SUBCOURSE OD0610

EDITION A

PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES

PRINCIPLESOFAUTOMOTIVEENGINES SubcourseNumberOD0610 EDITIONA UnitedStatesArmyCombinedArmsSupportCommand FortLee,VA238011809 3CreditHours EditionDate:November1991 SUBCOURSEOVERVIEW ThissubcourseisdesignedtoteachyouthePrinciplesofAutomotiveEngines. Containedwithinthissubcourseisinstructiononhowtoidentifycomponent functions,characteristics,andprinciplesofoperationsofthetwostroke, fourstrokespark,compressionignition,andturbineengines,toincludea comparisonofgasolineanddieselsystemcomponents. Therearenoprerequisitesforthissubcourse. Thissubcoursereflectsthedoctrinewhichwascurrentatthetimethe subcoursewasprepared.Alwaysrefertothemostcurrentpublicationsina workingenvironment. Thewords"he","his",and"men",whenusedinthispublication,representboth themasculineandfemininegenders,unlessotherwisestated.

PLEASE NOTE
Proponencyforthissubcoursehaschanged FromArmor(AR)toOrdnance(OD).

TERMINALLEARNINGOBJECTIVE TASK: Identifytheinternalfunctionsofselectedcomponentsof sparkandcompressionignitionandturbineinternalcombustion engines. Giventhissubcoursecontaininginformationdescribing principlesofautomotiveengines. You must identify component functions, characteristics, and principles of the twostroke, fourstroke spark, compression ignition, and turbine engines, to include a comparison of gasolineanddieselsystemcomponents.

CONDITIONS: STANDARD:

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TABLEOFCONTENTS SECTION SubcourseOverview...................................... Lesson: PrinciplesofAutomotiveEngines................ PartA: EngineConstruction................... ClassificationofEngines.............. EngineOperation....................... FourStrokeandTwoStrokeEngines...... PracticeExercise...................... AnswerKeyandFeedback................ PartB: DieselEngines......................... PracticeExercise..................... AnswerKeyadFeedback................. PAGE i 1 3 8 10 13 17 18 19 41 44

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LESSON PRINCIPLESOFAUTOMOTIVEENGINES MQSManualTask:None OVERVIEW TASKDESCRIPTION Inthislesson,youwilllearnthecharacteristicsandprinciplesofoperation ofautomotiveengines. LEARNINGOBJECTIVE TASK: CONDITIONS: STANDARDS: Identifytheinternalfunctionsofselectedcomponentsofspark andcompressionignitionandturbineinternalcombustionengines. Giventhissubcoursecontaininginformationdescribingprinciples ofautomotiveengines. Youmustidentifycomponentfunctions,characteristics,and principlesofthetwostroke,fourstrokespark,compression ignition,andturbineengines,toincludeacomparisonof gasolineanddieselsystemcomponents. TM98000.

REFERENCES:

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INTRODUCTION Thissubcourseisaguideforpersonnelchargedwiththeresponsibilityof maintenanceonanyarmyvehicle.Thissubcoursewillprovidethemotorofficer withtheinformationondifferentengines,theirconstruction,characteristics, andoperation.TherisingcostofArmymaterielandtheneedforahighstate ofequipmentreadinessonthepartofArmyunitsdictatetheneedforan efficientandresponsivesystemofmaintenance.Properlytrained,well supervisedoperationsandrepairmen,supportedbyahighlevelofcommand emphasisforqualitymaintenance,arethemostessentialelementsofa successfulmaintenanceprogram.But,withouttheknowledgeofengine components,thesupervisormaynotknowwhatiscausingthemalfunctionsand highcostsofrepairs.

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LESSONCONTENT PartA. 1. EngineConstruction.UponcompletionofPartA,youwillbeableto answerquestionsaboutthecharacteristicsandprinciplesofoperationof twostrokeandfourstrokecyclesparkignitionengines. a.Internalandexternalcombustionengines.Intheinternalcombustion engine,thecombustionoffueltakesplaceinsidetheenginecylinder.Thisis incontrasttoexternalcombustionengine,suchasasteamengine,wherethe combustiontakesplaceoutside.Figure11shows,insimplifiedform,an externalcombustionengine.Theexternalcombustionenginerequiresaboiler inwhichfuelisburned.Thiscombustioncauseswatertoboiltoproduce steam.Thesteampassesintotheenginecylinderunderpressureandforcesthe pistontomovedownward.Withtheinternalcombustionengine,thecombustion takesplaceinsidethecylinderandisdirectlyresponsibleforforcingthe pistontomovedownward.Inbothtypeengines,valvesarearrangedtopermit betterintakeandexhaust.Themostcommonusedengineistheinternal combustionengine.

Figure11.ComparisonofInternalandExternal CombustionEngines.

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b.Nomatterhowmanycylindersanenginehas,whether1,2,4,6,or12, thesameactionstakeplaceineachcylinder.Muchcanbelearnedabout constructionandoperationbystudyingasinglecylinderengine(Figure12). Thisengineisafourstrokecycle,internalcombustion,gasolineengine;these termsareexplainedinsubsequentparagraphs.

Figure12.SingleCylinder,FourStroke,InternalCombustion GasolineEngine(CutAwayView). (1)Cylinderandpiston.Eachcylinderofatypicalenginehasa pistonthatreciprocates(movesupanddownorbackandforth)withinthe cylinderandisconnectedtothecrankshaftbyalinkknownasaconnectingrod (Figure13).Enginepistonstransmittheforceoftheexplosiontothe crankshaftthroughtheconnectingrod,andactasaguidefortheupperendof theconnectingrod,andserveasacarrierforthepistonringsusedtoseal thepistoninthecylinder.Thetopofthepistonmaybeflat,concave, convex,oragreatvarietyofshapestopromoteturbulenceorhelpcontrol combustion.

