khng xut pht t mt im c mt v hn. Mt im c mt v hn nh vy c gi l mt im k d v n l im khi u v kt thc ca thi gian. Nm 1963, hai nh khoa hc ngi Nga l Evgenii Lifshitz and Isaac Khalatnikov khng nh chng minh tt c cc nghim ca phng trnh ca Einstein cho thy vt cht v vn tc c sp xp mt cch c bit. Xc xut v tr xp xp c bit nh th gn nh bng khng. Hu ht tt c cc nghim biu din trng thi ca v tr u trnh c im k d vi mt v hn: trc pha gin n, v tr cn phi c mt pha co li trong vt cht b ko vo nhau nhng khng va chm vi nhau sau ri nhau trong pha gin n hin nay. Nu ng nh th th thi gian lin tc mi mi t v tn trong qu kh ti v tn trong tng lai. Lun c ca Lifshitz v Khalatnikov khng thuyt phc c tt c mi ngi. Thay vo , Roger Penrose v ti chp nhn mt cch tip cn khc khng da trn nghin cu chi tit cc nghim ca phng trnh Einstein m da trn mt cu trc bao trm ca khng thi gian. Trong thuyt tng i, khng thi gian khng ch b cong bi khi lng ca cc vt th m cn b cong bi nng lng trong na. Nng lng lun lun dng, do khng thi gian b un cong v b cong hng ca cc tia sng li gn nhau hn. By gi chng ta xem xt nn nh sng qu kh (hnh 2.5), l cc ng trong khng thi gian m cc tia sng t cc thin h xa xi i n chng ta hm nay. Trong gin th hin nn ng sng, thi
Ch
h uk
g ng
(Hnh 2.5) NN NH SNG QU KH CA CHNG TA Khi chng ta nhn cc thin h xa xi, chng ta ang nhn v tr trong qu kh v nh sng chuyn ng vi vn tc hu hn. Nu chng ta biu din thi gian bng trc thng ng v hai trong ba chiu ca khng gian bng trc nm ngang th nhng tia sng n vi chng ta ngy nay nm nh nn. Trang 36
Thi gian
ian
Chiu khng gian
N H
N G
I A N
Ngi quan st nhn v qu kh Cc thin h xut hin gn y Cc thin h xut hin cch y 5 t nm
Bc x phng
Trang 37
T R
T R O N G
L thuyt v thc nghim trng khp vi nhau
SNG (I/10-7 W m-2 sr-1 cm) BC SNG/mm (Hnh 2.6) KT QU PHP O PH PHNG VI SNG Ph (phn b cng theo tn s) ca bc x phng vi sng ging ph pht ra t mt vt nng. i vi bc x trong trng thi cn bng nhit, vt cht lm tn x bc x nhiu ln. iu ny cho thy rng c mt lng vt cht trong nn nh sng qu kh b cong nh sng. Trang 38
gian c biu din bng phng thng ng v khng gian c biu din bng phng nm ngang, v tr ca chng ta trong l nh ca nn ng sng . Khi chng ta i v qu kh, tc l i t nh xung pha di ca nn, chng ta s thy cc thin h ti cc thi im rt sm ca v tr. V v tr ang gin n v tt c mi th tng rt gn nhau, nn khi chng ta nhn xa hn v qu kh th chng ta ang nhn li vng khng gian c mt vt cht ln hn. Chng ta quan st thy mt phng bc x vi sng (microwave background) lan ti chng ta dc theo nn nh sng qu kh t cc thi im rt xa xa khi m v tr rt c, rt nng hn by gi. Bng cch iu khin cc my o v cc tn s vi sng khc nhau, chng ta c th o c ph ca bc x ny (s phn b ca nng
N H
N G
I A N
lng theo tn s). Chng ta tm thy mt ph c trng cho bc x t mt vt th vi nhit 2,7 K. Bc x vi sng ny khng mnh lm nng chic bnh piza, nhng ph ny ph hp mt cch chnh xc vi ph ca bc x t mt vt c nhit 2,7 K, iu ni vi chng ta rng bc x cn phi n t cc vng c vt cht lm tn x vi sng (hnh 2.6). Do chng ta c th kt lun rng nn nh sng qu kh ca chng ta cn phi vt qua mt lng vt cht khi ngi ta i ngc li thi gian. Lng vt cht ny lm cong khng thi gian, do cc tia sng trong nn nh sng qu kh ca chng ta b b cong vo vi nhau (hnh 2.7).
(Hnh 2.7) LM CONG KHNG THI GIAN V lc hp dn l lc ht nn vt cht lun lm cong khng thi gian sao cho cc tia sng b b cong li vi nhau.
Trang 39
T R
T R O N G
Ti thi im ny, ngi quan st ang nhn v qu kh
Cch thin h cch y nm t nm
Phng vi sng
Mt vt cht lm cho nn nh sng b b cong
K d v n ln
THI GIAN KHNG GIAN Trang 40

N H
N G
I A N
Khi chng ta i ngc li thi gian, cc mt ct ca nn nh sng qu kh t n mt kch thc cc i v sau li tr ln nh hn. Qu kh ca chng ta c hnh qu l (hnh 2.8). Khi ta tip tc i theo nn nh sng v qu kh th mt vt cht nng lng dng s lm cho cc tia sng b b cong vo vi nhau mnh hn na. Mt ct ca nn nh sng s co li v 0 ti mt thi im hu hn. iu ny c ngha l tt c vt cht trong nn nh sng qu kh ca chng ta b by trong mt vng khng thi gian m bin ca n co li v 0. Do , khng ngc nhin khi Penrose v ti c th chng minh bng cc m hnh ton hc ca thuyt tng i rng rng thi gian cn phi c mt thi im bt u c gi l v n ln. L lun tng t cho thy thi gian cng c im kt thc khi cc ngi sao hoc cc thin h suy sp di lc hp dn ca bn thn chng to thnh cc h en. By gi chng ta phi quay li mt gi thuyt ngm ca Kant v s t mu thun ca l tnh thun ty m theo thi gian l mt thuc tnh ca v tr. Bi tiu lun ca chng ti chng minh thi gian c mt im khi u t gii nh trong mt cuc thi do Qu nghin cu v hp dn ti tr vo nm 1968. Roger v ti cng chia nhau s tin thng 300 USD. Ti khng ngh rng vo nm cc bi lun t gii khc c gi tr lu di hn bi ca chng ti. c rt nhiu nhng phn ng khc nhau v cng trnh ca chng ti. Cng trnh ca chng ti lm bun lng nhiu nh vt l, nhng n li lm hi lng cc nh lnh o tn gio, nhng ngi tin vo hnh vi sng th v cho y l mt minh chng khoa hc. Trong khi , Lifshitz v Khalatnikov ang trong mt tnh trng rt kh x. H khng th tranh lun vi cc nh l ton hc m chng ti chng minh, nhng di h thng X Vit h khng th chp nhn l h sai v khoa hc phng Ty ng. Tuy vy, h thot c tnh trng bng cch tm ra mt h nghim vi mt im k d tng qut hn, nhng nghim ny cng khng c bit hn cc nghim trc m h tm ra. iu ny cho php h khng nh cc k d v s khi u hoc kt thc ca thi gian l pht minh ca nhng ngi X Vit.
(Hnh 2.8, hnh trc) THI GIAN C HNH QU L Nu ta i theo nn ng sng v qu kh th chic nn ny b b cong do vt cht nhng giai on rt sm ca v tr. Ton b v tr m chng ta quan st nm trong mt vng m bin ca n nh li bng khng ti thi im v n ln. y c th l mt im k d, mt vt cht ln v hn v thuyt tng i c in khng cn ng na.
Trang 41
T R
T R O N G
NGUYN L BT NH
Bc sng tn s thp lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht t hn
Bc sng tn s cao lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht nhiu hn
Bc sng dng quan st ht cng di th bt nh v v tr cng ln
Bc sng dng quan st ht cng ngn th bt nh v v tr cng nh
t bc tin quan trng trong thuyt lng t l xut ca Max Plank vo nm 1900 l nh sng truyn i vi tng b nh gi l lng t. Mc d gi thuyt lng t ca Plank gii thch rt tt tc bc x ca cc vt nng nhng phi n tn gia nhng nm 1920 khi nh vt l ngi c Werner Heisenberg tm ra nguyn l bt nh ni ting ca ng th ngi ta mi nhn thy ht ngha ca n. Theo Heisenberg th gi thuyt ca Plank ng rng nu ta
mun o v tr ca ht cng chnh xc bao nhiu th php o vn tc cng km chnh xc by nhiu v ngc li. Ni chnh xc hn, Heisenberg chng minh rng bt nh v v tr ca ht nhn vi bt nh v m men ca n lun ln hn hng s Plank mt i lng lin h cht ch vi nng lng ca mt lng t nh sng.
Trang 42
N H
N G
I A N
PHNG TRNH BT NH HEISENBERG
X
bt nh v v tr ca ht bt nh v vn tc ca ht
Khng nh hn hng s Plank
Khi lng ca ht
TRNG MAXWELL
Phn ln cc nh vt l u cm thy khng thch tng v s khi u v kt thc ca thi gian. Do , h ch ra rng cc m hnh ton hc s khng m t tt khng thi gian gn im k d. L do l thuyt tng i rng m t lc hp dn l mt l thuyt c in v khng tng hp vi nguyn l bt nh ca l thuyt lng t iu khin cc lc khc m chng ta bit. S mu thun ny khng quan trng i vi phn ln v tr v thi gian v khng thi gian b b cong trn mt phm vi rt ln cn cc hiu ng lng t ch quan trng trn phm vi rt nh. Nhng gn mt im k d, hai phm vi ny gn bng nhau v cc hiu ng hp dn lng t (quantum gravity) s tr ln quan trng. Do cc nh l v im k d do Penrose v ti thit lp l vng khng thi gian c in ca chng ta lin h vi qu kh v c th l c tng lai na bi cc vng khng thi gian m hp dn lng t ng vai tr quan trng. hiu ngun gc v s phn ca v tr, chng ta cn mt L thuyt hp dn lng t (quantum theory of gravity), v y s l ch ca phn ln cun sch ny. L thuyt lng t ca cc h nh nguyn t vi mt s lng hu hn cc ht c xy dng vo nhng nm 1920 do cng ca Heisenberg, Schrodinger, v Dirac (Dirac cng l mt ngi tng gi gh m hin nay ti ang gi, nhng khng phi l chic gh t ng!). Mc d vy, con ngi vn gp kh khn khi c gng m rng tng lng t vo trng in, t, v nh sng ca Maxwell.
m 1865, nh vt l ngi Anh Clerk Maxwell kt hp cc nh lut in v t bit. L thuyt ca Maxwell da trn s tn ti ca cc trng, cc trng truyn tc ng t ni ny n ni khc. ng nhn thy rng cc trng truyn nhiu lon in v t l cc thc th ng: chng c th dao ng v truyn trong khng gian. Tng hp in t ca Maxwell c th gp li vo hai phng trnh m t ng hc ca cc trng ny. Chnh ng cng i n mt kt lun tuyt vi: tt c cc sng in t vi tt c cc tn s u truyn trong khng gian vi mt vn tc khng i vn tc nh sng.
Trang 43
T R
T R O N G
Hng dao ng ca con lc
Bc sng l khong cch gia hai nh sng
(Hnh 2.9) SNG LAN TRUYN VI CON LC DAO NG Bc x in t lan truyn trong khng gian ging nh mt sng vi in trng v t trng dao ng ging nh mt con lc v hng truyn th vung gc vi hng chuyn ng ca sng. Bc x cng c th c to thnh t nhiu trng vi cc bc sng khc nhau. Trang 44
Ta c th xem trng Maxwell to thnh t cc sng vi cc bc sng (khong cch gia hai nh sng) khc nhau. Trong mt sng, trng s dao ng t gi tr ny n gi tr khc ging nh mt con lc (hnh 2.9). Theo l thuyt lng t, trng thi c bn hay trng thi nng lng thp nht ca con lc khng ch ti im nng lng thp nht hng thng t trn xung. im c v tr v vn tc xc nh l bng khng. iu ny vi phm nguyn l bt nh, nguyn l khng cho php o mt cch chnh xc v tr v vn tc ti mt thi im. bt nh v v tr nhn vi bt nh v m men cn phi ln hn mt i lng xc nh c bit vi ci tn l hng s Plank mt con s nu vit ra s rt di, do chng ra dng mt biu tng cho n: .
B c sn g
Hng sng truyn
N H
N G
I A N
Phn b xc sut
Hng (Hnh 2.10) CON LC V PHN B XC SUT
Do , nng lng ca con lc trng thi c bn hay trng thi c nng lng cc tiu khng phi bng khng nh ngi ta trng i. Thay vo , ngay c trng thi c bn ca n, mt con lc hay bt k mt h dao ng no cng c mt lng nng lng cc tiu nht nh ca ci m ta gi l dao ng im khng (hay thng ging im khng - zero point uctuation). iu ny c ngha l con lc khng nht thit phi nm theo hng thng t trn xung m n s lm vi phng thng ng mt gc nh vi mt xc xut nht nh (hnh 2.10). Tng t nh vy, ngay c trong chn khng hoc trng thi nng lng thp nht, cc sng trong trng Maxwell s khng bng khng m c th c mt gi tr nh no . Tn s (s dao ng trong mt pht) ca con lc hay sng cng ln th nng lng trng thi c bn cng ln. Cc tnh ton thng ging trng thi c bn trong trng Maxwell cho thy khi lng v in tch biu kin ca in t ln v cng,
Theo nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg, con lc khng th hng thng ng tuyt i t trn xung di vi vn tc bng khng c. Thay vo , c hc lng t cho thy rng, ngay c trng thi nng lng thp nht con lc cng c mt lng thng ging cc tiu. iu ny c ngha l v tr ca con lc s c cho bi mt phn b xc sut. trng thi c bn, trng thi kh d nht l hng thng t trn xung, nhng cng c xc sut tm thy con lc lm mt gc nh vi phng thng ng. Trang 45
T R
T R O N G
iu ny khng ph hp vi cc quan st. Tuy vy, vo nhng nm 1940, cc nh vt l Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger v Shinichiro Tomonaga pht trin mt phng php cht ch loi b gi tr v hn v thu c gi tr hu hn ca khi lng v in tch ging nh quan st. Tuy nhin, cc thng ging trng thi c bn vn gy cc hiu ng nh c th o c v ph hp vi thc nghim. Cc s loi tr cc gi tr ln v hn tng t cng ng i vi cc trng Yang-Mills trong l thuyt do Chen Ning Yang (Yang Chen Ning Dng Chn Ninh) v Robert Mills xy dng. L thuyt Yang-Mills l m rng ca l thuyt Maxwell m t tng tc ca hai lc khc gi l lc ht nhn yu v lc ht nhn mnh. Tuy vy cc thng ging trng thi c bn c hiu ng ng k hn trong l thuyt hp dn lng t. Li na, mt bc sng c mt nng lng trng thi c bn. V bc sng ca trng Maxwell c th nh bao nhiu cng c nn c mt s v hn cc bc sng khc nhau v mt s v hn cc nng lng trng thi c bn trong bt k vng no ca khng thi gian. V mt nng lng cng ging nh vt cht l ngun gc ca hp dn nn mt nng lng v hn ny c ngha l c lc ht hp dn trong v tr lm cong khng thi gian thnh mt im m iu r rng l khng xy ra. Ngi ta cng c th hy vng gii quyt bi ton c v mu thun gia l thuyt v thc nghim ny bng cch cho rng cc thng ging trng thi c bn khng c hiu ng hp dn, nhng gi thit ny khng ng. Ngi ta c th ghi nhn nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn bng hiu ng Casimir. Nu bn t hai tm kim loi song song vi nhau v rt gn nhau th s c mt ca hai tm kim loi s lm gim s cc bc sng c th khp gia hai tm kim loi so vi s cc bc sng bn ngoi hai tm mt cht t. iu ny c ngha l mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn gia hai tm, mc d vn l v hn, vn nh hn mt nng lng bn ngoi hai tm mt lng hu hn (hnh 2.11). S khc bit v mt nng lng ny lm xut hin mt lc ko hai tm kim loi vo vi nhau v lc ny c quan st bng thc nghim. Trong thuyt tng i, ging nh vt cht, cc lc cng to nn hp dn, do , chng ta khng th b qua hiu ng hp dn ca s khc bit v nng lng ny.
Trang 46
N H
N G
I A N
(Hnh 2.11) HIU NG CASIMIR Bc sng bn ngoi S tn ti ca thng ging trng thi c bn c khng nh bng thc nghim thng qua hiu ng Casimir v s c mt ca mt lc nh gia hai tm kim loi song song.
S bc sng bn trong khong khng gian b gii hn bi hai a b gim i v phi va khp khong cch gia hai a
Mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn gia hai a nh hn mt bn ngoi a lm cho hai a b ht li gn nhau
Mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn bn ngoi hai a ln hn bn trong
Trang 47
T R
T R O N G
180
360 Ht c spin bng 1
90
180 Ht c spin bng 2
Ht c spin bng 1/2
360
360 360
(Hnh 2.12) SPIN t c cc ht c mt tnh cht gi l spin, tc dng ca spin l lm cho cc ht c thy nh nhn t cc hng khc nhau. Ngi ta c th minh ha iu ny bng mt b bi. Trc tin hy xem con t pch, nu bn quay ng mt vng hay 360 th bn s thy n ging nh trc khi quay. Do , con t pch c spin bng 1. Ngc li, con qui c c hai u. Nu bn quay mt na vng hay 180 bn s thy n ging
nh ban u. Con qui c c spin bng hai. Tng t, ta c th tng tng cc vt th c spin bng 3 hoc nhiu hn nu hnh dng ca n ging nh ban u khi quay mt phn nh hn ca mt vng quay. Spin cng cao th gc quay vt th c hnh dng ban u cng nh. Nhng c mt iu ng ch l c cc ht m hnh dng ca chng ging nh ban u ch khi bn quay hai vng. Ngi ta gi nhng ht nh vy c spin bng 1/2.
Trang 48
N H
N G
I A N
Ht c spin = 1
Ht c spin = 2
Ht c spin = 1/2
Mt nghim khc ca bi ton m c th i hi c mt hng s v tr ging nh Einstein a ra c c m hnh v tr tnh. Nu hng s ny c gi tr m v cng th n c th loi tr chnh xc gi tr dng v cng ca nng lng trng thi c bn trong khng gian t do, nhng hng s ny c v nh khng c d tnh trc (ad hoc) v n c th c iu chnh mt cch cc k chnh xc. Tht may mn, ngi ta pht hin mt loi i xng hon ton mi vo nhng nm 1970, n cung cp mt c ch vt l t nhin loi tr cc gi tr v hn xut hin t thng ging trng thi c bn. Siu i xng l mt c im ca cc m hnh ton hc hin i ca chng ta m c th c m t theo nhiu cch. Mt trong nhng cch ni rng khng thi gian c thm cc chiu khc bn cnh cc chiu m chng ta ang tri nhim. Nhng chiu ny c gi l nhng chiu Grassmann bi v chng c o bng cc con s c gi l cc bin s Grassmann ch khng phi l nhng con s thc bnh thng. Cc s bnh thng giao hon vi nhau; tc l; bn c th nhn chng theo mt trt t no cng c: 6 nhn vi 4 cng bng 4 nhn vi 6. Nhng nhng bin Grassmann th li phn giao hon (anticommute) vi nhau: x nhn vi y bng y nhn vi x. Ln u tin, siu i xng c nghin cu khi loi tr cc gi tr v hn trong cc trng vt cht v trng Yan-Mills trong khng thi gian c cc chiu s thc v cc chiu Grassmann u phng, khng b cong. Vic m rng siu i xng vo cc chiu s thc v chiu Grassmann khi cc chiu ny b un cong l mt iu rt t nhin. S m rng ny dn n mt s cc l thuyt c gi l siu hp dn (supergravity) vi s lng cc i xng khc nhau. Mt h qu ca siu i xng l mi trng hoc mi ht u c mt siu i tc (superpartner) c spin ln hn hoc nh hn spin ca n 1/2 (hnh 2.12).
Trang 49
T R
T R O N G
Ht Fermion vi spin bn nguyn (nh l 1/2) to nn vt cht thng. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l m.
Ht Boson l nhng ht c spin nguyn (v d: 0, 1, 2) ca siu hp dn N=8. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l dng.
(Hnh 2.13) SIU I TC Tt c cc ht trong v tr u thuc mt trong hai nhm: Fermion hoc Boson. Ht Fermion l cc ht c spin bn nguyn (nh l 1/2) to nn vt cht thng. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l m. Ht Boson l nhng ht c spin nguyn (v d: 0, 1, 2) lm tng lc xut hin gia cc ht Fermion nh l lc hp dn v nh sng chng hn. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l dng. Thuyt siu hp dn gi thuyt rng tt c cc ht Fermion v Boson u c mt siu i tc c spin ln hn hoc nh hn spin
ca ht 1/2. V d mt photon (l ht boson) c spin l 1, nng lng trng thi c bn l dng. Siu i tc ca photon l photion c spin bng 1/2 l mt fermion. Do nng lng trng thi c bn l m. Trong s siu hp dn ny, chng ta s c s cc ht fermion v boson bng nhau. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht boson lm nghing cn cn v pha dng v nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht fermion lm nghing cn cn v pha nng lng m, nng lng trng thi c bn s trit tiu ln nhau v loi b gi tr ln v hn.
Trang 50
N H
N G
I A N
M HNH TNH CHT CC HT
1 2 3
Nu cc ht im (point particle) thc s tn ti nh l cc yu t ring bit ging nh cc qu bng bi-a th khi hai qu bng va chm vi nhau th l trnh ca chng b lch theo hai hng mi. chnh l iu xy ra khi hai ht tng tc, ch khc hin tng ny kch tnh hn. L thuyt trng lng t chng minh rng hai ht v d in t v phn in t va chm vi nhau th chng s hy ln nhau to ra mt t bng n nng lng rt ln v to ra mt quang t. Quang t ny gii phng nng lng to ra mt cp in t-phn in t khc. iu ny lm cho chng ta thy nh l l trnh ca in t-phn in t b lch i theo hng mi.
im va chm vo nhau
im tng tc
im tng tc
Nu cc ht khng phi l nhng ht im m l cc dy mt chiu trong cc vng dao ng ging nh mt in t v phn in t th khi chng va chm v hy ln nhau, chng s to mt dy mi vi mt kiu dao ng khc. Khi gii phng nng lng, dy ny b chia thnh hai dy i theo hai l trnh mi.
Nu cc dy ban u ny khng c xem l nhng khong thi gian ri rc m l mt lch s thi gian khng b gin on th cc dy c thy nh l mt tm gm nhiu dy to nn.
Trang 51
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 2.14, hnh k) DAO NG CA DY Trong l thuyt dy, cc thc th c bn khng phi l cc ht chim mt im trong khng gian m l cc dy mt chiu. Cc dy ny c cc u khc nhau hoc cc u c th ni vi nhau to thnh cc vng dy. Ging nh cc si dy ca n violon, cc day trong l thuyt dy c cc kiu dao ng hoc tn s cng hng nht nh, bc sng ca cc kiu dao ng ny trng khp chnh xc vi khong cch gia hai u dy. Nhng trong khi cc tn s cng hng ca dy n khc nhau to nn cc nt nhc khc nhau th dao ng cng hng ca mt dy s to ra khi lng, lc khc nhau nhng thc th c gii thch l cc ht c bn. Ni nm na l bc sng dao ng ca dy cng nh th khi lng ca ht cng ln.
Nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht boson, trng c spin l mt s nguyn (0, 1, 2, v.v.), l dng. Ngc li nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht fermion, trng c spin bn nguyn (1/2, 3/2, v.v.), l m. V c mt lng ln cc ht boson v fermion bng nhau, cc gi tr v hn ln nht trit tiu nhau trong cc l thuyt siu hp dn (hnh 2.13). Vn cn li xc xut c gi tr v hn mc d rt nh nhng vn tn ti. Khng ai c s kin nhn cn thit tnh ton xem cc l thuyt ny c thc s l hon ton hu hn hay khng. Ngi ta tnh rng lm iu mt sinh vin gii phi mt 200 nm, v lm sao bn c bit sinh vin khng phm phi sai lm ngay trang th hai? n nm 1985, phn ln mi ngi vn tin rng hu ht cc l thuyt siu hp dn siu i xng (supersymetric) khng c cha cc gi tr v hn. Sau th t nhin mt thay i. Ngi ta tuyn b rng khng c l do g khng trng i cc gi tr v hn trong cc l thuyt siu hp dn, iu ny c ng rng cc l thuyt siu hp dn cng c cc sai lm cht ngi nh cc l thuyt khc. Thay vo , ngi ta qu quyt rng mt l thuyt c gi l l thuyt dy siu i xng l cch duy nht kt hp l thuyt hp dn v l thuyt lng t. Cc dy, ging nh cc dy trong kinh nghim hng ngy, l cc vt th mt chiu. Chng ch c chiu di. Cc dy trong l thuyt dy chuyn ng trong khng thi gian. Cc s dao ng ca dy th hin cho cc ht (hnh 2.14). Nu cc dy ny c cc chiu Grassmann v cc chiu s thng th cc dao ng s tng ng vi cc ht boson v fermion. Trong trng hp ny, nng lng trng thi c bn m v dng trit tiu mt cch chnh xc n ni s hon ton khng c cc gi tr v hn. Cc siu dy (superstring) c gi l l thuyt v vn vt (theory of everything). Cc nh vit lch s khoa hc trong tng lai s thy rt th v khi lp biu biu din xu hng thay i t tng ca cc nh vt l l thuyt. Ch trong vi nm, l thuyt dy ng tr tuyt i v thuyt siu hp dn b ging xung thnh mt l thuyt gn ng, ch ph hp nng lng thp. i lng nng lng thp b coi
Trang 52
N H
N G
I A N
nh mt s ch bai, d l trong ng cnh ny cc nng lng thp ng cc ht vi nng lng nh hn hng t t ln so vi cc ht trong mt v n TNT. Nu siu hp dn ch l mt php gn ng nng lng thp th n khng th l l thuyt c bn cho v tr c. M thay vo , l c bn c xut c th l mt trong nm l thuyt siu dy. Nhng l thuyt no trong nm l thuyt siu dy m t v tr ca chng ta? V thuyt dy s c pht biu nh th no vt qua c php gn ng trong cc dy c m t nh l cc mt vi mt chiu khng gian v mt chiu thi gian dao ng trong mt phng khng thi gian phng. Liu cc dy c lm cong phng khng thi gian hay khng?
Trang 53
T R
T R O N G
Vo nhng nm sau 1985, ngi ta dn nhn thy rng, thuyt dy khng phi l mt bc tranh hon ho. Khi u l vic ngi ta nhn ra rng cc dy ch l mt thnh phn ca mt lp cc thc th bao qut hn, cc thc th ny c th c m rng vo nhiu hn mt chiu. Paul Townsend, mt ngi cng l thnh vin ca khoa Ton ng dng v Vt l l thuyt ging nh ti i hc Cambridge, mt ngi thc hin nhiu cng trnh c bn v cc thc th ny, t cho chng mt ci tn l cc mng-p (p-brane). Mt mng-p c chiu di theo p hng. Do , mng c p=1 l mt dy, mng c p=2 l mt mt hay mt mng bnh thng, v v.v. (hnh 2.15). Cc mng vi p=1 trong trng hp ca cc dy c v nh khng c u tin hn so vi cc gi tr c th khc ca p. Thay vo , chng ta thng qua mt nguyn tc dn ch cho cc mng-p: tt c cc mng-p sinh ra u c quyn bnh ng. Tt c cc mng-p u c tm thy l nghim ca cc phng trnh trong thuyt siu hp dn vi 10 hoc 11 chiu. 10 hoc 11 chiu c v nh khng ging khng thi gian m chng ta ang tri nghim nhng tng l 6 hoc 7 chiu trong s cc chiu b cun li nh n ni ta khng th thy chng, chng ta ch c th nhn ra 4 chiu ln v gn nh phng cn li m thi. Vi t cch c nhn m ni, ti rt min cng khi tin vo cc chiu b sung. Nhng v ti l mt ngi theo ch ngha thc chng nn cu hi Cc chiu b sung c thc s tn ti hay khng? khng c ngha g c. Tt c nhng iu m ngi ta c th hi l m hnh ton hc vi cc chiu b sung c m t tt v tr ca chng ta hay khng. Chng ta vn cha c quan st no m gii thch n ngi ta cn n cc chiu b sung. Tuy vy, chng ta c th c c hi quan st chng trong my va chm Hadron (Large Hadron
(Hnh 2.15) MNG-P Cc mng-p l cc thc th ko di theo p chiu. Trng hp c bit l cc dy vi p=1 v cc tm vi p=2, nhng cc gi tr kh d ca p c th ln hn ti 10 hoc 11 chiu. Nhng thng th mt s hoc tt c p chiu b cun li ging nh nhng vng xuyn.
Chng ta tin mt s tht hin nhin l tt c cc mng-p sinh ra u c quyn bnh ng.
Trang 54
N H
N G
I A N
Paul Townsend, chuyn gia v mng-p
Kt cu khng gian ca v tr ca chng ta c th c c chiu m rng ln chiu b cun li. Cc mng-p c th c xem xt d dng hn nu chng b cun li.
Mt mng 1 chiu hay mt dy b cun li
Mt mng hai chiu b cun li thnh mt hnh xuyn
Trang 55
T R
T R O N G
Loi IIB
Loi IIA Loi I
THUYT-M
Heterotic-O
Heterotic-E Siu hp dn 11 chiu
(Hnh 2.16) M HNH THNG NHT C mt mng li cc mi lin h c gi l tnh i ngu kt ni nm l thuyt dy v siu hp dn mi mt chiu. Tnh i ngu cho thy rng cc l thuyt dy khc nhau ch l nhng biu din khc nhau ca mt l thuyt c bn c gi l thuyt-M. Trc thp nin 90 ngi ta cho rng 5 l thuyt dy l cc l thuyt ring bit v hon ton khng lin h vi nhau. Thuyt-M thng nht 5 l thuyt dy vo mt m hnh l thuyt duy nht, nhng ngi ta vn cha hiu rt nhiu tnh cht ca m hnh ny.
Trang 56
N H
N G
I A N
Loi IIB Loi I Loi IIA
Heterotic-O
Heterotic-E
Collider) Geneva. Nhng iu thuyt phc nhiu ngi trong c ti nghim tc chn cc m hnh vi cc chiu b sung l c mt m cc mi lin h khng ng c gi l tnh i ngu (duality) gia cc m hnh. Tnh i ngu ny cho thy rng tt c cc m hnh u tng ng; tc l, chng ch l nhng kha cnh khc nhau ca cng mt l thuyt c bn c gi vi ci tn l thuyt-M (M-theory). Nu khng ly tnh i ngu lm du hiu cho thy chng ta i ng hng th iu cng gn ging nh cho rng Cha t cc ha thch vo trong lm Darwin nhm ln v s tin ha ca s sng. Tnh i ngu cho thy rng c 5 l thuyt siu dy u m t cc bn cht vt l ging nhau v chng cho thy rng v mt vt l chng cng tng ng vi l thuyt siu hp dn (hnh 2.16). Ta khng th ni rng cc siu dy c bn hn siu hp dn hoc ngc li. ng hn, chng ch l nhng biu din khc nhau ca cng mt l thuyt c bn, mi l thuyt u tnh ton mt cch hiu qu trong cc tnh hung khc nhau. V cc l thuyt dy khng c cha cc gi tr v hn, chng c dng tnh cc kt qu c th xy ra khi mt s t cc ht nng lng cao va chm v tn x vi nhau. Tuy vy, chng khng hay c s dng m t nng lng ca mt s ln cc ht lm cong v tr nh th no hoc hnh thnh cc trng thi b tri buc (bound state), ging nh mt h en, ra sao. Vi cc trng hp ny, ngi ta cn n thuyt siu hp dn, v c bn l thuyt ny da trn l thuyt Einstein v khng thi gian cong vi mt s loi vt cht b sung. y chnh l bc tranh ti s dng ch yu trong cc phn sau.
Loi IIB Loi I Loi IIA
Heterotic-O
Heterotic-E
Thuyt-M thng nht 5 l thuyt dy thnh mt l thuyt c bn duy nht, nhng ngi ta vn cha hiu rt nhiu tnh cht ca l thuyt ny.
Trang 57
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 2.17) Ta c th xy dng mt m hnh trong trc thi gian o nm vung gc vi trc thi gian thc. Cc qui tc ca m hnh ny s xc nh lch s thi gian o da theo thi gian thc v ngc li Trang 58
N H
N G
I A N
m t l thuyt lng t to hnh dng cho khng thi gian nh th no, vic a tng thi gian o s rt hiu qu. Thi gian o nghe c v nh mt ci g n t nhng cu chuyn vin tng khoa hc, nhng n l mt khi nim ton hc c nh ngha rt r rng: thi gian c o bng cc s m ta gi l cc s o. Ta c th ngh v cc s thc bnh thng nh cc s 1, 2, -3,5, v. v. tng ng vi cc v tr trn mt ng thng ko di t tri sang phi: im 0 gia, cc s thc dng nm bn phi v cc s thc m nm bn tri (hnh 2.17). Cc s o c th c biu din l cc v tr nm trn mt ng thng vung gc: im 0 vn nm gia, cc s o dng nm pha trn v cc s o m c v pha di. Do , cc s o c th c coi nh mt loi s mi nm vung gc vi cc s thc bnh thng. V chng l cc thnh phn ton hc nn chng khng cn phi tng ng vi thc ti vt l no; chng ta khng th c mt s o cc qu cam hoc mt ha n in thoi o c (hnh 2.18). Ngi ta c th ngh iu ny ng rng cc s o ch l mt tr chi ton hc m chng c g lin quan n thc ti. Tuy vy, trn quan im trit hc thc chng, ngi ta khng th nh ngha thc ti l g. Tt c nhng iu m ngi ta c th lm l tm ra m hnh ton hc no l m hnh m t v tr m chng ta ang sng. Ha ra mt m hnh ton hc c cha thi gian o khng ch tin on cc hiu ng m chng ta quan st c m cn tin on c nhng hiu ng m chng ta vn cha th o c. Tuy cha o c nhng v cc l do khc m chng ta vn tin vo cc hiu ng . Vy th thc ti l g v o nh l g? Liu s khc bit gia chng ch c trong u c ca chng ta hay khng?
(Hnh 2.18) S o l mt khi nim ton hc. Bn khng th c mt ha n th tn dng o.
Trang 59
T R
T R O N G
Hng ca thi gian
Lch s ca ngi quan st Nn nh sng
(Hnh 2.19) Trong khng thi gian ca thuyt tng i rng c in, thi gian khc bit vi cc hng ca khng gian v n ch tng theo lch s ca ngi quan st ch khng ging nh cc chiu ca khng gian c th tng hoc gim theo lch s . Ngc li, hng ca thi gian o ging nh mt trc khng gian, c th tng hoc gim. Trang 60
L thuyt tng i rng c in (tc l khng c tnh lng t) ca Einstein kt hp thi gian thc v ba chiu khc ca khng gian thnh mt khng thi gian bn chiu. Nhng chiu thi gian thc vn khc bit vi ba chiu ca khng gian. V tr tuyn (world line) hay lch s ca ngi quan st lun tng theo thi gian thc (tc l thi gian lun chuyn ng t qu kh n tng lai), nhng v tr tuyn li c th tng hoc gim theo bt k chiu no ca khng gian. Ni cch khc, ngi ta ch c th quay ngc li trong khng gian ch khng th quay ngc li trong thi gian (hnh 2.19). Mt khc, v thi gian o vung gc vi thi gian thc, nn thi gian hnh x nh mt trc khng gian th t. Do vy, thi gian ny
N H
N G
I A N
(Hnh 2.20) THI GIAN O Khng thi gian o l mt hnh cu, trong , hng thi gian o c biu din l khong cch t cc nam. Nu ta i v hng bc th cc v tuyn (nhng im nm trn cch u cc nam) s ln dn tng ng vi v tr gin n trong thi gian o. V tr s t kch thc cc i ti xch o v sau nu ta tip tc tng thi gian o th v tr s co li cho n kch thc bng khng ti cc bc. Mc d kch thc ca v tr bng khng ti cc cc, nhng nhng im ny khng phi l nhng im k d, cng ging nh bc cc v nam cc ca tri t l nhng im hon ton bnh thng. iu ny gii rng, ngun gc ca v tr trong thi gian o c th l nhng im bnh thng trong khng thi gian. (Hnh 2.21) Thay cho v , ta c th tng tng hng thi gian o trong hnh cu khng thi gian ging nh cc kinh . V tt c cc ng kinh tuyn u gp nhau ti cc bc v cc nam nn thi gian s dng ti cc cc, nu ta mun tng thi gian o ti th ta ng yn ti ch, ging nh ta ng bc cc ca tri t v i v hng ty th ta vn s nguyn ch .
Trang 61
T R
T R O N G
Thng tin c lu tr
Thng tin ri vo h en
Cng thc din tch entropy hay l s cc trng thi ni ca mt h en gi rng thng tin b ri vo trong mt h en c th c lu tr trong ging nh mt my ghi m v c phc hi khi h en bay hi.
Trang 62
N H
N G
I A N
c rt nhiu s kin c th xy ra hn ng ray xe la ca thi gian thc (thi gian thc ch c mt im khi u hoc kt thc hoc i thnh cc ng vng). Vi ngha o ny, thi gian c mt hnh dng. thy cc s kin c th xy ra, hy coi khng thi gian o nh mt qu cu, ging nh b mt tri t. Gi thit rng thi gian o l v ca cc v tuyn (hnh 2.20). Khi y lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o s bt u ti Nam Cc. Cu hi Ci g xy ra trc khi v tr hnh thnh? s tr nn v ngha. n gin l thi gian trc khi v tr hnh thnh khng c nh ngha, ging nh khng c im no nm pha nam ca Nam Cc. Nam Cc l mt im hon ton bnh thng trn b mt tri t, v cc nh lut khoa hc cng ng Nam Cc ging nh ng cc im khc trn tri t. iu ny gi rng s khi u ca v tr trong thi gian o c th l mt im bnh thng ca khng thi gian, v n cng gi rng cc nh lut khoa hc cng ng ti im khi u ca thi gian ging nh ti cc thi im khc ca v tr (ngun gc lng t v s tin ha ca v tr s c tho lun trong chng sau). Ta c th thy mt s kin khc c th xy ra khi coi thi gian o l ca cc ng kinh tuyn trn tri t. Tt c cc ng kinh tuyn u gp nhau Bc Cc v Nam Cc (hnh 2.21). Do , ti cc cc, thi gian s dng nu ta coi thi gian o tri tng t nh kinh ca cc kinh tuyn tng ln. Hnh dung mt ngi ng mt trong hai cc v i v hng ng hoc hng ty (theo hng kinh tuyn tng) th anh ta s t quay quanh mnh v ng yn mt ch. iu ny tng t nh cch m thi gian thc dng li chn tri ca h en. Chng ta cn nhn thy rng s dng li ca thi gian thc v o (hoc c thi gian thc v o cng dng, hoc khng c thi gian no dng) c ngha l khng thi gian c mt nhit , ging nh ti pht hin ra iu cho h en. H en khng ch c nhit m n cn hnh x nh l n c mt i lng gi l entropy. Entropy o s cc trng thi ni (s cc cch m bn trong h en c nh hnh) m h en c th c. Mt ngi quan st bn ngoi khng nhn thy c s khc bit no v s cc trng thi ni ny ca h en. Ngi quan st ny ch c th quan st c khi lng, s quay v in tch ca h en m thi. Entropy ca h en ny c cho bi mt cng thc rt n gin m ti tm ra vo nm 1974. N t l vi din tch ca chn tri ca h en: c mt cht thng tin v trng thi ni ca h en i vi mi n v
S = Akc3/4hG
Cng thc tnh Entropy ca h en A: din tch chn tri s kin ca h en h: hng s Plank k: hng s Boltzman G: hng s hp dn Newton c: vn tc nh sng S: entropy
Trang 63
T R
T R O N G
Thm ch mt mnh nh trn a nh hai chiu cng cha thng tin ti xy dng nh ba chiu ca qu to.
NGUYN CHIU
NH
Ngi ta thy rng din tch b mt chn tri bao xung quanh h en l mt php o entropy ca h en. iu ny lm cho ngi ta gi thit rng entropy cc i ca bt k vng khng gian ng no cng khng th vt qu mt phn t din tch b mt gii hn vng khng gian . V entropy khng l g khc hn l php o thng tin ton phn c trong h, do , thng tin lin quan n tt c mi hin tng trong th gii ba chiu c th c lu tr trn bin hai chiu ca n ging nh mt bc nh a chiu. Theo mt ngha nht nh, th gii c th l hai chiu.
din tch c bn ca chn tri. iu ny cho thy rng c mt mi quan h su sc gia hp dn lng t v nhit ng hc mt mn khoa hc v nhit (mn ny c nghin cu v entropy). N cng gi rng hp dn lng t c th cho bit mt ci m ngi ta gi l phng php chp nh a chiu (holography) (hnh 2.22). V mt l do no m thng tin v cc trng thi lng t trong mt vng khng thi gian c th c m ha bin ca vng khng thi gian . S chiu bin ca khng thi gian t hn hai chiu so vi vng bn trong. iu ny ging nh vic chp nh ba chiu trn mt mt phng hai chiu. Nu hp dn lng t kt hp cht ch vi nguyn l chp nh a chiu th iu ny c th cho php ta theo di cc s kin bn trong h en. Vic chng ta c th tin on bc x thot ra khi h en hay khng l iu rt quan trng. Nu ta khng lm c iu th chng ta khng th tin on c tng lai mt cch y nh chng ta ngh. Vn ny s c tho lun trong chng 4. K thut chp nh a chiu s c bn lun li trong chng 7. Dng nh l chng ta ang sng trong mt mt mng-3 chiu (3-brane) l mt mt bn chiu (ba chiu khng gian v mt chiu thi gian). Mt bn chiu ny li l bin ca mt vng nm chiu vi chiu cn li b cun li rt nh. Trng thi ca v tr trn mt mng s gii m nhng s kin xy ra trong mt vng nm chiu.
Trang 64
N H
N G
I A N
(Hnh 2.22) V nguyn tc, nh a chiu l mt hin tng giao thoa ca cc loi sng. nh c to ra khi nh sng t mt chm laser n b tch thnh hai chm (a) v (b). Chm (b) p vo vt th (c) v phn x ln a nhy nh sng (d). Chm (a) s i qua mt thu knh (e) v chm vo nh sng phn x (b) to ra vn giao thoa trn a. Khi mt chm laser c chiu qua a th ngi ta
thu c hnh nh ba chiu y ca vt th. Mt nh quan st c th nghin cu bc nh a chiu ny v c th nhn thy nhng mt m nhng bc nh thng khng th cho thy c. B mt hai chiu ca a bn tri, khng ging nh mt bc nh bnh thng, c mt tnh cht ng ch l bt k mt phn nh no trn b mt ca n u cha tt c cc thng tin cn thit ti cu trc ton b hnh nh.
Trang 65
CHNG 3
V T R T R O NG MT V HT
V tr c nhiu lch s, mi mt lch s c xc nh bng mt ht t hon.
Trang 67
T R
T R O N G
Trang 68
T R
T R O N G
Ta c th ti b giam trong mt v ht V t coi mnh l cha t ca khong khng v tn...

