HAND

TOOLS

HAMMERS

I N.TRODUCTI

ON

Hand hammers are drop forged fro. crucible steel.

After forging, the

face and pein are ground to shape and then carefully hardened and teapered. the eye piece being left soft.

BALL PEIN

H3 ers are classified

according to their weight and shape.

Hammers

used by the engineer are:

a. b. c.

Ba LL pein. Strai ght pein. Cross pein.

l'

The ball pein is a seai-sphere and is a general use ha er. the tac6 being used for chipping and any general driving use. The ball is'.atnly

used for rivetting, spreading the .etal evenly in all directions.

!he Straight Pein

Has the pein in line with the centre line of the ha er handle.

This

STRAIGHT rEIN

CROSS rEIN

Page 1

hammer

is used and

when for

stretching close

.etal

at

right

angles

to the

line of surface.

striking,

working

to an obstructing

vertical

The

Cross

Pein

Has to

the that

pein of

at

right straight

angles pein.

to the

shaft.

Its

application

is si.ilar

the

HAM~lER \~EI GHTS

Weights pound sledge

of hand

hammers

used

in the

Engineering of this

Industry are

vary

fro.

to 2 ~ounds. hammers.

Hammers

in excess

generally

classed

d~

Hammers lftren

in the

pound

class

'are usually

used

when IIp

marking

out, pound

i.e. .ay be

using

a pric!<or-c-ertrepune1r;"bu1 used.

a hUmer

to;

successfully

SOFT

FACE

HAMMERS

These from

are used some

to save

damage

to

the

part e.g.

being lead, fro.

struck. cepper, the

They hide,

are .ade plastic. When

relatively the

soft

material,

In most distorted

cases

soft be

face

is detachable

hammer

head.

it can

replaced.

HAI~~'ER SHAFTS

These

are

made to

from the

springy of

timber the

such

as hickory, A good fitting

the

length

being

in

proportion ways

weight

head.

wedge

should

al-

be used.

PRECAUTICNS

WHEN

USING

A HAMMER

a.

00

not

hold

with

a greasy

hand.

b.

00

not

use

if head

is

loose,

shaft

split,

or wedge

is missing.

c.

Make

sure

of

sufficient

room

to create

a full

swing.

Page

HA NO

TOOLS

SCRE\iDR IVERS

SElECTION

There cannot 'be too luch emphas1'splaced on selecting the size of a screwdriver so that the thickness af the blade makes a good fit in the screw slot. This not only prevents the screw slot from becoming burred and the blade ti p from bei n9 damaged, but reduces the force requi red to keep the screwdri ver in the slot.

SI;APII~G THE

POINT

The tip of a correctly ground screwdriver of the blade practically parallel.

blade should~.e

the sides

CO~~CTLY

GRQUND

INCO~RECTLY

GROUND

USING

THE

SCREWDRIVER

The conventional screwdriver with a sli. steel blade and wood or plastic handle is designed to withstand considerable twisting force" in proportion to its size.

IT WAS FORCE

NOT

DESIGNED

TO BE USED IT

AS A PRY

LEVER

OR BEND

PINCH OR

BAR

AND

IF ~WCH

IS APPLIED

WHEN

IS SO USED,

IT WILL

BREAK.

Page 3

T~e point rectly

of the blade

is hardened it is,

to keep the

it from

wearing, break

when

corof

used,

but the h~rder is ~,plied.

easier

it .ill

if IUch

a bending

strain

DO NOT HAMMER PLACE OF

ON

THE ENO OF CHISEL,

A SCREWDRIVER OR

- IT IS NOT

TO BE USED

IN

A COLD

A PUnCH,

A DRIFT.

~CqE'l.lOR I VERS FOR RECESSED

\lEAD SCR&lS

The use of screws ally designed out

with

a cruciform to turn

recess the.,

in the

head,

requiring

specithrough~

screwdrivers

has become

widespread

the automobile

and aircraft

industries.

PHILLIPS

SCREWDRIVERS

These

scre~~rivers for slotted

have head

the same screws,

no.enclature however,

for

their

parts

as screw-

drivers

there

is one

difference.

The

size of the screwdriver Point sizes e.g.

is governed numbers

by point - 1

size,

not

length

of

the ~lade.

are given as No.1

2, 3, 4.

The

screwdriv-

ers are identified;

(or

2, 3, 4) Phillips

screwdrivers.

PHILLIPS

TYPE

SCREWDRIVER

PRECl.il.llliNS

1Y14E!l !tlG A SCREWDRIVER US

The following

precautions

should

be taken

when

servicing

equ~~ment.

a.

Extract

all

traces

of paint, heads

dirt, Lefore

or other

contamination, is mad.

from

the

recesses in the screw the screws.

any attempt

to re.ove

Pig. 4

HAND

TOOLS

D.

Select the correct screwdrivers for the types and sizes and screws in use.

c.

The correct size of screwdriver for a particular screw is that which cJllIpletely fills, and beds down in, th~ recess in the screw head without "side play.

d.

Ensure, when a screw is to be removed or fitted, that the screwdriver is at right angles to the screw, as otherwise uneven loading will be applied to the screw head recess, which will cause damage to the bearing surfaces of the "recess.

e.

Handle the screwdrivers carefully; are dropped or otherwise maltreated.

the points of the screwdrivers

are brittle, and are, therefore, liable to fracture if the tools

\'/RENCHES

INTRODUCTION

.Wrenches are made in a great variety of shapes and $izes, and while a particular design may have a very wide application, the use of the correct wrench for the job may give better and speedier results.

It is general British practice to call wrenches spanners;

the term

wrenchl being generally applied to other tools such as pipe wrench, tap wrench, etc. It is American practice to call them all wrenches.

OPEN-EilDED

. SPANnERS

Open-ended

spanners are generally used on straight work, i.e. where acThey are obtainable

cess to the nut or the bolt is free of obstruction. as single or double ended.

Spanner Si zes

The size of the openings between the jaws determines the size of the spanner. The double ended spanner is made to fit two different sized

nuts, e.g. 1/8 inch and 3/16 inch ('r 1 inch and

1.

inch.

Page 5-

GOOD

FIT

BAD

FIT

Spanner

length

The the

length s.aLler

of open-ended the jaw

spanners the

is in proportion shorter the overall

to

the jaw length.

size,

i.e.

opening,

The the one

length bolt will or

proportions stud.

the

lever

advantage amount of on

of puLL the

the on

spanner the than

to the

size

of

Ii ith a given less twisting

spanner, a longer

a short one.

produce

effort

nut

This

helps

reduce could

the

possibility the threads.

of

applying

too

great

a torque

to

the

nut which

strip

RING

SPANNERS

The

ends

of

these

spanners

are of

in the fora the centre.

of

a ring,

with

a hexagon

or

double

hexagon

broached. out

The used

lalls

of

the

ring

~eing where

comparatively space would not

thin, allol

these use

span~ers

may

be types.

in applications

of open-ended

Advantages

of Ring

Spanners ,

a.