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(2)ConnectingRodandCrankshaft.Theupanddownmovementofthe pistoniscalledreciprocatingmotion.Thisreciprocatingmotionmustbe changedtorotarymotiontopropelthevehicle.Thechangeisaccomplishedby thecrankshaftandaconnectingrodwhichconnectsthepiston(Figure13)and thecrankshaft.Theconnectingrodisattachedtothepistonbyapistonpin or"wristpin".Thepinpassesthroughthebearingandsurfacesinthepiston andconnectingrod.Thelowerendoftheconnectingrodisattachedtothe crankpinonthecrankshaft.Asthepistonmovesupanddowninthecylinder, theupperendoftheconnectingrodmovesupanddownwithit.

Figure13.Piston,ConnectingRod,andPistonPin.

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(3)Stroke.Thelowerendoftheconnectingrodalsomovesupanddawn but,becauseitisattachedtothecrankpinonthecrankshaft(Figure14),it alsomovesinacircle.Eachmovementofthepistonfromthetoptothebottom orfrombottomtotopiscalledastroke.Thepistontakestwostrokesasthe crankshaftmakesonecompleterevolution,anupstrokeandadownstroke.When thepistonisatthetopofastroke,itissaidtobeattopdeadcenter (TDC).Whenthepistonisatthebottomofthestroke,itissaidtobebottom deadcenter(BDC).Thesepositionsarecalledrockpositions.

Figure14.RelationshipofPiston,ConnectingRod,andCrank onCrankshaftasCrankshaftTurnsOneRevolution.

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(4)Valves.Therearetwovalves(Figure15)atthetopofthe cylinder.Avalveisanaccuratelymachinedplugthatfitsintoamachined openingatthetopofthecylinder.Whenthevalveisrestinginthis position,itissaidtobeseated.Whenavalveissopositioned,itisclosed andtheopeningissealedoff.Whenthevalveispushedoffitsseat,itis opened.Thevalvesinthecylinderareclosedpartofthetimeandopenedpart ofthetime.Oneofthevalves,calledtheintakevalve,openstoadmita mixtureoffuelandairintothecylinder.Theothervalve,calledtheexhaust valve,openstoallowtheescapeofburnedgasesafterthefuelandairmixture hasburned.Valvesareopenedbythecamshaftrotationandclosedbyaspring.

Figure15.IntakeandExhaustValves. (5)Camshaft.Thecamshaftisdesignedtoopentheintakevalveatthe beginningoftheintakestrokeandholditopenlongenoughtoobtainthemost efficientfillingofthecylinder.Likewise,thecamshaftopenstheexhaust valveatthebeginningoftheexhauststrokeandholdsitopenlongenoughto obtainthemostefficientemptyingofthecylinder.Inmostengines,thelobes onthecamshaftaredesignedtoopenthevalvessmoothlyandgradually.This avoidsshocktothevalvesandallowsquietnessofoperation. Thefinaldesignisusuallyacompromisebetweenefficiencyandquiet operation.Whenthecamloberotatesoutoftheway,thevalveisclosedand heldclosedbyspringpressure.Infourstrokeengines,eachvalveisopened everyotherrevolutionofthecrankshaft,sothecamshaftisgearedtorunat onehalfthecrankshaftspeed.

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2. ClassificationofEngines.Automotiveenginesmaybeclassifiedaccording tothetypeoffuelused,typeofcoolingsystememployed,orvalveand cylinderarrangement.Theyalloperateonthesamebasicprinciples,andare constructedtomeettheneedsofthesystemitwillbeusedfor. a.Fuel. (1)Gas.Ahydrocation,obtainedfrompetroleum,thatissuitableas aninternalcombustionenginefuel. (2)Diesel.Thesubstancethatisburnedtoproduceheatandcreate motionofthepistononthepowerstrokeinanengine. b.Cooling.Enginesareclassifiedastowhethertheyareairorliquid cooled.Allenginesarecooledbyairtosomeextent,butaircooledengines arethoseinwhichairistheonlyexternalcoolingmedium.Lubricatingoil andfuelhelpcoolengineparts,buttheremustbeanadditionalexternalmeans ofdissipatingtheabsorbedheat. (1)AirCooled.Aircooledenginesareusedextensivelyinmilitary vehiclesaswellasinaircraft.Thistypeisusedwheretheremustbean economyofspaceandweight.Itdoesnotrequirearadiator,waterjacket, coolant,orapumptocirculatethecoolant.Thecylindersarecooledby conductingtheheattometalfinsontheoutsideofthecylinderwallsand head.Toeffectthecooling,airiscirculatedbetweenthefins.When possible,theengineisinstalledsoitisexposedtotheairstreamofthe vehicle;thebafflesdirecttheairtothefins.Iftheenginecannotbe mountedintheairstream,afanisusedtoforcetheairthroughthefins. (2)LiquidCooled.Watercooledenginesrequireawaterjackettohold thecoolantaroundthevalveports,combustionchambers,andcylinders;a radiatordissipatestheheatfromthecoolanttothesurroundingair;anda pumpcirculatesthecoolantthroughtheengine.Watercooledenginesalso requireafantopassairthroughtheradiatorbecausethespeedofthevehicle doesnotalwaysforceenoughairthroughtheradiatortoprovideproper dissipationofheat. c.Valvearrangement.Enginesmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothe positionoftheintakeandexhaustvalves;thatis,whethertheyareinthe cylinderblockorinthecylinderhead.Variousarrangementshavebeenused, butthemostcommonareLhead,Ihead,andFhead.Theletterdesignationis usedbecausetheshapeofthecombustionchamberresemblestheformofthe letteridentifyingit.

