CHAPTER : 1 Basic optical law & Definition

Prepared By Manoj Kumar

 INTRODUCTION:

SOME COMMON QUESTIONS LIKE

WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER ?

HOW DOES LIGHT PROPAGATE ALONG A FIBER ?

OF WHAT MATERIALS ARE FIBERS MADE ? HOW IS THE FIBER FABRICATED ? HOW ARE THE FIBERS INCORPORATED INTO CABLE

STRUCTURES ? ETC.
WILL BE ANSWERED IN THIS CHAPTER..

2.1 THE NATURE OF LIGHT:

LIGHT IS DEFINED AS THE ENERGY RADIANT WHICH CONSISITS OF FLUCTUATING ELECTRIC FIELD COUPLED WITH A FLUCTUATIONG MAGNETIC FIELD, WHICH PRODUCES THE SENSATION OF SIGHT WHEN IT ENTERS THE HUMAN EYE. THE FIRST THEORY EXPLAINING THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF LIGHT WAS PROPOSED BY MAXWELL WHICH STATED THAT LIGHT IS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE CONSISTING OF A FLUCTUATING ELECTRIC FIELD COUPLED WITH A FLUCTUATING MAGNETIC FIELD. BUT THIS THEORY COULD NOT EXPLAIN PHENOMENA LIKE PHOTO-ELECRIC EFFECT.

 IN THE YEAR 1900, MAX PLANCK PROPOSED THE QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT. HE SAID THAT LIGHT IS EMITTED IN THE FORM OF A DESCRETE QUANTA OF ENERGY, BUT PROPAGATES ONLY AS WAVES.

HE GAVE THE EQUATION: E= hf, WHERE E = THE ENERGY OF PHOTON, h = PLANCKS CONSTANT AND

f = FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT RADAITION.

2.2 BASIC OPTICAL LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

REFLECTION: TO REFLECT MEANS TO THROW BACK. WHEN THE LIGHT IS INCIDENT ON MATERIAL SURFACE AND IS RE-RADIATED BACK THE PHENOMENA IS KNOWN AS REFLECTION. REFRACTION: LIGHT THAT IS TRANSMITTED INTO THE INTERIOR OF TRANSPARENT MATERIALS EXPERIENCES A CHANGE IN VELOCITY AND AS A RESULT, BEND AT THE INTERFACE. THIS BENDING OF LIGHT RAY IS KNOWN AS REFRACTION. SCATTERING: SCATTERING MEANS TO SPREAD ABOUT OVER A SURFACE..

Reflection of Light
Normal or Perpendicular Surface Reflecting Surface

Incident Ray

Angle of Incident

Angle of Reflection

Reflected Ray

Refraction of Light

Less dense medium Incident Ray

Normal or Perpendicular Surface Angle of incident

High dense medium Refracted Ray Angle of Refraction Angle of incident

Less dense medium Normal or Perpendicular Surface

Refracted Ray

 REFRACTIVE INDEX:
IT IS DEFINED AS THE RATIO OF VELOCITY OF LIGHT IN THE VACUUM TO THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT IN THE MATERIAL. IT IS GIVEN BY: n = c/v = velocity of light in vacuum

velocity of light in material IN FREE SPACE A LIGHT WAVE TRAVELS AT A SPEED c = 3 x 108 m/s. TYPICAL VALUES OF n ARE 1.00 FOR AIR, 1.33 FOR WATER, 1.50 FOR GLASS AND 2.42 FOR DIAMOND.

 SNELLS LAW:

 WHEN A LIGHT RAY ENCOUNTERS A BOUNDRY SEPARATING TWO DIFFERENT MEDIA, PART OF THE RAY IS REFLECTED BACK INTO THE FIRST MEDIUM AND THE REMAINDER IS BEND OR REFRACTED AS IT ENTERS THE SECOND MATERIAL. THIS IS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE ABOVE WHERE n2 < n1.THE RELATIONSHIP AT THE INTERFACE IS KNOWN AS SNELLS LAW AND IS GIVEN BY,
n1sin1 = n2sin2 OR EQUIVALENTLY AS , n1cos1 = n2cos2 WHERE 1 IS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AND 2 IS THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION.