A ri ng span'l8r can .ith a .inimum

be used of the

to conti nuously handle of the of only the

loosen' or tighten 15 degrees,

a nut to

swing

co.oared

a 60 degree or to the ed each

swing

of the swing

handle ~ith

standard

open-ended spanner

spanner,

30 degree

open-ended

if it is turn-

s.ing.

b.

The

ring

spanner

is less

likely

to slip

on

the

nut.

c.

Ideal.here

high

tcrque

is required.

Pag. 6

HAND TOOLS

SOCKET

SPMlNERS

The type of spanner which has done .ost to .ake the engineer's work easier and save ti.e is the socket spanner.

It has similar characteristics to that of a ring spanner, i.e. a double hexagon set into a fully enclosed socket.

The size designation Facility

is as for the ring spanner.

is .ade for the insertion of square handles of varying shapes e.g. rachet, universal joint, torque wrench, speed

and applications, brace.

The actual square drive sizes vary fro. ~I to nature of the work required of the spanner. craft industry isthe

f'

in accordance to the

f'

The Most common in the air-

square drive.

TUBE SPANNERS

Tube spanners or tubular box spanners are made from cold-drawn tube.

seamless

They serve the same purpose as the deep sockets of the socket They are used on spark plugs and on nuts which are a

spanner kits.

lopg way down on the bolts or are deeply recessed into the job.

SPANNER SIZES AND IDENTIFICATION

The size of a spanner i~ determined by the nut or bolt it fits.

There-

fore~ spanners are made to fit nuts or bolts of specific thread systems. British Standard

It is standard British of th~ bolt or nut.

practice to identify spanners by the nOMinal size to

This .ill encompass nuts or bolts confor.ing

Bri tish Standard 'olhitworth,British Standard Fi ne and B'riti sh Association Standards.

A f rad ion represent ing the no.i na l di a.eter of th e bo It, is fa llowed by the sign SS. For exa.ple, a spanner to fit BS. ~ould be marked

1 fnch

BSW or

1 inch

BSF

British

Association

Spanners screw

for

BA

sizes

are by

Marked

with

the

numbers ZBA.

appropriate

to

their

sizes followed

the

letters

BA,

e.g.

Unified

Standard

The

marki ng of spanners equivalent followed

for of

Unifi ed hexagons no.inal sign A/f.

shall

be a number across

based of

on

the decimal the hexagon,

the

fractional

size

flats

by the

This

nu~ber

shall

be

rounded

off

to

two

decimal

places

and

the

decimal

point shall at his option, This be omitted. tncluding, any on the opposite bolt would face, e.g. 44A/F,

shall not additional

preclude alongside, the manufacturer froID .ark, underneath or for at the inch a

a spanner ~nd

intended

inch

diameter of the the manwould be

be marked 7/16A/F. would be

in addition for the a

manufacturer, datory mark

Similarly, 131A/F, and

discretion b~lt, mark

diameter optional

additional

1-S/16A/F.

These

spanners

are

also

suitable

for

the

generally

known

SAE

sizes.

A.erican

Standard

American spanners

nuts are

and bolts

now

confon! with

tD Unified the Unifhd

Standard. Series.

The

SAE

series

interchangeable

Metric

Standard

Spanners opening

for

metric by

sizes the

shall

be marked

with e.g.

the size 10.m.

across

the jaw

followed

abbreviation

HEXAGON

KEYS

OR ~RENCHES

Hexagon section. across

keys

or wrenches to an of

are .ade

from

tool are

steel,

hexagonal by

in cross-

and bent the flats

ilL'

shape.

They They

'sized'

the di stance as single items

the hexagon.

.ay

be obtained

or in sets.

Sometimes set screis

called and

Allen

Keys,

they

are

used

for

wrtnchin~

cap

scr8llS,

shou lder

screws.

?llle 8

HAOO

TOOLS

SPEC I Al

PURPOSE SPANNERS

Special purpose spanners or spanner wrenches, as the Americans call them, are special spanners for special jobs and do not come under the classification of tools for the engineer's kit. store item or supplied with equipment. are illustrated. They can be a tool

Three of the more common types

The Hook or IC u Span~er

The End Spanner

The Pin Spanner

Pag.'

ADJUSTABLE

WRENCHES

Adjustable

Spanners

Adjustable but have

spanners one jaw

are shaped

somewhat

si.ilar

to open-ended

wrenches

adjustable.

Although tites,

adjustable they are not

spanners intended

and wrenches to take the

are especially place of standard

convenient

at

open-ended,

box or, socket

spanners.

Adjustable gently .

spanners

are

not

intended

for

hard

service

- treat

the.

Whenever to 'break

you

have

to

exert

any

a.ount or 'snug

of force down'

on

an adjustable

spanner

loose' ~here

a tight are two

nut,

a nut which

is being

tightened,

i.portant

points

to reme.ber.

a.

Always

pl~::e the jaw

spanner

on the

nut

so that

force

is' applied can

to the with-

stationary stand

side

of the foree

handle. used

Adjustable in this

spanners

the greatest

when

manner.

b.

After that

placing the

the

wrench fits the

on'the nut

nut, snugly.

tighten

the

adjusting

knurl

so

spanner

If these

tlO

precautions

are

not

observed life

the of

life of the nut

the

adjustable

!-Danner "ill

be shC)rt as .ill

be the

or bolt.

Two
..

disadvantages

of

the

adjustable

spanner

are:

a.

Tendency

for

aDveible

jaw

to

loosen

whilst

in use.

b.

Lenath

of spanner

is suited hands, too

to

largest

opening can

of

jaw.,

therefore, to nuts in

iT, Inexperienced the ,5I11All jaw

IMIch torque

be applied

open; ng rang

P191 10

HAND TOOL~ PLIERS

INTRODUCTION

The word pllers is a plural name for a single tool.

Pliers are made in

many styles and are used to perfonl lany different operations.

CONSTRUCTION

Pliers are generally made from high carbon steel or an alloy steel such as chrole-vanadiul, which have high tensile strength.

SIZES

Pliers are sized by their overall length, e.g. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 12 inches. It follows that the slaller the size, the lighter the work the larger the size, the heavier the work they will be able to do; they will do.