Hamlet, hi 2, cnh 2
- Shakespeare,
I could be bounded in a nutshell And count myself a king of innitive space...)
(nguyn vn:
amlet mun ni rng, v mt vt l, loi ngi chng ta b gii hn, nhng tr c ca chng ta t do khm ph ton b v tr v to bo i n nhng ni m ngay c Star Trek cng s khng dm t chn ni m ch c php n trong nhng cn c mng. V tr l v tn hay ch l rt ln? V v tr l vnh cu hay ch l trng th? Lm th no m tr c hu hn ca chng ta c th hiu mt v tr v hn? C phi chng ta qu liu lnh khi th tr li cc cu hi ? Chng ta s khng may ging Prometheus, ngi ly cp la ca thn Zeus cho con ngi s dng v b trng pht v s liu lnh bng mt si dy xch tri vo ni mt con i bng n l gan ca mnh hay khng? Mc d c cu chuyn cnh bo trn, ti vn tin chng ta c th v nn c gng hiu v tr ny. Loi ngi c nhng bc tin b ng k trong vic nhn thc v tr, c bit l ch trong mt vi nm qua. Chng ta vn cha c mt bc tranh hon chnh, nhng chng ta tin rt gn n n. iu r rng nht v khng gian l chng lin tc v lin tc. iu ny c khng nh bng cc dng c rt hin i nh l knh thin vn Hubble, cho php chng ta thm d nhng ni su thm ca khng gian. Nhng iu m chng ta nhn thy l hng t t cc thin h vi nhng hnh dng v kch thc khc nhau (hnh 3.1), mi thin h gm nhiu t ngi sao, trong , rt nhiu ngi sao c cc hnh tinh quay xung quanh. Chng ta ang sng trn mt hnh tinh ang quay xung quanh mt ngi sao nm trn mt cnh tay bn
(Hnh trn) Prometheus:
hnh v trn mt chic bnh Etruscan vo th k th su trc cng nguyn.

(Hnh trang trc) Mt phi
thuyn con thoi ang nng cp ng knh v gng ca i thin vn v tr Hubble. Pha di l lc a c.
Trang 69
T R
T R O N G
Thin h xoy c NGC 4414
Thin h thang xoy 4314
Thin h e-lp NGC 147
(Hnh 3.1) Khi chng ta nhn su vo trong v tr, chng ta s thy hng t t thin h. Cc thin h c th c hnh dng v kch thc khc nhau; chng c th c hnh e-lp hoc hnh xoy c ging nh di ngn h ca chng ta. Trang 70
T R
T R O N G
ngoi ca di Ngn h hnh xon c. Bi trong cc cnh tay xon c gii hn tm nhn ca chng ta vo vng v tr nm trong mt phng ca thin h. Nhng chng ta c th nhn rt r vng khng gian nm trong mt nn c trc vung gc vi mt phng . V ta c th v s v tr ca cc thin h xa xi (hnh 3.2). Ta thy rng cc thin h phn b tng i ng nht trong khng gian vi mt s ni c mt dy c hn v c cc khong khng trng rng. Mt cc thin h gim i nhng khong cch ln, ta thy chng c v nh th v cc thin h qu xa v qu yu n ni chng ta khng th nhn ra chng. Vi tm quan st ca con ngi by gi, ta c th ni v tr l v tn trong khng gian (hnh 3.3). Mc d ti mi v tr trong khng gian, v tr c v nh khng thay i, nhng chc chn n thay i theo thi gian. iu ny ch c bit vo nhng nm u ca th k 20. Trc , ngi ta cho rng v tr khng thay i theo thi gian. V tr c th tn ti trong mt thi gian v hn, nhng iu s dn n cc kt lun v l. Nu cc ngi sao bc x trong mt thi gian v tn th chng s nung nng v tr cho n nhit ca chng. Thm ch ngay c
(Hnh 3.2) Tri t ca chng ta (E) quay xung quanh mt tri, mt tri nm trong mt cnh tay ngoi ra ca di ngn h. Bi sao ca cnh tay cn tr tm nhn ca chng ta theo mt phng ca ngn h nhng khng cn tr tm nhn v hai pha ca mt phng .
Trang 71
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 3.3) Ngoi tr mt s ni c mt cao, chng ta thy rng cc thin h c phn b kh ng nht trong khng gian.
ban m, ton b bu tri ca chng ta cng s sng nh mt tri bi v mi mt ng ngm s i n mt ngi sao hay mt m my bi b cc ngi sao nung nng cho n bng nhit ca cc ngi sao (hnh 3.4). Vic chng ta thy ban m bu tri ti l rt quan trng. iu cho thy rng v tr khng th tn ti mi mi trng thi m chng ta thy ngy hm nay. Phi c ci g xy ra trong qu kh cc ngi sao ta sng ch trong mt thi gian hu hn trc y. iu ny ni rng nh sng t cc ngi sao rt xa xi vn cha kp n ch chng ta. N s gii thch ti sao bu tri ban m khng sng theo tt c cc hng.
Trang 72
T R
T R O N G
Nu t trc n nay cc ngi sao vn v tr th ti sao cch y vi t nm chng li t nhin ta sng? ng h no ni vi chng rng n lc cn chiu sng? Nh chng ta thy, iu ny lm cc nh trit hc nh Immanuel Kant bi ri v ng tin rng v tr tn ti mi mi. Nhng vi phn ng mi ngi, tng cho rng v tr c sng to ging nh ngy nay ch cch y vi ngn nm l hp l. Tuy vy, vo thp nin 20 ca th k 20, cc tng khc n t cc quan st ca Vesto Slipher v Edwin Hubble bt u xut hin. Nm 1923, Hubble pht hin ra rng thc ra rt nhiu vng sng c gi l tinh vn (nebulae) chnh l cc thin h, mt tp hp khng l cc ngi sao nh mt tri nhng khong cch rt xa.
(Hnh 3.4) Nu v tr l tnh ti v v hn theo tt c cc hng, mi mt ng ngm s kt thc mt ngi sao, iu ny lm bu tri m s sng nh mt tri.
Trang 73
T R
T R O N G
HIU NG DOPPLER Hiu ng Doppler ni ln mi quan h gia tc v bc sng, mt kinh nghim ta thy hng ngy. Hy lng nghe mt chic my bay i ngang qua u chng ta; khi n tin li gn chng ta ta nghe thy ting ng c chi tai hn, cn khi n i ra xa chng ta th ting ng s trm hn. Ting ng chi tai tng ng vi bc
sng (khong cch gia hai nh sng k tip nhau) ngn hn v tn s (s sng trong mt giy) cao hn. l do khi my bay tin li gn chng ta th khong cch gia hai nh sng m do my bay pht i n chng ta s gn nhau hn. Ngc li, khi my bay i ra xa cc bc sng s tng ln v m tn s thp i.
Trang 74
T R
T R O N G
chng xut hin rt nh v yu th khong cch cn phi ln n ni nh sng t phi mt hng triu thm ch hng t nm mi n c chng ta. iu ch ra rng im bt u ca v tr khng th ch vi ngn nm trc y. Nhng iu th hai m Hubble quan st c cn quan trng hn. Bng vic phn tch nh sng t cc thin h khc, cc nh thin vn c th bit cc thin h ang tin li gn chng ta hay i ra xa chng ta (hnh 3.5). H cc k ngc nhin khi pht hin ra rng gn nh hu ht cc thin h ang i ra xa chng ta. Chnh Hubble nhn thy hm y kch tnh ca pht hin ny: ti cc khong cch ln, mi thin h iu chuyn ng ra xa khi cc thin h khc. V tr ang gin n (hnh 3.6).
(Hnh 3.5) Hiu ng Doppler cng ng i vi sng nh sng. Nu khong cch t mt thin h ti tri t m khng i th cc vch c trng trong quang ph s xut hin ti v tr bnh thng hay cn gi l v tr chun. Tuy nhin nu thin h ang chuyn ng ra xa chng ta th cch sng s b ko di ra v vch c trng s b dch chuyn v pha (phi). Nu thin h ang chuyn ng li gn chng ta th cc bc sng s b p li v cc vch s b dch v pha xanh (tri). Trang 75
T R
T R O N G
nh chp thin h lng ging Andromeda do Hubble v Slipher chp.

CC KHM PH CA SLIPHER V HUBBLE VO NHNG NM 1910 1930 1912 Slipher o nh sng t bn tinh vn v thy rng ba tinh vn b dch v pha cn Andromeda b dch v pha xanh. ng gii thch rng Andromeda ang chuyn ng li gn chng ta cn ba tinh vn kia th chuyn ng ra xa chng ta. 1912-1914 Slipher o 12 tinh vn. Tt c tr mt tinh vn u dch v pha . 1914 Slipher bo co pht hin ca ng trc Hi thin vn Hoa K. Hubble nghe bo co ny. 1918 Hubble bt u nghin cu cc tinh vn. 1923 Hubble xc nh cc tinh vn c hnh xoy c l cc thin h. 1914-1925 Slipher v nhng ngi khc tip tc o dch chuyn Doppler. Nm 1925, h ghi nhn c 43 dch chuyn v 2 dch chuyn xanh. 1929 Hubble v Milton Humason sau khi tip tc o dch chuyn Doppler v thy rng tm v m cc thin h ang li ra xa nhau cng b khm ph ca h v v tr ang gin n.
Pht hin v s gin n ca v tr l mt trong nhng cch mng tr tu v i nht ca th k 20. Tt c mi ngi rt ngc nhin v pht hin ny v n thay i hon ton tranh ci v ngun gc ca v tr. Nu cc thin h chuyn ng ra xa nhau th trong qu kh chng cn phi gn nhau hn. T tc gin n hin thi, chng ta c th c on rng cc thin h cn phi rt gn nhau cc y mi n mi lm t nm. Nh ni trong chng trc, Roger Penrose v ti c th chng minh rng thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein cho bit v tr v bn thn thi gian c sinh ra trong mt v n d di. chnh l li gii thch cho cu hi ti sao ban m bu tri li ti: khng mt ngi sao no c th pht sng lu hn
Trang 76
T R
T R O N G
Edwin Hubble trn i thin vn Mount Wilson 100 inch nm 1930.

(Hnh 3.6) NH LUT HUBBLE T phn tch tia sng t cc thin h khc, vo nhng nm 1920, Edwin Hubble pht hin ra rng hu ht cc thin h ang chuyn ng ra xa khi chng ta vi vn tc V t l vi khong cch R t chng n tri t, do V = H*R. nh lut ny c gi l nh lut Hubble, n cho thy v tr ang gin n vi hng s Hubble H xc nh tc gin n. th bn di th hin cc quan st rt mi v dch chuyn ca cc thin h khng nh nh lut Hubble ng vi khong cch rt xa chng ta. S cong ln vng c khong cch rt ln trn th cho thy rng s gin n ang c tng tc, iu ny c th do nng lng chn khng.
Khong cch t cc thin h ti chng ta Vn tc m cc thin h chuyn ng ra xa chng ta