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(1)LHead.InLheadengines,boththevalvesareplacedintheblock onthesamesideofthecylinder.Thevalveoperatingmechanismislocated directlybelowthevalves,andonecamshaftactuatesboththeintakeand exhaustvalves.ThistypehastakenplaceoftheThead,inwhichbothvalves areintheblockbutonoppositesidesofthecylinder.Thedisadvantageof theTheadwasthatitrequiredtwocompletevalveoperatingmechanisms. (2)IHead.EnginesusingtheIheadconstructionarecommonlycalled valveinheadoroverheadvalveengines.Thisarrangementrequiresatappet, pushrod,andarockerarmabovethecylindertoreversethedirectionofthe valvemovement,butonlyonecamshaftisrequiredforbothvalves.Some overheadvalveenginesmakeuseofanoverheadcamshaft.Thisarrangement eliminatesthelonglinkagebetweenthecamshaftandvalve. (3)FHead.InFheadengines,theintakevalvesnormallyarelocated inthehead,whiletheexhaustvalvesarelocatedintheengineblock.This arrangementcombines,ineffect,theLheadandtheIheadvalvearrangements. Thevalvesintheheadareactuatedfromthecamshaftthroughtappets,push rods,androckerarms(Iheadarrangement),whilethevalvesintheblockare actuateddirectlyfromthecamshaftbytappets(Lheadarrangements). d.CylinderArrangement.Automotiveenginesalsovaryinthearrangement ofcylinders,dependingontheengineuse.Cylinderarrangementinliquid cooledenginesisusuallyinlineorVtype;inaircooledengines,itisV type,radial,orhorizontalopposed. (1)InLine.Theverticalinlinecylinderarrangementisoneofthe mostwidelyused.Allcylindersarecastorassembledinastraightlineabove acommoncrankshaftwhichisimmediatelybelowthecylinders.Avariationis theinvertedinlinetype. (2)VType.IntheVtypeengine,twoinlinecylindersaremountedin a"V"shapeaboveacommoncrankshaft. (3)RadialEngines.Theradialenginehascylindersplacedinacircle aroundthecrankshaft. (4)HorizontalOpposed.Thehorizontalopposedenginehascylinders laidontheirsidesintworows,withthecrankshaftinthecenter.

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(5)HorizontalOpposedwithVerticalCrankshaft.Inthisengine,the cylindersarehorizontalandopposedtoeachother,butthecrankshaftsset vertically. 3. EngineOperation.Inanyinternalcombustionengine,thereisadefinite sequenceofeventsthatmustoccur.Theactionsthattakeplacewithinthe enginecylindermaybedividedintofourbasicparts,calledstrokes(Figure 16).

Figure16.TheFourStrokesintheFourStroke Cycle,GasolineEngine.

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a.Intakestroke.Thepistonmovesdownwardandtheintakevalveopens. Thisdownwardmovementofthepistonproducesapartialvoid,orvacuum,inthe cylinder,andairrushesintothecylinderpasttheopenedintakevalve.This hassomewhatthesameeffectasdrinkingthroughastraw:partialvacuumis producedinthemouthandtheliquidmovesupthroughthestrawtofillthe vacuum(Figure17).Intheengine,theinrushingairpassesthroughthe carburetorbeforeitentersthecylinder.Thecarburetorchargestheairwith gasolinevaportoproduceacombustiblemixture.

Figure17.IntakeStroke.

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b.Compressionstroke.Thepistonreachesthebottomoftheintakestroke andtheintakevalvecloses.Bothintakeandexhaustvalvesarenowclosed, sealingtheupperendofthecylinder.Therisingpistoncompressestheair fuelmixture.Themixtureiscompressedtoonesixthoroneseventhofits originalvolume.Thisisthesameasonegallonofaircompressinguntila littlemorethanapintofairisleft.Compressingthemixturemakesitmore combustible;theenergyinthefuelisconcentratedintoasmallerspace.The mixtureofairandfuelisignitednearoratthetopofthecompressionstroke (Figure18).

Figure18.CompressionStroke. c.Powerstroke.Attheupperlimitofpistonmovement(neartopdead center),thecompressedairfuelmixtureisignited.Theignitionsystem producesasparkinthecylindercausingthemixturetoburn.Thegenerated pressureforcesthepistondownwardonthepowerstroke(Figure19).

Figure19.PowerStroke. 12 OD0610

d.Exhauststroke.Aftertheairfuelmixturehasturned,itmustbe clearedfromthecylinder.Thisisdonebyopeningtheexhaustvalvejustas thepowerstrokeisfinishedandthepistonstartsbackupontheexhaust stroke.Thepistonforcestheburnedgasesoutofthecylinder,pastthe openedexhaustvalve.Thefourstrokes(intake,compression,power,and exhaust)mustbeautomaticallyrepeatedoverandoverinthesamesequencein eachcylinderiftheengineistorun(Figure110).

Figure110.ExhaustStroke. 4. FourStrokeandTwostrokeEngines.Theenginesdescribedinparagraphs2 and3andillustratedinFigures16through110areafourstrokecycle engine.Fourstrokesofthepiston,withtworevolutionsofthecrankshaftand onerevolutionofthecamshaftarerequiredforthecompletecycleofevents. ThistypeofengineisalsocalledafourstrokeOttocycleenginebecauseit wasDr.N.A.Ottowho,in1976,firstappliedtheprinciplesofthisengine. Inthetwostrokecycleengine,theentirecycleofevents(intake, compressions,power,andexhaust)takesplaceintwopistonstrokes.

