Spinors in n Dimensions Author(s): Richard Brauer and Hermann Weyl Source: American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. 57, No.

2 (Apr., 1935), pp. 425-449 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2371218 . Accessed: 16/02/2011 06:19
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SPINORS IN n DIMENSIONS.
By
RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

Introduction and Summary. Let by, the group of orthogonal be transformations o: (I) xt~~X E o (ic) x,*
k=l n

(i

I,1~2, ..

n)

of the n-dimensional space, and b?n+ the subgroupof propertransformations, having determinant 1 and not - 1. We shall firstoperate withiii the + contiiiuumof all complexnumbers,whereasthe particularconditionsprevailing under restriction real variableswill be studiedonly at the end of to the paper (?? 8 and 10). A givenrepresentation o -> G(o) of degreeN P: definesa certainkind of "covariant quantities": a quantitycharacterized by N numbers a1, , aN relativeto an arbitrary Cartesiancoo6rdinate system in the underlying n-dimensional Euclidean space will be called a quamntity of k1ind provided components experience lineartransformation r, the aK the G(o) underthe influence the co,6rdinate of transformation The quantity called o. is primitiveif the representation irreducible. The propositionthat every is representation breaksup into irreducible parts, states that the most general kind of quantitiesis obtainedby juxtapositionof severalindependent primitive quantities. By a tensorof rcank we shall mean here what usually is called a skewf symmmetric tensor: a skew-symmetric function a(i1 if) of f indicesranging independently from1 to n whichtransforms accordingto the law
if)--) Y
n

kl,.

. ., kf = 1

o(i1k1) . . . o(ifkf) * a0i kr

uncder influence the rotationo. The tensorsof rank f formthe subthe of stratum a representation of degree ( ). of rf We oftenhave to distinguish betweeneven and odd dimensionality, and we shall accordingly put n = 2v or n 2v+ 1. Let us use the notation v <n> and in passing notice the congruence In (n 1) <n> (mod 2).

E. Cartan developeda generalmethodof constructing irreducible representationsof b.n (or anv other semi-simple group) by consideringthe in425

42 6

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND HERMANN

WEYL.

finitesinmal of operatiolns, alnd he foundl as the building stolnes the whole t edificethe tenasor represenatationistogether with one further double-vallued Pf worldthiskinid quanltities cometo its of has spim,ors. In the four-dimenasional due holnors Dirac's theory the spilnning by of electroln.Cartani, to accordling his stanadpoinit, for states the tranisformationi S(o) of spiniors law onaly the inafilnitesimal rotatiolns Here we shall give a simplefilnite o. of descriptionl the A alndshall derivefromit by the simplestalgebraicmealls the represenitationi mainiproperties the spilnors. Oniewill be able to judge by this theory of to what extelnt about spinaor recelnt ilnvestigationis calculus reveal those essenatial features that stayunichanaged higherdimenisiolns. for of Onae the chiefresults will be thatDirac's equatiolns the motioln alnelectroln the expression of of alnd forthe electriccurrenit ulniquely in are determilned eveln the case of arbitrary
dimelnsiolnality.
representation, A : o -> S(o)

2". The quanatitiesof kinadA are called of dlegr-ee

Our ilnvestigatioln be arralnged follows: we start (? 2) with a will as certaini associative algebraII of order22v whichprovesto be a complete matrix algebrain.2Pc alnd dimenisionas, leads to the desireddefilnitioll A (? 3). We of shall first get A as a collineationa such representatioln that onlly the ratios of the spinaor have comlponaelnts a mealning. In the case of eveln dimensionality it 2vwe shall prove (? 3) thatthe product X A of A bythe contragredient A A representatioln splitsup accordingto the equivalelnce:
AX
roF+Fr+Pr2

rn. *

whereasin the odd case

AXFro+r2?+F4+' + Eni

(? 5). The collineationa A representatioln can be normalized as to give an so orclilnary, though double-valued A represelntation satisfyinag equivalenace the A ~A (?? 4, 5). If olne restricts olneself the proper orthogonial to transin formations a space of eveni dimensionaality,splitsup into two representaA tionisA+ and A- each of degree 2'-1 (? 6). The four productsof the type A X :s will be determinied incdividually A Al or A-, ancdso will the for equivalencesof type A .- A. The trlansitioln from our finiteto Cartan's infilnitesimal description can be easily performed 7). In considerinag real (? transformations only,the differences the inertialindex lhaveto be taken of into account(? 8); it will be provedthat A is equivalentto A again-but for a sign the determiniation whichis of peculiar interestalndcloselyrelated of
=

t Bulletin Soci6te Math6matique de France, vol. 41 (1913), p. 53. Weyl, Mathematisehe Zeitschrift, vol. 24 (1926), p. 342.

also Coim1pare

SPINORS

IN

It DIMIENSIONS.

42 7

to the inertial index. IrreducibilityT and equivalence of the occurriingrepresentations will be ascertained in ? 9, and the relation to physics will be cliscussed in ? 10. In parts of the inavestigationa must have recourse to the we law of dualityT of tenasors anad tenasorrepresentations rf as formulated in the preliminary ? 1. The last sectiona (? 11) is devoted to the clemonastrationiof a well-knaowjifuinclanientalpropositioni conacerninig the automorphisnis of the coniplete matrix algebra, a propositioniinadispenisable the definitiollof A. for 1. Duality of tensors. rP is the representation of degree 1 of the full rotatioln group b,,associatilngthe signiature (o) withthe rotatiollo o (o) a + 1 for the proper, o-(o) 1 for the imiiproper rotatiolns. AnyT representation r : -> G (o) gives rise to another represelntation : o ar (o) G (o), coilto cidlingwith r ulnderrestrictioln b.1+.
The equation (2) * (ill. )
=