Trang 77
T R
T R O N G
K d v n ln K nguyn Plank, cc nh lut vt l khng th p dng
K nguyn ca L thuyt thng nht ln (GUT). Vt cht nhiu hn phn vt cht
Thi k in yu thng tr bi cc quark v phn quark
K nguyn lepton v hadron. Cc quark to thnh proton, neutron, meson v baryon
Proton v neutron kt hp to thnh hydrom hellium, lithium v deuterium
Vt cht v bc x kt hp vi nhau hnh thnh ht nhn bn u tin
Vt cht v bc x tch ri. V quang hc, v tr m c tr nn trong sut i vi bc x phng v tr
Cc m vt cht hnh thnh cc quasar, ngi sao v tin thin h. Cc ngi sao bt u tng hp cc ht nhn nng hn
10-43 s
10-35 s
10-10 s
1s
3 pht
0.3 triu nm 1 t nm
15 t nm
Cc thin h mi hnh thnh cng cc h mt tri c c quanh cc ngi sao. Cc nguyn t kt hp to nn cc phn t phc tp cho s sng
V N LN NNG BNG i s thuyt tng i rng ng, th v tr s khi u vi mt v nhit v hn ca im k d v n ln. V v tr ang gin n ln nhit ca bc x b gim i. Khong mt phn trm giy sau v n ln, nhit vo khong 100 t v v tr ch yu gm cc photon, in t v neutrino (nhng ht cc nh) v cc phn ht ca chng cng vi mt s proton v neutron. Ba giy tip theo, v tr lnh xung cn 1 t , proton, neutron bt u kt hp to ra ht nhn nguyn t helium, hydro v cc nguyn t nh khc. Hng trm ngn nm sau, nhit xung cn vi ngn , cc in t chuyn ng chm dn v ht
nhn cc nguyn t nh bt in t to thnh nguyn t. Tuy nhin, cc nguyn t nng to nn chng ta nh carbon v oxygen ch c hnh thnh hng t nm sau t vic t helium tm cc ngi sao. Bc tranh v trng thi c nng vo thi k s khai ca v tr c nh khoa hc George Gamow a ra vo nm 1948 trong mt bi bo ng vit cng vi Ralph Alpher. Bi bo a ra mt tin on quan trng l bc x t giai on s khai nng bng vn cn tn ti cho n ngy nay. Tin on ca h c nh vt l Arno Penzias v Robert Wilson kim chng vo nm 1965 da vo quan st bc x phng vi sng.
Trang 78
T R
T R O N G
mi n mi lm t nm, khong thi gian tnh t v n ln. Chng ta quen thuc vi quan nim cho rng cc s kin l h qu ca cc s kin trc , v n lt cc s kin trc li l h qu ca cc s kin trc na. C mt chui nhn qu ko di mi v qu kh. Nhng by gi hy gi s rng chui nhn qu c mt im khi u. Hy gi s rng c mt s kin u tin. Ci g gy ra n? y khng phi l mt cu hi m nhiu nh khoa hc mun cp. H c gng trnh cu hi bng cch cho rng v tr khng c im khi u nh ngi X Vit hoc nu ko rng ngun gc ca v tr khng nm trong a ht ca khoa hc m thuc v siu hnh hc (metaphysics) hoc tn gio. Theo ti, mt nh khoa hc chn chnh s khng lm nh th. Nu cc nh lut khoa hc khng ng ti thi im bt u ca v tr th chng c th khng ng ti cc thi im khc hay khng? Mt nh lut s khng l mt nh lut nu thnh thong n mi ng. Chng ta cn phi c gng hiu im khi u ca v tr da trn c s khoa hc. C th n vt qua kh nng ca chng ta, nhng t nht chng ta nn c gng th lm iu . Mc d cc nh l do Penrose v ti chng minh cho thy rng v tr phi c im bt u, nhng chng khng cho bit nhiu thng tin v bn cht ca s khi u . Chng ch ra rng v tr bt u bng mt v n ln, mt im m ton b v tr v tt c mi th trong b nn vo mt im c mt v hn. Ti im ny, thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein khng cn ng, do , khng th dng n tin on v tr bt u nh th no. Con ngi vn cha hiu ngun gc ca v tr v hin nhin l n nm ngoi phm vi ca khoa hc. Cc nh khoa hc khng hi lng vi kt lun ny. Nh chng 1 v chng 2 ch r, l do thuyt tng i khng ng ti gn v n ln l do n khng tch hp vi nguyn l bt nh, yu t ngu nhin ca thuyt lng t m Einstein phn i da trn Cha khng chi tr xc xc. Tuy vy tt c cc bng chng u cho thy Cha l mt tay chi bc. Ngi ta c th ngh v v tr nh mt sng bc khng l vi cc con xc xc c gieo v cc vng
Trang 79
T R
T R O N G
s c quay mi khi c dp (hnh 3.7). Bn c th ngh rng iu khin mt sng bc nh vy l mt v lm n rt may ri bi bn rt c kh nng mt ht tin khi xc xc gieo hay vng s quay. Nhng vi mt s ln cc v nh cc, s ln thng v thua trung bnh c th on c, mc d kt qu ca mt ln c th khng on trc c (hnh 3.8). Nhng ch sng bc bit chc t l trung bnh c li cho h. iu gii thch ti sao ch sng bc rt giu. C hi duy nht bn c th thng h l c cc tt c s tin ca bn vo mt s t ln gieo xc xc hoc quay s. V tr cng ging nh vy. Khi v tr ln nh ngy nay, c mt s ln ln gieo xc xc, v kt qu trung bnh c th on trc c. V th cc nh lut c in ng i vi cc h ln. Nhng khi v tr rt nh, ging nh gn thi im v n ln, ch c mt s t ln gieo xc xc, v nguyn l bt nh tr ln quan trng. V v tr c gieo xc xc hoi xem ci g s xy ra nn v tr khng c mt lch s duy nht nh ngi ta c th ngh. Thay vo , v tr c tt c cc lch s kh d, mi mt lch s c mt xc xut ca ring n. Phi c mt lch s v tr trong Belize t huy chng vng ti cc k Olympic mc d xc xut ca v tr thp. tng v v tr c nhiu lch s nghe c v nh chuyn khoa hc vin tng, nhng ngy nay khoa hc chp nhn n. tng c mt nh vt l v i, mt ngi y c tnh l Richard Feynman xut. By gi chng ta kt hp thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein v tng v tr c nhiu lch s ca Feynman thnh mt l thuyt thng nht hon ton m t mi th xy ra trong v tr. L thuyt thng nht ny s cho php ta tnh c v tr s pht trin th no nu ta bit cc lch s bt u nh th no. Nhng bn thn l thuyt khng ni cho chng ta bit v tr bt u th no hay trng thi ban u ca v tr l g. bit c iu chng ta cn mt ci gi l iu kin bin hay l quy tc bin. Cc iu kin bin ni cho chng ta bit ci g xy ra ra ca v tr, bin ca khng thi gian. Nu ra ca v tr ch l nhng im bnh thng ca khng thi gian, chng ta c th i qua n v tuyn b lnh th bn ngoi ra v tr l mt phn ca v tr. Mt khc, nu bin ca v tr nm trn
Trang 80
(Hnh 3.7 v hnh 3.8, trang k) Nu mt ngi chi bc t cc cho rt nhiu ln quay th ta c th on kh chnh xc kt qu cho anh ta v kt qu ca cc ln quay s c ly trung bnh. Ngc li, ta khng th on c kt qu ca bt k ln nh cc no.
T R
T R O N G
kt qu 1 ln t cc 10 ln t cc
kt qu
100 ln t cc
kt qu
Trang 81
T R
T R O N G
Nu bin ca v tr l mt im ca khng thi gian, chng ta c th gi cho bin gin ra.
mt ng lm chm trong khng thi gian m khng thi gian b cun li v mt ln v cng th s rt kh xc nh cc iu kin bin c ngha. Tuy vy, mt ng nghip ca ti l Jim Hartle v ti nhn ra rng c mt kh nng th ba. V tr c th khng c bin trong khng thi gian. Thot nhn, iu ny c v mu thun trc tip vi cc nh l m Perose v ti chng minh, chng cho thy v tr cn phi c mt im khi u, mt ci bin thi gian. Tuy vy, nh c gii thch trong chng 2, c mt loi thi gian c gi l thi gian o vung gc vi thi gian thc bnh thng m chng ta ang tri nghim. Lch s v tr theo thi gian thc s xc nh lch s ca n theo thi gian o v ngc li, nhng hai loi lch s ny c th rt khc nhau. c bit l v tr cn c khi u v kt
Trang 82
T R
T R O N G
Chic bng en ti Caltech khi Feynman mt nm 1988 CU CHUYN V FEYNMAN Sinh ra ti Brooklyn, New York nm 1918, Richard Feynman bo v tin s ti i hc Princeton di s hng dn ca John Wheeler vo nm 1942. Ngay sau , ng b li ko v d n Mahattan. , ng ni ting v tnh cch ci m v hi hc ti phng th nghim Los Alamos, ng rt thch ph cc h thng bo mt v tr thnh mt nh vt l khc thng: ng tr thnh ngi ng gp ch yu cho l thuyt bom nguyn t. Thi quen lin tc tm ti khm ph ca Feynman v th gii chnh l gc r ca con ngi ng. N khng ch l ci my lm nn cc thnh cng khoa hc m cn dt ng n rt nhiu khm ph k th v nh gii m nhng ch tng hnh ca ngi Maya. Vo nhng nm sau th chin hai, Feynman tm ra mt phng php mi rt hiu qu trong vic nhn thc c hc lng t. V chnh iu mang gii Nobel nm 1965 n vi ng. ng thch thc gi thuyt c in c bn l mi ht c
Richard Feynman
mt lch s c bit. Thay vo , ng cho rng cc ht di chuyn t ni ny n ni khc theo tt c cc l trnh kh d trong khng thi gian. Vi mi l trnh Feynman lin h vi hai con s, con s th nht l kch thc bin ca sng v con s th hai l pha cho bit l nh hoc hm sng. Xc sut ca mt ht i t A n B cho bi tng cc sng lin quan n l trnh kh d i qua A v B. Tuy vy trong cuc sng hng ngy, chng ta thy dng nh cc vt th i theo mt l trnh duy nht t im u n im cui. iu ny ph hp vi tng a lch s (hoc tng theo cc lch s), v i vi cc vt th ln th qui tc ca ng v gn cc con s cho mi l trnh m bo tt c cc l trnh (tr mt l trnh duy nht) phi trit tiu ln nhau khi ng gp ca chng c kt hp li. Ch c mt trong s v hn cc l trnh c ngha i vi chuyn ng ca cc vt th v m l c xem xt v chnh l l trnh c c t cc nh lut chuyn ng c in ca Newton.
thc trong thi gian o. Thi gian o hnh x nh ging ht mt trc khc ca khng gian. Cho nn cc lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o c th c coi nh cc mt cong ging nh mt qu bng, mt mt phng, hoc mt hnh yn nga nhng c bn chiu thay v hai chiu (hnh 3.9). Nu lch s ca v tr tin n v hn ging nh hnh yn nga hay mt phng th ngi ta gp vn trong vic ch r cc iu kin bin v hn l g. Nhng ngi ta c th trnh khng cn ch ra iu kin bin nu cc lch s ca v tr nm trong thi gian o l cc mt ng, ging nh b mt tri t. B mt tri t khng c bin hoc ra. Khng c bo co ng tin no v vic con ngi b ri ra khi tri t!
Trong tch phn l trnh Feynman, mt ht c th ly tt c cc l trnh kh d Trang 83
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 3.9) CC LCH S CA V TR Nu cc lch s ca v tr tin n v hn nh hnh chic yn nga, ta s gp kh khn trong vic tm iu kin bin v lc n l v hn. Nu cc lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o l cc mt ng ging nh b mt tri t th ta cng khng th ch ra iu kin bin c.
CC NH LUT TIN HA V CC IU KIN BAN U Cc nh lut vt l bt buc mt trng thi ban u phi tin ha theo thi gian. V d, nu ta nm mt hn vo trong khng kh th cc nh lut hp dn s quyt nh chnh xc chuyn ng sau ca hn . Nhng chng ta khng th on c hn s ri chnh xc ti u t cc nh lut . lm c iu chng ta cn phi bit tc v hng ban u khi hn ri khi tay chng ta. Ni cch khc l chng ta cn phi bit iu kin ban u hay iu kin bin ca chuyn ng ca hn .
V tr hc cng c gng m t tin ha ca ton b v tr bng cc nh lut vt l. Do , chng ta cn phi hi iu kin ban u ca v tr l g p dng n vo cc nh lut trn. Trng thi ban u c th c nh hng rt quan trng ln cc c im ca v tr, c l quan trng nh tnh cht ca cc ht v lc c bn i vi cuc sng sinh vt. C mt xut v iu kin khng bin, xut ny cho rng khng gian v thi gian l hu hn, to thnh mt mt ng nhng khng c bin, n ging nh b mt tri t l hu hn nhng khng c bin. Gi thit khng bin da trn tng ly tng theo cc lch s ca Feynman nhng lch s ca
ht trong tng Feynman c thay bng ton b khng thi gian biu din cho lch s ca ton b v tr. Ni mt cch chnh xc, iu kin khng bin l s hn ch cc lch s kh d ca v tr vo cc khng thi gian khng c bin trong thi gian o. Hay ni cch khc, iu kin khng bin ca v tr l v tr khng c bin. Hin nay cc nh v tr hc ang nghin cu cc cu hnh ban u cu hnh c c t gi thit iu kin khng bin, v c th cng vi nguyn l v nhn yu (xem nguyn l v nhn trang 86 - ND) lm cho v tr tin ha n trng thi ging nh ta quan st hin nay.
Trang 84
T R
T R O N G
Nu cc lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o thc s l cc mt ng nh Hartle v ti xut th iu c ngha quan trng v trit hc v hnh dung ca chng ta v ni chng ta sinh ra. V tr l hon ton t thn (self-contained); n khng cn bt k ci g bn ngoi ln giy ct cho ng h v tr v lm cho n hot ng. Thay vo , tt c mi th trong v tr u c xc nh bng cc nh lut khoa hc v bng cc ln gieo xc xc trong v tr. iu ny nghe c v xa x nhng l iu m ti v nhiu nh khoa hc khc tin. Hn na, nu v tr khng c cc iu kin bin nh th th v tr s khng c mt lch s duy nht. V tr s c nhiu lch s nh Feynman xut. S c mt lch s trong thi gian o tng ng vi mi mt ng kh d, v mi lch s trong thi gian o s xc nh mt lch s trong thi gian thc. Vy nn chng ta c rt nhiu trng thi kh d cho v tr. Ci g chn mt v tr c bit m chng ta ang sng ra khi ra khi mt tp hp tt c cc v tr kh d? Mt im m chng ta cn ch l rt nhiu lch s kh d ca v tr s khng tri qua mt chui s kin hnh thnh cc thin h v cc v sao, trong khi chui s kin li rt quan trng i vi s pht trin ca ring chng ta. Trong khi cc sinh vt c tr tu c v nh kh c th tin ha nu khng c cc thin h v cc ngi th vic chng ta tn ti nh l mt sinh vt c kh nng t cu hi Ti sao v tr li nh ngy nay? l mt gii hn ca lch s ca chng ta. iu ng v tr ny l mt trong mt thiu s cc lch s bao gm cc thin h v v sao. y l v d ca mt nguyn l gi l nguyn l v nhn (anthropic principle). Nguyn l v nhn ni rng v tr cn phi gn ging nh chng ta thy v nu v tr ny khc i th s khng c ai y quan st n (hnh 3.10). Rt nhiu nh khoa hc khng thch nguyn l v nhn v n c v m h v hnh nh khng c nhiu kh nng tin on. Nhng nguyn l v nhn c th c rt ra t
B mt tri t khng c bin hoc ra. Cc bo co v chuyn c ngi b ri ra khi tri t ch l s khuych i.
Trang 85
T R
T R O N G
Thi gian Kch thc gin n

NGUYN L V NHN Ni mt cch nm na, nguyn l v nhn cho rng chng ta thy v tr, hoc ch t mt phn ca v tr, nh ngy nay l bi v chng ta tn ti. C mt vin cnh l v tr hon ton tri ngc vi mt gic m v mt l thuyt thng nht v c th d on chnh xc, trong , cc nh lut ca t nhin l hon thin v th gii l nh vy v n khng th khc i c. C nhiu phin bn ca nguyn l v nhn: t nguyn l rt yu (v tr khng lin quan n con ngi) cho n rt mnh (s lin h ca con ngi vi v tr mnh n mc v l). Mc d mt s cc nh khoa hc min cng chp nhn nguyn l v nhn mnh th mt s ngi li tranh ci v tnh thit thc trong mt s quan im ca nguyn l v nhn yu. Chung qui l nguyn l v nhn yu gii thch v cc thi k hoc cc phn v tr kh d khc nhau m chng ta c th sng c. V d, l do ti sao v n ln li xy ra cch y khong
mi t nm l v tr cn phi tn ti lu mt s ngi sao kt thc qu trnh tin ha to ra cc nguyn t nh l oxygen hoc carbon, khng c chng, con ngi khng th c mt c, v tui v tr cng phi ngn mt s ngi sao vn tip tc cung cp nng lng duy tr s sng. Trn c s iu kin khng bin, chng ta c th s dng qui tc ca Feynman xc nh cc con s cho mi lch s v tr nhm tm ra tnh cht c th c ca cc v tr. Trong bi cnh ny, ta c th dng nguyn l v nhn nh l mt i hi cho cc lch s c cuc sng tr tu. Tt nhin l vi nguyn l v nhn, con ngi s cm thy hnh phc hn nu con ngi c th chng minh rng mt s cc cu hnh ban u cho v tr c v nh l s tin ha c mt v tr ging nh chng ta ang quan st. iu ny ng rng trng thi ban u ca phn v tr chng ta ang sng khng nht thit phi c chn mt cch k lng.
Trang 86
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 3.10, trang trc) Hnh tn cng pha tri (a) minh ha cc v tr ang co li, tr thnh cc v tr ng. Hnh tn cng pha phi (b) l cc v tr m tip tc gin n mi mi. Cc v tr ti hn cn bng gia vic co li v gin n (c1) hoc v tr lm pht hai ln (c2) c th c sinh vt c tr tu. V tr ca chng ta (d) hin nay ang th tip tc gin n.
Lm pht nhanh kp s khng to ra cuc sng tr tu
Hin nay lm pht ca v tr ca chng ta vn tip tc gin n
mt cng thc chnh xc v dng nh n rt quan trng khi gii quyt vn ngun gc v tr. Nh ni chng 2, thuyt-M cho php mt s ln cc lch s kh d ca v tr. Phn ln trong s khng ph hp cho s pht trin ca i sng tr tu; chng hoc l trng rng, tn ti trong mt thi gian ngn v b un cong qu nhiu hoc khng n v mt s kha cnh no . ng nh theo tng ca Feynman v v tr c nhiu lch s, xc sut ca cc lch s khng c s hin din ca sinh vt tr tu c th rt cao (xem trang 84). Thc ra vic c bao nhiu lch s m khng c s c mt ca sinh vt c tr tu khng quan trng. Chng ta ch quan tm n mt nhm cc lch s c cuc sng c tr tu pht trin. Cuc sng tr tu ny khng nht thit phi c ci g ging nh con ngi. Chng c th l cc sinh vt l mu xanh nh b. Thc ra chng cn thng minh hn con ngi. Loi ngi khng phi l sinh vt tr tu nht trong v tr. Mt v d v sc mnh ca nguyn l v nhn khi xt s chiu trong khng gian. Kinh nghim chung cho thy chng ta ang trong mt khng gian ba chiu. iu mun ni rng chng ta biu din v tr ca mt im trong khng gian bng ba con s, v d, v , kinh v cao trn mc nc bin. Nhng ti sao li l mt khng gian ba chiu? Ti sao khng phi l hai chiu, bn chiu hay mt s chiu khc nh khoa hc vin tng? Trong thuyt-M,
Trang 87
T R
T R O N G
khng gian c chn hoc mi chiu, nhng ngi ta cho rng c su hoc by chiu b cun li rt nh, ch cn li ba chiu ln v gn nh phng m thi (hnh 3.11). Ti sao chng ta khng sng trong mt lch s trong tm chiu b cun nh li ch li hai chiu ln cho chng ta nhn bit? Mt sinh vt hai chiu s rt kh c th tiu ha thc n. Nu n c mt ci rut chy sut c th chng th ci rut s chia sinh vt lm i v hai mnh s ri khi nhau. Do , hai chiu phng khng cho bt k sinh vt phc tp nh cuc sng c tr tu. Mt khc nu s chiu gn phng nhiu hn ba th lc hp dn gia hai vt th tng rt nhanh khi chng tin n gn nhau. iu ny c ngha l cc hnh tinh s khng c qu o bn vng quanh mt tri. Cc hnh tinh hoc l s ri vo mt tri (hnh 3.12A), hoc l s thot vo khong khng ti tm v lnh lo (hnh 3.12B). Tng t nh vy, cc qu o ca in t cng s khng bn, v vt
Trang 88
(Hnh 3.11) Nhn t xa, mt ng ung nc ging nh mt ng mt chiu.
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 3.12A)
(Hnh 3.12B)
Trang 89
T R
T R O N G
Lch s thi gian o
Lch s thi gian thc
(Hnh 3.13) Lch s thi gian o khng bin n gin nht l mt hnh cu. Lch s trong thi gian o ny xc nh lch s trong thi gian thc (gin n theo kiu lm pht).
cht nh chng ta bit s khng tn ti. Vy nn, tng v tr c nhiu lch s cho php bt k s chiu gn phng, nhng ch c cc lch s vi ba chiu phng mi c sinh vt c tr tu. Ch c trong cc lch s nh vy th cu hi Ti sao khng gian c ba chiu? mi c t ra. Lch s n gin nht ca v tr trong thi gian o l mt hnh cu, ging nh b mt ca tri t, nhng c nhiu hn hai chiu (hnh 3.13). N xc nh lch s ca v tr trong thi gian thc m chng ta ang tri nghim, trong v tr l nh nhau theo cc im trong khng gian v gin n theo thi gian. Theo cc kha cnh ny, n ging nh v tr chng ta ang sng. Nhng tc gin n rt nhanh, v n vn cn gin n nhanh hn na. Vic gia tc s gin n nh vy c gi l lm pht (ination), v n ging nh vic gi c leo thang vi mt tc cha tng thy. Ni chung s lm pht gi c b coi l khng tt, nhng trong trng
Trang 90
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 3.14)
Nng lng vt cht
Nng lng hp dn
hp ca v tr th lm pht li c li. Lm pht lm trn bt k ch tri st no c th xut hin trong thi gian u ca v tr. V v tr gin n, nn v tr s vay mn nng lng t trng hp dn to thm vt cht. Nng lng vt cht dng s c cn bng mt cch chnh xc vi nng lng hp dn m, do , nng lng ton phn bng khng. Khi kch thc ca v tr tng gp i, nng lng vt cht v nng lng hp dn cng tng gp i nhng hai ln khng vn l khng. Gi m gii ngn hng cng n gin nh th nh (hnh 3.14)! Nu lch s v tr trong thi gian o l mt hnh cu hon ho th lch s tng ng trong thi gian thc s l mt v tr tip tc gin n mi mi theo kiu lm pht. Khi v tr ang lm pht th vt cht khng th ri vo nhau hnh thnh cc thin h v cc v sao, v cuc sng, ch cha ni n cuc sng tr tu nh chng
Trang 91
T R
T R O N G
Kch thc v tr
Kch thc v tr Thi gian thc Thi gian thc mt tc cha tng c sau gim tc gin n n nh ngy nay. Mt pha lm pht nh vy c th gii thch cu hi ti sao v tr li ging nhau theo tt c cc hng v c thi gian nh sng truyn t vng ny n vng khc trong v tr s khai. Lch s tng ng trong thi gian o ca mt v tr tip tc gin n theo kiu lm pht mi mi l mt hnh cu hon ho. Nhng vi v tr ca chng ta, qu trnh gin n lm pht b chm li sau mt phn nh ca mt giy v do cc thin h c th c hnh thnh. Trong thi gian o, iu c ngha l v tr tr ca chng ta l mt hnh cu b bt cc nam.
(Hnh 3.15) V TR LM PHT Trong m hnh v n ln nng bng, vo nhng giai on s khai, v tr khng c thi gian nhit truyn t ni ny n ni khc. D vy, chng ta quan st thy rng nhit ca bc x phng vi sng l nh nhau theo cc hng. iu ny c ngha l trng thi ban u ca v tr c nhit nh nhau ti mi ni. tm c mt m hnh, trong , rt nhiu cu hnh ban u khc nhau c th tin ha n mt ci g ging nh v tr hin nay, ngi ta gi thit rng vo giai on s khai, v tr tri qua mt thi k gin n rt nhanh. S gin n ny c gi l lm pht, tc l n xy ra vi
Trang 92
T R
T R O N G
CH S GI C - LM PHT V SIU LM PHT Thng 7 nm 1914 Thng 1 nm 1919 Thng 7 nm 1919 Thng 1 nm 1920 Thng 1 nm 1921 Thng 7 nm 1921 Thng 1 nm 1922 Thng 7 nm 1922 Thng 1 nm 1923 Thng 7 nm 1923 Thng 11 nm 1923 1,0 2,6 3,4 12,6 14,4 14,3 36,7 100,6 2 785.0 194 000.0 726 000 000 000,0 Hai triu mc c nm 1914 Mi ngn mc c nm 1914 Mt mc c nm 1914
Mi triu mc c nm 1914
Mt t mc c nm 1914
ta, khng th pht trin. Do , mc d gi thit v v tr c nhiu lch s dn n cc lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o l cc hnh cu hon ho, nhng khng c g th v c. Tuy nhin, cc lch s trong thi gian o l cc hnh cu c cc nam hi bt th thch ng hn (hnh 3.15). Trong trng hp ny, lch s tng ng trong thi gian thc s gin n trc tin theo kiu c gia tc v lm pht. Nhng sau qu trnh gin n s chm dn v cc thin h c th c hnh thnh. cuc sng tr tu c th pht trin th bt cc nam phi rt nh. iu ni rng ban u v tr gin n rt nhanh. Mc k lc v lm pht tin t xut hin c gia hai cuc i chin th gii, khi gi c tng n hng t ln nhng mc lm pht xut hin trong v tr t nht l mt t t t ln hn th (hnh 3.16). Do nguyn l bt nh nn s khng ch c mt lch s v tr c
(Hnh 3.16) LM PHT C TH L MT QUI LUT CA T NHIN Lm pht c tng sau ha bnh cho n thng 2 nm 1920, gi c lc cao hn nm 1918 nm ln. Sau thng 7 nm 1922, thi k siu lm pht bt u. Tt c nim tin vo gi tr ng tin bin mt v ch s gi c tng cc nhanh trong mi lm thng, gia tng tc in tin ht cng sut v s mt gi cng nhanh nh th. Vo cui nm 1923, 300 nh my giy lm vic ht tc v 150 cng ty n lot vi 2000 my in lm vic sut ngy m in tin. Trang 93
T R
T R O N G
(a)
(b)
(c)
(Hnh 3.17) CC LCH S KH D V KHNG KH D Cc lch s trn nhn ging hnh (a) l nhng lch s kh d nht, nhng ch c mt s cc lch s nh th. Mc d cc lch s hi bt bnh thng (b) v (c) km kh d hn, nhng c rt nhiu cc lch s ging nh vy, khc bit so vi lch s trn nhn cht t.
cuc sng c tr tu. Thay vo , cc lch s trong thi gian o s l mt h gm nhng hnh cu hi bin dng, mi hnh cu s tng ng vi mt lch s trong thi gian thc m , v tr lm pht trong mt thi gian di nhng khng phi l v hn. Chng ta c th hi vy th lch s no l lch s kh d nht trong cc lch s c php. Ha ra l cc lch s kh d nht hon ton khng trn tru m c nhng ni hi tri st (hnh 3.17). S gn sng cc lch s kh d nht rt nh, so vi lch s trn tru, s gn sng ny ch bng vi phn trm ngn. Tuy chng rt nh nhng chng ta c th o c chng. Chng l nhng thng ging nh trong min vi sng ti chng ta t cc hng trong khng gian. V tinh thm d phng v tr (Cosmic Background Explorer) COBE c phng vo nm 1989 v lp c bn bc x vi sng ca v tr. Trn bn vi sng v tr, cc mu khc nhau cho bit cc nhit khc nhau, nhng ton b di nhit t mu n mu xanh ch c gi tr bng mt phn vn K. Cui cng th s thay i gia cc vng khc nhau ca v tr s khai cng lc ht do hp
Trang 94
T R
T R O N G
dn b sung trong cc vng v tr c hn lm cho vng ngng gin n v suy sp di lc hp dn ca bn thn chng hnh thnh cc thin h v cc v sao. Do , v nguyn l, t nht bn bc x vi sng v tr c mu xanh cho ton b cu trc ca v tr. Tnh cht ca cc lch s kh d nht ca v tr m thch hp cho s xut hin ca cc sinh vt c tr tu s nh th no? Xem ra c rt nhiu kh nng ph thuc vo lng vt cht ca v tr. Nu vt cht trong v tr ln hn mt lng ti hn th lc ht hp dn gia cc thin h s lm chm cc thin h v thm ch cn dng khng cho chng bay ra xa nhau. Sau cc thin h s bt u ri vo nhau v tt c s cng i ti mt v co ln (big crunch). V co ln s kt thc lch s ca v tr trong thi gian thc (hnh 3.18). Nu mt v tr thp hn gi tr ti hn, lc hp dn qu yu ngn cn cc thin h ri xa nhau mi mi. Tt c cc ngi sao s t chy ht nhin liu, v dn dn v tr s tr ln long v lnh hn. Cho nn, mt ln na, mi s s n hi kt nhng theo mt
Bn ton b bu tri do v tinh COBE chp cho thy cc np nhn theo thi gian.
Trang 95
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 3.18) Tt c vt cht s b nut vo mt ci ging hp dn mnh khng khip trong mt v co ln, c th l mt trong nhng kt cc ca v tr. (Hnh 3.19, trang k) Mt v tr lnh lo v trng tri trong tt c mi th u kit sc v cc ngi sao cui cng cng ang chp chn trc khi tt v cn kit nhin liu.
cch km kch tnh hn. Nhng d kt cc th no th v tr cng s tn ti thm vi t nm na (hnh 3.19). V tr c th c mt th ging nh vt cht c gi l nng lng chn khng (vacuum energy), nng lng chn khng hin din ngay c trong khng gian trng rng. T phng trnh ni ting ca Einstein, E=mc2, nng lng chn khng ny c mt khi lng. iu ni rng nng lng chn khng gy ra mt hiu ng hp dn ln s gin n ca v tr. Nhng iu ng ni l hiu ng hp dn do nng lng chn khng gy ra li ngc li vi hiu ng hp dn do vt cht gy ra. Vt cht lm qu trnh gin n chm li v c th lm dng v o ngc qu trnh . Ngc li, nng lng chn khng li gia tc qu trnh gin n ging nh trong giai on lm pht. Thc ra, nng lng chn khng c tc ng nh hng s v tr c nhc n chng 1 m Einstein b sung vo cc phng trnh ca ng vo nm 1917 khi ng nhn thy cc phng trnh ny khng a n mt nghim biu din cho mt v tr tnh.
Trang 96
T R
T R O N G
Sau khi Hubble pht hin v tr gin n, ngi ta khng thy cn phi a hng s v tr vo cc phng trnh na, v Einstein cng cho rng hng s v tr l mt sai lm. Tuy vy, hng s v tr li hon ton khng phi l mt sai lm. Nh ni trong chng 2, ngy nay chng ta nhn thy rng l thuyt lng t ni rng khng thi gian c lp y bi cc thng ging lng t. Trong l thuyt siu i xng, cc nng lng dng v m v hn ca cc thng ging trng thi c bn ny trit tiu gia cc ht c spin khc nhau. Nhng chng ta khng trng i cc nng lng m v dng ny trit tiu hon ton n ni khng cn st li mt nng lng chn khng nh b, hu hn no, bi v v tr khng nm trong mt trng thi siu i xng. iu ngc nhin duy nht l nng lng chn khng nh n ni cch y t lu ngi ta mi nhn ra n. C th y l mt v d na ca nguyn l v nhn. Mt lch s c nng lng chn khng ln s khng hnh
C NG L HNG S V TR L SAI LM LN NHT TRONG I TI?
Albert Einstein
Trang 97
T R
T R O N G
Cc thin h khng th hnh thnh t vng ny
Gii hn nguyn l v nhn
Sao siu mi
NNG LNG CHN KHNG
Phng vi sng
MT VT CHT
(Hnh 3.20) Kt hp cc quan st t cc v n siu sao xa xi vi bc x phng vi sng v phn b vt cht trong v tr, ta c th c on c nng lng chn khng v mt vt cht trong v tr.
thnh cc thin h, do , s khng c cc sinh vt c th hi cu hi Ti sao nng lng chn khng li c gi tr bng gi tr m chng ta ang thy? Chng ta c gng th xc nh lng vt cht v nng lng chn khng trong v tr t cc quan st khc nhau. Ta c th biu din cc kt qu trong mt gin c trc honh l mt nng lng v trc tung l nng lng chn khng. ng chm l bin gii ca vng m trong sinh vt tr tu c th pht trin (hnh 3.20). Mi quan st v sao siu mi, cc m thin h v phng bc x vi sng u vch ra gii hn trn gin ny. May mn thay, c ba
Trang 98
T R
T R O N G
Ta c th ti b giam trong mt v ht V t coi mnh l cha t ca khong khng v tn...