 THUS SNELLS LAW SAYS THAT THE BENDING OF LIGHT CANT TAKE PLACE WHEN THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE GROWS TO LARGE AS THE LIGHT TRAVELS FROM A MATERIAL WITH HIGH REFRACTIVE INDEX TO ONE WITH LOW REFRACTIVE INDEX.
IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE EXCEEDS CERTAIN CRITICAL VALUE IN WHICH THE PRODUCT OF n1 AND SINE OF ANGLE EQUALS OR EXCEEDS ONE THAN LIGHT CANNOT EXIT. IF THE LIGHT CANNOT EXIT THE MATERIAL IT IS REFLECTED. THE ANGLE OF RELECTION IS EQUAL TO THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. THIS PHENOMENA IS CALLED TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION WHICH KEEPS THE LIGHT INSIDE THE FIBER.

Transmission of Light Through Optical Fibers

Total Internal Reflection

Total Internal Reflection

The angle of the light is

always greater than the critical angle. Cladding does not absorb any light from the core. The extent that the signal degrades depends upon the purity of the glass and the wavelength of the transmitted light.

Critical angle
Normal or Perpendicular Surface

Reflecting Surface

2 =90

Reflected ray

c
Incident Ray

Critical angle

 CONSIDER FGURE 2.7, WHICH SHOWS A GLASS SURFACE IN AIR. A LIGHT RAY GETS BEND TOWARDS THE GLASS SURFACE AS IT LEAVES THE GLASS IN ACCORDANCE WITH SNELLS LAW. IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE 1 IS INCREASED, A POINT WILL BE REACHED WHERE THE LIGHT RAY IN AIR IS PARALLEL TO THE GLASS SURFACE. THIS POINT IS KNOWN AS THE CRITICAL ANGLE OF INCIDENCE c.

WHEN THE INCIDENT ANGLE 1 IS GREATER THAN THE CRITICAL ANGLE, THE CONDITION FOR TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION IS SATISFIED; THAT IS THE LIGHT IS TOTALLY REFLECTED BACK INTO THE GLASS WITH NO LIGHT ESCAPING THE GLASS SURFACE.

 WHEN THE LIGHT RAY IN AIR IS PARALLEL TO THE GLASS SURFACE, THEN 2 = 90 SO THAT sin2 = 1.
THE CRITICAL ANGLE IN THE GLASS IS THUS, sin c = n2/n1.

Basic structure of optical fiber

 The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material

made up of glass. Light propagates along the core of the fiber. The core is described as having a radius of (a) and an index of refraction n1. The core is surrounded by a layer of dielectric material called the cladding with an index of refraction n2 and made of glass or plastic. Function of cladding is Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air Reduces scattering loss at the surface of the core Protects the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants Adds mechanical strength

The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect an optical fiber from physical damage and made of plastic.

2.3 OPTICAL FIBER MODES AND CONFIGURATIONS OPTICAL FIBERS

SINGLE MODE & MULTIMODE FIBER

STEP INDEX & GRADED INDEX FIBER

PLASTIC FIBER & GLASS FIBER

2.1 FIBER TYPES

THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT ALONG A WAVEGUIDE CAN BE DISCRIBED IN TERMS OF A SET OF GUIDED ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES CALLED THE MODES OF THE WAVEGUIDE. THESE GUIDED MODES ARE REFERRED TO AS THE BOUND OR TRAPPED MODES OF THE WAVEGUIDE. EACH GUIDED MODE IS A PATTERN OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD DISTRIBUTIONS THAT IS REPEATED ALONG THE FIBER AT EQUAL INTERVALS.