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a.TwoStrokecycle.Atwostrokecyclegasolineengineisshownin Figure111.Everyotherstrokeonthisengineisapowerstroke.Eachtime thepistonmovesdown,itisonthepowerstroke.Intake,compression,power, andexhauststilltakeplace,buttheyarecompletedinjusttwostrokes. Intakeandexhaustportsarecutintothecylinderwallinsteadofbeingplaced atthetopofthecombustionchamberasinthefourstrokecycleengine.As thepistonmovesdownonitspowerstroke,itfirstuncoverstheexhaustport toletburnedgasesescapeandthenituncoverstheintakeporttoallowanew airfuelmixturetoenterthecombustionchamber.Thenontheupwardstroke, thepistoncoversbothportsandatthesametime,compressesthenewmixture inpreparationforignitionandanotherpowerstroke.Intheengineshownin Figure111,thepistonisshapedsothattheincomingairfuelmixtureis directedupward,sweepingoutaheadofittheburnedexhaustgases.Also, thereisaninletintothecrankcasethroughwhichtheairfuelmixturepasses beforeitentersthecylinder.Thisinletisopenedasthepistonmoves upward,butitissealedoffasthepistonmovesdownwardonthepowerstroke. Thedownwardmovingpistonslightlycompressesthemixtureinthecrankcase, givingthemixturesufficientpressuretopassrapidlythroughtheintakeport asthepistonclearsthisport.Thisimprovesthe"sweepingout",or scavengingeffectofthemixtureasitentersandclearstheburnedgasesfrom thecylinderthroughtheexhaustport.

Figure111.EventsinATwoStrokeCycle, InternalCombustionEngine.

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b.ComparisonofTwoStrokeCycleEngines.Itmightappearthatatwo strokecycleenginecouldproducetwiceasmuchhorsepowerasafourstroke cycleengineofthesamesize,operatingatthesamespeed.Thisisnotthe case.Toscavengetheburnedgasesattheendofthepowerstrokeandduring thetimeboththeintakeandexhaustportsareopen,thefreshairfuelmixture rushesintoandthroughacylinder,aportionofthefreshairfuelmixture mingleswiththeburnedgasesandiscarriedouttheexhaustport.Also,due tothemuchshorterperiod,theintakeportisopen(ascomparedtotheperiod theintakevalveinafourstrokecycleengineisopen),arelativelysmaller amountofairfuelmixtureisadmitted.Withlessairfuelmixture,lesspower perpowerstrokeisproducedascomparedtothepowerproducedinafourstroke cycleengineoflikesizeoperatingatthesamespeed,andwithother conditionsbeingthesame.Toincreasetheamountofairfuelmixture, auxiliarydevicesareusedwithtwostrokecycleenginestoassuredeliveryof greateramountsofairfuelmixtureintothecylinder.Figure111showsone devicethatusescompressioninthecrankcase.Otherenginesmayuse superchargersorturbochargersorbothtoincreasepower.Obviously,the greaterthepressuredeveloped,themoreaircarriedintothecylinder.

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LESSON,PARTA PracticeExercise Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialscoveredinthis lesson.Thereisonlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhave completedtheexercise,checkyouranswerswiththeanswerkeythatfollows. Ifyouansweranyitemincorrectly,studyagainthatpartofthelessonwhich containstheportioninvolved. 1. Whatistheupanddownmovementofthepistoncalled? _________________________________________________________________ 2. Whatiseachmovementofthepistonfromthetoptobottomorfrombottom totopcalled? _________________________________________________________________ 3. Whatoperatesbothintakeandexhaustvalves? _________________________________________________________________ 4. Whatiseverydawnstrokeonatwostrokeenginecalled? _________________________________________________________________

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PRACTICEEXERCISE ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK Item 1. 2. 3. 4. CorrectAnswerandFeedback Reciprocatingmotionistheupanddownmovementpistoninthe cylinder.Page5,para(2). Eachmovementofthepistonfromtoptobottomorfrombottomto topiscalledastroke.Page6,para(3). Camshaftoperatesbothintakeandexhaustvalves.Page7,para (5). Everydownstrokeinatwostrokecycleengineisapowerstroke. Page14,paraa.

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LESSONCONTENT PartB. DieselEngines.UponcompletionofPartB,youwillbeabletoexplainthe principlesofoperationoftwostrokeandfourstrokecycledieselengines. ThedieselenginebearsthenameofDr.RudolphDiesel,aGermanengineer.He iscreditedwithconstructing,in1897,thefirstsuccessfuldieselengine usingliquidfuel.Hisobjectivewasanenginewithgreaterfueleconomythan thesteamengine,whichusedonlyasmallpercentageofenergycontainedinthe coalburnedunderitsboiler.Dr.Dieseloriginallyplannedtousepulverized coalasfuel,buthisfirstexperimentalenginein1893wasafailure.Aftera secondenginefailed,hechangedhisplanandusedliquidfuel. a.CharacteristicsofDieselEngines.Dieselenginesaresimilarto gasolineenginesandarebuiltinbothtwoandfourstrokedesigns.Theymay bewateroraircooled.Ingeneral,theyareheavierinstructuretowithstand thehigherpressuresresultingfromtheincreasedcompressionratiosused.In somedieselengines,thecompressionratiomaybeashighas18to1. (1)FuelIntakeandIgnitionofAirFuelMixture.Themaindifference betweengasolineanddieselengines(Figure112)isinthemethodof introducingfuelintothecylindersandignitingtheairfuelmixture.Fuel andairaremixedtogetherbeforetheyenterthecylinderofthegasoline engine.Themixtureiscompressedbytheupstrokeofthepistonandisignited withinthecylinderbyasparkplug.Airaloneentersthecylinderofadiesel engine.Theairiscompressedbytheupstrokeofthepistonandthediesel fuelisinjectedintothecombustionchambernearthetopoftheupstroke (compressionstroke).Theairbecomeshotenough(1000to2000F)toignite thefuelasitissprayedintothecombustionchamberbytheinjector (compressionignition).Nosparkplugisusedinthedieselengine;ignition isbycontactofthefuelwiththeheatedair.