(l

. . . if)

in which i1 ifi'1 . i'f denotes anyT eveni perniutation of the figures from 1 to II, associates a telnsora* of rank ii - f with every telnsora of ralnkf. This relatioln is ilnvarialnt with respect to proper orthogolnaltralnsformatiolls. Thus the la,w of duality rF,f -rf prevails for the telnsorrepresentations rf of b,,+. Whelntakilngthe improper orthogorialtranisformatiolns ilntocolnsideratioln it is to be replaced by rt, r--"rf. .f
Ina the case of alnevelnniumber dimelnsiolns of it 2v', the represelntation, rF cleserves particular attelntion. It satisfies the equivalelnce -rv, rv. (2) or rather

(3)

a(il

ilv)

.l

.(

iv)

now establishes transformation-> , of the space of the tensorsof rank v a a itself. We added the factoril in order to make this transforniation upo,n
invTolutorial:
i*l i'vil 'v is an even perniutation, We may distinguish between positiveandl negativetensorsof rank v accordingas a*- a or a - a. Any tensorof rank v can be decomposed a unique mannerinto a positive in
-*

a; for if il iv i'l . iv has the character (- 1)".

a ancd negative part:

a, =-(

t( + a,* + -2

Hence, as a representationof the group b+2v, rv splits up into two representations rv+ + rv- of half the degree. H. 2. The algebrca

Our procedureis exactlythe same as followedby

428

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND HERMANN

WEYL.

Dirac in his classicalpaper on the spinning n electron.t We introduce quantities pi which turn the fundamentalquadratic form into the square of a lilnear form: 2 (4) X12 Xn. + (plXl+ * + PnXn) 2. For this purposewe must have
(5))
op2

aL ,

pkpi

-Pipk

(k 7+ i).

The quantitiespi engenderan algebra consistingof all linear combinations of the 2n units
(6) ea,... =. p " p.. . (cal,
, an

integers mod 2).

The recipeformultiplication the units reads,according (5): of to

ea,. . . an 'efil..

On

eyl . ..Yn;

75

(Xi+

/3in

( a,k.

One easilyconvinces oneselfthatthis rule of multiplication associative. is One may writethe mostgeneralquantity of our algebrain the form a (7) a= + (1/f!)
(il,. . if)

a,(il

if)pi,

p,f +

(f==O, 1,

,n),

splittinga into parts accordingto the numberf of the different factorsp. Since the productof f different like Pi, * pif is skew-symmetric p's with respectto the indicesi1 (i1 .f, one will choosethe coefficients ac if) in (7) also skew-symmetric; is then allowed to extendthe sum > in (7) one over the indices i1,- , f independently from 1 to n. Consequently the quantitya is equivalentto a "tensor set" consistingof m+ 1 tensors,one of each of the ranks0, 1, , f,* *, n. The additionof two tensorsets and the multiplication a set by a numberhas the trivialsignificance of withinthe algebra H. But how are we to expressthe multiplication two tensorsets of a and b ? It suffilces describe case of an a containing to the merely tensorac one of ralnk and a b containing f, merely tensor8 of rankg (whereasthe other one parts vanish). The product splits into different parts according to the r number of coincidences amongthe indicesof ocand ,8. As
Pil
n(e g

Pf r- Pli
s

i7

PIl

PlrPk
the

Pkg-r
"cont tpio" PkPkg_

o)r(r-1)/2p

one gets as part r- of the product essentially the " contraction"

tProceedings of the Royal Society (A), vol. 117 (1927), p. 610; vol. 118 (1928), p. 351.

SPINORS

IN

It DIMIENSIONS.

429
**g

(8)

t-k* ) a l kg-r (i...ifr(tIr) 7) *1.

1*

* *1?

k,

This process,however, has to be followedby "alternation," i. e. alternating over all permutations the f + g - 2r indicesin -y. Since -yis of summation already skew-symmetric with respectto the f - r indices i and the g - r " indicesk, it is sufficient extendan alternating to sum overall " mixtures of the indices i1 withthe indices k.. 7g-r. This will be indicatedby if-r the symbolM. By takinginto consideration factor1/f! attachedto the the of f-thtermin (7) and the severaldistributions the r equal indices 11 Ir " amongthe indicesof acand /3, one gets finally result: The " product of the thetwotensors and 83 a tensorset in whichonlytensors rankf + g -2 is ac of the integerX is limitedby the bounds appear;
X _O,

2r

f +g-n,

f, xig.
kg-r)

The part r is givenby ( )<">(I/,-!) -My (ii .if-r471 wherey denotesthe contraction (8).-We are not so much interested the in exact description this process of multiplication in the fact that it is of as
orthogonally invariant.

3. Spinorsin a space of evendimenisionzality. thissectionwe suppose In = 2v to be even. The algebraH is knownto the quantumtheorist n fromthe processof " superquantizing"that allows the passage fromthe theoryof a single particleto the theoryof an undetermined numberof equal particles subjectedto the Fermi statistics. This connection once yields a definite at representation -> PF by matricesPi of order2". Into its description enter pi the two-rowed matrices 1= I 10 01' I
1gI 0 0 -1'

p~_

01_ Q0o1i

1 0'

The two rowsand columnswill be distinguished fromeach otherby the signs 1', P, Q anticommute with each other; their squares are- 1. + and -. Besides pl,, qv. p2V we sometimes use the notationp1, , pl, q1, The representation thenis givenby
,

(9

pa3Pa,
a

Q.

1 X...

1 X ...X

I' X P X I X . X.1,
1X Q X I X 1. . . X

V)

On the rightside we have v factors; the factors Q respectively, P, occurat tlle ac-th place. The rowsand columnsof our matricesor the coo6rdinates in XA

430

RICHARD BRAUER AND HERMANN WEYL.

to the 2v-dimnensional representation space, according the notationintroduced,

are distinguished from each other by a combination of signs (.-,,
(7a
=

02,

, UV),

One verifies once that the desiredrules prevail: at

p2_

(10)

PkUP,

-P,Pk

1) (i' =7&

In this mannerwe have establisheda definite x -> representatlion X of X hereas degree2vforthe algebraI. We maintainthat all miiatrices appealr x imtages elemtents of the algebi-a. As the algebra II is of the same order of 22 -_ (2v) 2as the algebra colnsisting all matricesin the 2v-cdimensional of space,the relationx ?> X is a one-to-one isomorphic mappingof H upon the " completematrixalgebra of the 2-cdimensional spin space": the algebra H is isonmorphic the complete to matrixalgebrain spin space. In orderto prove ourstatement, us computethe matrixUa representing let Ua iPaqa and then
(11')
(11) Ua iPaQa I X . . *.X I X If X I X . .* X1