 ONLY A CERTAIN DISCRETE NUMBER OF MODES ARE CAPABLE OF PROPAGATING ALONG THE GUIDE.
THESE MODES ARE THOSE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES THAT SATISFY THE HOMOGENEOUS WAVE EQUATION IN THE FIBER AND THE BOUNDRY CONDITION AT THE WAVEGUIDE SURFACES. THE MOST WIDELY ACCEPTED STRUCTURE OF THR FIBER IS THE SINGLE SOLID DIELECTRIC CYLINDER OF RADIUS a AND REFRACTIVE INDEX n1. THIS CYLINDER IS KNOWN AS THE CORE OF THE FIBER. THE CORE IS SURROUNDED BY A SOLID DIELECTRIC CLADDING WHICH HAS REFRACTIVE INDEX n2 THAT IS LESS THAN n1.

n1Core

n2 Cladding

Buffer coating

 THE CLADDING SERVES THE FOLLOWING PURPOSES:

1) IT REDUCES THE SCATTERING LOSS THAT RESULTS FROM DIELECTRIC DISCONTINUITIES AT THE CORE SURFACE.

2) IT ADDS MECHANICAL STRENGTH TO THE FIBER.

3) IT PROTECTS THE CORE FROM ABSORBING SURFACE CONTAMINANTS WITH WHICH IT WOULD COME IN CONTACT.

PLASTIC OPTICAL FIBERS

PLACTIC CLAD

FIBER

ALL PLASTIC FIBER

IN PLASTIC CLAD FIBER THE CORE IS OF GLASS, AND CLADDING IS OF PLASTIC. THE CHARACTERISTICS ARE MORE OR LESS IDENTICAL TO THE GLASS FIBER. HOWEVER PLASTIC CLAD FIBER IS MUCH MORE SENSITIVE TO DAMAGE.

ALL PLASTIC FIBER HAS CLADDING CONSISITING OF PLASTIC AND THE CORE IS ALSO CONSISTING OF PLASTIC. THIS IS USED IN SHORT DISTANCE COMMUNICATION PURPOSE.

 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTIC FIBERS ARE DEGRADED COMPARED TO THE GLASS FIBER. IT HAS LOWER BANDWIDTH AND HIGHER LOSS. BUT THE COST IS VERY LOW AS COMPARED TO THE GLASS FIBER. DUE TO HIGH LOSSES IT IS USED IN LABORATORY PURPOSES, CCTV ETC.

 VARIATIONS IN THE MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE CORE GIVE RISE TO THE TWO COMMONLY USED FIBER TYPES.
IN THE FIRST CASE, THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE CORE IS UNIFORM THROUGHOUT AND UNDERGOES AN ABRUPT CHANGE(OR STEP CHANGE) AT THE CLADDING BOUNDRY. THIS IS CALLED A STEP-INDEX FIBER.

IN THE SECOND CASE, THE CORE REFRACTIVE INDEX IS MADE TO VARY AS A FUNCTION OF THE RADIAL DISTANCE FROM THE CENTER OF THE CORE. THIS IS CALLED A GRADED-INDEX FIBER. THE INDEX IS HIGHEST AT THE CENTER OF THE CORE AND DECREASES TOWARDS THE CLADDING.

BOTH THE STEP INDEX AND THE GRADED INDEX FIBERS CAN BE FURTHER DIVIDED INTO SINGLE MODE AND MULTIMODE CLASSES. AS THE NAME IMPLIES, A SINGLE MODE FIBER SUSTAINS ONLY ONE MODE OF PROPOGATION, WHEREASE MULTIMODE FIBER CONTAIN MANY HUNDREDS OF MODES. MULTIMODE OFFERS SEVERAL ADVANTAGES OVER SINGLE MODE SUCH AS:

1) THE LARGER CORE RADII OF MULTIMODE FIBERS MAKE IT EASIER TO LAUNCH OPTICAL POWER INTO THE FIBER. 2) IT FACILITATE THE CONNECTING TOGETHER OF SIMILAR FIBERS EASILY.

3) LIGHT CAN BE LAUNCHED INTO A MULTIMODE FIBER USING A LED, WHEREASE SINGLE MODE INVARIABLY REQUIRES A LASER. ALTHOUGH LEDS HAVE LESS OPTICAL POWER OUTPUT THAN LASER DIODES, THEY ARE EASIER TO MAKE, ARE LESS EXPENSIVE, REQUIRES LESS COMPLEX CIRCUITRY AND HAVE LONGER LIFETIME.