- Shakespeare, Hamlet, hi 2, cnh 2
vng ny c mt khu vc giao nhau. Nu mt vt cht v nng lng chn khng nm trong khu vc giao nhau ny th qu trnh gin n ca v tr s ban u s rt nhanh v sau chm dn. Hnh nh l lm pht l mt qui lut ca t nhin. Trong chng ny, chng ta thy qu trnh tm hiu tnh cht ca v tr rng ln bng khi nim lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o din ra nh th no. Ci v tr trong thi gian o l mt hnh cu nh b v hi bt, n ging nh ci v ht ca Hamlet, tuy nhin, ci ht ny li gii m c tt c mi th xy ra trong thi gian thc. Do vy, Hamlet hon ton ng. Chng ta b gii hn trong mt v ht nhng vn coi mnh l cha t ca khong khng v tn.
Trang 99
T R
T R O N G
Trang 100
CHNG 4
T I N O N TNG LAI
S bin mt ca thng tin trong cc h en c th lm gim kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta nh th no?
Trang 101
T R
T R O N G
Trang 102
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
(Hnh 4.1) Mt ngi quan st trn tri t (mu xanh) ang chuyn ng trn qu o xung quanh mt tri s thy sao Ha (mu ) in trn vng cu cc sao. Chuyn ng biu kin phc tp ca cc hnh tinh c th c gii thch bng cc nh lut ca Newton v khng c nh hng g n s phn ca con ngi.
hn loi lun mong mun iu khin tng lai, hoc t nht l on trc c iu g s xy ra. l l do ti sao ngnh chim tinh hc li ph bin n th. Chim tinh hc cho rng cc s kin xy ra trn tri t u lin quan n chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh trn bu tri. y l mt gi thit c th kim chng mt cch khoa hc, khng, n s l mt gi thit c th kim chng mt cch khoa hc nu nh cc nh chim tinh dm mo him ni mt d on chc chn m c th kim tra c. Tuy nhin, h cng thng minh ch ni nhng d on m h c th ng vi bt k kt qu no. Nhng pht biu kiu nh Cc mi quan h c nhn c th tr ln mnh lit hn hoc l Bn s c mt c may v ti chnh s khng bao gi b chng minh l sai c. Nhng l do m phn ng cc nh khoa hc khng tin vo chim tinh hc khng phi l nhng bng chng phi khoa hc hoc thiu nhng bng chng khoa hc m v n khng ph hp vi nhng l thuyt khc c kim chng bng thc nghim. Khi Copernicus v Galileo pht hin ra rng cc hnh tinh quay quanh mt tri ch khng phi quay quanh tri t, v Newton tm ra nh lut hp dn iu khin chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh th chim tinh hc tr ln cc k ng ng. Ti sao v tr ca cc hnh tinh khc trn nn tri khi chng c nhn t tri t li c nhng mi tng quan vi nhng i phn t t gi l sinh vt c tr tu sng trn mt tiu hnh tinh (hnh 4.1)? Chim tinh hc cn phi lm cho chng ta tin vo s tng quan . Cc l thuyt c trnh by trong cun sch ny cng khng hn g chim tinh hc ch khng c thm
Thng ny sao Ha chim cung Nhn m, l thi gian tt bn t hc. Sao Ha yu cu bn sng mt cuc sng theo cch bn cho l ng v thng nhng ngi khc cho l sai. V nhng iu s xy ra. Vo ngy 20, sao Ha s i n phn hc vn ca bn, n lin quan n ngh nghip v bn s hc nhn ly trch nhim v gii quyt cc quan h kh khn. Tuy vy, n k trng rm bn s c c mt s thng sut v tm bao qut tuyt vi v ton b cuc i m bn s nhn c. Trang 103
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.2) Nu bn bit v tr v tc ca qu bng m bn nm i, bn c th tnh c n s i n u.
cc bng chng thc nghim cng c cc l thuyt , nhng ta vn tin v cc l thuyt ny ph hp vi cc l thuyt c kim chng. S thnh cng ca cc nh lut ca Newton v cc l thuyt vt l khc dn n tng v quyt nh lun khoa hc (scientic determinism). tng ny c mt nh khoa hc ngi Php tn l Marquis de Laplace a ra ln u tin vo u th k th mi chn. Laplace cho rng nu chng ta bit c v tr v ta ca tt c cc ht trong v tr ti mt thi im th cc nh lut vt l s cho php chng ta on c trng thi ca v tr s nh th no ti bt k mt thi im no khc trong qu kh v tng lai (hnh 4.2). Ni cch khc, nu quyt nh lun khoa hc m ng th chng ta c th on trc c tng lai v khng cn n chim tinh hc. Tt nhin l trn thc t ngay c nhng ci n gin nh nh lut hp dn ca Newton cng dn n cc phng trnh m chng ta khng th gii mt cch chnh xc cho h c nhiu hn hai ht c. Hn na, cc phng trnh ny thng c mt tnh cht c bit l hn lon, do , mt thay i nh v v tr v vn tc ti mt thi im c th dn n mt tnh cht hon ton khc ti cc thi im tip theo. Nhng ngi xem phim Cng vin k Jura (Jurassic Park, hnh 4.3) u bit, mt xo trn nh mt ni ny c th gy ra mt thay i ln mt ni khc. Mt con bm v cnh Tokyo c th gy ra ma cng vin trung tm New York (hnh 4.3). iu phin phc l chui s kin khng c tnh lp
(Hnh 4.3)
Trang 104
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
li. Ln sau con bm v cnh, mt lot cc s kin khc s khc i v cc s kin ny s nh hng n thi tit. l l do ti sao cc d bo thi tit rt khng ng tin cy. Do vy, mc d v nguyn l th cc nh lut ca in ng lc hc lng t s cho php chng ta tnh ton c tt c mi th trong ha hc v sinh hc, nhng chng ta vn khng c nhiu thnh cng trong vic on trc c hnh vi con ngi t cc phng trnh ton hc. Tuy nhin, mc d gp phi nhng kh khn trn thc tin nh th, nhng v nguyn tc, phn ln cc nh khoa hc vn c an i vi tng cho rng tng lai vn c th d bo c.
U VO
Thot nhn th quyt nh lun khoa hc c v nh b nguyn l bt nh e da. Nguyn l bt nh ni rng chng ta khng th o chnh xc v tr v vn tc ca mt ht ti mt thi im. Chng ta o v tr cng chnh xc bao nhiu th chng ta xc nh vn tc cng km chnh xc by nhiu, v ngc li. Li gii thch v quyt nh lun khoa hc ca Laplace cho rng nu chng ta bit v tr v vn tc ca cc ht ti mt thi im th chng ta c th xc nh c v tr v vn tc ca chng ti bt k thi im no trong qu kh v tng lai. Nhng lm th no m chng ta c th lm c iu nu nh ngay t u nguyn l bt nh khng cho chng ta bit c v tr v vn tc ti mt thi im? D my tnh ca chng ta tt th no i chng na, nu chng ta cung cp d liu u vo sai th chng ta U RA
Trang 105
T R
T R O N G
HM SNG NHN
V tr
PHN B XC SUT VN TC CA HT
Vn tc
SNG CC HM SNG
V tr
PHN B XC SUT VN TC CA HT (Hnh 4.4) Hm sng xc nh xc sut m ht s c cc v tr v vn tc khc nhau theo cch m chng phi tun theo nguyn l bt nh.
Vn tc
s nhn c cc d on sai lm. Tuy vy, quyt nh lun c khi phc di mt dng khc trong mt l thuyt mi c gi l c hc lng t, tng thch vi nguyn l bt nh. Trong c hc lng t, ni mt cch gn ng, ta c th d on mt cch chnh xc mt na nhng iu m ta mong mun thc hin trn quan im Laplace c in. Trong c hc lng t, mt ht khng c v tr hoc vn tc xc nh nhng trng thi ca ht c th c biu din bng mt ci gi l hm sng (hnh 4.4). Ti mi v tr trong khng gian, mt hm sng l mt con s cho bit xc xut m ht c th c tm thy ti v tr . Tc thay i ca hm sng t im ny n im khc cho bit kh nng ht c cc vn tc khc nhau. Mt s hm sng c mt nh rt nhn
Trang 106
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
ti mt im c th trong khng gian. Trong trng hp ny, bt nh v v tr ca ht l rt nh. Trn gin ta cng c th thy trong nhng trng hp , hm sng thay i rt nhanh gn nh ca sng, hm sng tng nhanh mt sn v gim nhanh pha sn kia. iu ny c ngha l phn b xc sut ca vn tc c tri trn mt vng gi tr rt ln. Hay ni mt cch khc, bt nh v vn tc rt ln. Mt khc, chng ta hy xem cc hm sng thoai thoi th bt nh v v tr ln nhng bt nh v vn tc li nh. Vy nn, vic m t cc ht bng hm sng khng cho ta v tr v vn tc chnh xc. Gi y ta thy rng hm sng l tt c nhng g m ta c th xc nh. Thm ch chng ta cng khng th cho rng Cha bit v tr v vn tc ca cc ht nhng giu khng cho chng ta bit. Cc l thuyt bin s n (hidden variable) nh th khng ph hp vi cc quan st thc nghim. Hn th na, Cha b gii hn bi nguyn l bt nh v khng th bit v tr v vn tc ca ht; Cha ch c th bit hm sng ca ht m thi. Tc thay i ca hm sng theo thi gian c cho bi mt
(Hnh 4.5) PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER S ph thuc ca hm sng theo thi gian c xc nh bi ton t H lin quan n nng lng ca h ang xt.
Trang 107
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.6) Trong khng thi gian phng ca thuyt tng i hp, nhng ngi quan st chuyn ng vi cc tc khc nhau s c cc php o thi gian khc nhau, nhng chng ta c th dng phng trnh Schrodinger trong bt k thi gian no on c hm sng trong tng lai.
phng trnh gi l phng trnh Schrodinger (hnh 4.5). Nu ta bit hm sng ti mt thi im th chng ta c th dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti bt k thi im no khc trong qu kh v tng lai. Vy nn, quyt nh lun khoa hc vn ng trong l thuyt lng t nhng vi mt mc thp hn. Thay cho kh nng on trc c c v tr v vn tc, chng ta ch c th bit c hm sng. Hm sng ch cho bit chnh xc v tr hoc vn tc ch khng th bit c c hai. Do , trong c hc lng t, kh nng tin on chnh xc ch bng mt na kh nng tin on trong th gii quan Laplace c in. Vi ngha gii hn ny, ta c th ni quyt nh lun khoa hc vn ng. Tuy nhin, vic dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng theo thi gian (tc l d on nhng iu s xy ra trong tng lai) hin nhin tha nhn rng thi gian tri i mt cch trn tru mi mi ti khp cc im trong khng gian. iu ny r rng l ng trong vt l Newton. Thi gian c cho l tuyt i, tc l mi s kin trong lch s ca v tr c nh du bi mt con s c gi l thi gian v chui con s tri mt cch trn tru t v hn trong qu kh n v hn trong tng lai. c th ni l cm nhn chung v thi gian v l cch nhn m phn ng mi ngi thm ch l phn ng cc nh vt l tm nim. Tuy nhin vo nm 1905, nh chng ta thy, thuyt tng i hp vt b khi nim thi gian tuyt i, trong , thi gian t n khng cn l mt i lng c lp
Trang 108
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
im dng
Thi gian
Thi gian
Khng gian
Khng gian (Hnh 4.7) THI GIAN DNG Mt php o thi gian c th nht thit phi c mt im dng m ti quai cm ca chic cc tip xc vi phn tr chnh: ti cc im , thi gian s dng. Ti cc im nh th, thi gian khng tng theo bt k hng no. Do , ta c th dng phng trnh Schrodinger tin on hm sng trong tng lai.
ca mt th lin tc bn chiu c gi l khng thi gian. Trong thuyt tng i hp, cc nh quan st khc nhau chuyn ng vi cc vn tc khc nhau trong khng thi gian theo cc hng khc nhau. Mi nh quan st c php o thi gian ring ca anh ta hoc c ta dc theo hng m anh hoc c ta ang chuyn ng. V cc nh quan st khc nhau s o c cc khong thi gian khc nhau gia cc s kin (hnh 4.6). Do , trong thuyt tng i hp, khng c thi gian tuyt i chng ta c th nh du cc s kin. Tuy nhin khng thi gian trong thuyt tng i hp li phng. iu ny c ngha l, trong thuyt tng i hp, thi gian c o bi bt k nh quan st chuyn ng t do s tng mt cch trn tru trong khng thi gian t m v cng ca qu kh v cng n dng v cng ca tng lai v cng. Chng ta c th dng bt k php o thi gian no trong phng trnh Schrodinger tnh s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian. Vy nn, trong thuyt tng i hp, chng ta vn c mt kiu quyt nh lun lng t. Trong thuyt tng i rng th tnh hung li khc i v khng thi gian khng cn phng m b b cong bi vt cht v nng lng trong . Trong h mt tri ca chng ta, t nht l trn nc thang v m, cong ca khng thi gian nh n ni n khng nh hng n quan nim chung ca chng ta v thi gian. Trong trng hp , chng ta vn c th dng thi gian trong phng trnh Schrodinger bit s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian. Tuy nhin, mt khi chng ta cho php khng thi gian c th b cong th kh nng, trong khng thi gian c mt cu trc khng cho php thi gian tng mt cch trn tru i vi mi nh quan st nh chng ta trng i, c th xy ra. V d, khng thi gian ging
Trang 109
T R
T R O N G
nh mt hnh tr thng ng (hnh 4.7). Chiu cao ca hnh tr c th l php o thi gian, thi gian tng i vi mi ngi quan st v chy t m v cng n dng v cng. Tuy nhin, hy tng tng rng, thay cho hnh tr l mt hnh tr vi mt ci quai (hoc l mt h giun (wormhole)) tch ri khi hnh tr sau li nhp li. Do , bt k php o thi gian no u c cc im dng ti ni m ci quai nhp vo hnh tr chnh: cc im m ti thi gian dng li. Ti cc im ny thi gian khng tng i vi bt k ngi quan st no. Trong mt khng thi gian nh vy chng ta khng th dng phng trnh Schrodinger bit c s ph thuc ca hm sng vo thi gian. Hy cn thn vi cc h giun: bn khng bao gi bit c ci g s chui ra t . Cc h en l nguyn nhn chng ta ngh thi gian khng tng i vi cc nh quan st. Tho lun u tin v h en xut hin vo nm 1783. Mt cu gio s ca i hc Cambridge, John Michell trnh by lun c sau y: nu ai bn mt ht, nh l mt vin n i bc chng hn, thng ln tri th chuyn ng ln trn s b chm li do lc hp dn v cui cng l ht s dng chuyn ng ln trn v s ri tr li (hnh 4.8). Tuy vy nu vn tc bn ban u ln hn mt vn tc ti hn c gi l vn tc thot th lc hp dn s khng mnh dng ht li v ht s bay i. Trn tri t, vn tc thot vo khong 12 km/giy; trn mt tri th gi
Trang 110
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
H EN SCHWARZSCHILD Nm 1916, mt nh thin vn hc ngi c Karl Schwarzschild tm thy mt nghim t l thuyt tng i ca Einstein i din cho mt h en hnh cu. Cng trnh ca Schwarzschild tip l mt b n bt ng ca thuyt tng i. ng chng minh rng nu mt ngi sao b c c trong mt vng nh th trng hp dn ti b mt s tr ln mnh n mc nh sng cng khng th thot c. Ngy nay ngi sao nh th c gi l mt h en, mt vng khng thi gian b bao bi mt ci gi l chn tri s kin, n gii hn vng khng gian m tt c mi th, ngay c nh sng cng khng th thot ra n vi
ngi quan st. Trong mt thi k rt di, cc nh vt l, ngay c Einstein cng nghi ng mt hnh th cc oan nh th ca vt cht c th xut hin trong v tr thc. Tuy nhin, ngy nay chng ta hiu rng bt k mt ngi sao khng quay, nng, sau khi t ht nhin liu ht nhn s phi suy sp thnh h en hnh cu hon ho ca Schwarzschild. ng knh (R) ca chn tri s kin ca h en ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca n, v c cho bi cng thc: R = 2MG/c2 Trong cng thc ny, c l vn tc nh sng, G l hng s Newton, v M l khi lng ca h en. Mt h en c khi lng bng khi lng mt tri s c bn knh bng hai dm.
tr vo khong 618 km/giy. C hai vn tc thot u ln hn nhiu vn tc ca cc vin n i bc nhng li nh hn vn tc nh sng (vo khong 300.000 km/giy). Vy nn nh sng c th thot khi tri t v mt tri mt cch khng my kh khn. Nhng Michell li l lun rng c th c cc ngi sao ln hn nhiu ln mt tri v c vn tc thot ln hn vn tc nh sng (hnh 4.9). Chng ta khng th nhn thy cc ngi sao v bt k tia sng no c phng i s b lc hp dn ca ngi sao ko tr li. tng v cc ngi sao ti ca Michell da trn nn vt l ca Newton, trong thi gian l tuyt i v thi gian khng m xa n nhng s kin xy ra. Vy nn, trong bc tranh vt l c in ca Newton, cc ngi sao en khng nh hng n kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta. Nhng trong thuyt tng i rng, trong cc vt th khng l lm cong khng thi gian th tnh hung li khc hn. Nm 1916, ngay sau khi thuyt tng i rng c a ra ln u tin, Karl Schwarzschild (ng mt ngay sau khi mc bnh mt trn vi Nga trong i chin th gii ln th nht) tm thy mt nghim ca cc phng trnh trng ca thuyt tng i rng biu din cho mt h en. Trong rt nhiu nm, ngi ta khng hiu hoc
Trang 111
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.10) Quasar 3C273, ngun pht sng v tuyn gi sao u tin c pht hin, pht ra mt nng lng rt ln trong mt vng nh. C ch duy nht gii thch hin tng sng cao nh th l vt cht ang ri vo h en. JOHN WHEELER John Chibald Wheeler sinh nm 1911 ti Jacksonville, Florida, Hoa K. ng ly bng tin s v tn x ca nh sng ln nguyn t Helium i hc John Hopkins nm 1933. Nm 1938 ng lm vic cng nh vt l an Mch Niels Bohr pht trin l thuyt phn hch. Sau mt thi gian, ng lm vic cng vi sinh vin ca ng l Richard Feynman, tp trung nghin cu nhit ng hc; nhng ngay sau khi Hoa K tham gia i chin th gii 2, c hai u ng gp vo s n Mahattan. Vo nhng nm u thp k 50, ly cm hng t cng trnh v s suy sp hp dn ca nhng ngi sao nng ca Robert Oppenheimer vo nm 1039, Wheeler chuyn sang thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein. Vo thi gian , phn ln cc nh vt l u nghin cu vt l ht nhn v thuyt tng i rng khng thc s c coi l ph hp vi th gii vt l. Nhng gn nh mt mnh Wheeler n thng c m lm thay i lnh vc nghin cu thng qua cc cng trnh ca ng v thng qua vic ging dy kha hc u tin v thuyt tng i i hc Princeton. Rt lu sau, vo nm 1969, ng a ra khi nim h en, m lc by gi ch c mt s t ngi tin rng n tn ti, ch trng thi suy sp ca vt cht. V t cng trnh ca Werner Israel, ng d on rng h en khng c tc, m ch trng thi suy sp c bt k ngi sao nng khng quay no cng c th c m t bng nghim Schswarzschild.
Trang 112
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
khng nhn ra tm quan trng ca nhng iu m Schwarzschild tm ra. Bn thn Einstein cng khng bao gi tin vo cc h en v quan im ca ng cng c phn ln cc nh khoa hc c uy tn v thuyt tng i chia s. Ti cn nh chuyn i Paris trnh by mt bo co v pht hin ca ti cho rng thuyt lng t ng cc h en khng hon ton en. Bo co ca ti kh t nht v vo lc gn nh khng c ai Paris tin vo cc h en. Ngi Php cn cm thy rng ci tn trou noir (l en) m h dch ra ting Php c ngha hi tc tu v nn thay bng ci tn astre occlu tc l ngi sao n (hidden star). Tuy vy, d l ngi sao n hoc bt k tn no khc cng khng nhn c s nhn nhn ca cng chng bng ci tn h en. y l tn do Archibald Wheeler a ra. ng l mt nh vt l M, ngi gy nhiu cm hng cho cc cng trnh trong lnh vc ny. S pht hin ra cc quasar vo nm 1963 gy ra mt cuc bng pht cc nghin cu l thuyt v h en v cc n lc quan st nhn thy chng (hnh 4.10). y l bc tranh c ghp li. Hy xem xt nhng iu chng ta tin v lch s ca mt ngi sao c khi lng ln gp hai mi ln khi lng mt tri. Cc ngi sao nh vy c hnh thnh t cc m my kh nh l cc ngi sao trong tinh vn Thin Lang (Orion, hnh 4.11). Khi cc m my kh co li di lc hp dn ca chnh bn thn chng, cc kh ny s nung nng v thm ch tr nn nng khi ng phn ng nhit hch bin hydro thnh helium. Nhit to bi qu trnh ny gy nn mt p sut gip ngi sao chng tri li lc hp dn ca n v lm cho ngi sao khng b co thm na. Ngi sao s trng thi ny trong mt thi gian di, t chy hydro v bc x nh sng vo khng gian. Trng hp dn ca ngi sao s nh hng n ng truyn ca chm sng pht ra t ngi sao . Ta c th v mt gin vi thi gian l trc thng ng, khong cch t tm ca ngi sao l trc nm ngang (hnh 4.12). Trong gin ny, b mt ca ngi sao c biu din bng hai ng thng ng nm hai bn ca tm sao. Ta c th o thi gian bng giy v khong cch bng giy nh sng khong cch m nh sng i c trong mt giy. Khi ta dng cc n v ny th tc ca nh sng l 1; tc l, tc ca nh sng l mt giy nh sng trn giy. Gin ng rng, pha xa ngi sao, xa trng hp dn ca n th ng truyn ca tia sng trn gin l mt ng thng to vi trc thng ng mt gc 45 . Tuy nhin, gn ngi sao th cong ca khng thi gian do khi lng ca ngi sao gy ra s lm thay i ng truyn ca cc tia sng v lm cho chng to vi phng thng ng mt gc
(Hnh 4.11) Cc ngi sao c hnh thnh t cc m bi kh ging nh tinh vn Thin lang.
Trang 113
T R
T R O N G
K d
Tia sng
Tia sng
Chn tri Ngi sao Thi gian Thi gian Ngi sao
Hnh 4.12
Khng gian
Khng gian Hnh 4.13
(Hnh 4.12) Khng thi gian xung quanh mt ngi sao khng b suy sp. nh sng c th thot ra t b mt ngi sao (ng thng ng mu ). xa ngi sao, nh sng to vi phng thng ng mt gc 45 , nhng gn ngi sao, khi lng ca ngi sao lm cong khng thi gian lm cho cc tia sng lm mt gc nh hn vi phng thng ng. (Hnh 4.13) Nu mt ngi sao suy sp (ng mu ct nhau ti mt im) khng thi gian b b cong n ni nh sng gn b mt b hng vo trong. Mt h en c hnh thnh, mt vng khng thi gian m nh sng t khng th thot ra c. Trang 114
hp hn. Cc ngi sao nng s t chy hydro thnh helium nhanh hn mt tri rt nhiu. iu ny c ngha l chng s cn kit hydro ch trong mt thi gian ngn khong vi trm triu nm. Sau , cc ngi sao ny s i mt vi mt cuc khng hong. Chng c th t helium thnh cc nguyn t nng hn nh l carbon v oxygen, nhng cc phn ng ht nhn ny khng gii thot nhiu nng lng, do cc ngi sao s mt nhit v mt i p sut nhit gip ngi sao chng li lc hp dn. Do cc ngi sao tr nn nh hn. Nu khi lng ca chng ln hn hai ln khi lng mt tri th p sut s khng bao gi ngn chn qu trnh co li. Chng s suy sp thnh mt im vi mt v hn to nn ci gi l im k d (hnh 4.13). Trong gin thi gian theo khong cch t tm ngi sao, khi mt ngi sao co li th ng truyn ca cc tia sng
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
K d
Tia sng thot ra ti thi im chn tri s kin hnh thnh
Tia sng thot ra sau khi chn tri s kin hnh thnh
Nn nh sng b by Nn nh sng b nh hng bi trng hp dn
Khi u chn tri s kin
Nn nh sng thot ra
THI GIAN
Tia sng thot ra trc khi chn tri s kin hnh thnh
KHNG GIAN
t b mt ngi sao s to vi ng thng ng nhng gc nh hn v nh hn. Khi ngi sao t n mt bn knh ti hn xc nh th cc ng truyn ca tia sng s l ng thng ng trn gin , tc l nh sng s i trn mt khong cc c nh vi tm ngi sao m khng bao gi c th thot i c. ng truyn ti hn ca tia sng s lt trn mt b mt c gi l chn tri s kin (event horizon) phn cch vng khng thi gian m nh sng c th thot khi ngi sao v vng khng thi gian m nh sng khng th thot c. Bt k mt tia sng no c ngi sao pht i sau khi i qua chn tri s kin s b b cong tr li bi cong ca khng thi gian. Ngi sao s tr thnh mt trong nhng ngi sao en ca Michell, hoc nh ngy nay chng ta ni, mt h en.
Chn tri l vng bin gii ca mt h en c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng ch chm khng thot khi h en v gi mt khong cch khng i vi tm ca h en.
Trang 115
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.15) MT H EN TM THIN H Tri: Pht hin thin h NGC 4151 t ng knh thin h trng rng. Gia: ng nm ngang bc hnh l nh sng pht ra t mt h en tm thin h 4151. Phi: Hnh ny cho thy tc pht ra oxygen. Tt c cc bng chng u cho thy rng NGC 4151 c cha mt h en c khi lng bng mt trm triu ln khi lng mt tri. (Hnh 4.14)
Lm th no c th ghi nhn mt h en nu khng mt tia sng no c th thot khi n? Cu tr li l h en vn to ra mt lc ht hp dn khng i ln cc vt th ln cn khi ngi sao b suy sp. Nu mt tri l mt h en hoc tr thnh mt h en m khng mt i khi lng ca n th th cc hnh tinh vn quay nh chng ang quay hin nay. C mt cch tm kim cc h en l tm kim vt cht quay xung quanh mt vt th khng l, c v khng nhn thy. Ngi ta quan st rt nhiu cc h nh th. C l n tng nht l cc h en khng l xut hin tm ca cc thin h v cc quasar (hnh 4.15). Cc tnh cht ca h en c tho lun cho n nay khng gy nn vn ln no cho quyt nh lun. Thi gian s kt thc i vi nh du hnh v tr ri vo h en v chm vo im k d. Tuy nhin, trong thuyt tng i, ngi ta hon ton t do khi o thi gian vi cc tc khc nhau v ti cc a im khc nhau. Do , ngi ta c th tng tc ng h ca nh du hnh v tr khi anh ta hoc c ta tin n gn im k d, vy nn, ngi ta vn ghi nhn c khong thi gian v tn. Trn gin thi gian khong cch (hnh 4.14), cc mt phng m ti thi gian l hng s (mt ng thi gian) s rt dy c ti trung tm bn di im m ti k d xut hin. Nhng cc mt phng li ph hp vi php o thi gian thng thng ti vng khng thi gian gn phng cch xa h en. Ta c th dng thi gian trong vng khng thi gian gn phng cho phng trnh Schrodinger v tnh hm sng ti cc thi im sau nu ta bit thi gian trc . Do , ta vn c quyt nh lun. Tuy vy, cng ng lu rng, ti cc thi im sau, mt phn ca
CT: ng ng thi gian
Trang 116
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
Tn hiu t nh du hnh v tr vo hi 12:00:00
THI GIAN
n it g 59 tr 59: v 11: nh i h o h du v h hai N u hi th n it g 58 tr 59: v 11: nh i h o h du v h hai N u hi th n it g :57 tr :59 v i 11 nh h h u vo d n Nh u ti
hi
KHNG GIAN Hnh minh ha mt nh du hnh h cch xung mt ngi sao ang suy sp vo hi 11 gi 59 pht 57 giy v chm vo ngi sao ang co li ti bn knh ti hn m ti hp dn mnh n ni khng mt tn hiu no c th thot ra c. Nh du hnh gi tn hiu t ng h ca anh ta v phi thuyn ang quay cch quanh ngi sao mt khong cch tng i ln. Mt ai ang nhn ngi sao t pha xa s khng bao gi nhn thy n i qua ng chn tri vo h en. Thay vo , ngi sao c v nh ln l bn ngoi kch thc ti hn v ng h trn b mt ngi sao s chm dn ri tt hn.
Trang 117
T R
T R O N G
hm sng li bn trong h en ni m khng ai bn ngoi c th quan st thy hm sng . V th, mt ngi quan st ngi nhy cm khng b ri vo h en, khng th chy ngc phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti cc thi im trc . lm iu , anh ta hoc c ta cn bit phn ca hm sng nm bn trong h en. Phn hm sng ny c cha cc thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en. Rt c kh nng l mt lng ln cc thng tin v h en vi khi lng v tc quay cho c th c to thnh t rt nhiu tp hp cc ht khc nhau; h en khng ph thuc vo bn cht vt th suy sp to nn n. John Wheeler gi kt qu ny l h en khng c tc. i vi ngi Php, iu ny khng nh cc mi nghi ng ca h.
H en khng c tc
NHIT CA H EN H en pht x ging nh mt vt nng c nhit (T) v ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca n. Ni chnh xc hn l nhit cho bi cng thc sau: T = hc3/8kGM Trong cng thc ny (c) l vn tc nh sng, (h) l hng s Plank, (G) l hng s hp dn Newton, (k) l hng s Boltzman. Cui cng l (M) l khi lng ca h en, do , h en cng nh th nhit cng cao. Cng thc ny cho chng ta thy rng, nhit ca mt h en c khi lng bng vi ln khi lng mt tri c nhit ch khong mt phn triu trn khng tuyt i.
Kh khn cho quyt nh lun xut hin khi ti thy rng cc h en khng phi l hon ton en. Nh l ta thy trong chng 2, thuyt lng t ng rng cc trng c th khng hon ton bng khng ngay c trong ci m ta gi l chn khng. Nu chng bng khng th chng s c c v tr ti im khng v tc thay i hay cn gi l vn tc cng bng khng. iu ngy vi phm nguyn l bt nh ni rng ngi ta khng th xc nh chnh xc vn tc v v tr. Thay vo , tt c cc trng cn phi c mt ci gi l thng ging chn khng nht nh (tng t nh l con lc trong chng 2 phi c thng ging im khng). Thng ging chn khng c th c gii thch theo mt vi cch c v khc nhau nhng thc t l chng tng ng vi nhau v mt ton hc. Trn quan im thc chng, ta khng b b buc khi s dng bt k m hnh no hiu qu nht cho bi ton t ra. Trong trng hp ny, s rt c ch khi coi thng ging chn khng nh cc cp ht o xut hin cng nhau ti mt im trong khng thi gian, chuyn ng ra xa nhau ri quay tr li vi nhau v hy nhau ln nhau. o c ngha l cc ht ny khng th c quan st mt cch trc tip, nhng ta c th o c cc hiu ng gin tip, v cc php o ny ph hp vi cc tin on l thuyt vi mt chnh xc ng k (hnh 4.16). Nu h en hin din th mt thnh phn ca cp ht c th b ri vo h en li thnh phn kia t do thot vo v tn (hnh 4.17). i vi mt ngi pha xa h en th ht thot ra kia dng nh c pht x t h en. Ta trng i ph ca h en chnh l ph ca mt vt nng vi nhit t l vi trng hp dn ti chn tri s kin bin gii ca h en. Ni cch khc, nhit ca h en ph thuc vo kch thc ca n. Mt h en c khi lng gp vi ln khi lng mt tri s c nhit khong mt phn triu trn khng tuyt i, v mt
Trang 118
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
(Hnh 4.16, bn tri) Trong khng gian trng rng, cc cp ht xut hin trong khonh khc ri hy ln nhau. (Hnh 4.17, bn trn) Cc ht o xut hin v hy ln nhau gn chn tri s kin ca h en. Mt ht b ri vo h en trong khi ht kia thot ra ngoi. T bn ngoi chn tri s kin dng nh h en ang bc x cc ht ra khng gian.
Trang 119
T R
T R O N G
Cc s kin m ngi quan st khng bao gi nhn thy
Chn tri s kin ca ngi quan st (Hnh 4.18) Nghim de Sitter ca cc phng trnh trng ca thuyt tng i biu din mt v tr gin n theo kiu lm pht. Trn gin , thi gian hng ln trn v kch thc ca v tr theo phng nm ngang. Khong cch v khng gian tng nhanh n mc nh sng t cc thin h xa xi khng bao gi c th n vi chng ta, v do , c mt chn tri s kin ging chn tri s kin ca h en, mt bin gii ngn cch nhng vng v tr ta khng th quan st c. Trang 120
Lch s ngi quan st Chn tri s kin Mt ng thi gian ca ngi quan st
h en ln hn li c nhit thp hn. Do vy, bt k bc x lng t no t cc h en nh th s b chm hon ton trong bc x 2,7 cn st li t v n ln bc x phng v tr m ta tho lun trong chng 2. Ta c th ghi c bc x t cc h en nh hn v nng hn, nhng dng nh khng c nhiu cc h en nh th. Tht ng tic! Nu ngi ta pht hin ra mt h en th ti s c gii Nobel. Tuy nhin chng ta vn c nhng bng chng kh quan gin tip v bc x ny, bng chng ny n t v tr s khai. Nh m t trong chng 3, ngi ta cho rng vo nhng giai on rt sm trong lch s, v tr tri qua mt thi k lm pht, khi v tr gin n vi mt tc cha tng c. Qu trnh gin n trong thi k ny nhanh n ni mt s vt th qu xa chng ta v nh
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
sng ca chng khng bao gi n c vi chng ta. V tr gin n qu nhiu v qu nhanh trong khi nh sng t chng truyn vn hng v chng ta. Do s c mt chn tri trong v tr ging nh chn tri ca h en, phn cch vng m nh sng t c th n vi chng ta v vng m nh sng khng th n vi ta c (hnh 4.18). Cc lp lun tng t cho tht rng c mt bc x nhit t chn tri ny ging nh bc x nhit t chn tri ca h en. T bc x nhit, chng ta mun bit ph c trng ca cc thng ging mt . y, cc thng ging mt ny cng gin n cng v tr. Khi kch thc ca chng tr ln ln hn kch thc ca chn tri s kin th chng s b ng bng, cho nn ngy nay ta c th thy chng nh l nhng thng ging nh trong nhit ca bc x phng v tr cn li t thi k s khai ca v tr. Cc thng ging quan st ph hp vi cc tin on v thng ging nhit vi chnh xc cao. Thm ch nu bng chng thc nghim v bc x ca h en khng trc tip cho lm th tt c nhng ai nghin cu vn ny u ng rng bng chng cn phi ph hp vi cc l thuyt khc m c kim chng bng cc quan st. iu ny c ngha rt quan trng i vi quyt nh lun. Bc x t h en s mang nng lng i, iu ny c ngha l h en s mt nng lng v tr nn nh i. V s nh i ny, n lt n, c ngha l nhit ca h en s tng v tc bc x cng s tng. Cui cng th h en s gim n khi lng bng khng. Lc th ta khng bit lm th no c th tnh c vic g s xy ra, nhng kt qu duy nht hp l v ng nhin l h en dng nh bin mt hon ton. Th th ci g s xy ra sau i vi phn hm sng nm trong h en v thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en m phn hm sng c? D on u tin c th l phn hm sng ny, v cc thng tin m n mang, s thot ra khi h en cui cng th cng bin mt. Tuy nhin, thng tin khng c truyn i mt cch min ph, ngi ta nhn ra iu khi nhn c ha n in thoi! Thng tin cn nng lng mang n i v li c rt t nng lng cn st li trng thi
Trang 121
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.19) Bc x nhit t chn tri s kin ca h en mang nng lng dng i lm gim khi lng ca n. V mt i khi lng, nhit ca h en tng ln v tc bc x cng gia tng lm cho khi lng ca n gim i cng nhanh. Chng ta khng bit iu g xy ra nu khi lng tr ln cc nh, nhng kt qu hp l nht c th l h en bin mt hon ton.
cui cng ca h en. Cch duy nht c v hp l thng tin bn trong c th i c ra ngoi l n s thot ra lin tc vi bc x ch khng i n trng thi cui cng ny. Tuy nhin, theo bc tranh v mt ht ca cp ht o b ri vo h en v ht kia thot ra ngoi, ta khng trng i ht thot ra ngoi c lin h vi ht b ri vo h en hoc mang i thng tin v ht b ri vo h en. Do vy cu tr li duy nht dng nh l thng tin ca phn hm sng bn trong h en b mt (hnh 4.19). S mt mt thng tin nh th c hm rt quan trng vi quyt nh lun. bt u, ta hy lu rng, thm ch, nu bn bit hm sng sau khi h en bin mt th bn cng khng th chy ngc phng trnh Schrodinger v tnh xem hm sng nh th no trc khi h en c hnh thnh. Hm sng trc ph thuc mt phn vo hm sng b mt trong h en. Chng ta tng ngh l chng ta bit qu kh mt cch chnh xc. Tuy nhin, nu thng tin b mt trong h en th suy ngh khng cn ng na. Bt k iu g cng c th xy ra.
Trang 122
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
Mc d vy th ni chung mi ngi nh l cc nh du hnh v tr v nhng ngi t vn cho h quan tm n vic tin on tng lai hn l xem xt li qu kh. Thot nhn, c v nh l vic mt mt phn hm sng trong h en khng ngn cn chng ta tin on hm sng bn ngoi h en. Nhng ha ra s mt mt ny li tc ng n tin on nh th, nh chng ta s thy khi ta xem xt mt th nghim v t duy do Einstein, Boris Podolsky v Nathan Rosen xut vo nhng nm 1930. Hy hnh dung mt nguyn t phng x phn r v pht ra hai ht i theo hai hng ngc nhau vi spin cng ngc nhau. Mt ngi quan st m ch nhn vo mt ht th khng th tin on ht s quay phi hay quay tri. Nu ngi quan st o c mt ht quay phi th anh ta hoc c ta c th on chc chn l ht kia s quay tri, v ngc li (hnh 4.20). Einstein cho rng iu ny chng minh thuyt lng t tht nc ci: gi s by gi ht kia pha bn kia ca thin h, ngi ta vn c th bit ngay tc th hng quay ca n. Tuy vy, phn ln cc nh khoa hc ng rng chnh
(Hnh 4.20) Trong th nghim t duy EinsteinPodolsky-Rosen, mt ngi quan st o spin ca mt ht s bit hng spin ca ht th hai.
Trang 123
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.21) Mt cp ht o c mt hm sng tin on c hai ht c spin ngc nhau. Nhng nu mt ht b ri vo h en th ta khng th on c chc chn spin ca ht cn li.
Einstein lm ln ch khng phi thuyt lng t. Th nghim v t duy Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen khng chng minh rng ngi ta c th gi thng tin nhanh hn nh sng. M chnh l iu nc ci. Ngi ta khng th chn ht quay phi quan st nn ngi ta khng th on trc c ht pha xa ngi quan st s quay tri. Trn thc t, th nghim v t duy ny chnh l nhng iu xy ra vi bc x h en. Cp ht o s c mt hm sng tin on rng hai ht s mi c spin ngc nhau (hnh 4.21). iu m chng ta mun lm l on spin v hm sng ca ht thot ra. Ta c th lm c iu ny nu ta c th quan st c ht b ri vo h en. Nhng ht trong h en th ta khng th o c spin v hm sng ca n. Vy nn ta khng th tin on spin v hm sng ca
Trang 124
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
Cc mng gp nhau
H en
(Hnh 4.22)
ht thot ra. Ht c th c cc spin khc, cc hm sng khc vi cc xc sut khc nhau, nhng n khng c mt spin hoc mt hm sng duy nht. Vy nn, kh nng tin on tng lai ca chng ta dng nh b gii hn hn. tng c in ca Laplace v vic ta c th tin on c v tr v vn tc ca ht cn phi thay i khi nguyn l bt nh cho thy rng ta khng th o chnh xc c v tr v vn tc. Tuy nhin, ngi ta vn c th o c hm sng v s dng phng trnh Schrodinger bit tng lai s nh th no. iu ny cho php ta chc chn on c t hp ca v tr v vn tc l mt na ca nhng iu c th on trc theo tng ca Laplace. Chc chn l ta c th tin on cc ht c spin ngc nhau, nhng nu mt ht b ri vo h en th chng ta khng th tin on chc chn v ht cn li. iu ny c ngha l ngi ta khng th tin on chc chn bt k php o no bn ngoi h en:
Cc h en c th c coi nh l phn giao nhau ca cc mngp trong cc chiu b sung ca khng thi gian. Thng tin v cc trng thi bn trong h en c th c lu tr di dng cc sng trn mng-p.
Trang 125
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 4.23) Mt ht b ri vo h en c th c coi nh mt vng dy kn p vo mng-p (1). N kch thch mt sng trn mng-P (2). Cc sng c th i vi nhau lm cho mt phn ca mng-p b t ra to mt vng dy kn (3). y l mt ht thot ra khi h en.
kh nng tin on chc chn ca chng ta b gim v khng. Do vy ngnh chim tinh hc c th tin on tng lai khng ti hn cc nh lut khoa hc. Nhiu nh vt l khng thch s suy gim trong quyt nh lun, v do , h cho rng thng tin v nhng th bn trong c th thot ra ngoi bng cch no . Trong nhiu nm, ngi ta ho vng tm thy cch cu ly thng tin. Nhng vo nm 1996, Andrew Strominger v Cumrun Vafa thc hin mt ci tin quan trng. H coi mt h en c to nn bi cc thnh phn c gi l cc mng-p (p-brane: xem trang 54). Nhc li l ta c th hnh dung v cc mng-p nh l cc tm chuyn ng trong khng gian ba chiu v trong by chiu b sung m ta khng (hnh 4.22). Trong mt s trng hp nht nh, ta c th chng minh rng s cc sng trn cc mng-p bng lng thng tin m ta trng i h en c. Nu cc ht p vo mng-p, cc ht s to ra thm cc sng trn cc mng . Tng t, nu cc sng ang chuyn ng theo cc hng khc nhau trn cc mng-p
Trang 126
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
m gp nhau ti mt im no th chng c th to nn mt nh sng ln n ni lm cho mt phn ca mng-p b t v thot ra ngoi nh mt ht. Vy nn cc mng-p c th hp th v pht x cc ht ging nh h en (hnh 4.23). Ta c th coi cc mng-p nh l mt l thuyt hiu dng; tc l, chng ta khng cn tin rng thc s c cc mng t hon chuyn ng trong mt khng thi gian phng hay khng, th cc h en vn c th x s nh th chng c to thnh t cc mng nh vy. Ging nh nc vy, nc c to thnh t hng t t cc phn t H2O vi cc tng tc phc tp. Nhng m hnh cht lng lin tc l m hnh hiu dng rt tt. M hnh ton hc v cc h en cho rng chng c to thnh t cc mng-p cho cc kt qu tng t vi m hnh cp ht o c m t trc y. Do , trn quan im thc chng, y cng l mt m hnh rt tt, t nht l i vi mt s loi h en nht nh. i vi loi h en , m hnh mng-p tin on mt cch chnh xc tc pht x m m hnh cp ht o a ra. Tuy nhin, c mt s khc nhau quan trng: trong m hnh mng-p, thng tin v nhng ci ri vo h en c lu tr bi hm
Trang 127
T R
T R O N G
Trang 128
I N
O N
T N G
L A I
sng ca cc sng trn cc mng-p. Cc mng-p c coi nh l cc tm trong khng gian phng, v v l do , thi gian s tri i mt cch trn tru, ng truyn ca cc tia sng s khng b b cong, v thng tin trong cc sng s khng b mt. Thay vo , cui cng th thng tin hin ra t h en theo cc bc x t cc mng-p. Vy nn, theo m hnh mng-p, chng ta c th s dng phng trnh Schrodinger tnh hm sng ti cc thi im sau . Khng c g b mt c, thi gian s quay u n. Chng ta s c mt quyt nh lun hon ho theo ngha lng t. Th th bc tranh no trong hai bc tranh trn l ng? Mt phn hm sng s b mt trong h en hay tt c cc thng tin s thot ra nh mng-p d on? y l mt trong nhng cu hi ni cm nht trong vt l l thuyt ngy nay. Nhiu ngi tin rng cng trnh gy y cho thy thng tin s khng b mt. Th gii l an ton v c th d on c, s khng c g bt ng xy ra. Nhng iu vn cha r rng. Nu ta chn thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein mt cch nghim tc th ta phi tha nhn xc xut m khng thi gian t tri mnh nh mt ci n v thng tin b mt trong nhng np gp. Khi phi thuyn Enterprise i qua mt h giun, vi iu bt ng xy ra. Ti bit iu v chnh ti trn phi thuyn chi bi vi Newton, Einstein v Data. Ti rt ngc nhin. Hy xem ci g xy ra u gi ca ti ny!
Mt cnh trong phim Star Trek: The Next Generation, 2001