Ul . . .Ua-lPa

I X

X 1 X PX1X

X 1

together with U1 UaiQa. (The factors from1 occurat the o-th different place.) Thus the following elements
2( + Ua) =- Za++n . . . Za UiM Ua-1(p?a + iqa)
Ul , . . . Ua-1(pa

iga)
Z.a-

Za

2(1Ua)

are represented products by similarto (11) but containing of the matrices one 1 0
0 0

0 1 ll0 0

0 0
'

ll0

0 0 1,
a=1

at the ac-th place. Colnsequelntly image of the element fI (Za6ara) is the the matrixcontaininga term different from0, lnamely 1, only at the crossing
poilntof the row u1 UVwith the column
T1

7*v

(O-a=

We are now in a positionto establishthe colnnectioln the rotations with o o space by 11(ik) 11in the n-dimelnsiolnal (MetlhodA). We chalnge, means of the orthogolnal matrixo(ih)
k=1

?4 Ta

+)-

k=1

and we observe at olncethat the new P*i, like the old oiies, satisfy the relationis (10). Consequently pi -> P*1i defines a new representation of our algebra H.
Sin?ce

the full miiatr7'ix algebra,

hoowever, allows

on?.lyin ?er autom o rphismis,t

t See the pioof in ? 11.

SPINORS

IN

It DIMIENSIONS.

431

this representation to be equivalentto the original one; that is, there has existsa non-singular matrixS(o) such that
(13) P*- ~S (o)Pi S (o) (it -~,2. , n).

S (o) is determined this equation but for a numericalfactor,the "gauge by factor": S (o) is to be interpreted the "homogeneous" sense,not as an in affiletransformationi the 2kc-dimensional of vectorspace, but as a collineation of the projective of the space conlsistinig its rays. Afterfixinig gauge factors fortwo rotations o' and theirproducto'o in an arbitrary o, we manner, necessarilyhave a relationi like
(14) S(o'o)c S(o') S(o).

we Consequently are dealing with a collineationi of representtation degree 2V of the rotationigroup,the so-calledspin r7epr'esentation A : o > S(o). The same conniection can be describedas follows (Method B). Orthogonaltransformation the tenasors an arbitrary of of tensorset definesan x autoniorphic mappinig -> x of the algebraII of the tensorsets upon itself. Such a mappinghowever, the representation X of the tensorsets by in x-> X matrices of order2v,is necessarily displayedin the form
XI --X SXS-' (S independent of x).
=

Let us writedown this equationin components:X=

X*JK
-

XJE

11; it then reads

f,T

XT 51R SKT 1R

S= 1SJR jj is the matrixcontragredienit S. Hence the components to XJK the experience transformation X S and this provesthe reductioni S (15) AX
ro +al+
r?P -

PO+

rl+

+r,v-+

+}?(rv

-orv).

The quantities{j1A) and {0.4} of the kind A, A shall be called covar7ian-t and contravairiant spinior-srespectively. Let us write the components VIA of a covariant spinor as a column and the componientsOA of a contravarianit spinor as a row. Our last equation tells us that one is able to formii linear comby binationof the (2") 2products O4AB: otie scalar, one vector, onTe tensorof rank 2, etc. The scalar is, of course,
++

= E

Oq,A

The vectorhas the components f. 4Pq

folrllation
O**

5I, s*

Inideed,in carryingout the trans-

S-1,

one gets,

432

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND

HERAMANN WEYL.

p*P.

oii* Pi=

k=1

o(ik) cS-PP*k S&

k=1

o(ik) pPkqp.

> [i y k] ; etc. In this The tensorof rank 2 has the components cp(PjPk) mannerwe are able to carryout the reduction(15) explicitly.

and betweencovar-iantt contravariant 4. Connectionz spinors. Let n be even as before. We proposeto showthat therepresentation is equivalentto i A. the representation For this purposewe observethat the relations (10) for characteristic the matricesPi hold at the same time for the transposed on of to matrices P'i. According theproposition theautomorphisms our matrix algebra II we alreadyhave had occasion to use, theremust exist a defilite non-singular matrixC such that (16) P', CPiC-

for all i. It is easy to writedown C explicitly. For we have

Pa Pa, QcLa QxQa,

But the productpi pv commutes withthe pa and anticommutes withthe qa, if v is odd; if v is even the situationis reversed. Hence one can take
c -p.. .. pv or

qv

as according v is odd or even. In this way one findsin bothcases:

(17)
c==

1 0

10 i 0 -i

1 0

01

(V factors)

and one verifiesat once the relations (16).

Along with (12) we have P1

->J*, P
k

0 (ki)P',k.

This transition expressed the one hand in the form is on

P-i

> S'(o)-1 P'

S'(o)

=
=

S(o)P'

S(o)1 .

On the otherhand the transformation P'" of CPqC-1is obviously performed by means of CS (o) CW1. Hence an equation like
CS (o) C-1=-p (O) *S (O)

musthold wherep (o) is a numericalfactordependent o. On multiplicaon tion of S(o) by X,S(o) is multipliedby 1/Xand p is thus changedinto pA2.

SPINORS

IN

DIMIENSIONS.

433

Hence we may disposeof the arbitrary gauge factorin S in such a way that p
becomes (18)
=

1: S(O) = CS(O)C-1.

