Calculus II

2
.
Richard Feynmann
.
.
Stan Ulam

.
.
,

.

, Mathematica.
Mathematica

. Mathematica ,
.
.
Mathematica .
.
,
ii
.
.
. 17o , .
1637, 1666,
.

.
,
.
. ,
,
.

, . ,
. Tycho Brache
. Kepler
().

Newton. Newton, ,
.
.
, , . ,
;
. .
.
iii

Mathematica .

.
.
. ,
.

20 2008
iv
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . .
1.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
2
4
4
8
16
16
17
20
22
26
Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Plot3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 ContourPlot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . .
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 . .
2.4.2 .
2.5 GraphicsContourPlot3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Graphics ParametricPlot3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 GraphicsShapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
29
30
33
33
36
38
38
41
42
44
46
47
47
48
48
49
ii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 M athematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1
. . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.6
. . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.7 M athematica . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
53
54
60
61
63
65
67
83
84
84
86
87
88
89
90
92
98
. . . . . . . . 99
4.1 . . . . . . . . 99
4.2 . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.8 M athematica . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.8.3 . . . . . . . . . 127
4.8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.8.5 M athematica . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
iii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2 Euler . . . . . . . . 141
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4 T aylor . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.7 . . . . . . . . 155
5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.12 M athematica 180
5.12.1 T aylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.12.2 M athematica . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.2
,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.5.1
R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.5.2 R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.8 M athematica . . . . . . . 215
6.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.8.3 . 217
6.8.4 Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
iv
6.8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.5.1 Langrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.8 Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
A - . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295
10
B - Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
10.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
10.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
10.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
10.1.4 Mathematica . . . 303
10.1.5 Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
10.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
10.2.2 . . . . . . . . 308
10.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.2.4 . . . 310
10.2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
10.2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
10.3.1 . . . . . . . . . 313
10.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
10.3.3 . . . . . . . 317
10.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.6 . . .
10.4.7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.2 . . . . .
10.7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.10.1 Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.10.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.10.4 Evaluate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.11 . . . . . . . . . . .
10.12 .
10.12.1 Parametric Plot . . . . . . . . . .
10.13 GraphicsFilledPlot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.13.1 FilledPlot . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.13.2 FilledListPlot . . . . . . . . . . .
10.14 GraphicsImplicitPlot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
322
322
323
324
325
327
330
329
330
331
331
335
337
338
342
343
343
344
346
347
348
349
351
353
353
356
357
360
361
361
362
364
364
366
366
368
369
vi
10.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
10.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
10.17 GraphicsPolyedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
1.
,

Albert Einstein
1.1
.
,
, ,
.
1
0.5
4
0
-0.5
-1
2
0
-4
-2
-2
0
2
-4
4
1.1. f (x, y) = sin(
x 2 + y 2 ).
,
.
.
, ( . 1.1). ,
,
. .
1.2
, f (x, y)
, ,
Mj (x, y) D R2
(. 1.2). , ,
z = f (x, y) = (1 x2 y 2 )1/2
, D,
x2 + y 2 = 1. , x, y
z
. x, y
z .
y
(x,y)
D
f
x
f(,)
f(x,y)
(,)
1.2. f R2
.
1.2

R2 , f (x, y) .
1.1:
F (x, y) = (x2 + y 2 1)1/2 + log(4 x2 y 2 ).

: F (x, y) x2 + y 2 1 0
4 x2 y 2 > 0.
{(x, y) : x2 + y 2 1, x2 + y 2 < 4}
x2 + y 2 1 x2 + y 2 < 4
1.3.
1.3. ,
x2 + y 2 = 1 F (x, y).
1.2:
G(x, y) = (x2 y 2 )1/2 + (x2 + y 2 1)1/2

: G {(x, y) :
x2 > y 2 , x2 +y 2 > 1}
x2 + y 2 = 1
x = y, x = y ( . 1.4)

:
1.1: f : D
E , , f -
1.4. A, A G.
D Rn E R1
z = f (x1 , x2 , x3 , ...xn ).
n- x1 , ..., xn
z .
1.3
.
(x, y)
P (x, y) , x, y
.
P (x, y) P (x , y )
,
d(P P ) =
(x x )2 + (y y )2 .
(1.1)
,
.
1.3.1
,
. , ( n )
1.3
,
.
(x0 , y0 ).
1.2: M0 (x0 , y0 ) R2
,
M0
(M0 , ) = {(x, y) :
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 6 }.
(M0 , )
M0 ( . 1.5)
(x0,y0 )
1.5. (M0 , ).

|x x0 | 6 |y y0 | 6 ( . 1.6).
(x0,y0 )
1.6. (M0 , ).
,

(x0 , y0 ).
.
, ,
.

.
1.3: D
P ( )
D . (. 1.7)
1.7. . P
r , P .
1.3:
, , ;
: , P
, r (r < 1),
P , (0 < < 1 r)
.
D ,
. P . 1.7, ,
D .
( )
.
1.4: D R2 ,
R2 D -
1.3
D R2 C(D),
C(D) = R2 D.
1.3 C(D) {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 > 1},

.
1.5: ,
.
.
1.6: D , P , P D C(D).
D
D, B(D).
P D ,
P D .
y
C
B
A
1.8. D
.
P D,
P C(D).
D R2
, D
, ( . 1.8).
D
.

R2 (D R2 ) , .
1.4
,
.
R3 :

,
. 17o 18o Descartes, Fermat .. . ,
,
.
Minkofski ,
ds2 = g11 dx21 + g22 dx22 + g33 dx23 + g44 dx24

gii g11 = g22 = g33 = 1
g44 = c2 c . Minkofski .
( )
. g
(, = 1 4)
.
,

.
1. : Ox,
Oy Oz
1.4
ex , ey , ez
. (1.9). P (x, y, z). P (x, y, z) r , 1
r = x
ex + y
ey + z
ez .
z
(x,y,z)
z
y
x
y
(x,y,0)
x
1.9. .
, Oz, Ox 90o Oy.

2. : P (x, y, z) (r, , z)
1.10.

x = r cos , y = r sin ,
z=z
(1.2)
0 < 2 r > 0. (z = 0) .
(1.10)
r 2 = x2 + y 2 , tan =
1
y
.
x
A A
10
1.10. .
er , e , ez
.

er = ex cos + ey sin
e =
ex sin + ey cos
ez = ez .
, ,
.. .

f (x, y, z) = f (x2 + y 2 , z) ,

f (r 2 , z).
3. : P (x, y, z) (, , ) ( 1.11).

x = cos sin , y = sin sin , z = cos .
(1.3)
2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
1.4
11
1.11. .
= cos
= tan1
z
2
2
(x + y + z 2 )1/2
y
x
e , e , e ex , ey , ez .
. 1.11
e = sin cos
ex + sin sin
ey + cos
ez
e =
ex sin + ey cos
e = cos cos
ex + cos sin
ey sin
ez .
1.4: U (x, y, z)
m
U (x, y, z) = p
Gm
x2
+ y2 + z2
m ,
(x, y, z) P (x, y, z) G
.
,
U () =
Gm
,
P .
12
: ,
, .
a
:
a
0 = cos
ex + cos
ey + cos
ez
, , a Ox, Oy Oz . cos , cos cos
a ( . 1.12).
e3
a0
e2
e1
1.12. , .
1.5: m .
.
;
Oxy
r(t) = x(t)
ex + y(t)
ey

1.4
13
dr
= x
ex + y
ey
dt
dv
=x
ex + yey .
=
dt
v=
r = r(t)
er .
1.13. .
( . 1.13)
er (t) = ex cos (t) + ey sin (t)

e (t) =
ex sin (t) + ey cos (t).
= d/dt,
v=
dr
d
er
dr
dr
e .
= er + r
= er + r
dt
dt
dt
dt
dv
d2
= (
r r 2 )er + (2r
+ r 2 )
e .
dt
dt
(r = = )
14
v = r
e
dv
= r 2 er .
=
dt
1.6: : Einstein 1905
. :

, c

.
.
Oxyz
Ox y z (t = 0) .
Ox ( . 1.14)
v.
1.14.
P (x, y, z, t) .

x = x vt
y = y
z = z
t = t
1.4
15
Einstein
.
. Einstein
Lorentz
.
Oxyz Ox y z
x = (x vt)
y = y
z = z
t = x + t

Einstein. c

x2 + y 2 + z 2 c2 t2 = 0
x2 + y 2 + z 2 c2 t2 = 0
x2 + y 2 + z 2 c2 t2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 c2 t2
x2 c2 t2 = x2 c2 t2 .
Lorentz
(2 c2 2 )x2 2(v2 + c2 )xt (c2 2 v 2 a2 )t2 = x2 c2 t2
2 c2 2 = 1
v2 + c2 = 0
c2 2 v 2 2 = c2 .

=q
v/c2
, = q
, 2 = 2
2
2
1 vc2
1 vc2
1
16
Lorentz
x vt
x = q
2
1 vc2
y = y
z = z
t vx/c2
t = q
2
1 vc2
.

,
t1 A(x0 , y0 , z0 , t1 ) t2
Oxyz, O x y z ( )
t = q
t
1
v2
c2

( )
v2
.
c2
1.5 R3

.
1.5.1 R3
R3 (x, y, z)
x(t), y(t), z(t) t
t [a, b].
( R3 )
r(t) = x(t)
ex + y(t)
ey + z(t)
ez
t [a, b], (x(t), y(t), z(t))
. x(t) =
1.5 R3
17
cos t, y(t) = sin t, z(t) = t t [0, 6]

.
1.5.2 R3
G(x, y, z) = 0
.

Ax + By + z + = 0,
A, B, .
.

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + F xz

+ Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0
A, B, ..., J R .
,
Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0 Ax2 + By 2 + Iz = 0.
,

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z z0 )2 = 2 .
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2
-4
1
-2
0
0
2
-1
4 -2
1.15. .
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) .

18
y2
z2
x2
+
+
=1
2 2 2
. 1.15 ,
y2
z
x2
+
=
2
2
( > 0)( . 1.16) (

< 0;).
z
0
y
1.16. ( > 0) .
y2
z
x2
=
2
2
> 0 ( . 1.16). O , Oy O
, Ox . 7
.
0
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1.17. .
1.5 R3
x 2
19
2 2
y
z
=
,
(. 1.17),
y2
z2
x2
+
=1
2 2 2
(. 1.18).
2
1
0
-1
-2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-2
-1
0
1
2
1.18.
x2
y2
+
=1
2 2
y = x2
( . 1.19).
z
0
y
y
x
1.19. .
Mathematica (
2 )
20
.
1.7:
f (x, y, z) = 9x2 16y 2 + 144z = 0
: f (x, y, z)
x y z, f (x, y, z) = 0
.
z
z=
y 2 x2
9
16
1.6

. ,
, .

,
.
.
(xy) f (x, y) k,
k.
1.7: f (x, y)

f (x, y) = z z = k , k
( . 1.20.)

f (x, y). k = nh, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .. h
.
f .
,
1.6
21
z
z= 4
0
y
k= 1
k= 2
k= 3
k= 4
k= 5
k= 6
f(x,y)=k
1.20. f (x, y) = k k.
. ,
.
f (x, y) = ax+ by + c
ax + by = k c, f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + a2
( 1.6). f (x, y) = x2
y 2
( . 1.21).
10
100
50
0
-50
-100
-10
10
5
0
-5
-5
-5
0
5
10-10
-10
-10
-5
10
1.21. f = x2 y 2
(0, 0).
22
. w = f (x, y, z) f (x, y, z) = k.
f (x, y, z) = x2 +y 2 +z 2
x2 +y 2 +z 2 = k
.
1.6:

p
f (x, y) = 9 x2 y 2 k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
:
f (x, y) = k x2 + y 2 = 9 k2 .
k = 0, 1, 2

2
(0, 0) 9 k ( . 1.22).
3
25
0
20
2
15
-1
10
0
-2
-2
0
-2
2
-3
-3
-2
-1
1.22. f = x2 + y 2
(0, 0).
1.7
1.1: :
i) f1 (x, y) = ln(1 x2 y 2 ),
iii) f3 (x, y) = ln(y x).
:
ii) f2 (x, y) =
1
,
1 x2 y 2
1.7
23
(i) , x = r cos , y = r sin ,

f1 (x, y, z) f1 (r) = ln(1 r 2 )
0 r < 1.

r = 1.
(ii) f2
(xy)
r = 1.
(iii) f3 y x > 0
y > x . f3

y = x.
1.2:
f (x, y) =
1
1
+
+ 2.
xy
x+y
y=
0
-x
y=
1.23. (x y)1/2 + (x + y)1/2 + 2.
: f (x, y)
x y > 0 x + y > 0, x > y x > y .

. 1.23 ( x = y x = y ).
1.3
1 z2
p
f (x, y, z) =
.
3 4 x2 y 2
: 1z 2 0 4 x2 y 2 0.
,
24
z 2 1 1 z 1 r 2 4. ,

x2 + y 2 = 4 2.
1.4 f (x, y, z) =
arcsin x + arcsin y + arcsin z .
:
1 x 1,
1 y 1 1 z 1.
(x, y, z) f
x = 1,
y = 1, z = 1.
1.5:
f (x, y) =
|x| + |y| 2.
f ; ;
:
|x| + |y| 2 0,

(2,0), (-2,0), (0,2), (0,-2).
f (x, y) 0 (x, y)
.
1.6: z = cos(x2 + y 2 ),
.
: ,
cos(x2 + y 2 ) 0, 2k /2 x2 + y 2
2k + /2 k = 1, 2,...
p z

/2
[(4k 1)/2]1/2 [(4k + 1)/2]1/2 ,
k = 0, 1, 2,....( . 1.24)
1.7: U (x, y) (x, y)
(xy), , .
Ax2 +By 2
2
x2 y 2 , A, B .
(0, 0).
U=
1.7
25
1.24. z =
cos(x2 + y 2 ).
Ax2 + By 2
x2 y 2 = c
2
(1.4)
c . (0, 0),
x2 y 2 Ax2 By 2 ,
, (1.4) (Ax2 + By 2 ) 2c
,
, (2c/A)1/2 (2c/B)1/2 .
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.4
-0.2
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4 -0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
1.25. 1.8 a =
2, b = 3, c = 1.
1.8:

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 2cz,
a2
b
a, b, c .
: z .
x = 0 y = 0 ,
26
z = p (x2 /(2a2 cp)) + (y 2 /(2b2 cp)) = 1,

p.
1.25.
1.8
1.1: :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
f (x, y) = 3y 2 9x + 5 ln x2 ,
f (x, y, z) = z(x2 + y 2 1)1/2 + ln[z 2 (4 x2 + y 2 )],

f (x, y) = x(1 y)/(y 2 2y + 1),
f (x, y, z) = (x2 + y 2 z)1/2 + ln(z 2 + x2 + y 2 ).
1.2: :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
f (x, y) = x/(y 2 4x),
f (x, y) = [6 (2x + 3y)]1/2 ,
f (x, y) = [x2 + y 2 4] ln (16 x2 y 2 ),
f (x, y) = (x2 y 2 )1/2 + (x2 + y 2 1)1/2 .
1.3: :
f (x, y) = x ln(y 1) + (1 x2 )1/2 .
1.4:
f (x, y) = y/(x2 + y 2 ).
1.5: :
i)
f (x, y) = ln(x + y),
ii)
f (x, y) = arccos(xy),
iii)
f (x, y) = ln(x2 + y),
iv)
f (x, y) = arcsin(x) + (xy)1/2 .
1.6: :
i)
ii)
f (x, y) = ln(a x2 + y 2 ) + (x2 + y 2 b),
f (x, y) = (x2 y 2 )1/2 + (x2 + y 2 )1/2 .
1.8
27
1.7: :
i)
ii)
f (x, y, z) = ln(xyz),
f (x, y, z) = (1 x2 y 2 z 2 )1/2 .
1.8: u = xy
v = x2 y 2 .
1.9: :
i)
ii)
V = x + y + z,
U = ln(1 x2 y 2 z 2 ).
28
2.
M AT HEM AT ICA

,
, .
Peter D. Lax (1985)
2.1

. ,

. Mathematica
.

.
f (x, y) Mathematica
Plot3D.
Plot3D[f [x, y], {x, xmin , xmax }, {y, ymin , ymax }]

xmin , xmax , ymin , ymax x, y .
,
f (x, y).
2.1
sin x sin y 10 x 10 10 y 10,

Clear[f]
M AT HEM AT ICA
30
f[x_, y_] := Sin[x] Sin[y];

Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10}];
1
0.5
10
0
-0.5
-1
-10
5
0
-5
-5
0
5
10-10
2.1. f (x, y) = sin x sin y 2.1.
2.1.1 Plot3D

Mathematica

. :
2.1. Plot3D.

Boxed
Lighting
Mesh
Shading
ViewPoint
GrayLevel[s]
Hue[s]

True
True
True
True
{1.3, 2.4, 2}
Boxed False :
.
2.1
Lighting False :
.
31
Mesh False : .
Shading False : .
ViewPoint {x, y, z} :
.
{1.3, 2.4, 2}
{0, 2, 0}
{0, 2, 2}
{0, 2, 2}
{2, 2, 0}
{2, 2, 0}
{0, 0, 2}

.
2.2
Clear[f]
Clear[pl1 , pl2 , pl3 , pl4 ]
pl1 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

DisplayFunction Identity];
pl2 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

Boxed False, DisplayFunction Identity];
pl3 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

Lighting False, DisplayFunction Identity];
pl4 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

Mesh False, DisplayFunction Identity];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{pl1, pl2 }, {pl3 , pl4 }}],

DisplayFunction $DisplayFunction];

2.3.
M AT HEM AT ICA
32
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-10
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-10
10
5
-5
0
-5
5
10-10
10
5
-5
0
-5
10-10
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-10
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-10
10
5
-5
0
-5
5
10-10
10
5
-5
0
-5
10-10
2.2. f (x, y) = sin x sin y

Plot3D.
2.3
Clear[plt1, plt2, plt3]

plt1 = Plot3D[Sin[x + y^2], {x, 1, 1}, {y, 1, 1},
Boxed False, DisplayFunction Identity];
plt2 = Show[%, ViewPoint {0, 2, 2},
plt3 = Show[%, ViewPoint {0, 2, 0},
Show[GraphicsArray[{{plt1, plt2, plt3}}]];
2.3. f (x, y) = sin x sin y .
2.2
33
2.4
Clear[col1, col2 ]
col1 = Plot3D[{Sin[x y], GrayLevel[x/3]}, {x, 0, 3}, {y, 0, 3},
col2 = Plot3D[{Sin[x y], Hue[x/3]}, {x, 0, 3}, {y, 0, 3},

Show[GraphicsArray[{{col1, col2 }}]];
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
3
2
1
1
2
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
3
2
1
30
30
2.4. f (x, y) = sin xsin y .
2.2
ContourPlot
f (x, y) xmin x xmax , ymin y
ymax .
ContourPlot[f [x, y], {x, xmin , xmax }, {y, ymin , ymax }]

2.2.1 ContourPlot
??ContourPlot ContourPlot
. :
ColorFunction Hue : .
M AT HEM AT ICA
34
2.2. ContourPlot.

ColorFunction
Contours
PlotRange
ContourShading
ContourLines
ContourStyle
PlotPoints

Automatic
10
Automatic
True
True
Automatic
15
Contours :
,

.
PlotRange All {zmin , zmax }:
{zmin , zmax } All.
ContourShading False :
.
ContourLines False : .
ContourStyle :
.
PlotPoints : Plot.
2.5
Clear[f, c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 , c6 ]
c1 = ContourPlot[f[x, y], {x, 2, 2}, {y, 2, 2},
DisplayFunction Identity, ContourShading False];
2.3
35

DisplayFunction Identity, ColorFunction Hue];
DisplayFunction Identity, ContourLines False];
DisplayFunction Identity,
ContourStyle {RGBColor[1, 0, 0]}];
DisplayFunction Identity, Frame False, Axes False,
ContourShading False, PlotPoints 50];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{c1, c2 , c3 }, {c4 , c5 , c6 }}]];
Contours
f (x, y) = c1 , c2 , . . ..
2.6
Clear[f, c1 , c2 , c3 ]
f[x_, y_] := xb2 2 x + yb2 2 y 2;
ContourShading False, DisplayFunction Identity,
PlotPoints 60];
Contours 20, PlotPoints 60];
Contours {4, 24, 40}, PlotPoints 60];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{c1, c2 , c3 }}]];
2.3
.
ContourPlot Plot3D .
M AT HEM AT ICA
36
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2 -1 0
-2
-2 -1 0
-1
-1
-2
-2 -1 0
-2
-2 -1 0
-2
-2 -1 0
2.5. f (x, y) = sin x sin y

ContourPlot.
10
5
0
-5
-10
-10-5 0 5 10
10
5
0
-5
-10
-10-5 0 5 10
10
5
0
-5
-10
-10-5 0 5 10
2.6. f (x, y) = x2 2x+

y 2 2y 2 Contours.
Mathematica
.
2.7
Clear[ap]
ap = Plot3D[Sin[x + y], {x, 0, 3}, {y, 0, 3}];
Plot3D
.
Show[ContourGraphics[ap]];
Show[GraphicsArray[{%, %%}]];
2.4
37
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
1
2
30
2.7. f (x, y) = sin(x + y).

3
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
2.8. f (x, y) = sin(x + y)

.
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
3
2
1
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
30
2.9. 2.7 .
2.4
ParametricPlot3D
.

M AT HEM AT ICA
38
2.3. .
Show[ContourGraphics[g]]
Show[Surf aceGraphics[g]]
Show[Graphics[g]]
Options[ParametricPlot3D].
2.4.1

ParametricPlot3D[{x[t], y[t], z[t]}, {t, tmin , tmax }]

x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t), a t b.
ParamatricPlot3D ParametricPlot,
.
2.8
Clear[pp1 , pp2 ]
pp1 = ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[2 t], Sin[2 t], t/5},
{t, 0, 8 Pi}, PlotPoints 120, Ticks None,
pp2 = ParametricPlot3D[{t Cos[2 t], t Sin[2 t], t/5},
{t, 0, 8 Pi}, PlotPoints 120, Ticks None,
Show[GraphicsArray[{{pp1, pp2 }}]];
ParametricPlot3D :
2.9 -
g(x, y) = cos(x + siny) x = 5.
Clear[pp1 , pp2 , g, p]
g[x_, y_] = Cos[x + Sin[y]];
2.4
39
2.10. 2.8.
g[x, y] [0, 4]
[0, 4] 2.11.
p = Plot3D[g[x, y], {x, 0, 4 Pi}, {y, 0, 4 Pi},

x = 5 xy x = 5,
x = 5, y = t, z = 0.
2.11.
pp1 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{5, t, 0}, {t, 0, 4 Pi},

DisplayFunction Identity]];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{p, pp1}}]];
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
10
5
5
10
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
2.5
10
5
5
7.5
10 0
2.11. g(x, y) = cos(x + siny)
x=5
x = 5 g[x, y]
g x = 5
M AT HEM AT ICA
40
x = 5, y = t, z = g[5, t]
2.12.
pp2 = ParametricPlot3D[{5, t, g[5, t]}, {t, 0, 4 Pi}];
10
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0
5
2.5
5
7.5
10
2.12. g(x, y) = cos(x + siny) x = 5

2.9.
2.10 -
f [x, y] = x3 sin[4y]+y 2 cos[3x] x2 +y 2 = 1.
(x,y) f .
Clear[f, pp1 , pp2 , p]

f[x_, y_] = xb3 Sin[4 y] + yb2 Cos[3 x];
p = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 1.5, 1.5}, {y, 1.5, 1.5},
: x = cos[t], y = sin[t], z = 0
[0, 2].
pp1 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[t], Sin[t], 0}, {t, 0, 2 Pi},

Show[GraphicsArray[{{p, pp1}}]];
x2 + y 2 = 1 f [x, y] f
x = cos[t], y = sin[t]t, z = f [cos[t], sin[t]].
2.14.
pp2 = ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[t], Sin[t], f[Cos[t], Sin[t]]},

{t, 0, 2 Pi}];
2.4
41
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1
2
0
-2
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
00.5
1
0
-1
0
-1
2.13. f [x, y] = x3 sin[4y] + y 2 cos[3x]

x2 + y 2 = 1.
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
2.14. f [x, y] = x3 Sin[4y] + y 2 Cos[3x]

x2 + y 2 = 1 2.10.
2.4.2

ParametricPlot3D[{x[t, u], y[t, u], z[t, u]},

{t, tmin , tmax }, {u, umin , umax }]
x=x(t,u), y=y(t,u), z=z(t,u), tmin t tmax .
2.11
Clear[pp1 , pp2 ]
pp1 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{t, u, Sin[t u]}, {t, 0, 3}, {u, 0, 3},
pp2 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{t, ub2, Sin[t u]}, {t, 0, 3}, {u, 0, 3},
M AT HEM AT ICA
42
1
4
0
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
2
10
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0 1
1
2
3
2.15. 2.11, p1 (t, u, sin(tu) p2 = (t, u2 , sin(tu).
Show[GraphicsArray[{{pp1, pp2 }}]];

ParametricPlot3D
, , ...
2.12
Clear[pp1 , pp2 , pp3 ]

pp1 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{Sin[t], Cos[t], u}, {t, 0, 2 Pi},
{u, 0, 4}, DisplayFunction Identity]];
pp2 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[t] (3 + Cos[u]),
Sin[t] (3 + Cos[u]), Sin[u]}, {t, 0, 2 Pi}, {u, 0, 2 Pi},
pp3 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[t] Cos[u],
Sin[t] Cos[u], Sin[u]}, {t, 0, 2Pi}, {u, Pi/2, Pi/2},
Show[GraphicsArray[{{pp1, pp2 , pp3 }}]];
2.5 GraphicsContourP lot3D

ContourPlot.
ContourPlot3D ContourPlot. ContourPlot
f x y. ContourPlot3D
f x,y, z.
2.5 Graphics ContourP lot3D
-1
1-0.5
0.5
00.5
0
1
-0.5
-1
4
3
10
0.5
-0.5
-1
-4-2
0
2
1
4
2
0
-2
2 4-4
43
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
2.16. ,
ParametricPlot3D.
ContourPlot3D[f [x, y, z], {x, xmin , xmax },

{y, ymin , ymax }, {z, zmin , zmax }]
f (x, y, z) = 0.
ContourPlot3D Mathematica GraphicsContourPlot3D.
ContourPlot3D
Options[ContourPlot3D] =

p
x2 + y 2 + z 2
f (x, y, z) =
<< GraphicsContourPlot3D
ContourPlot3D[Cos[Sqrt[xb2 + yb2 + zb2]], {x, 2, 2}, {y, 0, 2},

{z, 2, 2}].
Contours ContourPlot .
Contours > {c1 , c2 , c3 , . . .}

f (x, y, z) = c1 , f (x, y, z) = c2 , f (x, y, z) = c3 , . . . .
2.13
<< GraphicsContourPlot3D
44
M AT HEM AT ICA
2.17. f (x, y, z) = cos(
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ).
Clear[cp3d1, cp3d2 ]
cp3d1 = ContourPlot3D[x y z, {x, 1, 1}, {y, 1, 1}, {z, 1, 1},
Contours {.1}, DisplayFunction Identity];
cp3d2 = ContourPlot3D[x y z, {x, 1, 1}, {y, 1, 1}, {z, 1, 1},
Contours {.0}, DisplayFunction Identity];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{cp3d1, cp3d2 }}]];
2.18. f (x, y, z) = xyz

Contours.
2.6 GraphicsP arametricP lot3D

CylindricalPlot3D SphericalPlot3D,
.
2.7 Graphics Shapes
45
SphericalPlot3D[r, {theta, thetamin , thetamax },

{phi, phimin , phimax }]
CylindricalPlot3D[z, {r, rmin , rmax },
{theta, thetamin , thetamax }]
2.14
<< GraphicsParametricPlot3D
Clear[s, c]
s = SphericalPlot3D[2, {theta, 0, Pi}, {phi, 0, 2 Pi},
Boxed False, Axes False, DisplayFunction Identity];
c = CylindricalPlot3D[(1 + Sin[phi])r^2, {r, 0, 1}, {phi, 0, 2 Pi},
Axes False, Boxed False, ViewPoint {1.5, 0.5, .2},
Show[GraphicsArray[{{s, c}}]];
2.19. .
2.7 GraphicsShapes
GraphicsShapes
( ) .
:
M AT HEM AT ICA
46
Show[Graphics3D[shape]]
:
Cylinder[r,h,n] : r h.
n .
Cone[r,h,n] : r h. n .
Torus[r1,r2,n,m] : r1 r2. n/m .
Sphere[r,n,m] : r.
n(m 2) + 2 .
, ,
, ...
.
2.15
<< GraphicsShapes
Clear[sh1 , sh2 ]
sh1 = Show[Graphics3D[Sphere[ ]],
sh2 = Show[Graphics3D[Torus[1, 0.3, 15, 10]],
Show[GraphicsArray[{{sh1, sh2 }}]];
2.8
2.8.1
Clear[x, y, z]
x[t_, r_] = a Cos[t] Cos[r];
2.8
47
2.20. , 2.15.
y[t_, r_] = b Cos[t] Sin[r];

z[t_, r_] = c Sin[t];
{a, b, c} = {2, 2, 1};
ParametricPlot3D[{x[t, r], y[t, r], z[t, r]}, {t, Pi/2, Pi/2},
{r, Pi, Pi}];
1
0.5
2
0
-0.5
-1
-2
0
-1
-1
0
1
2
-2
2.21. .
2.8.2
Clear[x, y, z, a, b, c]
x[t_, r_] = a Sec[t] Cos[r];
y[t_, r_] = b Sec[t] Sin[r];
z[t_, r_] = c Tan[t];
M AT HEM AT ICA
48
{a, b, c} = {4, 4, 6};

ParametricPlot3D[{x[t, r], y[t, r], z[t, r]}, {t, Pi/3, Pi/3},
{r, Pi, Pi}];
-5
0
5
0
-5
10
-5
-10
2.22. .
hyperboloid = {Cos[u], Sin[u], 0} + v {Sin[u], Cos[u], 1};

ParametricPlot3D[Evaluate[hyperboloid], {u, 0, 2 Pi},
{v, 2, 2}];
2.8.3
0
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2.23. .
cone = {(1 + v) Cos[u], (1 + v) Sin[u], 1 + v};

ParametricPlot3D[Evaluate[cone], {u, 0, 2 Pi}, {v, 2, 0},
ViewPoint {1, 1, 1}]
2.9
49
2.9
Mathematica

.
, Xx,Yy
Zz. <<
CalculusV ectorAnalysis.
Mathematica :
Bipolar
Cartesian
ConfocalParaboloidal
Cylindrical
OblateSpheroidal
Paraboloidal
Spherical
Bispherical
ConfocalEllipsoidal
Conical
EllipticCylindrical
ParabolicCylindrical
ProlateSpheroidal
Toroidal
<< CalculusVectorAnalysis

CoordinateSystem
Cartesian

Coordinates[ ]
{Xx , Yy, Zz }

Coordinates[Spherical]
{Rr , Ttheta, Pphi }
SetCoordinates[Cylindrical[ ]]
Cylindrical[Rr , Ttheta, Zz ]
:
{CoordinateSystem, Coordinates[]}
{Cylindrical, {Rr , Ttheta, Zz }}
50
M AT HEM AT ICA
2.4.
CoordinateSystem
Coordinates[ ]
Coordinates[coordsys]
SetCoordinates[coordsys]
.
.
coordsys.
coordsys .
SetCoordinates[coordsys[vars]]
coordsys
vars.
CoordinateRanges[ ]
CoordinateRanges[coordsys]

coordsys.
{Coordinates[Spherical], CoordinateRanges[Spherical]}
{{Rr , Ttheta, Pphi }, {0 Rr < , 0 Ttheta ,
< Pphi }}

1. CoordinatesToCartesian[pt]
pt, pt
.
2. CoordinatesToCartesian[pt,coordsys]
pt, pt
coordsys.
3. CoordinatesFromCartesian[pt]
pt , pt .
2.9
51
4. CoordinatesFromCartesian[pt,coordsys]
pt coordsys, pt
.
{1, /2, /4}
.
CoordinatesToCartesian[{1, Pi/2, Pi/4}, Spherical]

{ 12 , 12 , 0 }
,
.
CoordinatesToCartesian[{r, theta, z}, Cylindrical]

{rCos[theta], rSin[theta], z }
CoordinatesFromCartesian[{x, y, z}, Spherical]
p
{ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , arccos( 2 z 2 2 ), arctan(x , y)}
x +y +z
52
M AT HEM AT ICA
3.

.
Sir Peter Medawar
3.1

.

P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ), ..., Pn (xn , yn ), ...

R2 . Pn = (n, n2 ), n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ....
y = x2 . ,
Pn = (2, (1)n ) .
,
Pn ,
, Q M
d(Pn Q) < M n. ,
Pn = (1/n, 1/n2 ) , Pn = (n, n2 )
.
, .
, Pn Q
,
lim Pn = Q
54
d(Pn Q) n ,
> 0 N
Pn Q,
n > N .
Q Pn = (en/4 cos n, en/4 sin n),
d(Pn Q) = en/4 0, n . Pn
(r = e/4 , .
3.1).
y
P1
P2
P3
P9
P8 P
7
Q
P10
P4
P0
P6
P5
3.1. Pn = (en/4 cos n, en/4 sin n).
Pn (xn , yn ) Q(, ),
xn yn .
, d(Pn Q) ,
|xn | d(Pn Q) |yn | d(Pn Q), ,
d(Pn Q) =
(xn x)2 + (yn y)2 |xn | + |yn |,
d(Pn Q) 0 xn yn .

.
3.2

.

p
9 x2 y 2 ( . 3.2),
f (x, y) =
3.2
55

. ,
3 ( ) ,
.

lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) = 3.
3.2. ()
p , ()
f (x, y) = 9 x2 y 2 .
3.1: f (x, y) k,
M0 (x0 , y0 ) D ,
,
M (x, y) f (x, y)
0 [(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 ]1/2 ( |x x0 | |y y0 | )
|f (x, y) k| < .
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y) = k.
3.1:
f (x, y) =
x2 y 2
.
x2 + y 2

.
: x2 x2 + y 2 y 2 y 2 + x2
56
1
0.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-2
1
-1
0
-1
2-2
-0.5
-1
-1 -0.5 0
0.5 1
3.3.
f (x, y) = x2 y 2 /(x2 + y 2 ) (0, 0).
2 2
x y (x2 + y 2 )2

|f (x, y) 0| = 2
x + y2
x2 + y 2
= (x2 + y 2 )

x2 + y 2 2
|f (x, y) 0| 2 .
2 =
|f (x, y) 0| .

lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) = 0.
f (x, y) (x, y) (0, 0) ( .

3.3).
3.2: , ,
lim
(x,y)(2,1)
(x2 3y) = 1
|f (x, y) 1| = |x2 3y 1| = |(x2 22 ) 3(y 1)|

|x 2||x + 2| + 3|y 1|
> 0 |x 2| |y 1|
|x + 2| |x 2| + 4 + 4
|f (x, y) 1| ( + 4) + 3 8.
3.2
57
8
f (x, y) .
f .
.
lim
f (x, y) = k1
(3.1)
lim
f (x, y) = k2
(3.2)
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
> 0

|f1 k1 | 1 |f2 k2 | 2 .

|k1 k2 | = |k1 f + f k2 | |f k1 | + |f k2 | 2.
(3.3)

, k1 k2 . k1 k2
.
: .
M0 (x0 , y0 ) f (x, y),
.
x = , ,
lim f (x, y),
x+
lim f (x, y),
.

(x0 , y0 ). M0
58
.
, .

,
.
3.3:
f (x, y) =
x2
xy
+ y2
.
: y = mx,
f (x, y) =
mx2
m
=
2
2
x + (mx)
1 + m2
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) =
m
1 + m2
f
( m) (0, 0) ( .
3.4).
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.01
0
-0.25
0.005
-0.5
0
-0.01
-0.005 0
-0.005
0.005 -0.01
0.01
0
-1
-2
-2
-1
3.4. f (x, y) = xy/(x2 + y 2 )

.
3.4:
xy 2
x2 + y 4
;
3.2
59
:
y = mx ,
f (x, mx) =
m2 x3
m2 x
=
x2 + m4 x4
1 + m4 x2
lim f (x, mx) = 0.
x0

f (x, y)
. x = y 2
1/2.
f (x, y) (0, 0) ( . 3.5).
1
0.5
0.5
0.25
0
-0.25
-0.5
-1
-0.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
0
-0.5
1-1
0
-0.5
-1
-1 -0.5 0
0.5 1
3.5.
xy 2 /(x2 + y 4 ) .
3.1
f (x, y) ,

lim
(x,y)(,)
f (x, y) = k.
3.2: f k , > 0
> 0 M (x, y)
f , |OM | > , O ,
|f (M ) k| .
60
f (x, y) M0 (x0 , y0 )
( ) lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) ( ) K , (M0 , )
M0
,
f (M ) > K
f (M ) < K
).
lim
(x,y)(,)
f (x, y)
lim
(w,z).(0,0)
f (1/w, 1/z)
3.5:
f (x, y) =
x2 + y 2 + 2
x2 + y 2
(x, y) (, ).
:
1 1
w2 z 2
f( , ) = 1 + 2 2
w z
w + z2
1 1
w2 z 2
lim
f( , ) = 1 + 2
w z
(x,y)(,)
(w,z)(0,0) w2 + z 2
lim
w2 z 2
=0
(w,z)(0,0) w2 + z 2
lim
3.1. lim(x,y)(,) f (x, y) =
lim(w,z)(0,0) f (1/w, 1/z) = 1.