Trang 129
CHNG 5
B O V QU KH
Liu c th du hnh thi gian c khng? Mt nn vn minh tin tin c th quay li v thay i qu kh c khng?
Trang 131
T R
T R O N G
Trang 132
Q U
K H
(1) Stephen Hawking i vo h giun ngy 6/1/1997
(3) Stephen Hawking k vo bn nh cc ngy 5/1/1997
(2) Trong tng lai, ngi ta chng minh c rng qu trnh tin ha ng t cc iu kin chung ban u c th khng bao gi to ra k d trn tri
i nh cuc nhiu ln vi mt ngi bn v l mt ngi ng nghip ca ti Kip Thorne, anh khng phi l mt ngi theo xu hng c chp nhn trong vt l ch v nhng ngi khc chp nhn. iu ny lm cho anh c can m tr thnh nh khoa hc nghim tc u tin nghin cu v du hnh thi gian nh l mt kh nng hin thc. Nghin cu cng khai v du hnh thi gian i hi phi rt kho lo. Ta c nguy c vp phi, hoc l, s phn i kch lit v vic lng ph tin cng vo nhng th v b, hoc l, yu cu vic nghin cu phi c xp vo mc tiu qun s. Sau ht l lm th no m chng ta c th t bo v khi nhng ngi c chic my thi gian? H c th thay i lch s v iu khin th gii. Ch c vi ngi trong chng ta in r nghin cu v mt vn qu khng ng n v mt chnh tr nh th trong th gii vt l. Chng ta che y thc t ny bng cc thut ng khoa hc m ha cho vic du hnh thi gian.
Kip Thorne
Trang 133
T R
T R O N G
Phi thuyn du hnh qua cc chu trnh trong khng thi gian cong
Phi thuyn tr li vo lc 11:45, mi lm pht trc khi n c gi i
Mt phi thuyn ct cnh vo lc 12:00
Trang 134
Q U
K H
C s cho tt c tho lun v du hnh thi gian l thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein. Nh chng ta thy trong cc chng trc, cc phng trnh Einstein lm cho khng gian v thi gian tr nn ng bng vic m t cch m chng b cong v bin dng bi vt cht v nng lng trong v tr. Trong thuyt tng i rng, thi gian c nhn ca mt ngi no c o bi ng h eo tay ca h v thi gian lun tng ging nh vic thi gian tng trong l thuyt Newton hay khng thi gian phng trong thuyt tng i hp. Nhng by gi c kh nng khng thi gian b b cong n ni bn khng th thot ra khi phi thuyn v tr li trc khi bn c gi i (hnh 5.1). C mt cch iu ny c th xy ra nu c cc h giun (worm hole) cc ng ng ca khng thi gian c nhc n trong chng 4 ni cc vng khc nhau ca khng gian v thi gian. tng l bn li phi thuyn ca bn vo mt ming ca h giun v i ra ming kia n mt ni khc v ti thi im khc (hnh 5.2). Nu cc h giun tn ti th chng s l li gii cho vn gii hn tc trong khng gian: phi mt mi ngn nm i ngang qua
Trang 135
T R
T R O N G
thin h bng mt phi thuyn chuyn ng chm hn nh sng nh yu cu ca thuyt tng i. Nhng bn c th i qua h giun n l bn kia ca thin h v tr li ng vo ba ti. Tuy nhin, nu ta chng minh rng h giun tn ti th bn cng c th quay li trc khi bn c gi i. Vy nn, bn c th ngh rng bn c kh nng lm iu g nh l cho n tn la trn b phng trnh khng phi ln ng v tr u tin. y l mt bin i ca nghch l ngi ng (grandfather paradox): iu g s xy ra nu bn quay tr li v git ng bn trc khi b bn ra i (hnh 5.3)? Tt nhin, y ch l nghch l nu bn tin rng bn c ch t do lm iu bn mun khi bn quay tr li qu kh. Cun sch ny
H GIUN NNG i vo lc 12:00 i ra lc 12:00
(Hnh 5.2) PHIN BN TH HAI CA NGHCH L ANH EM SINH I (1) Nu mt h giun nng, bn c th i vo h giun v ra cng mt thi im.
Trang 136
Q U
K H
Ming h giun bn trong phi thuyn
Phi thuyn tr li tri t t h giun Ra khi h giun vo phi thuyn lc 10:00 T tri t i vo h giun lc 12:00
Ming h giun trn mt t
(2) Ta c th hnh dung ly mt u ca h giun su t phi thuyn v u kia tri t. (3) V hiu ng nghch l anh em sinh i (*thi gian trn phi thuyn ang chuyn ng vi vn tc ln s chm hn thi gian trn tri t
ND*), khi chic phi thuyn tr li, thi gian tri i u phi thuyn chm hn thi gian u tri t. iu c ngha l nu bn bc vo u tri t v bc ra u phi thuyn ti thi im sm hn.
Trang 137
T R
T R O N G
DY V TR
c dy v tr l cc vt th di, nng v c thit din rt nh. Cc dy ny c l c to ra ti cc thi k s khai ca v tr. Mt khi cc dy c hnh thnh, chng b ko di ra do v tr gin n, v by gi, mt dy v tr c th ko di theo ton b vng v tr c th quan st. S xut hin ca cc dy v tr n t cc l thuyt mi v ht c bn. Chng tin on rng, ti cc giai on ban u nng bng, vt cht trong mt pha i xng, rt ging nc trng thi lng rt i xng: ging nhau ti mi im v theo mi hng ch khng ging trong tinh th nc ng bng c cc cu trc ri rc. Khi v tr lnh i, tnh i xng ca pha ban u ny c th b ph v theo cc cch khc nhau cc vng xa nhau. Kt qu l vt cht v tr cc vng c cc trng thi c bn khc nhau. Do , s hnh thnh ca chng l mt h qu khng th trnh khi ca vic cc vng khc nhau c cc trng thi c bn khc nhau.
(Hnh 5.3) Mt vin n bn vo qu kh qua mt h giun c nh hng n x th hay khng?
s khng i vo tho lun trit hc v ch t do. M thay vo , cun sch s tp trung vo vic cc nh lut vt l c cho php khng thi gian b b cong n mc m cc vt th v m nh l mt chic phi thuyn c th quay tr li qu kh ca chnh n c hay khng. Theo l thuyt Einstein, mt chic phi thuyn cn phi chuyn ng chm hn vn tc nh sng a phng v i theo mt ci gi l l trnh thi gian (timelike path) trong khng thi gian. Do , ta c th pht biu cu hi trn bng cc thut ng chuyn mn: khng thi gian c chp nhn cc ng cong thi gian ng (closed timelike curve) hay khng tc l cc l trnh tr li im xut pht ca n nhiu ln? Ti s gi nhng ng nh th l chu trnh thi gian (time loop). Chng ta c th c gng tr li cu hi ny theo ba mc . Mc th nht l l thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein, l thuyt cho rng v tr c mt lch s tt nh m khng c bt k bt nh no. i vi l thuyt c in ny, chng ta c mt bc tranh kh hon thin. Tuy nhin, nh chng ta thy, l thuyt ny khng th ng hon ton v chng ta thy vt cht tun theo nguyn l bt nh v cc thng ging lng t. Do , chng ta c th t cu hi v du hnh thi gian trn mt mc th hai, mc ca l thuyt bn c in. Trong l thuyt ny, chng ta xem xt vt cht hnh x theo thuyt lng t, vi tnh bt nh v thng ging lng t, nhng khng thi gian hon ton tt nh v c in. y, bc tranh km hon thin hn, nhng t nht chng ta c mt vi tng v vic s tip tc nh th no.
Trang 138
Q U
K H
NH L KHNG CA GODEL o nm 1931, nh ton hc Kurt Godel chng minh nh l khng ni ting ca ng v bn cht ca ton hc. nh l pht biu rng trong bt k mt h tin hnh thc no, ging nh ton hc ngy nay, cc cu hi v vic chng minh hoc bc b cc tin xc nh cc h, lun lun tn ti. Ni cch khc l Godel chng minh rng lun tn ti nhng bi ton khng th gii bng bt k tp hp cc quy tc hoc qu trnh. nh l Godel t gii hn cho ton hc. iu ny gy sng st cho gii khoa hc v n p nim tin by lu cho rng ton hc l mt h thng cht ch v hon thin da trn cc chuyn tc lgic. nh l Godel, nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg v vic khng th tin on s tin ha ngay c trong cc h quyt nh lun (tr thnh hn lon) to nn mt tp hp cc gii hn cho tri thc khoa hc, iu ch c th c nhn thy vo th k hai mi.
(Hnh 5.4) Khng thi gian c c php ng, tc l tr li im xut pht ban u ca chng nhiu ln hay khng?
Cui cng, c mt l thuyt lng t hp dn y , d n c th l g i chng na. Trong l thuyt ny, khng ch c vt cht m c khng gian v thi gian u bt nh v thng ging, ngay c vic lm th no t ra cu hi l du hnh thi gian c kh thi hay khng vn cn cha r rng. C l iu tt nht chng ta c th lm l hi xem nhng ngi trong cc vng khng thi gian gn c in v khng c tnh bt nh gii thch cc php o ca h nh th no. H c ngh rng du hnh thi gian c th xy ra trong nhng vng hp dn mnh v thng ging lng t ln hay khng? bt u vi l thuyt c in: khng thi gian phng ca thuyt tng i hp (tng i khng c hp dn) khng cho php du hnh thi gian v cng khng cho php khng thi gian b b cong m ta bit trc y. Chnh v th m Einstein rt sng st khi Kurt Godel pht hin ra mt khng thi gian mt v tr trn y vt cht ang quay vi cc chu trnh thi gian xuyn qua ti mi im (hnh 5.4) l nh l Godel. Li gii Godel cn mt hng s v tr, hng s c th hoc khng th tn ti trong t nhin, nhng ri cc li gii khc c tm thy m khng cn mt hng s v tr. Mt trng hp c bit l th l trng hp khi hai dy v tr (cosmic string) chuyn ng vi tc cao i qua nhau. Khng nn nhm ln cc dy v tr vi cc dy ca l thuyt dy
Trang 139
T R
T R O N G
mc d chng khng phi l hon ton khng c lin h g vi nhau. Chng l cc vt th c di vi thit din rt nh. S c mt ca chng c tin on trong mt s l thuyt ht s cp. Khng thi gian bn ngoi mt dy v tr n l phng. Nhng l mt khng thi gian phng vi mt gc hnh ci nm b ct i, u nhn ca ci nm l dy v tr. N ging nh mt ci nn: ly mt hnh trn ln bng giy v ct i mt cung trn ging nh ct i mt gc bnh ngt, ta c mt gc bnh hnh ci nm vi cnh nhn ca ming bnh chnh l tm ca hnh trn. Sau vt phn cung trn b ct i v dn hai ng ct ca phn giy cn li vi nhau v bn s c mt ci nn. Ci nn ny biu din khng thi gian m trong dy v tr tn ti (hnh 5.5). Lu rng v b mt ca nn chnh l tm giy phng ban u (tr i phn giy hnh ci nm), bn vn c th gi n l phng ngoi tr ci nh. Bn c th nhn ra rng c cong nh nn nh vo mt hnh trn xung quanh nh nn c ng knh nh hn hnh trn c v trn tm giy trn ban u vi cng khong cch t tm hnh trn. Ni cch khc, mt hnh trn xung quanh nh s c chu vi ngn hn hnh trn c cng bn knh c v trn khng gian phng v mt cung trn ca n b mt i (hnh 5.6). Tng t nh vy, trong trng hp dy v tr, phn khng thi gian hnh ci nm b ct khi khng thi gian phng lm ngn i cc hnh trn xung quanh dy v tr nhng khng nh hng n thi gian v khong cch dc theo cc dy . iu ny c ngha l khng thi gian xung quanh mt dy v tr n l s khng c bt k chu trnh thi gian no, th nn ta khng th du hnh v qu kh. Tuy nhin, nu c mt dy v tr th hai chuyn ng tng i vi chic dy th nht th hng thi gian ca dy th hai s l t hp ca cc hng thi gian v khng gian ca dy th nht. Tc l, phn khng gian hnh ci nm c ct t ci dy th hai s lm ngn i khong thi gian v khng gian i vi ai chuyn ng cng ci dy th nht (hnh 5.7). Nu cc dy v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng tng i vi nhau th khong thi gian tit kim c xung quanh c hai dy c th ln n mc ta c th tr v trc khi ta c gi i. Ni cch khc, s c cc chu trnh thi gian m ta c th theo n m du hnh v qu kh. Khng thi gian ca cc giy v tr c cha vt cht vi mt nng lng dng v ph hp vi nn vt l m ta bit. Tuy vy,
Trang 140
(Hnh 5.5)
Q U
K H
(Hnh 5.6) Cc gc hnh nm b ct khi khng thi gian c cc cnh khng song song Dy v tr
y x
Mt gc ca mt dy v tr lm ngn i khong cch ca phn cn li nhng thi gian khng b nh hng.
(Hnh 5.7)
Mt gc b ct t mt dy v tr chuyn ng khc cng s lm ngn i khong cch trong khng gian v thi gian ca dy v tr th nht
Trang 141
T R
T R O N G
CHN TRI DU HNH THI GIAN PHT X HU HN
chn tri du hnh thi gian
Tt c cc tia sng trong chn tri du hnh thi gian n t vng mt cao ny
S
(Hnh 5.8) Nn vn minh tin tin nht c th b cong khng thi gian trong mt vng hu hn. Chn tri du hnh thi gian l bin gii ngn cch vng khng thi gian, n c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng pht ra t cc vng hu hn. Trong vng , ta c th du hnh vo qu kh.
s cong ca khng thi gian m to nn cc chu trnh thi gian tri di cho n v tn trong khng gian v tr li n qu kh v tn trong thi gian. Do vy, ta c th du hnh thi gian trong cc khng thi gian t khi chng c to ra. Ta khng c l do g tin rng v tr ca ring chng ta c to ra theo mt cch b b cong nh vy, v chng ta cng khng c cc bng chng ng tin cy v cc v khch ca tng lai (Ti khng tnh n gi thuyt im lng cho rng cc a bay UFO n t tng lai v cc chnh ph bit nhng che du i. H s che giu chuyn khng th kn nh th c). Do , ti s gi thit rng khng c cc chu trnh thi gian trong qu kh xa xi, hay l mt cch chnh xc hn, khng c cc chu trnh thi gian trong qu kh ca mt s mt phng trong khng thi gian m ti gi l S. Lc cu hi s l: liu cc nn vn minh tin tin c th xy dng mt chic my thi gian hay khng? Tc l liu n c th thay i khng thi gian ca tng lai ca S (pha trn mt S trn gin ), lm cho cc chu trnh thi gian c xut hin trong mt vng hu hn hay khng? Ti ni mt vng hu hn bi v d nn vn minh c tr thnh tin tin n bao nhiu i chng na th nn vn minh c l ch c th iu khin mt phn hu hn ca v tr m thi. Trong khoa hc, vic trnh by mt cch chnh xc mt vn thng l cha kha gii quyt vn , v y l mt v d tt. nh ngha my thi gian hu hn c ngha g, ti quay tr li vi mt s cng trnh trc y ca ti. C th du hnh thi gian trong mt vng khng thi gian c cc chu trnh thi gian cc l trnh chuyn ng chm hn tc nh sng, nhng tuy vy, chng li c th tr li thi gian v a im m chng khi u nh vo cong
Trang 142
Q U
K H
ca khng thi gian. V ti gi thit rng khng c cc chu trnh thi gian trong khng gian xa xi, nn cn phi c mt ci gi l chn tri du hnh thi gian (time travel horizon) bin gii phn cch vng c v khng c chu trnh thi gian (hnh 5.8). Cc chn tri du hnh thi gian kh ging cc chn tri h en. Trong khi chn tri h en c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng sut b ri vo h en th chn tri du hnh thi gian c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng sut gp nhau. Vy nn ti chn tiu chun ca ti v my thi gian ci m ti gi l chn tri pht sinh hu hn (nitly generated horizon) l mt chn tri c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng xut hin t mt vng khng thi gian b buc. Ni cch khc, cc tia sng khng n t v tn hoc t im k d m t mt vng hu hn c cha cc chu trnh thi gian vng khng thi gian m ta gi thit nn vn minh tin tin ca chng ta c sinh ra. Khi chn nh ngha ny lm c s ca my thi gian, chng ta c li th c th s dng chic my m Roger Penrose v ti pht trin nghin cu cc k d v cc h en. Thm ch khng s dng cc phng trnh Einstein, ti c th chng minh rng, ni chung, mt chn tri pht sinh hu hn s c cha mt tia sng m thc ra t gp chnh n tc l mt tia sng c chuyn ng vng quanh mt im. Mi ln tia sng quay li n s b dch chuyn v pha nh sng xanh, v dn dn n s tr ln xanh hn. Cc nh sng ca xung nh sng s dn dn gn nhau hn v nh sng s quay vng trong mt khong thi gian ngn hn. Trn thc t, mt ht nh sng ch c mt lch s hu hn v c xc nh bi php o thi gian ring ca n, mc d n chuyn ng vng quanh trong mt vng khng thi gian hu hn v khng va phi mt im k d.
Cu hi l: mt s nn vn minh tin tin c th xy c my thi gian hay khng?
Trang 143
T R
T R O N G
Ngi ta c th khng quan tm n chuyn mt ht nh sng c chm dt lch s ca n hay khng. Nhng ti vn c th chng minh rng c nhng l trnh chuyn ng chm hn vn tc nh sng v c thi gian sng hu hn. Cc l trnh ny c th l nhng lch s ca ngi quan st, ngi quan st li b by trong mt vng khng thi gian hu hn ngay trc chn tri v s bay vng quanh, nhanh dn nhanh dn cho n khi t n tc nh sng trong mt thi gian hu hn. Do , nu c mt ngi ngoi hnh tinh xinh p trong mt a bay mi bn vo chic my thi gian ca c ta th bn phi cn thn khi bc chn vo y. Bn c th b ri vo mt trong nhng lch s tun hon b by c thi gian hu hn (hnh 5.9).
(Hnh 5.9, pha trn) S nguy him khi du hnh thi gian. (Hnh 5.10, trang k) Vic tin on h en pht x v mt i khi lng ng rng thuyt lng t to ra cc nng lng m i vo h en qua chn tri s kin. i vi h en co li n khng, mt nng lng trn chn tri s kin phi l m, l du hiu cn c xy dng my thi gian.
Cc kt qu ny khng ph thuc vo cc phng trnh Einstein m ch ph thuc vo cch m khng thi gian b cong to ra cc chu trnh thi gian trong mt vng hu hn. Tuy nhin, by gi chng ta c th hi liu nn vn minh tin tin phi s dng loi vt cht g b cong khng thi gian c th xy dng c mt chic my thi gian c kch thc hu hn? Vt cht c th c mt nng lng dng khp ni ging nh trong khng thi gian dy v tr m ti m t trc y hay khng? Khng thi gian dy v tr khng tha mn yu cu ca ti l cc chu trnh thi gian xut hin trong mt vng hu hn. Tuy nhin, ngi ta c th ngh rng yu cu ch l do cc dy v tr di v hn. Ngi ta c th tng tng rng ngi ta c th xy mt ci my thi gian hu hn s dng cc vng dy v tr hu hn v c mt nng lng dng khp mi ni. Tht ng tic khi phi lm tht vng nhng ngi mun quay li qu kh ging nh Kip, nhng iu khng th thc hin c khi m mt nng lng l dng khp mi ni. Ti c th chng minh rng, xy mt my thi gian hu hn, bn cn nng lng m. Trong l thuyt c in th mt nng lng lun lun dng, do , loi tr my thi gian vi kch thc hu hn ra khi mc ny. Tuy nhin, tnh hung li khc trong l thuyt bn c in, khi m ta coi vt cht tun theo thuyt lng t nhng khng thi gian li tt nh v c in. Nh chng ta thy, nguyn l bt nh ca c hc lng t ni rng cc trng lun thng ging ln xung ngay c trong chn khng v c mt nng lng v hn. Do , ta phi loi tr i lng v hn nhn c mt nng lng hu hn m ta quan st c trong v tr. Vic loi tr ny c th lm nng lng m, t nht l m cc b. Ngay c trong khng gian
Trang 144
Q U
K H
(Hnh 5.11)
phng, ta c th tm thy cc trng thi lng t c nng lng m cc b mc d nng lng ton phn l dng. Ta c th t hi l cc gi tr m ny c thc s lm khng thi gian b b cong mt cch thch hp xy mt my thi gian hu hn hay khng, dng nh l c. Nh chng ta thy trong chng 4, thng ging lng t c ngha l ngay trong chn khng trng rng cng y p cc cp ht o, cng xut hin, ri xa nhau ri quay tr li hy ln nhau (hnh 5.10). Mt thnh vin ca cp ht o c nng lng dng v thnh vin kia c nng lng m. Khi c mt h en thnh vin c nng lng m c th b ri vo h en v thnh vin c nng lng dng c th thot vo v tn, , thnh vin c nng lng dng c quan st nh l bc x mang nng lng dng ra khi h en. Cc ht c nng lng m ri vo h en s lm cho h en mt khi lng v t t bay hi, kch thc ca chn tri s kin s b suy gim (hnh 5.11). Vt cht thng vi mt nng lng dng gy ra hiu ng hp dn m v b cong khng thi gian lm cho c tia sng i li gn nhau ging nh hn bi trn tm cao su trong chng hai b cong ng i ca cc hn bi nh hn li gn nhau ch khng bao gi lm cho chng xa nhau.
Hy
Phn ht Sinh
Ht
(Hnh 5.10) Trang 145
T R
T R O N G
iu ny ng rng din tch ca chn tri h en lun tng theo thi gian ch khng bao gi b gim i. i vi chn tri ca h en ang gim kch thc th mt nng lng trn chn tri phi l m v b cong khng thi gian lm cho cc tia sng i ra xa nhau. l iu ti nhn ra u tin khi ti i v bung ng ngay sau khi con gi ti ra i. Ti s khng ni khi cch y bao lu, ch bit rng nay ti c chu ngoi ri. Vic cc h en bay hi cho thy rng trn mc lng t, i khi mt nng lng c th l m v lm b cong khng thi gian theo hng cn thit xy dng mt my thi gian. Do chng ta c th tng tng rng, mt s nn vn minh rt cao c th b tr mt nng lng m to nn mt my thi gian c th s dng cho cc vt th v m nh l cc phi thuyn. Tuy nhin, c mt s khc bit quan trng gia chn tri h en c hnh thnh bi cc tia sng bay vng quanh h en, v chn tri ca my thi gian c cha cc tia sng chuyn ng vng. Do , ta c th trng i mt nng lng v hn trn chn tri bin ca my thi gian vng khng thi gian m ta c th i v qu kh. iu ny c xc nh bi cc tnh ton rt tng minh trn mt s nn tng n gin cho cc tnh ton chnh xc. iu c ngha l mt ngi hay mt my d khng gian khi th vt qua chn tri i vo trong my thi gian s b ph hy bi mt vnh ai bc x (hnh 5.12). Nn tng lai c v nh l mt mu en vi vic du hnh thi gian hay l mt mu trng cht chc nh? Mt nng lng ca vt cht ph thuc vo trng thi ca n nn c th mt nn vn minh tin tin c kh nng to ra mt vt cht hu hn trn bin ca my thi gian bng vic vt b hoc loi tr cc ht o chuyn ng vng quanh trong mt chu trnh kn. Tuy vy, vn cha r mt chic my thi gian nh th c th n nh hay khng: mt nhiu lon nh nht nh l vic ai i ngang qua chn tri vo trong my thi gian s lm tng cc ht o chuyn ng tun hon v khi ng vnh ai nh sng. y l mt cu hi m
Trang 146
Chu ngoi ti, William Mackenzie Smith.
Q U
K H
(Hnh 5.12)
cc nh vt l nn t do tho lun, khng nn ci khinh thng. Thm ch ngay c khi du hnh thi gian l bt kh th th vic tm hiu ti sao n bt kh th l iu rt quan trng. tr li dt khot cu hi ny chng ta cn xem xt cc thng ging lng t khng ch ca cc trng vt cht m c ca bn thn thi gian na. Ta c th trng i cc thng ging gy ra mt m nht nh trong cc l trnh thi gian v trong ton b khi nim thi gian trt t. Thc vy, ta c th coi bc x t cc h en ging nh mt s r g ra ngoi nh cc thng ging lng t ca khng thi gian, c ngha l chn tri khng hon ton xc nh mt cch chnh xc. V chng ta vn cha c mt l thuyt hp dn lng t hon thin nn tht kh c th ni cc hiu ng ca thng ging khng thi gian l g. Tuy nhin, chng ta c th hy vng c c mt s gi t tng theo cc lch s ca Feynman m c m t trong chng 3.
Ta c th b mt vnh ai bc x xa s khi bc chn vo chn tri du hnh thi gian.
Trang 147
T R
T R O N G
Chu trnh kn Cc lch s ca ht L trnh ca ht i ngc thi gian theo mt chu trnh
THI GIAN
Ht TNG THEO CC LCH S
KHNG GIAN (Hnh 5.13) Ly tng theo cc lch s ca Feynman tnh n cc lch s trong cc ht quay ngc li thi gian v ngay c cc lch s l cc vng ng trong thi gian v khng gian.
Mi lch s s c mt khng thi gian cong vi cc trng vt cht trong . V chng ta gi thit ly tng theo tt c cc lch s kh d, khng ch cc lch s tha mn mt s phng trnh m tng cn bao gm cc khng thi gian cong du hnh v qu kh (hnh 5.13). Do , cu hi l ti sao du hnh thi gian khng xy ra khp ni? Cu tr li l thc ra du hnh thi gian xy ra cp vi m, nhng chng ta khng ch n n. Nu ngi ta p dng tng ly tng theo cc lch s ca Feynman i vi mt ht, ngi ta phi ly c cc lch s trong cc ht chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng thm ch cn i ngc thi gian. c bit l s c cc lch s m trong cc ht chuyn ng vng quanh theo nhng chu trnh kn trong thi gian v khng gian. iu ny ging nh trong phim Groundbog Day, trong mt phng vin phi sng trong mt ngy c lp i lp li nhiu ln (hnh 5.14). Ngi ta khng th quan st mt cch trc tip cc ht vi cc lch s c chu trnh kn nh th bng cc my o ht. Tuy vy, cc hiu ng gin tip ca chng c thy trong rt nhiu th nghim. Mt trong nhng th nghim l c mt dch chuyn nh trong
Trang 148
Q U
K H
Ht i xui thi gian
Ht i ngc thi gian
THI GIAN
KHNG GIAN
(Hnh 5.14)
nh sng pht ra t cc nguyn t hydro, gy ra bi cc in t chuyn ng trong cc chu trnh kn. Mt th nghim khc na l c mt lc nh xut hin gia cc tm kim loi song song gy ra do c t hn cc lch s chu trnh kn c th khp vo gia cc tm kim loi so vi cc vng bn ngoi l mt li gii thch tng ng khc cho hiu ng Casimir. Vy nn s tn ti ca cc lch s chu trnh kn c khng nh bng thc nghim (hnh 5.15). Ngi ta c th nghi ng vic cc lch s chu trnh kn liu c lin quan g n vic b cong khng thi gian hay khng v chng xut hin ngay c trong khung nn c nh nh l khng gian phng. Nhng nhng nm gn y chng ta tm ra rng cc hin tng vt l thng c th c m t theo hai cch tng ng nhau. Ngi ta hon ton c th ni rng mt ht chuyn ng trn mt chu trnh kn trong mt khung nn c nh hoc ngi ta cng c th ni rng ht nm trong trng thi c nh v khng gian v thi gian thng ging xung quanh n. Cu hi ch l bn ly tng theo cc l trnh ca ht trc ri sau ly tng theo khng thi gian cong hoc ngc li.
(Hnh 5.15)
Cc chu trnh kn
Trang 149
T R
T R O N G
Vy nn, dng nh thuyt lng t cho php du hnh thi gian cp vi m. Nhng iu ny khng c nhiu tc dng lm vi mc ch vin tng khoa hc nh l vic quay li qu kh v git ngi ng chng hn. Vy cu hi l: xc xut trong vic ly tng theo cc lch s xung quanh khng thi gian vi cc chu trnh thi gian v m c cao hay khng? Ngi ta c th xem xt cu hi ny khi nghin cu tng theo cc lch s ca cc trng vt cht trong mt chui cc khng thi gian nn (background spacetime) ang xch li gn nhau c cc chu trnh thi gian. Ngi ta trng i ci g kch tnh xy ra khi cc chu trnh thi gian xut hin u tin, v iu ny c xc nhn trong mt th nghim n gin m ti kho cu vi mt sinh vin ca ti l Micheal Cassidy. Cc khng thi gian nn trong chui m ti nghin cu c lin h rt mt thit i vi ci c gi l v tr Einstein, khng thi gian m Einstein a ra khi ng tin rng v tr l tnh ti v khng i theo thi gian, khng gin n m cng khng co li (xem chng 1). Trong v tr ca Einstein, thi gian chy t qu kh v cng n tng lai v cng. Tuy nhin, cc hng khng gian li hu hn v t ng, ging nh b mt tri t nhng c nhiu hn mt chiu. Ta c th mng tng khng thi gian ny ging nh mt hnh tr vi trc thng ng l hng thi gian v mt ct l ba chiu ca khng gian (hnh 5.16). V tr ca Einstein khng th hin v tr m chng ta ang sng v n khng gin n. Tuy vy, n l mt khung nn rt thun tin trong vic s dng khi nghin cu du hnh thi gian v v tr n gin khi ta ly tng theo cc lch s. By gi ta b qua chuyn du hnh thi gian, hy xem xt vt cht trong v tr ca Einstein quay xung quanh mt s trc no . Nu bn ng trn mt ci trc quay, bn c th vn ti mt im trong khng gian, ging nh bn ng trung tm ca tr tri nga quay ca tr con. Nhng nu bn khng ng tm th bn s chuyn ng trong khng gian khi bn quay quanh trc. Bn cng xa trc quay th bn chuyn ng cng nhanh (hnh 5.17). Do , nu v tr l v hn trong khng gian, th cc im xa trc quay s quay nhanh hn vn tc nh sng. Tuy nhin, v v tr ca Einstein l hu hn theo cc hng trong khng gian, nn s c mt tc quay ti hn m di n khng c phn no ca v tr quay nhanh hn vn tc nh sng.
THI GIAN
KHNG GIAN
(Hnh 5.16) V tr ca Einstein ging nh mt hnh tr, n hu hn theo khng gian v khng i theo thi gian, mi ni trong v tr c th quay vi tc nh hn tc nh sng.
Trang 150
Q U
K H
QUAY TRONG KHNG GIAN PHNG Quanh chm hn vn tc nh sng
Trc quay
Quanh nhanh hn vn tc nh sng
By gi ta hy nghin cu vic ly tng theo cc lch s ht trong mt v tr Einstein quay. Khi quay chm, mt ht c th theo rt nhiu l trnh khi dng mt lng nng lng cho. Do , tng theo tt c cc lch s ca ht trong khung nn ny s c bin ln. iu ny mun ni rng xc xut ca khung nn ny s cao khi ly tng theo tt c lch s khng thi gian b un cong tc l, n l mt trong nhng lch s c xc xut cao hn. Tuy vy, khi tc quay ca v tr Einstein t n gi tr ti hn, th ra ngoi ca v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc tin n vn tc nh sng. Ch c mt l trnh c php trong khun kh c in trn ra v tr, l l trnh cho ht chuyn ng vi vn tc nh sng. iu ny c ngha l tng theo tt c cc lch s ht s nh nn xc xut ca cc khung nn ny s thp hn xc xut khi ly tng theo tt c cc lch s khng gian cong. Tc l, chng c xc xut thp nht.
(Hnh 5.17) Trong khng gian phng, phn xa trc quay ca mt a cng c th quay nhanh hn vn tc nh sng.
Trang 151
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 5.18) V TR C VNG THI GIAN NG V tr gin n theo hng ny V tr khng gin n theo hng ny
Cng gia tng vn tc theo chiu thng ng
V tr Einstein quay th c lin quan g n du hnh thi gian v cc chu trnh thi gian? Cu tr li l v mt ton hc chng tng ng vi cc khung nn khc cho php tn ti cc chu trnh thi gian. Cc khung nn khc ny l cc v tr ang gin n theo hai chiu khng gian. V tr khng gin n theo chiu th ba m chiu ny l tun hon. iu ni rng nu bn i mt khong cch nht nh theo chiu ny th bn s quay tr li ni bn xut pht. Tuy vy, mi ln bn i vng quanh theo chiu khng gian th ba ny th tc ca bn trong chiu th nht v th hai s c tng thm (hnh 5.18). Nu s gia tc ny nh th s khng c cc chu trnh thi gian. Nhng hy xem xt mt chui cc khung nn vi gia tc tng dn. Ti mt gia tc ti hn nht nh, cc chu trnh thi gian s xut hin. iu d hiu l s gia tc ti hn ny tng ng vi tc quay ti hn ca cc v tr Einstein. V cc tnh ton tng theo cc lch s trong cc khung nn ny l tng ng nhau v mt ton hc nn ta c
Trang 152
Q U
K H
th kt lun rng xc xut ca cc khung nn ny tin n khng khi chng tin n cong cn thit cho cc chu trnh thi gian. Ni cch khc, xc xut c cong cho mt my thi gian l bng khng. iu ny cng c ci m ti gi l Gi nh bo ton lch s (Chronology Protection Conjecture): l cc nh lut vt l c gng trnh du hnh thi gian i vi cc vt th v m. Mc d cc chu trnh thi gian c th xy ra nh vic ly tng theo cc lch s, nhng cc xc xut li cc k nh. Da trn lun c lng tnh ti ni trc y, ti c tnh xc xut m Kip Thorne c th quay li v git cht ngi ng ca anh ta l mt phn mi t t t t t t t t t t. y l mt con s rt nh, nhng nu bn nhn gn vo bc tranh ca Kip th bn c th nhn thy nhng ng m ra bc tranh. N tng ng vi xc sut khi mt k v li no t tng lai quay li qu kh v git cht ngi ng ca anh ta anh ta khng th c mt y c na. Nh nhng tay c bc, Kip v ti nh bc v iu . Nhng vn l chng ti khng th c cc vi nhau v by gi chng ti cng mt pha. Mt khc, ti s khng nh bc vi bt k ai na. Anh ta c th n t tng lai v bit rng my thi gian hot ng. Bn c th t hi chng sch ny c phi l mt phn bin php che y my thi gian ca chnh ph hay khng. C th bn ng y.
Xc sut m Kip c th quay li qu kh v git ngi ng ca anh ta l mt phn mi m mi m su mi 60 (1/1010 ). Ni cch khc xc sut nh hn mt phn ngn t ngn t ngn t ngn t ngn t.
Trang 153
CHNG 6
U L T N G L AI CA CHNG TA? C T H L S TA R TREK HAY KHNG?
Lm th no m cuc sng sinh hc v in t s tip tc pht trin phc tp vi mt tc cha tng thy?
Trang 155
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 6.1) TC PHT TRIN DN S
K nguyn thin cha gio
Thi Trung c
c (khng t l)
Thi k
Thi k mi
Thi k ng
Thi k st
Thi hin i 6 5 4 T ngi 3 2 1 2000 SCN
8000 TCN
7000 TCN
6000 TCN
5000 TCN
4000 TCN
3000 TCN
2000 TCN
1000 TCN
Trang 156 N
1000 SCN
N G
L A I
T R
Newton, Einstein, thuyn trng Data v ti ang chi bi trong mt cnh phim Star Trek.
Mt cnh trong phim Star Trek: The Next Genearation, 2001.
do m Star Trek ph bin n th l v l mt vin cnh tng lai an i v d chu. Bn thn ti cng l mt ngi kh yu thch Star Trek, do ti d dng b thuyt phc tham gia vo mt on phim trong ti chi bi vi Newton, Einstein v thuyn trng Data. Ti thng h, nhng tht khng may, c bo hiu khn cp nn ti khng bao gi ly c s tin thng cc. Star trek cho thy mt x hi c trnh khoa hc, k thut v t chc chnh tr pht trin rt xa vi chng ta (v t chc chnh tr th trnh c th t ti khng my kh khn). S phi c nhng thay i ln vi nhng cng thng v xo trn i km trong thi gian gia by gi v thi im , nhng trong giai on m chng ta thy, khoa hc, k thut v t chc x hi c gi thit l t n mc gn nh hon ho. Ti mun t nghi vn v bc tranh ny v hi rng liu chng ta s t n mt trng thi n nh cui cng cha tng c v khoa hc v cng ngh hay khng. Cha lc no trong vng khong mi ngn nm k t k bng h, loi ngi trong mt tnh trng m tri thc bt bin v cng ngh c nh khng thay i. C i lc tht li nh l thi k trung c sau khi ch La M sp . Nhng dn s th gii mt php o kh nng cng ngh ca chng ta bo tn cuc sng v nui sng bn thn chng ta tng mt cch vng chc tr mt vi ln gin on nh thi k ci cht en m thi (hnh 6.1).
Trang 157
T R
T R O N G
TIU TH IN NNG TON CU
CC BI BO KHOA HC HNG NM
(Hnh 6.2) (Tri) Mc tiu th nng lng ton cu (n v t tn BCU, trong mt tn bng mt n v than bitu = 8.13 MW-gi) (Phi) S bi bo khoa hc xut bn hng nm, trc tung theo n v ngn bi. Nm 1900 c 9 000 bi, nm 1950 c 90 000bi v nm 2000 c 900 000 bi.
Trong hai trm nm va qua, tc pht trin dn s tr ln cp s m; tc l dn s pht trin vi mt s phn trm ging nhau hng nm. Hin nay tc l 1,9 phn trm mt nm. iu ny nghe c v khng thch th lm nhng n c ngha l dn s th gii c bn mi nm li tng gp i (hnh 6.2). Cc php o s pht trin cng ngh khc trong thi gian gn y l mc tiu th in nng v s cc bi bo khoa hc. Chng cng tng theo hm m v thi gian tng gp i ngn hn bn mi nm. Trong tng lai gn tt nhin l khng phi thi i Star trek thi i c gi thit khng qu xa so vi chng ta, khng c tn hiu no cho thy s pht trin ca khoa hc v cng ngh s chm dn v dng hn. Nhng nu tc tng dn s v s gia tng v tiu th in nng tip tc vi tc nh hin nay th n nm 2600 dn s th gii s tng n mc mi ngi ng st vai k vai v ph kn tri t v in nng s lm cho tri t s tr nn nng (xem hnh minh ha trang k).
Trang 158
N G
L A I
T R
Vo nm 2600, dn s th gii ng n mc phi ng st vo nhau v in nng tiu th c th lm tri t pht sng .