 A DISADVANTAGE OF MULTIMODE FIBERS : THEY SUFFER FROM INTERMODAL DISPERSION. THE INTERMODAL DISPERSION CAN BE EXPLAINED AS FOLLOWS:

WHEN AN OPTICAL PULSE AS LAUNCHED INTO THE FIBER, THE OPTICAL POWER IN THE PULSE IS DISTRIBUTED OVER ALL(OR MOST) OF THE MODES OF THE FIBER. EACH OF THE MODE THAT CAN PROPAGATE IN A MULTIMODE FIBER TRAVELS AT A SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT VELOCITY.
THIS MEANS THAT THE MODES IN A GIVEN OPTICAL PULSE ARRIVE AT THE FIBER END AT SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT TIMES, THUS CAUSING THE PULSE TO SPREAD OUT IN TIME AS IT TRAVELS ALONG THE FIBER.

 THIS EFFECT, WHICH IS KNOWN AS INTERMODAL DISPERSION OR INTERMODAL DISTORTION, CAN BE REDUCED BY USING A GRADED-INDEX PROFILE IN A FIBER CORE. THE GRADED INDEX FIBER ALLOWS LIGHT IN THE LONGER MODES TO TRAVEL FASTER THAN LIGHT IN SHORTER MODES AND REDUCES THE MODAL DISPERSION OF THE FIBER. THIS ALLOWS GRADED-INDEX FIBERS TO HAVE MUCH LARGER BANDWIDTH(DATA RATE TRANSMISSION CAPABILITIES) THEN STEP INDEX FIBERS. EVEN HIGHER BANDWIDTHS ARE POSSIBLE IN SINGLEMODE FIBERS, WHERE INTERMODAL DISPERSION EFFECTS ARE NOT PRESENT.

2.3 RAYS AND MODES:

THERE ARE TWO THEORIES FOR EXPLAINING THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH THE OPTICAL FIBER:

1.

RAY OPTICS PROPAGATION

1. RAY OPTICS PROPAGATION THEORY:

ONE METHOD FOR STUDYING LIGHT PROPAGATION THAT DOES NOT INVOLVE COMPLEX MATHEMATICS IS KNOWN AS RAY TRACING. BASED ON THE PRINCIPAL OF REFRACTION AND SNELLS LAW, RAY TRACING IS AMETHOD OF PLOTTING THE PATH FOLLOWED BY A RAY OF LIGHT THROUGH AN OPTICAL SYSTEM. FOR OPTICAL FIBER, THE PROCESS OF TRACING RAYS IS SIMPLIFIED BECAUSE, ONCE THE LIGHT ENTERS THE FIBER, THE RAYS DO NOT ENCOUNTER AT NEW SURFACES BUT REPEATEDLY HIT THE SAME SURFACE.

 THE RAY THEORY TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE CRITICAL ANGLE, ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND THE NUMERICAL APERTURE FOR EXPLAINING THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH THE FIBER.

2 1 1

CLADDING n2 CORE n1

a
AIR n0

b GLASS

 CONSIDER A LIGHT RAY THAT IS INCIDENT INTO THE CORE OF THE OPTICAL FIBER AS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE.
WHEN THE LIGHT RAY ENCOUNTERS THE INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO DIELECTRICS OF DIFFERENT REFRACTIVE INDICES (GLASS-AIR), REFRACTION OCCURS. THIS REFRACTION OCCURS DUE TO THE DECREASE IN THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT AS IT ENTERS GLASS FROM THE AIR.

IT MAY BE OBSERVED THAT THE RAY APPROACHING THE INTERFACE IS PROPAGATING IN A DIELECTRIC OF REFRACTIVE INDEX n1 AND IS AT AN ANGLE 1 TO THE NORMAL AT THE SURFACE OF THE INTERFACE OF THE CORE AND THE CLADDING.