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Figure112.ComparisonofSequenceEventsinFourStroke GasolineandDieselEngines.

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(2)TwoStrokecycledieselengines.Intwocycledieselengines,it isnecessarytoforceairintothecylindersandforceexhaustgasesat.One waytodothisistouseasuperchargeror"blower".TheGeneralMotors(GM) twocycledieselusesapositivedisplacementtypeblowertoforceairintothe cylinders(Figure113).

Figure113.Blower. (a)Twocycledieselenginesdonothaveintakevalves.One configurationusedbythemilitaryhasfairexhaustvalvesforeachcylinder. Airentersthecylinderthroughportsinthecylinderlinerinsteadofthrough intakevalves(Figure114).Theseportsareexposedeachtimethepiston movesdown.Intakeandexhaustwilloccurinthecylinderatthesametime.

Figure114.CylinderLinerandIntakePorts.

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(b)Whenthepistonisnearthebottomofitsstroke,theportsin thecylinderlinerareexposed.Air,underpressurefromtheblower,isforced intothecylinder(intake).Atthesametime,theexhaustvalvesopen.The incomingairhelpsforcetheexhaustgasesoutoftheengine(exhaust).The exhaustvalvescloseasthepistonstartsitcompressionstroke.Airis continuouslyforcedintothecylinderuntilthepistonblockstheports.The airiscompressedandignitedandthepistonisforcedbackdown.Everydown strokeisobviouslyapowerstroke.Whenthepistonmovesdownfarenoughto exposethecylinderports,thesequencebeginsagain. (3)Controlofspeedandpower.Thespeedandthepowerofthediesel enginesarecontrolledbythequantityoffuelinjectedintothecylinders. Thisisopposedtothecommongasolineengine,whichcontrolsspeedandpower bylimitingtheamountofairadmittedtothecarburetor.Inthediesel engine,avaryingamountoffuelismixedwithaconstantamountofcompressed airinsidethecylinder.Afullchargeofairentersthecylinderoneach intakestroke.Becausethequantityofairisconstant,theamountoffuel injecteddeterminesspeedandpoweroutput.Aslongastheamountoffuel injectedisbelowthemaximumestablishedbythemanufacturerwhodesignedthe engine,thereisalwaysenoughairinthecylinderforcompletecombustion. (4)Combustionprocess.Inthedieselengine,thereiscontinuous combustionduringtheentirelengthofthepowerstroke,andpressureresulting fromcombustionremainsrelativelyconstantthroughoutthestroke.Inthe gasolineengine,combustioniscompletedwhilethepistonisattheupperpart oftravel.Thismeansthatthevolumeofthemixturestaysaboutthesame duringmostofthecombustionprocess.Whenthepistondoesmovedownandthe volumeincreases,thereisalittleadditionalcombustiontomaintainpressure. Becauseofthesefacts,thecycleofthegasolineengineisoftenreferredto ashavingConstantVolumeCombustionwhilethedieselcycleissaidtohave ConstantPressureCombustion. b.TurbineEngine.(Figure115).Theturbineengineburnslow performancedieselfuelmixedwithcompressedandheatedair.Airentersthe engineandflowsthroughtwocompressors.Thecompressedairisheatedby exhaustgasestoaidburning.Theheatedandcompressedairisdirectedinto thecombustionchamberwhereitmixeswithfuelvapor.Continuousburning occursonceithasbeenstartedbyanignitionspark.Gasesareroutedthrough therecuperatortoheatincomingairandthenexhausted.

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Figure115.TurbineEngine.

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(1)Turbineenginesystems.Theturbineenginesystemconsistsofair andfuelcontrolcomponents,combustionchamber,turbines,andanexhaust system(Figure116). (a)AirSupply.Theairsupplyforcompressionisdrawnfrom outsidetheenginebytheactionoftwocompressors.Itiscleanedand directedtotheengineairinlet.Fromtheinlet,theairflowsthroughalow pressurecompressorsectionandthenthroughahighpressuresection.The compressedairthenpassesintoarecuperatorandflowsintothecombustion chamberwhereitmixeswithfuelvaporandburns. (b)Fuel.Fuelissuppliedbytwocontrolunitswhich automaticallysupplythecorrectamountforvaryingengineoperating conditions. (c)Combustion.Electricignitioninthecombustionchamberis usedonlyduringthestartingcycle.Afterthestart,acontinuousflowofair andfuelvapormaintainsacontinuousburninginthecombustionchamberuntil thefuelortheairisshutoff. (d)Turbines.Exhaustgasleavesthecombustionchamberthrough dischargenozzlesandforcesatwostageturbinetoturn.Thehighpressure turbinedrivesthehighpressurecompressorrotor.Thelowpressureturbines drivethelowpressurecompressorrotor.Afterleavingthelowpressure turbine,theexhaustgasdrivesatwostagepowerturbine.Thepowerturbine suppliestheforcetoturntheenginepoweroutputdriveshaft. (e)Exhaust.Theexhaustgasleavingthepowerturbineisrouted throughtherecuperatortoheatcompressedair.