Nu bn xp tt c cc cun sch mi c xut bn st li vi nhau th bn phi chuyn ng vi vn tc mt trm nm mi km mt gi c th bt kp phn cui ca hng sch. Tt nhin l vo nm 2600 th cc cng trnh ngh thut v khoa hc pht hnh theo dng in t ch khng phi theo dng sch bo vt l. Tuy nhin, nu tng theo hm m c tip tc th s c mi bi bo v ngnh vt l l thuyt ca ti ra i trong mt giy v chng c thi gian c chng. R rng l tc tng theo hm m nh hin nay khng th tip tc mi mi. Th th ci g s xy ra? Mt kh nng l chng ta t xa b hon ton bn thn chng ta bng mt s thm ha nh chin tranh ht nhn chng hn. C mt chuyn a chn ngy l l do m ngi ngoi tri t khng lin lc vi chng ta l khi nn vn minh t n giai on pht trin ca chng ta th n tr ln bt n v t hy hoi bn thn. Tuy vy, ti vn l mt ngi lc quan. Ti khng tin l loi ngi i qu xa t chm dt bn thn khi mi th ang tr nn ng quan tm.
Trang 159
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 6.3) Mch chuyn ca Star Trek ph thuc vo phi thuyn Enterprise v cc phi thuyn ging nh th c th di chuyn vi vn tc cong nhanh hn rt nhiu vn tc nh sng. Tuy nhin, nu Gi nh bo ton lch s (Chronology Protection Conjecture) l ng th chng ta s phi khm ph v tr bng cc phi thuyn c tn la y vi vn tc chm hn vn tc nh sng.
Vin cnh tng lai Star trek m chng ta t n mt mc tin tin nhng hu nh tnh ti c th tr thnh hin thc theo tri thc ca chng ta v cc nh lut c bn iu khin v tr. Nh ti s m t trong chng k tip, c th c mt l thuyt ti thng m chng ta s tm ra trong mt tng lai khng xa. L thuyt ti thng ny, nu tn ti, s quyt nh gic m Star trek v di chuyn theo cong khng gian c thnh hin thc hay khng. Theo cc tng hin nay, chng ta s phi khm ph thin h theo mt cch chm chm v bun t s dng phi thuyn chuyn ng chm hn vn tc nh sng, nhng v chng ta cha c l thuyt thng nht hon ton nn chng ta khng th loi tr kh nng di chuyn theo cong khng gian (hnh 6.3).
Trang 160
N G
L A I
T R
Mt khc, chng ta bit cc nh lut ng trong tt c cc trng hp nhng khng ng trong cc tnh hung ti hn nht: cc nh lut iu khin phi hnh on ca Enterprise, v c bn thn chic phi thuyn na. Nu c theo phng php m chng ta tm ra cc nh lut ny hoc c theo phng php m chng ta xy dng nn phc tp ca cc h nh hin nay th chng c v g l chng ta s t n mt trng thi n nh. Chng ta s cp n s phc tp trong phn cn li ca chng ny. Cho ti nay, h thng phc tp nht m chng ta c chnh l c th chng ta. Dng nh s sng c ngun gc t i dng nguyn thy bao ph b mt tri t bn t nm trc. Chng ta khng bit iu ny din ra th no. C th l s va chm ngu nhin gia cc nguyn t to ra cc i phn t. Cc i phn t ny c th t ti to bn thn chng v lin kt vi nhau to ra cc cu trc phc tp hn. iu m chng ta bit l cch y ba t nm ri, phn t c phc tp rt cao ADN xut hin. ADN l c s ca s sng trn tri t. l mt cu trc hnh xon kp ging nh cu thang xoy, cu trc ny c Francis Crick v James Watson phng th nghim Cavendish ti Cambridge pht hin ra vo nm 1953. Hai nhnh ca chui xon kp ny c lin kt vi nhau nh cc cp ba-z ging nh bc thang trn cu thang xon. Trong ADN c bn loi ba-z: adenine, guanine, thymine v cytosine. Trt t cc ba-z xut hin dc theo cu thang xon mang cc thng tin di truyn cho php ADN lin kt vi mt c quan xung quanh n ti sinh chnh n. V ADN t to ra cc phin bn ca chnh n nn i lc c cc sai st trong t l hoc trt t ca cc ba-z trn chui xon kp. Trong phn ln cc trng hp, cc sai st trong vic sao chp khng th hoc rt t c kh nng t ti to chnh n, c ngha l cc sai st di truyn hay thng gi l cc t bin s b loi b. Nhng trong mt s trng hp, cc sai st hay cc t bin s lm tng kh nng sng st v ti sinh ca ADN. Cc thay i v m di truyn nh th s c u tin. l cch m thng tin c lu tr trong chui ADN tin ha dn dn v lm tng phc tp (hnh 6.4). V tin ha sinh hc v c bn l mt qu trnh ngu nhin trong khng gian ca tt c cc xc xut di truyn nn tin ha sinh hc din ra rt chm chp. phc tp hay l s cc bit thng tin c m ha trong ADN gn bng s cc ba-z trong phn t . Trong
Trang 161
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 6.4) TIN HA KHI HOT NG Hnh bn phi l m hnh to ra bng mt chng trnh my tnh do nh sinh vt hc Richard Dawkins to ra. S tn ti ca mt xu hng no ph thuc vo cc c tnh n gin nh l hp dn, khc bit hoc ging cn trng (insect-like). Bt u t mt im duy nht, cc th h ngu nhin ban u pht trin theo mt qu trnh tng t qu trnh chn lc t nhin. Dawkins to ra mt dng thc ging cn trng vi 29 th h (cng rt nhiu ng ct khi tin ha). Trang 162
N G
L A I
T R
S SCH
S pht trin v mc phc tp t khi tri t c hnh thnh (khng t l).
nm
Quan trng hn l thng tin trong cc cun sch c th c cp nht mt cch rt nhanh chng. Tc cp nht ADN trong qu trnh tin ha sinh hc ca con ngi hin nay l mt bit trong mt nm. Nhng c hai trm ngn cun sch mi xut bn hng nm tng ng vi tc cp nht thng tin mi trn mt triu bit
Ton b ADN ca ngi c cha trong 30 tp sch (Hnh 6.5) Trang 163
khong hai t nm u tin, phc tp tng vi tc khong mt bit thng tin trong mt trm nm. V trong vi triu nm trc, phc tp ca ADN tng dn vi tc khong mt bit thng tin trong mt nm. Nhng sau , khong su hoc tm ngn nm trc, xut hin mt bc pht trin mi rt quan trng. Chng ta pht trin ngn ng vit. iu ny c ngha l thng tin c th c truyn t th h ny n th h khc m khng cn phi i qu trnh t bin ngu nhin v chn lc t nhin rt chm chp m ha thng tin vo chui ADN. V phc tp tng ln nhanh chng. Ch mt cun tiu thuyt c th cha mt lng thng tin bng lng thng tin v s khc nhau gia ADN ca vn v ngi, v ba mi tp bch khoa ton th c th m t ton b chui ADN ca loi ngi (hnh 6.5).
T R
T R O N G
Thai nhi pht trin bn ngoi c th con ngi s cho php hnh thnh nhng b no ln hn vi tr tu v i hn.
Trang 164
N G
L A I
T R
mt giy. Tt nhin l phn ln cc thng tin u v ch nhng ch cn mt phn triu bit hu ch th tc vn ln hn tc tin ha sinh hc mt trm ngn ln. Vic truyn d liu bng cc phng php ngoi, phi sinh hc lm cho loi ngi thng tr th gii v tng dn s theo cp s m. Nhng ngy nay chng ta ang trong giai on bt u ca mt k nguyn mi, trong chng ta c th tng phc tp ca thng tin ni tc l ADN m khng cn phi i qu trnh tin ha sinh hc chm chp. Trong mi ngn nm gn y, ADN ca con ngi khng c thay i no ng k, nhng rt c th trong mt ngn nm ti chng ta c kh nng ti thit k li hon ton. Tt nhin rt nhiu ngi s ni rng, k thut di truyn trn con ngi s b cm nhng vic chng ta c th ngn cn n l mt iu ng ng. K thut gen trn thc vt v ng vt c php v cc l do kinh t v mt s ngi s th trn con ngi. Tr khi chng ta c mt lnh cm trit trn ton th gii khng cho php ngi no, ni no c thit k con ngi ci tin. R rng l vic to ra con ngi ci tin s gy nn cc vn x hi v chnh tr vi con ngi khng c ci tin. Ch ca ti khng phi l bo v cho k thut gen trn con ngi l mt bc pht trin ng ao c m ti ch mun ni rng iu rt c th s xy ra cho d chng ta mun hay khng. chnh l l do ti sao ti khng tin vo chuyn khoa hc vin tng nh Star trek, trong , con ngi bn trm nm ti li ging chng ta ngy nay v c bn. Ti ngh rng con ngi v ADN ca con ngi s gia tng phc tp rt nhanh chng. Chng ta nn tha nhn rng iu ny s xy ra v xem xt lm th no gii quyt vn . Theo , con ngi cn phi ci tin th cht v tr tu i ph vi mt th gii vi phc tp gia tng v p ng vi thch thc nh l du hnh v tr chng hn. Con ngi cng cn phi tng phc tp ca mnh nu nh cc h sinh hc vt trn cc h in t. Ti thi im ny, my tnh c li th v tc nhng khng cho thy mt du hiu no v tr tu. iu ny khng c g ng ngc nhin v cc my tnh hin nay ca chng ta cn n gin hn b no ca mt con giun t, mt sinh vt chng c g ng ch v kh nng tr tu. Nhng cc my tnh li tun theo mt nh lut gi l nh lut Moore: tc v phc tp ca chng s tng gp i c sau
Ti thi im hin nay, cc my tnh ca chng ta vn km xa kh nng tnh ton ca b no ca mt con giun t ngc nghch. Trang 165
19
Trang 166
72
T R
In
T R O N G
20 lP en tiu m IV :2 8 00 0 00 0 19 95 00 0 19 In te l: 20 0 00 0 00 0 20 40 0 00 0 00 00 99 7 93 19
In te
19 7 19 4 78 19 82 19 85 19 89
Cc nh sn xut b vi x l (CPU) d on tng trng theo hm m v kh nng tnh ton ca my tnh t nm 1972 n nm 2007. Cc con s sau tn ca b vi x l l s php ton trong mt giy.
00 te lP en tiu m IV :4 2 00 0
20
01
In
20 el : 84 00 0 00 0
03
In t
te l: In 35 te 00 In l 80 te 80 l8 : In 028 6 00 te 6: 0 l 2 In 803 9 0 te 86 l 8 : 00 04 27 86 5 0 In : 1 00 te 20 lP 0 en 00 tiu 0 m :5 In 50 te 0 0 lP 0 en 0 tiu m II:
50
00 0 In te
20
05
lP
en tiu m In te
III
:9 lP
50 0 en tiu m
In te l1 0G H z:
00 0 IV :2 8
20
07
00 0
00 0
N G
L A I
T R
mi tm thng (hnh 6.6). y cng l mt qu trnh tng theo hm m v r rng l khng th ko di mi mi c. Tuy vy, n c th s tip tc cho n khi cc my tnh c phc tp nh b no con ngi. Mt s ngi ni rng d th no i chng na my tnh khng bao gi c th th hin tr tu thc s. Nhng i vi ti, nu cc phn t ha hc rt phc tp c th hot ng trong con ngi lm cho con ngi tr nn c tr tu th cc mch in t vi phc tp tng ng cng c th lm cho cc my tnh hot ng theo mt cch c tr tu. V nu chng c tr tu th chng c th thit k cc my tnh c phc tp v tr tu thm ch cn cao hn. Liu s gia tng phc tp sinh hc v in t din ra mi mi hay c mt gii hn t nhin no ? V kha cnh sinh hc, s gii hn v tr tu ca con ngi cho n nay c xc nh bi kch thc ca b no m s phi i qua mt ng ng khi sinh n. Khi quan st ba a con ti ra i, ti bit l ci u thot ra c kh khn nh th no. Nhng trong hng trm nm ti, ti hy vng chng ta c th nui dng bo thai bn ngoi c th con ngi, do s gii hn ny s c loi b. Tuy nhin cui cng th s gia tng kch thc b no con ngi nh k thut di truyn s gp phi vn l s truyn tin ha hc ca c th chu trch nhim cho cc hot ng tr c s din ra tng i chm. Tc l nu phc tp
Cc m cy thn kinh c th gia tng b nh v cc gi thng tin nh l mt ngn ng hay ni dung ca quyn sch ny c th c hc trong vng vi pht. Con ngi cao cp nh vy s c rt t im tng ng vi chng ta.
Trang 167
T R
T R O N G
LC S V V TR CC S KIN (KHNG T L) 0,00003 t nm V n ln v mt v tr lm pht, d di, sng la
Vt cht/nng 1 t nm 3 t nm lng tch ri, Cc m vt cht hnh thnh Cc thin h nhn t v tr trong sut nn cc tin thin h tng hp knh Hubble cc ht nhn nng
THI GIAN (KHNG T L)
1 t nm
3 t nm
(Hnh 6.7) Khong thi gian m loi ngi c mt ch bng mt phn rt nh ca lch s v tr. (Nu hnh trn c biu din theo t l th di m con ngi c mt ch l 7 cm ca mt km di lch s v tr). Bt k mt cuc sng ngoi tri t m chng ta gp th a phn l pht trin chm hn chng ta hoc nhanh hn chng ta rt nhiu.
ca b no tng thm th s phi tr gi bng tc . Chng ta c th nhanh tr hoc thng minh ch khng th c c hai c. Nhng ti vn ngh rng chng ta c th tr nn thng minh hn phn ln nhng ngi trong Star trek, ch vic chng ta km thng minh hn rt kh c th xy ra. Cc mch in t cng c cc vn v phc tp tc ging nh b no ngi. Tuy vy, trong trng hp ny th cc tn hiu l in t ch khng phi l ha hc v truyn vi tc nh sng, mt tc cao hn rt nhiu. Tuy vy, tc nh sng l mt gii hn thc t trong vic thit k my tnh tc cao hn. Ta c th ci thin tnh hung bng cch lm cc mch nh hn, nhng cui cng th c mt gii hn thit lp bi cu trc nguyn t ca vt cht. Ta vn c mt s hng i trc khi vp phi ro cn ny. Mt cch khc cc mch in t c th tng phc tp ca
Trang 168
5 t nm
N G
L A I
T R
Cc thin h mi Hnh thnh h mt tri v cc hnh tinh ging ca chng ta vi vic hnh thnh cc ht nhn nng
3,5 t nm trc cc dng 0,0005 t nm trc, ngi sng bt u xut hin tin s xut hin
10.3 t nm
11.5 t nm
chng m vn gi nguyn tc l sao chp b no con ngi. B no ngi khng c mt n v x l trung tm x l cc lnh trong mt chui cc lnh. Thay vo , b no c hng triu cc n v x l lm vic cng nhau ti cng mt thi im. Qu trnh x l song song v i ny cng l tng lai cho tr tu in t. Gi s rng trong vi trm nm ti chng ta khng t hy hoi chnh mnh th chng ta c th di c ti cc hnh tinh trong h mt tri, sau ti cch ngi sao gn nht. Nhng s di c s khng ging nh Star trek hoc Babylon 5, vi mt loi sinh vt mi gn ging ngi trong hu ht cc h tinh cu. Loi ngi trong hnh dng hin thi mi c c hai triu nm trong khong mi lm t nm k t v n ln (hnh 6.7). Do , thm ch nu s sng c pht trin trong cc h tinh cu khc
Trang 169
15 t nm
T R
T R O N G
GIAO DIN IN T-SINH HC Trong hai thp k na th mt chic my tnh gi vi ngn la s t ti phc tp bng b no con ngi. Cc b x l song song c th bt chc cch hot ng ca b no chng ta v lm cho cc my tnh hot ng mt cch c tr tu v nhn thc. Cc m cy thn kinh c th cho php lin h gia b no v my tnh nhanh hn rt nhiu, xa nha khong cch gia tr tu in t v tr tu sinh hc. Trong tng lai gn, phn ln cc giao dch thng mi gia cc c nhn o c th s c thc hin thng qua mng ton cu (world wide web). Trong vng mt thp k, rt nhiu ngi trong chng ta c th chn cch sng o hnh thnh nhng tnh bn v mi quan h o. Kin thc ca chng ta v h di truyn ca con ngi chc chn s to ra cc t ph v trong cha bnh v n cn c th cho php chng ta ra tng phc tp trong cu trc ADN mt cch ng k. Trong mt vi trm nm ti, k thut di truyn s thay th tin ha sinh hc v ti thit k con ngi v t ra cc cu hi mi v mt o c. Vic du hnh trong khng gian ra khi h mt tri c th s cn n nhng ngi c h di truyn c thay i theo yu cu hoc cc my d do my tnh t ng iu khin.
Trang 170
N G
L A I
T R
th c hi bt gp n trong giai on ging nh con ngi l rt nh. Bt k s sng ngoi tri t no m chng ta bt gp rt c th s mng mui hn hoc pht trin hn chng ta rt nhiu. V nu n pht trin hn th ti sao n khng du hnh qua cc thin h v ving thm tri t? Nu nhng ngi ngoi hnh tinh n y th ng l s hin din ca n phi r rng ging nh trong phim Independence Day hn l phim E.T. Do lm th no m ta c th gii thch l cha c ngi ngoi hnh tinh no ti thm tri t. C th l c mt sinh vt pht trin ngoi tri t nhn thy s tn ti ca chng ta nhng c chng ta t hm mnh trong nc ct nguyn thy ca chng ta. Tuy vy, iu ng ng l sinh vt li cn trng vi mt hnh thc sng thp hn chng n th: liu phn ln mi ngi trong chng ta c lo lng v vic c bao nhiu vi khun v giun t m ta gim di chn hay khng? Mt li gii thch c l hn l c rt t kh nng tn ti s sng hoc s sng c tr tu pht trin trn cc hnh tinh khc. V chng ta cho mnh l c tr tu mc d c l khng c nhiu l do cho lm, chng ta c xu hng xem xt tr tu nh l mt trnh t tin ha chc chn s xy ra. Tuy nhin ta c th nghi ng iu . Vi khun lm vic rt tt m khng cn tr tu v s sng lu hn chng ta nu ci gi l tr tu ca chng ta lm chng ta b hy dit trong mt cuc chin tranh ht nhn. Do , khi chng ta khm ph thin h, chng ta c th tm thy s sng nguyn thy nhng chng ta c th khng tm thy sinh vt ging chng ta. Tng lai ca khoa hc s khng ging nh bc tranh an nhn nh trong Star trek: mt v tr do cc sinh vt ging nh ngi sinh sng vi mt nn khoa hc cng ngh tin tin nhng hu nh tnh ti. Thay vo , ti ngh rng s ch c chng ta nhng pht trin rt nhanh v phc tp sinh hc v in t. Trong mt vi trm nm ti, khng nhiu nhng iu nh th s xy ra, l tt c nhng g chng ta c th tin on mt cch ng tin cy. Nhng vo cui thin nin k ti, nu chng ta c th i n , th s khc bit vi Star trek s r rng.
Tr tu c th tn ti lu c khng?
Trang 171
CHNG 7
T H G I I MNG
Chng ta sng trn mt mng hay chng ta ch l mt nh a chiu?
Trang 173
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 7.1) Thuyt-M ging nh mt tm hnh ghp. Ta c th d dng nhn ra v xp cc mu phn bin ca n nhng chng ta khng bit nhiu v nhng g xy ra phn gia, chng ta khng th ly gn ng v cc i lng c gi tr rt nh. Trang 174
G I
M N G
huyn du hnh khm ph ca chng ta trong tng lai s tip tc nh th no? Chng ta s thnh cng trong vic truy lng mt l thuyt thng nht hon ton iu khin v tr ny v mi th trong hay khng? Thc ra, nh m t trong chng 2, chng ta c th ng nht L thuyt v vn vt (Theory of Everything ToE) l l thuyt-M. L thuyt ny khng c mt m t n nht, t nht l vi hiu bit ca chng ta hin nay. Thay vo , chng ta tm thy mt mng li cc l thuyt khc hn nhau. Tt c cc l thuyt dng nh l cc l thuyt gn ng theo cc gii hn khc nhau ca cng mt l thuyt c bn ng sau ging nh l thuyt hp dn ca Newton l mt l thuyt gn ng ca l thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein trong gii hn trng hp dn yu. Thuyt-M ging nh mt tr chi ghp hnh: vic nhn dng v xp cc mu ra ca tm hnh l d nht. Ra ca tm hnh tng ng vi cc gii hn ca thuyt-M trong mt s cc i lng c gi tr nh. By gi chng ta c mt khi nim tng i tt v cc ra ny nhng vn c mt khong trng tm ca tm hnh thuyt-M, , chng ta khng bit iu g ang xy ra (hnh 7.1). Chng ta khng th ni l chng ta tm ra L thuyt v vn vt cho n khi chng ta lp y kho ny. Ci g tm ca thuyt-M? Chng ta s tm thy mt con rng (hoc mt ci g cng k l nh th) ging nh trn cc bn c v cc vng t cha c khm ph? Kinh nghim ca chng ta trong qu kh cho thy c th chng ta tm thy cc hin tng mi khng nh trng i khi chng ta m rng tm quan st vo cc nc thang nh hn. Vo u th k hai mi, chng ta hiu qu trnh vn hnh ca t nhin trn nc thang vt l c in, n ng n t khong cch gia cc thin cu cho n khong mt phn trm mili mt. Vt l c in gi thit rng vt cht l mt mi trng
Kiu IIB Kiu I Kiu IIA
Heterotic-0
Heterotic-E
Siu hp dn 11 chiu
Trang 175
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 7.2) Hnh th nht bn phi: M hnh nguyn t v hnh c in Hnh th hai bn phi: Nguyn t vi cc in t quay xung quanh ht nhn c to thnh t cc neutron v proton.
lin tc vi cc tnh cht nh l do v nht, nhng cc bng chng bt u xut hin cho thy rng vt cht khng lin tc m gin on: chng c to thnh t nhng n v nh ly ti c gi l nguyn t. T nguyn t bt ngun t ting Hy Lp v c ngha l khng th phn chia, nhng ngay sau ngi ta thy rng cc nguyn t bao gm cc in t quay xung quanh ht nhn c to thnh t proton v neutron (hnh 7.2). Nghin cu v vt l nguyn t trong ba mi nm u ca th k trc cho chng ta hiu bit n di mt phn triu mili mt. Sau chng ta pht hin ra rng proton v neutron c to thnh t cc ht cn nh hn c gi l quark (hnh 7.3). Cc nghin cu gn y ca chng ta v vt l ht nhn v vt l nng lng cao dn chng ta ti cc nc thang cn nh hn mt phn t mili mt. Dng nh chng ta c th tip tc mi mi, pht hin ra cc cu trc trn cc nc thang nh hn v nh hn. Tuy nhin, c mt gii hn cho ci chui ny ging nh c mt gii hn cho cc con bp b lng trong nhau ca ngi Nga (hnh 7.4). Cui cng, khi ta cm n con bp b nh nht, n khng c to thnh t con no khc na. Trong vt l, con bp b nh nht c gi l di Plank. Vic d n cc khong cch ngn hn i hi cc ht c nng lng cao ging cc ht trong cc h en. Chng ta khng bit chnh xc di Plank c bn trong thuyt-M, nhng c th n ch b bng mt mili mt c chia thnh mt trm ngn t t t ln. Chng ta s khng c nh xy cc my gia tc ht c th d n cc di nh nh th. Chng phi ln hn h mt
(Hnh 7.3) Trn: Mt proton gm c hai quark thun (mi mt quark c in tch bng hai phn ba) v mt quark nghch (mi mt quark c in tch bng m mt phn ba). Di: Mt neutron gm hai quark nghch (mi mt quark c in tch bng m mt phn ba) v mt quark thun (mi mt quark c in tch bng hai phn ba). Trang 176
G I
M N G
Vt l c in
Vt l ht nhn Vt l nguyn t
L thuyt thng nht ln
di Plank: Thuyt-M?
0,00000000000000000000000000000000001616 mm
(Hnh 7.4) Mi con bp b i din cho mt m hnh l thuyt v t nhin cho n mt gii hn nht nh. Mi mt con li gm mt con khc nh hn tng ng vi mt l thuyt m t t nhin ti cc khong cch ngn hn. Nhng trong vt l, c mt di c bn nh nht, l di Plank, ti cc khong cch , t nhin c th c biu din bng thuyt-M.
Trang 177
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 7.5) Kch thc ca mt my gia tc c th thm d cc khong cch nh nh di Plank c th ln hn ng knh ca h mt tri.
tri v chc chn l chng khng c thng qua trong bi cnh ti chnh hin nay (hnh 7.5). Tuy nhin, c mt bc pht trin mi rt th v cho php chng ta c th khm ph mt cch d dng hn (v r hn) t nht mt vi con rng ca thuyt-M. Nh gii thch trong chng 2 v 3, trong mng li cc m hnh ton hc ca thuyt-M, khng thi gian c mi hoc mi mt chiu. Cho n gn y ngi ta vn ngh l su hoc by chiu b sung b cun li rt nh. N ging nh si tc ca con ngi (hnh 7.6). Nu bn nhn vo mt si tc di mt ci knh lp, bn c th thy n c mt dy, nhng di mt thng, n ging nh mt ng ch c di m khng c cc chiu khc. Khng thi gian c th tng t nh th: trn nc thang kch thc con ngi, nguyn t hoc thm ch ht nhn, khng thi gian ging nh l c bn chiu v gn nh phng. Mt khc nu chng ta d ti cc khong cch rt ngn s dng cc ht nng lng cc cao, chng ta c th thy khng thi gian l mi hoc mi mt chiu.
Trang 178
G I
M N G
Khi my d c nng lng cao, chng c th tit l khng thi gian l a chiu
(Hnh 7.6) Di mt thng th mt si tc ging nh mt ng vi mt chiu. Tng t nh th, vi chng ta, khng thi gian c v nh l bn chiu nhng chng s l mi hay mi mt chiu khi d bng cc ht nng lng rt cao.
Trang 179
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 7.7) TH GII MNG Lc in b gii hn trn mng v n s suy gim vi mt tc va phi cc in t c cc qu o n nh xung quanh ht nhn ca cc nguyn t.
Nu cc chiu b sung ny rt nh th rt kh c th quan st c chng. Tuy vy, gn y c gi rng c mt hoc nhiu hn mt chiu c th kh ln hoc thm ch l v hn. tng ny l mt li th rt ln (ch t l i vi mt ngi theo ch ngha thc chng nh ti) l n c th c kim nghim bng th h tip theo ca cc my gia tc ht hoc bng cc php o lc hp dn tm ngn rt nhy. Cc php o nh vy c th tha mn c l thuyt hoc l khng nh bng thc nghim s tn ti ca cc chiu khc. Cc chiu b sung ln l mt bc pht trin mi th v trong nghin cu ca chng ta v m hnh hay l thuyt cui cng. Cc chiu ng rng chng ta ang sng trong mt th gii mng (brane world), mt mt phng hay mt mng bn chiu trong mt khng thi gian c s chiu nhiu hn th. Vt cht v cc lc phi hp dn nh l lc in t b gii hn trn mng ny. Do , tt c ngoi tr hp dn hnh x nh l chng
Trang 180
G I
M N G
trong bn chiu. c bit l lc in gia ht nhn ca nguyn t v in t quay xung quanh n s gim nhanh theo khong cch vi mt tc va phi cc nguyn t n nh khng cho in t ri vo ht nhn (hnh 7.7). iu ny ph hp vi nguyn l v nhn l v tr cn phi ph hp cho sinh vt c tr tu: nu nguyn t khng n nh th chng ta khng th y quan st v tr v hi ti sao n li th hin bn chiu. Mt khc, hp dn trong hnh dng khng thi gian cong s thm vo ton b khng thi gian vi nhiu chiu hn. iu ny c ngha l hp dn s hnh x khc hn vi cc lc khc m chng ta tri nghim: v hp dn c th lan truyn theo cc chiu b sung nn n s suy gim theo khong cch nhanh hn l ta trng i (hnh 7.8). Nu s suy gim nhanh ca lc hp dn m rng n khong cch
(Hnh 7.8) Hp dn tri rng theo cc chiu b sung v c tc ng dc trn mng v s suy gim theo khong cch nhanh hn l s suy gim khi hp dn trong khng thi gian c bn chiu.
Trang 181
T R
T R O N G
(a)
(b)
(Hnh 7.9) Lc hp dn suy gim theo khong cch nhanh hn th qu o ca cc hnh tinh s bt n nh. Cc hnh tinh hoc l s ri vo mt tri (a) hoc l s thot khi sc ht ca mt tri (b).
v tr th chng ta s thy cc hiu ng ca n trn qu o ca cc hnh tinh. Thc ra cc qu o s khng bn v nh nhn xt chng 3: cc hnh tinh hoc l s ri vo mt tri hoc l s thot vo khong khng ti tm lnh lo gia cc v sao (hnh 7.9). Tuy nhin iu ny s khng xy ra nu cc chiu b sung kt thc trn mt mng khc khng qu xa mng m chng ta ang sng. Th th vi cc khong cch ln hn khong cch gia cc mng th hp dn khng th lan truyn mt cch t do m thc s b gii hn vo mt phng ging nh lc in v suy gim vi mt tc va phi cc hnh tinh quay quanh mt tri (hnh 7.10). Mt khc, i vi cc khong cch nh hn khong cch gia cc mng, hp dn suy gim nhanh hn rt nhiu. Lc hp dn rt nh gia cc vt nng c o mt cch chnh xc trong phng th
Trang 182
G I
M N G
Cc chiu b sung (Hnh 7.10) Mt mng th hai gn th gii mng s lm cho lc hp dn khng lan xa theo cc chiu b sung, iu c ngha l ti cc khong cch ln hn khong cc mng, lc hp dn s suy gim vi mt tc m ta mong i cho trng hp bn chiu.
Trang 183
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 7.11) TH NGHIM CAVENDISH Mt chm laser (e) xc nh bt k s xon ca cnh tay n (b) v n c chiu ln mn hnh o (f). Hai qu cu ch nh (a) gn vo hai bn cnh tay n (b). Trn cnh tay n c mt ci gng nh (c) v cnh tay n c treo t do bng mt si dy xon (d). Hai qu cu ch ln (g) gn vi nhau bng mt thanh cn bng c th quay c v chng c t gn hai qu cu ch nh. Khi hai qu cu ch ln quay ti v tr i din th cnh tay n (b) s thit lp mt v tr mi.
nghim nhng cho n nay cc thc nghim vn cha quan st c cc hiu ng ca cc mng phn cch nhau mt khong nh hn mt vi mili mt (hnh 7.11). Trong cc mng v tr ny, chng ta ang sng trn mt mng nhng c l l c mt mng bng (shadow) khc gn mng ca chng ta. V nh sng b gii hn trn cc mng v khng th lan truyn xuyn qua khong cch gia chng nn chng ta khng th nhn thy v tr bng . Nhng chng ta c th cm thy nh hng hp dn ca vt cht ln mng bng. Trong mng ca chng ta, ta thy cc lc hp dn nh th c to ra bi cc ngun thc s ti m ch c mt cch duy nht bit c n l thng qua hp dn ca chng (hnh 7.12). Thc ra gii thch tc quay ca cc v sao xung quanh tm ca di ngn h th xem ra cn phi c mt lng vt cht nhiu hn vt cht m chng ta quan st thy.
Trang 184
G I
M N G
(Hnh 7.12) Trong kch bn th gii mng, cc hnh tinh c th quay xung quanh mt khi lng ti trn mng bng v lc hp dn lan theo cc chiu b sung.
Trang 185
T R
T R O N G
BNG CHNG V VT CHT TI t nhiu cc quan st v tr khc nhau gi rng, trong thin h ca chng ta v trong cc thin h khc, vt cht nhiu hn chng ta nhn thy rt nhiu. Quan st thuyt phc nht l cc ngi sao ngoi ra cc thin h xoy c nh Ngn h ca chng ta quay qu nhanh, nu ch nhng ngi sao m chng ta nhn thy th khng th gi chng trn cc qu o c (xem hnh bn). T nhng nm 1970, chng ta thy c mt s chnh lch gia vn tc quay ca cc ngi sao vng ra ca cc thin h hnh xoy c (biu din bng cc ng chm trn gin ) v vn tc quay theo cc nh lut chuyn ng ca Newton vi s phn b ca cc ngi sao kh kin trong thin h (ng cong lin nt trn gin ). S chnh lch ny cho thy cn phi c nhiu vt cht hn cc vng bin ca cc thin h xoy c.
THIN H XOY C NGC 3198 ALBADA & SANCISI 1986 NGC 3198 VN TC QUAY (KM/S)
Bn knh (kpc)
Trang 186
G I
M N G
BN CHT CA VT CHT TI Ngy nay, cc nh v tr hc tin rng phn tm ca cc thin h xoy c ch yu gm vt cht thng, nhng phn bin ca chng li ch yu gm vt cht ti m chng ta khng th nhn chng mt cch trc tip. Nhng mt trong nhng vn quan trng nht l tm ra bn cht ca vt cht ti thng tr vng bin ca cc thin h. Trc nhng nm 1980, ngi ta cho rng vt cht ti ny cng l vt cht thng to thnh t proton, neutron v in t nhng dng khng th quan st c: c th l cc m my kh, hoc cc vt th c c nng
khng pht sng MACHO (massive compact halo object) nh l cc sao ln trng, sao neutron, hoc thm ch l cc h en. Tuy nhin, cc nghin cu gn y v s hnh thnh cc thin h lm cho cc nh v tr hc tin rng mt phn ng k ca vt cht ti cn phi dng khc vt cht thng. C th xut hin t khi lng ca cc ht rt nh nh l cc ht axion hoc neutrino. Chng cn c th gm cc thc th k l hn nh l cc ht nng tng tc yu WIMP (weakly interacting massive particle) tin on t cc l thuyt ht c bn hin i, nhng ta vn cha thu c t thc nghim.
Trang 187
T R
T R O N G
Th gii vi chiu b sung ca con ngi khng th nm gia cc mng. (Hnh 7.13) C th chng ta khng nhn thy thin h bng trn mt mng bng v nh sng khng th truyn theo cc chiu b sung. Nhng lc hp dn th c th lan theo cc chiu , do , qu trnh quay ca thin h chng ta c th b nh hng bi vt cht ti m ta khng nhn thy c. Trang 188
Khi lng thiu ht c th l do c mt s loi ht k l trong th gii ca chng ta nh l cc ht nng tng tc yu (weakly interacting massive particles WIMP) hoc l cc ht axion (mt loi ht c bn rt nh). Nhng khi lng thiu ht ny c th l bng chng v s tn ti ca v tr bng vi vt cht trong . C th trong v tr c loi ngi cn ngh bn khon v khi lng dng nh b thiu ht trong v tr ca h gii thch qu o ca cc ngi sao bng xung quanh tm ca thin h bng (hnh 7.13).