3.2.1
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = k1 lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = k2 ,
(1)
lim
[f (x, y) + g(x, y)] =
lim
g(x, y) = k1 + k2
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
(2)
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y) +
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y)

f (x, y)
k1
=
=
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) g(x, y)
k2
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) g(x, y)
lim
3.2
61
k2 6= 0
(3)
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
lim
[f (x, y) g(x, y)] =
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
(4)
(5)
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y)
lim
g(x, y)] = k1 k2
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
p
p
m
f (x, y) = m k1 , m N
[f (x, y)]a = [k1 ]a , a R
f (x, y) 0
(6)
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

|f (x, y)| =
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )

f (x, y) = |k1 |
3.2.2
, .
1: |f (x, y)| < |g(x, y)| (x, y)
f g lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) g(x, y) = 0,
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = 0.
2: f (x, y) = g(x, y)h(x, y)
M0 :
1. |g(x, y)| M,
(x, y) g
2. lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) h(x, y) = 0.
3: M0 (x0 , y0 ),
M (x, y) (M0 , ), f (x, y) g(x, y)
h(x, y), lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f = lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) h = l
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) g = l.
4: f (x, y) ,
t = (x, y), f (t)
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) (x, y) = t0 ,
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y) = lim f (t).

tt0
62
5: (M0 (x0 , y0 ), )
, f (x, y)
M0 (x0 , y0 ).
.
: f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 ) lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = 00
lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) =

l Hopital,
.
3.6:
f (x, y) =
x2 + y 2 cos(
1
)
xy
1 cos(1/xy) 1
p
p
p
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 cos(1/xy) x2 + y 2 .
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
x2 + y 2 = 0
3
f (x, y) .
3.7:
f (x, y) =
x4 + y 4
x2 + y 2
x = r cos , y = r sin
r 0 (x, y) (0, 0)
3.3
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
63
r 4 (cos4 + sin4 )
r0
r2
f (x, y) = lim
= lim r 2 (cos4 + sin4 ).

r0
2
f (x, y) cos4 + sin4
.
3.3
, (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) ,
. x x0 y y0 . f (x, y) x x0 ,
(y) = limxx0 f (x, y).
(y) y y0 ,
lim [ lim f (x, y)] = k1
xx0 yy0
f (x, y) y y0 x x0 ,
lim [ lim f (x, y)] = k2
yy0 xx0

.
.
:
k k1 k2
k1 = k2 = k ,
(x0 , y0 ).

. ,

.
64
.

.

(k1 = k2 ) ,
.
(x0 , y0 ).
,
.

.
3.8:
x y + x2 + y 2
.
x+y
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
:
x 0 y 0 1,
1,
.
3.9: M0 (0, 0)
1
f1 (x, y) = x sin( )
y
.
:
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) = 0,
(x 0)
(| sin(1/x)| 1) ( 2).
lim [ lim f (x, y)] = 0
y0 x0
3.4
65

lim f (x, y) .
y0
3.10:
f (x, y) ,
xy
f (x, y) = 2
+ x sin
x + y2

1
.
y
: ( 3.3)
lim [lim f (x, y)]
x0 y0
, lim [ lim f (x, y)] = 0.

y0 x0
3.4
.
3.3: (x0 , y0 ) D
R2 f (x, y), f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 )
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).
, ..
f (x, y) D R2 ,
M0 (x0 , y0 ) D > 0 > 0 (M0 , )
|f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 )| .
(x0 , y0 ) f,
,
(x0 , y0 ) (x, y) (x0 , y0 ),
.

D , f D .
66
f (x, y)
M0 D, D ,
M0 ,
lim f (x, y) = 6= f (x0 , y0 ).
M M0

M0 .
3.11:
f (x, y) =
(1 + x2 )
sin y
y
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)

.
: (0, 0) ,
,
lim
y0
sin y
= 1.
y
= 1 f (x, y) .
,
,
.
f g D
(x0 , y0 ) D ,
1. f +g f g (x0 , y0 ).
2. (f /g) g(x0 , y0 ) 6= 0,
|f |, f1n , n f
.
3.1: f M0 , M0 f
.

> 0 > 0
3.5
67
(M0 , ) |f f (M0 )| < f (M0 ) <
f < + f (M0 ).
, f
,
.
:
( )
. ( 3.1).
7.
3.5
3.1
f (x, y) =
2x3 y3
x2 + y2
(0, 0).
: ,
,
( ), :
3

2x y 3

x2 + y 2 < ,
p
x2 + y 2 .

( )
|f (x, y) 0| < ,
> 0. (x, y) , .
, .
|2x3 y 3 | 2|x|3 + |y|3 = 2|x|x2 + |y|y 2 ,

p
p
, |x|
x2 + y 2 |y| x2 + y 2 ,
68
2
1
0
0.5
-1
-2
-1
0
-0.5
-0.5
0
0.5
1 -1
3.6. , (2x3 y 3 )/(x2 + y 2 )

.
1
|2x3 y 3 | (x2 + y 2 ) 2 (2x2 + y 2 ) 3(x2 + y 2 ) 2 .

3

p
3
2x y 3
2 + y2

3
x
33 .
x2 + y 2
p
= 33
> 0 = 3 /3 |f 0| .
0 < (/3)1/3 ,
.
3.2
1
1 cos[(x2 + y 2 ) 2 ]
f (x, y) =
x2 + y 2
.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-20
20
10
0
-10
-10
0
10
20-20
3.7.
1cos[(x2 +y 2 )1/2 ]
.
x2 +y 2
3.5
69
:
: 1 cos
2 sin2
x2 +y 2
2
sin
f (x, y) = 2
lim
x2
(x2 +y 2 ) 2
2
y2
x2 +y 2
2
1
=
2
sin
(x2 +y 2 ) 2
2
1
(x2 +y 2 ) 2
x2 + y 2 =
2
= t
p
( x2 + y 2 /2) = 0,
(x,y)(0,0)
4:

1 sin t 2
lim f (x, y) = lim f (t) = lim
t0
t0 2
t
(x,y)(0,0)

2
1
1
sin t
= lim
= .
2 t0
t
2

3.3 f (x, y) = 1 + x
y
(x, y) (k, ).
y
: f (x, y)
f (x, y) =
"
x
1+
y
y #x
x
"
1
1+
t
t #x
t = y/x.
y
=
(x,y)(k,) x
lim
4,
t
limt 1 + 1t = e,
lim
(x,y)(k,)
f (x, y) =
lim
"
(x,t)(k,)
= lim
xk
lim
f (x, t)

1
1+
t
t #x
= ek .
70
3.4
x+y
.
(x,y)(,) x2 + y2
lim
1 1
wv(w + v)
f( , ) =
w v
w2 + v 2
(w, v) (0, 0). (w = r cos , v =
r sin )
f (w, v) = r(cos sin (cos + sin )) = r().

lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (w, v) = (lim r)() = 0,

r0
r ,
2.
xy+y 3
3.5 f (x, y) = x2 +y2

(0, 0).
: ,
limy0 [limx0 f ] limx0 [limy0 f ] .
, y = 2x, 52 ,
f (x, y) = f (x, 2x) =
2x2 + 8x3
2 8
= + x
2
2
x + 4x
5 5
25 , x 0.
,
f (0, 0).
3.6
:
x2 y 2
() f1 (x, y) = x2 y2 +(xy)2
x2 y
() f3 (x, y) = x4 +y2
x6 +y 6
() f5 (x, y) = x2 +y2
| y1 |
() f7 (x, y) = |x|
() f2 (x, y) = y x x, y > 0
() f4 (x, y) =
x+y+x2 +y 2
xy
x4 +y 4
() f6 (x, y) = x3 +y3
()f8 (x, y) =
x2
x2 +y 2 +| yx |
3.5
71
:() y = x
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f1 (x, y) = 1,
y = x
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f1 = 1/5,
.
a
() y = e |x| , a < 0 limx0 e |x| = 0,

lim(x,y)(0,0) f2 (x, y) = e ,
.
.
m
() y = mx2 f3 (x, y) = 1+m
2 ,
.
() y = x
(0, 0). 5
.
() , f5 (r, ) = r 4 (cos6 + sin6 ) = F1 (r)F2 ().
F1 (r) = r 4 r 0,
F2 () .
f5 (r, ) = F1 (r) F2 ()
.
() y 3 = x3
,
f4 .
()
f (x, y) = |x|1/|y| = e(1/|y|) ln(|x|) .
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
(1/|y|) ln(|x|) =
72
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) = elim(x,y)(0,0) (1/|y|) ln(|x|) = 0.
() y = x f8 (x, x),
x 0 , y = x3
f8 (x, y) 1/2, .
3.7 :
f1 (x, y) =
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
(2 + y 2 ) tan(x3 + y 3 )
tan(x5 y 5 )
+
x3 + y 3
tan x5 tan y 5
: 4, t = x2 + y 2 , v = x5 y 5
lim =
t0
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
tan t
sin t
=
= 1
t
t
tan(x3 + y 3 ) tan(x5 y 5 ) x5
y5
(2 + y )
+
x3 + y 3
x5 y 5 tan x5 tan y 5
2
= 3.
3.8
xy 2 z 2
(x,y,z)(0,0,0) (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2
lim
: ,
f (r, , ) = rf1 (, ).
r 0, f1
|f1 | 1. ,
xy 2 z 2
= lim rf1 (, ) = 0.
r0
(x,y,z)(0,0,0) (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2
lim
3.9
f (x, y) =
1
sin(xy)
(1 + y 2 ) sin x +
x
sin x sin y
.
:
limx0 sinx x = 1 ,
3.5
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
73

1
sin(xy)
2
(1 + y ) sin x +
=
x
sin x sin y

sin(xy)
x
y
2 sin x
+
=
lim
(1 + y )
x
xy
sin x sin y
(x,y)(0,0)

sin(xy)
1
1
2 sin x
lim
(1 + y )
+
lim
lim sinx lim sin y
x0
y0
x
xy
(x,y)(0,0)
(x,y)(0,0)
x
y
= (1 + 0) 1 + 1 1 1 = 2.
3.10 ( )
p
|y||x| x2 + y 2
f (x, y) = p

x2 + y 2 + xy
: y = e |x| ,

f (x, y) = ea
q |y|
2
1+ y 2
1+
! = ea h1 (x, y)
(x, y) (0, 0), h1 (x, y) 1
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
|y|| y |
q x
1+
y2
x2
=0
f (x, y) ea . .
M athematica.
( 3.8)
3.11 ( ) .
x+y1
x 1y
2

2
x x
y4
() f2 (x, y) =
e
y4
() f1 (x, y) =
74

0.001
0.0005
-0.0005
-0.001
-0.001
-0.0005
0.0005
0.001
3.8. .
() f3 (x, y) =
sin x + sin y
tan 2x + sin y
() f4 (x, y) =
sin(x3 + y 3 )
x2 + y 2
:
() 1 y = z ,
xz
(x z)( x + z)
=

= x+ z
f1 (x, 1 z) =
x z
( x z)( x + z)
f1 (x, y) = x + 1 y. , lim(x,y)(0,0) f1 (x, y) = 1.

2
() x = my 2 f (x, y) = m2 em .
m .
() f3 (x, y)
, .. x 0
y 0 1,
21 . sin x x, x 0.
()
sin(x3 + y 3 ) x3 + y 3
,
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
|f4 (x, y)|
3

x + y3

.
(x,y)(0,0) x2 + y 2
lim
x3 +y 3
x2 +y2 ,
3.5
75

3
1
sin(x3 + y 3 ) x3 + y 3 2(x2 + y 2 ) 2
2
= 2(x2 + y 2 ) 2 2 =

2
2
2
2
2
x +y
x +y
x +y
, f4 .
3.12 ( )
f (x, y) = p
y|x|2+a
(x2 + y 2 )(sin2 x + sin2 y)
.
: f
y|x|2+a
y
f=p
2
2
2
2
sin
y
(x + y )(sin x + sin y)
|x|2+a
p
x2 + y 2
= f1 f2
f1 , f2
. a > 1
,
f2 f2 = |r|1+a | sin |2+a .
a 1 .
y = m|x|a
y|x|2+a
m|x|
m
f (x, y) = p
=p
=p
2
2a
2
2
1 + m |x|
1 + m2 |x|a
x +y
f m x 0. .
3.13 ( )
:
x2 y 2 +2y 3 z
() F1 (x, y, z) = x2 +y2 +z 2 .
(x1)2 +y 2
() F2 (x, y) = 1x2 y2 (1, 0).

() F3 (x, y) =
x2 2xy 2 +y 4
x2 +y 4
() F4 (x, y) =
x2 2xy+y 2
x2 yy 3
.
(1, 1).
: ()
lim [lim [lim F1 ]] = 1
x0 z0 y0
76
lim [lim [ lim F1 ]] = 1
y0 z0 x0
.
() .
() y 2 = mx,
m.
(xy)2
() . F4 (x, y) = x(x2 y2 ) =
xy
x(x+y) (x, y) (1, 1).
3.14 ( ) :
() f1 (x, y) =
x+y xy
x
(0, 1).
xy 3
() f2 (x, y) = x2 +y6 .
() f3 (x, y) =
x2 y 2 +11
x2 +y 2
: () (0, 1)

(M0 , ) .
() y 3 = mx, m =,
, m.
()
p . x2 y 2 + 1 + 1
(x, y) (r, ).
r .
3.15
f (x, y) =
sin(y x) + sin(y x) cos2 x 2 cos x sin(y x)

x4 y x5
3.5
77
f (x, y) =
(1 cos x)2 sin(x y)

.
x4 (y x)
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
(1 cos x)2
x0
x4
f (x, y) = lim
sin(y x)
yx
(y,x)0
lim
1
(1 cos x)2
=
x0
x4
4
lim
limx0 sinx x 1
cos x = 2 sin2 (x/2) lHopital,
1, 14 .
3.16 :
() f1 (x, y) =
() f2 (x, y) =
(3+x5 ) sin(x5 y 5 )
x5 y 5
xy
sin x sin y
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)
3
x yxy 3
x2 +y2 (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)
: () f1 (x, y) 4 (0, 0).

()
f (x, y) = r 2 f1 ()
.
3.17 D R2
.
() f1 (x, y) = exy sin(x + y)

() f2 (x, y) = x ln(xy)
2 2
2x y
2x2 +y2 (x, y) 6= (0, 0)

() f3 (x, y) =
0 (x, y) = (0, 0)
78
() f4 (x, y) =
x6 + x3 y 3 + y 3
x3 + y 3
: () (x, y).
() (xy)
xy > 0, .
() (xy)
(0, 0).
() R2 {x = y},
(xy)
y = x.
3.18
f (x, y, z) =
x sin x + y sin y + z sin z

x2 + y 2 + z 2
(x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0).

f (0, 0, 0)
R3 .
:
f (x, y, z) =
x sin x + y sin y + z sin z

x2 + y 2 + z 2

sin x
sin x sin x
x2
+
+
x
x
x
x2 + y 2 + z 2

sin y sin x
y2
sin z sin x
z2
.
y
x
x2 + y 2 + z 2
z
x
x2 + y 2 + z 2
,
lim
w0
sin w
= 1
w
x2
y2
1,
0
1,
x2 + y 2 + z 2
x2 + y 2 + z 2
3.5
79
z2
1
x2 + y 2 + z 2
. ,
, ,
, 2. f (0, 0, 0) = 1.
3.19 :
f (x, y) =
(1+y2 ) sin x cos x
x 6= 0
2x
x = 0

(0, 0).
: f

1 sin 2x
lim f (x, y) = lim
(1 + y 2 )
x0 2
2x
(x,y)(0,0)

sin 2x
1

lim (1 + y 2 ) = 1 1 = 1 .
= lim
x0
2
2x y0
2
2
f = 12 . ( . 3.9)
2
2
1
1
0
-2
0
-1
-1
0
1
2 -2
3.9. 3.20 = 1/2.
3.20 :
f (x, y) =
xy(x2 y 2 )
x2 +y2 x 6= 0, y 6= 0
x = y = 0
80
.
: |x2 y 2 | |x2 +y 2 |
2

x y2

< |xy| (x2 + y 2 )
|xy| 2
x + y2
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
|f (x, y)|
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
(x2 + y 2 ) = 0
0.2
1
0
0.5
-0.2
-1
0
-0.5
-0.5
0
0.5
1 -1
3.10. 3.22.
3.21
f (x, y) =
sin x sin y
,
tan x tan y
D : [0, /4] [0, /4]

{P (x, y)/x = y}. f x = y ,
D;
: f (x, y)
f (x, y) =
(sin x sin y) cos x cos y

.
sin x cos y sin y cos x
f (x, y) =
xy
2 cos x+y
2 sin 2 cos x cos y
.
sin(x y)
y x, f (x, y) cos3 x. ,
f (x, y)
3.5
f (x, y) =
81
sin xsin y
tan xtan y , x 6= y
cos3 x,
x=y
[0, /4] [0, /4].

3.22 :
()f1 (x, y) =
()f2 (x, y) =
()f3 (x, y) =
()f4 (x, y) =
2 3
x y
2x2 +y2 (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)
xy
x2 +xy+y2
2 2
2x y
2x2 +y2
2
x y
2x2 +y4
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)
(x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x, y) = (0, 0)
:() ,

lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) = lim (r 3 )g()) = 0

r0
g . f
R2 .
() y = mx
. f
R2 {0, 0}.
() ().
() y = x ,
.
, ,
82
x2 < 2x2 + y 4 .
3.23
lim
(x,y)(,)
x+y
x2 +y 2
1 + sin
3
x+y
x+y
x+y
3
lim
e
1 + sin
=
x+y
(x,y)(,)

"

x+y #
x+y
3
2
2
lim
e x +y
lim
1 + sin
x+y
(x,y)(,)
(x,y)(,)
x+y
x2 +y 2
.
()
,
lim e
cos +sin
r
= e0 = 1.
() x + y = t
lim
1 + sin
t
3
= 1
t
R(t) =
t
3
1 + sin
t

ln 1 + sin
3
ln R(t) = t ln 1 + sin
=
1
t
t
lim ln R(t) =
3
t
f1 (t)
f2 (t)
limt f1 (t)
0
= .,
limt f2 (t)
0
. l H opital

f1 (t)
=3
t f2 (t)
lim
limt ln R(t) = 3 limt R(t) = e3 .

1 e3 = e3 .
3.6
83
3.6
3.1 :
f (x, y) =
x2 y 4
+ y 4 )3
(x2
(x, y) (0, 0). ()

y = mx () y = kx2 .
xy
3.2 : f (x, y) = x2 +y2 , (x, y)

(0, 0).
3.3 : (0, 0).
y
x
,
ii) f (x, y) = x x2 +y2 ,
i) f (x, y) = x+y
y
iii ) f (x, y) = x2 + 2
x
+y 2
xy 2
iv )f (x, y) = (x2 +y4 )3 .
x4 +y 4
3.4 : x2 +y2 < , 0 < (x2 + y 2 ) < 2

.
3.5 :
f (x, y) =
sin(x+y 2 )
x+y
(0, 0).
3.6 :
f (x, y) =
sin(x2 + y 2 )
,
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2 6= 0. f (0, 0), f
(0, 0);
3.7 : (x, y) = xy ln(xy), xy > 0.
(x, y) = 0, xy = 0. ;
x2 y 2
3.8 : f (x, y) = 1+x2 +y2 , x2 + y 2 > 0

f (x, y) = 1, x = y = 0. f
.
3.9 : f (x, y) =
(x2y)(2xy)
,
x2 +y 2
x2 + y 2 > 0
f (x, y) = 0, x = y = 0. f
x y = 0, y x = 0
.
1
3.10 : f (x, y) = e xy x 6= y . f (x, y)

R2 ;
84
3.7 M athematica
3.7.1
.
Mathematica
, f (x).

f (x) =
1
.
x2 + 1

(3, 3). 0 1.
Clear[f]
f[x_] := 1/(1 + xb2);
Plot[f[x], {x, 3, 3}]
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-3
-2
-1
3
2
3.11. 1/(1 + x ).
0,
x 0.
.
-0.1 0.1, -0.01 0.01 ...
Random
.
3.7 M athematica
85
pinak = Table[Random[Real, {10bn, 10bn}], {n, 1, 8}]

{0 .0532542 , 0 .00803469 , 0 .000720242 , 0 .0000919018 ,
8 .63277 10 6 , 5 .15603 10 7 , 6 .66202 10 8 ,
6 .76187 10 9 }
.
fpinak = Map[f, pinak]

{0 .997172 , 0 .999935 , 0 .999999 , 1 ., 1 ., 1 ., 1 ., 1 .}
x
f.
times = Table[{pinak[[i]], fpinak[[i]]}, {i, 1, 8}];

TableForm[times]
0.0532542
0.00803469
0.000720242
0.0000919018
8.63277 106
5.15603 107
6.66202 108
6.76187 109
0.997172
0.999935
0.999999
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
,
f 0 1, (x, y)
(0,0) > 0,
1.
3.7.2
Mathematica
. :
Limit[f [x], x > a].
86
f (x) x a.
.
/. .
, cos(x2 ) 0
.
Cos[xb2]/.x 0
1
,
sin(x)/x x = 0.
t = Sin[x]/x
Sin[x ]
x
x 0, 0/0
.
t/.x 0
P ower :: inf y : Inf inite expression
1
encountered.
0
Inf inity :: indet : Indeterminate expression 0 ComplexInf inity

encountered.
Indeterminate
Limit, .
Limit[t, x 0]
1
,
. , sin(1/x) 0
. ,
0 -1 1. Limit Interval,
.
3.7 M athematica
87
Interval[{xmin , xmax }]
sin(1/x) 0,
Mathematica .
Limit[Sin[1/x], x 0]
Interval[{1 , 1 }]
Limit
.
Limit[x f[x], x 0]
Limit[x f [x ], x 0 ]
3.7.3

, . Limit Direction
.
Limit[expr, x x0 , Direction 1]
x x0 ,
limxx (expr).
0
Limit[expr, x x0 , Direction 1]
, x x0 , limxx+ (expr).
0
1/x 0,
.
.
Limit[1/x, x 0, Direction 1]
Limit[1/x, x 0, Direction 1]
88
75
50
25
-1
-0.5
0.5
-25
-50
-75
-100
3.12. 1/x.
3.7.4
Limit . ,
.
NLimit,
.
NLimit[expr, x x0 ]
NLimit Mathematica, "NumericalMath".
.
<< NumericalMathNLimit
x5 ex .
Limit.
Limit[xb5 Exp[x], x ]
Limit[x 5 Exp[x ], x ]
NLimit .
NLimit[xb5 Exp[x], x ]
4 .44089 10 16
3.7 M athematica
89
3.7.5
Limit NLimit
, . Limit
f (x, y).
Limit[Limit[f [x, y], x x0 ], y y0 ]

Limit[Limit[f [x, y], y y0 ], x x0 ]
3.1
sin(x)+sin(y)
tan(2x)+sin(y) .
(0,0).
Clear[f, k1 , k2 ]
f[x_, y_] := (Sin[x] + Sin[y])/(Tan[2 x] + Sin[y]);
k1 = Limit[Limit[f[x, y], x 0], y 0]
1
k2 = Limit[Limit[f[x, y], y 0], x 0]
1
2
(k1 6= k2 ,) f (x, y)
(0,0).

(0,0).
3.7.6

. ,

.
90
0.4
0.2
2
1
0
-1
-0.4
-0.2
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4 -0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.13.
f (x, y) = (sin(x) + sin(y))/(tan(2x) + sin(y)).

xy
, x2 +y2
(0,0).
Clear[f]
f[x_, y_] := x y/(xb2 + yb2)
p = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 2, 2}, {y, 2, 2}, PlotPoints 30,
c = ContourPlot[f[x, y], {x, 2, 2}, {y, 2, 2}, PlotPoints 60,
ContourShading False, DisplayFunction Identity];
Show[GraphicsArray[{p, c}]]
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.25
0
-0.25
-0.5
-0.4
-0.2
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
00.2
-0.4
0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.14.
f (x, y) = x2xy
.
+y 2
(0,0).
(0,0) f
3.7 M athematica
91
x, y 0.
. -0.1
0.1, -0.01 0.01 ...
pinak = Table[Random[Real, {10bn, 10bn}], {n, 1, 10}, {2}]

{{0 .0243009 , 0 .0362441 }, {0 .00692739 , 0 .00427053 },
{0 .000516893 , 0 .000551842 }, {0 .0000215508 , 0 .0000991516 },
{5 .31846 10 6 , 4 .87836 10 6 }, {7 .4282 10 7 ,
5 .98733 10 7 }, {3 .5441 10 8 , 2 .1357 10 8 },
{2 .68296 10 9 , 8 .40101 10 9 }, {9 .70293 10 10 ,
2 .68335 10 10 }, {2 .32875 10 12 , 5 .95364 10 11 }}
g, x
y x, y, f [x, y],
.
g[{x_, y_}] = {x, y, f[x, y]};

x y
f. x,
y f (x, y).
times = Map[g, pinak];

TableForm[times]
0.0243009
0.00692739
0.000516893
0.0000215508
5.31846 106
7.4282 107
3.5441 108
2.68296 109
9.70293 1010
2.32875 1012
0.0362441
0.00427053
0.000551842
0.0000991516
4.87836 106
5.98733 107
2.1357 108
8.40101 109
2.68335 1010
5.95364 1011
0.462546
0.446706
0.498932
0.207547
0.498141
0.488596
0.442074
0.289804
0.256903
0.0390549
f
(0,0) , .
3.14.
92
3.7.7 Mathematica
1.
f (x, y) =
x2 y 2
.
x2 y 2 + (x y)2
, , . ;
Clear[f]
f[x_, y_] := xb2 yb2/(xb2 yb2 + (x y)b2).
y = x
f[x, y]/.y x
1
y = x
f[x, y]/.y x
x4
4x 2 + x 4
Limit[%, x 0]
0
(0,0) .
.
Limit[Limit[f[x, y], x 0], y 0] ==

Limit[Limit[f[x, y], y 0], x 0] == 0
True
3.7 M athematica
93
0.4
0.2
1
0.75
0.5
0.4
0.25
0.2
0
0
-0.4
-0.2 0
-0.2
0.2
-0.4
0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.15.
f (x, y) =
x2 y 2
.
x2 y 2 +(xy)2
2. f (x, y) =
2x5 +2y 3 (2x2 y 2 )

(x2 +y 2 )2
, (x, y) (0, 0).
Clear[f, x, y]
f[x_, y_] := (2 xb5 + 2 yb3(2 xb2 yb2))/(xb2 + yb2)b2
.
Limit[Limit[f[x, y], x 0], y 0] ==

Limit[Limit[f[x, y], y 0], x 0] == 0
True
.
Clear[h, r, thita]
x = r Cos[thita];
y = r Sin[thita];
h[r_] = Simplify[f[x, y]]
2r (Cos[thita]5 + 2Cos[thita]2 Sin[thita]3 Sin[thita]5 )
h[r]/. r 0
0
.
94
0.4
0.2
1
0.5
0
0.4
-0.5
0.2
-1
0
-0.4
-0.2 0
-0.2
0.2
-0.4
0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.16.
f (x, y) =
2x5 +2y 3 (2x2 y 2 )

.
(x2 +y 2 )2
x2 y
3. f (x, y) = x4 +y2
.
Clear[f]
f[x_, y_] := xb2 y/(xb4 + yb2)
f[x, y]/. y m x2
mx 4
x 4 + m2 x 4
Simplify[%]
m
1 + m2
,
m.
4.
f (x, y) =
1+xy
x2 +y2 x2 + y 2 > 0
(0, 0).
Clear[f, g]
x = y = 0
3.7 M athematica
95
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.25
0
-0.25
-0.5
-0.4
-0.2
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
00.2
0.4 -0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.17.
f (x, y) =
x2 y
.
x4 +y 2
0.4
0.2
30
20
10
0
-0.4
-0.2
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4 -0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.18.
4.
f ,
M athematica .
, .
f[x_, y_] := (1 + x y)/(xb2 + yb2)/; xb2 + yb2 > 0

f[x_, y_] := 1/; x = y = 0
f[x_, y_] := If[xb2 + yb2 > 0, (1 + x y)/(xb2 + yb2), 1]

g
f
f .
g[x_, y_] := (1 + x y)/(xb2 + yb2)

, .
96
Limit[Limit[g[x, y], x 0], y 0] ==

Limit[Limit[g[x, y], y 0], x 0] ==
True
f (0, 0) ,
.
f[0, 0] = 1 6=
True
5. ( )
f (x, y) =
x4 + y 4
(x + y)4 + x3 y 5
Clear[f]
f[x_, y_] := (xb4 + yb4)/((x + y)b4 + xb3 yb5)
f[x, y]/.y m x
x 4 + m4 x 4
m 5 x 8 + (x + mx )4
FullSimplify[%]
1 + m4
(1 + m)4 + m 5 x 4
%/.x 0
1 + m4
(1 + m)4
6.
xy 2 z 2
(x,y,z)(0,0,0) (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2
lim
Clear[f, x, y, z, r, phi, thita, h]
3.7 M athematica
97
0.4
0.2
20
10
0
-10
-0.4
-0.2
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4 -0.4
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2 0 0.20.4
3.19.
f (x, y) =
x4 +y 4
.
(x+y)4 +x3 y 5
f[x_, y_, z_] := x yb2 zb2/(xb2 + yb2 + zb2)b2

CoordinatesToCartesian[{r, phi, thita}, Spherical]
{rCos[thita]Sin[phi ], rSin[phi ]Sin[thita], rCos[phi ]}
x = r Cos[thita] Sin[phi];
y = r Sin[phi] Sin[thita];
z = r Cos[phi];
h[r_] = Simplify[f[x, y, z]]
rCos[phi ]2 Cos[thita]Sin[phi ]3 Sin[thita]2
h[r]/.r 0
0
3.7.8
Limit
.
N Limit
Direction
98
N umericalM ath N Limit

NLimit.
4.

Reinhold Niebuhr
, ,
,

.
Vilfredo Pareto
4.1
f (x, y) D R2
M0 (x0 , y0 ) D, y
y0 =, f (x, y)
f (x, y0 ).
f (x, y), x,
x f = f (x0 + x, y0 ) f (x0 , y0 )
x x
(M0 , ), > 0.

,
.
f (x, y)
Ox M0 (x f /x),
x 0 (f /x),
f
x
x f
.
x0 x
= lim
M0
100
(f /x)M0 f
x y . ,
f (x, y) Oy
f
y
= lim
M0
y0
y f
.
y

f x, .. fx x f .
, ,
df /dx .
:
C1 f (x, y0 )
f (x, y) y = y0
( 4.1),

M (x0 , y0 ) Oxy.
, f (x, y) = 4 x2 2y 2
x y (1,1) :
z
z=4-x 2-2y2
C1
y=1
(1,1,1)
(1,1)
2
x
4.1. (f /x)(1,1) .
z(x, y) = 4 x2 y 2 y = 1
C1 (z(x, 1) = 2 x2 ). (1,1)
C1 y = 1
(xy). x y
:
4.1
f
x
f
y

1,1
= (2x)1,1 = 2,
1,1
= (4y)1,1 = 4.
101
3
4.1: u = x2 y + exy
(u/x), (u/y).

u
x
u
y
= 2xy y 3 exy
= x2 3xy 2 exy
f
D (M0 , )
D,
M0 , ..
2f
x2
2f
xy
M0
=
x
f
x
,
M0
2f
y 2
M0
=
y
f
y
M0
M0
=
x
f
y
M0
...
:
1 =
2f
xy
2 =
2f
;
yx
, Schwarz.
4.1: (f /x), (f /y)
( 2 f /xy) M0 , ( 2 f /yx) :
2 f (x0 , y0 )
2 f (x0 , y0 )
=
xy
yx
102
:
.
.
f (x) x
x,
f (x + x) f (x) = xf (x + x)
0 < < 1.
M (x0 , y0 ) D
fxy fyx f .
A = f (x0 + x, y0 + y) f (x0 , y0 + y)
f (x0 + x, y0 ) + f (x0 , y0 )
x y x y .

F (x, y) = f (x + x, y) f (x, y)
(x, y) = f (x, y + y) f (x, y)
(4.1)
A = F (x0 , y0 + y) F (x0 , y0 )
= (x0 + x, y0 ) (x0 , y0 ).
A = Fy (x0 , y0 + 1 y)y
= x (x0 + 2 x, y0 )x,
0 < 1 , 2 < 1
(4.2)
(4.1), (4.2)
A = [fy (x0 + x, y0 + 1 y) fy (x0 , y0 + 1 y)]y
= [fx (x0 + 2 x, y0 + y) fx (x0 + 2 x, y0 )]x
4.1
103
A = xyfxy (x0 + 3 x, y0 + 1 y)
= xyfyx (x0 + 2 x, y0 + 4 y), 0 < 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 < 1.
fxy (x0 + 3 x, y0 + 1 y) = fyx (x0 + 2 x, y0 + 4 y).
(4.3)
fxy fyx M0 (x0 , y0 )
fxy (x0 + 3 x, y0 + 1 y) = fxy (x0 , y0 ) + O1 (x, y)

fyx (x0 + 2 x, y0 + 4 y) = fyx (x0 , y0 ) + O2 (x, y)
O1 O2 x y.
(x, y) (0, 0),
O1 0, O2 0
(4.3)
fxy (x0 , y0 ) = fyx (x0 , y0 ),
(4.4)
.
f (x, y) fx fy ,
f (x, y)
fxx , fxy , fyy , fyx n- 2n .
4.2: (f /x), (f /y)
(f /z) f (x, y, z) = exy ln z.

: y z
x,
f
x
= yexy ln z.
(f /y) = xexy ln z (f /z) = exy /z

4.3: f (x, y) = x3 3xy 2
2f
2f
+
=0
x2
y 2
(4.5)
104
(4.5) Laplace, Laplace .

:
x (f /x) = 3x2 3y 2
( 2 f /x2 ) = 6x, ( 2 f /y 2 ) = 6x, Laplace
.
4.4: y = sin(xat)+cos(x+at)

2y
2y
= a2 2 .
2
t
x
: x :
y
= cos(x at) sin(x + at)
x
:
2y
= sin(x at) cos(x + at).
x2
:
2y
= a2 [ sin(x at) + cos(x + at)].
t2
.
4.2
, .
, ,
.
, u(x, y) = 2xy/(x2 + y 2 ) u(0, 0) = 0,
,
.
4.3
105
.
.
, f (x, y)
, .
4.2: f (x, y) fx fy D R2 ,

|fx (x, y)| < M
|fy (x, y)| < M,
M x y , f (x, y)
D.
: D
(x, y) (x + h, y + k), ,
(x+h, y) D.
,
f (x + h, y + k) f (x, y) = [f (x + h, y + k) f (x + h, y)]
+ [f (x + h, k) f (x, y)]
f (x + h, y + k) f (x, y) = kfy (x + h, y + 1 k)
+ hfx (x + 2 h, y).
|f (x + h, y + k) f (x, y)| (|k| + |h|)M.

f (x, y) .
f (x, y)
M0 (x0 , y0 ) ,
M0 .
4.3
y = f (x)
f (x)
106
x0 .
f (x)
x0 .
f (x)
x0 ,
lim
h0
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
=A
h
f (x) x0 .
f x0 f = f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) = Ah + h,
lim = 0.
h0
x + h = , f ()
() = f (x0 ) + ( x0 )A + O( x0 )
( x0 ), 1
f () () = ( x0 ) = O( x0 ).
() = f (x0 ) +
f (x0 )( x0 ),
f x0 .
, f x0 ,
f = f (x0 ) h = f x h = x,
h.
, . , f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 )

p
f (x0 + h, y0 + k) = Ah + Bk + C + h2 + k2
A, B C h k 0,
h, k 0. , f (x0 +
h, y0 + k) (x0 + h, y0 + k)

Ah + Bk + C , O( h2 + k2 ).
f (x0 + h, y0 + k), ,
f (x0 , y0 ),
x y.
A = fx (x0 , y0 ), B = fy (x0 , y0 ) C = f (x0 , y0 ).
1

( x0 )n n 2
4.3
107
1. h, k 0 f (x0 +k, y0 +h) = f (x0 , y0 ). f

(x0 , y0 ).
2. k = 0
f (x0 + h, y0 ) f (x0 , y0 )
= A + ,
h
B. h 0

f
A=
x M0

B=
f
y
M0
4.1: f (x, y)
M0 (x0 , y0 )
lim
M M0
f (M ) T (M )
=0
|M M0 |
M (x, y) M0 (x0 , y0 )
T (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) +
f
x
(x x0 ) +
f
y
(y y0 )
4.3: f (x, y) x
y (x0 , y0 ),
f (x, y) (x0 , y0 ).
:
:
f = f (x0 + h, y0 + k) f (x0 , y0 )
= [f (x0 + h, y0 + k) f (x0 + h, y0 )]
+ [f (x0 + h, y0 ) f (x0 , y0 )]
= hfx (x + 1 h, y + k) + kfy (x0 + h, y0 + 2 k)
108
0 < 1 , 2 < 1. fx , fy
fx (x0 + 1 h, y0 + k) = fx (x0 , y0 ) + 1
fy (x0 + h, y0 + 2 k) = fy (x0 , y0 ) + 2 ,
1 , 2 0 h, k 0. ,
f = hfx (x0 , y0 ) + kfy (x0 , y0 ) + 1 + 2

h = x k = y,
f =
p
f
f
x +
y + O( h2 + k2 ).
x
y
, f (x, y)
M0 .