 IF THE DIELECRIC ON THE OTHER SIDE OF THE INTERFACE HAS A REFRACTIVE INDEX n2 WHICH IS LESS THAN n1, THEN THE REFRACTION IS SUCH THAT THE RAY PATH IN THIS LOWER INDEX MEDIUM AS AT AN ANGLE 2 TO THE NORMAL, WHERE 2 IS GREATER THAN 1.
NOW ACCORDING TO SNELLS LAW: n1sin1 = n2sin2

NOW IF 2 IS 90 THAN THE REFRACTED RAY IS PARALLEL TO THE CORE-CLADDING INTERFACE. THEN SNELLS LAW BECOMES,
sin 1 = n2/n1 NOW ANGLE 1 IS KNOWN AS c , THE CRITICAL ANGLE.

 AT THE ANGLES OF INCIDENT GREATER THEN THE CRITICAL ANGLE THE LIGHT IS REFLECTED BACK INTO THE CORE WITH TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND TRAVELS AS A MERIDIONAL RAY. NOW, AS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE THE LIGHT RAY ENTERS THE CORE FROM THE AIR AT AN ANGLE a.
ANY RAYS WHICH ARE INCIDENT INTO THE FIBER CORE AT AN ANGLE GREATER THAN a WILL BE TRANSMITTED TO THE CORE-CLADDING INTERFACE AT AN ANGLE LESS THAN c, AND WILL NOT BE TOTALLY INTERNALLY REFLECTED. THIS IS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE BY ANOTHER RAY BY DOTTED LINE WHICH MAKES AN ANGLE b WITH THE CORE AXIS. THIS RAY IS REFRACTED INTO THE CLADDING AND EVENTUALLY LOST BY RADIATION.

 THUS FOR RAYS TO BE TRANSMITTED BY TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION WITHIN THR FIBER CORE THEY MUST BE INCIDENT ON THE FIBER CORE WITHIN AN ACCEPTANCE CONE DEFINED BY CONICAL HALF ANGLE a.
HENCE a IS THE MAXIMUM ANGLE TO THE AXIS AT WHICH LIGHT MAY ENTER THE FIBER IN ORDER TO BE PROPAGATED WITH TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION. THIS ANGLE IS KNOWN AS THE ACCEPTANCE ANGLE. IT IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND THE REFRACTIVE INDICES OF THE THREE MEDIA INVOLVED, THE CORE, CLADDING AND AIR BY DEFINING NUMERICAL APERTURE OF THE FIBER.

 NUMERICAL APERTURE IS DEFINED AS A VERY USEFUL MEASURE OF LIGHT COLLECTING ABILITY OF THE FIBER. IT IS COMMONLY USED TO DESCRIBE THE LIGHT ACCEPTANCE OR GATHERING CAPABILITY OF THE FIBER AND TO CALCULATE SOURCE-TO-FIBER OPTICAL POWER COUPLING EFFICIENCIES. IT IS DEFINED BY THE EQUATION

NA = n0 SIN a = (n12 n22)1/2 = n12

THEREFORE, NA = SIN a SINCE n0 = 1. = CORE-CLADDING INDEX DIFFERENCE OF SIMPLY THE INDEX DIFFERENCE GIVEN BY, = (n1 n2)/ n1. NOMINALLY = 0.01 AND NA = 0.14 TO 0.50

 TYPES OF RAYS:
RAYS

MERIDIONAL RAYS

SKEW RAYS

 MERIDIONAL RAYS:
MERIDIONAL RAYS ARE CONFINED TO THE MERIDIAN PLANES OF THE FIBER, WHICH ARE THE PLANES THAT CONTAIN THE AXIS OF THE SYMMETRY OF THE FIBER(THE CORE AXIS). SINCE A GIVEN MERIDIONAL RAY LIES IN A SINGLE PLANE, ITS PATH IS EASY TO TRACK AS IT TRAVELS ALONG THE FIBER. MERIDIONAL RAYS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO GENERAL CLASSES: BOUND RAYS THAT ARE TRAPPED IN THE CORE AND PROPAGATE ALONG THE FIBER AXIS ACCORDING TO THE LAWS OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS, AND THE UNBOUND RAYS THAT ARE REFRACTED OUT OF THE FIBER CORE.