This has the effect that (19)

(det S)2 = 1.

but Afternormalizing S(o) is now uniquelydetermined for the Sign. this sign for two rotationso, o' and the compoundo'o in an arbitrary manner, the composition - I; forthe matricest factor in (14) becomes c X S(o'o) X and A S (o') S (o) both satisfy the normalizing condition
C=CxC-1. A

nowis an ordinary, though double-valued representation insteadof a collineation representation. Equation (18) gives the explicit relation betweenthe covariant and contravariant the substitution spinors: if C is the matrix 1J 11 CAB
( = E
B

CAB qB

changesthe covariant spinor;, into a contravariant spinor p. The " square" of the double-valued A representation is single-valued and is decomposed, to according formula into the tensorrepresentations rf. 5. Odd number dimensions.n - 2i' + 1. To ourquantities **, p2V of pi,, a further p2v+1 has to be added, p22v+1 = 1, whichanticommutes one with the , 2v) can be extended The representation -* Pi (i previous pi pi. 1, by establishing correspondence the

P- >Pn=-- 1, X
Let t be (20)
=

1, X ***X

1,

(n

2v+

1).

1 or i according v is evren odd. The product as or u

tplp2 . . .

Pn

commutes withall quantitiesof the algebraand satisfies equationu2_ 1. the In the representation described is represented the matrix1. There just u by existsa secondrepresentation the algebra: of
(21) p1>-Pt(i=1,2,i * *,n)

in whichu

1 and whichthus provesto be inequivalent the first to one.

434

RICIIARD

BRAUER

AND

IIERAIANN

WEYL.

The order 2 (2v)2 of the algebra H this time is twice as large as the orderof the algebraof all matrices in the 2v-cdimensional X spin-space. Our x becomesa one-to-one isomorphic mapping -> X therefore correspondence only 11 afterreducing modulo(1 - u) ; thisis accomplished addingtheconiditioni by 1 to the defining u equations (5). This new algebramay be realized as a subalgebrain II in different as manniers; for inistanice, the algebra of the x x quantities satisfyilng condition =ux. It is moreconvenient consider the to the even quantitiesin Il. Their basis coinsists the productsof an even of of number p; in (6) onehas to add therestriction + + , =-0 (mod 2); a, tensorsets conitain the corresponiding tensorsof even rank only. Any odd quantity may be written in the formutxwherex is even. The arbitraryquantity x + ux' of the algebra rI (x and x' even) is represented by the same matrix within the algebra Hl, of the even quantities. The second correspondence representation (21) coincideswiththe first the even quantities. for The procedure now as above (MIethod is A). Let 11 0(ilc) 11 a proper be
orthogonal transformation. Then (12) By multiplication we get
P=_ U*-tPl

as the even quantity x + x'. Hence the correspondencex -> X is a one-to-one

yields a new representation of H.

cldet[o(RiU)] U =U. by means of Pi --P* we thus map the algebra H

Hence this representation like the original one associates the matrix + 1
(and not 1) with u;

reduced mnodulo - u) isomorphically (1 upon itself, and consequently equaan tion like
P*.
-

SPiS-l

holds. The representation o -> S (o) may1 extenadedto the improper a be rotationsby making the matrix + 1 or 1 correspond the reflection to with all rotations. (Wlhether chooses + 1 or xi > xi that commutes one -1 does not make any difference here since the represenitation is doubleA
vTalued.)

(MIethod B).

The orthogonal transformationis an isomorphic o mapping

of the manifold of all even tensor sets upon itself. After representing this manifold by the algebra of all matrices X in 2v dimensions in the manner described above, o appearsas an automorphism --> X* of the complete X matrix

algebra: XSXVS-1. One gets S(o) here at the same time for all proper ancdimproper rotations Furthermore, obtain the decomposition o. we
(22)

Ax

ro+r2+

2Vro+ur,1+

ur3+

SPINORS

IN

It DIMIENSIONS.

435

the last sumi withthe termrv or 'Orv. Consequently thereis conconcluding tailnedin A X A a proper scalar, an imiproper vector,a proper tensor of rank2, etc. = The nt (2i' + 1)-dimensional oroup of rotationis comprises the b, (I? - 1)-dimensionalone b,,-,by subjectingthe variablesx1, ..X2V to ain orthogonal transformation x,v+lunchanged. This restriction a to alndleavinog A subgroupcarries the representation of b1, as here defined, over into the A representation of the (n - 1) -dimelnsional group of rotationswhich we in defined ? 3. The same restriction of splitsa tenisor rankf in the n-dimensional space into twotenisorsof ranikf and f - 1 respectively the (Il - 1) in dimensionalspace. And thus the decomposition(22) goes over into the decomposition (15). The matrix C, (17), which satisfiedthe equations P'i = CPi.C- (for i - 1, 2, , 2v) fulfills the condition
CP C-1 = (1 ) 1P

for P?

P2V+1. Hence it can be used hereforthe same purposeas in ? 4 only if v even. In the oppositecase one mustreplaceC by CUP,,:
=

0i1
1 -?

0 1 1 0

1 0
?

iK,
0,

and one thenhas CPIC-1 the P'i (for all i). Under bothcircumstalnces equation (18) obtains for the C determined this manner and after ani in of normalization the gauge factorin S (o). Here again we have appropriate A ~ A and we are able to express explicitlythe transfornmatioln C which chaniges covariantspinorsinto contravariant onies.
6.

odd dimensionality makes no differenice it whether one considersthe group commuting with all rotationsis an improper bll or bl+ sinicethe reflection rotation. If, however, == 2i' is even,restrictioln b,,+ a to effects splittingof a A the spin representationi into tw,o A+ ilnequivalent representations and A- of " " degree2-1, and one will have to distinguish between positive anid" negatire " spinlorsaccordingly. This comesabout as follows. Again we form (23) U tp .pv >U 1 X 1 X . X 1.

Splitting of A under restrictionto pr'oper rotations. In the case of

We separate the eveencomnbinations signs (C,. of ,uv) as characterized by *V = + 1 fromn odd ones. Accoridinig such an arrangement the rl to U

in appears- the form

436

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND HERAIANN

WEYL.