.
4.4: f (x, y)
M0 (x0 , y0 ) , . f (x, y)
M (x0 , y0 ) ,
.

, f D R2
D,
f D. ,
,

, .
:
f (x, y) = g(x) + g(y),
g(t) =
2
t sin(1/t), t 6= 0
0,
t = 0
t = 0
g(t) g(0)
t2 sin(1/t)
=
= t sin(1/t)
t
t
4.4
109
fx (0, 0) = fy (0, 0) = 0, limt0 g (t)

sin(1/t)) t 0. ,
fx (x, y), fy (x, y) (x 6= 0, y 6= 0),
(0, 0)
4.1 ,
f (x, y) = x2 sin(1/x) + y 2 sin(1/y) T (x, y) = 0
|f (x, y) T (x, y)|

|x2 sin(1/x) + y 2 sin(1/y)|
p
p
=
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
2
2
p
x +y
p
= x2 + y 2 .
x2 + y 2
|f (x, y) T (x, y)|

p
= 0,
(x,y)(0,0)
x2 + y 2
lim
, f (x, y)
(0, 0).
4.4

f (x, y), f , x y
( 1 , 2 ).
f df
df =
f
x
dx +
f
y
dy.
x = 1 y = 0
x = 0 y = 1.
( 6) ,
f (x, y).
f
df =
dx +
dy f (x, y)
x
y
110
d=
dx +
dy
x
y
.
f1 f2 (
n-) c1 , c2 ,
:
d(c1 f1 + c2 f2 ) = c1 df1 + c2 df2

d(f1 f2 ) = f1 df2 + f2 df1
f2 df1 f1 df2
d(f1 /f2 ) =
f22
( f2 6= 0)

f
f
dx +
dy
x
y

f
f
f
f
=
dx +
dy dx +
dx +
dy dy
x x
y
y x
y
2f
2f
2f
2
=
(dx)
+
2
dxdy
+
(dy)2 .
x2
xy
y 2
d2 f = d
(4.6)
,

2
d f=
f
f
dx +
dy
x
y
2
m- :
m
d f=
f
f
dx +
dy
x
y
m
(4.7)
(4.7)
.
:
P (x, y)dx + Q(x, y)dy
(4.8)
f ,
4.4
111
df = P dx + Qdy,
, ;

(P/y) (Q/x)
.
P (x, y)
Q(x, y)
=
(4.9)
y
x
f
(4.7) ( ).
f
f
=P
x
f (x, y) =
P (x, y)dx + R(y)
(4.10)
(4.9) y
fy =
Z
P (x, y)dx
+
y
dR
= Q(x, y)
dy
R.
f (x, y)

f (x, y) =
P (t, y)dt +
a
Q(a, t)dt
a, b D Px
Qy .
.
4.5:
(xy + 1)
dx
dy
+ (xy + 1)
x
y
,
.
: P = (xy + 1)/x Q = (xy + 1)/y
(4.9).
112
f
=P
x
f = xy + ln |x| + R(y). f y
Q R = ln |y| + c (c=).
f (x, y) = xy + ln |xy| + c.
4.5
. ,
B

. B B
,
. = B/(B B),

(B, B)

dB + dB,
B
B
dB dB B B.
d =
B
=
2
B
(B B)
d =
B
=
2
B
(B B)
BdB
+ BdB
.
(B B)2
, ,
.
dB dB
4.6: () z = f (x, y) = x2 + 3xy y 2 ,
dz, () x
2 2,05 y 3 2,69 dz
z .
: ()
dz =
z
x
dx +
z
y
dy = (2x + 3y)dx + (3x 2y)dy.
4.6
113
x = 2, y = 3 x = dx = 0.05, y = dy = 0, 04
dz = 0, 65,
z = f (2, 05, 2, 96) f (2, 3) = 0, 6449. z dz, dz
.
4.7: p
9(1, 95)2 + (8, 1)2 .
: f (x, y) =
9x2 + y 2
1, 95 2 8.1 8 f (2, 8) =
10.
(2,8),
p
(f /x)(2,8) = 9x/ 9x2 + y 2 = 18/10 = 1, 8
p
(f /y)(2,8) = y/ 9x2 + y 2 = 8/10 = 0, 8
f = (1, 8)dx + (0, 8)dy, dx = 0, 05 dy = 0, 1.

f = 0, 01.
f (1.95, 8.1) = f (2.8) + f = 10 0.01 = 9.99.

.
4.6
4.1 (x, y, z, t) = sin(x + y + z c 3t)

c2 [xx + yy + zz ] = tt .
:
xx = yy = zz = sin[x + y + z c 3t]
tt = 3c2 sin[x + y + z c 3t].
c2 [xx + yy + zz ] = tt .
114
4.2: z = xy + xe x
z
z
x x
+ y y
= z + xy.
:
y
z
y
= y + e x (1 ),
x
x
y
z
= x + ex
y
y
z
z
z
z
+y
= 2xy + xe x x
+y
= z + xy
x
y
x
y
4.3
f (x, y) =
xy
x2 +y2 , (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
0,
(x, y) = (0, 0)
, f (0, 0),
f f
x , y (0, 0).
: x = cy, (c 6= 0)
f (x, y) ,
f (x, y) =
cy 2
c
= 2
,
2
2
2
c y +y
c +1
y 6= 0. , (x, y) (0, 0)
, f (x, y) c/(c2 + 1).
c, f (x, y)
(x, y) (0, 0)
.
f x = 0, y = 0.
,
f (0, 0)
f (h, 0) f (0, 0)
00
= lim
= lim
=0
h0
h0 h
x
h
f (0, 0)
f (0, k) f (0, 0)
00
= lim
= lim
= 0,
k0
k0
y
k
k
f
x , y (0, 0) .
4.4
4.6
115

2
1
cos
1
c u + u + 2 u +
= utt .
u +
u
sin
sin2
2
sin(kt)
u =

, k 2 = c2 k 2 .
: u u = u =
u = 0,
u =
k
sin(k t)
cos(k t)
u =
+
k2
k
k
sin(k t) 2 cos(k t) 2 cos(k t)
2
sin(k t)
3
utt =
2
sin(k t).
u , u , utt
2
k
2k
2
c sin(k t) 2 cos(k t) + 3 sin(k t)+

2k
2
2
cos(k
t)
sin(k
t)
=
sin(k t)
2
3
c2 k2 = 2 .
2f
2f
2f
4.5 ) f (x, y) = ln(ex + ey ) x2 + y2 + 2 xy = 0.

y
z
z
) z = xysin( x ), x2 x
+ xy y
= 2xz .
:
)
116
ex
f
ey
f
= x
,
=
,
x
e + ey y
ex + ey
ex (ex + ey ) ex ex
ex ey
2f
=
=
,
x2
(ex + ey )2
(ex + ey )2
2f
ey (ex + ey ) ey ey
ex ey
=
=
,
y 2
(ex + ey )2
(ex + ey )2
2f
ex ey
= x
.
xy
(e + ey )2
.
)
y
y
y
y y2
y
z
= ysin + xy 2 cos = ysin cos ,
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
z
y
1
y
y
y
= xsin + xy cos = xsin + ycos .
y
x
x
x
x
x
x2
z
z
y
y
y
y
+ xy
= x2 ysin xy 2 cos + x2 ysin + xy 2 cos
x
y
x
x
x
x
y
= 2x2 ysin = 2xz
x
4.6:
f (x, y) =
xy(x2 y 2 )
x2 +y2 , (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
0,
(x, y) = (0, 0)
fxy (0, 0) 6= fyx (0, 0).

: (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
fx (x, y) =
y(x4 + 4x2 y 2 y 4 )
. (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
(x2 + y 2 )2
(0, 0)
f (h, 0) f (0, 0)
=0
h0
h
fx (0, 0) = lim
4.6
117
fx (0, k) fx (0, 0)
k 0
= lim
= 1
k0
k
k
fxy (0, 0) = lim
k0
fyx (0, 0) = 1. fxy (0, 0) 6= fyx (0, 0).
r
4.7 x = r cos , y = r sin x
r , x .

x
r

r
.
x
: r
x p
= r cos r ( )
x
=
cos
r
=
x2 + y 2 = tan1 xy :
r
r
x
=p
x2
y2
x
= cos .
r
x
r

r
x
= cos2
1. ,
.
4.8: (x, y) =
sin(nx)eny ( n ) Laplace
xx + yy = 0.
: x = n cos(nx)eny , xx = n2 sin(nx)eny , , yy = n2 sin(nx)eny .

N
X
sin(nx)eny
n=1
Laplace.
4.9:
118
f (x, y) =
2xy 2
x2 +y4 , (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
0,
(x, y) = (0, 0)
: () f (0, 0), R2 .
() fx (0, 0) fy (0, 0) .
() f (0, 0).
: () x = my 2 ,

f (my 2 , y) =
2m
,
m+1
, y x
m. , f
.
()
fx (0, 0) = lim
h0
f (h, 0) 0
=0
h0
f (0, h) 0
0
lim = 0
h0
h 0 h0 h
fy (0, 0) = lim
.
() , f (0, 0), .
4.10: f (x1 , .., xn ) = (x1 2 + x22 + ... + x2n )

2n
2
2f
2f
+
.
.
.
+
=0
x2n
x21
: f x1
n
n
2f
= (2 n)(x21 + ... + x2n ) 2 n(n 2)x21 (x21 + ... + x2n ) 2
2
x1
4.6
119
.
4.11:
G(x, y, z) = p
1
x2
+ y2 + z2
2 G(x, y, z) 2 G(x, y, z) 2 G(x, y, z)

+
+
=0
x2
y 2
z 2
:
3
Gxx = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 + 3x2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2

Gyy = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 + 3y 2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
Gzz = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 + 3z 2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
Gxx + Gyy + Gzz = 0
G
Laplace.
4.12:

3
27 1021.
1
:
f (x, y) = x 2 y 3 .
3
25 = 5 1000 = 10 f (25, 1000) = 50.
1 1
f (x, y) = x 2 y 3 x =
25, y = 1000 x = 27, y = 1021.
df =
1 1 1
1 1 2
x 2 y 3 x + x 2 y 3 y
2
3
x = 25, y = 1000, x = 2, y = 21, df
df =
1
2
1 1
1 1
25 2 1000 3 2 + 25 2 1000 3 21 = 2.35
2
3
2.35.
f (27, 10210 f (25, 1000) + f = 50 + 2.35 = 52.35.
120
4.13 : ,
(x+y)dx
(xy)3
(x+y)dy
(xy)3
: f1 dx + f2 dy .

f2
f1
=
.
y
x

x + y
(x y)3
=
x
x + y
(x y)3
(x y)3 (x + y)3(x y)2 (1)

=
(x y)6
(x y)3 (x + y)3(x y)2
(x y)6
x + y = x y (x + y) = (x + y) = 1.
4.14 : ,
.
() sin
y
dx +
x
y 2 x2
dy
y
() 2z(xdx + ydy) + (x2 + y 2 )dz

() (y + z)dx + (z + x)dy + (x + y)dz
:
1 y
1
1
1
|x|
sin
=q
= p
2
y
x
x
x x2 y 2
1 xy 2
!
p
y 2 x2
1 1 2x
x
1
p
=
= p
.
2
2
2
x
y
y2 y x
y y x2
()
,
.
4.6
121
()
2xzdx + 2yzdy + (x2 + y 2 )dz = f1 dx + f2 dy + f3 dz

f1
f2
=
y
x
f2
f3
=
z
y
f3
f1
=
.
x
z

f (x, y, z) =
2tzdt +
a
2tzdt +
= x2 z + y 2 z + c1 ,
(a2 + b2 )dt
c1 .
()
f1
f2
=
y
x
f3
f2
=
z
y
f3
f1
=
x
z

f (x, y, z) =
(y + z)dt +
a
(z + a)dt +
= xy + yz + zx + c1 .
(a + b)dt
4.15: ,,c
f
.
() (2xy 2 + 3y cos ax)dx + (2x2 y + sin 3x)dy
122
()(6xy y 2 )dx + (2xey x2 )dy

()(z 3 ay)dx + (by 2 3x)dy + cxz 2 dz
: () ,
df = P dx + Qdy
P =
f
,
x
Q=
f
.
y
(2xy 2 3y cos x)
= 4xy + 3 cos x
y

(2x2 y + sin 3x)

= 4xy + 3 cos 3x
x
= 3 f.
f (x, y) = x2 y 2 + y sin 3x + c
() ,
f (x, y).
() ,
= 3 c = 3

b
f x, y) = z 3 x 3xy + y 3 + c.
3
4.7
4.1: :
2
xy
i) f (x, y) = xy2 xy , ii) f (x, y) = x+y

4.2: :
4.7
123
1
x
x+2y y 2 ) 2
i) f (x, y) = x2 +y
2 , ii) f (x, y) = (e
4.3 :
(i)z =
ln(x2 +y 2 )
,
2
(iii)z = xy ,
(ii)z = x sin(x + y) + y cos(x + y)

y
(iv)z = tan1 [ 1+x
2]
4.4: :
1
(i)u = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 , (ii)u = xyz

(iii)u = exyz ,
(iv)u = ln(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
4.5: F (x, y) = y 2 + xyln(xy)

yFxy xFxx Fx = 0.
x ln(x2 +y 2 )
4.6: F (x, y) = 2tan1 ( y ) x

Laplace Fxx + Fyy = 0.
4.7: f = 3x2 +
xy 2 + y 4 .
4.8: z, dz =
(2xz)1 dx + (2yz)1 dy .
4.9: z = x2 y + ex sin x . dz
x = 1, y = 2 . dz dx = e, dy = e2
4.10: . , .
(i)(x2 y + y 2 + 2xy)dx + (x3 + 2x2 y + x2 + 2xy)dy,

(ii) sin 2x cos2 ydx + sin2 x sin 2ydy
(iii)(y + 1/x)dx + (x + 1/y)dy,
(iv)2xzdx + 2yzdy + (x2 + y 2 )dz.
124
4.11: F (x, y) =
ax2 + 2bxy + xy 3 a, b, c .
4.12: :
(i)f (x, y) = x2 y 2 + 3y 4 ,
(ii)f (x, y) = xy/(x + y)
(iii)f (x, y) = ln(x2 + y 2 + 1)/2, (iv)f (x, y) = y sin x + x sin y.
4.13:
F (x, y)dx + G(x, y)dy
G
F
y = x .
y
4.14: F (x, y) = xg( x ) x2 y 2

: xFx + yFy = F x2 y 2 .
4.15: z = cos(x+y)
z
z
x y = 0.
z = cos(xy);
4.16:
f (x, y) = x3 y + exy .
2 2
4.17: () u(x, t) = e k t sin(kx)

ut = 2 uxx . ;
() f g ,
u(x, y) = f (x + at) + g(x at)
utt = 2 uxx ;
4.18: z = xey + yex :
3z
3z
3z
3z
+
=
x
+
y
.
x3 y 3
xy 2
x2 y
4.8 M athematica
4.8.1
Mathematica . D
, Dt ,
.
xn . .
4.8 M athematica
125
D[xbn, x]
nx 1 +n
D[xn , x] ,
n x. Dt , .
f
D[f, x] x , Dt[f, x]
df
dx .
Dt xn n
x. Dt[n, x] dn
dx .
Dt[xbn, x]
nx 1 +n + x n Dt[n, x ]Log[x ]
4.8.2
f (x, y) Mathematica
D[f [x, y], var],

f [x, y] var.

D[f [x, y], var1, var2] ,

f [x, y]
var2 var1.

D[f [x, y], {var, n}] ,

n-
f [x, y] var.
4.1 : f (x, y) = sin(xy).
f
2f
2f
2f
x , y , xy , yx x2 .
f.
126
Clear[f]
f[x_, y_] := Sin[x y];
D Mathematica
:
D[f[x, y], x]
yCos[xy]
D[f[x, y], y]
xCos[xy]
D[f[x, y], x, y]
Cos[xy] xySin[xy]
D[f[x, y], y, x]
Cos[xy] xySin[xy]
D[f[x, y], {x, 2}]
y 2 Sin[xy]
D
. y
x.
D[xb2 + yb2, x]
2x

:
1. y y[x].
y x, y[x] .
D[xb2 + y[x]b2]
2x + 2y[x ]y [x ]
4.8 M athematica
127
2. NonConstants {y}.
D, y
x. D[y, x, N onConstants {y}]
y [x].
D[xb2 + yb2, x, NonConstants {y}]

2x + 2yD [y, x , NonConstants {y}]
4.1.
D[f, x]
D[f, x1 , x2 ]
f.
x

2f
.
x1 x2
D[f, {x, n}]

D[f, x, N onConstants
{v1 , v2 , . . .}]
n-
f
x
n
f.
xn
vi x.
4.8.3
Dt[f, x] f x. D
,
Dt ,
x
Constants.
.
x
(x2 + y 2 ) y
x.
D[xb2 + yb2, x]
2x
128
d
dx
(x2 + y 2 ), y
x. D[y, x] y [x].
Dt[xb2 + yb2, x]
2x + 2yD [y, x ]
y [x].
y/ :
y.
y/ : Dt[y, x] = 0;
y x.
Dt[xb2 + yb2, x]
2x
y
Constants {y}.
Clear[y]
Dt[xb2 + yb2, x, Constants {y}]
2x
SetAttributes[c, Constant] c
.
SetAttributes[c, Constant]
c
.
Dt[c xb2 + yb2, x]

2cx + 2yDt[y, x ]
c[x] .
Dt[c[x] xb2 + yb2, x]

2c[x ]x + 2yDt[y, x ]
4.8 M athematica
129
Dt
.
, Dt ,
.
Dt[xb2 + yb2]
2xDt[x ] + 2yDt[y]
Dt[x] Dt[y]
.
%/.{Dt[x] dx, Dt[y] dy}

2xdx + 2ydy
4.2.
Dt[f ]
Dt[f, x]
Dt[f, x1 , x2 , . . .]
Dt[f, x, Constants]
{c1 , c2 , . . .}
y/ : Dt[y, x] = 0
SetAttributes[c, Constant]
df .

df
.
dx

.
ci
.
dy
dx
= 0.
c .
4.8.4
.
D[Log[x]b2, x]
2Log[x ]
x
f
f.
130
D[f[x]b2, x]
2f [x ]f [x ]
g , .
D[g[x, y], x, x, y]
g {2 ,1 } [x , y]

3 g(x,y)
.
2 y
4.8.5 Mathematica
1. :
o
() sin(30 30 ) + tan(45 30 ), ()
3.9
4.1
Clear[f, df]
f[x_, y_] := Sin[x] + Tan[y]
df = Dt[f[x, y]]
Cos[x ]Dt[x ] + Dt[y]Sec[y]2
df/.{x /6, y /4, Dt[x] 0.0087, Dt[y] 0.0087}
0 .0249344
f[/6, /4] + %
1 .52493
)
Clear[f, df]
r
x
f[x_, y_] :=
y
4.8 M athematica
131
df = Dt[f[x, y]]
Dt[x ]
y
xDt[y]
y2
q
x
y
df/.{x 4, y 4, Dt[x] 0.1, Dt[y] 0.1}

0 .025
f[4, 4] + %
0 .975
y
y
2. z = xcos x + tan x x2 zxx + 2xyzxy + y 2 zyy = 0.
Clear[z, zxx , zxy , zyy , expr]

z = x Cos[y/x] + Tan[y/x];
zxx = D[z, x, 2];
zyy = D[z, y, 2];
zxy = D[z, x, y];
expr = xb2 zxx + yb2 zyy + 2 x y zxy

Cos[ yx ] 2Sec[ yx ]2 Tan[ yx ]
2
y
+
+
x
x2

yCos[ yx ] Sec[ yx ]2
2ySec[ yx ]2 Tan[ yx ]
2xy
+
x2
x2
x3
2

2y 2 Sec[ yx ]2 Tan[ yx ]
y Cos[ yx ] 2ySec[ yx ]2
2
x
+
+
x3
x3
x4
Simplify[%]
0
yx
3. g(x, y) = f [ xy , zx
xz ]
g
g
g
2
2
2
x x + y y + z z = 0.
Clear[f, g]
132
g[x_, y_] := f[(y x)/(x y), (z x)/(x z)];

xb2 D[g[x, y], x] + yb2 D[g[x, y], y] + zb2 D[g[x, y], z]

1
x + z
2
(0 ,1 ) x + y x + z
z
f
,
+
xz
xz 2
xy
xz

1
x + y
2
(1 ,0 ) x + y x + z
,
y
f
+
xy
xy 2
xy
xz

1
x + z
(0 ,1 ) x + y x + z
x2(
f
,
+
xz
x2z
xy
xz

1
x + y
(1 ,0 ) x + y x + z
f
,
)

xy
x2y
xy
xz
FullSimplify[%]
0
x
4. (x+e y )dx+e y (1 xy )dy

.
Clear[p, q, f, r, c]
p[x_, y_] = x + Exp[x/y];
q[x_, y_] = Exp[x/y](1 x/y);
Simplify[D[p[x, y], y] == D[q[x, y], x]]
True
f[x_, y_] =
p[x, y]dx + r[y]
x
x2
+ E y y + r [y]
2
Simplify[D[f[x, y], y] == q[x, y]]

r [y] == 0
f[x_, y_] = f[x, y]/.r[y] c
c+
x
x2
+Eyy
2
4.8 M athematica
133
5. , z = xey + yex
3z
3z
3z
3z
+
=
x
+
y
x3 y 3
xy 2
x2 y
Clear[z, x, y]
z[x_, y_] := x Exp[y] + y Exp[x]
Simplify[D[z, {y, 3}] + D[z, {x, 3}] == x D[z, x, {y, 2}]+
y D[z, y, {x, 2}]]
True
6.
() g(x, y, z) = 3(x2 + y 2 )z 2z 3 () f (x, y, z) =
1
x2 +y 2 +z 2
2 G(x, y, z) 2 G(x, y, z) 2 G(x, y, z)

+
+
=0
x2
y 2
z 2
G .
()
Clear[f, x, y, z, fxx , fyy , fzz ]

f[x_, y_, z_] := 3(xb2 + yb2) z 2 zb3
fxx = D[f[x, y, z], {x, 2}]
6z
fyy = D[f[x, y, z], {y, 2}]
6z
fzz = D[f[x, y, z], {z, 2}]
12z
fxx + fyy + fzz
0
134
()
Clear[f, x, y, z, fxx , fyy , fzz ]

f[x_, y_, z_] := 1/Sqrt[xb2 + yb2 + zb2]
fxx = D[f[x, y, z], {x, 2}]
1
3x 2
2
2
2
2
5
/2
2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z 2 )3 /2
fyy = D[f[x, y, z], {y, 2}]
3y 2
1
2
2
2
2
5
/2
2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z 2 )3 /2
fzz = D[f[x, y, z], {z, 2}]
3z 2
1
2
2
2
2
5
/2
2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z 2 )3 /2
fxx + fyy + fzz
3x 2
3y 2
3z 2
+
+
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 /2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 /2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 /2
(x 2
3
+ z 2 )3 /2
y2
Simplify[%]
0
4.8.6
D
Dt
SetAttributes
N onConstants
Constants
5.
, ,
.
William Shakespeare
5.1

.
f (x, y) = (x2 + y 2 )1/2

f (u) = u1/2
u = x2 + y 2 .
f (x, y) = xy + log(x/y)
u = xy, v = x/y
f (u, v) = u + log v
... , .

x(t), y(t), z(t)
.
f (t) = f (t, x(t), y(t), z(t)).

:
136
5.1: ,
.
:
z = f (u, v) 1
u(x, y) v(x, y) 2 , z
2 .
:
5.2: u(x, y) v(x, y)
x y 2 f (u, v)
u v 1 ,
z(x, y) = f (u(x, y), v(x, y))
x y.
,

. , f (x, y)
x, y x(u, v) y(u, v)
u, v,
df =
f
f
dx +
dy.
x
y
(5.1)
dx =
x
x
du +
dv
u
v
(5.2)
dy =
y
y
du +
dv.
u
v
(5.3)
dx, dy (5.1),
df =
f x f y
+
x u y u
du +
f x f y
+
x v
y v
dv.
(5.4)
f (u, v) = f (x(u, v), y(u, v))
df =
f
u
du +
f
v
dv.
(5.5)
5.1
137
(5.4) (5.5) ,
f
f x f y
=
+
u
x u y u
f
f x f y
=
+
v
x v
y v
f (t, x, y) = f (t) x(t), y(t),
df
f
f dx f dy
=
+
+
dt
t
x dt
y dt
(5.6)

.

f (x, y) x(u, v), y(u, v)

2f
f x f y
=
+
=
u2
u x u y u

f x
f y
=
+
=
u x u
u y u
2
y f 2 x
2
2f
x
= xf2 x
+
u
xy u
u + x u2 +
2
+ yf2
y
u
2
2f
xy
x
u
y
u
f 2 y
y u2

2 f x 2 2 f y 2
2f
x
y
=
+ 2
+2
2
x
u
y
u
xy u
u
2
2
f x f y
+
+
.
x u2
y u2

2f
2 f x 2 2 f y 2
=
+ 2
v 2
x2 v
y
v

2
f
x
y
f 2 y f 2 x
+2
+
+
yx v
v
y v 2
x v 2
138
2f
=
vu
v

2
= xf2 x
u
2
+ yf2
y
u

f x f y
+
=
x u y u

y
2f
x
x
+
v
xy u
v +

y
v
2f
xy
x
v
y
u
f
x
f
y
2x
uv
2y
vu
f (x1 , ..., xn ) xj (t1 , ..., tm )

n
n X
n
X
2f
2 f x xi X f 2 xi
=
+
,
t tj
x xi t tj
xi t tj
i=1 =1
f (x1 (t), x2 (t), ..., xn (t)),
i=1
n X
n
n
X
d2 f
2 f dx dxi X f d2 xi
=
+
dt2
x xi dt dt
xi dt2
=1
i=1
i=1
( ).
5.1: w = f (x, y) = ex(xy) , x = 2t cos t, y =
2t sin t. dw/dt t = .
: x, y
,
, w t
f dx f dy
dw
=
+
dt
x dt
y dt
= (2x y) ex(xy) (2 cos t 2t sin t)
xex(xy) (2 sin t + 2t cos t).
t = , x = 2, y = 0,
dw
2
2
2
= (4) e4 (2) (2) e4 (2) = 4(2 ) e4 .
dt
5.2: x = r cos y = r sin ( r
x, y )
, Laplace V (x, y)
5.1
139
2 V
2 V
+
= 0,
x2
y2

1 V
1 2 V
2 V
+
= 0.
+
r 2
r r
r 2 2
:
V
V x V y
V
V
=
+
= cos
+ sin
r
x r
y r
x
y
(5.7)
V
V x V y
V
V
=
+
= r sin
+ r cos
.
x
y
x
y
(5.8)
,
r
= cos
+ sin
r
x
y
= r sin
+ r cos .
x
y
(5.9)
(5.10)
(5.7),

V
V
V
2 V
=
cos
+ sin
= cos
r 2
r
x
y
r x

V
V
V
cos + sin
+
sin.
+
x r
r y
y r
(5.11)
(5.9)
/r .
z . , r
, (/r) cos = 0, (/r) sin = 0.
,

V
2 V
= cos cos
+ sin
r 2
x
y x

V
+ sin cos
+ sin
=
x
y y
(5.12)
140
= cos2
2
2 V
2 V
2 V
+
2
sin
cos
+
sin
,
x2
xy
y 2
(5.13)
2 V
2 V
=
.
xy
yx

2
2
2 V
2 V
2
2 V
2 V
r
+
cos
=
sin
2sincos
2
x2
xy
y 2

V
V
+ sin
.
r cos
(5.14)
x
y
(5.7), (5.13), (5.14),
1 V
1 2 V
2 V
2 V
2 V
+
=
+
+
r 2
r r
r 2 2
x2
y 2
.
5.3: z(x, y) = g(y + sin x) +
f (y sin x), g, f
zx tan x + zxx zyy cos2 x = 0.
: z
z = g(u) + f (v),
u = y + sin x v = y sin x. z(x, y)
z
z u z v
dg u df v
=
+
=
+
x
u x v x
du x dv x
z
= g cos x f cos x
x
2z
= g cos2 x g sin x + f cos2 x + f sin x
x2
2z
= g + f .
y 2

5.2 Euler
141
A = zx tanx + zxx zyy cos2 x

A = 0.
5.2 Euler
.
5.1: f (x, y) m,
f (x, y) = m f (x, y)
(5.15)
5.3 ( Euler ): f
m
f
f
+y
= mf.
x
y
(5.16)
: (5.15)
df (x, y)
= mm1 f (x, y).
d
(5.17)
u = x v = y
df (x, y)
f du f dv
f
f
=
+
=
x+
y
d
u d v d
u
v
(5.16) (5.17) = 1,
f
f
+y
= mf
x
y
(5.18)
Euler.
:
f (x, y) (5.16) .
(5.15), (5.16) .
142
5.4: f (x, y), n . ,

n 1.
: f (x, y)
Euler
f
f
+y
= nf.
x
y

f
f
f
f
2 f
2 f
x
+y
=
(nf )
+x 2 +y
=n
x
y
x
x
x
xy
x

f
f
f
x
+y
= (n 1)
(5.19)
x x
y x
x
, n .
f (x1 , ...., xn ), D Rn , f m,
n
X
xi
i=1
f
= mf.
xi
: xk :
xk
n
X
i=1
f
xi
xi

n
X
f
x
=
i
xk
xi
i=1
n
n
X
X
xi f
f
2 f
xi
=
+
=m
x
x
x
x
k i
k i
xk
i=1
i=1
n
X
i=1
xi
xi
f
xk
= (m 1)
f
.
xk
5.5: f (x, y) n . :
x2
2f
2 f
2 f
y2
+
2xy
+
= n(n 1)f.
x2
xy
y2
5.2 Euler
143
: f
f
f
+y
= nf.
x
y
(5.20)
x (5.20)
f
f
2 f
2 f
+x 2 +y
=n
x
x
xy
x
f
f
2 f
2 f
x
+ x2 2 + xy
= nx .
x
x
xy
x
(5.21)
(5.20) y
f
f
2 f
2 f
+y 2 +x
=n
y
y
yx
y
f
f
2 f
2 f
y
+ y2
+
xy
= ny
y
y2
xy
y
(5.22)
(5.21) (5.22)

2
f
f
2 f
2 f
+y
+y
x
+ 2xy
= (n 1) x
x2
xy
y2
x
y
= n(n 1)f.
2
2f
5.6: f1 (x, y) f2 (x, y)

n-,
n
1
f1 f2
y x
f2 f1
y x
=
xdy ydx
.
f1 df2 f2 df1
df1 =
f1
x dx
f1
y dy,
df2 =
f2
x dx
f2
y dy
f1
f2
f2
1
nf1 = x f
x + y y , nf2 = x x + y y .
nf1 df2 =
f1
f1
x
+y
x
y

f2
f2
dx +
dy
x
y
144
f1 f2
f1 f2
f1 f2
f1 f2
xdx +
ydx +
xdy +
ydy.
x x
y x
x y
y y
(5.23)
nf2 df1 =
f2
f2
+y
x
y

f1
f1
dx +
dy
x
y
f2 f1
f2 f1
f2 f1
f2 f1
xdx +
ydx +
xdy +
ydy.
x x
y x
x y
y y
(5.24)
(5.23) (5.24)

f1 f2 f2 f1
n(f1 df2 f2 df1 ) = ydx
y x
y x

f1 f2 f1 f2
xdy
y x
x y

f1 f2 f2 f1
n(f1 df2 f2 df1 ) = (ydx xdy)

y x
y x
xdy ydx
1
= n
f1 f2
f1 df2 f2 df1
y x
f2 f1
y x
.
5.3
, f (x, y)
. f (x, y)
D R2 x(t1 , t2 ) y(t1 , t2 )
t1 t2 ,
df =
f
f
dx +
dy
x
y
dx =
x
x
dt1 +
dt2 ,
t1
t2
(5.25)
dy =
y
y
dt1 +
dt2
t1
t2
(5.26)
dx dy (5.25) f
df =
f
f
dt1 +
dt2
t1
t2
(5.27)
5.3
145
f (t, x, y) x(t) y(t)
df
dt
f
=
+
t
f
x

dx
dt
f
y

dy
dt

, x, y t1 , t2 .
, xi , i = 1, 2, .., n -
tj , j = 1, 2, ..., m. ,
f
n
X
f
df =
dxi ,
xi
(5.28)
i=1
X

n
n
X
f
f
f
d
dxi +
d(dxi ) .
d f=
d
dxi =
xi
xi
xi
2
i=1
i=1
d(dxi ) = d2 xi , i = 1, 2, ..., n.
f
xi

n
X
f
dxj .
xj xi
j=1
d2 f =
n X
n
n
X
X
2f
f 2
dxj dxi +
d xi .
xj xi
xi
i=1 j=1
(5.29)
i=1
f tj , j = 1, 2, .., m
xi , i = 1, 2, ..., n,

m X
m
X
2f
d f=
dti dtj
ti tj
2
(5.30)
i=1 j=1
(5.28), (5.29) (5.30) ,

n
m
X
X
f
f
dxi =
dtj
xi
tj
i=1
j=1
(5.31)
146
n X
n
n
m X
m
X
X
X
2f
f 2
2f
dxi dxj +
d xi =
dti dtj
xi xj
xi
ti tj
i=1 j=1
i=1
i=1 j=1
(5.32)
(5.31) (5.32) ,
xi , tj (i = 1, 2, .., n, j =
1, 2, ..., m), .

.
xi ,
tj (i = 1, 2, ..., n, j = 1, 2, ..., m) .
xi tj ,
xi = ci0 +
m
X
cij tj, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
j=1
ci0 cij i = 1, 2, ..., n, j = 1, 2, ..., m,
dxi =
m
X
xi
k=1
tk
dtk , i = 1, 2, ...n
dxi =
m
X
cik dtk , i = 1, 2, ..., n
k=1
d2 xi = 0
i = 1, 2, ..., n.
k 2,
xi , i = 1, 2, ..., n
tj , j = 1, 2, ..., m, dk xi = 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
5.4 T aylor
147
5.4 T aylor

,
(
).
5.4 ( ): f
D Rn
M0 D,
f = f (M ) f (M0 ) = [df ]P0
M (x01 + x1 , ..., x0n + xn ) D P0 (x01 +

0 x1 , ..., x0n +0 xn ), 0 < 0 < 1
M0 M.
Taylor.
5.5 (Taylor ) f : D R1 ,
D Rn M0 (x01 , ..., x0n )
D. f
(n + 1) D,
M (x01 +x1 , ..., x0n +xn ) D P (x01 +0 x1 , ..., x0n +
0 xn ) D 0 < 0 < 1 M M0
f M0
f =
n
X
1 k
1
[d f ]M0 +
[dn+1 f ]P0
k!
(n + 1)!
(5.33)
k=1
dk f (4.7).
(5.33)

f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + (x x0 )
+ (y y0 )
f (x0 , y0 )
x
y
(x x0 )2 2 f (x0 , y0 ) (y y0 )2 2 f (x0 , y0 )
+
+
2
x2
2
y 2
2 f (x0 , y0 )
+ (x x0 )(y y0 )
+
yx
148
(5.33) Taylor f
M0 . M0 ,
Taylor

n
X
1
k
f (x, y) = f (0, 0) +
f (0, 0)+
x
+y
k!
x
y
(5.34)
k=1
1
(n + 1)!
x
+y
x
y
n+1
f (0 x, 0 y) 0 < 0 < 1.
Mac-Laurin.