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Figure116.DieselTurbineEngineComponents ConstructionandOperation. (2)Turbineoperation.Inordertomasterthetheoryofoperation behindthegasturbineengine,fourbasicprinciplesmustbeunderstood:mass, pressure,acceleratedmass,andconversionofenergy.Thefollowingisa discussiononeach.

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(a)Mass.Allturboshaftenginesattaintheirhighrotational torqueoutput,orpower,fromenergytransferredtotheturbinesbythe acceleratedairmasswithintheengine.Figure117illustratesthisconcept. Withincontainer1,thereisacertainamountofairmolecules;theexact amountisreferredtoasmass.Thisairmassisoneofthekeycomponents requiredtodrivetheturbineinthemassaccelerationprinciple.

Figure117.TheoryofGasTurbineEngine

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(b)Pressure.Asecondcomponentrequiredintheacceleration principleispressure,ordrivingforce.Toattainthispressure,container2 (Figure117)isheatedandthemoleculescontainedwithinexpandandexert pressureequallyinalldirections. (c)AcceleratedMass.Anacceleratedmassisobtainedbyfunneling thepressurizedgasdownanarrowpassageway(container3).Itisthis convergencyornarrowingdownofthenozzleareathatcausesthemoleculesto accelerateandproducethatvelocityenergyrequiredtoperformtherotational mechanicalwork. (d)ConversionofEnergy.Thehighvelocitygasespossessalarge amountofkineticenergy.Thisenergyduetomotionnowmustbeconvertedto mechanicalenergy,whichcanbeaccomplishedbyaddingaturbinewheelto container4(Figure117).Thefirstforce,asseenintheillustration,is theimpactorpushofthehighvelocitygasesexitingthenozzleandhitting theturbinewheel.Thesecondforce,whichisareactionforce,isgenerated bythehighvelocitygasesexitingtheturbinewheelintheoppositedirection ofrotation.

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(3)CycleCharacteristicsandVariations.Thefourstroke/cycle pistontypeengineisdesignedtoperformfourevents:intake,compression, power,andexhaust.Onecycle(fourevents)iscompletedasthecrankshaft rotatestwiceforatotalof720degrees.Eacheventiscompletedwithin180 degreesofcrankshaftrotationandiscalledastroke.Gasturbineengine operationconsistsoffoureventsthatareessentiallythesameasthe reciprocatingengine.Airisfirstdrawnthroughtheairinletsectionthat relatestotheintakeevent.Itthenpassesthroughthecompressorsection, relatingtothecompressionevent.Theairthenentersthecombustor,mixes withfuel,andisignited.Astheairfuelmixtureburns,thepressure increaseisdirectedthroughtheturbinesthatextractworkfromtheflowing gaseswhichrelatestothepowerevent.Passingthroughtheturbines,theused gasesareexhaustedtotheatmosphere,relatingtotheexhaustevent.Figure 118illustratesthecomparisonofeventsbetweenthefourstroke/cyclepiston typeengineandthegasturbine.

Figure118.ComparisonofPistonEnginetoTurbineEngine.

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(4)ContinuousCombustion.Asdiscussedabove,thefourstroke/cycle pistontypeengineperformsfourseparatediscreteevents.Eacheventmustbe completedbeforethenextonebegins.Basicgasturbineengineoperation consistsoffoureventsthatareessentiallythesameasthepistontype reciprocatingengine;however,theseeventscombinetoformacontinuouscycle. Asthegasturbineoperates,eachofthefoureventstranspirescontinuously. Inthegasturbineengine,aslongasthereisasupplyofairandfuelto burn,expand,andmaintainturbinespeed,thecycleissaidtobecontinuous andselfsufficient. (5)ThermalComparison.Thepistontypeengineoperatesatrelatively coolertemperaturesthanthegasturbineengine.Thepistonenginewithstands combustionchambertemperaturesofapproximately5000degreesFahrenheit(2760 degreesCelsius)forashortdurationoftime.Thehotcomponentsarecooled rapidlytomaintainrelativelylowtemperaturesofonlyafewhundreddegrees. Inthegasturbine,thecombustionchambermaintainsaconstanttemperatureand limitsittoapproximately1000to2000degreesFahrenheit(537.7to1090.3 degreesCelsius).Thisisdonetoretaintheresilienceofinternalcomponents andinhibitformationofforeignmatteronrotatingparts. (6)AirInletSection.Theairinletsection(Figure119)servesto furnishauniformandsteadyairflowtothefaceofthecompressor.Inlet sectionsmaybeequippedwithorwithoutinletguidevanes.Inletguidevanes servetodirecttheairintothefirststageofthecompressor.

Figure119.AirInletSection.

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(7)Compressors.Thecompressorisdesignedtoprovidethecombustion chamberwithamaximumamountofhighpressureairthatisheatedandexpanded throughtheturbines.Theamountofenergyreleasedfromtheheatedairmassis proportionaldirectlytothemassofairconsumed.Thisisthemajorreason whythecompressorisoneofthemostimportantcomponentsinthegasturbine. Apoorlydesignedcompressorwillnotprovidethecombustionchamberwiththe properamountofhighpressureair,andwillresultinalackofpower.Modern compressorsareabletoachievecompressionratiosofapproximately15:1and efficienciesapproaching90percent.Twocommontypesofcompressorsare discussedbelow.

