SHORT INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH VERB

TIME, TENSE, ASPECT

TIME
It is a universal, non-linguistic category It can be represented by a line progressing to infinity, with three divisions
past present future Past present future

TIME
It represents the sequentional character of the events we perceive in the world Events must be ordered in time (with respect to other events) e.g. an event is past only because it is put in relation to the present event of speaking Each event can be, with respect to another event, in relation of
anteriority posteriority simultaneity

TENSE
It is a linguistic / grammatical category (it is used only in relation to the verb) Definition: tense is the form the verb takes to express time
repairS (present tense) vs repairED (past tense)
- the inflection (-s / -ed) expresses time

- goES (present tense) vs went (past tense) - the entire form of the verb may be different to express time (went)

TENSE
In English, there is grammatical contrast (special forms of the verb) only for present tense (marked only for the 3rd person, singular: -s/es) and past tense (marked by ed or a different form of the verb). There is no future tense proper ( a special inflection/form for the verb to express future time). That is why, some grammarians consider that, in English, there are only two tenses: present and past

TENSE
In

Jane will arrive I am going to call , and other future constructions, the idea of futurity is expressed by certain words/phrases (will / be going to), not by inflections or certain forms of the verb itself

TENSE
The inflection of the verb or a different form of the verb expresses time, but not only time. They may carry, alone, or in the company of other words, other meanings, such as: the nature of the event (if it is real or hypothetical), the speakers attitude about the event etc. Conclusion: tense (the form of the verb) ALONE does not mirror time.

TENSE
Consider the following verb forms were starts came

What time do they refer to: present, past of future?

TENSE
Analyse the relation between tense and time in the following examples You were there. (1) You were there yesterday. (2) I wish you were here (3) Every school year starts on 15th September. (4) School starts next week. (5) They came. (6) They came an hour ago. (7) If she came tomorrow! (8) We shall have left by the time you arrive (9)

TENSE
Time is expressed by a combination of: - Tense (form of the verb) - Adverbs of time (adverbial clauses of time) present in the sentence/utterance (2,4,5,7,8,9) - Context

TENSE
Context refers to: - Linguistic (internal) context: certain words/expressions which accompany the verb (wish, if etc). - External context: knowledge shared by speaker and hearer connected to the event expressed by the sentence/utterance (in 1 and 6 both the speaker and the hearer know about the circumstances in which the event of being there and coming took place)

TENSE
Axis of orientation If we take an event as source/ reference for the temporal orientation of other events, we create an Axis of orientation With respect to the source event (SE), the other events can be - simultaneous - sequentional
- anterior to SE (before relation) - posterior to SE (after relation)

TENSE
The primary Axis of orientation is the axis created by the source event which is the Moment of speaking (MS) or the Present point (PP) and is called the Axis of the present

PP (now)

TENSE
Relative to this reference point (PP/MS) the other events can be : - Present (simultaneous with the PP now) - Past (anterior to PP - at now the events are recollected) - Future (posterior to PP at now the events are anticipated)

TENSE
PP (now) is the moment of initiating a discourse. It is a floating point; during the discourse, it may become a retrospective point (RP a source event in the past), or an anticipated point (AP a source event in the future)

TENSE
In other words, at PP/MS, the speaker locates himself in time and places himself in relation to the events expressed in the sentence. At PP/ MS the speaker can: - experience events (E): E = PP - recollect events : E PP - anticipate events : E PP

TENSE
On the Axis of present, an event can be: - simultaneous with PP, E = PP (present tense) - anterior to PP, E PP (present perfect) - posterior to PP E PP (future)

TENSE
On the Axis of the past, an event can be: - simultaneous with RP, E = RP (past tense) - anterior to RP, E RP (past perfect) - posterior to RP, E RP (future in the past)

TENSE
On the Axis of the future, an event can be: - simultaneous with AP, E = AP (no form) - anterior to AP, E AP (future perfect) - posterior to AP, E AP (no form)

TENSE
On the Retrospective Anticipated Axis an event can be: - simultaneous with RAP, E = RAP (no form) - anterior to RAP, E RAP (modal construction) - posterior to RAP, E RAP (no form)