(24)

=-

1 0

0 -1

As a consequenceof equations (12) one has for the proper rotationso:

U -- U*
-

U.

muteswith (24) and thus breaksup into an "even " and an " odd " part:
S+ O

As P*i

SP,S-1 implies U*

SUS-1 the matrix S com-

A+ The matrices S+(o) and S-(o) in the two representations and A- of degree 2v-1are uniquely determined but for a commonsign. Hence the fact that the reflection associatedwiththe matrix+ 1 in A+,withthe matrix- 1 is in A-,means an actual inequivalence. What is the significance the partitionof X into four squares for the of corresponding quantitiesx of the algebra II or for the tensorsets? (1) We the see from equationUP commute withU Pi U thatthe evenquantities and that the odd ones anticommute. Even and odd quantities are consequently represented matricesof the following by shape respectively:
-

(25)

x x

(26)

x x
(2) The in-

(the squares not marked by a cross are occupied by zeros). volutorialoperation a ->a* au, A4->A* AU leavTes two frontsquares in the A

unichanged while it reverses signs in the two back squares. Let us agree the to ascribe the signature+ or - to a quantitya accordingas a* a or a. These quantitiesthen are represented matricesof the form a*by (27), (28) respectively:

SPINORS

IN

fn DIMIENSIONS.

437

(27)

x.
-

(28)

x
x

as Everyquantity maybe uniquelywritten the sum of twoquantitiesof signaa tures+ alid -. (Besides the operation -> a * one could of coursealso conone: a -* at ua. But the crossing bothsignatures of sider the following is carriedout in a more convenient way by crossingthe signaturehere applied withthe divisioninto even and odd quantities. For we have at a* foreven a* forodd ones.) Thus we finally this scheme: quantitiesand at get
= =

x
even
+

x
odd
+

odd

even

: signature.

in The questionas to how our star operation expressed termsof tensor is setsis answered theequation: by
Pi
. .

pf*

)<f>

tpf+1

thatthe transition froma showing

. a* (ifl * . . fn-f)

{a} to a* -{a*}
(1) <f*0

is defined b+
i f)

a(t, *

(wherei1 *

iif'1

equals i". Hence, taking into consideration the splitting of

it f is any evenpermutation). The factor(

rv

1) <0>*
+
rv-

into

rv+

as

explainedin ? 1, we get the following reductions:

(29)

A+XA+ro+Pr2+A+
AX
+

x Aa-ro

ri+r3+
+r2 +

r3

-X

rv+,

Of the two sums in the first column,one breaksoffwith rv-1, the otherwith whereas sumsof the secondcolumnend withrv- and rv-J the respectively. From (16) we obtain by multiplication (- 1) U' = CUC-1
or CU

1) UC.

This showsthat C is of form (25) or (26) accordingas v is even or odd. With C, C2 being the partial matricesof C, we thus have

SPINORS

IN

DIMIENSIONS.

437

(27)

x x

(28)

x x

as may be uniquelywritten the sum of two quantitiesof signaEveryquantity tures + and -. (Besides the operation a -- a* one could of course also conof is sider the following one: a -- at = ua. But the crossing both signatures way by crossingthe signaturehere applied carriedout in a moreconvenient withthe divisioninto even and odd quantities. For we have at = a* foreven a* forodd ones.) Thus we finally this scheme: get quantitiesand at-=

x
even
+

x
odd
-

odd
+

even
-

: signature.

in is The questionas to how our star operation expressed termsof tensor setsis answered the equation: by
Pi
. . .

pf * U=

(-)f*pf+1

. . .

pn,

thatthe transition froma= showing

0Z* (ifl *.

by {a} to a* = {a,*} is defined

(-

i'n- f )

==

1 ) <f> t *aZ (ij

. . .

if )

(wherei1*
equals i".

if.i'l

. in-f is any evenpermutation). The factor(- 1) <v>*

the splittingof rv into rv++ rV- as Hence, taking into consideration reductions: explainedin ? 1, we get the following

(29)

A- x

Ax

+roP+Pr+

r +

r3 +

? XA-X 'r0+Pr3+ A-X A-X --ro +r2 +

Of the two sums in the first column,one breaksoffwithrv_, the otherwith the sumsof the secondcolumnend withrv-and rv-,respectively. rv+,whereas From (16) we obtain by multiplication
(1)U=-CUC-1 or CU=

1)vUC.

This showsthat C is of form (25) or (26) accordingas v is even or odd. With Cl, C, being the partial matricesof C, we thus have

SPINORS

IN

It DIMIENSIONS.

439
-Ta.

for X = S,6 or Tfl (3#

(x), but dSa = Sa, dTa= [S.aTfT, = XI

(b) exceptfor X
=

X8X

for all S and T

S6 alndTa for whichwe have:

SSO = Sa, STa

Tfl.

This is readilyseeni fromthe expression

[SaTP, X] representationi.
=

Sa (TflX + XTfl)

(XS.a + SaX) Tp.

In this way we have arrivedat Cartan's infinitesimal descriptioni the spill of Nothinig essenitial has to be added in the case of odd dimnensioctality. It is theni most colnveniienitassume the funidamenital to quadraticformin the shape
(x0) 2+ 2(XIyI+

+ xvyv)

(31) shows that A is double-valued and not single-valued. For in accordancewiththis equationthe rotationo:
xl e-> xi, y1-->c

y1

(all other variables ulnchaniged)

is associatedwiththe operationi (o) multiplyilng variablexc1. S the 1). spin space by e"i0L (offa

a, in the

8. Conditionsof reality. For the real orthogonal transformations the question arises whether the conijugate complex representation : o S(o) P5 is equivalelnt \. The Pi beilng to Hermitianmatrices, equals P'i. Furthermore,the equationis:
P*,
k

o(ki)Pe

imply P*.

fi
k

o(ki)P;

provided o (ik) are real. This leads at onice the result the to
S(o) =p(o)S(o).

Hence the Hermitianunit formYXAXA spin space goes over,by means of in the substitution into p fold the unit form. So p mustbe positiveand S,
detSJ2 p= 2

But on accountof our normalization S causinig(det S)2 of

1,

to be

1 we find

17

440

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND

HERMTANN

WEYL.