Qn =
1
[dn+1 f ]P0
(n + 1)!
Taylor .
lim Qn = 0,
Taylor f
M0 .
: Taylor
. ,
M0 , , , Taylor.
5.7:
f (x, y) = ex
sin xy
Taylor M (2, 0)
. f M (1.98, 0.015).
: (2, 0) f = 1, fx = 0, fy = 8, fxx = 0, fxy =
12, fyy = 64. , Taylor f (x, y)
(2, 0)
5.4 T aylor
149
f (x, y) = f (2, 0) + (x 2) fx (2, 0) + yf y (2, 0)

+ 2!1 [(x 2 )2 fxx (2, 0)+
+2(x 2) yf xy (2, 0) + y 2 fyy (2, 0)] + ... =
= 1 + 8y + 12(x 2)y + 32y2 + ...
x 2 + x, y y,

f (2 + x, y) = 1 + 8y + 12xy + 32y 2 + ...

x = 0.02, y = 0.015,
x, y,
f (1.98, 0.015) = 1 + (8 + 12x + 32y)y = 1.124

. ,
1.1235, .
5.8:
z = f (x, y) = ex
+ y2
P0 (0, 1, e).
: f ,
f (x, y) = (0, 1)
Taylor, .
f (x, y) f (0, 1) + x fx (0, 1) + (y 1) fy (0, 1)

z = f (x, y) P0 ,
z = e + 2e(y 1),
. , f Taylor
(0, 1),

z
2 2
2
= + x2 +3 x
e
3
3
5.9: Taylor
f (x, y) = xy 2 M (1, 1).
: (1,1)
150
f
f
2 f
3 f
2 f
2 f
= 1,
= 2,
=
0
=
2,
=
2,
= 2.
x
y
x2
xy
y2
x y 2
,
xy 2 = 1 + (x 1) + 2(y 1) +
1
2
4(x 1)(y 1) + 2(y 1 )2
+ 16 3 2(x 1)(y 1 )2 =
= 1 + (x 1) + 2(y 1) + 2(x 1)(y 1)

+(y 1 )2 +(x 1)(y 1 )2 .
5.10: Taylor
f (x, y) = sin(x + y 2 )
M (0, 0).
:
f
f
= cos(x + y2 ),
= 2y cos(x + y 2 )
x
y
2f
2 f
y 2 ),
= 2y sin(x + y 2 ),
=
sin(x
+
x2
xy
= 2 cos(x + y 2 ) 4 y 2 sin(x + y 2 ).
2 f
y2
f (x, y) x + y 2 .
5.5
5.5.1

F (x, y, z) = 0.
(. z )
(.. F (x, y, z(x, y)) = 0).
.
5.2:
z(x, y) D R2
F (x, y, z(x, y)) = 0.
5.5
151
:
F (x, y, z) = 0 z(x, y);
.
5.6: F (x, y, z) = 0
:
Fz
(M (x0 , y0 , z0 ), ) R3 .
F (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0, Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6= 0.
,, x (x0 , x0 + ) y (y0 , y0 + )
F (x, y, z) = 0 (z0 , z0 + ), z0 x
y x0 , y0 .
z x, y (..
F (x, y, z(x, y)) = 0),
z(x, y) : x y
F z, F
dF = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz = 0
(5.35)
dz = zx dx + zy dy. dz
(5.35) ,
(Fx + Fz zx )dx + (Fy + Fz zy )dy = 0.

F
+
x
F
z

z
= 0,
x
(5.36)
(F/z) 6= 0,
z
x

F/
x

=
F/
z
(z/y).
(5.37)
152
5.5.2
(5.37).
2
z x2
:
F
F z
+
x
z x
F
x
=0

F
z
z
x
F 2 z
=0
z x2
2

2 F z
2F
F
2 F z
z
F 2 z
+
+
+
+
=0
x2
xz x
xz
z 2 x
x
z x2
2F
+2
x2
2F
xz

z
x
2F
+
z 2
z
x
2
F 2 z
=0
z x2
(5.38)
2z
Fz2 Fxx 2Fx Fz Fxz + Fx2 Fzz
=
x2
Fz3
2
z
y 2
(5.39)
2z
xy
5.11: F (x, y, z) = 0
x, y, z
,
x
y
y
z
z
x
= 1,

.
: x y z,
y
Fx xy + Fy = 0,
x
y
Fy
.
Fx
(5.40)
5.5
y
z
Fz
= ,
Fy
z
x
153
Fx
.
Fz
(5.41)
(5.40) (5.41)
x
y

z
y
z

x
z
x
= 1.
5.12: z x, y
z

, x
y2
x2
z2
+
+
= 1.
16 12
9
:
2x 2z z
+
=0
16
9 x

z
9x
=
.
x
16z
x y,
:
x2 y 2
z = 3 1
16
9
12
z
:
z
3x
=
x
16
x2 y 2
1
16
9
21

z .
5.13: z = z(x, y)
x y
zexz + x + y = 1. zx zy
(x, y, z) = (0, 0, 1).
154
: ( :)
y x,
exz zx + zexz (xzx + z) + 1 = 0.

y,
exz zy + xzexz zy + 1 = 0.
, (0, 0, 1) zx zy ,
zx (0, 0) = 2, zy (0, 0) = 1.
: F (x, y, z) = zexz + x + y 1 = 0,
F x, y z .
F dF = 0. ,
dF F
dF = (z 2 exz + 1)dx + dy + exz (1 + xz )dz.

dF = 0 dz (x, y) = (0, 0)
z = 1, dz(0, 0) = 2dx dy. z = z(x, y),
dz(0, 0) = zx (0, 0)dx + zy (0, 0)dy ,
zx (0, 0)dx + zy (0, 0)dy = 2dx dy.
, dx 6= 0 dy = 0, zx (0, 0) = 2,
dx = 0 dy 6= 0, zy (0, 0) = 1.
5.6

f1 (x, y) f2 (x, y), D R2 ,

D(f1 , f2 )

J=
=
D(x1 , x2 )

f1
x1
f1
x2
f2
x1
f2
x2
5.7: x1 (t1 , t2 ), x2 (t1 , t2 ) ,

t1 , t2

D(f1 , f2 )
D(f1 , f2 )
D(x1 , x2 )
=
.
D(t1 , t2 )
D(x1 , x2 )
D(t1 , t2 )
5.7
155
D(f1 , f2 )
=
D(t1 , t2 )
f1
t1

f2
t2
f2
t1

f1
t2

f1
f1
x1
f1
x2
=
+
t1
x1
t1
x2
t1

f2
f2
x1
f1
x2
=
+
t1
x1
t1
x2
t1

f1
x1
f1
x2
f1
=
+
t2
x1
t2
x2
t2

f2
f2
x1
f2
x2
=
+
t2
x1
t2
x2
t2
D(f1 , f2 )
D(x1 , x2 )

D(x1 , x2 )
.
D(t1 , t2 )
( : !)
5.7

F1 (x, y, z, u(x, y, z), w(x, y, z)) = 0,

F2 (x, y, z, u(x, y, z), w(x, y, z)) = 0
u, w x, y, z.
5.5 ux wx . F1 = 0, F2 = 0,
F1
F1 u F1 w
+
+
=0
x
u x
w x
F2
F2 u F2 w
+
+
=0
x
u x
w x

156
J=
D(F1 , F2 )
6= 0,
D(u, w)
ux =
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(w,x)
D(F ,F )
1 2
D(u,w)
wx =
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(x,u)
.
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(u,w)
uy , wy
uy =
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(w,y)
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(u,w)
wy =
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(y,u)
D(F1 ,F2 )
D(u,w)
.
du dw
F1
dx +
x
F2
dx +
dF2 = 0 =
x
dF1 = 0 =
F1
dy +
y
F2
dy +
y
F1
dz +
z
F2
dz +
z
F1
du +
u
F2
du +
u
F1
dw
w
F2
dw.
w
, ,
d2 u, d2 w d2 F1 =
0, d2 F2 = 0.
5.14
f (x, y, z, u, v, w) = x u sin v cos w

g(x, y, z, u, v, w) = y u sin v sin w
h(x, y, z, u, v, w) = z u cos v

(f, g, h)
(u, v, w)
(f, g)
.
(x, v)

fu fv fw

(f, g, h)
= gu gv gw = u2 sin v,
(u, v, w)
hu hv hw

(f, g) fx fv 1 u cos v cos w
=
=
= u cos v sin w.
(x, v) gx gv 0 u cos v sin w
5.7
157
5.15:
2x y + u3 v 2 = 1
x + y + u2 + v 3 = 4
(5.42)
u = g(x, y), v =
h(x, y) (1, 1), g(1, 1) = h(1, 1) = 1.
, g/x, h/y
(1,1).
: f (x, y, u, v) = (2x y + u3 v 2 , x +
y + u2 + v 3 ). f1 , f2 f

(f1 , f2 ) 3u2 2v
=
= 9u2 v 2 + 4uv.
2u 3v 2
(u, v)
u = v = 1, .
g h.
(5.42) x
u v x y
2 + 3u2
u
v
u
v
2v
= 0, 1 + 2u
+ 3v 2
= 0.
x
x
x
x
u/x v/x,
u
6v 2 2v
6v + 2
=
= 2
2
2
x
9 u v +4uv
9u v + 4u
u = v = 1, u/x = 8/13.
(5.42) y
1 + 3u2
u
v
2v
= 0,
y
y
1 + 2u
u
v
+ 3v 2
= 0,
y
y
v
3u2 + 2u
3u + 2
= 2 2
=
.
y
9u v + 4u
9uv + 4
u = v = 1, v/y = 5/13.
5.16: x, y, u, v
f (x, y, u, v) = x2 y 2 + 2uv + 15 = 0,
g(x, y, u, v) = x + 2xy u2 + v 2 10 = 0
(5.43)
158
P0 (x, y, u, v) = (1, 2, 2, 3) , (5.43) u v

x y
(1, 2) ux , vx , uxx .
: (5.43) u v
x y P0 (f, g)/(u, v) 6= 0
P0 .
(f, g)
= fu gv fv gu = 4(u2 + v 2 ) 6= 0
(u, v)
P0 .
vx =
(f,g)
(u,x)
(f,g)
(u,v)
v(1 + 2y) + 2xu

11
= P0 .
2(u2 + v 2 )
26
ux x, y, u v ,
uxx =
A
1407
=
P0
B
2(13)3
A = (u2 + v 2 )[2(v + xvx ) (1 + 2y) ux ]

2[2xv u(1 + 2y)](uux + vv x )
B = 2(u2 + v 2 )2 .
5.8
f1 (x1 , x2 ), f2 (x1 , x2 ) D,
,
F
F (f1 , f2 ) = 0.
:
5.8
159
5.8: f1 (x1 , x2 ), f2 (x1 , x2 )

x1 , x2 ,
D . , f1 , f2
,
J=
D(f1 , f2 )
0
D(x1 , x2 )
(5.44)
D.
: , f1 , f2 , F x1 x2 ,
F
=
x1
F
=
x2

F
f1
F
f1

f1
x1
f1
x2

+
+

F
f2
F
f2

f2
x1
f2
x2

=0
= 0.
F/f1 F/f1
F (f1 , f2 )
f1 f2 .
J = 0 D.
(J =
6 0), ,
f1 f2 x1
x2 .
5.17: f1 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , f2 =
xy + yz + zx, f3 = x + y + z .
:
J=
D(f1 , f2 , f3 )
=0
D(x, y, z)
f1 , f2 , f3 f1 = f32 2f2 .
5.18 f1 (x, y, z) = 3x +
2y z, f2 (x, y, z) = x 2y + z, f3 (x, y, z) = x2 + 2xy xz
R3
.
:
160
D(f1 , f2 , f3 )
= 0,
D(x, y, z)
. f1 , f2 x y x = (f1 + f2 )/4, y = (f1 3f2 +
4f3 )/8. f3 f12 f22 8f3 .
5.9
. 1 , .
.
.

u = (x, y)
v = (x, y)

(xy ). . 5.1
.
y
y=k 1
y=k 2
k3
y=k 3
k2
x=C3
k1
x=C2
x
C1
C2
C3
x=C1
0
5.1.
x = ki , y = kj k= u, v .
. , ,
5.9
161
.
.
u = (x, y),
v = (x, y)

x = g(u, v), y = h(u, v),
u = (g(u, v), h(u, v)),
v = (g(u, v), h(u, v)).
u v
1 = x gu + y hu ,
0 = x gv + y hv
0 = x gu + y hu ,
1 = x gv + y hv .
y
y
x
x
, gv = , hx = , hv =
,
J
J
J
J
J = ux vy uy vx 6= 0.
gu =
xu =
uy
ux
vx
ux
, xv = , yv = , yv =
.
J
J
J
J
u=r=
x2 + y 2 , v = = arctan(y/x).
rx =
x
y
y
x
ry = , x = 2 , y = 2 ,
r
r
r
r
J=
x x
r
r2
y y 1
2 = ,
r
r
r
, x(r, ), y(r, )
xr =
x
y
, x = y, yr = , y = x.
r
r
162

.
,
: , ,
D(x, y)
=
D(u, v)
1
D(u,v)
D(x,y)
5.19 z x, y
x = u + v, y = u2 + v 2 , z = u3 + v 3 , (u 6= v).
zx , zy
: z x y
zx = 3u2 ux + 3v 2 vx zy = 3u2 uy + 3v 2 vy
x = u + v x y,
1 = ux + vx 0 = uy + vy
y = u2 + v 2
0 = 2uux + 2vvx 1 = 2uuy + 2vvy .

ux , uy , vx , vy zx zy ,
3
zx = 3uv zy = (u + v).
2
5.10
2
5.1 2 U = xU2 + yU2 (r, ) x = er cos y = er sin .

:
U
U x U y
=
+
r
x r
y r
5.10
2U
2U
=
2
r
x2
+
2U
y 2

x
r
163
2
+2
y
r
2
2
+2
2 U x y U 2 x
+
xy r r
x r 2
U 2 y
.
y r 2
2U
2U
=
2
x2
2U
+
y 2

2
2 U x y U 2 x
+
xy
x 2
U 2 y
y 2
2U
2 U 2r
2 U 2r
2U
2
2
+
=
e
(sin
+
cos
)
+
e (sin2 + cos2 ).
r 2
2
x2
y 2
2U
2U
+
= e2r
x2
y 2
2U
2U
+
r 2
2
2
z
z
5.2 : x
2 y 2 = 0
u, v , x = au + bv y = au bv ab 6= 0
z(u, v).
: :
z
=
u
z
z
+
x y
2z
= b
uv

2z
2z
2z
= 0.
=
0
x2 y 2
uv
2z
=0
uv
(z/u) = R(v)
z(u, v) = R(u) + (v).

2
5.3: z = ey f (yex /2y ) ,

z
z
(x2 y 2 ) x
+ xy y
= xyz .
164
2
2
: v = ey u = ye(x /2y ) z
z = vf (u)
v
z
=
[vf (u)]
+
[vf (u)]
x
u x v
x
df
df x 2 2
2x
x2 /2y 2
= [v ] y
e
+ 0 = [v ] ex /2y
du
2y 2
du y
z
v
=
[vf (u)]
+
[vf (u)]
y
u
y
v
y

2

df
x
x2 /2y 2
x2 /2y 2
= [v ] e
+y 3 e
+ f (u)ey .
du
y

2
(x y )[vf
(u)]
x x2 /2y2
e
y
= xyf (u)ey = xyz.
h
2 2
i
+ xy vf
(u) ex /2y + f (u)ey
5.4 : z = f (x + ay), ,
z
z
a x
= y
.
: x + ay = t.
z
f t
f
=
=
x
t x
t
f t
f
z
=
=a
y
t y
t

z
z
=
.
x
y
5.5: z = ex siny , x = st2 y = s2 t,

z
z
s t .
:
5.10
165
z x z y
z
=
+
= (ex siny)(t2 ) + (ex cosy)(2st)
s
x s y s
2
= t2 est sin(s2 t) + 2stest cos(s2 t)
z
z x z y
=
+
= (ex siny)(2st) + (ex cosy)(s2 )
t
x t
y t
2
= 2stest sin(s2 t) + s2 est cos(s2 t).

5.6: g(s, t) = f (s2 t2 , t2 s2 ) f ,
g
g
g t s + s t = 0
: x = s2 t2 y = t2 s2 g(s, t) = f (x, y)
g
f x f y
f
f
=
+
=
2s +
(2s)
s
x s
y s
x
y
g
f x f y
f
f
=
+
=
(2t) +
2t.
t
x t
y t
x
y
g
g
t
+s
=
s
t
f
f
2st
2st
x
y
f
f
+ 2st
+ 2st
x
y
= 0.
5.7 : F (x, y) x
y r, x =
rcos , y = rsin , F G r
: G(r, ) = F (rcos, rsin). G
r
F
F
x
y
2
G
.
r
x
y
x
y
= cos,
= sin,
= rsin,
= rcos.
r
r
G
F
F
G
F
F
=
cos +
sin ,
=
r sin +
r cos .
r
x
y
x
y
166
F
r, F
x , y x, y,
r
2G
F
=
(r sin )
r
x r
r

F
+
r cos .
r y
F
x
r sin +
F
(r cos )
y r

F
r
x .
F/x
F1 (x, y), H/r , H(r, )
F1 (r cos , r sin ).
G/r , F F1 ,
G F.
H
F1
F1
=
cos +
sin
r
x
y
F
x
2F
2F
cos
+
sin .
x2
yx
F
y
2F
2F
cos +
sin .
xy
y 2
2

2G
F
F
2F
=
sin
cos +
sin r sin
r
x
x2
yx
2

F
F
2F
+
cos +
cos +
sin r cos .
y
xy
y 2
F

2F
2F
=
.
yx
xy
5.10
167
,
u = F (x, y) = G(r, )
2u
2u
2u
= r sin cos 2 + r(cos2 sin2 )
r
x
xy
2
u
u
u
+ r sin cos 2 sin
+ cos .
y
x
y
v u v
5.8 : () x = u2 v 2 ,y = 2uv , u
x , x , y , y . f =
f (x, y),
f
x
2
f
y
2

2f
f u, v. () xy
f u v , u = 2,
v = 1.
: ()
g(x, y)
g
g u g v
=
+
x
u x v x
(5.45)
g u g v
g
=
+
.
y
u y
v y
(5.46)
g = x
1 = 2u
u
v
u
v
2v , 0 = 2u
2v .
x
x
y
y
, g = y ,
0 = 2v
u
v
u
v
+ 2u , 1 = 2v
2u .
x
x
y
y
u
u
v
v
=
,
=
,
2
2
2
x
2(u + v ) x
2(u + v 2 )
u
v
v
u
=
,
=
.
2
2
2
y
2(u + v ) y
2(u + v 2 )
(5.45),(5.46)
g f,
168
f
1
=
2
x
2(u + v 2 )
f
1
=
2
y
2(u + v 2 )

f
f
u
v
u
v
f
f
v
u
u
v

f
x
2
f
y
2
(5.47)
1
=
2
4(u + v 2 )
(5.48)
"
f
u
2
f
v
2 #
() (5.47) ,
1
=
x
2(u2 + v 2 )
u
v
u
v
(5.48) u = 2, v = 1

2f
1
1
f
f
=
2
v
u
xy
10
u v
2(u2 + v 2 )
u
v

1
f
f
1
2
+2
=
2
2
20
u v u + v
u
v

1
f
f
+
2
v
+u
.
100
u v
u
v
, u 1 v 2
u v . , u v
,
2f
1
=
xy
500
2f
2f
2f
f
f
10 2 + 15
10 2 11
2
u
uv
v
u
v
z
z
5.9: x2 x
+ y 2 y
= z 2 , u = x,
v = y1 x1 w = 1z x1
.
: z/x, z/y
w/u, w/v . ,

:
du = dx, dv =
dx dy
dx dz
2 , dw = 2 2 .
2
x
y
x
z
5.10
169
dw =
w
w
du +
dv.
u
v
w
w
dx dz
du +
dv = 2 2
u
v
x
z
w
w
du +
u
v
dx dy
2
x2
y
dx dz
2
x2
z
dz = z
1
w
1 w
2
x2
u
x v
dx +
z 2 w
dy
y 2 v
z
= z2
x
1 w
1
w
2
x2
u
x v
z
z 2 w
= 2
.
y
y v
2 2
x z
1
w
1 w
2
2
x
u
x v
+ z2
w
= z2
v
w
= 0.
u
.
2
z
z
z
5.10 : x
2 + 2 xy + y 2 = 0
u = x + y, v = x y w = xy z
w = w(u, v).
: wxx = zxx , wyy =

zyy wxy = 1 zxy .
wxx + 2wxy + 2wyy = 2.

wxx , wyy wxy
(5.49)
170
wx = wu ux + wv vx = wu + wv
wxx = wuu + 2wuv + wvv .

wyy = wuu 2wvu + wvv , wxy = wuu wvv

(5.49)
1
2w
= .
2
u
2
5.11 : G(x, y) x = rcos, y =
rsin,

G 2
G 2
1 G 2
G 2
+
=
+ 2
.
x
y
r
r
Gr = Gx xr + Gy yr = Gx cos + Gy sin
(5.50)
G = Gx x + Cy y = Gx rsin + Gy rcos
(5.51)
(5.50) (5.51) .
5.12: u r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 ,
u
x
2
u
y
2
u
z
2
du
dr
u = u(r), r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 .

ux , uy , uz .
ux = ur rx = xur (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2

uy = ur ry = yur (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2
uz = ur rz = zur (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 .
2
5.10
171
u2x + u2y + u2z = x2 u2r (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1 + y 2 u2r (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1

+ z 2 u2r
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1 = u2r (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1 = u2r .
y
z
z
5.13: z = xy + xF ( x ), x x
+ y y
= xy + z.
y
: u = x
ux =
y
1
, uy = .
2
x
x
z = xy + xF [u(x, y)].
zx zy ,
zx = y + F + xfu ux = y + F
y
Fu
x
zy = x + xFu uy = x + Fu .

y
xzx + yzy = x y + F Fu + y(x + Fu )
x
= xy + xF yFu + yx + yFu
z xy
= 2xy + xF = 2xy + x
= xy + z.
x
y
y
5.14: u = xn f ( x ) + xn g( x ),
x2
2
2u
u
2u
u
2 u
+
2xy
+x
+
y
+y
= n2 u.
2
2
x
xy
y
x
y
y
: s(x) = x t(x, y) = x .

t
ux = us ut
s
t
t2
t
uxx = uss 2 ust + 2 utt + 2 ut
s
s
s
172
1
t
1
uxy = ust 2 utt 2 ut
s
s
s
uy =
1
ut
s
uyy =
1
utt .
s2
A = x2 uxx + 2xyuxy + y 2 uyy + xux + yuy = s2 uss + sus

us = nsn1 f (t) nsn1 g(t)
uss = n(n 1)sn2 f (t) + n(n + 1)sn2 g(t).
A = n2 u.
5.15:

() g(x, y) = f
yx zx
xy , xz
() z = yln(x2 y 2 ),
g
g
x2 x
+ y 2 y
+ z 2 g
z = 0
1 z
x x
1 z
y y
z
.
y2
: () u = ( x1 ) ( y1 ) v = ( x1 ) ( 1z ) g =
f (u, v). g x,y z
gx = fu (
1
1
) + fv ( 2 )
2
x
x
gy = fu (
1
)
y2
gz = fv (
1
)
z2
gx , gy gz

x2 gx + y 2 gy + z 2 gz = 0.
() z = y ln(x2 y 2 ) x
zx =
2xy
y2
x2
5.10
zy = ln(x2 y 2 )
173
2y 2
.
x2 y 2
z
zxx + yy = yz2 .
5.16: (x, y, z(x, y)) .

(xyz, x + y + z) = 0,
x(y z)
z
z
+ y(z x)
= z(x y)
x
y
: u = xyz v = x + y + z . = 0
x = y = z = 0 z(x, y),
x = u [ux + uz zx ] + v [vx + vz zx ] = 0
y = u [uy + uz zy ] + v [vy + vz zy ] = 0
ux = yz , uy = xz ,uz = xy ,vx = vy = vz =
1,
u [yz + xyzx ] + v [1 + zx ] = 0
u [xz + xyzy] + v [1 + zy ] = 0.
u v
(u = v = 0),

yz + xyzx 1 + zx

= 0.

xz + xyzy 1 + zy
x(y z)zx + y(z x)zy = z(x y).

5.17: f (u, v, w)
(u, v, w) (x, y, z)
u = ( y1 ) ( x1 ), v = ( x1 ) ( y1 ) w = ( y1 ) ( 1z ),
x2 fx + y 2 fy + z 2 fz = 0.
: fx ,
fx = fu ux + fv vx + fw wx = fu (
1
1
) + fv ( 2 ) + fw 0.
2
x
y
174
fy fz
x2 fx + y 2 fy + z 2 fz
.
5.18: W (x, y, z) =
xy+z
x+yz
n
()xWx + yWy + zWz = 0

()x2 Wxx + y 2 Wyy + z 2 Wzz + 2xyWxy + 2xzWxz + 2yzWyz = 0.
: () W (u) = un u = (x+y +z)/(x+
y z) Wx = W ux , Wy = W uy Wz = W uz

Wx = 2n(y z)
Wy = 2nx
Wz = 2nx
(x y + z)n1
(x + y z)n+1
(x y + z)n1
(x + y z)n+1
(x y + z)n1
.
(x + y z)n+1
xWx + yWy + zWz = 0.

()
x,y z
Wx + xWxx + yWxy + zWxz = 0
(5.52)
xWxy + yWyy + Wy + zWyz = 0
(5.53)
xWxz + yWyz + Wz + zWzz = 0
(5.54)
(5.52) x, (5.53) y (5.54) z

.
5.19 : ,
z(x, y)
(x2 z 2 , x3 y 3 ) = 0, .
: u = x2 z 2 v = x3 y 3
x = y = 0.
z = z(x, y)
5.10
175
x = u (ux + uz zx ) + v (vx + vz zx ) = 0
u (2x 2zzx ) + v (3x2 ) = 0.
y = 0 = u (2zzy ) 3y 2 v = 0.
u = 0 v = 0

2
2x 2zzx
3x

=0

2

2zzy 3y
z(x2 zy + y 2 zx ) = xy 2 ,
.
5.20: F (x, y) 2 u =
r m F (x, y), r 2 = x2 + y 2 ,
2

2u 2u
2F
m F
+ 2 =r
+
+ m(m + 4)r m2 F.
x2
y
x2
y 2
:
2r
r
r
x
= 2x
=
x
x
r
2
2u
F
m F
+ mr m2 F
=
r
+ 2mr m2 x
x2
x2
x
+ m(m 2)r m4 x2 F
2
2u
F
m F
=
r
+ 2mr m2 y
+ mr m2 F
2
2
y
y
y
+ m(m 2)r m4 y 2 F
(5.55)
(5.56)
176
(5.55) (5.56)
F
F
+y
= 2F
x
y
2

2F
2u 2u
m F
+ 2 =r
+
+ m(m + 4)r m2 F.
x2
y
x2
y 2
5.21:
ex sin x dy + dxdy
: ex sin x M cLauren

f (x, y) f (0, 0) + df (0, 0) +
1 2
d f (0, 0).
2!
f (0, 0) = 0
df (0, 0) = fx (0, 0)dx + fy (0, 0)dy = 0dx + 1dy

1
fxx (0, 0)(dx)2 + 2fxy (0, 0)dxdy + fyy (dy)2
2
1
= [0(dx)2 + 2dxdy + 0(dy)2 ] = dxdy.
2
d2 f (0, 0) =
df d2 f
.
5.22: Taylor
f (x, y) = arctan(y/x) (1,1)
: (5.33) (1,1)
fx , fy , fxx , fxy , fxy
(1,1).
fx (1, 1) =
1/2, fy (1, 1) = 1/2, fxx (1, 1) = 1/2, fxy (1, 1) = 0, fyy (1, 1) = 1/2
Taylor

x1 y1
f (x, y) = arctan(1) +
+
2
2

2
2
1 (x 1)
(y 1)
+
+ ..
2!
2
2
5.11
177
5.11
5.1 : t
f (x, y) = ln(x2 + y 2 ) x = sint, y = cost.
5.2 : t f (x, y) = xyz 2 x = sin t, y = cos t, z = t2 + 1.
5.3 : u t
f (x, y) = tan1 (y/x) x = u sin t, y =
u cos t.
5.4: r
f (x, y) = x2 + xy x = r cos , y = r sin .
5.5 : x
f (x, y) = sin xy y = cos x.
5.6 : F (x, y) = x x2 + y 2 x = r cos , y = r sin , Fx , Fy = 4 , r = 2 Fr , F Fx , Fy .

5.7 : F (x, y) = xy , y = g(x).
F x.
5.8 :
f (x, y, z) = xyz , x = t2 , y = t 1, z = et .
5.9 : F (x, y) = ln(x2 y 2 ) y = ex .

F x.
5.10 :
f (u, v) = uv , u = xy v = x/y .
5.11 : (x, y) : D R, D R2 u = ax + by, v = ax by , a b . u v.
5.12 : (x, y) u(x, y), v(x, y) p, xx + yy = p[u + v ].
5.13 :
f (x, y) = p
xy
1 + x2 + y 2
, Mac-Laurin.
x y.
178
5.14 : f (x, y) = ex sin y MacLaurin. x

y.
5.15 : f (x, y) = x3 + xy 2
x + 1, y + 2.
.
5.16 :
V (x, y) =
x2
y2
+
(A + ay 2 ) (B + bx2 )
A, B, a 1, b 1 .

1 2 2
( x + 22 y 2 ) x2 y 2
2 1
1 , 2 .
2
5.17 : f (x, y) = ex +ay +c , a c

Mac-Laurin.
x y.
5.18 : f (x, y) = tan1 (y/x)
Taylor, M (1, 1).
x y.
5.19 :
P (x, y) =
ln(A + x2 + y 2 )
(B + xy)1/3
A 1, B 1.
x y;
5.20 :
y = y(x) F (x, y) = 1 + xy
ln(exy exy ) = 0.
5.21 :
z = f (x, y) x + y + z = ez .
5.22 :
y = y(x) :
5.12 M athematica
(i)x2 + y 2 3xy = a,
179
(ii) exy x 2y = 0
(iii) x tan y + y tan x = b, (iv) xy 2 + 4xy 3 + 2 = 0,

a,b .
5.23 : u = 3x + 4y z, v = 2x y + 3z, w =
6x + 8y 2z .
5.24 : x = 3u+2v w, y = u2v +w, z =
u(u + 2v w),
.
5.25:
tan1 x, F2 (x, y)
F1 (x, y)
tan1 y +
= x + y/(1 xy),
, .
5.26: f1 (x, y, z) = x + y + z, f2 (x, y, z) =

x2 + y 2 + z 2 , f3 (x, y, z) = xy + yz + xz .
5.27: f1 (x, y, z) = x + y + z 3 , f2 (x, y.z) =
x3 + y 3 + z, f3 (x, y, z) = xy + yz + 3xz .
5.28 :
u = u(x, y) v = v(x, y)

(i) u + v = x, u yv = 0, (ii) z = u, x = u cos v, y = u sin v,

(iii) u2 v 2 = x + y, u3 + v 3 = x y.
5.29: ,
z(x, y) u(x, y) x + y +
z + u = a x3 + y 3 + z 3 + u3 = b a b .
5.30 :
y(x) x3 + y 3 3xy = 0.
5.12
M athematica
5.12.1 Taylor
f (x) Taylor x = a

180
X
f (n) (a)
n=0
n!
(x a)n ,
f (n) .
Mathematica f (x)
x = a, n
Series[f [x], {x, a, n}]

0[x a](n+1) Series
Normal, .
.
, f (x) = Exp[x]
x = 0, 7. :
Series[Exp[x], {x, 0, 7}]

1 +x +
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
x7
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x 8
2
6
24
120
720
5040
Mathematica
,
.
Series[f[x], {x, 0, 3}]

f [0 ] + f [0 ]x +
1
1
f [0 ]x 2 + f (3 ) [0 ]x 3 + 0 [x ]4
2
6
Mathematica, Taylor
x, x
.
a n x.
Series[(a + x)bn, {x, 0, 2}]

a n + a 1 +n nx +
1 2 +n
a
(nx 2 ) + 0 [x ]3
2
a a[x]
x .
5.12 M athematica
181
Series Taylor . Series

.
Series[f [x, y], {x, a1 , n1 }, {y, a2 , n2 }]

, x
y. x,
y.
Series[Exp[x y], {x, 0, 3}, {y, 0, 3}]

1 + (y + 0 [y]4 )x + (
y2
y3
+ 0 [y]4 )x 2 + (
+ 0 [y]4 )x 3 + 0 [x ]4
2
6
.
Mathematica ,
. ,
. Normal.
Normal[Series[f [x], {x, a, n}]]

Normal[Series[f [x, y], {x, a1 , n1 }, {y, a2 , n2 }]]
ArcT an[x] Taylor, .
t = Series[ArcTan[x], {x, 0, 8}]

x
x3
x5
x7
+
+ 0 [x ]9
3
5
7
Normal
, .
s = Normal[t]
x
x3
x5
x7
+
3
5
7

, .. Factor, .
182
Factor[s]
1 2
x (315 + 210x 2 161x 4 + 132x 6 )
315
5.1.
Series[expr, {x, x0 , n}]

Series[expr, {x, x0 , nx },
{y, y0 , ny }]
N ormal[expr]
n-
expr x = x0 .
expr,
y
x.

.
5.12.2 Mathematica
1. f (u, v, w)
(u, v, w) (x, y, z) u = y1 x1 ,
v=
1
x
1
y
w = y1 z1 , :
x2 fx + y 2 fy + z 2 fz = 0.
Clear[x, y, z, u, v, w, f]
x2 D[f[1/y 1/x, 1/x 1/y, 1/y 1/z], {x, 1}]+
y2 D[f[1/y 1/x, 1/x 1/y, 1/y 1/z], {y, 1}]+
z2 D[f[1/y 1/x, 1/x 1/y, 1/y 1/z], {z, 1}]

1
1 1
1 1
1
(0 ,0 ,1 )
f
+
+ , ,
x
y x
y y
z
h
i
f (0 ,1 ,0 ) 1x + 1y , 1x 1y , 1y 1z
x 2
+
x2
5.12 M athematica
183
h
i
f (1 ,0 ,0 ) 1x + 1y , 1x 1y , 1y 1z
+
x2
y 2
h
i
f (0 ,0 ,1 ) 1x + 1y , 1x 1y , 1y 1z
y2
h
i
f (0 ,1 ,0 ) 1x + 1y , 1x 1y , 1y 1z
y2
h
i
f (1 ,0 ,0 ) 1x + 1y , 1x 1y , 1y 1z
y2
Simplify[%]
0
2. zxx zyy = 0
v = x + y u = x y .
Clear[x, y, z, u, v]
Solve[{u == x y, v == x + y}, {y, x}]
{{y
1
u +v
(u + v ), x
}}
2
2
D[z[x y, x + y], {x, 2}] D[z[x y, x + y], {y, 2}]

4z (1 ,1 ) [x y, x + y]

1
u+v
%/. y (u + v), x
2
2
4z (1 ,1 ) [
u +v 1
u +v
u v
+
, (u + v ) +
]
2
2
2
2
Simplify[%]
4z (1 ,1 ) [u, v ]
184
3. u = F (sinx siny), F
, : uy cosx + ux cosy = 0.
Clear[x, y, u, f]
u[x_, y_] := f[Sin[x] Sin[y]]
D[u[x, y], y] Cos[x] + D[u[x, y], x] Cos[y]
0
4. u = xcosa ysina
v = xsina + ycosa,(a =), fxx + fyy
.
Clear[x, y, f, u, v, a]
Solve[{u == x Cos[a] y Sin[a], v == x Sin[a]
+y Cos[a]}, {x, y}]
{{x
uCos[a] vSin[a]
vCos[a] + uSin[a]
,y
}}
Cos[a]2 + Sin[a]2
Cos[a]2 + Sin[a]2
D[f[x Cos[a] y Sin[a], x Sin[a] + y Cos[a]], {x, 2}]+

D[f[x Cos[a] y Sin[a], x Sin[a] + y Cos[a]], {y, 2}]
Sin[a](Sin[a]f (0 ,2 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]]+
Cos[a]f (1 ,1 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]])+
Cos[a](Cos[a]f (0 ,2 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]]
Sin[a]f (1 ,1 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]])+
Cos[a](Sin[a]f (1 ,1 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]]+
Cos[a]f (2 ,0 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]])
Sin[a](Cos[a]f (1 ,1 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]]
Sin[a]f (2 ,0 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSina[a]])
Fullsimplify[%]
5.12 M athematica
185
f (0 ,2 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]]+

f (2 ,0 ) [xCos[a] ySin[a], yCos[a] + xSin[a]]
%/.{x
f (0 ,2 ) [
Sin[a](vCos[a] + uSin[a]) Cos[a](uCos[a] vSin[a])
,
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
Cos[a](vCos[a] + uSin[a]) Sin[a](uCos[a] vSin[a])
]+
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
f (2 ,0 ) [
uCos[a] vSin[a]
vCos[a] + uSin[a]
,y
}
Cos[a]2 + Sin[a]2
Cos[a]2 + Sin[a]2
Sin[a](vCos[a] + uSin[a]) Cos[a](uCos[a] vSin[a])
,
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
Cos[a](vCos[a] + uSin[a]) Sin[a](uCos[a] vSin[a])
]
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
Cos[a]2 + sin[a]2
FullSimplify[%]
f (0 ,2 ) [u, v ] + f (2 ,0 ) [u, v ]
5. z(x, y) = g(y + sinx) + f (y sinx),
f, g
zx tanx + zxx zyy cos2 x = 0.