TENSE
PP (now) Axis of the present

AP Then

Axis of the future

RP Then
RAP

Axis of the past

The retrospective anticipated axis

TENSE
To express all these types of events, placed on different axes of time, and found in simultaneous or sequentional relationships with respect to the source events, there are certain forms the verb can take. All these forms form the System of Tense Inflections in English

THE SYSTEM OF TENSE INFLECTIONS IN ENGLISH

has driven E PP drives E = PP will drive E PP Axis of the present

will have driven E AP E = AP had driven drove E RP

Axis of the future E AP

would drive E = RP E RP would have driven E RAP E = RAP E RAP

Axis of the past

The retrospective anticipated axis

REICHENBACHIAN TENSE THEORY

There are three basic entities to analyse the temporal structure of a sentence: - SpeechTime : the time at which the (ST) sentence is uttered - Reference Time: the division of time indicated (RT) by the sentence (past, present, or future) - Event Time : the moment at which the (ET) relevant event occurs

REICHANBACHS THEORY
Jane left yesterday

ST: now RT: past (adverb of time yesterday ) ET: simultaneous with RT (the event did not happen before or after the relevant time specified in the sentence, yesterday)

ELEMENTS USED TO EXPRESS ST, RT, AND ET

ST: RT: is always now, when the speaker produces the utterance can be established by interpreting the combination of tense inflection with temporal adverbials (if any) in the context in which the sentence is produced

TEMPORAL ADVERBIALS USED TO SPECIFY THE RT

a) Adverbs used to express PAST TIME
- explicitly past adverbs of time (anchored in the past, used only with past forms of verbs) yesterday, . ago, last - unanchored adverbs of time (they are not anchored in the past they can be used to refer to past, present of future, depending on the context - on Monday, in 1989

TEMPORAL ADVERBIALS USED TO SPECIFY THE RT

b) Adverbs used to express PRESENT TIME - explicitly present adverbs of time: now, right now, currently, at this/the moment, at the present time, presently (UK) etc

c) Adverbs used to express FUTURE TIME - explicitly future adverbs of time (used only to express future time): tomorrow, next - unanchored adverbs: in August, on Tuesday

TEMPORAL ADVERBIALS USED TO SPECIFY THE ET

The temporal relation between the ET and the RT of the sentence can be expressed by: - prepositions:
- at: to express simultaneity (ET is simultaneous with RT) - before: to express anteriority (ET is anterior to RT) - after : to express posteriority (ET is posterior to RT)

TEMPORAL ADVERBIALS USED TO SPECIFY THE ET

the aspectual auxiliary HAVE: it specifies that the ET is anterior to RT adverbs such as already

COMBINATIONS OF TENSE AND TEMPORAL ADVERBIALS TO ESTABLISH RT Tense Adverb RT Example

Present Present Present Future Present Future I am reading now She is leaving tomorrow

Present
Past Past

Unanchored
Past Unanchored

Future
Past Past

She leaves on Tuesday

He made up his mind a week ago He came on Monday

ABSTRACT TEMPORAL REPRESENTATION (ATR)

We can attach an abstract temporal representation to a tense, ATR. An ATR contains two components: 1) The reference component: it specifies the ST and its relation to RT. We can identify the following situations:
- RT = ST (the reference time of the sentence is present) - RT ST (the reference time is past) - RT ST (the reference time is future)

ABSTRACT TEMPORAL REPRESENTATION (ATR)

2) The Relation component: it specifies the relation between ET and RT. We can identify the following situations: - ET = RT (ET is simultaneous with RT) - ET RT (ET is anterior to RT) - ET RT (ET is posterior to RT)

POSSIBLE STRUCTURAL COMBINATIONS

a) Present Time Axis (RT = ST) [RT = ST, ET = RT] simple present *RT = ST, ET RT+ present perfect *RT = ST, ET RT+ future

POSSIBLE STRUCTURAL COMBINATIONS

b) Past Time Axis (RT ST) *RT ST, ET = RT+ past tense *RT ST, ET RT+ past perfect *RT ST, ET RT+ future in the past