S(O)

S(O),

A=A;

A gr i. e. the repr esenitationi of the real orthogonial oup is uniitary. to oneself real variablesone mustbe aware of the possiWhenrestricting quadraticform bilitythat the fundamental

(32)

EaxkX

for import 0. t fromi This is of particular mayhave an inertialintdex different world. t theory, - 1 forthe four-dimelnsiolnal to as, physics accordilng relativity One now has to subjectthe determinilng of the algebraII to the equation pi
(plxl + + p.kxb)2 Na kxiXk or 2(pjp7 + pep ) a

H' One will get the new pi fromthe old ones by means of the transformation form(32) arises fromthe normalformwithaik if the fundamental 8k by H. means of the transformation upon to But hereagainiit is convenient base a moredetailedinvestigation the real normalform
=

(33)

(xl)2

. . . -(x)4

(xt+1)2

(x8)2

c, (xI)

with loss of genierality miiay, we suppose2t n.) In accordalnce (Withoutalny - t the physics,let us call the firstt variables xi the temporal,the last i is spatial co6rdilnates.The subject of our conisideratioln the group b,7 of o carryinlg tranisformationls that Lorentztranisformationis; is, of all real linlear itself. the funidamenital (33) inlto form , Pt assurme keep their previous significance, while P1, Pt+i, . ., P., V- 1. We thus have the factori Pi P'i for (i =1, ,t); Pi P'i for (i=t+1,* n). The HermitianconjugateA' of a matrixA may be denotedby A. The Pi as rules of commutation. Both sets of well as the P'i satisfythe fundamental mustbe changedone into the otherby meansof a certaintransformamatrices tion B. It is easy enoughto writedownB explicitly: (34) To be exact,we have B
=--V-<t> . Pi

. . . Pt.

f To be quite definite: the variables xi are subjected to the Lorentz-transo (ik) xk. The p, (or Pi) then undergo the contragredient formation o: xi .> transformation; but in raising the index by means of pi = eip, one may introduce quantities pi transformingcogrediently with the variables xi.
k

SPINORS

IN

It DIMIENSIONS.

441

(35)

P', S=BP B-1 or -P'i

-BP B-1

accordingas t is even or odd. The factori-<t> has been added in orderto make B ilermitian: B B. The transposed matrixB' coincideswith B but forthe sign,namelyB' = (-1)<t>B. In the case of an even n the matrixB is of form (25) or (26) accordingas t is even or odd. All theseproperties could be fairlyeasily derivedfromgeneralconsiderations;it is not worth the as trouble,however, one may read them at once fromthe explicitexpression (34). One obtainsfrom(35) the relation
(36) BS(o)B-' = p(o )S(o)

or aftermultiplication S'(o) on the left: by S'BS = pB: the HermitianformB goes over,by means of the transformation into the S, multiplep of itself. In consequencep is real and one infers,in the same manneras in the definite case, the equation
p(o) =?

1.

As to its dependence o, p (o) satisfies condition on the

p(ofo) - p(o')p(o).

is A new consideration, this sign p. however, requiredfor determining In a Lorentz transformation o (ik) 1j the temporal minor of the whole determinant:
o(ll, * *,o(it)

(37)
o(1) We shall put or (o) + 1 or * (tt)

is either 1 Or<~

prevails,and call o- (o) the temporal i. signature; it is a character, e.

cr_(O O)
==

1 according as the first or the second case

r_(0

af

(0).

We need not troubleto prove this here directly, because we shall see in the courseof our further investigations thep(o) in (36) coincideswithar (o). that In the same mannerone may introduce spatial signature a or+(o) by nieans of the spatial minor of the matrix 11 o(ie) 11. The latter, though, is cr(o) *Q;
=

442

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND HERAMANN WEYL.

hencethe character transformacr(o) distinguishing properand improper the tions equals r,a_. Of the Lorentztransformations 1 one may havingusay that theyreverse sense of timewhereasthosehavingu+ the 1 reverse the spatial sense. The groupof Lorentztransformations apart into four falls piecesnot connected witheach otherand distinguished fromeach otherby the values of the two signaturesr and cr. To prove (37) let us introduce the two vectors oil' -{o (tl ) ,.* * 0 (itt) }, oi" { o ( , t + 1 ), . (illq) in the realmsof the temporal and spatial co6rdinates respectively.The scalar product (a' Ii') in these two partial spaces has its usual significance + a'tb't. The relations characteristic for the Lorentz transa'ib+ + formation then read:
(?* ?')

8ik +

(O*"Ok")

( 1,

5 2,**,

t).

From thesewe derive

(otIot')1-

=1/+(/

:(0o

+ (1/2!)

(ot "o1"), (o1"/I02"1),

2

l"

(1 "

2 ")1 (

'

(o +"ot"1 t1)

)I+

All termson the rightside are > 0;. hencethe whole determinant the left on ? 1. This determinant is however the square of Q. is The fact that the sigmw imz p (36) equals o- is proved in the following manner. In accordance with P*i we find o(11) *
n
k=1

o(lti)Pk ( . .
.Pt + *

(38)

P*.

P*t

o(t)

o(tl)

o(tt)

. But a productlike Pi,. indices Pi, * P, * * Pt wherei1 . .t are different . . .t is a permutation 1 . . . t; whereas of alwayshas the trace0 exceptif il
tr(Pw . . . Pt P1

* *Pt)

(_

1))<t>tr(Pi2

. .P pt2)

(-

)t-<t>

2v

Hence on multiplying equation (38) by P1 . . . Pt to the rightand forming the trace,one is led to this value of the determinant (2:

SPINORS

IN

DIMENSIONS.

443

Using the definitions S: P*i --of SPiS-1, and of B, one readilyobtains: 2S === tr(SBS-1 *B) - tr(B -SBS-1). to According (36)
S-i

PB'- tSB'

PB-'1B.

of Replacement B' by B is allowedas B' coincideswithB but for a numerical factor. So one finally gets,with T = BS j1tJK 11 21a = p *tr(BSSB) = p *tr(BS SB) - p -tr(TJF T) p
J,K

I tJK 12,

and this equation showsp to have the sign of Q. Any representation : o -> G(o) of the Lorentz group gives rise to r anotherone cr-r: o -- (o) G(o). Equation (36) or
S (o) (r_- B-1S (o) B (o)

thenprovesthe equivalence:
(39)

The transformation changesthe conjugate of a covariantspinor V/into a B contravariant spinor4: q)' ==- (in so far as we confine B ourselves Lorentz's to transformations temporalsignatureu- - 1). (39) yields,on account of of (15), (22), the decompositions
(40) A XA -r-ro {
07+ro

AX

cr-ro +

+ o?Pr+

+r-]?