USING THE PLIERS

Avoid using pliers on a hardened surface as this dulls the teeth and the pliers lose their grip.

If pos~ible, avoid using pliers to hold,work subjected to heat, as heating will soften the teeth and spoil the grip.

DO

NOT

USE

PLIERS

ON

NUTS

Page 11

TYPES

OF

PLIERS

1.

Co.bination electrical Pliers

Pliers work the

are

the

most

com.only

u~ed. ~ith for

When

designed

for

handles two

are sheathed joint cutters

insulating wire

.aterial. and are

generally

have

steel

available

in 6, 7 and

8 inch

sizes.

COMBINATION

PLIERS

2.

Round

Nose

Pliers screw.

are used Available

to make in 4,

eyes 5 and

in wire

to shape _.

it around

a tersinal

6 inch siz

ROUND

NOSE

PLIERS

3.

Diagonal wire in 5. off

or Angle short

Cutting

Pliers

(Side-Cutters) locking

are used etc.

to cut Available

against

a terminal,

device.

6 and

7 inc~

sizes.

ANGLE

CUTTING

PLIERS

4.

Flat-Nose for el shaping pliers

Pliers open are

are

used

for

shaping

coils

in small

armatures

and

wiring

in electrical for

equipment. work.

Flat-nose Availa~le

parallin 4, 5,

an improveMent sizes.

si.ilar

6 and

8 inch

Page 12

HAND

TJOLS

FLAT

NOSE PLI ERS

Slip-Joint"Pliers are widely used in laintenance work. The slip joint feature perlits their use over a wide range of diameters. They have four or lOre positions and are available in 5, 6, 8 and 10 inch sizes. .

SlIP-JOINT

PLIERS

ptiers for Confined Spaces. .. are: Long nose taper;

Reading from left to right the pliers Curved needle nose and

Long needle nose;

Half round nose pliers.

SPEC I Al

PURPOSE

PU

ERS

here are l,nYlOre types of pliers. However, those covered in precedIIIparagraphs are generally used in a number of trades.

Page 13

HACKSAWS

Components are:screw, the blade. The Frame

the frame, the handle, the adjusting and tension

There are four main types:The Handle

fixed, adjustable, deep and junior.

There are two main types:-

pistol grip and straight.

The Adjusting and Tension Screw Square in section to .prevent the bLade twisting. screw and blade clip are fittedwith.blade Both the tension

pins which generally have a

tilt fro. the perpendicular so as to ensure that the blade is hard up against the clips. The clips are cut away so th3t the blade face is in

the same plane as the frame vertical axis. The Blade

Coarse grades take a deeper cut. work. work.

They have few teeth contacting the

Finer grades have a greater nulber of teeth in contact with the Thus a fine tooth blade must be used when cutting pipes and tub-

ing or thin sheet metal.

The following is a general guide to the nu.ber of teeth per inch (TPI) required for the given material: 14 TPI

Mild Steel in rounds, flats or squares Medium and Hard Steel and Cast Iron Brass, Copper and Iron Pipe Thin Tubing and Sheet Metal

18 TPI
24 TPI

'2 TPI

SET OF TEETH

The set of the teeth gives clearance for the blade and also clearance for the chips.

Page 14

HAND TOOLS

SLOT ~UTTING

BLADES

No set on teeth. The back of the blade is tapered to give clearance. Available in several thicknesses.

FLEXIBLE BACK BLADES

Ordinary blades are 'All Hard', in other "ord~

hardened all over.

'Flexible Back' or 'Soft Back' blades have only the teeth hardened. They have a tendency to buckle and run out of line, but they are less likely to break, due to their flexibility.

FITTING THE BLADE

1.

Teeth lust point away from the handle, as the blade IIlUst nly cut o in the forward direction.

-z.
3. 4.

Both clip pins should be on same side of the frame.

Blade must be hard up against the flats of t~e blade clips. Tension the blade by tightening the wing nut.

CUTTING PIPE OR TUBE

When the teeth enter the tube they do not encounter any difficulty. When they enter the opposite ~~ll of the tube they strike a sharp corner. "~ This may cause tooth breakage, unless care is taken.

's I DE cum
I

NG

~hen culting a long narro8 strip fro. a large sheet of material, turn the bllde clips to the 90 blade position.

A deep fra.ed hacksaw is often ployed for this job, if the strip is too .ide for a no~at depth hacksaw.

Page 15

cun IIIG'ItHERllAL
Drill flats hole holes to and the

SHAPES

at corner cutting the

positions tine, cut.

large

enough

to take with

the

blade.

File in the

asselble

the

hacksaw

the blade

commence

GLAZING

OR

~':ORKHARDENING

This

happens

when

cutting pressure

some

alloy

melals.

It .ay changing

be overco~. dirc,tioft

by

either

increasing

or by constantly

ar

,~t

SOME

CAUSES

OF

BLADE

BREAKAGE

q. a. o. f. b. n. h. d. k. m. c. e. g. j.

Grade

of cut

or

type on

of blade blade.

not

suitable

for

the work

on hanj.

i. P.

r. l.

Incorrect Faulty Jerky

tension

clamping action or

in vyce twisting by the on

permitting of set the of

the

work when

to mo~~. sawing. been worn ilown.

blade

Jamming, Excessive Having Sawing sharp Using Blade Blade Blade

caused

teeth

having

pressure few

teeth. in cutting causes contact the the with the work. strike a

too

teeth

at an angle corner a new

which

teeth work

to abruptly ~radually.

instead blade

of entering

to finish

a cut.

reversed clip not

in frame. on same side of frame. clips.

pins,not hard up

against

blade

Too .many st rakes Not Not ralieving sawing the

per IIi nute. pressure enough on the hacksaw the work on the return stroke. (This

c lose

to where

is clamped

in vyce

causes Not off

chattering). the blade from the pressure nor supporting the the cut. material belng cut

relieving when the away

is almost lhe job part

through

Looking Not

while

hacksawing. frame in correct manner.

holding

front

of hacksaw

DRILLS

Drills either

are

used

in many portable

engineering units, bench

processes, drills,

holes automatic

being

drtlled etc.

by hand

machines,

Page

16

HAND

TOOLS

Do

not confuse hole.

drilling

with

bOring.

Boring a single

is the point

operation tool.

of widen-

i~qa

usually

perfor d with

boring

Drilling ing buried

i. a continuous in the work

operation. at all tiles.

the cutting considerable

edges heat

of the drill being

be-

generated.

The

cuttings

or chips

do not

readily

escape

frol

the

surface

being

cut.