POSSIBLE STRUCTURAL COMBINATIONS

c) Future Axis of Time (RT ST) *RT ST, ET = RT+ *RT ST, ET RT+ future perfect *RT ST, ET RT+

ATR - PRACTICE
1) Give the ATR of the following sentence Jane swam at midnight a) The reference component ST: now RT: past; RT ST; swam + the unanchored adverb midnight

ATR - PRACTICE
b) The relation component ET = RT; the preposition at simultaneity The ATR is [RTST, swam + midnight; ET = RT, at]

ATR - PRACTICE
2) Give the ATRs of the following sentences Mike learnt the irregular verb yesterday We had arrived before Jane went to bed He fixed the engine before you rang up Simon The postman will have delivered the letters by the time you come home tomorrow Jane has already read a quite interesting novel

TENSE - CONCLUSIONS
Tense - locates the time of the event described in the sentence relative to the ST; it indicates when the events takes place with respect to ST: the event can be anterior, simultaneous, or posterior to ST - is a deictic category: it presents the events described in the sentence as being near the speaker (e.g. present tense) or distant from the speaker (e.g. past tense) and this can only be interpreted in the context in which the utterance is produced.

ASPECT
- it is a linguistic / grammatical category related to the verb. - it is more complex than TENSE (it provides different nuances of meaning) - tense places the event described in the sentence on the axis of time, indicating its position with respect to the ST

ASPECT
- unlike tense, aspect concerns:
the internal temporal constituency of the event expressed by the verb (if the action is completed or in progress) if the verb expresses a habitual event or a single event if the event has consequences at a relevant time of the sentence if the event has effects on the speaker (irritation, annoyance etc)

ASPECT
- It I a non-deictic category (it does not express any relation between the time of he event and the ST)

ASPECT PERFECTIVE VS IMPERFECTIVE

The main aspectual opposition is a semantic one, between - Perfective and
- Imperfective structures

1) PERFECTIVE
I wrote a letter yesterday - Perfective provides a unifying , summarizing view upon the event with respect to a chosen RT - It presents the event in its totality; there is no relevant information about the internal temporal structure of the event: beginning, middle, and end - The event is looked at from outside - The principal meaning it conveys is that the event is completed with respect to a chosen RT

2) IMPERFECTIVE
I was writing a letter yesterday It is concerned with the internal structure of the event, with its internal temporal constituency, which is presented as divided into internal phases: beginning, middle and end There is no concern for the whole situation; it does not provide information about the end of the event The situation is looked at from the inside; the internal temporal phases of an event is dependent on the lexical meaning of the verb: if the verb does not have internal phases (does not have duration) it cannot be used in the imperfective aspect Imperfective indicates incompleteness of the action

FORMAL EXPRESSIONS OF THE ASPECTUAL OPPOSITION

- English language does not have special forms to express, totally, the semantic opposition between perfective and imperfective - The opposition which is grammatically expressed (there are certain forms the verb takes) is that between:
- Progressive and - Non-progressive

PROGRESSIVE (BE + V-ing) - MEANINGS

Meanings conveyed by progressive. 1) The event should be understood as unfolding, developing, in progress with respect to a certain RT (past, present, or future) the subject is in the middle of doing something She is writing a letter (RT = ST) is writing
RT = ST (now)

PROGRESSIVE (BE + V-ing) - MEANINGS

She was writing a letter (RT ST)
ST (now)

was writing
RT (then)

PROGRESSIVE (BE + V-ing) - MEANINGS

She will be writing a letter (RT ST)
ST (now)

will be writing
RT (then)

PROGRESSIVE (BE + V-ing) - MEANINGS

2) The event should be understood as temporary (not lasting for a long period of time) Im living in London am living

RT = ST (now)

PROGRESSIVE (BE + V-ing) - MEANINGS

3) Progressive aspect in a certain linguistic context (accompanied by adverbs expressing frequency always, for ever, continuously) can conveys the idea of the speakers irritation, annoyance Her baby is always crying in the morning