Clear[f, g, x, y, z]
z[x_, y_] := g[y + Sin[x]] + f[y Sin[x]]
D[z[x, y], x] Tan[x] + D[z[x, y], {x, 2}] D[z[x, y], {y, 2}] Cos[x]b2
Sin[x ]f [y Sin[x ]] Sin[x ]g [y + Sin[x ]]+
Tan[x ](Cos[x ]f [y Sin[x ]] + Cos[x ]g [y + Sin[x ]])+
Cos[x ]2 f [y Sin[x ]] + Cos[x ]2 g [y + Sin[x ]]
Cos[x ]2 (f [y Sin[x ]] + g [y + Sin[x ]])
FullSimplify[%]
0
186
6. Taylor
esin(x+y) (0, 0).
log(xcosy) (1, 0).
()
Clear[x, y, f]
f[x_, y_] := Exp[Sin[x + y]]
Series[f[x, y], {x, 0, 3}, {y, 0, 3}]

y3
y2
4
4
+ 1 +y
1 +y +
+ 0 [y]
+ 0 [y] x +
2
2

1
y
3y 2
2y 3
2y 2
4
2
+ 0 [y] x +
2
4
3
2
3

y3
4
+ 0 [y] x 3 + 0 [x ]4
12
Normal[%]

x2
x3
1
3x 2
2x 3
+ 1 +x
y+
y2 +
2
2
2
4
3

x
2x 2
x3

y3
2
3
12
1 +x +
()
Clear[x, y, f]
f[x_, y_] := Log[x Cos[y]]
Series[f[x, y], {x, 1, 3}, {y, 0, 3}]
2

y
1
1
4
+ 0 [y]
+ (x 1 ) (x 1 )2 + (x 1 )3
2
2
3
+0 [x 1 ]4
Normal[%]
1
1
1
y2
(1 + x )2 + (1 + x )3 + x
2
3
2
5.12 M athematica
187
7. ) ,
z = sin(xy) (1, /2).
)
z = tan(xy) (0, 0).
()
Clear[f, x, y]
f[x_, y_] := Sin[x y]
Series[f[x, y], {x, 1, 2}, {y, /2, 2}]

1
2
3
1 (y ) + 0 [y ] +
2
2
2

3
1
2
(y ) (y ) + 0 [y ] (x 1 )+
2
2
2
2
2

1
2
(y ) +
1 +
(y )2 +
8
2
2
2
8
2

0 [y ]3 (x 1 )2 + 0 [x 1 ]3
2
Normal[%]

1
1 2
1
2
2
1 (1 + x ) + (1 + x ) (1 + x )
+y
8
2
2
2

1
1
2
+
+
1 +
(1 + x )2 x ( + y)2
2
2
8
2
()
Clear[f, x, y]
f[x_, y_] := Tan[x y]
Series[f[x, y], {x, 0, 5}, {y, 0, 5}]
3

5

y
2y
6
6
3
6
(y + 0 [y] )x +
+ 0 [y] x +
+ 0 [y] x 5 + 0 [x ]6
3
15
Normal[%]
xy +
x 3 y3
2x 5 y 5
+
3
15
188
1.5
1
-1
-0.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
0
-0.5
1-1
1.5
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
-1
-0.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
0
-0.5
1-1
5.2. cos x/ cos y

(0,0).
8. z = cosx
cosy (0,0)
(x, y).
Clear[f, x, y, g, p1 , p2 ]
f[x_, y_] := Cos[x]/Cos[y]
g[x_, y_] = Normal[Series[f[x, y], {x, 0, 2}, {y, 0, 2}]]

x2
1
x2
1
+
y2
2
2
4
p1 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 1, 1}, {y, 1, 1},
p2 = Plot3D[g[x, y], {x, 1, 1}, {y, 1, 1},
Show[GraphicsArray[{{p1, p2 }}]];
5.12.3
.
Series
N ormal
6.
,
, .
, 25, 29
6.1

,

( . 6.1).
6.1. .
M (x, y, z)

.
190
6.1: S
R3 M (x, y, z) S V (x, y, z).
. E
:
E(x, y) = u(x, y)
ex + v(x, y)
ey
:
E(x, y, z) = u(x, y, z)
ex + v(x, y, z)
ey + w(x, y, z)
ez .
u, v, w
.

, ( . 6.2).
y
6.2. () ()
6.2 ,

f = f1 ex + f2 ey + f3 ez x = x1 ex + x2 ey + x3 ez
lim f (x) = f 0 ,
xx0
6.2 ,

191
f 0 = f01 ex + f02 ey + f03 ez

> 0 > 0 ,
|x x0 | <

|f (x) f 0 | < .
f : D E D Rn
E Rm , f = (f1 , f2 , ..., fm ) x0
f1 , f2 , ..., fm x0 .
f (t) = (f1 , f2 , ..., fm )
m
X dfi
df
=
ei .
dt
dt
i=1
f (x),
x
f
=
xi
f1 f2 f3
,
,
xi xi xi
df = (df1 , df2 , df3 ) =
3
X
f1
i=1
...
xi
dxi ,
3
X
f2
i=1
xi
dxi ,
3
X
f3
i=1
xi
dxi .
6.1 x
u(x, y, z) = (x + y + z)
ex + (x2 + y 2 +
z 2 )
ey + (x3 + y 3 + z 3 )
ez
:
u
(x + y + z)
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
(x3 + y 3 + z 3 )
=
ex +
ey +
ey
x
x
x
x
= ex + 2x
ey + 3x2 ez
6.2 f (x, y) =
(x2 + y 2 )
ex + xy
ey .
:
2f
xy .
192
f
= 2y
ex + x
ey
x
2f
= ey .
xy
6.3
f (x, y) = (x2 + y 2 )
ex + xy
ey .
: P (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , Q(x, y) =
xy.

P
Q
P
Q
dx +
dy ex +
dx +
dy ey
x
y
x
y
= (2xdx + 2ydy)
ex + (ydx + xdy)
ey
df = dP ex + dQ
ez =
6.3
f (x)
n0 ( . 6.3)
z
P(x0,y0,z0)
Q(x,y,z)
y
P(x0,y0,0)
Q(x,y,0)
x
6.3. .
f (x + n0 h) f (x)
(6.1)
h
Dn0 f f x0
n0 .
Dn0 f (x) = lim
h0
6.4
Dn0 f =
193
f
f
f
cos +
cos +
cos
x
y
z
(6.2)
n0 = (cos , cos , cos ), cos , cos , cos

1.3.
: (6.1)

d
Dn0 (x0 ) =
[f (x0 + h cos , y0 + h cos , z0 + h cos )]
dh
h0

f
(x0 + h cos )
f
(y0 + h cos )
=
+
...
x 0
h
y 0
h

f
f
f
=
cos +
cos +
cos
x 0
y 0
z 0
, n0 = ex
Dex f (x0 ) =
f
x
,
0
6.4
6.4.1
f (x, y, z)
f (x) = lim =
|h|0
f (x + h) f (x)
|h|
f (x) =
f
f
f
ex +
ey +
ez .
x
y
z
(6.3)
Dn0 f (x0 ) = (f (x0 )) n0 .
(6.4)
(6.2) .
n = |n|n0
194
Dnf (x0 ) = |n|Dn0 f (x0 )
(6.5)
(
.) (6.5) , (f ) n0 , Dn0 f (x0 )
.
: (6.4)

Dn0 f (x0 ) .
, f (x, y, z) = 0
P (x, y, z)
f = 0, (f )P
P.
r = x
ex +y
ey +z
ez M (x, y, z)
. dr = dx
ex + dy
ey + dz
ez
M.
df =
f
f
f
dx +
dy +
dz = 0
x
y
z

f
f
f
ex +
ey +
ez (dx
ex + dy
ey + dz
ez ) = f dr = 0
x
y
z
f dr
. 6.4 (
).
z
F(x0,y0,z0)
r(r0)
S
y
C
x
6.4. f M0
6.4
195
6.4 : f (x, y) =
x2 + y 2 .
: f (x+h)f (x) =
f (x) h + O(h) O(h)
h .
f (x + h) f (x) = f (x + h1 , y + h2 ) f (x, y)
= [(x + h1 )2 + (y + h2 )2 ] (x2 + y 2 )
= [2 h1 + 2yh2 ] + [h1 2 + h2 2 ]
= [2x
ex + 2y
ey ] h + |h|2
f (x) = f (x, y) = 2x
ex + 2y
ey .
6.5 : f (x, y) = (x 1)2 y 2 ,
.
: n0 = (n1 , n2 ) M0 (x0 , y0 )
f .
Dn0 f = (f ) n0
f =
f
f
ex +
ey , n0 = n1 ex + n2 ey ,
x
y
f n0 = 2(x 1)n1 2yn2
Dn0 f |M0 = 2(x0 1)n1 2y0 n2 .
(6.6)
6.6 : f (x, y) = x3 3x2 y +

3xy 2 + 1 R2 . f
M (3, 1)
, N (6, 5).
: f M0
196
(f )M0 =
f
x
ex +
M0
f
y
M0
ey = 12
ex 9
ey
n0 =
5
6
,
61
61
(Dn0 f )M0 = (f )M0 n0 = (12

ex 9
ey )
27
= .
61
6
5
ex + ey
61
61
6.4.2
f = f1 ex +
f2 ey + f3 ez
f =
f1
f2
f3
+
+
.
x1 x2 x3
.
f , U (x, y, z) = U1 (x, y, z)
ex + U2 (x, y, z)
ey +
U3 (x, y, z)
ez .
V = xyz ( . 6.5) .
0 .
.
6.5. V .
6.4
197
xz U2 y

0 U2 xz.

U2
U2 (x, y, z) +
y xz,
y
U2 (x, y + y, z) = U2 (x, y, z) +
U2
y.
y

U2
0 U2 (x, y, z) +
y xz 0 U2 (x, y, z)xyz
y
U2
= 0
V
y

U1
U3
V 0
V.
x
z
U1 U2 U3
+
+
x
y
z
V = 0 U V.
U = 0
. U > 0 U < 0
.

.
. f ,
U (x, y, z) = U1 (x, y, z)
ex +U2 (x, y, z)
ey +U3 (x, y, z)
ez .

dV
dx
dy
dz
=
yz +
xz +
yx.
dt
dt
dt
dt
198
dx
= [U1 (x + x, y, z) U1 (x, y, z)].
dt
Taylor

U1
U1
dx
= [U1 (x, y, z) +
x U1 (x, y, z)] =
x.
dt
x
x
x y

d(V )
U1 (x, y, z) U2 (x, y, z) U3 (x, y, z)
=
+
+
V
dt
x
y
z
= ( U )V.
U = 0
V .
.
, ,
R(x(t), y(t), z(t), t)
dR
R R dx R dy R dz
R
=
+
=
+ U R.
dt
t
x dt
y dt
z dt
t
.
6.4.3

, .
:

ex ey ez

f = x1 x2 x3 =
f1 f2 f3

f3
f2
f1
f3
f2
f1
=
ex +
ey +
ez .
x2 x3
x3 x1
x1 x2
.
6.4
199
=
ez ,
=
( . 6.6).
6.6. z
ex +
P (x, y, z) r = x(t)
y(t)
ey + z
ez x(t) = d cos(t), y(t) = d sin(t).
v(t) = x(t)
ex + y(t)
ey = d sin(t)
ex +
d cos(t)
ey = y
ex + x
ey .

v = 2
ez .

.
( F = 0) .
,
, ( ).

B J.
(6.7)
,
.
200
6.7
(f A) = A f + f A
:
(f A) =
ex +
ey +
ez (f A)
x
y
z
(f Ax ) (f Ay ) (f Az )
+
+
=
x
y
z

Ax Ay
f
Az
f
f
=f
+
+
+ Ax
+
+
x
y
z
x y
z
= f A + A f
6.8: ,
.
: F
F = f (r)er . , ( )
(f er ) = f er + f er .
, er = 0
f (r) =
df
df r
r =
.
dr
dr r
F (r) =
df r
er = 0
dr r
F . ,
.
6.9: ,
M .
:
M
F =
GM
r,
r3
r M G
. , F = 0.

6.5
201
(f r) = r f + f r

GM
GM
F =r 3
+ 3
r
r
r
3GM
3GM
=
= 0.
3
r
r3

q1 , q2
F =
q1 q2
r.
r3
.
.

1.
2.
3.
4.
(f ) = 0
( A) = 0
(A B) = A( B) B( A) + (B )A (A )B
( A) = ( A) 2 A
2 =
2
2
2
+
+
x21 x22 x23
Laplace . Laplace
.
6.5
6.5.1
R3 .
,
f (x, y, z) = 0,
202
(f )M0
M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ). ,

(r r 0 ) f = 0,
r ,
r 0 M0 (
6.7) .
z
f |M=M0
r-r0
f(x,y,z)=0
M0
C
r0
R-r0
x
6.7. .
(x x0 )
f
x
+ (y y0 )
f
y
+ (z z0 )
f
z
= 0. (6.8)
0
, z = f (x, y),
(6.8)
z =
f
x
x +
0
f
y
y,
0
x = x x0 , y = y y0 z = z z0 .
6.5
203
, z = f (x, y)
M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
f (x, y, z) = 0
(r r 0 ) f = 0,
(6.9)
(r r 0 ) f.
(6.9)
(x x0 )
(y y0 )
(z z0 )

=
=
.
f/
f/
f/
x 0
y 0
z 0
(6.10)
(6.10)
f (x, y, z) = 0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
6.5.2
R3
f (t), g(t), h(t)
C R3 . C M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
K
M0
u
C
r0
R
r
P
T
M
0
y
x
6.8. C T
204
R = f (t)
ex + g(t)
ey + h(t)
ez

,

M0 . r r 0
T 0 = dR
dt M0
M (x, y, z) M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ),
( . 6.8) , r =
r r 0 T 0 .

(r r 0 ) T 0 = 0,
M0 .

x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=
.
f (t)
g (t)
h (t)
,
M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
(r r 0 ) T 0 = 0
(x x0 )f (t) + (y y0 )g (t) + (z z0 )h (t) = 0.

,
M0 C2 F (x, y, z) = 0 G(x, y, z) = 0. C2 M0
M0 ,
F
x
G
x
M0
M0
(x x0 ) +
F
y
(x x0 ) +
G
y
M0
M0
(y y0 ) +
F
z
(y y0 ) +
G
z
M0
M0
(z z0 )
(z z0 ).
6.5
205
M0
F(x,y,z)=0
G(x,y,z)=0
A
C
6.9.

(x x0 )
i
D(F,G)
D(y,z) M
0
=h
(y y0 )
i
D(F,G)
D(x,z) M
0
=h
(z z0 )
i
D(F,G)
D(x,y) M
0
D(F, G)
(x x0 )
D(y, z)
M0

D(F, G)
+ (y y0 )
D(x, z) M0

D(F, G)
+ (z z0 )
= 0.
D(x, y) M0
(6.11)
6.10: x2 + y 2 +z 2 = 42 x2 + y 2 = 2x
M0 (, , 2).
: F = x2 + y 2 + z 2 42 = 0 G = x2 +
y 2 2x = 0 C1 .

F
x
G
x
M0
F
y
M0
G
z
= 2,
M0
M0
= 0,
F
z
G
y
= 2 2,
M0
= 2.
M0
206
D(F, G)
D(y, z)
D(F, G)
D(x, y)
M0
= 4
2,
D(F, G)
D(z, x)
= 0,
M0
= 42 ,
M0

y = , x + z 2 = 3,
z = x 2.
6.11: x2 + y 3 = 2(2 + yz)

x2 + 1 z 2 = 2y 2 (1 2) M0 (1, 1, 2).
: F = x2 + y 3 2(2 + yz) = 0 G = x2 + 1
z 2 2y 2 (1 2) = 0 M0 ,
F G (F )M0 (G)M0 = 0.

F = 2x
ex + 3(y 2 2z)
ey 2y
ez
G = 2x
ex 2(2 4)y
ey 2z
ez .

(F )M0 = 2
ex ey + 2
ez
(G)M0 = 2
ex + 2(2 4)
ey 4
ez ,
(F )M0 (G)M0 = 0.
6.12: , x2 + 3y 2 + 2z 2 = 9
x2 + y 2 + z 2 8x 8y 6z + 24 = 0
M0 (2, 1, 1).
: F = x2 + 3y 2 + 2z 2 9 = 0
G = x2 +y 2 +z 2 8x8y 6z +24 = 0 M0 ,
(F )M0 = (G)M0 . F
G M0
(F )M0 = 4
ex + 6
ey + 4
ez
6.6
207
(G)M0 = 4
ex 6
ey 4
ez
.
6.6
6.1: () F G
, F G .
() f (x, y, z) g(x, y, z)
,
f g = 0.
: () , [F G] = 0 F =
G = 0. , (F G) = (F )G(G)F ,
F = (f1 , f2 , f3 ) G = (g1 , g2 , g3 ).
F G = (f2 g3 f3 g2 )
ex + (f3 g1 f1 g3 )
ey + (f1 g2 f2 g1 )
ez
(F G) =
(f2 g3 f3 g2 ) +
(f3 g1 f1 g3 )+
x
y
f2
f3
f3
f1
f1
(f1 g2 f2 g1 ) =
g3
g2 +
g1
g3 +
g2
z
x
x
y
y
z
f2
g3
g2
g1
g3
g2
g1
g1 +
f2
f3 +
f3
f1 +
f1
f2 =
z
x
x
y
y
z
z

f3 f2
f1 f3
f2 f1
g1 +
g2 +
g3
y
z
z
x
x
y

g3 g2
g1 g3
g2 g1
f1
f2 +
f3 =
y
z
z
x
x
y
( F ) G ( G) F
() , (f ) = 0
().
6.2: f (x) = |x + y + z|
R3 . x0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) x0 + y0 +
z0 = 0,
f x0 .
208
: n0 = (cos a1 , cos a2 , cos a3 ) .
f (x0 + tn0 ) f (x0 )

t
|x0 + t cos a1 + y0 + t cos a2 + z0 + t cosa3 |
= lim
t0
t
|t|
= lim | cos a1 + cos a2 + cos a3 |,
t0 t
Dn0 f = lim
t0
(6.12)
x0 + y0 + z0 = 0. (6.16)
cos a1 + cos a2 + cos a3 = 0.
(6.13)
(6.13) ,
.
6.3: () f (x, y) = xey , f
P (2, 0) P Q(5, 4). ()
f ;
;
: ()
f (x, y) =
f f
,
x y
= (ey , xey ), f (2, 0) = (1, 2).
P Q = (3, 4) u =
(3/5, 4/5), f P Q,
P
Duf (2, 0) = f (2, 0) u = (1, 2)
3 4
,
5 5
3 8
11
+ = .
5 5
5
() f
f (2, 0) = (1, 2).
|f (2, 0)| = |(1, 2)| =
5.
6.4 : T (x, y) = ex cos y + ey cos x.

()
(0,0);
6.6
209
()
(0,0);
:
T
T
ex +
ey = (ex cos y ey sin x)
ex
x
y
+ (ey cos x ex sin y)
ey .
T (x, y) =
() (0,0)
T (0, 0) = ex + ey .
()
T (0, 0) =
ex ey .
6.5:
f (x, y) = (x3 + y 3 )/3 t
r(t) = a cos t
ex + b sint
ey .
: f t
d[f (r(t))]
.
dt

d[f (r(t))]
=
dt
f dx f dy f dz
+
+
x dt
y dt
z dt
f = x2 ex + y 2 ey .
x(t) = a cos t y(t) = b sin t,
f (r(t)) = a2 cos2 t
ex + b2 sin2 t
ey .
dr(t)
= a sin t
ex + b cos t
ey
dt
,
d[f (r(t))]
= sin t cos t(b3 sin t a3 cos t).
dt
= f (
dr(t)
).
dt
210
6.6: f
f (x, y) =

y
x
+
2x
e
x
+
1
ey .
x
2x1/2
2y 1/2
y
f
f
x
= y 1/2 + 2x,
= 1/2 x + 1.
x
y
2x
2y
f /x x
f (x, y) = x y xy + x2 + (y)
(y) x.
y
f
x
d(y)
= 1/2 x +
.
y
dy
2y
f /y
d(y)
dy
= 1 (y) = y + c.
f (x, y) = xy 1/2 x1/2 y + x2 + y + c.
f (x, y) = xy 1/2 x1/2 y + x2 + y + c

.
6.7 : , f (x, y, z) = (x2 /a2 ) + (y 2 /b2 ) +
(z 2 /c2 ) , n =
M O , , 2f (M )/r r
.
: f M (x0 , y0 , z0 )
f = (2x/a2 )
ex + (2y/b2 )
ey + (2z/c2 )
ez
1
Dnf = (f ) n0 |n| =
r
2f (M0 )
=
.
r
2x0 2 2y0 2 2z0 2

2 2 2
a
b
c
6.6
211
6.8:
() (A B) = B ( A) A ( B)
() 2 ( A) = (2 A)
: ()
(Ay Bz Az By ) +
(Az Bx Ax Bz )+
x
y

Ay
Az
Az
Ax
(Ax By Ay Bx ) = Bx
+ By
+
z
z
y
x
z

By
Ax Ay
Bz
Bz
Bx
Bz
Ax
Ay
y
x
z
y
x
z

Bx By
Az
= B ( A) A ( B).
y
x
(A B) =
()
( A) = ( A) 2 A

[ ( A)] = [2 A + ( A]
0 = (2 A) + 2 ( A)
(2 A) = 2 ( A)
6.9:
F = (x + 2y + z)
ex + (x 3y z)
ey + (4x + y + 2z)
ez
f = 2x2 yz 3 .
() , , ,
. ()
F f, (F )f, ( F ) f, (F )f
() g F = g;
, .
212
: () F
F = 0. = 4,
= 2, = 1.
()
F f = (F )f
= (x + 2y + 4z)4xyz 3 + (2x 3y z)2x2 z 3

+ (4x y + 2z)6x2 yz 2 .
( F ) f = 0.
(F )f = [(2x 3y z)4xyz 3 (4x y + 27)2x2 z 3 ]i
+ [(4x y + 27)4xyz 3 (x + 2y + 4z)6x2 yz 2 ]j

+ [(x + 2y + 4z)2x2 z 3 (2x 3y z)4xyz 3 ]k
() , F = 0 = g .
F = (x + 2y + 4z)
ex + (2x 3y z)
ey + (4x y + 2z)
ey
g
g
g
=
ex +
ey +
ez
x
y
z
g(x, y, z) =
+
=
(t + 2y + 4z)dt +
a
c
x2
y
b
(2a 3t z)dt
(4a b + 2t)dt
3y 2
+ z 2 + 2xy yz + 4zx + C.
2
6.10 :
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
M0 (1, 1, 1)
: F = x2 +
y 2 + z 2 a2 M0 Fx = Fy = Fz = 2.

2[(x 1) + (y 1) + (z 1)] = 0 x + y + z = 3.

x 1 = y 1 = z 1.
6.6
213
6.11 : f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2
9 = 0, g(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 z 3 = 0 M0 (2, 1, 2).
: f = 0
g = 0 M (x, y, z)
(f )M (g)M = |f |M |g|M cos .

(f )M0 = 4
ex 2
ey + 4
ez , (g)M0 = 4
ex 2
ey ez ,
cos =
(4
ex 2
16
ey + 4
ez ) (4
e 2
ey ey )
x
= .
2
2
2
2
2
2
6 21
4 +2 +4
4 +2 +1
6.12 z = x2 +y 2 M (1, 1, 2).

: F = x2 + y 2 z = 0
F
x
= 2,
M0
F
y
= 2,
M0
F
z
M0
= 1.
z 2 = 2(x 1) + 2(y 1) = 2(x + y 2)
z2=
x1
y1
=
.
2
2
6.13
x = a cos , y = a sin , z = b, = 2.
:
dx
dy
dz
= a sin = y,
= a cos = x,
= b.
d
d
d
, M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )

x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=
y0
x0
b
y0 (x x0 ) + x0 (y
y0 ) + b(z z0 ) = 0 = 2. x =
a, by = az 2ab ay + bz 2b2 = 0.
214
6.14

xyz = 3 , .
:
f = xyz a3 = 0.
M0 (x0 , y0 )
(x x0 )
f
x
M0
+ (y y0 )
f
y
M0
+ (z z0 )
f
z
=0
M0
(x x0 )y0 z0 + (y y0 )x0 z0 + (z z0 )x0 y0 = 0.

z z1 =
x0 y0 z0 = 3 . x1 =
3 , y1 = 3 . ,
1
1
V = x1 y1 z1 = 9
6
6
.
6.7
6.1: f (x, y, z) = xcosysinz
2
ex ey + 4
ez
M0 (1, , 4 ).
6.2: :
i)f1 = 3x + y + z 2 ,
ii)f2 = 2x + y 3 + z 4
iii)f3 = xy + yz + 3xz, iv)f4 = x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xz
pPn
2
6.3 : f (x) =
i=1 xi ,
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn x
ei , i = 1, 2, . . . , n Rn .
6.4 : f (x, y) = x3 y 4
(6, 1) v = 2
ex + 5
ey .
6.5 : , ( v) = 0, v
.
6.8 M athematica
215
6.6 : , ,
() = 0.
6.7 : f, f (x, y) = y 2 ex + (2xy 1)
ey .
6.8 : x2 y+
xy 2 (1,4)
2x3y 4 = 0 . ,
x2 y + xy 2 (1,4).
6.9 :
U (r, ) = (P cos)/r 2 , P , Dmax U = P (sin2 +
1
4 cos2 ) 2 /r 3 (r, ).
6.8 M athematica
6.8.1

f (x, y, z) = f1 (x, y, z)
ex + f2 (x, y, z)
ey + f3 (x, y, z)
ez
= {f1 (x, y, z), f2 (x, y, z), f3 (x, y, z)}
Mathematica :
1. :
Clear[f, x, y, z]
f[x_, y_, z_] = {xb2 + y, yb2 + z, zb2 + x}
{x 2 + y, y 2 + z , z 2 + x }
2. :
Clear[f, x, y, z, i, j, k]
ex = {1, 0, 0};
^
ey = {0, 1, 0};
^
ez = {0, 0, 1};
^
f[x_, y_, z_] = (xb2 + y)i + (yb2 + z)j + (zb2 + x)k
{x 2 + y, y 2 + z , z 2 + x }
216
6.8.2
f (x, y, z)
f
f
f
ex +
ey +
ez
x
y
z
f (x, y, z) =
Grad,
Mathematica, Calculus V ectorAnalysis .
, .
SetCoordinates[Cartesian];
Clear[f, x, y, z]
f[x_, y_, z_] := xb2 + yb2 + Sin[x y] + z
Grad[f[x, y, z]]
{2x + yCos[xy], 2y + xCos[xy], 1 }
6.1.
Grad[f ]
Grad[f, coorsys]

coorsys.
6.8.3

div f (x, y, z) =
f1 f2 f3
+
+
=f
x
y
z
. Div
CalculusVectorAnalysis.
6.8 M athematica
217
Clear[f, x, y, z]
f[x_, y_, z_] = {x + y, xb2 + yb2, zb3};
Div[f[x, y, z]]
1 + 2y + 3z 2

, SetCoordinates Div
.
Div[f[x, y, z], Spherical]

Csc[Ttheta](Rr (x 2 + y 2 )Cos[Ttheta] + 2Rr (x + y)Sin[Ttheta])
Rr 2
Div[f[x, y, z], Spherical[a, b, c]]
Csc[b](a(x 2 + y 2 )Cos[b] + 2a(x + y)Sin[b])
a2
f Curl CalculusVectorAnalysis
.
Clear[f, x, y, z]
f[x_, y_, z_] = {x + y, xb2 + yb2, zb3};
Curl[f[x, y, z]]
{0 , 0 , 1 + 2x }
Curl[f[x, y, z], Cylindrical]
{0 , 0 ,
x 2 + y2
}
Rr
218
6.2.
Div[f ]
Div[f, coorsys]

coorsys.
Curl[f ]
Curl[f, coorsys]

coorsys.
6.8.4 Laplace
Laplace
2 f =
2f
2f
2f
+
+
= fxx + fyy + fzz
x2
y 2
z 2
Laplacian Mathematica,
CalculusVectorAnalysis
, .
Clear[f1 , f2 , x, y, z]
f1 [x_, y_, z_] = {x + y, xb2 + yb2, zb3};
f2 [x_, y_, z_] = xb2 + zb2 + Cos[x y];
Laplacian[f1[x, y, z]]
{0 , 4 , 6z }
Laplacian[f2[x, y, z]]
4 x 2 Cos[xy] y 2 Cos[xy]
6.8.5
1. :
(f1 f2 ) = (f1 ) (f2 ) + f1 2 f2 .
6.8 M athematica
219
SetCoordinates[Cartesian[x, y, z]];
Clear[f1 , f2 , pr1 , pr2 ]
pr1 = Div[f1 [x, y, z]Grad[f2 [x, y, z]]]
(0 ,0 ,1 )
[x , y, z ]f2
(0 ,1 ,0 )
[x , y, z ]f2
(1 ,0 ,0 )
[x , y, z ]f1
f1
f1
f1
(0 ,0 ,1 )
[x , y, z ] + f1 [x , y, z ]f2
(0 ,0 ,2 )
[x , y, z ]+
(0 ,1 ,0 )
[x , y, z ] + f1 [x , y, z ]f2
(0 ,2 ,0 )
[x , y, z ]+
(1 ,0 ,0 )
[x , y, z ] + f1 [x , y, z ]f1
(2 ,0 ,0 )
[x , y, z ]
pr2 = Dot[Grad[f1[x, y, z]], Grad[f2 [x, y, z]]]+

f1 [x, y, z]Laplacian[f2 [x, y, z]]
(0 ,0 ,1 )
[x , y, z ]f2
(1 ,0 ,0 )
[x , y, z ]f2
f1
f1
(0 ,0 ,1 )
[x , y, z ] + f1
(1 ,0 ,0 )
[x , y, z ] + f1 [x , y, z ]f2
(0 ,2 ,0 )
f1 [x , y, z ]f2
(0 ,1 ,0 )
(0 ,1 ,0 )
[x , y, z ]f2
(0 ,0 ,2 )
(2 ,0 ,0 )
[x , y, z ] + f1 [x , y, z ]f2
[x , y, z ]+
[x , y, z ]+
[x , y, z ]
Simplify[pr1 == pr2]
True
2.
F = (x + 2y + lz)
ex + (mx 3y z)
ey + (4x + ny + 2z)
ey
f (x, y, z) = 2x2 yz 3 .
() n,m,l,
.
()
F f , ( F ) f
()
220
Clear[f, x, y, z, l, m, n]
f[x_, y_, z_] = {x + 2 y + l z, m x 3 y z,
4 x + n y + 2 z};
F =
0.
Curl[f[x, y, z]]
{1 + n, 4 + l, 2 + m}
Solve[% == {0, 0, 0}, {l, n, m}]
{{l 4 , n 1 , m 2 }}
()
Clear[f1 , pr1 , pr2 ]

f1 [x_, y_, z_] := 2 xb2 y zb3
pr1 = Expand[Dot[f[x, y, z], Grad[f1[x, y, z]]]]
24x 3 yz 2 6x 2 y 2 z 2 + 4x 3 z 3 + 10x 2 yz 3 + 8xy 2 z 3
2x 2 z 4 + 16xyz 4
pr2 = Dot[Curl[f[x, y, z]], Grad[f1 [x, y, z]]]
0
3.
f (x, y, z) = ex + e2y + ez
f M (1, 0, 0) a = 2
ex + ey + 2
ez .
b
f M (1, 0, 1).
6.8 M athematica
221
()
<< LinearAlgebraOrthogonalization
Clear[a, newa, f, x, y, z, f1 , ap]
a = {2, 1, 2};
newa = Normalize[a]

2 1 2
, ,
3 3 3
f[x_, y_, z_] := Exp[x] + Exp[2 y] + Exp[z]
f1 = Grad[f[x, y, z], Cartesian[x, y, z]]
{E x , 2E 2y , E z }
ap[x_, y_, z_] = Dot[f1 , newa]
2E x
2E 2y
2E z
3
3
3
ap[1, 0, 0]
4
2E
+
3
3
()
b = f1 [1, 0, 1]

1
E , 2 ,
E
4. f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 +
z 2 9 = 0 g(x, y, z) = x2 +y 2 z3 = 0 M (2, 1, 2).
Clear[f, g, f1 , g1 , a, b]
222
f[x_, y_, z_] := xb2 + yb2 + zb2 9

g[x_, y_, z_] := xb2 + yb2 z 3
f1 [x_, y_, z_] = Grad[f[x, y, z]]
{2x , 2y, 2z }
g1 [x_, y_, z_] = Grad[g[x, y, z]]
{2x , 2y, 1 }
a = f1 [2, 1, 2]
{4 , 2 , 4 }
b = g1 [2, 1, 2]
{4 , 2 , 1 }
Clear[norm]
norm[v_] = N[Sqrt[v.v]]
v v
phi = ArcCos[a.b/(norm[a] norm[b])]

8
ArcCos
2 21
5. , C
x = a(sint + cost)
y = a(sint cost)
z = bet
a 6= 0, b 6= 0, x2 + y 2 = 4a2 .
6.8 M athematica
Clear[x, a, y, z, b, r, r1 , r2 , t, l]
x[t_] := a (Sin[t] + Cos[t])
y[t_] := a (Sin[t] Cos[t])
z[t_] := b Exp[t]
r = {x[t], y[t], z[t]}
{a(Cos[t] + Sin[t]), a(Cos[t] + Sin[t]), bE t }
r1 = D[x[t], y[t], z[t], t]
{a(Cos[t] Sin[t]), a(Cos[t] + Sin[t]), bE t }
r2 = r + l r1
{al(Cos[t] Sin[t]) + a(Cos[t] + Sin[t]), a(Cos[t]
+Sin[t] + al(Cos[t] + Sin[t]), bE t bE t l}
r2 /.l 1
{a(Cos[t] Sin[t]) + a(Cos[t] + Sin[t]),
a(Cos[t] + Sin[t]) + al(Cos[t] + Sin[t]), 0 }
Simplify[%]
{2aCos[t], 2aSin[t], 0 }
6.
F = xyz(ex ex + ey ey + ez ez )
Clear[f, x, y, z]
f[x_, y_, z_] = {x y z Exp[x], x y z Exp[y],
x y z Exp[z]};
223
224
{E x xyz + E y xyz + E z xyz }

Div[f[x, y, z]]
Ez xy + Ey xz + Ex yz + Ex xyz + Ey xyz + Ez xyz
Curl[f[x, y, z]]
{E y xy + E z xz , E x xy E z yz , E x xz + E y yz }
6.8.6
SetCoordinates
Grand
Div
Curl
Laplacian
Dot
N ormalize

Laplace

Calculus V ectorAnalysis SetCoordinates, Grad, Div, Curl, Laplacian.
LinearAlgebra Orthogonalization
Normalize
7.

.
Albert Einstein
7.1

. , z = f (x, y).

f .
f (x, y)
D R2 M0 (x0 , y0 ) D
:
7.1: (M0 , ),
f (x, y) 6 f (x0 , y0 ), f ,
f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) , f .

M0 , f .
f ( ) f (x0 , y0 ) D, f
( ) .
7.1:
f ,
226

.
, f (x, y) = x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2 1, (0,0)
x2 + y 2 = 1.
7.2: f : D R, D R2 ,
D, M0 D

.
. , M0
z = f (x, y)
z z0 =
f
x
(x x0 ) +
f
y
(y y0 ).
(7.1)
(f /x)0 = (f /y)0 = 0, z = z0 , (x, y)

(x0 , y0 ) z = z0 (
. 7.1).
, , .
f
x
=0
0
f
y
= 0,
(7.2)
f M0 . (7.1)
(f )0 = 0.
z = f (x, y) . (7.2) .
f (x, y)
z = f (x, y).
. (7.2)
7.2
227
2
1
10
0
-1
-2
-10
5
0
-5
-5
0
5
10 -10
7.1. z = sin x + sin y

[10 < x < 10, 10 < y < 10].
f
x
=0
0
f
y
= 0
0
f
z
= 0.
(7.3)
f (x, y, z), ...