It is apparent, eration requiring

therefore, correct

that speeds,

the

process

of drilling and

is a severt

op-

fe.ds,

cooling

lubricati,n.

Although today but

.any

types

of drill Drill.

hlye

betn are

used.

the

type

lOst of

co only this

used

is the Twist

There

special all the

variations cOllon twist

ori ll, used on

the followfng (See

defiiiitions Page

coyer 18).

drills

metal.

illustratioh

FLUTES

There

are

several

purposes

served

by

the flutes:

a.

To

help

fOri

the

cutting

lips on the

cone

shaped

point.

b.

To

curl

the

chips

into tight

spirals

of linilU.

dia ter.

c.

To form

channels

to carry

swarf.

d.

To

allow

lubricant

to

get to

the

cutting

lips .

e.

To form angle

the

cutting to

lip into

a straight

line when

the included

is ground

1180

relNT
The entire cone shaped surface that supports cutting lip.

DEAD

CENTRE

Sharp

edge

at extreme

end

of drill, Length

'dead'

refers Thickness

to the centre's of Web.

in-

abi lity to do useful

cutti ng.

Page

17

 CO .....

-u

.;

vvi
BODY FLUTE LENGTti

OVERALL LENGTH SHANK

~
....

"

tI)

rrr=::c
,...,

::c

Zm

:;;)(
CHISEL EDGE ,,/ ~CORNER LIP ./ - CLEARANCE ANGLE

a,..

.%

,..

,..

~\
V
FLANK BODY CLEARANCE DIAMETER (._~/ ".{ oG.f. ~"'GLE
I

:z o 3: ,..., z: n

-: c

~ ~

. v',t
WEB

-1._ ...

V'THICKNESS
j

..

DIAMETER ~

HAND

TOCLS

HEEL

Po.rtion of the clearance,

point

which

supports

cutting

lips.

It is ground being

to give

which

is dependent

on the type

of material

drilLed.

This

cLearance

lUst

be accurate

otherwise:

a.

The drill

will

not

cut

(insufficient

cLearance).

b.

If too much the cutting away.

clearance Lip which

is provided, weakens

there

is insufficient either

support or

for

it, and

it .iLL

break

chip

c.

The

drill

.ilL

tend

to dig

into

the materiaL

being

driLLed.

LIPS

tCutting

Lips)

Front

fOl'1lled y flute, b

back

formed

by heels.

lAND

OR

MARGIN

Raised across

portion the

on the

periphery.