G I
M N G
n tuyn ca th gii mng ca chng ta
Thay cho vic cc chiu b sung kt thc trn mt mng th hai, mt kh nng khc l cc chiu l v hn nhng b un rt cong nh mt ci yn nga (hnh 7.14). Lisa Randall v Raman Sundrum chng minh rng kiu cong th ny s hot ng kh ging mt mng th hai: nh hng hp dn ca mt vt th trn mng b gii hn trong mt ln cn nh ca mng v khng lan truyn n v tn theo cc chiu b sung. Trong m hnh mng bng, trng hp dn suy gim theo khong cch kh ln gii thch qu o ca cc hnh tinh v cc th nghim lc hp dn trong phng th nghim, nhng lc hp dn li thay i nhanh hn ti cc khong cch ngn. Tuy nhin, c mt s khc bit quan trng gia m hnh RandallSundrum v m hnh mng bng. Cc vt th chuyn ng di nh hng ca lc hp dn s to ra mt sng hp dn, nhng gn sng ca cong lan truyn trong khng thi gian vi tc nh sng.
(Hnh 7.14) Trong m hnh Randall-Sundrum, ch c mt mng (th hin trong hnh ch vi mt chiu). Cc chiu b sung m rng n v hn nhng chng b un cong nh mt chic yn nga. cong ny lm cho trng hp dn ca vt cht trn mng khng lan xa theo cc chiu b sung.
Trang 189
T R
T R O N G
Hai sao neutron ang tin li gn nhau theo hnh xoy c S THAY I CA CHU K QUAY CA PSR 1913+16 T NM 1975
th ca pulsar i PSR 1913+16 t nm 1975 PSR1913+16. y l mt h gm hai ngi sao neutron quay xung quanh nhau vi khong cch ga chng ch bng ng knh ca mt tri. Theo thuyt tng i rng, chuyn ng nhanh c ngha l chu k quay ca h ny s gim nhanh hn rt nhiu v phi pht ra sng hp dn rt mnh. S thay i tin on t thuyt tng i rng ph hp tuyt vi vi cc quan st rt cn thn ca Hulse v Taylor v cc thng s chuyn ng. Cc thng s ny cho thy t nm 1975 chu k quay gim i 10 giy. Nm 1993, h t gii Nobel vt l v vic khng nh thuyt tng i.
CHM SAO PULSAR I Thuyt tng i rng tin on rng cc vt th nng chuyn ng di nh hng ca trng hp dn s pht ra cc sng hp dn. Ging nh sng nh sng, cc sng hp dn cng mang nng lng khi vt th pht ra chng. Nhng tc mt nng lng rt yu v rt kh quan st. V d, vic pht ra sng hp dn s lm cho tri t dn dn ri vo mt tri theo hnh xoy c, nhng qu trnh phi mt n 1027 nm. Nhng vo nm 1975, Russell Hulse v Joseph Taylor pht hin ra chm sao pulsar i
Trang 190
G I
M N G
Ging nh sng in t nh sng, sng hp dn cng mang nng lng, mt tin on c khng nh bng cc quan st t chm pulsar i PRS1913+16. Nu thc s chng ta ang sng trn mt mng trong mt khng gian c cc chiu b sung th cc sng hp dn c to bi cc vt th chuyn ng trn mng s truyn sang cc chiu khc. Nu c mt mng bng th hai th cc sng hp dn c th b phn x tr li v b by gia hai mng. Mt khc nu ch c mt mng n nht v cc chiu b sung tri di mi mi nh trong m hnh RandallSundrum th sng hp dn c th cng thot i v mang nng lng i khi mng v tr ca chng ta (hnh 7.15).
(Hnh 7.15) Trong m hnh Randall-Sundrum, cc sng hp dn bc sng ngn c th mang nng lng ra khi ngun pht nm trn mng lm cho nh lut bo ton nng lng b vi phm.
Trang 191
T R
T R O N G
iu ny c v vi phm mt trong nhng nguyn l cn bn ca vt l: nh lut bo ton nng lng. Tng nng lng lun lun khng i. Tuy nhin s vi phm ch xut hin v tm nhn ca chng ta v ci ang xy ra b gii hn vo mng. Mt thin thn c th nhn thy cc chiu b sung v c th bit nng lng vn khng i m ch lan truyn i ra xa m thi. Cc sng hp dn to bi hai ngi sao quay quanh nhau c bc sng di hn rt nhiu ng knh ca cong hnh yn nga trong cc chiu b sung. iu ny c ngha l cc sng hp dn c chiu hng b giam trong mt ln cn nh ca mng ging lc hp dn v khng th lan truyn ra xa vo cc chiu b sung hoc khng th mang nng lng ra khi mng. Mt khc, cc sng hp dn c bc sng ngn hn ln m cc chiu b sung b cun li s d dng thot ra khi ln cn ca mng. Ngun duy nht c th pht ra mt lng ng k cc sng hp dn c bc sng ngn c th l cc h en. Mt h en trn mng s ko di n mt h en theo cc chiu khc. Nu h en nh th n gn nh c hnh trn; tc l n vn ti nhng khong cch trong cc chiu b sung bng kch thc ca n trn mng. Mt khc, mt h en ln trn mng s ko di thnh mt chic bnh dt, tc l n b gii hn trong mt ln cn ca mng v chiu dy (theo cc chiu b sung) nh hn rt nhiu so vi chiu rng (trn mng) (hnh 7.16). Nh gii thch trong chng 4, thuyt lng t ni rng cc h en khng phi l hon ton en: chng s pht ra tt c cc loi ht v bc x ging nh cc vt nng. Cc ht cc nh sng ta bc x (radiation-like light) s c pht ra dc theo mng v vt cht v cc lc phi hp dn nh l lc in t s b gii hn trong mng. Tuy nhin, cc h en cn pht ra sng hp dn. Cc sng ny khng b gii hn trong mng m cn c th lan truyn theo cc chiu b sung na. Nu h en m ln v c dng chic bnh dt, cc sng hp dn s gn mng. iu ny c ngha l cc h en s mt nng lng (v do mt c khi lng do phng trnh E=mc2) vi mt tc cn thit trong khng thi gian bn chiu. Vy nn cc h en s bay hi chm chp v gim kch thc cho n khi nh hn bn knh ca cong ca cc chiu b sung hnh
Trang 192
G I
M N G
(Hnh 7.16)
yn nga. Ti thi im ny cc sng hp dn thot ra t h en bt u t do thot vo cc chiu b sung. i vi mt ngi trn mng th cc h en hay l cc ngi sao ti nh Michell gi (xem chng 4) s pht ra cc bc x ti, cc bc x ny khng th quan st trc tip t mng nhng s tn ti ca n c th c suy ra t vic cc h en mt i khi lng.
Mt h en trong v tr ca chng ta nm trn mng s m rng theo cc chiu b sung. Nu h en nh th n gn nh c dng hnh trn, nhng h en ln hn trn mng s n ra thnh mt h en c hnh chic bnh trong cc chiu b sung. Trang 193
T R
T R O N G
(Hnh 7.17) S hnh thnh th gii mng c th ging nh s hnh thnh cc bt kh trong nc si. Trang 194
G I
M N G
iu c ngha l s bng pht bc x cui cng t cc h en ang bay hi s km mnh m. iu ny c th gii thch ti sao chng ta khng quan st thy cc t bng pht ca cc tia gamma m c th m t cc h en ang cht mc d c mt li gii thch khc d hiu hn l khng c nhiu cc h en vi khi lng thp bay hi ht trong mt thi gian bng tui ca v tr cho n gi. Bc x t cc h en trn mng v tr xut pht t cc thng ging lng t ca cc ht nm trn v khng phi nm trn mt mng m nhiu mng, ging nh tt c cc th khc trong v tr u phi chu cc thng ging lng t. iu ny c th lm cho cc mng xut hin v bin mt mt cch t pht. S hnh thnh lng t ca cc mng hi ging s hnh thnh cc bt kh trong nc si. Nc dng lng bao gm hng t t phn t H2O b gi li vi nhau bng cc tng tc gia cc phn t gn nhau nht. Khi nc b un nng, cc phn t chuyn ng nhanh hn v b m vo nhau. Thng th cc va chm ny lm cho cc phn t c vn tc cao n mc mt nhm cc phn t c th thot khi lc lin kt gia chng v hnh thnh cc bt kh trong nc. Cc bt ny s to ln hay nh i mt cch ngu nhin khi c thm cc phn t cht lng tham gia vo bt kh hoc ngc li. Phn ln cc bt kh nh s b ph v vo cht lng nhng mt s bt kh pht trin ti mt kch thc ti hn nht nh m nu ln hn n th bt kh s tip tc ln ln. chnh l cc bt kh m ta thy trong nc ang si (hnh 7.17). Cc mng v tr cng tng t nh vy. Nguyn l bt nh cho php cc mng v tr xut hin t chn khng ging nh cc bt kh, b mt ca bt kh tng t nh mng v trong lng bt kh tng t nh cc chiu bc cao hn. Cc mng rt nh c xu hng b bin mt, nhng mt mng m nh cc thng ging lng t pht trin ln hn mt kch thc ti hn nht nh s tip tc pht trin. Nhng ngi ging nh chng ta sng trn mng trn b mt ca bt kh, s ngh rng v tr ang gin n. N ging nh vic v cc thin h ln b mt mt qu bng v thi n ln. Cc thin h s chuyn ng ra xa nhau nhng khng mt thin h no c chn l trung tm ca s gin n. Chng ta hy vng rng s khng c ai dng mt ci kim v tr chc vo bt kh !
Trang 195
T R
T R O N G
Theo gi thuyt khng bin nh m t trong chng 3, th s hnh thnh t pht ca mng v tr c mt lch s trong thi gian o ging nh mt v ht: tc l n l mt hnh cu bn chiu, ging b mt tri t nhng c thm hai chiu na. S khc nhau quan trng l v ht c m t trong chng 3, v c bn l trng rng: hnh cu bn chiu khng l b mt ca ci g khc c v su hoc by chiu ca khng thi gian b sung m thuyt-M tin on b cun li cn nh hn ci v ht. Tuy vy, trn bc tranh v mng v tr mi th ci v ht li b lp y: lch s trong thi gian o ca mng m trn chng ta sng s l mt hnh cu bn chiu, hnh cu bn chiu ny l bin ca bt kh nm chiu vi nm hoc su chiu cn li b cun li rt nh (hnh 7.18). Lch s ca mng trong thi gian o s xc nh lch s ca n trong thi gian thc. Trong thi gian thc, mng gin n theo cch lm pht tng dn nh m t trong chng 3. Mt v ht trn v trn hon ho s l lch s kh d nht ca bt kh trong thi gian o. Tuy nhin, n tng ng vi mt mng gin n mi mi theo cch lm pht trong thi gian thc. Cc thin h s khng c hnh thnh trn cc mng nh th v do cc cuc sng tr tu cng khng th pht trin. Mt khc, cc lch s trong thi gian o khng trn v trn mt cch hon ho c xc xut thp hn nhng li tng ng vi cc tnh cht trong thi gian thc m trong , ban u mng c cc giai on gin n lm pht tng dn nhng sau chm dn. Trong qu trnh chm dn ny, cc thin h gin n c th c hnh thnh v cc sinh vt c tr tu pht trin. Do , theo nguyn l v nhn m t trong chng 3, ch c cc v ht hi sn si mi c cc sinh vt c tr tu ang bn khon v ngun gc ca v tr ti sao li khng trn tru hon ho nhn thy m thi. V mng ang gin n nn th tch ca khng gian ca cc chiu cao hn bn trong tng ln. Thm ch c th c mt bt kh khng l bn cnh mng m chng ta ang sng. Nhng c tht chng ta ang sng trn mt mng hay khng? Da trn tng v nh a chiu m t trong chng 2, thng tin v nhng s kin ang xy ra trong mt vng khng thi gian c th c m ha trn bin ca n. Do
Trang 196
G I
M N G
Hnh cu rng
Hnh cu c
(Hnh 7.18) Bc tranh th gii mng ca ngun gc v tr khc vi bc tranh trong chng 3, bi v, hnh cu hay v ht bn chiu hi b dt khng cn trng rng na m b lp y bi mt chiu th nm.
Trang 197
T R
T R O N G
NH A CHIU nh a chiu gii m thng tin trong mt vng khng gian ln mt b mt m b mt ny c t hn vng khng gian mt chiu. y dng nh l mt tnh cht ca lc hp dn v din tch ca chn tri s kin o s cc trng thi ni ca h en. Trong m hnh th gii mng, nh a chiu c th l mt s tng ng mtmt gia cc trng thi trong mt th gii bn chiu v cc trng thi trong mt th gii c nhiu chiu hn. Trn quan im thc chng, ta khng phn bit c m hnh no c bn hn.
, chng ta c th ngh rng chng ta ang sng trn mt th gii bn chiu v chng ta l ci bng in ln mng nh nhng s kin ang xy ra trong lng mt bt kh. Tuy nhin, trn quan im thc chng, ta khng th hi: thc ti l g, l mng hay bt kh? C hai khi nim ch l cc m hnh ton hc m t nhng iu m chng ta quan st. Chng ta hon ton t do s dng m hnh tin li nht. Ci g bn ngoi mng? C mt vi kh nng c th xy ra (hnh 7.19):
Trang 198
G I
M N G
1. C th chng c g bn ngoi c. Mc d bt kh c nc xung quanh, nhng ch l mt s mng tng gip chng ta hnh dung v ngun gc ca v tr. Ta c th tng tng mt m hnh ton hc ch c mt ci mng v mt khong khng gian nhiu chiu hn bn trong nhng hon ton khng c g bn ngoi n c, ngay c chn khng. Ta c th tnh c nhng iu m m hnh ton hc tin on m khng cn phi m ch n nhng th bn ngoi. 2. Ta cng c th c mt m hnh ton hc m bn ngoi ca bt kh c rt nhiu bt kh tng t. M hnh ny thc s tng ng v mt ton hc vi kh nng v chng c g ngoi bt kh c tho lun trong phn trn nhng c mt s khc nhau v tm l: con ngi cm thy hnh phc hn khi thy mnh l trung tm ca khng thi gian hn l trn ra ca n; nhng i vi mt nh thc chng th kh nng 1 v 2 l tng ng. 3. Bt kh c th gin n vo khng gian, m khng gian ny khng phi l mt hnh nh th yu ca cc s kin bn trong bt kh. Kh nng ny khc hai kh nng trn v n ging trng hp nc si hn. Cc bt khc c th c hnh thnh v gin n. Nu chng va chm v kt hp vi bt kh m chng ta ang sng th kt qu rt th thm. C gi thuyt ni rng bn thn v n ln c th c to ra khi cc mng va chm vi nhau. M hnh mng v tr nh th ang l cc im nng trong nghin cu. Chng mang tnh t bin rt cao nhng chng li i hi cc loi tnh cht mi cn c kim tra bng thc nghim. Chng c th gii thch ti sao hp dn c v yu n th. Hp dn c th kh mnh trong l thuyt c bn nhng s lan truyn ca lc hp dn ra cc chiu b sung, c ngha l n s yu ti cc khong cch ln trn mng m chng ta ang sng. Mt h qu ca iu ny chnh l di Plank, khong cch nh nht m chng ta c th d c m khng cn to ra mt h en, ln hn kh nhiu gi tr m n cn c t yu ca hp dn trong mng bn chiu ca chng ta. Con bp b Nga nh nht ny rt cuc s khng qu nh v c th nm trong tm vi ca cc my gia tc ht trong tng lai. Trn thc t, chng ta c th pht hin ra
(Hnh 7.19)
1. Mt mng/bt kh vi mt khng thi gian nhiu chiu hn v xung quanh n khng c g khc. Ging nhau
2. Mt kh nng l bn ngoi mt mng/bt kh c s lin quan n bt kh khc.
3. Mt mng/bt kh gin n trong khng gian m khng gian ny khng phi l nh gng ca nhng g xy ra trong lng n. Cc bt kh khc c th hnh thnh v gin n theo mt kch bn nh th. Trang 199
T R
T R O N G
B phn s c xy dng B phn c xy dng (Hnh 7.20) S ng ng LEP cho thy h tng ang c v cu trc tng lai ca My va chm ln Geneva, Thy S.
con bp b nh nht ri, di Plank c bn, nu Hoa K khng chu mt t suy thoi nm 1994 v hy b SSC (my siu va chm siu dn Superconducting Super Collider) mc d n c xy mt na ri. Cc my gia tc ht khc nh l LHC (my va chm hadron ln Large Hadron Collider) ti Geneva ang c xy dng. Vi cc my ny cng vi cc quan st khc nh l bc x phng vi sng, chng ta c th xc nh l chng ta ang sng trn mt ci mng hay khng. Nu ng l chng ta ang sng trn mt mng th c l nguyn l v nhn chn cc m hnh mng t mt vn bch th gm v vn cc v tr c th xy ra trong thuytM. Chng ta c th din t cho Miranda trong v The Tempest ca Shakespeare: i mt th gii mng mi Sao c nhiu sinh vt nh th n vy (Nguyn vn: O Brane new world That has such creatures int. Tc gi nhi li cu ni ca Miranda: i mt th gii mi dng cm Sao c nhiu ngi nh th n vy O brave new world That has such people int.)
chnh l v tr trong mt v ht.
Trang 200
G I
M N G
Trang 201
T R
T R O N G
T H U T NG
DN: axt Deoxyribonucleic bao gm phosphate, mt ng v bn ba-z: adenine, guanine, thymine v cytosine. Hai nhnh ADN to nn cu trc hnh xon kp lin kt vi nhau ging nh cu thang xon. ADN m ha tt c cc thng tin m cc t bo cn ti to v ng vai tr sng cn trong di tuyn.
A B
vng quc ca cc ht rt nh nh nguyn t, proton, c pht trin t nguyn l lng t ca Plank v nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg.
y ng: mt vng dy.
o ton nng lng: nh lut khoa hc pht biu rng nng lng (hoc i lng tng ng ca n l khi lng) khng th t nhin sinh ra hoc mt i. Bin : cao cc i ca nh mt sng hay su cc i ca mt hm sng. Boson: ht hoc kiu dao ng dy c spin l mt s nguyn. Bc x phng vi sng: bc x t v tr s khai nng bng, do dch chuyn m ngy nay n xut hin khng phi di dng nh sng m di dng vi sng (sng v tuyn c bc sng c vi vi cm). Bc x: nng lng c truyn bi sng hoc ht trong khng gian hoc mi trng no . Bc sng: khong cch gia hai nh hoc hm sng lin tip.
Dy v tr: mt vt th nng, di c tit din rt nh c th c to ra trong cc thi k s khai ca v tr. Ngy nay, mt dy c th tri di ton b v tr. Dy: vt th mt chiu c bn trong l thuyt dy m c th lm thay i khi nim v ht c bn khng c cu trc. Cc kiu dao ng khc nhau ca dy s to ra cc ht c bn vi cc tnh cht khc nhau. Dch chuyn : bc x pht ra t cc vt th chuyn ng ra xa khi ngi quan st s hn, gy bi hiu ng Doppler. Dch chuyn xanh: s co li ca bc sng ca bc x pht ra t mt vt th ang chuyn ng v pha ngi quan st, gy ra bi hiu ng Doppler.
hn tri s kin: bin ca h en, bin ca vng khng gian ngn cch vt cht thot ra v hn. Chiu khng gian: bt k chiu no trong ba chiu khng gian. Chu trnh thi gian: tn khc ca vng thi gian ng. C hc lng t: cc nh lut vt l iu khin
Trang 202
im k d trn tri: mt im k d ca khng thi gian, khng b bao bi mt h en, kh kin i vi ngi quan st t xa. im k d: mt im trong khng thi gian m ti cong ca khng thi gian l v hn. in tch: tnh cht ca mt ht m nh ht c th y (hoc ht) cc ht khc c in tch cng (hoc tri) du. in t: ht c in tch m, quay xung quanh ht nhn nguyn t. iu kin ban u: trng thi ca mt h vt l ti
H U
N G
thi im ban u. iu kin bin: trng thi ban u ca mt h vt l, hay ni mt cch khi qut hn l trng thi ca h ti bin trong thi gian v khng gian. iu kin khng bin: tng cho rng v tr l hu hn nhng khng c bin trong thi gian o. nh lut chuyn ng ca Newton: nh lut m t chuyn ng ca cc vt th da trn khi nim khng thi gian tuyt i. Cc nh lut ny thng tr cho n khi Einstein a ra thuyt tng i. nh lut Moore: nh lut pht biu rng tc ca cc my tnh s tng gp i c sau mi tm thng. iu ny r rng khng th tip tc mi mi c. nh lut th hai ca nhit ng hc: nh lut pht biu rng entropy (ca mt h kn ND) lun tng v khng th gim. nh l im k d: nh l chng minh rng vi mt s iu kin nht nh th s tn ti mt im k d m ti thuyt tng i rng khng cn ng, v rng v tr cn phi bt u t mt im k d. di Plank: di khong 10 cm. Kch thc ca dy c trng trong l thuyt dy.
-35
nh lut vt l ngn cn khng cho cc vt th v m du hnh thi gian. Gia tc: s thay i vn tc ca vt th. Gin n thi gian: c im ca thuyt tng i rng tin on rng dng thi gian s chy chm i vi ngi quan st chuyn ng hoc di tc dng ca trng hp dn mnh. Giy nh sng: khong cch m nh sng i c trong mt giy.
m sng: mt khi nim c bn trong c hc lng t; mt con s ti mi im trong khng gian c lin quan n mt ht, xc nh xc sut m ht c th c tm thy ti mt v tr. Hng s Plank: hn tng ca nguyn l bt nh tch gia bt nh v v tr v vn tc cn phi ln hn hng s Plank. Biu din bng k hiu . Hng s v tr: mt cng c ton hc c Einstein s dng gn cho v tr c xu hng gin n, cho php thuyt tng i rng tin on mt v tr tnh. Hp dn lng t: l thuyt kt hp c hc lng t vi thuyt tng i rng. Ht o: trong c hc lng t, mt ht o l mt ht m ta khng bao gi c th o c trc tip nhng s tn ti ca n gy ra nhng hiu ng c th o c. Xem thm hiu ng Casimir. Ht c bn: ht c coi l khng th phn chia c na. Ht nhn: phn tm ca mt nguyn t, ch bao gm proton v neutron lin kt vi nhau bng lc ht nhn mnh. Hiu ng Casimir: p lc ht gia hai tm kim loi phng, song song c t gn nhau trong chn khng. p sut xut hin l do s cc ht o
Trang 203
ntropy: php o mt trt t ca mt h vt l, s cc cu hnh vi m khc nhau ca h m lm cho hnh thc v m ca h khng thay i. -te: mi trng phi vt cht tng c cho l lp y ton b khng gian. tng v mi trng nh th cn thit cho sng in t c th lan truyn i c, nay khng cn ng na.
F G
ermion: mt ht hoc mt kiu dao ng dy c spin l mt s bn nguyn. i nh bo ton lch s (Chronology protection conjecture): gi nh cho rng cc
T R
T R O N G
gia hai tm kim loi nh hn bn ngoi. Hiu ng Doppler: s dch chuyn tn s v bc sng ca cc sng m hoc sng nh sng m ngi quan st thu c khi ngun pht chuyn ng tng i vi ngi quan st. Hiu ng quang in: hiu ng pht in t khi nh sng p vo cc kim loi. H en nguyn thy: mt h en hnh thnh t giai on s khai ca v tr. H en: mt vng khng thi gian c trng hp dn qu mnh n ni ngay c nh sng cng khng th thot ra c. H giun: mt ng ng rt nh trong khng thi gian kt ni cc vng xa nhau ca v tr. Cc h giun cng c th kt ni cc v tr song song v c th to ra kh nng du hnh thi gian.
mnh nht v c tm tc dng ngn nht trong bn lc c bn. N gi cc quark li vi nhau to nn proton v neutron, v cc ht ny n lt n li cng nhau lm nn ht nhn nguyn t. Lc tng tc yu (lc ht nhn yu): lc yu th hai trong bn lc c bn c tm tc dng rt ngn. N tc dng ti tt c cc ht vt cht nhng khng tc dng ln cc ht truyn tng tc. Lng tnh sng/ht: khi nim trong c hc lng t cho rng khng c s khc bit gia cc sng v cc ht; cc ht c th hnh x ging nh cc sng v ngc li. Lng t: n v khng th phn chia m cc sng c th hp th hoc pht x. L thuyt nh a chiu: l thuyt cho rng cc trng thi lng t ca mt h trong mt vng khng thi gian c th c m ha trn bin ca vng . L thuyt c in: mt l thuyt da trn cc khi nim c thit lp trc c hc tng i v c hc lng t. L thuyt gi thit rng cc vt th c v tr v vn tc hon ton xc nh. iu ny khng ng cc nc thang rt nh v nguyn l bt nh s pht huy tc dng. L thuyt dy: l thuyt vt l cho rng cc ht c th c m t nh l cc sng trn cc dy; thng nht c hc lng t v tng i rng. Cn c bit l thuyt siu dy. L thuyt thng nht ln: l thuyt thng nht lc in t, lc tng tc yu v lc tng tc mnh. L thuyt thng nht: bt k l thuyt no m t tt c bn lc v tt c vt cht trong mt m hnh duy nht. L thuyt tng i hp: l thuyt ca Einstein da trn tng cho rng cc nh lut khoa hc
envin: thang nhit tuyt i.
Khi lng: l mt thuc tnh ca vt th, l qun tnh hoc cn tr gia tc trong khng gian t do. Khng gian t do: vng khng gian khng c trng no, tc l, khng chu tc dng ca lc no. Khng thi gian: khng gian bn chiu m cc im ca n l cc s kin.
m pht: mt thi k ngn gin n gia tc, trong , v tr thi k rt s khai gia tng kch thc vi mt tc cha tng c. Lc in t: lc xut hin gia cc ht c in tch cng (hoc tri) du. Lc hp dn: lc yu nht trong bn loi lc c bn ca t nhin. Lc tng tc mnh (lc ht nhn mnh): lc
Trang 204
H U
N G
cn phi nh nhau i vi tt c cc ngi quan st khng ph thuc vo cch h chuyn ng khi khng c trng hp dn. L thuyt tng i rng: l thuyt ca Einstein da trn tng cho rng cc nh lut khoa hc xy ra nh nhau i vi tt c cc ngi quan st, khng ph thuc vo cch m h chuyn ng. L thuyt gii thch lc hp dn trn c s v cong ca khng thi gian bn chiu. L thuyt vn vt hp dn ca Newton: l thuyt cho rng lc ht gia hai vt th ch ph thuc vo khi lng ca cc vt th v khong cch gia chng; lc ht t l vi tch ca khi lng v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch. L thuyt Yang-Mills: l thuyt m rng ca l thuyt trng Maxwell m t lc tng tc yu v lc tng tc mnh. L thuyt-M: l thuyt thng nht nm l thuyt dy cng nh l thuyt siu hp dn thnh mt m hnh l thuyt n nht nhng ngi ta vn cha hiu ht l thuyt ny.
M hnh Randall-Sundrum: l thuyt cho rng mt mng trong khng gian nm chiu v hn ca cc cong m, ging nh hnh yn nga.
m nh sng: khong cch m nh sng i c trong mt nm.
Nng lng chn khng: nng lng c mt ngay c trong chn khng trng rng. N c tnh cht rt k l l, khng ging nh s c mt ca khi lng, s c mt ca nng lng chn khng s lm cho v tr gin n v tng tc. Neutrino: cc ht nh b ch chu tc dng ca lc tng tc yu. Neutron: mt ht tng t ht proton nhng khng mang in, chim gn mt na khi lng ht nhn. N c to thnh t ba quark (hai nghch v mt thun). Ngi quan st: mt ngi hoc mt dng c quan st o cc tnh cht vt l ca h. Nguyn l bt nh: Nguyn l c Heisenberg a ra, pht biu rng ngi ta khng bao gi c th xc nh chnh xc c v tr v vn tc ca ht. Nu ta bit chnh xc mt i lng ny th ta s bit km chnh xc mt i lng kia. Nguyn l loi tr: nguyn l cho rng cc ht c spin bng -1/2 khng th c (trong gii hn nguyn l bt nh) cng v tr v vn tc. Nguyn l lng t Plank: nguyn l cho rng cc sng in t (tc l nh sng) ch c th pht x hay hp th mt lng gin on gi l lng t. Nguyn l v nhn: nguyn l cho rng chng ta thy v tr nh n hin hu bi v nu n khc i th chng ta khng th c mt y quan st n. Nguyn t: n v c bn ca vt cht thng, to thnh t mt ht nhn nh b (gm proton v
Trang 205
ng: mt thc th c coi l mt thnh phn c bn ca thuyt-M, c th c nhiu chiu. Ni chung, mt mng-p c chiu di theo p chiu, mng-1 l mt dy, mng-2 l mt mt, Mng-p: mt mng c p chiu. Xem thm mng. My gia tc ht: mt ci my c th gia tc cc ht mang in chuyn ng lm tng nng lng chng. M hnh chun trong vt l ht: l thuyt thng nht ba lc phi hp dn v cc hiu ng ca chng ln vt cht. M hnh chun trong v tr hc: l thuyt v n ln cng vi l gii ca m hnh chun trong vt l ht.
T R
T R O N G
neutron) v cc in t quay xung quanh. Nht thc: hin tng mt trng i vo khong gia tri t v mt tri v che mt tri, hin tng ko di vi pht. Nht thc xy ra nm 1919 c th quan st t vng ng Phi chng minh s ng n ca thuyt tng i. Nhit khng tuyt i: nhit thp nht c th, ti vt cht khng c nhit nng; khong -273 C hay 0 K. Nhit ng hc: nghin cu v mi lin h gia nng lng, cng, nhit v entropy trong h vt l ng. Nn nh sng: mt b mt trong khng thi gian vch ra hng kh d cc tia sng i qua mt s kin cho.
nguyn t. Proton to thnh t ba quark (hai thun v mt nghch).
u trnh phng x: qu trnh ph v t pht t mt loi ht nhn nguyn t ny sang loi khc. Quang t (photon): mt lng t nh sng; b sng nh nht ca trng in t. Quark: ht c bn mang in chu tc dng ca lc tng tc mnh. Quark c su mi: thun (up), nghch (down), l (strange), p (charm), di (bottom) v trn (top). Mi mi c th c ba mu: , lc v xanh. Quyt nh lun khoa hc: mt khi nim my mc v v tr ca Laplace, trong , cc thng tin y v trng thi ca v tr hin ti cho php tin on cc thng tin y v trng thi ca v tr trong qu kh v tng lai.
hn ht: mi ht vt cht u c mt phn ht tng ng, khi mt ht va chm vi phn ht ca n th chng s hy ln nhau v ch cn li nng lng m thi. Phn r ht nhn: qu trnh cc ht nhn b phn r thnh cc ht nhn nh hn v gii thot nng lng. Ph: di tn s ca sng. Phn kh kin ca quang ph mt tri i khi l cu vng. Phng php thc chng: phng php cho rng l thuyt khoa hc l mt m hnh ton hc c th m t v gii m cc quan st m chng ta thc hin. Phng trnh Schrodinger: phng trnh iu khin qu trnh tin ha ca cc sng trong thuyt lng t. Positron: phn ht ca in t c in tch dng. Proton: ht mang in tch dng, rt ging neutron, chim gn mt na khi lng ht nhn
Trang 206
iu i xng: nguyn l lin h tnh cht ca cc ht c spin khc nhau.
Siu hp dn: tp hp cc l thuyt thng nht l thuyt tng i rng v siu i xng. S o: mt khi nim ton hc tru tng. Cc s o v s thc c th c coi nh s nh s v tr ca cc im trong mt mt phng, do , cc s o s vung gc vi cc s thc bnh thng. S Grassman: mt lp cc s khng giao hon vi nhau. i vi cc s thc bnh thng, th t ca cc s hng trong php nhn khng quan trng: A*B=C v B*A=C. Tuy nhin s Grassman li phn giao hon nn A*B bng B*A. Sng in t: dao ng kiu sng trong in trng. Tt c cc sng ca ph in t chuyn ng vi vn tc nh sng, tc l nh sng kh kin, tia X, vi sng, hng ngoi, Sng hp dn: dao ng kiu sng trong trng
H U
N G
hp dn. Spin: tnh cht ni ca cc ht c bn c lin quan n (nhng khng ng nht vi) khi nim t quay trong i sng hng ngy. S co Lorentz: s co ngn v chiu di ca vt th theo hng di chuyn khi n chuyn ng, tin on t l thuyt tng i hp. S kin: mt im trong khng thi gian xc nh bi v tr v thi gian ca n.
Trng lc: phng tin cc lc trao i tc ng ca n. Trng Maxwell: tng hp in, t, nh sng vo cc trng ng c th dao ng v lan truyn trong khng gian. Trng: mt ci g tn ti trong sut khng thi gian, ngc li vi mt ht ch c th tn ti ti mt im trong khng thi gian. T trng: trng truyn tng tc t.
n s: ca mt sng l s chu k trong mt giy.
Th gii mng: mt b mt hay mt mng bn chiu trong mt khng thi gian c nhiu chiu hn. Thi gian o: thi gian c o bng cc s o. Thi gian Plank: bng khong 10-43 giy, thi gian nh sng i c mt khong cch bng di Plank. Thi gian tuyt i: khi nim cho rng c mt ng h v tr. Thuyt tng i ca Einstein khng th c khi nim nh th. Tnh i ngu: mt s tng ng gia cc l thuyt hon ton khc nhau dn n cc kt qu vt l nh nhau. Trng thi c bn: trng thi ca mt h c nng lng cc tiu. Trng thi tnh: trng thi khng thay i theo thi gian. Trng lng: lc tc dng ln vt th bng mt trng hp dn. N t l vi (nhng khng phi l) khi lng ca n. Trng hp dn: phng tin lc hp dn trao i tc ng ca n.
n giao thoa: xut hin khi hai hay nhiu sng (pht ra t cc v tr v thi gian khc nhau) ha vo nhau. Vn tc: mt con s biu din tc v hng ca chuyn ng ca vt th. Vt cht ti: vt cht c mt trong cc thin h v cc m, v c th gia cc m m chng ta khng th quan st c nhng chng ta vn ghi nhn c trng hp dn ca n. V m: ln c th nhn bng mt thng; thng l vi khong cch ln hn 0,01 mm. Khong cch nh hn khong cch c coi l vi m. V hn: mt pham vi hay mt con s khng c gii hn hoc khng c kt thc. V co ln: tn ca mt kch bn kh d v s kt thc ca v tr, ti , tt c khng gian v vt cht suy sp v hnh thnh mt im k d. V n ln: k d ti im khi u ca v tr, cch y khong mi lm t nm. V tr hc: khoa hc nghin cu v v tr.
Trang 207
T R
T R O N G
Trang 208