PROGRESSIVE (BE + V-ing) - MEANINGS

4) When used with non-durative/instantaneous verbs, progressive usually conveys the idea of repetition He is kicking her under the table

ASPECTUAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERB PHRASES VENDLERS CLASSIFICATION

1) + progressive (verbs taking progressive) - activity verbs: the event goes on in time in a homogeneous way: running, playing the piano, driving a car , walking Mike was drawing - accomplishments: the event does not go on in a homogeneous way, it reaches a climax ; it implies a definite time to accomplish the event Mike was drawing a circle

ASPECTUAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERB PHRASES VENDLERS CLASSIFICATION 2) progressive (verbs not taking progressive) - state verbs: the situation lasts for a period of time: know, love, believe, hate, have, desire, want, Jane likes Jim - achievements: the situation occurs at a single moment of time (has no duration): recognize, realize, identify, lose, find, reach the top Do you realize you were wrong? *Are you realizing you were wrong?

ASPECTUAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERB PHRASES KENNYS CLASSIFICATION

1) Activities (+ progressive) 2) Performances - accomplishments (+ progressive) - achievements (- progressive) 3) States (- progressive)

ASPECTUAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERB PHRASES MOURELATOS CLASSIFICATION

1) States (- progressive) 2) Occurences - processes ( activities) John is running - events ( performances) - developments (accomplishments) Peter ran a mile - punctual occurences (achievements) The postman arrived

ASPECTUAL CLASSES OF VERBS AND THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

1) STATE VERBS They have a timeless interpretation Take no progressive (usually) The situation expressed cannot be controlled When used in the progressive, the state is interpreted as temporary

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

a) State verbs containing property designating adjectives: intelligent, polite, tall etc. - they are, more or less, permanent properties - usually take no progressive He is taller than me * He is being taller than me

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

- when in progressive, they receive a process interpretation: - the subject is seen as a stage-level object - the verb describes a process unfolding at the RT - the process is of temporal limited character Mike is a fool (state, general property) Mike is being a fool (a temporary process developing now) (= Mike is acting like a fool)

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

b) Mental cognition verbs: know, believe, think, regret, understand, hope, imagine etc. - usually no progressive He knows very few things about plants * He is knowing - when in progressive, they are interpreted as processes He is knowing more and more about plants

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

c) Physical cognition verbs (verbs of perception): see, hear, smell, taste, feel - usually no progressive The coffee tastes delicious (state) *. is tasting - when in progressive, they denote temporary processes Ana is tasting the coffee Deborah is feeling very uncomfortable

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

d) Emotive verbs: desire, hate, like, love, wish etc. the same interpretation I miss you (state) Im missing you dreadfully (process )

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

e) Locative verbs: sit, stand, lie, perch, rest - usually no progressive A beautiful plain lies in front of our eyes My house stands on the highest hill in the region - can be used in the progressive when the verb refers to a movable object, which has recently moved, or might be expected to move in the near future His socks are lying under the bed

STATE VERBS: SUBCLASSES OF STATE VERBS

f) Other property designating verbs: belong, contain, cost, have, possess, own, weigh - usually no progressive It belongs to me *It is belonging - in the progressive they denote a temporary property Are you belonging to College? Im having 100 pairs of trousers.

PROCESS VERBS
2) PROCESS VERBS - when the process is unfolding with respect to a RT, progressive is used Dont call at 3 p.m. She will be sleeping. - when used in the non-progressive, the verb recategorizes as a state Compare Im rubbing the furniture (process) This boot rubs my heel (state)

ACCOMPLISHMENTS
3) ACCOMPLISHMENTS - in the progressive they become simple processes unfolding at the RT of the sentence (they recategorize from accomplishments to processes) She was reading a novel (there is no information whether the goal will be reached or not)

ACHIEVEMENTS
4) ACHIEVEMENTS - when they refer to a unique action, they cannot take progressive (they have no duration) Jane bangs the door (only once!) - in the progressive, they express a repeated process Jane is banging the door (repeatedly)