.
1 ( . 7.2).
M0 (x0 , y0 ) f (x, y0 )
( ) f (x0 , y)
( ).
7.2

f
x
=
0
f
y
= 0,
0
M0 f (x, y),
,
, ,
. ,
M0 .
f (x, y) Taylor
(x0 , y0 )
1
228
5
1
0
-5
-10
-1
0.5
0
-0.5
-0.5
0
0.5
1 -1
7.2. z = x3 + y 3 9xy 2y 2 + 1
(0, 0). .
f (x0 + h, y0 + k) = f (x0 , y0 ) +
f
x

1
f
f 2
+
h
+k
f (x0 , y0 ) + Q3
2!
x
y
h+
0
f
y
k+
0
Q3 . Q3
h, k << 1, .
, ,

f = f (x0 + h, y0 + k) f (x0 , y0 ) =
2
2
2
f
f
1
f
2
2
h
.
=
+ 2hk
+k
2
2!
x 0
xy 0
y 2 0
(7.4)

f.
A = ( 2 f /x2 )0
B = ( 2 f /xy)0
= ( 2 f /y 2 )0
= B 2 A
fxx
fxy
fxy
= (fxy )2 fxx fyy
fyy
(7.4)
7.2
229
f = (1/2)k2 [AW 2 + 2BW + ]

W = (h/k). f
2
D = AW
+ 2BW +
B
= A W 2 + 2W +
A A
#
"
2 2
B
B
B
A
= A W 2 + 2W +
+ 2
A
A
A
A
"
2
2 #
B
=A W +
+
A
A
:
1. < 0. f .
M0
. (
.)
2. > 0, D = 0 .
f W, f
. .
3. = 0, D = 0, (B/A),
A(W + B/A)2 .
W 6= (B/A), D . W = B/A
D , Q3
W. Q3
(B/A) , A > 0
A < 0. ,
Q3 .
, ,
f M0 (x0 , y0 ).
,

f
f 3
h
+k
.
x
y
(7.5)
230
(7.5) h, k
,
M0 .
M0 .
f (x, y),
D R2
.
{fx = 0, fy = 0}
Mi (xi , yi ) .

2 (x , y ) f (x , y )f (x , y ) A = f (x , y ) (
= fxy
i i
xx i i yy i i
xx i i
= fyy (xi , yi )).
:
< 0 A > 0( > 0),
< 0 A < 0( < 0),
> 0 ( M (x0 , y0 )
),
= 0.
f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 )
M0 ( 7.1).
.
7.1:
f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 9xy + 1.
:
fx = 3x2 9y = 0
fy = 3y 2 9x = 0
P1 (0, 0) P2 (3, 3). fxx = 6x
2
= fxy
fxx fyy = (9)2 (6x)(6y).
P1 fxx (P1 ) = 0 (P1 ) = 81

( 7.3). P2 fxx = 18 > 0
7.2
231
-0.4
-0.2
00.2
0.4 -20
2.6
2.8
33.2
3.4
-22
1
0
-24
-1
-26
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
2.6
0.4
2.8
3.2
3.4
7.3. f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 9xy + 1 ()

() (3,3) .
(P2 ) = 81(18)(18) < 0 P2 .

7.2: ( )
f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 4xy + 1.
:
f
= 4 x3 4y = 0,
x
f
= 4 y 3 4x = 0
y
0.6
0.8
11.2
1.4
3
2
-1
-1
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
7.4. 7.2.
x3 y = 0
y3 x = 0
: x =
0, 1, 1 (0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 1).

(x, y) = [fxy (x, y)]2 fxx (x, y)fyy (x, y) :
fxx = 12x2 , fxy = 14, fyy = 12y 2 ,
(x, y) = (fxy )2 fxx fyy = 16 144x2 y 2 .

(0, 0) = 16 > 0 ,
, f (0, 0). (1, 1) = 128 < 0 fxx (1, 1) = 12 > 0, f (1, 1) = 1
232
, (1, 1) = 12 < 0 f xx(1, 1) = 12 > 0,

f (1, 1) = 1 .
7.3

. M0 (7.3),

fxx
1 = fyx
fzx
fxy
fyy
fzy
fxx
fxy
fxy
fyy
2 =
fxz
fyz
fzz

1. 1 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) > 0, 2 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) > 0, A > 0, f (x0 , y0 .z0 )
M0 f (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
2. 1 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) < 0, 2 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) > 0, A < 0 f (x0 , y0 .z0 )
M0 f (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
3. A, 1 , 2
f (x, y, z)
.
4. 1 2 f =
f (x, y, z) f (x0 .y0 , z0 ).

7.3
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x 1
: {fx = 0, fy = 0, fz = 0}
M0 (1, 0, 0). A = fxx = 2
2 =

2
2
0
=4>0
0
7.4
2
1 = 0
0
0
2
0
233
0
0 = 8 > 0.
2
f M0 (1, 0, 0)
f (1, 0, 0) = 2.
7.4
z(x, y) F (x, y, z(x, y)) = 0
zx = zy = 0

. ,

5.5.

f (x, y) = 0.

f/
x
dy
.
=
dx
f/
y
dy/dx = 0 (f /x)0 = 0
(f /y)0 6= 0.
d2 y
=
dx2
2f
x2

0
f
y
,
0
f
y
2
=C
(dy/dx)0 = (f /x)0 = 0. , C > 0 ,

C < 0 .
z(x, y) F (x, y, z) = 0 . F . {Fx = 0, Fy =
0, F (x, y, z) = 0} , , .
M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6= 0 , , z(x, y). (x0 , y0 )
234
z(x, y)
( )
:

Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 )Fxx (x0 , y0 , z0 ) < 0
Fxx (x0 , y0 , z0 )Fyy (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fxy (x0 , y0 , z0 )2 < 0
(x0 , y0 ) z(x0 , y0 ) =
z0 .

Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 )Fxx (x0 , y0 , z0 ) > 0

Fxx (x0 , y0 , z0 )Fyy (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fxy (x0 , y0 , z0 )2 < 0
(x0 , y0 ) z(x0 , y0 ) =
z0 .

Fxx (x0 , y0 , z0 )Fyy (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fxy (x0 , y0 , z0 )2 = 0
.
7.4

F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z + 1 = 0.
: {Fx = 0, Fy = 0, F = 0}
(0, 0, 1). Fz (0, 0 1) 6= 0 F = 0
(0, 0) z(x, y).
2 F F
Fz (0, 0, 1)Fxx (0, 0, 1) = 2 > 0 Fxy
xx yy = 4,
(0,0) z z0 = 1.
7.5
,
z = f (x, y), x, y ,
(x, y) = 0. ,
U = U (x, y)
x2 + y 2 = a2 .
f (x, y) (x, y) = 0,
f (x, y(x)) .
7.5
235
f (x, y, z)
(x, y, z) (x, y, z) = 0.
(x, y, z) = 0
.. z(x, y) f (x, y, z(x, y))

7.2.
7.5
f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x 2y z 5/4
x, y, z g = x2 + y 2
z = 0.
: g = 0 z

(x, y) = (x2 + y 2 ) 2(x + y) + 5/4.

{x = 0, y = 0}
1
1
,
3
3
4
4
A = xx > 0 = 2xy xx yy < 0

1
1
,
3
3
4
4
7.5.1 Lagrange
y = (x)
.
Lagrange.
f (x, y)
(x, y) = 0,
F (x, y, ) = f (x, y) + (x, y)

Lagrange.
,
236
F
f
=0=
+
x
x
x
(7.6)
F
f
=0=
+
y
y
y
(7.7)
F
= 0 = (x, y)
(7.8)
(7.5) - (7.7)
f + = 0.
(7.5)-(7.7)
. , ,
.
f (x, y, z)
R3 ,
1 (x, y, z) = 0, 2 (x, y, z) = 0,
F (x, y, z, 1 , 2 ) = f (x, y, z) + 1 1 (x, y, z) + 2 2 (x, y, z).

Fx = 0, Fy =
0, Fz = 0, F1 = 0, F2 = 0.

Fxx

Fyx

= Fzx
1x

2x
Fxy
Fyy
Fzy
1y
2y
Fxz
Fyz
Fzz
1z
2z
1x
1y
1z
0
0

2x
2y
2z .
0
0
(x0 , y0 , z0 , 1 , 2 ) > 0 , < 0 .

f (x, y, z), R3 ,

(x, y, z) = 0
7.5
237
Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, F = 0.
M (x0 , y0 , z0 , ) ,
M0

Fxx Fxy Fxz x

Fyx Fyy Fyz y

1 =

Fzx Fzy Fzz z
x y z 0

Fyy Fyz y

2 = Fzy Fzz z .
y z 0
1 < 0 2 < 0, f M ,
1 < 0 2 > 0 .
7.6: , ,
(x2 /a2 ) + (y 2 /b2 ) + (z 2 /c2 ) = 1. ,
.
: 8xyz
(x2 /a2 ) + (y 2 /b2 ) + (z 2 /c2 ) = 1
U = 8xyz +
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2
a2
c
b
U
x
= 0 = 8yz + 2 2
a
x
(7.9)
U
y
= 0 = 8zx + 2 2
y
b
(7.10)
U
z
= 0 = 8xy + 2 2
c
z
(7.11)
(7.8)-(7.10) 2, x, y, z
, 12xyz =
. (7.8)-(7.10) yz(a2
3x2 ) = 0, zx(b2 3y 2 )= 0, xy(c2
3z 2 ) = 0.
x, y, z
, x = a/ 3, y = b/ 3, z = c/ 3
.
238
2a 2b 2c
8abc
V = =
3 3 3
27
7.7: () 5x2 +
8xy + 5y 2 = 9 . ()
3x+4y12 = 0.
xy,

.
: () .
(x, y)
x2 + y 2 . ,
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 ,
5x2 + 8xy + 5y 2 = 9. (
Lagrange),
2a = 6
2b = 2.
(). P (x, y) xy.

,
x2 + y 2 +
|3x + 4y 12|
9 + 16
2
= x2 + y2 +
(3x + 4y 12 )2
.
25
, x y

f (x, y) = x2 + y2 +
(3x + 4y 12 )2
25
. ,
x = 18/25, y = 24/25.
7.8:
. 96m2

. ,
.
7.5
239
: x, y z,
V = xyz.
96 = 2xz + yz + xy.
V = 2xz
48 xz
x+z
Vx = Vz = 0.
x = z = 4 y = 8
V = 128m2 .
7.9: (1,0,2) x + 2y + z = 4.
: (x, y, z) (1,0,-2)
d=
(x 1 )2 + y 2 +(z + 2 )2 .
(x 1 )2 + y 2 +(6 x 2y )2 .
(x, y, z) x+2y +z = 4, z = 4x2y

d=
d
2
2
2
2
d = f (x, y) = (x 1 ) + y +(6 x 2y ) .
f
= 2(x 1) 2(6 x 2y) = 4x + 4y 14 = 0
x
f
= 2y 4(6 x 2y) = 4x + 10y 24 = 0
y
(11/6, 5/3). fxx =
4, fxy = 4, fyy = 10, (x, y) = (fx y)2 fxx fyy = 24 < 0
fxx > 0. (11/6, 5/3).
f
. x = 11/6 y = 5/3,
240
(x 1 )2 + y 2 +(6 x 2y )2
s
2 2
5
5
5 2
6
=
+
+
=5
.
6
3
6
6
d=
(1,0,-2) x + 2y + z = 4
6
6 .
7.10: ( )
f (x, y) = x2 + y
x2 + y 2 = 1.
: f
g(x, y) = x2 + y 2 = 1. Lagrange,

f
g
= ,
x
x
f
g
= ,
y
y
g(x, y) = 1
2x = 2x,
(7.12)
1 = 2y,
(7.13)
x2 + y 2 = 1.
(7.14)
= 1.
(7.11) x = 0 = 1. x = 0 (7.13) y p
= 1, y = 1/2 (7.12), (7.13) x = 3/2.
f (0,1), (0,-1),
!
3 1
,
,
2 2
3 1
,
.
2 2
f :
f (0, 1) = 1, f (0, 1) = 1, f 23 , 12 = 54 .
f x2 + y 2 = 1
5
3 1
,
=
2 2
4
f (0, 1) = 1.
7.5
241
: f
D
D, :
f D.
D.
D
.
7.11:
f (x, y) = xy y +x+1 (x, y) R2 x2 +y 2 2.
: f = (y + 1, x 1),
y = 1 x = 1.
(1,-1) ,
.
x = 2 cos , y = 2 sin . f
f = 4 cos sin 2 sin + 2 cos 1.

!

1+ 3 31
,
2
2
1 3
3+1
,
2
2

( 2, 2).
!

1+ 3
31
,
f
= 2, f ( 2, 2) = 3 2 1.
2
2
7.12:
z = 2xy (1 x2 y 2 )3/2 x2 + y 2 1.
:
f
= 2y + 3x(1 x2 y 2 )1/2 = 0
x
f
= 2x + 3y(1 x2 y 2 )1/2 = 0
y
x2 +y 2 = 1.
3x(1 x2 y 2 )1/2 = 2y
(7.15)
242
2 1 0 -1 -2
5
-5
2
-1
-2
7.5. 7.8.
3y(1 x2 y 2 )1/2 = 2x.
(7.16)
x = 0, y = 0. x 6= 0, y 6= 0 x y x2 = y 2 . (7.14) (7.15) x2 = y 2 = 5/18.

x = y x = y

P1 (0, 0),
P2
1
3
5 1
,
2 3
r !
5
, P3
2
5 1
,
2 3
r !
5
.
2
f f (P0 ) = 1, f (P1 ) 23/27

f (P2 ) 23/27.

. x2 + y 2 = 1 f (x, y) = 2xy.
f y : y = (1 x2 )1/2 2x(1 x2 )1/2 . x2 = 1/2.

x = cos , y = sin (
). 2xy = 2 cos sin = sin 2

3
1 . =
4
7
4
+ 1 . =
4
5
4
7.6
243
.
1 f ,
+1

1.
( 2/2,
2/2), ( 2/2, 2/2).
P0 ( 2/2, 2/2),
( 2/2,
2/2).
7.6
7.1 :
lx + my + nz = p l x + m y + n z = p ,
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
:
r2
x2
y2
2
+ z
f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + (lx + my + nz p)
+ m(l x + m y + n z p ).
fx = 2x + l + l = 0
(7.17)
fy = 2y + m + m = 0
(7.18)
fz = 2z + n + n = 0
(7.19)
f = lx + my + nz p = 0
l x + m y + n z p = 0.
(7.16)-(7.18) x, y, z

2r 2 + p + p = 0.
l, m, n
2p + + k = 0,
k = ll + mm + nn . , l , m , n

244
2p + k + = 0.

2

2r p p

2p l k = 0.

2p k l
r 2 = (l k 2 ) p(p
kp ) + p (pk p ) = 0.
p2 + p2 2kpp
r=
1 k2
1/2
7.2 :
lx + my + nz = 0
x2
y2
z2
+
+
= 1.
2 2 2
( : Lagrange
).
:
2
u = x + y + z + 1 (lx + my + nz) + 2
y2
z2
x2
+
+
2 2 2
1 2 Lagrange.
u
u
u
=
=
=0
x
y
z
2x + 1 l + 22 x/2 = 0
(7.20)
2y + 1 m + 22 y/ 2 = 0
(7.21)
2z + 1 n + 22 z/ 2 = 0.
(7.22)
p2 = x2 +y 2 +z 2 .
(7.19),(7.20) (7.21) x, y, z

7.6
245
2(x + y + z ) + 1 (lx + my + nz) + 22
x2
y2
z2
+
+
2 2 2
=0
2p2 + 22 = 0 2 = p2 . (7.19)(7.20)
x = 1
2 l
2m
2n
,
y
=
,
z
=
1
1
2(p2 2 )
2(p2 2 )
2(p2 2 )
lx + my + nz = 0
2 m2
2 n2
2 l2
+
+
=0
p2 2 p2 2 p2 2
p1 p2 .
7.3: z = f (x, y)
2z
2z
+
4
+ 1 = 0.
x2
y 2
f (x, y) .
:
2f
2f
2f
1
3 2 +4 2 +1=0
=
2
x
y
y
4
2f
1 3 2
x
2f
y2
2f
xy
2
2f 2f
<0
x2 y 2
2f
xy
2
3
+
4
2f
x2
2
1 2f
2f
<
0
<0
4 x2
x2
f .
7.4: , ,
2,
.
+ + +
8
246
: + + = 2
= 2 .
F (, ) = (2 ).

F
F
= 0,
= 0.
= = (2/3) = (2/3) .
A=
2F
4
= <0
2
= (7/9) 2 < 0. F = = = 2 /3.
+ + +
2 3
3 4

1
1
1
= .
2
2
8
7.5: x2 y 2 z 2 , x2 + y 2 +
1
z 2 = a2 . , 3(a1 a2 a3 ) 3 < (a1 + a2 + a3 ).

: f (x, y, z) = x2 y 2 z 2 x2 + y 2 +
z 2 = a2 , f (x, y, z) = x2 y 2 (a2 x2 y 2 ).
fx (x, y, z) = 2xy 2 (a2 x2 y 2 ) + x2 y 2 (2x) = 0

a2 2x2 y 2 = 0,
fy (x, y, z) = a2 2y 2 x2 = 0
a2 = 2y 2 + x2 .
a2 = 2x2 + y 2 a2 = 2y 2 + x2 z 2 = x2 =
2
y 2 = a3 .
x2 y 2 z 2 (
a2 3
a6
) =
3
27
(7.23)
1
, 3(a1 a2 a3 ) 3 a1 + a2 + a3 .
a1
a2
a3
+
+
= 1,
a1 + a2 + a3 a1 + a2 + a3 a1 + a2 + a3
7.6
247
a1
y2
a2
z2
a3
x2
=
,
=
,
=
.
2
2
2
a
a1 + a2 + a3 a
a1 + a2 + a3 a
a1 + a2 + a3
(7.22) ,
a1
a1 + a2 + a3

a2
a1 + a2 + a3

a3
a1 + a2 + a3
1
3
3(a1 a2 a3 ) 3 a1 + a2 + a3 .
7.6. x2
y 2 z 2 = 0 x+y +z = 2,
(x, y) .
:
(x, y), .
, z = 0 x2 y 2 z 2 = 0
x + y + z = 2. (1, 1, 0).
y
x
7.7: x, y, z , ,
++
z
=
1
,
() 27xyz < ,
1
1
1
1
(b)x 2 + y 2 + z 2 < ( + + ) 2 .
: xyz
x

+ y + z = 1 + +
.
()
xyz 27 + +
x+
2
y+ z .
7.8: x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4
(3, 1, 1).
: (x, y, z) (3,1,-1)

d=
(x 3)2 + (y 1)2 + (z + 1)2
d2 = (x 3)2 + (y 1)2 + (z + 1)2 .

(x, y, z) ,
248
f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4.
Lagrange
2(x 3) = 2x
(7.24)
2(y 1) = 2y
(7.25)
2(z + 1) = 2z
(7.26)
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4
(7.27)

x, y, z (7.23),(7.24),(7.25)
(7.26). (7.23)
3
x 3 = x x = 1
[ 1 6= 0, = 1
1
1
, z = 1
(7.23)]. (7.24) (7.25) y = 1
(7.26)
32
12
(1)2
+
+
=4
(1 )2 (1 )2 (1 )2
11
11
(1 ) =
=1
.
4
2
2
6
2
2
, ,
11
11
11

6
2
2
, , ,
.
11
11
11
, f

.
6 , 2 , 2
11
11
11
6 , 2 , 2
11
11 11
7.9: f (x, y, z) = x + 2y +
3z
x y + z = 1 x2 + y 2 = 1.
: f (x, y, z) = x + 2y + 3z
g(x, y, z) = x y + z = 1 h(x, y, z) =
x2 + y 2 = 1.
7.6
249
1 = + 2x
(7.28)
2 = + 2y
(7.29)
3=
(7.30)
xy+z =1
(7.31)
x2 + y 2 = 1
(7.32)
= 3 (7.27) 2x = 2, x =
1/. (7.28) y = 5/(2).
(7.31)
1
25
+ 2 =1
2
4
2
2 = 29
4 , = 29 .
x = 2 , y = 5 , (7.30), z = 1 x + y =
7 .
29
29
29

2
5
7
+ 2
+3 1
= 3 29
29
29
29
f 3 + 29.
7.10:
f (x, y, z) =
ex+y+z
(1 + ex )(ex + ey )(ey + ez )(1 + ez )
: x, f

fx = f
ex
ex
f
f.
1 + ex
ex + ey
f 6= 0, fx (1 + ex )(ex + ey ) = ex [(ex +
ey ) + 1 + ey ], e2x = ey y = 2x. , fz = 0
y = 2z ,
fy = f
ey
ey
f
f
ex + ey
ey + ez
250
fy = 0 2y = x + z .
,
y = 2x, y = 2z, 2y = x + z,
x = y = z = 0.
fxx = fyy = fzz = 1/32, fxy = fyz = 1/64, fxz = 0.

fxx

fxx fxy
2

1
1
1

< 0, Delta2 =
> 0,
= 32
32
64
fyx fyy

2 1 0

1
4
1 = 2 1 2 1 =
< 0.
3
64
(64)
0 1 2
f (0,0,0).
7.11 :
f (x, y) = 3x2 y 9y 3 x2 + 1.
:
fx = 6xy 2x = 0, fy = 3x2 27y 2 = 0.

x = 0 y = 1/3.
x y,
2
P1 (0, 0), P2 (1, 1/3), P3 (1, 1/3). P2 P3 , fxy
fxx fyy = 36 > 0. . P1 2 f f
fxy
xx yy = 0,
.
(0,0) d2 f = 2(dx)2
(dx, dy) = (0, dy), .
(0,0) fxxx = 0, fxxy = 0 fxyy = 54,
d3 f (0, 0) = 18(dx)2 dy 54(dy)3 . P1 (0, 0)
1
1
f d2 f + d3 f = (dx)2 + 3(dx)2 dy 9(dy)3 .
2
6
7.6
251
dx = 0 ( d2 f = 0), f < 0 dy > 0 f > 0

dy < 0. f (0,0).
50
2
0
1
-50
-2
0
-1
-1
0
1
2 -2
7.6. 7.11.
7.12:
f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 4xy 2 .
f P1 (0, 0), P2 ( 2, 23/4 )

:
P3 ( 2, 23/4 ). , P2 P3
2 f f
, fxy
xx yy < 0 fyy > 0,
P1 .
, .
f
P1 . y = cx, c
. f P1
g(x) x = 0,
g(x) = f (x, cx) = (1 + c4 )x4 4c2 x3 .

x = 0,
.
, x, f (x, cx) f (0, 0)
x < 0 x > 0. , f (x, y)
(0,0).
7.13 : f (x, y) = x2 + 24xy + 8y 2 ,
x2 + y 2 = 25.
252
200
2
100
0
0
-2
0
-2
2
7.7. 7.12.
: g(x, y) = x2 + y 2 25 F = f + g .
Fx = fx + gx = 2( + 1)x + 24y = 0
(7.33)
Fy = fy + gy = 24x + 2(8 + )y = 0
(7.34)
F = g = x2 + y 2 25 = 0
(7.35)
(7.33) (7.34)
(i)x = y = 0, , (ii)y = 3x/4, =
8 y = 4x/3, = 17. (i) ,
(7.34). ,
(7.34),
(4, 3), = 8, (3, 4)
= 17. ,
Lagrange .
7.14:

z = 74 x2 y 2 x + y + z = 2
:
. ,
f (x, y, z) = x2 +y 2 +z 2

g(x, y, z) = z + x2 + y 2
7
4
= 0 h(x, y, z) = x + y + z 2 = 0.
Lagrange
F = f + 1 g + 2 h 1 2
Lagrange.

7.6
253
2(1 + 1 )x + 2 = 0
(7.36)
2(1 + 1 )y + 2 = 0
(7.37)
2z + 1 + 2 = 0
(7.38)
z=
7
x2 y 2
4
(7.39)
x+y+z =2
(7.40)
(7.35) (7.36) 1 = 1 y = x.
1 = 1. (7.35)
2 = 0, , (7.37) z = 12 . z (7.38)
(7.39), , (1, 12 , 12 )
( 12 , 1, 12 ) 1.5 . y = x,
, (7.38)
(7.39),
!
1
2 1
2
2
,
,1
.
2
4 2
2
2
92 2
.

2

,
92 2
1.5
, 2
,
.

.
7.15:
f (x, y) = xy + yx2 .
: f (x, y)
f
1
f
2x
= 2 + y,
= 3 +x
x
y
y
y

1
2
+ y = 0, x 1 3 = 0
y2
y
254
x = 0,y = 1.
(0, 1) . 2f
2f
2f
x2 = 0, yx = 1 y23 , y2 = 6x
.
y4
(0, 1) A = 0, B = 3,
= 0, = B 2 A = 9 > 0.
. (0, 1)
f (0, 1)
(h, 1 + k):
1 + (k 1)3
f (h, 1, k) f (0, 1) = h
(k 1)2
k > 0, h > 0
h < 0.
7.16:
f (x, y) = sin x+sin y+sin(x+y)
0 < x < , 0 < y < .
:
f
f
= cos x + cos(x + y),
= cos y + cos(x + y).
x
y
1
2
0
0
1
1
2
30
7.8. 7.16.
cos x + cos(x + y) = 0, cos y + cos(x + y) = 0.

cos x = cos y . x
y 0 , x = y .
cos x + cos(x + y) = 0 cos x + cos 2x = 0.
7.6
cos 2x =
2 cos2 x
255
2 cos2 x + cos x 1 = 0.
cos x
cos x =
(1 1+8)
4
= 1
1
2.
1 x
0 . , cos x = 12 , x = 3 . x = y ,
y = 3 , ( 3 , 3 )
.
2f
2f
=
sin
x
sin(x
+
y),
= sin y sin(x + y)
x2
y 2
2f
= sin(x + y).
xy
( 3 , 3 )
A = 3, B =
3
, = 3
2
= B 2 A = 34 3 < 0. A < 0 ,
f ( 3 , 3 ) = 3 23 .
7.17: f (x, y, z) = xyz x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 1 x 0, y 0, z 0.
: (x, y, z)
.
f , , .
g(x, y, z) = x3 + y 3 + z 3 1,
g(x, y, z) = 0
yz = 3x2
xz = 3y 2 ,
xy = 3z 2 .
x, y ,
z , xyz = 3x3 , xyz = 3y 3 , xyz = 3z 3
256
x3 = y 3 = z 3 .
= 0, , = 0, x,y,z .
= 0,
x3 = y 3 = z 3 x = y = z .
x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 1
1
1
1
1 3
1 3
1 3
x=
, y=
, z=
.
3
3
3
13 .
7.18: , R, .
:

. x, y, z
.
,
x
y
z
f (x, y, z) = 2R[sin( ) + sin( ) + sin( )]
2
2
2

g(x, y, z) = x + y + z 2 = 0.

x
y
z
f (x, y, z) = R[cos ex + cos ey + cos ey ]
2
2
2
g(x, y, z) = ey + ey + ez
Lagrange f (x, y, z) = g(x, y, z) :
= R cos( x2 ), = R cos( y2 ), = R cos( z2 )

x = y = z .
.
.
7.19:
x,y,z x + y + z = 1.
7.6
257
: x,y,z
x + y + z = 1 .
f (x, y, z) = xyz .
x, y, z . z = 1xy ,
f = xy x2 y xy 2 .
f
f
= y 2xy y 2 = y(1 2x y)
x
f
= x 2xy x2 = x(2 2y x).
y
f
x = y = 0 12xy = 0 12yx = 0. x = 13 , y =
1
1
1
3 z = 3 f 27 .
.
7.20:
() f (x, y) = x2 + 2xy + 2y 2 6y () g(x, y) = x4 + y 4

() h(x, y) = y 4 x4
() (x, y) = 3xy x3 y 3
() .
()
.
: ()
fx = 2x + 2y = 0 y = x, fy = 2x + 4y 6 = 0 2y = 6
P (3, 3).
fxx (P ) = 2, fxy (P ) = 2, fyy (P ) = 4

2
= fxx fyy fxy
= 4 > 0.
P .

Taylor P:
1
[(x + 3)2 fxx (P ) + (y 3)3 fyy (P )
2!
+ 2(x + 3)(y 3)fxy (P )]
f (x, y) = f (3, 3) +
= (x + 3)2 + 2(x + 3)(y 3) + 2(y 3)2 9.
258
()
fx = 4x3 = 0 x = 0, fy = 4y 3 = 0 y = 0
P (0, 0)
fxx (P ) = 12x2 = 0, fxy = 0, fyy (P ) = 12y 2 = 0.

= 0,
P,
,
f (0, 0) < f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 , (x, y) R2

2
f (x, y).
() = 0
()
fx = 3y 3x2 = 0 y = x2 , fy = 3x 3y 2 = 0 x = y 2

P1 (0, 0), P2 (1, 1) (0, 0) = 9 < 0 (1, 1) =

27 > 0
P1 P2
. P1 2
f (x, y)
f (x, y) = 2xy,
P2
f (x, y) = 3(x 1)2 + 3(x 1)(y 1) 3(y 1)2 + 1.
7.7
7.1: , 32m2 , ;
.
7.2:
;
7.7
259
7.3:
;
7.4:
,
.
7.5: x,y,z
, = xy 2 z 3
.
7.6:
f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 3mxy , m .
7.7: F (x, y, z) = x4 + y 4 + z 4 4xyz
Po (1, 1, 1).
7.8: 12 ,
.
7.10:
.
7.11: (x, y) = xy
x2 +y 2 = 8. ;
7.12: (x, y, z) =
x2 + y 2 + z 2
x2
64
y2
36
z2
25
= 1.
2
7.13: P (xo , yo , zo ) ( xa2 ) +

2
( yb2 ) + ( zc2 ) = 1 Q(x, y, z) ,

PQ , PQ
.
7.14:
() z = x2 + y 2 y(x + ), > 0,
() z = x3 + y 3 + xy, > 0
() z = x3 y 3 /(x )(x b),
() z = sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
7.15:
.
260
7.16: 2p,
.
7.17: Mo (xo , yo , zo ) ,

.
7.8 M athematica
1. :
() f1 (x, y) = x2 + 2xy + 2y 2 6y
() f2 (x, y) = x4 + y 4
() f3 (x, y) = y 4 x4
()f4 (x, y) = 3xy x3 y 3 .
(i) .
(ii)
.
()
Clear[f , fx , fy , fxx , fyy , fxy , x, y, simia, d]

f[x_, y_] := xb2 + 2 x y + 2 yb2 6 y
fx [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], x]
fy [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], y]

simia = Solve[{fx [x, y] == 0, fy [x, y] == 0}, {x, y}]

{{x 3 , y 3 }}
fxx [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, 2]
fyy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], y, 2]
fxy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, y]
d[x_, y_] = fxx [x, y] fyy [x, y] fxy [x, y]2
7.8 M athematica
261
4
d[x, y]/.simia
{4 }
fxx [x, y]/.simia
{2 }
(3, 3) f (x, y) f (3, 3) =
9.
(d[0, 0] > 0)&&(fxx [0, 0] > 0)

True
f[3, 3]
9
Clear[g, x, y]
g[x_, y_] = Normal[Series[f [x, y], {x, 3, 3}, {y, 3, 3}]]
9 + (3 + x )2 + 2 (3 + x )(3 + y) + 2 (3 + y)2
()

f[x_, y_] := xb4 + yb4
fx [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], x]
fy [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], y]


{{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 },
{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0, y 0},
{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }}
262
fxx [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, 2]

fyy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], y, 2]
fxy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, y]
144x 2 y 2
d[x, y]/.simia
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 }
fxx [x, y]/.simia
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 }
()

f[x_, y_] := y4 x4
fx [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], x]
fy [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], y]


{{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 },
{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0, y 0},
{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }, {x 0 , y 0 }}
fxx [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, 2]
fyy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], y, 2]
fxy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, y]
144x 2 y 2
7.8 M athematica
263
d[x, y]/.simia
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 }
fxx [x, y]/.simia
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 }
()

f[x_, y_] := 3 x y xb3 yb3
fx [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], x]
fy [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], y]
Needs[MiscellaneousRealOnly]
.

NonReal :: Warning : NonReal number encountered.
{{x 0 , y 0 }, {x 1 , y 1 }
{x NonReal, y NonReal}, {x NonReal, y NonReal}}
fxx [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, 2]
fyy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], y, 2]
fxy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, y]
9 + 36xy
d[x, y]/.simia
{9 , 27 , NonReal, NonReal }
fxx [x, y]/.simia
264

{0 , 6 , NonReal, NonReal}
(0, 0) f (x, y) .
d[0, 0] < 0
True
f[0, 0]
0
Clear[g1 , x, y]
g1 [x_, y_] = Normal[Series[f [x, y], {x, 0, 2}, {y, 0, 2}]]
3xy
(1, 1) f (x, y)
f (1, 1) = 1.
(d[1, 1] > 0)&&(fxx [1, 1] < 0)

True
f[1, 1]
1
Clear[g2 , x, y]
g2 [x_, y_] = Normal[Series[f [x, y], {x, 1, 2}, {y, 1, 2}]]
1 3 (1 + x )2 + 3 (1 + x )(1 + y) 3 (1 + y)2
2. f (x, y) = x2 + 25 y 2 +2xyy
( )
, A(1, 0), O(0, 0), B(0, 1).

f[x_, y_] := xb2 + (5/2) yb2 + 2 x y y
fx [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], x]
7.8 M athematica
265
fy [x_, y] := D[f[x, y], y]


1
1
{{x , y }}
3
3
fxx [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, 2]
fyy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], y, 2]
fxy [x_, y_] := D[f[x, y], x, y]
6
d[x, y]/.simia
{6 }
fxx [x, y]/.simia
{2 }
(1/3, 1/3) f (x, y)
f (1/3, 1/3) = 1/6.
(d[1/3, 1/3] > 0)&&(fxx [1/3, 1/3] > 0)

True
f[1/3, 1/3]
1
6
Clear[f1 , f2 , f3 , t, s, g, h]

f1 [x_, y_] = f[x, 0]

x2
266
f[0, 0]
0
(0,0)
f (x, y).

f2 [x_, y_] = f[0, y]

y +
5y 2
2
g[y_] := y +
5y2
2
t = Solve[{D[g[y], y] == 0}, {y}]

{y
1
}
5
D[f2 [x, y], {y, 2}] == 5 > 0

True
f[0, 1/5]
1
10
(0, 1/5) .

f3 [x_, y_] = f[x, x + 1]

1 x + x 2 + 2x (1 + x ) +
5
(1 + x )2
2
h[x_] := 1 x + xb2 + 2x(1 + x) + (5/2) (1 + x)b2

s = Solve[{D[h[x], x] == 0}, {x}]
{{x
6
}}
11
D[h[x], {x, 2}] == 11 > 0
7.8 M athematica
267
True
f[6/11, 5/11]
3
22
(6/11, 5/11) .
3. f (x, y) = xy
I (0, 1) (1, 0).
Clear[f, x, y, g, t]
f[x_, y_] := x y
g[x_] := f[x, x 1]
t = Solve[{D[g[x], x] == 0}, {x}]
{{x
1
}}
2
D[g[x], {x, 2}] == 2 < 0

True
f[1/2, 1/2]
1
4
(1/2, 1/2) .
4. x + y + z = 1.
Clear[f , f1 , fx , fy , fxx , fyy , fxy , x, y, simia, d, ap]

f[x_, y_, z_] := xb2 + yb2 + zb2
z := x + y 1
f1 [x_, y_] := f[x, y, x + y 1]]
fx [x_, y] := D[f1 [x, y], x]
fy [x_, y] := D[f1 [x, y], y]

268

{{x
1
1
, y }}
3
3
fxx [x_, y_] := D[f1 [x, y], x, 2]

fyy [x_, y_] := D[f1 [x, y], y, 2]
fxy [x_, y_] := D[f1 [x, y], x, y]
12
d[x, y]/.simia
{12 }
fxx [x, y]/.simia
{4 }
(1/3, 1/3) f (x, y)
f (1/3, 1/3) = 1/3.
(d[1/3, 1/3] > 0)&&(fxx [1/3, 1/3] > 0)

True
f[1/3, 1/3]
1
3
ap = Sqrt[%]
1
3
5. f (x, y, z) = xyz
g = xy + yz + zx 1 = 0.
Clear[f , x, y, z, g, f1 , m, s, g1 , fmax , fmin ]

f[x_, y_, z_] := x y z
g[x_, y_, z_] := x y + y z + z x 1
7.8 M athematica
269
f1 [x_, y_, z_] := f[x, y, z] + m g[x, y, z]

t = Solve[{D[f1 [x, y, z], x] == 0, D[f1 [x, y, z], y] == 0,
D[f1 [x, y, z], z] == 0}, {x, y, z}]
{{x 0, y 0, z 0}, {x 2m, y 2m, z 2m}}
g[x, y, z]/.t
{1 , 1 + 12m 2 }
g1 [m_] := 1 + 12mb2
s = Solve[{g1 [m] == 0}, {m}]
1
1
{{m }, {m }}
2 3
2 3
t/.s
1
1
1
{{x 0 , y 0 , z 0 }, {x , y , z },
3
3
3
1
1
1
{x 0 , y 0 , z 0 }, {x , y , z }, }
3
3
3
1 1 1
fmax = f[ , , ]
3 3 3
1
3 3
1
1
1
fmin = f[ , , ]
3
3
3
1

3 3
270
8.
,
.

,
.
.
....

.
.

.

.
P.A.M. Dirac, 1977
8.1
.
.

. , , ,
. , , , Taylor, , ,
,
272
.
.
.

