Chapter 5 - Cells: Working Units of Life I. A. Cell: Fundamental Unit of Life The cell theory states that: 1.

Cells are the fundamental units of life. 2. All organisms are composed of cells. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. Cell size 1. Sizes range from 1 cubic micron to ostrich egg. 2. Limited by the surface area-to-volume ratio. a. The surface of a cell - what interfaces with the environment. b. As volume increases, metabolic demands increase, but the surface area doesnt increase at the same rate. c. For any given shape, increasing volume decreases the surface area-to-volume ratio. Microscopes needed to see most cells biology uses 1. Light microscopes glass lenses, visible light, resolution = 1000 human eye 2. Electron microscopes - electro magnets and electron beams, must be sent to a photoactive medium, resolution = 1 million times that of the human eye. 3. Magnification apparent increase in size; resolution sharpness. Plasma membrane phospholipid bilayers [review in Ch. 3] 1. Is a selectively permeable barrier. 2. Receives information from outside. 3. Maintains a constant internal environment [homeostasis]. 4. Molecules that bind and adhere to adjacent cells. Cells show organizational patterns 1. Prokaryotes - no nucleus or other membrane-enclosed compartments; lack distinct organelles. 2. Eukaryotes - have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other compartments or organelles. The membranes of the organelles resemble the plasma membrane.

B.

C.

D.

E.

II.

Prokaryotic cells inhabit widest range of environmental extremes; found in hot springs, salty water & ice; smaller than eukaryotes usually [110micron length]. A. Common features: 1. A plasma membrane. 2. A nucleoid region where the DNA is concentrated. 3. Cytoplasm that consists of the nucleoid, ribosomes, & a liquid portion [cytosol]. B. Specialized features 1. Cell wall [peptidoglycan in bacteria] 2. Capsule polysaccharide outside of CW 3. Internal membranes for specialized energy-related functions 1 of 4

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photosynthesis, etc. 4. Flagella and pili flagella turn like rotors and provide motion, pili help with adherence. 5. Cytoskeleton some [esp. bacilli] have material similar to actin. III. Eukaryotic cells A. Compartmentalization of cell 1. Key to eukaryotic cell function. 2. Each compartment has a specific role defined by chemical processes. 3. Membrane bound B. Organelles that process information 1. Ribosomes - Site of protein synthesis in cytoplasm free or attached to RER, and inside mitochondria & chloroplasts. a. In both pro- and eukaryotic cells have 2 subunits. b. composed of rRNA + protein molecules 2. Nucleus contains most of the genetic information a. Site of DNA replication b. Plays role in control of cell activities through regulation of gene transcription. c. Contains nucleolus, a region where ribosomes are assembled. d. Surrounded by nuclear envelope [2 membranes], perforated with nuclear pores. Some material passes through by diffusion. Others require nuclear localization signals [amino acid sequence tags]. e. Chromatin [ DNA + proteins] condenses into structures called chromosomes. f. Nucleoplasm surrounds the chromatin. g. Nuclear lamina, maintains shape, attached to chromosomes C. Endomembrane system interconnected membranes 1. Two components a. Endoplasmic reticulum - network of interconnecting membranes forming tubes, sacs, etc. b. Golgi apparatus 2. Rough ER (RER) a. Has ribosomes attached for synthesis of proteins for export or membrane incorporation. b. Segregates proteins & does some chemical modification [fold, add sugar, form bridges, etc.]. Packages products for cellular destinations 3. Smooth ER a. Ribosome free b. Modifies proteins made in the RER. c. Modifies molecules taken in by the cell. d. Site of hydrolysis of glycogen in animals cells.

e. Site of lipid & steroid synthesis. f. Calcium storage in many cells. 4. Golgi apparatus a. Flattened membranous sacs (cisternae) & small membraneenclosed vesicles. b. Receives proteins from ER enclosed in membrane vesicles and further modifies. c. Concentrates, packages, and sorts proteins before they are sent to their destinations. d. Makes some polysaccharides for plant cell walls. e. 3 parts of cisternae cis, medial & trans from nucleus outward. 5. Lysosomes a. Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi. b. Sites for breakdown of materials brought into the cell by phagocytosis. c. Autophagy digest own structures d. Isolate digestive enzymes from the cytoplasm e. Not in plants. D. Organelles that process energy mitochondria & chloroplasts 1. Mitochondria a. Convert potential chemical energy into form that the cell can use (ATP). (Cellular respiration) b. Double membrane inner is folded giving cristae that protrude into interior matrix. c. Can divide autonomously 2. Plastids plants can divide autonomously, includes chloroplasts & others 3. Chloroplast a. Site of photosynthesis b. Have chlorophyll in thylakoids in grana stacks [does light trapping]within interior stroma [does carbohydrate production] E. Other organelles 1. Peroxisomes Collect, wall off and break down toxic peroxides 2. Glyoxysomes only in plants - Convert stored lipids to CBHs. 3. Vacuoles a. Found in plants and protists b. Functions: i. Storage ii. Structure - turgor iii. Reproduction contain pigments in reproductive structures of flowering plants iv. Digestion v. Contractile vacuoles maintain water balance in Sadava 9th Ch. 5 3 of 4

freshwater protists F. The Cytoskeleton 1. Maintains cell shape and support. 2. Provides mechanisms for cell movement. 3. Positions organelles within cell 4. Form tracks for motor proteins that move materials in cells. 5. Interacts with extracellular structures to anchor cell in place. 6. Microfilaments help with movement [amoeboid, streaming, etc.] ; stabilize cell shape ; actin-based [e.g., skeletal muscle filaments for contraction] 7. Intermediate filaments 50+ kinds ; fibrous protein of keratin family ; stabilize cell structure, organize organelles. 8. Microtubules made of tubulin ; rigid cylinders ; frameworks for motor proteins ; molecules can be rapidly added or removed to change length ; essential for chromosome alignment in cell division. a. Cilia provide coordinated beating movement. b. Flagella undulate ; usually single or in pairs ; both cilia & flagella have 9 + 2 arrays of microtubules ; both also have basal bodies to attach microtubules. c. Centrioles cell division in all but plants & some protists ; 9 sets of 3 tubules. d. Motor Proteins move things by undergoing reversible shape changes ; dynein moves them in cilia & flagella ; Kinesin walks packages from one site to another IV. Extracellular structures A. Plant cell wall 1. Made of cellulose fibers embedded in polysaccharide & protein containing material 2. Provides rigid structure + limits volume prevents over filling with water. 3. Barrier to disease causing organisms 4. Cells are interconnected through gap junctions = plasmadesmata. B. Extracellular matrix animals. Mainly collagen + proteoglycans [glycoproteins] + linking proteins. 1. Holds cells together 2. Contributes to properties of connective tissues. 3. Filter 4. Orients cell movements during development and repair 5. Chemical signaling among cells. V. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells A. Believed that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes. Similar biochemistry, same molecular genetic material. B. Endosymbiosis Theory some prokaryotic cells ingested others, benefitted from their presence and passed the offspring of the ingested

organism to their own offspring. C. Evidence DNA in chloroplasts and mitochondria similar to that found in free-living organism of similar structure & function.

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