The

size

of the

driLL

is leasured

~~~~s.

BODY

The

useful

Length

of the

drilL

Trom

where

the flute

is of sufficient

~epth,

t~ ~he start

of the

point.

ilEQ

The metal walL hence a longer

separating the fLutes. 'dead centre'.

It is thicker

towards

the shank.

BODY

CLEARANCE

The

portion

of

the

drill

to the

rear of the

land or largin.

'age

19

LONGITUDINAL CLEARANCE

Drill diameters decrease 0.0005' per incn towards shank.

THE SHANK

Three types - straight, morse taper and square taper shank. portion of the drill that is not fluted.

It is the

TANG

Flat narrow end of a morse taper shank, which prevents slip under severe conditions.

THE THREE O~ FOUR FLUTE DRILL

These types of twist drills are often used as a roughing reamer. truer hole.

The

added number of lands gi~e greater support to the drill, therefore, a

DRILL ANGLES

'Included Lip Angle' for general work should be 118 but this varies for different lIaterial, i.e. 1400 for hard steel, 900 for therllOsetting plastic (Bakelite'.

'Web Angle' should be 130. 'Lip Clearance Angle' should not exceed 12. 'Rake or Helix Angl~n, which is built into the drill, is approx. 20.

An incorrectly sharpened drill can drill a hole larger than the diameter of the drill, thus rendering a co.ponent unserviceable.

CUTTING SPEED

This is the rate at which a point on the periphery of the drill travels. It is expressed in feet'per .inute.

20

HAtfl

TOOlS

A drill with a large diater will have a higher peripheral speed than .one with a Slall diameter. if both are travelling at the sale R.P.H. 'Hence the larger drill is driven sloller than the s.all one. Exa.ples of peripheral speeds are:

HATERIAL

FEET PER HIHUTE

Steel 60 T.P.S.I.

30
80-100

Steel up to 40 T.P.S.I. Soft Cast Iron

100 200

Brass Hard Copper Bakelite

150 70
80

An exa.ple calculation for a half-inch drill in .ild steel is: Ft,!Hin, x 12 80 x 12 x 7 x 2

R.P. H..
FEED

018. x

"A"

22 xl

611 R.P.H.

This is the distance which the dritl advances into the .aterial each revolution of the dri ll. The feed is measured in fractions of an inch~

Feed is very variable.

depending upon the type of .aterial. coolant. In general, the best feed is

cutting lubricant and required finish,

that which enables lOst .aterial to be reloved without excessive heating,

COOLANTS AND LUBRICANTS

4s heat is generated by the cutting of the .etal, so.e fOri of coolant

Page 21

and

lubricant cutting

lUst

be used.

Typical

materials

used

are .achine

oiL

and

soluble

fluid.

PILOT

HOLfS

rhese ~ork hole

are small for the

hoLes

drilled

to guide

a larger

drill

and to

lessen

the

larger

drill.

It is extremely in the correct cannot of the larger

i.portant .arked out

to drill position by the

the pilot as any Larger

so that

it is exactly of the

positional drill

error

pilot

drill

be corrected pilot dri Lt. hole

itself.

The of

minimu. the web

diameter of the

should

be a\>prt'll

lIately the width

DRAVING

BACK

A DRill

CENTRE

If a drill to wander, position. on the side

centre it may This

has be

not drawn by

been back

accurately a li.ited

placed, distance with

or has

been

aLLowed

towards a round

its correct

is done hole

cutting

a channel

p054

chisel the

of the

towards

which

it is required

to re-position

dri Lt.

This has

correcting reached

operation

should

be acco.plished

well

before

the drill

its full

diameter.

HOll.ever, if sufficient drit l, thi s shou ld not

care be

is laken

when

marking

out

and using",the

necessary.

DRILL

SHARPENING

It is a reasonably edges shops of a drill however, on

.imple

operation grinding

to sharpen machine. may

or

re-grind

the cutting work-

a drill

In many not

engineering

a drill

sharpening

machine

be available.

, Therefore of

it is essentfa-l that

fer

the

student to

to master

one

of the 'arts' a drill by

engineering, hand

is, to be able

efficiently

sharpen

free

grinding.

This

'art'

is not

mastered

in the space

of

a few

hours,

but by constant a drill

practice cut

and

a thorough

knowledge

of what

is required

to .aka

correct

ly.

Page 22

HAND TOOLS I.poriant points to re.e.ber when sharpening a drill are:

a. b. c.

The Th. The

conicil point shouJd be included angle 118 lip clearance angle

sy etrical.

120

SAFETY

PRECAUTIONS

The

following

pJints

.ust

be observed

Ihen

drilling.

a. b. c. d.

Never Hev.r Allays Never alls.

re~ve leave wear wear etc.

swarl the eye loose

by hand key

- it is very in the chuck. - your such as gight loose

sharp.

chuck

protection clothing.

is precious. sleeves. unbuttoned over-

e.

Before ively

starting held

a drilling

operation

ensure drill

that

the work

is effectinjury strictly

in a vyce can

or clamped

to the

tabl

Serious is "ot

to the hand observed. f. Ensure breaking g. Hik. sure that

be caused

if this

safety

precaution

the drill

.ill

not da.age

the drill

table

or yce

wh.n

through. all guards are in place before starting the drilling

lachine. h.

i.

Check Do

drill

size the

and condition drill or

before

securing until

in chuck. hasco.e to

not handle

the chuck

the spindle

a co.pl.te

halt.

INTRODUCTION

In filing. , fill

a great flat.

deal The

of

practice is one

is required of the ~st

before

the beginner used for

can

th"lork

file know

cOllonly use

engineer's at

tools. hand

therefore. and

he lUst

the correct and size.

files~to

the job

as they vary

in shape

it is essential

that

he poss-

e s a thorough

lorking

knolledge

of the tools.

Files ground

are lad.

frol

high-grade hard.ned

crucible

cast

steel. tllper.d.

forged

to shape.

and cut. th.n

and carefully

Page

23

PARTS OF A FILE

a.

Tang - the tang on which a handle should always be fitted, is not hardened and therefore less liable to break .hen heavy pressure is used on the file.

b.

Heel - that portion immediately following the tang before the teeth commence.

c.

Faces - the two broad surfaces on .hich the teeth are cUt.

d.

Edges - the two narrow surfaces on "which teeth mayor cut according to the type of file. "Back - the convex side of a half-round file.

may not be

e.

f.

Safe-edge - the edge of a file on which no teeth are cut, to allol a corner to be cLeaned out, without damage to adjacent faces.

9.

The Point - the extreme opposite end to the tang.

,
CUT of the given file.

FILE NOMENCLATURE

There are three standard cuts in regular use, namely, Bastard, ~econd Cu't and Smooth, these terms refer to the relative coarseness or fineness In a ~articular file, for instance a 101 FLat file, Bastard would be the coarsest, Smooth would be the finest, and Second

Page 24

Cut lould be in between the two. Ihich ia ev.n fin.r than SlOoth.

Filea are sOleti s lad. -De.d SIOQth', In th.se pag.s the t'rlS single-cut These ref.r to the way in Ihfch only one s.t of cuts,

and double-cut lill be encountered.

the files are lade, ,the iingle-eut fil.having

while the doubL8-eut ffl. has tlO aet. of cuta, on. at an angle to the other.

In addition, there is a ffle referr.d to a. IUlti-eut, having lOre than two .ets of'cut