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(8)Axial.Theaxialcompressorperformsthecompressionprocessina straightlineparalleltotheaxisoftheengine.Theaxialcompressoris composedofrotatingmemberscalledrotorsandstationarymemberscalled stators.Arowofrotorsandstatorsiscalledastage.Theaxialcompressor iscomposedofaseriesofstages(Figure120).Duringoperation,theairis arrestedinthefirststageofcompressionandisturnedbyasetofstator vanes,pickedupbyasetofrotorblades,andpassedthrougheachsuccessive stagetocompletethecompressionprocess.Therotorsincreasevelocitywhile thestatorsdecreasethevelocity.Thesuccessiveincreasesanddecreasesin velocitypracticallycanceleachother,witharesultthatthevelocity,asthe airleavesthecompressor,isusuallyslightlygreaterthanthevelocityofthe airattheentrancetothecompressor.Asthepressureisbuiltupby successivesetsofrotorsandstators,lessandlessvolumeisrequired.Thus, thevolumewithinthecompressorisdecreasedgradually.Attheexitofthe compressor,adiffusersectionwithintheengineaddsthefinaltouchtothe compressionprocessbydecreasingagainthevelocityandincreasingthestatic pressurejustbeforetheairenterstheengineburnersection.

Figure120.AxialCompressor.

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(9)CentrifugalCompressors.Thistypeofcompressorconsistsoftwo mainparts:animpellerandadiffuser.Centrifugalcompressorsoperateby takinginairnearthehuboftheimpellerandacceleratingitoutwardby centrifugalaction.Theimpellervanesguidetheairtowardtheouter circumferenceofthecompressor,buildingupthevelocitybymeansofthehigh rotationalspeedoftheimpeller.Airleavestheimpellerathighspeedand flowsthroughasetofdiffuservaneswhichdeceleratestheflowofair, convertinghighvelocityairtohighpressureenergy.Thediffuservanesalso servetostraightenairflow.Atypicalcentrifugalcompressorisshownin Figure121.

Figure121.CentrifugalCompressor.

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(10)CombustionChamber.Thecombustionchamber,Figure122,is designedtoburnamixtureoffuelandair,andtodelivertheresultinggases totheturbineatatemperaturethatwillnotexceedtheallowablelimitsat theturbineinlet.Thechamber,withinaverylimitedspace,mustadd sufficientheatenergytothegasespassingthroughtheengine.This acceleratestheirmassenoughtoproducethedesiredpowerfortheturbine section.Combustionchambersarebuiltinanumberofdifferentdesigns.The constructionissuchthatlessthanonethirdofthetotalvolumeofair enteringthechamberispermittedtomixwiththefuel.Theremainingairis useddownstreamtocoolthecombustorsurfaces,andtomixwithandcoolthe burnedgasesbeforetheyentertheturbines.

Figure122.CombustionChamber.

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(11)Recouperator.Thefunctionoftherecouperator,alsocalled regenerator,istotransferheatfromtheexhaustgasestotheairenteringthe engine.Thisprocessallowstheincomingairtoexpandpriortocombustion. Asaresult,lessheatisrequiredduringthecombustionprocesstoobtaina fullyexpandedairmasswithmaximumvelocity.Therecouperatoris cylindricallyshapedwithahollowpassagewaythroughthemiddle.Triangular andovalshapedportsareplacedalternatelyaroundtheperimeterandpass throughthelengthoftherecouperator(Figure123).Twodifferenttypesof platesarealternatelystackedtoconstructtherecouperator.

Figure123.TypicalRecouperator.

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Theairplate(Figure124,A)isconstructedwithaflatpathwaybetweenthe ovalandtriangularports.Theincomingcoolairpassesdownthetriangular portsandentersapassagebetweentriangularandovalports.Astheair passesthroughthepathways,itisheatedbyexhaustgasesexitingaboveand belowthepathway.Theexhaustgasentersthemiddleoftherecouperator, passesthroughheaterplates(Figure124,B),andexitstheoutsideofthe unit,givingupheattothecoolairintheprocess.Thebenefitsobtained fromtheuseofarecouperatorarelistedbelow. (a)Highthermalefficiency. (b)Lowerspecificfuelconsumption. (c)Lowerexhausttemperature. Basically,theonlydisadvantagetothissystemistheadditionalweightofthe unittothevehicle.

Figure124.RecouperatorPlateDetail.

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(12)Turbines.Theturbineisdesignedtoextractthekineticenergy (energyduetomotion)fromtheexpandinggasesthatflawfromthecombustion chamber.Thiskineticenergythenisconvertedintoshafthorsepowertodrive thecompressorandengineaccessories.Mostoftheenergyobtainedfromthe productsofcombustionisusedtodrivethecompressorandtheremainingenergy isutilizedtopoweradditionalcomponentssuchanoilingsystemandhydraulic systems.Additionalpowerturbinesareusedtoextractresidualenergyfrom themovinggasestoprovidevehicularpower.Turbinescanbedividedintotwo basictypes:radialinflowandaxialflow. (a)RadialInflow.Thistypeofturbine(Figure125)issimilar tothecentrifugalcompressorindesignandconstruction.Radialinflow operatesastheinletgasespassthroughopeningsthatdirectthegasesonto thebladesatthebaseofthecompressor.Thegasthenactsagainsttheblades oftheturbinetoproducetherotationaleffect.Thegasesthenareexhausted atthetopoftheturbine,paralleltotheaxisofrotation.Despiteits simplisticdesignanddurability,theradialinflowturbinegenerallyis limitedtouseinsmallerengines.