+ u+rv-1

++ urv-

+ (r-rv+--'r+,Pv) [n=t 2v];

+r, + -r2 ' +**

[m

2v+ 1].

The latterseriesbreaksoffwithoJ'rvor cr+rv. In the case n- 2v we have the splittingof A into A+ and A-, when restricting ourselves to the group b,+ of proper Lorentz transformations [o (o) = 1]. This restriction wipes out the difference between two signathe turescr and o-+. As we mentioned before, is of form(25) or (26) according B as t is even or odd. Hence one has
for even t:

for odd t:

A~-/uA, Q+~c u&

A-'o(A-; A-uA/+.

9. IrrXeducibility. Irreducibility rf is granteda for-tiori one is able of if to provethat theredoes not exist any homogeneous linear relationwith constant coefficients (independentof o) among the minors of order f of the matrixof an arbitrary rotation11 (ik) 11. This can be shownwithoutusing o

444

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND HERMANN

WEYL.

any otherrotationsthan permutations the coordinate of axes combinedwith changesof signs. For let us assumethatwe have such a non-trivial relationR By suitableexchangewe can place this minorin the left upper cornerof the matrix. We will now take into accountthe changesof signs only:

in which definite a minor (k:: A

) kf

occurs with coefficient different 0. a from

thematrices whichhaveonlytheirchiefminors (i, * if) different of A from 0. The linear relationR will contain,apart fromA (1 2 * f), at least one more termA (1' 2' different fi')with a coefficient fromzero. At least one of the indices1' 2' from1, 2, * * *, f. By changing f',let us say 1,is different the sign of the one variablexi, the relationR is carriedover into a new one R' in whichA (1 2 . *f) occurswith the same, A (1' 2' * *f') however with the oppositecoefficient. Hence the sum 2 (R + R') certainly shorter is than R, that is, containsless termsthan R; but A (1 2 * f) occursin it withthe same coefficient different from0 as before. The procedure shortening of may be continueduntil the presupposedlinear relation XI 0 leads to the impossibleequation A(1 2 * f) 0. These considerations were based upon the comnplete group b?n. If one allows properrotationsonly,b,+ one may have to combinethe permutation in the first step with a change of sign of one variable. The second step can be performed the same mannerprovided2f < n, forthenone may chooseI in as above: as one of the indices 1', 2', * *, f' different from 1, 2, . ,f, furthermore choosem as an index that does not occurin the row 1, 2, . , f, 1', 2',* * *, f', and then change the signs of both variablesxi and xma simultaneously. Even when w 2v, f v the procedureof shortening will work as long as the relationR still containsa termA (1' 2'- * v') the indices of whichare not just the complement + 1, . . *, n of 1, . . , v. Thus one will v be led in this case finally a relationof the form: to
= =

(41)

cA(1,2<

* ,v) +c'A(v+

1,

,n)

0.

Such a relationobtainsindeed: A(v+ 1, * , i) A(1,2, *,v)

SPINORS

IN

It DIMENSIONS.

445

but there exists of course no other one of the type (41). From this we learn not only that the two representations and rv- are irreducible, rJ' but at the same timethattheyare inequivalcnt; forit provesthat theredoes not hold any linear relationwithfixedcoefficients between the components the of rotationo in these repretwo matricesassociated with the same arbitrary sentations. For the components thesetwomatricesare of [B Q with
Vki. .. kvJ
i:L

- 'v) +4 iPBQ(kl

k' v) ]

. Vk:L .. kv)J

k'l . .. k' ,

The inequivalenceof two such rf the ranks f of which do not give the sum n, is grantedby theirhaving different degrees. This wholeargument based upon the comnplex was orthogonal group. But nothingis to be modified when one confines oneselfto the real orthogonal one transformations. Furthermore sees, by formulating resultin an inthe finitesimal manner,that it cannot be effected the inertial index. The by infinitesimal transformation
(42) dxi=
Xk, dxk

linearrelation between quantities (Q::v ) B the

* * * ,,.'1 * i'V and k1 * kv, . .k'v are even permutations the of k1'l* figures 2, * , n. The reasoning 1, aboveshowsthatthereexistsno universal

xi

(i=/=1k)

(all otherincremelnts being0; this transformation engenders permutation the

xi ->xk, xk -->

be replaced,if the fundamental quadraticformcontainstermswiththe minus sign,forcouples (xi, Xk) consisting a temporalandla spatial variableby of
dxzi
Xk,

xi as well as the change of sign xi x->--Xi,

Xk---> --xk)

has to

dxk

xi

whileit has to be kept unchangedfor couples of variables (Xi, Xk) both temporal or both spatial. The statement irreducibility of under all transformations (42) in the definite case is identicalwiththe statement irreducibility of under the transformations replacingthem in the indefinite case; one only needs to replacethe temporalvariablesXkby V-1 Xk. The productr X r of a representation with its contragredient conr r tains the identity at least jz timeswhenr reducesinto ,uparts. If we are r17 allowedto makeuse of thegeneraland elementary theorem thatthe irreducible

446

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND HERMANN

WEYL.

partsof a representation uniquely are determined (in the senseof equivalence t and exceptfortheirarrangement), thenthe formulae(15), (22), (29) show of at once the irreducibility i\ or A+ and A- respectively the inequivalence and of the latter. Anotherdirectproofruns as follows: Take the full groupbitin the even case n 2v. Using the fundamental in quadraticform the shape (30), let us consider " diagonal" infinitesimal the rotations (43) if aXa, dya 1, * * , v) (c dx, , i0aYa
= =

formation

parameters). (0cP,independent
dxgL.. .V (i/2) (1

It is associatedin A with the diagonal trans+ ** + Covv)xul ... UP

(a=+).