TYPES OF FILES

Th. commondesGtiption

of a file is usually d.rived .ith.r fro. the

lIlape, as is the case Ifth Round, Squar., Half.Round, Flat, or frol the type of work on which it fa 'Iployed, a. Mfllsaw, Cantsal, Warding. cOllon types. of fi~s a. and their u.e. are I' follols: Th.

Flat - The Flat file i. on. of the lost cOlmonly used files, and has I wid. application on all classes of .etal work. and edg... Made only in double cut. Th. ffl. is .lightly tapered in width and thickness and is cut on both sides

b.

Hand - Hand files are not as widely uaed as Flat files but are ,ert" useful in certain Ipplications. They have the sal' nulber of teeth to the inch as Flat files of the Slle length and cut, but differ in that they are parallel in width, and taper only in thickness. Th.se files are cut on one edge only, the other .dge being uncut or 'slfe', as it is usually cill.d. double cut only. This allows the file to be'used Mad. in und.r circulstanc.s wh.re a cut edge would dalage the work.

c.

Half Round Fil.s - The Half Round Fil. is lore versatile thin the Flat file, as can b. used to file not only flat surfac.s, but

it

concave surfac.s. -On concave surfac.s, the file is used with a rolling lotfon to prev.nt grooving the work.

d.

Thre. Squire - The Thr.e Squire file ia lilfted in us. t8 triangular and ,ee shapes. Its aection fs equilateral, havfng a 60 includ.d angle. cut. It is lad. in bastard, second cut and SIOoth, and is double '

'Ig.

2S

e.

Round - The Round filelis extensively used for the opening up of holes. It is also valuable for, filing concave surfaces. like ~he

half-round file. 'it should be used with a turning motion to prevent grooving the work.

f. Warding - The Warding file was originally designed for the locksmith.
who finds it very valuable for the filing of nards of locks and keys. Its use has extended ~',work where a thin section file with a point sharply tapered in width can be used.

g.

Square - The Square file is used to square holes and corners.

The

-----finer square files sometimes have'a safe edge.

h.

Millsaw - Millsaw Jiles

are regularly made singLe cut with t.o They are tapered They are aLso made in Blunt

square edges or one square and the other rounded. in width for one third of the Length.

(no taper), that is, paraLleL in width, and thickness. <.<

Flat R

r--=L,ngtll tlf" Fillt tllld WafOding

Fil.,

Wording I

;::::::::.

HtlAd

e:">I Half-/ttlllnd PillaI' c:&i"aNHllnd<->==find and HtllI"d

IC No r."I'

"" Warding Fi/,

Pill.,.
<:::::=-"'I1'lr

"I

_I

Mill Saw

?=_
r.::::-:..

I
SOME COMMON TYPES

OF FilES

Page 26

ART OF Fill

NG

The the of

art of filing quality a file of for the the

is one result job

of

the

lost

difficult

an

engineer The

perfonls

and

depends

on the

work.an.

proper

selection shapes. In prin-

on hand

requires and the

a knowledge type

of the to

various be filed. general

their order ciples

particular therefore. should be

application to obtain employed.

of material the

the

best

results.

following

Selection

of the

File

In most these

cases

the are

length dictated

and by

type the

of file shape

used

will

be

apparent, of the

as

factors

and

dimensions

work.

It

naturally the the cut of

follows

that

where will

space be done

permits with shou[d the be

the

maxilUm

amount

of work

with for the iour

minilum purpose. of the the

effort, Much file

largest shown

file in the only

available choice the of

care

however,

to be used,

as this but

influences also. the

not results

behav-

file

itself

in service,

obtained.

a.

Roughing most made

- Most

roughing job of size

out

work

is done The the teeth

with on

the bastard all bastard

cut files

file are

suited with

to the the

in hand. removing of the

object the

greatest" this and

amount file

of material. is therefore

consistent ideal where

with

fi le, and factor

speed

is the

important

not finish.

b.

Finishing but ond and which a high cut

- lihere onLy finish smooth commonly to

a small

amount the user

of material has the

is to

be removed seccut

is desired. files. used

choice

between than second have

and

Although for

smooth

is finer they

is more are

finishing

work, high

both

teeth

designed

leave a re-latively

finish.

c.

Material influence usually surfaces biting useless enough can be

- At the require are into on

times choice

the

type

of materiaL Brass keen and

to be filed reLated

will

strongLy

of cut.

alloys

of copper when the flat file

a fairly be filed) work.

coarse as the this

file,

(especiaLly is to keep file wi

to the

difficulty reason its Perhaps of the

For

a worn teeth the edges

these

materials. the

because

II

will

be found

not be keen severe duty which or be fil~~ the

to dig given

into a file

material. fil iog

lost of

is the

thin

sheets never the

removal used for

of burrs this

on hard

material. teeth

A coarse will chip

file and

should thus

purpose

as the

ruin

Page

27

A smooth or slOoth a good

file

or

a single be the is:

cut

file

such

as t~e millsaw this purpose.

in second Simply

cut stated.

would

best

selection

for

wor!<ing

rule

The harder

the

material,

the

finer

the

filel

SUMMARY

a.

Select

the .;lOstsuitable

file

in s~ape,

she

and cut.

b.

Maintain new file

sufficient and more

pressure

to keep

the file

cutting

- less for.

as it becomes

dulled.

c.

Test

your

work

frequently.

d.

Clean

surface

of

the work

to be filed.

e.

Take

good

care

of your

files,

do

not

abuse

them

- th'., lre cutting

tools.

f.

Do

not

use

a file

with

a badly-fitting

or

split

handle.

g.

Clean

the

files

regularly fi lee

to re.ove

filings

fro.

the teeth;

a dirty

fi le is a dull

TAPS

AND

DIES

Thread by the

cutting use

by hand,

both

externally cutting

and

internally,

is carried

out

of multi-toothed

tools.

The

tools

used

to cut

external

threads Those being

are tools

called used

Threading to cut

Dies

and the threads forming be-

process ,are

is known Taps,

as Screwing. this process to

internal thread of

called

called threads,

Tapping. other

Hand types

is generally ing machine

restricted formed.

UVI fo~m

threads

Hand the of

taps size.

are manufactured A square

with

three, on the

four drive

or .are e~~

flutes,

depending the use

on

is machined

to facilitate.

a tap wrench.

Page 28

HAND TOOLS

OVERALL LENGTH INTERNAL CENTRE LENGTH OF THREAD LENGTH OF SHANK

.z-f ~-. '. f' C TI~ EXTERNAL:!

~I ///
~.J:
C~;;I
::lllI::lllI

CENTRE :;; -f

~ QI

SHANK DIA.

TAP

NOMENCLATURE

The Taper Tap - is tapered from the lead end for about ~ threads which allows ease of entry and starting when tapping. On starting, the taper gives a lead of cut so that a full thread depth ~ill not be cut.

_i.i.
TAPER TAP INTERMEDIATE TAP

The Intermediate Tap - is tapered from the lead end for about 3 - 5 threads, al~owing a lead into the thread made by the taper tap and also , dispensing with the use of the bottoming tap on metal with a thickness
1113

to

1 inch.

Page 29

The

Plug

Tap

- is tapered

for