,
.

.
8.2
8.1: F , F = V , V (x, y, z)
, .
m (r(t))
m dv
dt = F
( E = mv 2 /2 + V ) .
:
d2 r
dv
=m
=F
(8.1)
2
dt
dt
r = x(t)
ex + y(t)
ey + z(t)
ez v(t) =
vx (t)
ex + vy (t)
ey + vz (t)
ez .
m
. (8.1)
F = V (x(t), y(t), z(t))
dv
= V (x(t), y(t), z(t)).
dt
(8.2) v
mv
dv
= v V
dt
(8.2)
8.2
273
dvy
dv
dvx
dvz
= vx
+ vy
+ vz
dt
dt
dt
dt
d[(vx2 + vy2 + vz2 )/2]
d(v 2 /2)
=
=
.
dt
dt
V
V
V
+ vy
+ vz
x
y
z
dx V
dy V
dz V
dV
=
+
+
=
.
dt x
dt y
dt z
dt
v V (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = vx
(8.2)
d
dt
mv 2
+V
2
= 0.

.
:
E.
8.2: m
(
) N (r(t), p(t), t)
(dN/dt = 0)
Liouville
N
+ p x N + F p N = 0
t
p F
. x p
x =
ex +
ey +
ez
x
y
z
p =
ex +
ey +
ez .
px
py
pz
: N (r, p, t) = N (x, y, z, px , py , pz , t)

274
dN
N
N dx N dy N dz
N dpx
=
+
dt
t
x dt
y dt
z dt
px dt
N dpy
N dpz
+
=0
+
py dt
pz dt
dp
N
+ p x N +
p N = 0.
t
dt
dp
Newton dt = F
Liouville.
Liouville
DN
= F v N
Dt
=
+ p x .
Dt
t
6.
:
Liouville
.
8.3:
T (x, y) = A + x2 y 2 ,
. r(t) = x(t)
ex + y(t)
ey
(2, 1)

.
:

T = 2x
ex 2y
ey
Dno T T k n.
x(0) = 2 y(0) = 1
T , T ,
x = 2x, y = 2y x(t) = c1 e2t , y(t) = c2 e2t
8.2
275
r(t) = 2e2t ex + e2t ey .

8.4: Mi (i , i ), (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) . M (x, y) mi M Mi .
;
:
f (x, y) =
n
X
i=1
mi [(x i )2 + (y i )2 ].
f (x, y)
n
i=1
i=1
X
X
f
f
mi (x i ) = 0,
mi (y i ) = 0.
=2
=2
x
y
fx = 0, fy = 0
m1 1 + m2 2 + . . . + mn n
m1 + m2 + . . . + mn
m1 1 + m2 2 + . . . + mn n
y=
.
m1 + m2 + . . . + mn
x=
(8.3)
A=
X
2f
2f
2f
=
=
=
2
m
,
B
=
= 0.
i
x2
y 2
xy
i=1
B2
A < 0 A > 0 .
: Mi mi ,
(8.3) .
8.5:
12m2 .
.
: , ( )
x, y, z . V = xyz,
276
2xz + 2yz + xy = 12.

z
z=
12 xy
,
2(x + y)
V = xy
12 xy
12xy x2 y 2
=
.
2(x + y)
2(x + y)
V
y 2 (12 2xy x2 ) V
x2 (12 2xy y 2 )
=
=
,
.
2
x
2(x + y)
y
2(x + y)2
V
V V
x = y = 0, x = 0
y = 0 .

12 2xy x2 = 0,
12 2xy y 2 = 0.
x2 = y 2 , x = y . x = y
12 3x2 = 0, x =
2, y = 2, z = 1.

V,

x = 2,y = 2,z = 1
4m3 .
8.6:
P0 (x0 , y0 ), C:g(x, y) = 0,
P1 (x1 , y1 ). (
)
P0 P1 .
P C
. P , ,
, , .
1 2 ( . 8.1) .
C.
: x y
P0 P P1
8.2
277
y
0 (x0,y0 )
g(x,y)=0
e1
(x,y)
e2
1 (x1,y1 )
8.1. P0 P P1 ( Fermat
).
f (x, y) =
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 +
(x x1 )2 + (y y1 )2
(x, y)
C, g(x, y) = 0. f
e1 e2 ,
f = e1 + e2 ,
e1 = p
(x x0 , y y0 )
(x x0
)2
+ (y y0
)2
, e2 = p
(x x1 , y y1 )
(x x1 )2 + (y y1 )2
P0 P P1
f = g, e1 +e2 = g.

. e1 + e2
C, .
e1 + e2 = g e1 + e2
g C : g(x, y) = 0.
8.7: , (1)
A v1 ,
B
v2 (2)
( . 8.2),
Snell
sin
sin
=
.
v1
v2
278
n = vv1 .
2
2:
V2
1:
V1
8.2.
.
: x2 + a2 =
p
y 2 + b2 .

x2 + a2
y 2 + b2
t(x, y) =
+
.
v1
v2
x y D = x + y = l,
t = D
v1
x
y
= p
.
x2 + a2
v2 y 2 + b2
2
2
p . 8.2 sin = x/ x + a . sin =

y/ y 2 + b2 Snell
sin
sin
=
.
v1
v2
8.8: () z(x, t)

2z
1 2z
=0
x2 c2 t2
(8.4)
c . ( : (8.4) u = x + ct, v =
8.2
279
x ct,
c).
()
z(r, t):
2 z 2 z
1 2z
+
=0
r 2
r r c2 r 2
(8.4) .
: () z(u(x, t), v(x, t))
x t,
zx = zu ux + zv vx = zu + zv , zt = zu ut + zv vt = c(zu zv )
zxx = zuu + 2zuv + zvv
(8.5)
1
ztt = zuu 2zuv + zvv
c2
(8.6)
(8.6) (8.5)
2z
=0
uv
(8.7)
(8.7)
z
= F (v),
v
F .
z=
F (v)dv + f (u) z = g(v) + f (u)
(8.8)
= f (x + ct) + g(x ct)

()
2
2
(rz)
=
rz
+
2z
,
(rz) = rztt
rr
r
r 2
t2

2
1 2
r 2 c2 t2
(rz) = 0.
(8.9)
280
(8.4)

1
z = [f (r + ct) + g(r ct)].
r
:
.

(8.4)
.
8.9: Maxwell ,
E =
H
E
, E =
, H = 0, H = J +
.
t
t
J J + /t = 0.
;
:
H =J +
E
t
( H) = J +
( E)
.
t
0=J +
,
J = v .
8.10:

2f
2f
2f
1 2f
+
+
=0
x2
y 2
z 2
u2 t2
(8.10)
u .
() Maxwell
c (
) (: Maxwell
8.2
281
E = 0, E =
1 B
1 E
, B = 0, B =
c t
c t
E(x, t), B(x, t) ).

: () Maxwell A = ( A) 2 A
( E) =
1
1 2E
( B) 2 E = 2 2 .
c t
c t
( B) =
1
1 2B
( E) 2 B = 2 2 .
c t
c t
E , B
c ( ).
8.11:
B =
4
J
c
E =
1 B
c t
B =0
(8.11)
Ohm

vB
J = E+
(8.12)
c
c ( ),

B
= (v B) + 2 B.
(8.13)
t
( )
.
: Ohm

B
= c( E)
t

J
vB
= c
c
c
= (v B) J
c

c
= (v B)
B
4
c2
= (v B)
( B)
4
(8.14)
282
( B) = ( B) 2 B
B = 0 (8.14)
B
= (v B) + 2 B.
t
= (c2 /(4)).
: (8.14)
v .
8.12:
J = E ( Ohm),
. Maxwell,
( = 0),
(E) (H)
2 =
1 2

,
+ 2
2
2
c t
c t
1
c = () 2 .
/(c2 ).
( : Maxwell
(M KS )
E =
H
E
, E =
, H = 0, H = J +
t
t
, .)
: Maxwell
( H) = J +
2 H = ( E)
( E)
t
2H
t2
2 H =
1 2H
H
+ 2
.
2
2
c t
c t
8.2
283
:
. ( 6= 0).
8.13: m q
v = (vx , vy , 0)
(B = B0 ez .)
F = v B/c. :

1. .
2. .
( : ,
,
d2
+ 2 = 0,
dt2

.
= a sin(t + ), a
.

.)
:
vB
dv
=q
.
dt
c
mv
dv
vB
= qv
= 0.
dt
c
d(mv 2 /2) = 0. .

dvx
vy B0
= q
dt
c
284
dvy
vx B0
=q
.
dt
c
q2B 2
d2 vx
= 2 02 vx = 2 vx .
dt
c m

vy . .
,
(x, y).
8.14: P, V,
T, U , ,
. V T , P = P (V, T ) U = U (V, T ),

P+
U
V
P
T
=0
(8.15)
(U/V )T U (V, T )/V ,

.
V P , T = T (V, P )
U = U (V, P ).
: T U V P,
dT =
dU =
T
V
U
V
dV +
F
dV +
T
P
U
P
dP
V
dP
V
U P ,
dU dP.
dP =
dT
T
V P

T
P V
dV
8.2
(U,T )
dT + (V,P
) dV

T
U
P V
dU =
285
P V
, P U T V,
dP =
dU =
P
T
U
T
dT +
V
dT +
V
P
V
U
V
dV
T
dV
T
dP dU dT dV
,
P
T
,
T
P V
U
V
=
T
(U,T )
(V,P )

T
P V
(8.15),
T
P
+
V
(U, T )
T = 0
(V, P )
8.15:
ez )
(F = g
du
= P g
ez ,
dt
, , P (x, y, z)
, u g .
21 u2 + P + gz =.
: u
d
dt
1 2
u
2
d
dt
1 2
u + P + gz
2
= u P guz =
=0
dP
d(gz)
dt
dt
286
12 u2 + P + gz
( , Bernoulli)
.
8.16: Q , R,
I, Q = I 2 R.
, R1 ,R2
R3 ( . 8.3),
;
R1
R2
R3
8.3. .
I ,
I = I1 + I2 + I3
:
Q(I1 , I2 , I3 ) = I12 R1 + I22 R2 + I32 R3 .

Q I1 + I2 + I3 =
Q = I12 R1 + I22 R2 + (I I1 I2 )2 R3 .
Q
= 2I1 R1 2(I I1 I2 )R3 = 0
I1
Q
= 2I2 R2 2(I I1 I2 )R3 = 0.
I2
IR
IR
I1 = IR
R1 , I2 = R2 , I3 = R3
Q Qmin = I 2 R
8.2
287
1
1
1
1
+
+
.
=
R
R1 R2 R3
8.17:
.

.

Descartes, . Carl B. Boxer ( Princeton University Press
).
.
i
r. i r
n ( Snell )
n=
sin i
.
sin r

(n = c/v ).
1.33 1.342
.
i, r
( . 8.4)
i
A
r
-r
r
r
/2
/2
i-r
i
8.4. ABC (i r) + ( r) + /2 = = 4r 2i.
288
= 4r 2i.

(i, r, n) = 4 arcsin
sin i
n
2i.

.
( . 8.5). 1637 Descartes

(/i 0). in
8.5.
.
(i, r; n)
=0
i
n.
: i (i, r)
(i, r)
= 4q
i
sin i =
cos i
n
sin2 i
n2
(4 n2 )/3
2 = 4p
cos i
n2 sin2 i
2=0
8.2
289
p
in = arcsin( (4 n2 )/3).
1.33()< n <
1.342() 58.90 ()< in < 59.60 () 40.80 ()<
< 42.50 ().

42.50 .
8.18:
.
:
f (n) = (n, in ) = 4 arcsin
sin in
n
2in .
2
df
= tan in
dn
n
(n, in ) n. (n, in )
n ( ) n
( ). ,
.
:
.
.
(
.

(n, i)
(n, i) = 2 + 2i 6 arcsin
sin i
n
8.19:
r h,
. R

R = (S/V ), S , V .

.
:
V = r 2 h + 2(2r 3 /3) = r 2 (h + 4r/3)
290
S = 2rh + 2(2r 2 ) = 2r(h + 2r)
R=
2r(h + 2r)
6(h + 2r)
=
.
2
r (h + 4r/3)
3hr + 4r 2
r h R
48hr 18h2 48r 2

R
=
<0
r
(3hr + 4r 2 )2
R
12r 2
=
< 0.
h
(3hr + 4r 2 )2

.
: !
8.20:
.

.

r = 0 t r

S(r, t) =
r2
1
exp[(kt + )]
4t
4t
r
, k .
(). S(r, t)
r0 . (). r
tm ,
M (r) = S(r, tm ) z = (1+4kr 2 )1/2 .
(). (dM/dr) < 0 .
( : J.D.
Murray "Mathematical Biology", 2nd Edition, Springer Verlag, N.Y.,
1993, p. 464).
8.2
291
: S(r, t) t r = r0 =
2
S
e(kt+r0 /4t) [r02 + 2t + 4t2 ]
=
= 0.
t
8 t5
r0
tm =
1 +
1 + 4r02 k
.
4k
S ,
M (r) = S(r, tm ) =
z =
k ez
z1
1 + 4kr 2 .
M r. .
8.21:
.

.
x 0 P0 (x)
P (x, t)
x t
. t
x x = f (t) .

P (f (t), t)
=0
x
2 P (f (t), t)
<0
x2
f (t)
,
.
: t,
xt P (x, t) = P0 (x) xt
292
P (x, t)
= P0 (x) t
x
2 P (x, t)
= P0 (x).
x2

P (f (t), t)
= P0 (f (t)) t = 0
x
P0 (f (t))f (t) 1 = 0.

f (t) =
1
=
P0 (f (t))
1
2 P (x,t)
x2
< 0.
8.22:
, r l.

3m 900 .

.
2r
l /2
2r
3
/4
8.6. 8.20.
: V = 4r 2 l r l
. (
. 8.6) g(r, l) =
2r + l/2 = 3/ sec(/4) = 3/ 2
8.2
293

V = g. r = l/2
r = 2, l = 22.

2 2 2 .
8.23: m

(x, y, z)
h2
E(x, y, z) =
8m
1
1
1
+ 2+ 2
2
x
y
z
h . V ,
x, y, z E.
: V = xyz = c=.
E(x, y, z)
. E = V x2 =
y 2 = z 2 = h2 /(4mc).
x=y=z=
c.
294
9. -
g(x,y,z)
A(x, y, z), B(x, y, z)
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
f(x,y,z)
(f g) = (gf ) = f g + gf
(f A) = f A + A f
(f A) = f A + f A
(A B) = B A A B
(A B) = A( B) B( A) + (B )A (A )B
A ( B) = (B) A (A )B
(A B) = A ( B) + B ( A) + (A )B + (B )A
2 f = f
2 A = ( A) A
f = 0
A =0

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
r = x
ex + y
ey + z
ez , (r = |r|)
r =3
r =0
r
r =
r
r
1
= 3
r
r
9.1
9.1.1 . (r, , z)
296
A=
1
1 A
Az
(rAr ) +
+
r r
r
z
(f )r =
f
1 f
f
, (f ) =
, (f )z =
r
r
z
( A)r =
1 Az
A
r
z
( A) =
Ar
Az
z
r
( A)z =
1
1 Ar
(rA )
r r
r
2 f =
1 2f
1 f
2f
(r ) + 2 2 + 2
r r r
r
z
(2 A)r = 2 Ar
2 A
Ar
2
2
r
r
(2 A) = 2 A +
2 Ar
A
2
2
r
r
(2 A)z = 2 Az
(A )B
(A B)r = Ar
Br
A Br
Br
A B
+
+ Az
r
r
z
r
(A B) = Ar
B
B
A B
A Br
+
+ Az
+
r
r
z
r
(A B)z = Ar
Bz
A Bz
Bz
+
+ Az
r
r
z
9.1
297
. (r, , ).
A=
1 2
1
1 A
(r Ar ) +
(sin A ) +
2
r r
r sin
r sin
(f )r =
f
1 f
1 f
, (f ) =
, (f ) =
r
r
r sin
( A)r =
1
1 A
(sin A )
r sin
r sin
( A) =
1 Ar
1
(rA )
r sin
r
( A) =
1
1 Ar
(rA )
r r
r
1
f= 2
r r
2
2 f
1
+
r sin
f
sin
1 2f
r 2 sin 2
(2 A)r = 2 Ar
2Ar
2 A
2 cot A
2 A
2
2
2
2
r
r
r
r sin
(2 A) = 2 A +
2 Ar
2 cos A
A
2 2 2 2
2
r
r sin r sin
(2 A) = 2 A
A
2
r sin2
2
r 2 sin2
Ar
2 cos A
+ 2 2
r sin
(A )B
(A B)r = Ar
A Br
A Br
A B + A B
Br
+
+
r
r
r sin
r
(A B) = Ar
A B
cot A B
B
A B
A Br
+
+
+
r
r
r sin
r
r
(A B) = Ar
B A B
A B A Br
cot A B
+
+
+
+
r
r
r sin
r
r
298
10. - M athematica
10.1
10.1.1
Mathematica [. . .]. (. . .)
, ,
{. . .}.
(. . .)
f [x]
{a, b, c}
.
.
, .
Mathematica ,
. ,
(.. FullSimplify).
*
.

.
10.1.2
Mathematica
. :

Mathematica
.
- M athematica
300
10.1.
Pi
3.14159
e 2.71828
Degree
Infinity
/180
10.2.
Sqrt[x]
( x)
Exp[x]
(ex )
Log[x]
Log[b, x]
Abs[x]
Sin[x], Cos[x], T an[x]

Csc[x], Sec[x], Cot[x]
ArcSin[x], ArcCos[x]
ArcT an[x], ArcCsc[x]
ArcSec[x], ArcCot[x]
Sinh[x], Cosh[x], T anh[x]

Csch[x], Sech[x], Coth[x]
ArcSinh[x], ArcCosh[x]
ArcT anh[x], ArcCsch[x]
ArcSech[x], ArcCoth[x]
7
lne , log10 100, 100, | 8|, Sin 2 , Cos(0) log2 256.
(Log[Eb7] + Log[10, 100]) Sqrt[100] + Abs[8]

98
(Sin[Pi/2] + Cos[0Degree])/Log[2, 256]
1
4
10.1
301
10.1.3
Mathematica,
.
x = value
x 5.
x=5
5
x Mathematica 5.
xb2
25
x 5,
.
?x
Global x
x =5
x
.
x=7+4
11
x 11.
?x
Global x
x = 11
,

- M athematica
302
.
Mathematica.
,

. Mathematica.
Clear[x]
x=.
Remove[x]
x
x
x
, y y =
16 + Sin120o .
y = Sqrt[16] + Sin[120Degree]
4+
3
2
?y
Globaly
y = 4 + Sqrt[3 ]/2
Clear, y
, .
Clear[y]
?y
Globaly
x = y + 15 y .
x = y + 15
15 + y
10.1
303
x=. Clear.
x=.
?x
Globalx
z 52.
z = 52
52
?z
Globalz
z = 52
Remove
, .
Remove[z]
?z
Information :: notfound : Symbol z not found.
. .
10.1.4 Mathematica

Mathematica.
1. ?
? .
Simplify .
- M athematica
304
?Simplify
"Simplify[expr] performs a sequence of algebraic transformations
on expr, and returns the simplest form it finds."
2. Options[]
Options[]
( )
.
Options[Simplify]
{ComplexityFunction Automatic, TimeConstraint 300 ,
Trig True}
3. ?? Information[]
?? Information[]
.
? Options[].
??Simplify
Attributes[Simplify] = {Protected}
Options[Simplify] = {ComplexityFunction Automatic,
TimeConstraint 300 , Trig True}
Information[Simplify]
Attributes[Simplify] = {Protected}
Options[Simplify] = {ComplexityFunction Automatic,
TimeConstraint 300 , Trig True}
10.1
305
4. Names[]
Names[]
. Names[*]
...
Names[Simplify]
{Simplify}
Names[ Simplify]
{FullSimplify, Simplify}
5. ?
*.
?PlotR
PlotRange PlotRegion
? dPlot
FilledPlot ListFilledPlot
10.1.5 Mathematica
Mathematica
, Mathematica .

<< directory packagename

directory packagename . Mathematica
.
- M athematica
306
FilledListPlot
<< GraphicsF illedP lot.
Mathematica .
?FilledListPlot
Information::"notfound": "Symbol "FilledListPlot" not found."
FilledListPlot[1, 3, 2, 5, 2]
FilledListPlot[1 , 3 , 2 , 5 , 2 ]
<< GraphicsF illedP lot
,
.
<< GraphicsFilledPlot
FilledListPlot::"shdw":
"Symbol
"FilledListPlot" appears in multiple contexts
{"GraphicsFilledPlot", "Global"} ; definitions in context "GraphicsFilledPlot" may shadow or be shadowed by other definitions.
?FilledListPlot
"GlobalFilledListPlot"
FilledListPlot[{1, 3, 2, 5, 2}]
FilledListPlot[{1 , 3 , 2 , 5 , 2 }]
:
1. Mathematica
.
2. Remove
FilledListPlot .
10.1
307
Remove[FilledListPlot]
Mathematica
?FilledListPlot
"FilledListPlot[data] generates a plot with the area between the
x axis and the curve given by the data filled. FilledListPlot[data1,
data2,. . .] generates a plot with the areas between the curves given
by data1 and data2, data2 and data3, etc. filled. The shade of the fill
and other specifications can be given by the Fills option."
FilledListPlot[{1, 3, 2, 5, 2}];
Needs.
Mathematica Needs.
Needs[Context ]
PlotField,
, Needs
.
Needs[GraphicsPlotField]
Names[GraphicsPlotField ]
{ListPlotVectorField, PlotGradientField,
PlotHamiltonianField, PlotPolyaField , PlotVectorField}
- M athematica
308
10.2
10.2.1
Mathematica ,
.
10.3. .
x+y
xy
x y xy
x/y
xy
2 (4.8 5.9 + 9.56)/3 b 2

1 .88
, * , .
234
24
10.2.2

, .
Mathematica ,
.
Mathematica 2100 ,
31 .
10.2
309
2 b 100
1267650600228229401496703205376
//.

2100 .
2 b 100//N
1 .26765 10 30
.
.
N[Pi]
3 .14159
N[Pi, 20]
3 .1415926535897932385
10.4. .
expr//N N [expr]
expr.
N [expr, n]
expr
n .
10.2.3
Mathematica

,
.
- M athematica
310
3 xb2 x + 2 4 xb2
Mathematica
2 x x2
10.2.4
. Mathematica
%.
10.5. .
%
%%
%% . . . %(k )
77 + 4 b 2 + 5/6
563
6
10.
% + 10
623
6

.
3 % + % b 2 + %%
402721
36
10.2
311
10.2.5
=
. ==,
True False.
42 16 True.
4 b 2 == 16
True
= ==.
= ,
== .
10.6. = ==.
x=y
x == y
x y.
x y .
x 128.
x = 128
128
x 128 .
x == 128
True
x 128 138
x == 138
False
- M athematica
312
10.7. .
x == y
x! = y
x y
(x 6= y) x y
x>y
x y
x<y
x y
x >= y
x y x y
x <= y
x y x y
10.2.6
32 1
False.
32 < 1
False
5, 6 8 True.
5! = 6! = 8
True
Mathematica ,
.
x>y
x >y
True
True.
7 > 4&&2! = 3
True
== , &&, k .
10.3
313
10.8. .
!p
p&&q&& . . .
p k q k ...
Xor[p, q, . . .]
not
and (p q . . .)
or p q . . .
exclusive or
If .
,
x, y.
If[10 > 8, x, y]
x
10.9. If .
If [p, then, else]
p "then",
p "else".
10.3
10.3.1
. , (1 + x)2
1 + 2x + x2 . Mathematica
.
Expand .
Expand[(1 + x) b 2]
- M athematica
314
10.10. .
Expand[Expr]
F actor[Expr]
P owerExpand[Expr]
1 + 2x + x 2
Factor
.
Factor[1 + 2 x + x b 2]
(1 + x )2
Factor , .
Factor[x b 10 1]
(1 + x )(1 + x )(1 x + x 2 x 3 + x 4 )(1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 )

Expand .
Expand[%]
(1 + x 10 )
Mathematica - . , PowerExpand,
.
Sqrt[x y]
xy
PowerExpand[%]

x y
10.3
315
PowerExpand[Log[(x y) b n]]
n(Log[x ] + Log[y])
, , ...
,
. Mathematica
.
10.11. .
Collect[Expr, x]
F actorT erms[Expr, x]
x.
x.
v = Expand[(3 + 2 x) b 2(x + 2 y) b 2]
9x 2 + 12x 3 + 4x 4 + 36xy + 48x 2 y + 16x 3 y + 36y 2 + 48xy 2 +

16x 2 y 2
Collect v x.
Collect[v, x]
4x 4 + 36y 2 + x 3 (12 + 16y) + x 2 (9 + 48y + 16y 2 )+
x (36y + 48y 2 )
y.
Collect[v, y]
9x 2 + 12x 3 + 4x 4 + (36x + 48x 2 + 16x 3 )y+
(36 + 48x + 16x 2 )y 2
Factor v
y.
- M athematica
316
FactorTerms[v, y]
(9 + 12x + 4x 2 )(x 2 + 4xy + 4y 2 )
10.3.2
Mathematica
.
10.12. .
Simplif y[Expr]
F ullSimplif y[Expr]

expr

expr
Simplify x2 + 2x + 1
, .
Simplify[x b 2 + 2x + 1]
(1 + x )2
x10 1 , .
Simplify[x b 10 1]
(1 + x 10 )
Simplify . ,

FullSimplify, .
Simplify[(x b 2 + y b 2)/(Sqrt[x b 2 + y b 2 + 1] 1)]
10.3
317
x 2 + y2
p
1 + 1 + x 2 + y 2
Simplify ,
FullSimplify .
FullSimplify[(x b 2 + y b 2)/(Sqrt[x b 2 + y b 2 + 1] 1)]

p
1 + 1 + x 2 + y2
10.3.3

. Mathematica
. Expand, Factor Simplify.
,
.
10.13. .
N umerator[expr]
Denominator[expr]
ExpandN umerator[expr]
ExpandDecominator[expr]
ExpandAll[expr]
F actor[expr]
T ogether[expr]
Apart[expr]
Cancel[expr]
.
.

- M athematica
318
,
.
e = (x 1) b 2 (2 + x)/((1 + x) (x 3) b 2)
(1 + x 2 )2 (2 + x )
(3 + x )2 (1 + x )

Numerator, Denominator. Denominator 1,
.
Numerator[e]
(1 + x 2 )2 (2 + x )
Denominator[e]
(3 + x )2 (1 + x )
Expand ,
.
Expand[e]
2
3x
x3
+
(3 + x )2 (1 + x ) (3 + x )2 (1 + x ) (3 + x )2 (1 + x )
ExpandAll
ExpandAll[e]
2
3x
x3
+
9 + 3x 5x 2 + x 3
9 + 3x 5x 2 + x 3
9 + 3x 5x 2 + x 3
Together .
Together[%]
2 3x + x 3
9 + 3x 5x 2 + x 3
Apart .
10.3
319
Apart[%]
1+
5
19
1
+
+
2
(3 + x )
4 (3 + x ) 4 (1 + x )
Factor
.
Factor[%]
(1 + x )2 (2 + x )
(3 + x )2 (1 + x )
t Expand,
ExpandAll, ExpandNumerator ExpandDecominator.
t = (1 + x) b 2/(1 x) + 3x b 2/(1 + x) b 2 + (2 x) b 2
(2 x )2 +
3x 2
(1 + x )2
+
2
(1 + x )
1 x
ExpandNumerator
.
ExpandNumerator[t]
4 4x + x 2 +
3x 2
1 + 2x + x 2
+
(1 + x )2
1 x
ExpandDecominator .
ExpandDenominator[t]
(2 x )2 +
(1 + x )2
3x 2
+
1 x
1 + 2x + x 2
Expand
.
Expand[t]
4+
1
2x
x2
3x 2
4x +
+ x2 +
+
1 x
1 x
1 x
(1 + x )2
ExpandAll
.
- M athematica
320
ExpandAll[t]
4+
x2
1
2x
3x 2
4x +
+ x2 +
+
1 x
1 x
1 x
1 + 2x + x 2
Cancel
, Extension
Trig. None
False.
.
Cancel[(x b 2 4x)/(x b 2 x) + (x b 2 + 3x 4)/(x b 2 1)]

4 + x
4 +x
+
1 + x
1 +x

Extension Automatic.
Cancel[(2 x b 2)/(Sqrt[2] x)]

2 x2
2 x
Cancel[(2 x b 2)/(Sqrt[2] x)], Extension Automatic
2 +x
Trig True Cancel ,
. Trig
Cancel .
Cancel[(Sin[x] b 2 Cos[x] b 3)/(Sin[2x] Cos[4x])]

Cos[x ]3 Csc[2x ]Sec[4x ]Sin[x ]2
Cancel[(Sin[x]b2 Cos[x]b3)/(Sin[2x] Cos[4x])], Trig True]

1
Cos[x ]2 Sec[4x ]Sin[x ]
2
10.3
321
10.14. .
T rigExpand[expr]
T rigF actor[expr]
T rigReduce[expr]
T rigT oExp[expr]
ExpT oT rig[expr]
10.3.4
,
x.
TrigExpand[Tan[x] Cos[2x]]
Cos[x ]Sin[x ] Sin[x ]2 Tan[x ]

.
TrigFactor[%]
(Cos[x ] Sin[x ])(Cos[x ] + Sin[x ])Tan[x ]
.
TrigReduce[%]
1
Sec[x ](Sin[x ] Sin[3x ])
2

.
TrigToExp[Sec[x]]
E Ix
2
+ E Ix
- M athematica
322
ExpToTrig[%]
Sec[x ]
10.4
Mathematica
, ,
.
10.4.1
f .
f[x_, y_] := x b 2 + y b 2
f[4, 8]
80
f
?f
Globalf
f [x _, y _] := x 2 + y 2
,
Mathematica .
Clear.
Clear[f]
f .
?f
10.4
323
Globalf
:= =,
, .
10.4.2
Mathematica
(1) lhs=rhs (2) lhs:=rhs.
.
lhs=rhs rhs . lhs:=rhs
rhs lhs.
10.15. .
lhs = rhs
lhs:=rhs
rhs
rhs lhs
:=
h.
h[x_] := Expand[(1 + x) b 2]
:=
.
?h
Globalh
h[x _] := Expand[(1 + x )2 ]
=
g.
g[x_] = Expand[(1 + x) b 2]
- M athematica
324
1 + 2x + x 2
?g
Globalg
g[x _] = 1 + 2x + x 2
h Expand .
h[y + 2]
9 + 6y + y 2
g y+2
,
h.
g[y + 2]
1 + 2 (2 + y) + (2 + y)2
,
, .

.
10.4.3
Mathematica
:=.
= .
,
.
f [x_] = x2 f
f [o] 2 .
f[a]=b , a
b.
1
f[1] = 1
1
10.4
325
10.16. .
f [x] = value
f [x_] = value
f x
f
f[n_] := n f[n 1]

?f
Globalf
f [1 ] = 1
f [n _] := n f [n 1 ]

.
f[12]
479001600
10.4.4
Mathematica, . Mathematica
.
f .
f[x_] := x f[x 1]
x = 1.
f[1] = 1
- M athematica
326
1
Mathematica .
?f
Globalf
f [1 ] = 1
f [x _] := x f [x 2 ]
,
.
Mathematica .
ln[x_y_] := ln[x] + ln[y]

ln[x_ b n_] := n ln[x]
?ln
Globalln
ln[(x _) (y _)] := ln[x ] + ln[y]
ln[(x_)n_ ] := n ln[x]
log[x_y _] Mathematica .
ln[2 x_] := ln[x] + ln2

?ln
Globalln
ln[2 (x _)] := ln[x ] + ln2
ln[(x _) (y _)] := ln[x ] + ln[y]
ln[(x _)n _ ] := n ln[x ]
Mathematica
,
.
.
10.4
327
10.4.5
Mathematica x+x 2x x
. x
.
. 1+2x x
,
( ) Mathematica.
Expression /.rule
x 3
1+ 2x.
1 + 2x/.x 3
7
x 2-y.
1 + x + x b 2/.x 2 y
3 + (2 y)2 y
(x + y)(x y) b 2/.{x 3, y 4}
10.17. .
expr/.x value
expr/.{x xval, y yval}
x
value expr.

- M athematica
328

x value . Mathematica
.
x 3, x 3
1 + f[x] + f[y]/.x 3
1 + f [3 ] + f [y]

f[x], f[y].
1 + f[x] + f[y]/.f[x] p
1 + p + f [y]
f [t_] f f[x] f[y]
1 + f[x] + f[y]/.f[t_] t b 2
1 + x 2 + y2
10.4.6
.
10.18. .
lhs > rhs

lhs :> rhs
rhs
rhs
f[x_] > Expand[(1 + x) b 2]
10.4
329
f [x _] > 1 + 2x + x 2
.
f[x_] :> Expand[(1 + x) b 2]

f [x _] : Expand[(1 + x )2 ]
10.4.7
Mathematica .
/;
,
.
Definition or Rule /; Condition
f n .
f[n_/; n > 0] := n!
f , .
f[6] + f[4]
720 + f [4 ]
:
h[n_] := n!/; n > 0

h
.
h[6] + h[4]
720 + h[4 ]

.
f[3] + f[8] + f[0]/.(f[x_]/; x >= 0) k

2k + f [8 ]
- M athematica
330
10.4.8
Mathematica
/; If.

f (x) =
2
x x > 0
x3 x 0
/; :
Clear[h]
.
h[x_] := x b 2/; x > 0;
,
x.
h[x_] := x b 3/; x <= 0;
h
x.
h[5]
125
h[5]
25
f
If.
Clear[g]
g[x_] := If[x > 0, x b 2, x b 3]
g
x.
10.5
331
g[5]
125
g[5]
25
h g
.
10.5
10.5.1
x2 + 4 x 2 == 0 Mathematica .
. Mathematica .
.
Roots
.
Roots[Equation, var]

x b 2 + 4x == 2
4x + x 2 == 2
Roots . k Or.
Roots[%, x]
x == 2
6 k x == 2 +
Roots
x == r1 k x == r2 .
, x r1 r2 .
- M athematica
332
ToRules Roots
( ).
{ToRules[%]}
{{x 2 6 }, {x 2 + 6 }}
x .
x b 2 + a x/.%
{(2 6 )2 + (2 6 )a, (2 + 6 )2 + (2 + 6 )a}

Solve .
Solve[equations,vars]
x2 + 4x 2 = 0,
.
Solve[x b 2 + 4 x 2 == 0, x]
{{x 2 6 }, {x 2 + 6 }}
.
N[%]
{{x 4 .44949 }, {x 0 .44949 }}
x Solve
.
x/.%
{4 .44949 , 0 .44949 }

x.
x b 3 + 8x/.%%
{123 .687 , 3 .68673 }
10.5
333
Solve , , .
Mathematica .
Solve[x b 4 5x b 2 3 == 0, x]
r
r
p
p
1
1
(5 + 37 )}, {x I
(5 + 37 )},
{{x I
2
2
r
r
p
p
1
1
{x
(5 + 37 )}, {x
(5 + 37 )}}
2
2
, x5 = 1,
Solve[x b 5 == 1, x]
{{x 1 }, {x (1 )1 /5 }, {x (1 )2 /5 },
{x (1 )3 /5 }, {x (1 )4 /5 }
Mathematica
Root
.
Solve[2 4 x + x b 5 == 0, x]
{{x Root[2 4 #1 + #1 5 &, 1 ]}, {x Root[2 4 #1 +

#1 5 &, 2 ]}, {x Root[2 4 #1 + #1 5 &, 3 ]}, {x Root[2
4 #1 + #1 5 &, 4 ]}, {x Root[2 4 #1 + #1 5 &, 5 ]}}
,
.
N[%]
{{x 1 .51851 }, {x 0 .508499 }, {x 1 .2436 },
{x 0 .116792 1 .43845I }, {x 0 .116792 + 1 .43845I }}
Root[f, n] n- f [x] == 0,
f (#5 2# + 1)&. ( x
#),
Root[f,k]
- M athematica
334
Root 1n 4x5 2x + 24.
rs = Root[24 2#1 + 4#15 &, 1]

Root[12 #1 + 2 #1 5 &, 1 ]

.
First[rs][x]
12 x + 2x 5
,
.
N[rs]
1 .4643
,
NSolve, .
NSolve[x b 3 x + 11 == 0, x]
{{x 2 .37365 }, {x 1 .18682 1 .79601I },

{x 1 .18682 + 1 .79601I }}
2x = 0,
x 0. ax = 0 .
, x 0,
a = 0 x .
Solve .
Solve[ax + b == 0, x]
b
{{x }}
a
Roots .
Roots[ax + b == 0, x]
10.5
x ==
335
b
a
Reduce
.
and or.
Reduce[ax b == 0, x]
b == 0 &&a == 0 k a 6= 0 &&x ==
b
a
10.19. .
Roots[lhs == rhs, x]
Solve[lhs == rhs, x]
,
.
N Solve[lhs == rhs, x]
Reduce[lhs == rhs, x]
10.5.2
Mathematica . .
x y.
Solve[{ax + y == 0, 2x + (1 a)y == 1}, {x, y}]

{{x
1
a
,y
}}
2
2 + a a
2 a + a2
x
y.
Solve[{x b 2 + y b 2 == 1, x + 3y == 0}, {x, y}]
- M athematica
336
3
1
3
1
{{x , y }, {x , y }}
10
10
10
10
x + y
.
x + y/.%
r r
2
2
{
,
}
5
5
Mathematica .
.
.
,
Solve .
Solve[{x + y == 1, x 3y == 2}]
{{x
5
1
, y }}
4
4

. Mathematica
Eliminate.
Eliminate[equations, vars]
y
x.
Eliminate[{a x + y == 0, 2 x + (1 a) y == 1}, y]
(2 a + a 2 )x == 1 )
. Solve {}
.
Solve[{x == 1, x == 2}, x]
{}
10.5
337
x = 1, x = a a
1.
Solve[{x == 1, x == a}, x]
{}
a = 1 , Solve

.
Reduce,
,
.
x = 1, x = a a = 1. ,
.
Reduce[{x == 1, x == a}, x]
x == 1 &&a == 1
10.20.
Solve[{lhs1 == rhs1 ,
lhs2 == rhs2 , . . .}, {x, y, . . .}]
Eliminate[{lhs1 == rhs1 ,
lhs2 == rhs2 , . . .}, {x, . . .}]
Reduce[{lhs1 == rhs1 ,
lhs2 == rhs2 , . . .}, {x, y, . . .}]

x,y,...
x,..
.
,
.
10.5.3
Mathematica , "MiscellaneousRealOnly",
.
, , "NonReal".
- M athematica
338
x3 = 8.
, Mathematica .
Solve[x b 3 == 8]
{{x 2 }, {x 1 I 3 }, {x 1 + I 3 }}
, "MiscellaneousRealOnly".
Needs[MiscellaneousRealOnly]
Solve[x b 3 == 8]
NonReal :: warning : NonReal number encountered.