 SKEW RAYS :
SKEW RAYS ARE NOT CONFINED TO A SINGLE PLANE, BUT INSTEAD TEND TO FOLLOW A HELICAL PATH ALONG THE FIBER. THESE RAYS ARE MORE DIFFICULT TO TRACK AS THEY TRAVEL ALONG THE FIBER, SINCE THEY DO NOT LIE IN A SINGLE PLANE.

ALTHOUGH SKEW RAYS CONSTITUTE A MAJOR PORTION OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF GUIDED RAYS, THEIR ANALYSIS IS NOT NECESSARY TO OBTAIN A GENERAL PICTURE OF RAYS PROPAGATING IN A FIBER. THE EXAMINATION OF MERIDIONAL RAYS WILL SUFFICE FOR THIS PURPOSE.

 THE SKEW RAYS GIVE A CHANGE IN DIRECTION BY AN ANGLE WHICH IS KNOWN AS , WHICH IS AN ANGLE OF RAY WITH THE RADIUS OF THE FIBER AT THE POINT OF REFLECTION. SKEW RAYS HAVE A SMOOTHING EFECT ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIGHT AS IT IS TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE FIBER.
THE NUMERICAL APERTURE FOR THE SKEW RAYS IS GIVEN BY: NAskew = SIN as . COS THE NUMERICAL APERTURE FOR SKEW RAYS IS LARGER THAN THE MERIDIONAL RAYS.

 A GREATER POWER LOSS ARISES WHEN SKEW RAYS ARE INCLUDED IN THE ANALYSIS, SINCE MANY OF THE SKEW RAYS THAT GEOMETRIC OPTICS PREDICTS TO BE TRAPPED IN THE FIBER ARE ACTUALLY LEAKY RAYS. THESE LEAKY RAYS ARE ONLY PARTIALLY CONFINED TO THE CORE OF THE CIRCULAR OPTICAL FIBER AND ATTENUATE AS THE LIGHT TRAVELS ALONG THE OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE.

2.7 FIBER MATERIALS

1.
2.

3.

IN SELECTING MATERIALS FOR OPTICAL FIBERS, A NUMBER OF REQUIREMENTS MUST BE SATISFIED: IT MUST BE POSSIBLE TO MAKE LONG, THIN, FLEXIBLE FIBERS FROM THE MATERIAL. THE MATERIAL MUST BE TRANSPARENT AT A PARTICULAR OPTICAL WAVELENGTH IN ORDER FOR THE FIBER TO GUIDE LIGHT EFFICIENTLY. PHYSICALLY COMPATIBLE MATERIALS THAT HAVE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT REFRACTIVE INDICES FOR THE CORE AND CLADDING MUST BE AVAILABLE.

MATERIALS THAT SATISFY THESE REQUIREMENTS ARE GLASSES AND PLASTICS. GLASS FIBERS HAVE LOW LOSS AND LOW STRENGTH WHEREASE PLASTIC FIBERS HAVE HIGH LOSS AND HIGH STRENGTH. PLASIC FIBERS ARE USED FOR SHORT DISTANCE APPLICATIONS AND GLASS FIBERS ARE USED FOR LONG HAUL APPLICATIONS.

2.7.1 GLASS FIBERS

GLASS IS MADE BY FUSING MIXTURES OF METAL

OXIDES, SULFIDES, OR SELENIDES. THE RESULTING MATERIAL IS A RANDOMLY CONNECTED MOLECULAR NETWORK RATHER THAN A WELL-DEFINED ORDERED STRUCTURE AS FOUND IN CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS. A CONSEQUENCE OF THIS RANDOM ORDER IS THAT GLASSES DO NOT HAVE WELL-DEFINED MELTING POINTS. THE TERM MELTING TEMPERATURE REFERS TO AN EXTENDED TEMPERATURE RANGE IN WHICH THE GLASS BECOMES FLUID ENOUGH TO FREE ITSELF FAIRLY QUICKLY OF GAS BUBBLES.