Figure125.RadialInflowTurbine.

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(b)AxialFlow.Theaxialflowturbine(Figure126)iscomposed oftwomainelements:asetofstationaryvanesandaturbinerotororrotors. Theaxialflowturbinerotorsarecategorizedintotwobasictypes:impulseand reaction.Themodernturbineconsistsofacombinationofthesetwocalledthe impulsereactionturbine.Eachisdiscussedbelow.Asthenameimplies,the axialflowturbinewheelextractskineticenergyfromthemovinggasesthat flowinarelativelystraightline,paralleltotheaxisofrotation.The turbinewheelisusedastherotatingelement.Stationaryvanesareusedto deliverthegastothenextstageinthemostefficientwaypossible.

Figure126.AxialFlowDesign.

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oImpulseTurbine.Theconstructionoftheimpulseturbineis illustratedinFigure127.Inthisconfiguration,theareaoftheinletand exitoftheturbinebladesaremadeequal.Thus,thevelocityofthegas enteringthebladeisequaltotheexitingvelocity(minusfrictionallosses). Thebladesaredesignedinsuchawaythatthehighvelocitygasesconcentrate theirenergiesonthecenteroftheblade.Thegasesthenbounceofftheblade atananglerespectivetotheapproachangleproducingtheforcerequiredto turntheblade.

Figure127.ImpulseTurbine.

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oReaction.Thereactionturbineoperatesonthedifferential pressureprinciplemuchlikethewingofanairplane(Figure128).Asthe gasesenteraconvergingpassagewayonthefirststagerotor,anincreasein velocityandadecreaseinpressureisexperienced.Theresultisarotation oftheturbinewheelinthedirectionoflowpressure.Thereactionturbine wheel,therefore,doesnotrequirerelativelyhighentrancevelocitiesasdoes theimpulseturbine.

Figure128.ReactionTurbine. oImpulseReaction.Theimpulsereactionturbinebladeisa combinationofboththeimpulseandreactiondesigns.Thelargercircumference oftheassemblyattheendsoftheturbinebladesrequiresthetipstotravel atafasterrateofspeedthantherootstoobtainthesamedegreeofrotation. Theimpulsereactiontypebladeusesthisconcepttoequalizethevelocitiesof thegasesexitingtherootandtipoftheturbinewheel.Thistypeisdesigned sothatthebaseofthebladeisanimpulsedesignandthetipisareaction design.Thisprovidesanequalpressuredistributionacrossthebladeand therefore,anefficientturbineblade.Theimpulsereactionturbinebladeis usedalmostexclusivelyinmodernturboshaftengines.

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c.Construction.Turbinesoperateatspeedsrangingfromapproximately 8000to60,000rpm,dependingonenginesize.Thesehighrotationalspeeds inducehighstressfactors,whichmustbeovercomeforsafeandefficient operation.Theturbineisconstructedofadiskandblades,eachofwhichis carefullybalancedandweighed.Theblades(sometimescalledbuckets)are attachedtothediskbyafirtreedesign.Thisdesignprovidesfordifferent ratesofexpansionbetweenbladeanddisk.Thebladesareattachedaxiallyby fastenersorrivets.Turbinebladescanbeopenattheendsorconstructedto formashroud.Turbinetemperaturemustbemonitoredcloselyduringoperation. Toexceedthemaximumoperatingtemperaturecouldresultinchangingthetemper oftheblades.Thisconditioncanchangethepitchofthebladesandrender theenginelessefficientanddangeroustooperate. d.Exhaust.Theexhaustgasespassradiallyoutwardthroughthe recouperatorcoreintoacollectionplenumthatisconnectedtothevehicle exhaustduct.

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LESSON,PARTB PracticeExercise Thefollowingitemswilltestyourgraspofthematerialcoveredinthis lesson.Thereisonlyonecorrectanswerforeachitem.Whenyouhave completedtheexercise,checkyouranswerswiththeanswerkeythatfollows. Ifyouansweranyportionincorrectly,studyagainthatpartofthelesson whichcontainstheportioninvolved. 1.Whatisthemaindifferencebetweengasolineanddieselengines? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 2.Whatcontrolsthespeedandpoweroutputofdieselengines? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3.Whyisthecycleofadieselenginereferredtoashavingconstant pressure? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4.Whatisthenameofthetwo(2)compressorsintheturbineenginethatair flowsthroughbeforeenteringtheengine? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________

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5.Whatarethethree(3)benefitsobtainedfromtheuseofarecouperator? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 6.Whatarethefour(4)basicprinciplesthatmastbeunderstood,inorderto masterthetheoryofoperationbehindthegasturbineengine? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________

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LESSON,PARTB PRACTICEEXERCISE ANSWERKEYANDFEEDBACK Item 1. CorrectAnswerandFeedback Themaindifferencebetweengasolineanddieselenginesisinthe methodofintroducingthefuelintothecylindersandignitingthe airfuelmixture.Page19,paraa.(1). Thespeedandpoweroutputofdieselenginesarecontrolledbythe quantityoffuelinjectedintothecylinders.Page22,para(3). Continuouscombustion(burnout)throughouttheentirepowerstroke isreferredtoasaconstantpressure.Page22,para(4). Compressorstheairflowsthrougharelowcompressorandhigh compressor.Page24,para1.(a). Benefitsobtainedfromtheuseofarecouperatorarehighthermal efficiency,lowerspecificfuelconsumption,andlowerexhaust temperature.Page35,paras(a),(b),and(c). Thefourbasicprinciplesaremass,pressure,acceleratedmass,and conversionofenergy.Page25,para(2).

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

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