Given a partial space P' of the total spin space P, different from0 and invariantunder A.,one choosesa non-vanishing vectorz:
Z
=i

zAeA

{ZA}

[A

(.a,,

v)]

occurringin P'. By performing the substitutioli(43) repeatedlyone is " able to isolate each term ZAeA,as these parts are of different weights "
(i/2) (aioi + * * + uvcv). Therefore at least one of the fundamental vectors eA occurs in P'. But eA = el ... up goes over into any other fundamental vector e1. .. TP by exchanging Xa -> ?Ya, Ya > X.a those couples (Xa, ya) for

group bit n (Xl' .VA

whichthe signso-a and Ta do not coincide. P' is therefore identicalwiththe total P.-Irreducibility of A forodd n = 2v + 1 is an immediate consequence of the irreducibility even n, we just proved; one has to restrict for oneself merelyto the subgroupb.,-1 within bs, nn 2v + 1. One sees in the same mannerthat the two parts A+.,A- are irreducibleand inequivalentfor the
=

2v.

10. Dirac's theory. Let us suppose we are dealing with a spinorfield " X4) in an n-dimensional world" with the fundamental metric form (33). The most essentialfeatureof Dirac's theor-y that one should is be able to forma vector by linear combination the productsqAqB. of If n is even,one sees fromequation (40) that exactlyone such vectorsi exists-that behaveslike a vectorat least for all Lorentz transformations reversing not the sense of time; and one such vectorfor all Lorentz transformations not the spatial sense. In the case n odd, one vectorof the second,and reversing
t Compare e. g. Weyl, Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics (London, 1931), p. 136.

SPINORS

IN

It DIMENSIONS.

447

no vectorof the first kind exists. Only the first type can be used when one believesin the equivalenceof rightand left,but is preparedto abandon the equivalenceof past and future. n has then to be even and the vectoris si ==_ qBPi f. From this vectorone can derivethe scalar field:
(44)
,
i

,B(a/x)(

pi =

iPi).

One needs a scalar that arises from linear combinationof the products . as quantitywhich OA O/B/aXi in Dirac's theory the main part of the actioni accountsfor the fundamental featuresof the whole quantumtheory. There is no ambiguity: for (A X a) X IX containsthe identityrP or ratherthe representation o-rA' just once if decomposed inltoits irreducible parts. That is shown by equation (40) when one takes into account the fundamental lemma of the theoryof representations assertingthat the product, X P1 r containsthe identityrP once, or not at all, accordingas the two irreducible representations rPof thesame groupare equivalent not. Dirac's quantity r, or of action contains,apart from (44), a second term which is a linear combinationof the undifferentiated products qAbB; it is multipliedby the mass, and accountsfor the inertia of matter. There exists just one such scalar, namelyVB+, in the case of an evenas well as an odd n. Furthermore may consideras essentialthe fact that the time comone ponent of the electriccurrentis positive-definite Dirac's theory, in namely proportional the "probabilitydensity" 2 t/AfA; this grantsthe atomistic to A structureof electriccharge. If the fundamental form (33) is of inertial index t, this property howeveris not possessedby the vectorcontainedin A X A but by the tensorof rank t withthe components
t=

Pitt
=

(i*,

it

different),

the "temporal" component, ... t, of whichis S12 (but for a numerical factor). It seems to be requiredby the schemeof Maxwell's equationsthat electriccurrent shouldbe a vector; this requirement, together withthe postulate of the atomic structure electricity, of compelsus to assume the inertial
index t to be
=

1I

11. Appendix. Automorphisms the complete of algebra. A onematriix

448

RICHARD

BRAUER

AND

HERMANN

WEYL.

to-onecorrespondence T>X* of the ring of all n-rowed X matrices upon itself is isomorphic wheni satisfyitng conditions the (X + Y)*
eX* + Ye,

(AX)*

X *,

(XY)*

X*Y*

is (X an a,rbitrary number). The onlysuch automoorphism" si,milarity":

X* = AXA--,

A beinga fixednon-singular matrix. Proof. The equation GX y-X has a solutionX7 0 only if y is an of eigen-value the matrixG; forthe columnsof the matrixX mustbe eigenvectors of belonging the eigen-value The eigen-values G thus are charto y. acterizedin a manner invariantwith respectto the given automorphism. G* as Consequently has the same eigen-values G. Thus we are led to proceed as follows. Let us choosen fixeddifferent numbers * ,y and withthem -y, y formthe diagonal matrix

'Yl

As G* has the same eigen-values G, a non-singular as matrixA can be determined such that G* = AGA-'. Let us replaceevery by X** A-AX*A X* and now consider automorphism -> X** thatleaves G unchanged. The the X matrix Ei7 containingan elementdifferent from0, namely 1, only at the crossingpoint of the i-th row with the kc-th column is determined the by
properties

GEik= yiEik

EikG

ykEk

exceptfor a numericalfactor. Hence we have (45)

The
2=i Eik -> EiP*= c'kEik=o,

equation E E2,=E,, furnishes the relation ai , (Xlk

1.

After putting

leads to a k os,fk. On accountof i= 1 one therefore has 3 = /ci and Hence in accordance with (45) an arbitrary matrixX= =ik ca/ak. Xik and its image X88 = J* are linkedby the relation 1x

SPINORS

IN

DIMENSIONS.

449
AoXAo-'

xi*c

a$xik/ak

or X88

whereAo is the diagonal matrixwiththe termsa,, - *, ca. This demonstration a furnishes methodfor constructing spinorfroma a given tensorset g. The methodwill be used preferably the case whereg in consistsof only one tensorof definite rank. Our representation degree2" of of the algebraII associateswithg a matrixG. Let us assumethat G has the y (simple) eigen-value and let . be the corresponding in eigen-vector spin space: Gq y -Ar. The rotation carriesg into a set g (o) represented the o by matrixG(o). y is a (simple) eigen-value G(o) as well as of G, and the of solutionVI of the equation (o)
=

G (o) +(o)

yl +()

arises from f by the transformation ( o) corresponding o in the spin S to representation.

THE INSTITUTE PRINCETON, FOR ADVANCED NEW JERSEY. STUDY,