about or

one

thread

and

is used where

as a finisha taper ,ill

ing tap when tapping not gi'ge a fu

II

blind

holes,

thick

.aterial

thread.

PLUG

TAP

Sets

of

taps

are

available

for

all British,

Am~rican

and Metric

'V'

threads.

TAP \iRENCHES

Two

lOst

co on wrenches

are:

a. b.

Tee

bar

adjustable flat

tap

wrench.

Adjustable

tap wrench.

TAPPING

HOLE

SIZES

General the

practice dia.eter

is to dri of the

II

the hole

for

tapping

slightly

larger

than

.inor

thread.

Reasons

for

this

are

as follows:

a.

In tough cut tends

.aterials to build

such

as steel, the

brass crest

and of

copper, the thread

the tal when

bein!

up towards

tapping,

"

b.

Full

depth at

threads the

in brittle

.aterials

(e.g.

cast

iron)

.ill

crulble

crest;

c.

A great freezing,

load

is trans.itted coutd easily

through result

the

shank

of

the

tap

and cause

which

in breakage

of the

tap.

The

depth

of

the

hole

for

a blind

thread

is

i'

to

tl

deeper

than .

the

required

length.

Page 39

HAND

THREADING

DIES

The

threading

die

is used for

producin~

an ext~rnaL

thread

(bolt

or

stud).

The

die

is heLd

in a tool actioo.

caLled

a die

stock,

to which

force

is applied,

creating

a cutting

The leading edge of the die has three tapered when cutting. The other side is beveLLed off thread to be cut up tc a shoulder

threags, which fori a lead at 45 to permit a full

or bolt head.

TYPES

OF DIES

Three

types

are

in gener~L

use.

a.

The Divided Disc Adjustable Die - this is made in two h:lves and fitted to a guide pLate by screws to provide squareness and adjustlent for depth Die of cut. - a one-piece die, split on one side, of cut. This die is operated a thread by and adjusted

b.

The Button by means

of a countersunk - usually They been

screw

for

depth

c.

The

Die Nut

hexagonal

in shape.

a spanner. has already

are usually cut

used

only for cleaning which has been

which

or a thread

damaged.

DIE

STOCKS

there a. 'b.

are

two types Type

of

stock

in general

use.

Split One

Stock. Screw Lock Type.

Piece

"
IHTRODUC T HlN

CHISELS

Many the

types

of chisels

are used

by the

engineer.

Their

lain uses and cuttin?

include light

processing

of materials

by hand

dressing

castings

.stock

maleriaL. .

Page

32

HAl) TOOLS

Chisel. are .ade fr~. are forged and shaped

IS

either octagonal required.

or oval

section

tool

steel

and

After

forging. type

they

are

hardened After

and heat

te.pared

to the they

require-ents .hould .aintain

of the

particular

of steel.

treat.ent.

withstand their

the i.pact of cutting edge.

a blow

delivered

by a ha er and still

OlTTlNG

ANGLES

These angles will d'PBnd gn the .ateriaA too~' worked. but tor ,ild steel the angle i. (Bras. 50 o Cast Iron 70 . good general cuttfng angle for all work fs 60 _

60 -70

t.

-60

-80).

--

Head-

--

Stock

Cutttng Edge~ ~ CHISEL

Cutting

/~'uo"~

Angle

NOMENCLATURE

COPf1ON

SHAPES

Ciliaels .ost

often

used

by the engineer

are:

Ie
b. c. d.

The flat Th. The The cross round

chi sel. cut. nose. point chisel.

dia.ond

Page

~3

The Flat Chisel

Most edge

commonly is ground

used

for chipping. convex

If used on hard metals to prevent chipping

the cut",o.

slightly

of .the corners. 1 fncr.

Length

of the flat

chisel

is normally

B inches

and the .idth

<
0....:==:::::1}
The Cross Cut

}J

Used

when

cutting

keyways

1n shafts,

gears

and pulley,

and alao for have a cl.arince

cutting grooves angle of about

In wide surfaces.

to prevent

This chisel should jam.ing when in use.

c
The Round Nose When oil grooves of are ined because the round position chisel. nose

a:::-:J
.::=1J
in .acMntd bearings and cannot be .aehthe grooves should required or inaccessibility, This type of chis.l

.IY be cut .ith

a clearance

also have

angle

to prevent

ja ing.

Page

HAND

TOOLS

Th~ Dialond

Point

Chisel

Used .etal ation

for thinning plate

letal,

e.g.

cutting

grooves off. out

in

large

dia t.r used

pipe o~

to enable for

~he.

to be brok.n and chipping

It is also of faulty

in prepa~

of parts

welding,'

welds.

<
CLASSIFICATION OF CHISELS

Chisels

are classified

by type,

.idth

and shape.

pRE

OF CHISELS

Chisel

Head

After used

constant .hen

use,

the head

of the

chisel

.ill

become

IUshroo.ed. of metal injury back lay

If be

in this by the

condition impact mu,t

it is dangerous,

as chips cause

dislodged user.

of the hailer be removed

and could

to the to its

Mushrooming

by grinding .

the head

norla l shape.

Cutting

Edge

The

cutting

edge and

should make

be kept the job

in good condition. time shorter.

This

.ill 'produce

better,finish

Grinding

Points

to relember:

Do not apply

too

much

pressure.

Do

not hold

on

the .heel the temper,

long enough

to generate

too much

heat,

as

'!,is .iLL

draw

and the chisel

IIiLL not hold

an edg~.

Page

3S

c.

00 not use

the side

of the

wheel.

d.

Position

accurately

en the wheel

to obtain

the correct

cutting

anQle.

TOOL SELECTION

a.

Select

a chisel

suitable

for

the work

to be done.

b.

Check

the cutting

edge

for correct

angle

and keen

edges.

c.

Select

a ha.lIler suitable

for

the~hisel

to be used.

PRECAUTI ONS

a.

Do

not attempt

to hold

the hammer

or chisel

with

greasy

hands.

b.

A chisel

with

a burred

~ead

shouLd

not be used.

c.

Whenever cMps.

practi cable

wear

gogg les, to protect

eyes frol

flying

d.

Keep

the

cuttin9

edge

of the

chisel

sharp.

e.

Grip

the job

securely

in the vyce.

f.

Use

the

chisel

In I" direction

.away frol

othelt workers,

or

provide

a protecting

screen.

SCRAPERS

(Scrapers

are used

when

fitting

flat

or curved

surfaces

to each

other

and

aho to finish surfaces of accuracy can off flat or curved using the be obtained when viewing closing the ways the grain of a lathe, of metals .illing after

true to .s ca~ be seen when scraper fo,...~ A high degree etc. giving Scrapin~ better assists durability. in

machine,

.achining,

When the

orna.ental

effects

are

required

on highly

finished

lachine

parts,

art of scraping

is 8IIployed.

Page

36

HAND

TOO

Scrapers fittfd shape

are hand to files.

tools Tool

fitted steelis end

with

wooden

handles

similar

to those forged to

usedto

.ake

scrapers, the handle.

being

with

a tang

on one

to acco odate

Th. flat scraper is drawn down 1/16th of an inch in thickness.

at the working

end

to not

.ore

than

SCRAPER

NOMENCLATURE

HEAT

TREATMENT

As the scraper is not subjected to shocks the cutting edge after hardening.

it is not

necessary

to te.per

CLASSIFICATIONS

The

different

types

of scrapers

are

as follows:

a.

Flat. Round. Three Square. Bull Half Nose.

b. d. c.

Page

'57

USES

The Flat tested

Scraper

is used

to scrape plate

flat

surfac.s,

the surfaces to which they

being are to

by leans

of a surface

or the surfac.

be fitted.

The

flat

scraper convex

has

a convex

cutting This edge

edge, enables only.

and

in cress

section .hen

is to

slightly cut