{{x 2 }, {x NonReal}, {x NonReal}}
10.6
Integrate
.

Integrate[f [x], x]
f x,
Integrate[f [x], {x, a, b}]

Rb
a f (x)dx. , -
BasicInput Integrate.
BasicInput File,
Palettes,BasicInput.
Integrate , , .
a x.
10.6
339
Integrate[a x b2, x]
ax 3
3
,
.
Integrate[x b[x] b 2, b[x]]

1
xb[x ]3
3
Intergate
, , .
Rb
a log(x)dx.
Integrate[Log[x], {x, a, b}]
a(1 + Log[a]) + b(1 + Log[b])

,
Integrate[Exp[x b 2], {x, 0, Infinity}]
2
.
. ,
.
. , .

.
Integrate[Log[x] b 2, x]
2x 2xLog[x ] + xLog[x ]2
- M athematica
340

LogIntegral.
Integrate[Log[Log[x]], x]
xLog[Log[x ]] LogIntegral[x ]
Mathematica ,
.

.
,
. Mathematica
.
Integrate[Sin[x]/Log[x], x]
Z
Sin[x ]
dx
Log[x ]
,
Integrate[Sin[x]/Log[x], {x, 0.5, 0.8}]

Z 0 .8
Sin[x ]
dx
0 .5 Log[x ]

.
N[%]
0 .471969

, , Mathematica , NIntegrate.
NIntegrate[f [x], {x, a, b}]
10.6
341
Integrate[Sin[x]/Log[x], {x, 0.5, 0.8}]

0 .471969

Integrate NIntegrate
.

Integrate, .
Integrate[Exp[x] + x Exp[y], y, x]
Eyx2
+ Exy
2
Z Z
(Exp[x] + x Exp[y])dxdy
Eyx2
+ Exy
2
,

R a R b
2 + y 2 ).
dxd(x
0 0
Integrate[x b 2 + y b 2, {x, 0, a}, {y, 0, b}]

a3 b
ab 3
+
3
3
y . x.
Integrate[x b 2 + y b 2, {x, 0, a}, {y, 0, x}]

a4
3
NIntegrate

NIntegrate[x b 2 + y b 2, {x, 0, 1}, {y, 0, 1}]

0 .666667
- M athematica
342
10.21. .
Integrate[f, x]
Integrate[f, x, y]
f dx
R xb
RR
f dx
Integrate[f, {x, xa , xb }]
Integrate[f, {x, xa , xb },
{y, ya , yb }]
Rxb
R yb
f dxdy
xa y a
N [Integrate[f, {x, xa , xb }]]
xa
f dxdy
N Integrate[f, {x, xa , xb }]
N Integrate[f, {x, xa , xb },
{y, ya , yb }, . . .]
10.7
Mathematica
{. . .} .

Table,Array Range
Mathematica . ,
.
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
{1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }
Table, Array Range
.
Table[i{i, 5}]
{1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }
Range[5]
{1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }
10.7
343
i[x_] := x;
Array[i, 5]
{1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }
10.7.1
T able[f [i], {i, n}]

{f [1], . . . , f [n]}.
T able[f [i], {i, n, m}]

{f [n], f [n + 1], . . . , f [m 1], f [m]}.
Array[f, n]
{f [1], . . . , f [n]}.
Range[n]
{1, 2, . . . , n}.
Range[n1 , n2 ]
n1 , n1 + 1, . . . , n2 1, n2 .
Table Array
f , Range .
Table[Sin[n/5], {n, 0, 4}]

1
2
3
4
0 , Sin
, Sin
, Sin
, Sin
5
5
5
5
10.7.2
.
Mathematica
- M athematica
344
.
Listable.
Log Listable .
Attributes[Log]
{Listable, NumericFunction, Protected}
Log[{E b 5, E b 10, 3, 7}]
{5 , 10 , Log[3 ], Log[7 ]}
, f f [list]
{f [list[[1]]], f [list[[2]]], . . . , f [list[[n]]]}, list
list[[i]] 1 i n, f Listable.
,
,
Attributes[f ]
. f
Map.
f .
Map[f, {a, b, c}]

{f [a], f [b], f [c]}
10.7.3

Mathematica
, ...

.
list, .
list = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, j, k}
{a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, j , k }
10.7
345
Last.
Last[list]
k
, ,
Part
.
list[[5]]
e
Part[list, 5]
e
,
list[[{1, 6}]]
{a, f}

Take.
Take[list, 4]
{a, b, c, d}
Take[list, 4]
{g, h, j , k }
Rest Drop
.
Rest[list]
{b, c, d, e, f , g, h, j , k }
Drop[list, 2]
{c, d, e, f , g, h, j , k }
- M athematica
346
10.22. .
F irst[list]
Last[list]
list[[n]] P art[list, n]
T ake[list, n
T ake[list, n]
Rest[list]
Drop[list, n]
Drop[list, n]

n-
n
n

n
n
10.7.4
,
, .
Mathematica
.
list1 = {a, b, c};

list2 = {1, 2, 3};
list1 , ,

, :
Prepend[list1, new]
{new , a, b, c}
Append[list1, new]
{a, b, c, new }
Insert[list1, new, 2]
{a, new , b, c}
Insert[list1, new, 2]
10.8
347
{a, b, new , c}
Delete[list1, 2]
{a, c}
list1 list2 Join.
Join[list1, list2 ]
{a, b, c, 1 , 2 , 3 }
10.23. .
P repend[list, e]
e .
Append[list, e]
e .
Insert[list, e, i]
e i .
Insert[list, e, i]
e i ,
.
Delete[list, i]

i .
Join[list1 , list2 , . . .]
list1 , list2 , . . .
.
10.8

.
.
, 2 2
.
a b
c d
- M athematica
348
pinakas = {{a, b}, {c, d}};

.

.
pinakas[[2]]
{c, d}
,
.
pinakas[[2, 1]]
{c}
10.8.1
,
Mathematica.
10.24. .
T able[f, {i, m}, {j, n}]
Array[f, {m, n}]
m n f
i j ,
.
m n
f [i, j].
, 2 2
a[i, j]. Table Array.
pinak1 = Table[a[i, j], {i, 2}, {j, 2}]

{{a[1 , 1 ], a[1 , 2 ]}, {a[2 , 1 ], a[2 , 2 ]}}
pinak2 = Array[a, {2, 2}]
10.8
349
{{a[1 , 1 ], a[1 , 2 ]}, {a[2 , 1 ], a[2 , 2 ]}}

. .
10.25. .
T ableF orm[matrix]
M atrixF orm[matrix]
TableForm[pinak1]
a[1, 1]
a[1, 2]
a[2, 1]
a[2, 2]
MatrixForm[pinak1]
[1,1]
[2,1]
[1,2]
[2,2]
TableForm MatrxiForm
,
, ...
10.8.2
(Table,Array)

, .
DiagonalMatrix
,
.
DiagonalMatrix[{1, 2, 3}]
- M athematica
350
10.26. .
DiagonalM atrix[list]
IdentityM atrix[n]
T able[0, {m}, {n}]
T able[Random[ ], {m}, {n}]

.
n n.
.
.
T able[If [i >= j, 1, 0],

{i, m}, {j, n}]
T able[If [i <= j, 1, 0],

{i, m}, {j, n}]
{{1 , 0 , 0 }, {0 , 2 , 0 }, {0 , 0 , 3 }}
IdentityMatrix .
IdentityMatrix[3]
{{1 , 0 , 0 }, {0 , 1 , 0 }, {0 , 0 , 1 }}
Random, Table
.
Table[Random[ ], {2}, {2}]

{{0 .0560708 , 0 .6303 }, {0 .359894 , 0 .871377 }}
. Random Table
.
(, ,
...) .
, Random
.
10.8
351
10.27. .
Random[ ]

[0, 1].
Random[Real, xmax ]

[0, xmax ].
Random[Real, {xmin , xmax }]

[xmin , xmax ].
Random[type, range, n]
n-
type, range.
Random[Integer]
Random[Integer, {imin , imax }]
0 1
1
.
2

[imin , imax ].
10.8.3
. Mathematica
Inverse[m], m ,
. ,
-.
2 2
m = {{a, b}, {c, d}};

MatrixForm[m]

ab
cd
, ad bc
.
Inverse[m]

d
b
c
a
,
,
,
bc + ad
bc + ad
bc + ad bc + ad
m
.
- M athematica
352
%.m

bc
ad
+
,0
bc + ad
bc + ad

, 0,
bc
ad
+
bc + ad
bc + ad

Together
, .
Together[%]
{{1 , 0 }, {0 , 1 }}
,
, Mathematica
.
. T ranspose[pinak]
pinak, m n n m.
aij aji . :
p = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};

MatrixForm[p]

123
456
MatrixForm[Transpose[p]]
14
2 5
36
. Det[m] m m, M inors[m, k]
k k m.
3 3, pin1. .
pin1 = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 7}};

Det[pin1]
6
10.9
353
pin2, 3 2 2 2
.
pin2 = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};

Minors[pin2, 2]
{{2 }, {4 }, {2 }}
10.9
Mathematica
. ,
vector = {1, 2, 3};

1, 2, 3 x, y z
.
10.9.1
( ,
) .
Clear[a, b]
a = {1, 2, 3};
b = {4, 5, 6};
a+b
{5 , 7 , 9 }
5a
{5 , 10 , 15 }
- M athematica
354
. :
1. v1 . v2 . . .
a.b
32
2. Dot[v1 , v2 , . . .]
Dot[a, b]
32
3. DotP roduct[v1 , v2 , . . .]
DotProduct[a, b]
32
. :
1. Cross[v1 , v2 , . . .]
Cross[a, b]
{3 , 6 , 3 }
2. CrossP roduct[v1 , v2 , . . .]
CrossProduct[a, b]
{3 , 6 , 3 }
10.9
355
- . a = {a1 , a2 , a3 }
N ormalize[vector],
LinearAlgebraOrthogonalization.
a, {a1 , a2 , a3 }.
<< LinearAlgebraOrthogonalization
Clear[a, a1, a2, a3]
a = {a1, a2, a3};
Normalize[a]
{
a1 2
a1
a2
a3
,
,
}
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ a2 + a3
a1 + a2 + a3
a1 + a2 2 + a3 2
. .
.

Join.
Clear[a, b]
a = {1, 2};
b = Join[a, {0}]
{1 , 2 , 0 }

Drop.
Clear[a, b]
a = {1, 2, 0};
b = Drop[a, {3}]
{1 , 2 }

b = Drop[a, 1]
{1 , 2 }
- M athematica
356
10.10
Plot, f [a, b].
Plot[f [x], {x, xmin , xmax }]

Mathematica
Plot ?Plot.
?Plot
Plot[f , {x , xmin , xmax }] generates a plot of f as a function of x from
xmin to xmax . Plot[{f1 , f2 , . . .}, {x , xmin , xmax }] plots several functions
fi .
1
Clear[f]
f[x_] := Sin[x];
Plot[f[x], {x, , }];
1
0.5
-3
-2
-1
-0.5
-1
10.1. Sin(x) x = 0 x = 2.
10.10
357
10.10.1 Plot
Mathematica
,
.
, Plot
option value
.

.
Plot[f [x], {x, xmin , xmax }, option value]

Plot .
:
10.28. Plot.

AspectRatio
Axes
AxesLabel
AxesOrigin
DisplayFunction
Frame
PlotLabel
PlotRange
PlotStyle
PlotPoints

1
GoldenRatio
Automatic
None
Automatic
$DisplayFunction
False
None
Automatic
Automatic
25

:
AspectRatio :
x y. 1/GoldenRatio.
(GoldenRatio)
Mathematica 1.61803.

.
358
- M athematica
Axes True : . False ( ).

AxesLabel { X, Y } :
x y.
AxesOrigin {x, y} :
(x, y).
DisplayFunction Identity :

Plot.
Frame True : .
PlotLabel :
.
PlotRange {ymin , ymax } All {{xmin , xmax }, {ymin , ymax }} :
{ymin , ymax }
. PlotRange All
. P lotRange[{xmin , xmax }, {ymin , ymax }]

.
PlotStyle :
.

P lot[f [x], {x, xmin , xmax }, P lotStyle GrayLevel[w]],

w 0 1,
. w = 0
w = 0 .

P lot[f [x], {x, xmin , xmax }, P lotStyle RGBColor[r, g, b]},

r, g, b 0 1,
. RGBColor[1,0,0]
, RGBColor[0,1,0] RGBColor[0,0,1] .
10.10
359
P lotStyle Dashing[{a, b, c, . . .}],

a, b, c, . . . .
PlotPoints : Mathematica .
2
Plot
1.
Plot[Sin[x], {x, 0, 2 Pi}, AxesLabel {X, Y},

AxesOrigin {0.5, 0.5}]
Y
1
-0.5
-1
10.2. sin x AxesLabel

AxesOrigin.
Plot[Sin[x], {x, 0, 2 Pi}, AspectRatio 1, PlotStyle

{RGBColor[0, 0, 1], Dashing[{0.01}]}];
Plot
Options [Plot].
Options[Plot]
1
{ AspectRatio GoldenRatio
, Axes Automatic, AxesLabel
None, AxesOrigin Automatic, AxesStyle Automatic, Background
- M athematica
360
1
0,5
-0,5
-1
10.3. sin x AspectRatio PlotStyle.
Automatic, ColorOutput Automatic, Compiled True, DefaultColor Automatic, Epilog {}, Frame False, FrameLabel
None, FrameStyle Automatic, FrameTicks Automatic, GridLines
None, ImageSize Automatic, MaxBend 10, PlotDivision 30,
PlotLabel None, PlotPoints 25, PlotRange Automatic, PlotRegion Automatic, PlotStyle Automatic, Prolog {}, RotateLabel
True, Ticks Automatic, DefaultFont : $ DefaultFont, DisplayFunction : $ DisplayFunction, FormatType : $ FormatType, TextStyle
: $ TextStyle }
10.10.2
Plot
f, g, h, . . . ,
(a, b).
P lot[{f [x], g[x], h[x], . . .}, {x, xmin , xmax }]

3
Clear[f, g]
f[x_] := Sin[x];
g[x_] := Cos[x];
Plot[{f[x], g[x]}, {x, 0, 2 Pi}, PlotStyle {RGBColor[0, 0, 1],
RGBColor[0, 1, 0]}];
10.10
361
0.5
-0.5
-1
10.4. sin x cos x.
10.10.3
Mathematica
.
( If) , 4.
4
Clear[f1 , f2 ]
f1 [x_] := x2 /; x 0
f1 [x_] := x2 /; x < 0
f2 [x_] := If[x >= 0, x2 , x2 ]
Plot[f1 [x], {x, 3, 3}, AspectRatio 1];
Plot[f2 [x], {x, 3, 3}, AspectRatio 1];
10.10.4 Evaluate

Mathematica . Evaluate Plot
"machine-size real numbers" .
Plot
P lot[Evaluate[f [x]], {x, xmin , xmax }]
- M athematica
362
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
10.5. f1 f2
10.11 .
Mathematica
,
.
%.
?Show
"Show[graphics, options] displays two- and three-dimensional
graphics, using the options specified. Show[g1, g2, ... ] shows several
plots combined."

:
Show[plot]
Show[plot, options]
Show[plot1, plot2, . . .]
Show[GraphicsArray[{{plot1, plot2, . . .}, . . .}]]
5
Clear[f, g]
f[x_] := Sin[x];
10.11 .
363
g[x_] := Cos[x];
plot1 = Plot[f[x], {x, 0, }, PlotStyle {RGBColor[1, 0, 0],
Dashing[{0.01}]}, DisplayFunction Identity];
plot2 = Plot[g[x], {x, 0, 2 Pi}, PlotStyle {RGBColor[0, 0, 1]},
Show[{plot1, plot2}, DisplayFunction $DisplayFunction,
PlotLabel Example4];
1
0,5
-0,5
-1
10.6. sin x (0, ) cos x

(0, 2).
plot3 = Plot[Tan[x], {x, 1, 1}, DisplayFunction Identity];

Show[GraphicsArray[{{plot1, plot2}, {plot3}}]];
10.7. sin x, cos x tan x.
- M athematica
364
10.12
ParametricPlot
x y
t.
ParametricPlot[{x[t], y[t]}, {t, tmin , tmax }]

x=x(t), y=y(t),tmin t tmax .
6
Clear[x, y]
x[t_] := Sin[t];
y[t_] := Sin[2 t];
ParametricPlot[{x[t], y[t]}, {t, 0, 2 }];
1
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
10.8. x = sin t, y = sin 2t.
10.12.1 ParametricPlot
Options[ParametricPlot]
1
{ AspectRatio GoldenRatio
, Axes Automatic, AxesLabel
Automatic, ColorOutput Automatic, Compiled True, DefaultColor Automatic, Epilog {}, Frame False, FrameLabel
10.12
365
None, FrameStyle Automatic, FrameTicks Automatic, GridLines

None, ImageSize Automatic, MaxBend 10., PlotDivision
30., PlotLabel None, PlotPoints 25, PlotRange Automatic,
PlotRegion Automatic, PlotStyle Automatic, Prolog {}, RotateLabel True, Ticks Automatic, DefaultFont : $ DefaultFont,
DisplayFunction : $ DisplayFunction, FormatType : $ FormatType,
TextStyle : $ TextStyle }
ParametricPlot
Plot, . AspectRatio.
, AspectRatio Automatic
.
7
p1 = ParametricPlot[{2 + 3 Cos[t], 1 + 3 Sin[t]}, {t, 0, 2 },

p2 = ParametricPlot[{2 + 3 Cos[t], 1 + 3 Sin[t]}, {t, 0, 2 },
DisplayFunction Identity, AspectRatio Automatic];
Show[GraphicsArray[{p1, p2}]];
4
3
2
1
-1
-1
-2
4
3
2
1
1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
10.9. x = 2 + 3 cos t, y = 1 + 3 sin t

AspectRatio.
- M athematica
366
10.13 Graphics F illedP lot

GraphicsFilledplot :
1. FilledPlot f[x]
.

.
FilledPlot[f [x], {x, xmin , xmax }]

FilledPlot[{f1 [x], f2 [x], . . .}, {x, xmin , xmax }]
2. FilledListPlot

.
FilledListPlot[{y1 , y2 , . . .}]
FilledListPlot[{{x1 , y1 }, {x2 , y2 }, . . .}]
8
Clear[fpl1, fpl2 ]
fpl1 = FilledPlot[Sin[x], {x, 0, 2 }, DisplayFunction Identity];
fpl2 = FilledPlot[{Sin[x], Cos[x], x2/12}, {x, 0, 2 },
Show[GraphicsArray[{{fpl1, fpl2 }}]];
10.13.1 FilledPlot
Options[FilledPlot]
{ Fills Automatic, Curves Back, AxesFront True, AspectRa1
tio GoldenRatio
, Axes Automatic, AxesLabel None, AxesOrigin
Automatic, AxesStyle Automatic, Background Automatic, ColorOutput Automatic, Compiled True, DefaultColor Automatic,
Epilog {}, Frame False, FrameLabel None, FrameStyle
10.13 Graphics F illedP lot
367
10.10. () sin x FilledPlot. ()

sin x, cos x, x2 /12 FilledPlot.
Automatic, FrameTicks Automatic, GridLines None, ImageSize

Automatic, MaxBend 10., PlotDivision 30., PlotLabel None,
PlotPoints 25, PlotRange Automatic, PlotRegion Automatic,
PlotStyle Automatic, Prolog {}, RotateLabel True, Ticks
Automatic, DefaultFont : $ DefaultFont, DisplayFunction : $ DisplayFunction, FormatType : $ FormatType, TextStyle : $ TextStyle
}
FilledPlot
Plot. :
10.29. FilledPlot.
Fills
Automatic
Curves
Back
Clear[flp1, flp2]
flp1 = FilledPlot[{x2/18, Cos[x], Sin[x]}, {x, 0, 2 Pi}, Fills
{{{1, Axis}, GrayLevel[.8]}, {{2, 3}, RGBColor[1, 0, 1]}},
Curves Front, DisplayFunction Identity];
368
- M athematica
flp2 = FilledPlot[{Cos[x], Sin[x]}, {x, 0, 2 Pi}, Fills

{{{1, Axis}, GrayLevel[.9]}, {{2, 3}, RGBColor[0, 0, 1]}},
Curves None, DisplayFunction Identity];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{flp1, flp2}}]];
10.11. sin x, cos x, x2 /18 FilledPlot.
10.13.2 FilledListPlot
Options[FilledListPlot]
{ Curves Back, Fills Automatic, AxesFront True, Plot1
, Axes Automatic,
Style Automatic, AspectRatio GoldenRatio
AxesLabel None, AxesOrigin Automatic, AxesStyle Automatic,Background Automatic, ColorOutput Automatic,DefaultColor
Automatic, Epilog {}, Frame False, FrameLabel None,
FrameStyle Automatic, FrameTicks Automatic, GridLines
None,ImageSize Automatic, PlotLabel None, PlotRange Automatic, PlotRegion Automatic,Prolog {}, RotateLabel True,
Ticks Automatic, DefaultFont : $ DefaultFont, DisplayFunction
: $ DisplayFunction, FormatType : $ FormatType, TextStyle : $
TextStyle }
FilledListPlot AxesFront True False .
10
10.14 Graphics ImplicitP lot
369
Clear[flp1, flp2]
flp1 = FilledListPlot[{1, 3, 2, 5, 2}, DisplayFunction
Identity];
flp2 = FilledListPlot[{{1, 2}, {3, 1}, {4, 3}, {5, 3}, {6, 5}},
Fills RGBColor[1, 0, 0], DisplayFunction Identity];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{flp1, flp2}}]];
10.12. FilledListPlot.
10.14 Graphics ImplicitP lot

ImplicitPlot . :
1. eqn
Solve, x xmin xmax .
ImplicitPlot[eqn, {x, xmin , xmax }]

2. eqn m1 , m2 , . . .
ImplicitPlot[eqn, {x, xmin , m1 , m2 , . . . , xmax }]

3. eqn ContourPlot.
ImplicitPlot[eqn, {x, xmin , xmax }, {y, ymin , ymax }]

4. eqn1 , eqn2 , . . .
ImplicitPlot[{eqn1 , eqn2 , . . .}, ranges, options]
- M athematica
370
Solve Plot,
ContourPlot ContourPlot.
23
<< GraphicsImplicitPlot
ImplicitPlot[x b 2 + 2 y b 2 == 3, {x, 2, 2}];
1
0.5
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
-0.5
-1
10.13. x2 + 2y 2 = 3.
eqn = Sin[2 x] + Cos[3 y] == 1

Clear[im1, im2]
im1 = ImplicitPlot[eqn, {x, 2 Pi, 2 Pi}, {y, 2 Pi, 2 Pi},
im2 = ImplicitPlot[eqn, {x, 2 Pi, 2 Pi}, {y, 2 Pi, 2 Pi},
Contours 5, DisplayFunction Identity];
Show[GraphicsArray[{{im1, im2}}]];
, ,
.
ImplicitPlot[{(x2 + y2 )2 == (x2 y2 ), (x2 + y2 )2 == 2 x y},

{x, 2, 2}, PlotStyle {RGBColor[1, 0, 0], Dashing[{.03}]}];
10.15
371
-2
-2
-4
-4
-6
-6 -4 -2 0
-6
-6 -4 -2 0
10.14. sin 2x+cos 3y = 1, ImplicitPlot.

0,75
0,5
0,25
-1
-0,5
0,5
-0,25
-0,5
-0,75
10.15. (x2 + y 2 )2 = x2 y 2 , (x2 + y 2 )2 = 2xy},

ImplicitPlot.
10.30. .
P oint[{x, y}]
Line[{{x1 , y1 }, {x2 , y2 }, . . .}]
Rectangle[{xmin , ymin }, {xmax , ymax }]
P olygon[{{x1 , y1 }, {x2 , y2 }, . . .}]
Circle[{x, y}, r]
Arrow[{x1 , y1 }, {x2 , y2 }]
10.15

Graphics .
??Graphics
- M athematica
372
"Graphics[primitives, options] represents a two-dimensional graphical image."
Attributes[Graphics] = {Protected, ReadProtected}

Options[Graphics] =
{ AspectRatio GoldenRatio1 , Axes False, AxesLabel

Automatic, ColorOutput Automatic, DefaultColor Automatic,
Epilog {}, Frame False, FrameLabel None, FrameStyle
Automatic, FrameTicks Automatic, GridLines None, ImageSize
Automatic, PlotLabel None, PlotRange Automatic, PlotRegion
Automatic, Prolog {}, RotateLabel True, Ticks Automatic,
DefaultFont :> $ DefaultFont, DisplayFunction :> $ DisplayFunction,
FormatType :> $ FormatType, TextStyle :> $ TextStyle }
Mathematica

:
GrayLevel[i]
RGBColor[r,g,b]
Hue[h]
Hue[h,s,b]
i,r,g,b,h,s [0,1].
,
PointSize[d] d
[0,1].
:
10.31. .
T hickness[w]
Dashing[w1, w2, ....]
10.15
373
line1 = Line[{{0.5, 2}, {3, 4}, {2, 0.5}}];

sawgraph = Show[Graphics[line1]];
10.16. .
{Rectangle[{1, 1}, {2, 0.6}], Rectangle[{4, .3}, {5, .8}]};

Show[Graphics[%], Axes True, PlotLabel Rectangles];
Renctangles
0.75
0.5
0.25
2
-0.25
-0.5
-0.75
-1
10.17. .
Show[Graphics[Polygon[{{1, 1}, {1, 1}, {1, 1}, {1, 1}}]],

Axes True, PlotLabel Polygon];
- M athematica
374
Polygon
1
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
10.18. .
Circle[{x, y}, r]
Circle[{x, y}, {rx , ry }]
(x,y) r
rx ry (x,y)
Show[Graphics[{Circle[{0, 0}, {3, 2}], Circle[{1, 1}, 2]}],

AspectRatio Automatic, Axes True];
3
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
10.19. Circle.
.
GraphicsArrow.
<< GraphicsArrow
10.16
375
Show[Graphics[{Arrow[{0, 0}, {1, 1}], Hue[0], Arrow[{.75, .25},

{.25, .75}]}]];
10.20. .

Arrow Epilog. Epilog
Plot[Sin[x], {x, 0, 2 Pi}, Epilog {Arrow[{4, .25}, {Pi/2, 1}]}];

1
0,5
-0,5
-1
10.21. sin x
.
10.16
Graphics3D.
- M athematica
376
10.32. .
P oint[{x, y, z}]
Line[{{x1 , y1 , z1 }, {x2 , y2 , z3 }, . . .}]
P olygon[{{x1 , y1 , z1 }, {x2 , y2 , z2 }, . . .}]
Cuboid[{xmin , ymin , zmin }, {xmax , ymax , zmax }]
Cuboid[{x, y, z}]
??Graphics3D
"Graphics3D[primitives, options] represents a three-dimensional
graphical image."
Attributes[Graphics3D] = {Protected, ReadProtected}

Options[Graphics3D] =
{ AmbientLight GrayLevel[0], AspectRatio Automatic, Axes False, AxesEdge Automatic, AxesLabel None, AxesStyle
Automatic, Background Automatic, Boxed True, BoxRatios Automatic, BoxStyle Automatic, ColorOutput Automatic, DefaultColor Automatic, Epilog {}, FaceGrids
None, ImageSize Automatic, Lighting True, LightSources
{{{1., 0., 1.}, RGBColor[1, 0, 0]}, {{1., 1., 1.}, RGBColor[0, 1, 0]},
{{0., 1., 1.}, RGBColor[0, 0, 1]}}, Plot3Matrix Automatic, PlotLabel
None, PlotRange Automatic, PlotRegion Automatic, PolygonIntersections True, Prolog {}, RenderAll True, Shading
True, SphericalRegion False, Ticks Automatic, ViewCenter
Automatic, ViewPoint {1.3, 2.399999999999999, 2.}, ViewVertical
{0., 0., 1.}, DefaultFont :> $ DefaultFont, DisplayFunction :> $ DisplayFunction, FormatType :> $ FormatType, TextStyle :> $ TextStyle
}
.
Show[Graphics3D[Line[{{1, 1, 1}, {2, 2, 2}, {3, 1, 1},

{4, 0.5, 0.5}}]]];
10.17 Graphics P olyhedra
377
10.22. .
10.23. .
Show[Graphics3D[Polygon[{{1, 2, 3}, {6, 2, 1}, {5, 4, 2}}]]];

.
Clear[bc1, bc2]
bc1 = Show[Graphics3D[Cuboid[{0, 0, 0}]], Axes True,
bc2 = Show[Graphics3D[Cuboid[{0, 3, 4}, {5, 10, 15}]], Axes True,
Show[GraphicsArray[{{bc1, bc2}}]];
GraphicsPolyedra
.
- M athematica
378
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
0 2
10
8
4
15
12.5
10
7.5
5
1
10.24. .
, .
Tetrahedron[ ]
{P olygon[{{0, 0, 1.73205}, {0, 1.63299, 0.57735},
{1.41421, 0.816497, 0.57735}}], P olygon[{{0, 0, 1.73205},
{1.41421, 0.816497, 0.57735}, {1.41421, 0.816497, 0.57735}}],
P olygon[{{0, 0, 1.73205}, {1.41421, 0.816497, 0.57735},
{0, 1.63299, 0.57735}}], P olygon[{{0, 1.63299, 0.57735},
{1.41421, 0.816497, 0.57735}, {1.41421, 0.816497, 0.57735}}] }
:
Tetrahedron
Octahedron
Icosahedron
GreatDodecahedron
GreatStellatedDodecahedron
Cube
Dodecahedron
Hexahedron
SmallStellatedDodecahedron
GreatIcosahedron
:
1. Show[P olyhedron[ ]]
Show[Polyhedron[name]]
Show[Polyedron[name], {x, y, z}, scale]
{x, y, z} , scale
379
2. Show[Graphics3D[ ]]
Show[Graphics3D[name]]
26
<< GraphicsPolyhedra
Clear[pl1 , pl2 ]
pl1 = Show[Polyhedron[Dodecahedron], DisplayFunction Identity];
pl2 = Show[Polyhedron[GreatIcosahedron, {1, 1, 1}, 0.8],
Show[GraphicsArray[{{pl1, pl2 }}]];
10.25. .
Show[Graphics3D[Tetrahedron[ ]]];
380
10.26. .
- M athematica
1. Abell, M.L., Braselton, J.P., (1997), Mathematica by Examples, Academic Press,

New York.
2. Bermant, A.F., Aramanovich, I.G., (1975), Mathematical Analysis, MIR Publ.,
Moscow.
3. Berman, G. (1977), A problem book in mathematical analysis, MIR Publ., Moscow.
4. Bradley, G.L., Smith, K.J., (1999), Multivariable Calculus, Prendice Hall, New
York.
5. Coombes, K.R., Lipsman, R.L., Rosenberg, J.M., (1998), Multivariable Calculus
and Mathematica, Springer- Verlag, Berlin.
6. Courant, R., Fritz, J., (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, SpringerVerlag, Berlin.
7. Danko, P. et al., (1983), Higher mathematics in problems and exercises, MIR
Publ., Moscow.
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2

1.1. f (x, y) = sin(

F (x, y) = (x2 + y 2 1)1/2 + log(4 x2 y 2 ).

G(x, y) = (x2 y 2 )1/2 + (x2 + y 2 1)1/2

1.3 C(D) {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 > 1},

ds2 = g11 dx21 + g22 dx22 + g33 dx23 + g44 dx24

, Oz, Ox 90o Oy.

x = cos sin , y = sin sin , z = cos .

er (t) = ex cos (t) + ey sin (t)

(2 c2 2 )x2 2(v2 + c2 )xt (c2 2 v 2 a2 )t2 = x2 c2 t2

cos t, y(t) = sin t, z(t) = t t [0, 6]

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + F xz

( > 0)( . 1.16) (

(i) , x = r cos , y = r sin ,

1.23. (x y)1/2 + (x + y)1/2 + 2.

z = p (x2 /(2a2 cp)) + (y 2 /(2b2 cp)) = 1,

f (x, y, z) = z(x2 + y 2 1)1/2 + ln[z 2 (4 x2 + y 2 )],

f (x, y, z) = (x2 + y 2 z)1/2 + ln(z 2 + x2 + y 2 ).

f (x, y) = x/(y 2 4x),

f (x, y) = [6 (2x + 3y)]1/2 ,

f (x, y) = [x2 + y 2 4] ln (16 x2 y 2 ),

f (x, y) = (x2 y 2 )1/2 + (x2 + y 2 1)1/2 .

f (x, y) = ln(x + y),

f (x, y) = ln(x2 + y),

f (x, y) = arcsin(x) + (xy)1/2 .

f (x, y) = ln(a x2 + y 2 ) + (x2 + y 2 b),

f (x, y) = (x2 y 2 )1/2 + (x2 + y 2 )1/2 .

Plot3D[f [x, y], {x, xmin , xmax }, {y, ymin , ymax }]

f[x_, y_] := Sin[x] Sin[y];

2.1. f (x, y) = sin x sin y 2.1.

pl1 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

pl2 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

pl3 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

pl4 = Plot3D[f[x, y], {x, 10, 10}, {y, 10, 10},

Show[GraphicsArray[{{pl1, pl2 }, {pl3 , pl4 }}],

2.2. f (x, y) = sin x sin y

Clear[plt1, plt2, plt3]

Show[GraphicsArray[{{plt1, plt2, plt3}}]];

2.3. f (x, y) = sin x sin y .

col2 = Plot3D[{Sin[x y], Hue[x/3]}, {x, 0, 3}, {y, 0, 3},

2.4. f (x, y) = sin xsin y .

ContourPlot[f [x, y], {x, xmin , xmax }, {y, ymin , ymax }]

c3 = ContourPlot[f[x, y], {x, 2, 2}, {y, 2, 2},

2.5. f (x, y) = sin x sin y

2.6. f (x, y) = x2 2x+

2.7. f (x, y) = sin(x + y).

2.8. f (x, y) = sin(x + y)

ParametricPlot3D[{x[t], y[t], z[t]}, {t, tmin , tmax }]

p = Plot3D[g[x, y], {x, 0, 4 Pi}, {y, 0, 4 Pi},

pp1 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{5, t, 0}, {t, 0, 4 Pi},

2.11. g(x, y) = cos(x + siny)

pp2 = ParametricPlot3D[{5, t, g[5, t]}, {t, 0, 4 Pi}];

2.12. g(x, y) = cos(x + siny) x = 5

Clear[f, pp1 , pp2 , p]

pp1 = Show[ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[t], Sin[t], 0}, {t, 0, 2 Pi},

pp2 = ParametricPlot3D[{Cos[t], Sin[t], f[Cos[t], Sin[t]]},

2.13. f [x, y] = x3 sin[4y] + y 2 cos[3x]

2.14. f [x, y] = x3 Sin[4y] + y 2 Cos[3x]

ParametricPlot3D[{x[t, u], y[t, u], z[t, u]},