Vũ trụ trong một vỏ hạt (Stephen Hawking)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Vũ trụ trong một vỏ hạt (Stephen Hawking)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vũ trụ trong một vỏ hạt (Stephen Hawking)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

V TR

GII THIU CA VIETSCIENCES

Stephen Hawking nm 2001

C hc lng t Thuyt-M Thuyt tng i rng

Mng 10 chiu Cc siu dy

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Albert Einstein nm 1920

nh sng chuyn ng trong -te

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Tri t quay t ty sang ng

nh sng vung gc vi qu o ca tri t quanh mt tri

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Hnh phi: s th nghim c v li t s c in trn tp ch Scientic American nm 1887.

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Uranium (U-235) Tia gamma

Neutron (n) bn ph ht nhn (U-235) Ht nhn t hp dao ng v bt n nh (Ba-144) Ht nhn t hp dao ng v bt n nh

Neutron lin kt Proton

Neutron (n) c th khi ng mt phn ng dy truyn

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Knh vin vng 100-inch ti i quan st Mount Wilson.

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

3) Thi gian s kt thc trong mt h en.

2) Khi ngi sao co li th cong tng ln

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Ngi dch: da_trch@yahoo.com; http://datrach.blogspot.com

Cc vng nhnh kh c th xy ra hay khng th xy ra?

ng ray xe la chnh chy t qu kh n tng lai

Thi gian c th phn nhnh v quay li c khng?

Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com

Chiu khng gian

Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com

L thuyt v thc nghim trng khp vi nhau

Ti thi im ny, ngi quan st ang nhn v qu kh

Cch thin h cch y nm t nm

Mt vt cht lm cho nn nh sng b b cong

THI GIAN KHNG GIAN Trang 40

Bc sng tn s thp lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht t hn

Bc sng tn s cao lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht nhiu hn

Bc sng dng quan st ht cng di th bt nh v v tr cng ln

Bc sng dng quan st ht cng ngn th bt nh v v tr cng nh

Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com

PHNG TRNH BT NH HEISENBERG

Khng nh hn hng s Plank

Hng dao ng ca con lc

Bc sng l khong cch gia hai nh sng

Hng sng truyn

Hng (Hnh 2.10) CON LC V PHN B XC SUT

Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com

Mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn bn ngoi hai a ln hn bn trong

Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com

360 Ht c spin bng 1

180 Ht c spin bng 2

Ht c spin bng 1/2

Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com