on both faces. of the cutting

the scrap.r,

used,

in the c.ntre

FLA T SCRAPER

Th. Half bearings. the

Round The

Scraper accuracy

is used

when

scraping surface round

curved

surfac.s

such as

of a curved to it.

is deterlined scrapers

by fitting

spindle

or cOlponent

Half The

.ay be either used .h.n ICra,.

straight ing large

or curved bearings.

in section.

straight

is .ostly

HALF ROUND SCRAPER

Jhe the type

Three

Square being

Scraper

is also used .hen

on curved corners sharp

surfac.s, are

the point of This the

scraper

convenient

!harp

required.

of scraper dia.eter

.ay "also be used of tubing.

to reDDve

edges

and sharpen

inside

THREE SQUARE SCRAPER

Page 38

H~rjl) TOotS

~LL

Nose

Scraper

is used

~7hen scraping

large bearing

halves.

3. "9

round~t the cutting edge or ha lf round scraper.

this scraper

may be used .

in action

as a fla~

BUll-NOSE

SCRAPER

THE

~RT OF SCRAPING

Scraping is used when fine metal is to' be removed.

fits are

required

and only

a small

amount

of

To produce quired. scraper

good work

with

the scraper,

a great

deal

of p~~ctice

is rethe

The lUst

illportant point to. reme.ber be held correctly.

is that

to obtain

results,

~lARKING HEOlll1

The marking lead.

.edlum

to be used

.ay be Prussian

Blue,

Indian

Red or Red

SURFACE

PLATES

After

applying should

a very

thin

layer of aarkin9

medium of

to the

surface

plate, ,s

the job possible.

be placed

as close

to the centre should occur.

the surface

plate

flo overhang

of the job

The .arking high spots

medium

transferred

fro.

plate

to job will

illustrate

the

on the job.'

CARE

OF SCRAPERS

a.

Scrapers

should

be protected

o.

the cutting

edge

to prevent

damage.

Page 39

b.

Store

a,,~y from

other

tools.

c.

Never allow conditi on.

the

scraper

to beco.e

too

dull.

Keep

sharp

and in good

d.

Be

sure

handles

are

in good

condition

and

tightly

fitted.

REAMERS

DEFI

NI TI ON

A rea.er

is a circular

ultiple-tooth

cutting

tool

used

primarily

for:

a.

Re.aving

s.all

quantities

of metal.

b.

Enlarging

or finishing

holes

to accurate

dimensions.

c.

Giving

a smooth. bolts,

internal taper

surface etc.

necessary

for

accurate

fitting

of

spindles.

pins,

To

acco.plish

this,

rea,ers and

are made accurately

fro.

tool

steel ,They

(normally are made

highto produce De-

speed

steeLl.. hardened or upon tapered their

ground.

parallel pendent

holes design

from they

previously can

dri LLed or bored by hand'or

holes. ~achine.

be operated

DESCRIPTION

AND FUNCTIONS

Basically. driving parallel the

a rea.er reamer;

comprises ihe.shank end

a series may

of cutting for

edges use

and

a .shank for or

be tapered use.

in machines

.ith

a square~

for

hand

Between

the

shan~

and

the cutting this

edg's,

the

reamer

is undercut The

to that

facilitate contains

its manufacture; the cutting edges

is called the

the Recess. of the

part

is called

Body

reamer.

A seriet ber

of straight

or helical

"flutes The

is cut flutes

in the~body. provide and allow the

their cutting

num-

depending of the

on"design reamer.

and usage. removal

edges to

permit edges.

of chips

cutting

fluid

reach

the cutting

Page

40

HAND TOllS

The flutes means

are cut

off centrel generally edges edges

about

2 to 3 degrees. therefore

This no

no t.o cutting cutting

are diametrically take the full lork

opposite.

two opposite

lead and th,

risk of

Ichatteringl is lessened.

PARALLEL

HAND

REAMERS

These

reamers

have

virtually

parallel

cutting

edges,

with

a square

on

the end.

The

parallel

hand

reamer

is used

to accurately

finish

and size

through

parallel

hol.s.

They

are supplied oth.rwise feeding made

for

right-hand The

rotation left-hand

with helical

left-hand flutes

helical prevent

flutes, the if the

unless

ordered. itself

tool from spiral was

into the work,

as would

be the tendency

right-hand

.5121

q SqlJ,,"e 71

0)'

,
The realer reamer

PARALLEL

HAllD

REAMER,

R/H

ROTATION

WITH

L/H

HELICAL

FLUTES

diameter - this

of

the shank the

is smaller realer

than

the

nominal

diameter

of the

allows

to pass

completely

through

the hole.

To facilitate has

reasonable

entry on

into

the drilled

hole, The

the

point

of the

a bevel

machined

its circumference.

reamer

is also

Page 41

kapertd

back

fro.

the

.nd of the bev.l to 0.004 inch

towards per

the shank. l.ngth.

Th. back This .eans

:taper is g.n.rally

0.002

inch of shank

,the rea r is Slaller Secause of this, of the the

in diauter dia.eter lead.

near the

than

at the just

point. pr!or to it

of the rea.er The back taper

is .easured on a rea.er

the start

taper

prevents

trot binding

in the hol~

or .arring

the finish

of the hole.

PARALLEL

MACHINE

REAMERS

A parallel .achine rea.er has virtually parallel cuttin~ edges, with bevel l.sd integral with the taper shank for holding and driving.

~.".,. " "

/~

\-~,al,"/~""'--P:;: ~
[,
PARALLEL MACHINE

I=9
REAMER, R/H ROTATION WITH L/H HELICAL FLUTES

The

parallel

Machine size

rea.er and finish

is used

in drilling drilled,

.achines, bored

lathes,

etc., holes.

to accurately

previously

or cored

TAPER

PIN REAMERS

These end)

rellers

have

taper

cutting for holes

edges

and

parallel pins .ith

(.ith

square of

or tapered

shanks,

to suit

a taper

on the inch

per foot

(, in 48) on dia.eter.

Taper

pin rea.ers

are used

to produc.

tapered

holes'for

standard

taper

pi

ns.

Pag.42

HA ~O i TO(l,S

---~--~~~

---

-FOR TAPER

--.-

-~ - USE

- -

--. -

..... -

-~

FOR

HAND

-------------MACHINE USE PIH REAMERS

----bLades c;rried body and in

EXPANDING

REAMERS

T~e

expanding

reamer

consists

of five

or more cutting cut

a collar locked

and mounted

in tapered by t~o

grooves

in the threaded oy adjusting can Je vari~d

into position

threaded

collars. edges

the threadover a cer-

ed coLLars

the diam~+er range. 13/32 For

of the cutting example,

tairt limited a range from range from

a small

reamer

of tnis type may have one may cover the

r

inch to 15/32

inch, lIhile a larger

31/32

inch to

1i

inch.

3ee

ilLustration

on Page 44.

Expanding greatest

reamers use

are used

in generaL

engineering

work

and find their They can'

"311I

in repair size

shops

and automotive

and accurately such items

any hol,: from tie rods,

engineering.

inch to 3.11/32 rods,

inch diameter, bushes, etc.

if'

as shackles,

connecting

GF.rJEP.n

REQL..I1REf1EiHS FOR RUtlING

Cutting

lubricants

for

reamers:

IH Ld Steel,',:rought ~4hite Metal 30ft Cast

Iran and TooL Steel, u~ a mixture

use

lard or oil. water and oil.

or Copper,

of soapy

Iron or 3rass,

no lubrication

required.

The

minilllum a.ount

of metal,

consistent

with

bringing

the hoLe to size not be edges

and finish, turned

is to be removed

by a reamer. couLd

The

realllershouLd

anti-cLock~ise,

as the swarf

damage

both the cutting

and the ho Le surf half the driLLing

aces.

Cutti ng speeds

for machi ne reamers

are about

soeeds.

Fage

43

THE EXPANDING

REAMER