 THE LARGEST CATEGORY OF OPTICALLY TRANSPARENT GLASSES FROM WHICH OPTICAL FIBERS ARE MADE CONSISTS OF THE OXIDE GLASSES. OF THESE THE MOST COMMON IS SILICA(SiO2), WHICH HAS A REFRACTIVE INDEX OF 1.458 AT 850nm. TO PRODUCE TWO SIMILAR MATERIALS THAT HAVE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT INDICES OF REFRACTION FOR THE CORE AND CLADDING, EITHER FLUORINE OR VARIOUS OXIDES(REFERED TO AS DOPANDS), SUCH AS B2O3, GeO2, OR P2O5, ARE ADDED TO THE SILICA. AS SHOWN IN FIG.2.26 THE ADDITION OF GeO2 OR P2O5 INCREASES THE REFRACTIVE INDEX, WHEREAS DOPING THE SILICA WITH FLUORINE OR B2O3 DECREASES IT.

SINCE THE CLADDING MUST HAVE A LOWER INDEX THAN THE CORE, EXAMPLES OF FIBER COMPOSITIONS ARE: SiO2 CORE ; SiO2 CLADDING

1. GeO2 -

2. P2O5 - SiO2 CORE; SiO2 CLADDING 3. SiO2 CORE; B2O3 - SiO2 CLADDING 4. GeO2 - B2O3 - SiO2 CORE; B2O3 - SiO2 CLADDING
THE PRINCIPAL RAW MATERIAL FOR SILICA IS SAND. GLASS COMPOSED OF PURE SILICA IS REFFERED TO AS EITHER SILICA GLASS, FUSED SILICA OR VITREOUS SILICA. SOME OF ITS DESIRABLE PROPERTIES ARE A RESISTANCE TO DEFORMATION AT TEMPERATURES AS HIGH AS 1000 C, A HIGH RESISTANCE TO BREAKAGE FROM THERMAL SHOCK BECAUSE OF ITS LOW THERMAL EXAMPANSION, GOOD CHEMICAL DURABILITY, AND HIGH TRANSPARENCY IN BOTH VISIBLE AND INFRARED REGIONS OF INTEREST TO OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS.

2.7.2 HALIDE GLASS FIBERS

IN 1975 RESEACHERS DISCOVERED FLUORIDE GLASSES

THAT HAVE EXTREMELY LOW TRANSMISSION LOSSES AT MID INFRARED WAVELENGTHS. FLUORIDE GLASSES BELONG TO A GENERAL FAMILY OF HALIDE GLASSES IN WHICH THE ANIONS ARE FROM ELEMENTS IN GROUP VII OF THE PERIODIC TABLE, NAMELY FLUORINE, CHLORINE, BROMINE, AND IODINE. THE MATERIALS THAT RESEARCHERS HAVE CONCENTRATED ON IS A HEAVY METAL FLUORIDE GLASS, WHICH USES ZrF4 AS THE MAJOR COMPONENT AND GLASS NETWORK FORMER.

 SEVERAL OTHER CONSTITUENTS NEED TO BE ADDED TO MAKE COMPLETE CORE. ACCORDING TO MOLECULAR PERCENTAGE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS THE GLASS IS REFERED TO AS ZBLAN ( AFTER ITS ELEMENTS ZrF4-54%, BaF2-20%, LaF3-4.5%, ALF3-3.5%, NaF18%). THIS MATERIALS FORMS THE CORE OF A GLASS FIBER. TO MAKE A LOWER-REFRACTIVE INDEX GLASS, ONE PARTIALLY REPLACES ZrF4 BY HaF4 TO GET A ZHBLAN CLADDING. ALTHOUGH THESE GLASSES POTENTIALLY OFFERS MINIMUM LOSSES OF 0.01-0.001 Db/km, FABRICATING LONG LENGTHS OF THESE FIBERS IS DIFFICULT. FIRST ULTRAPURE MATERIALS MUST BE USED TO REACH THIS LOW LOSS. SECOND FLUORIDE GLASS IS PRONE TO DEVITRIFICATION(VITRIFY MEANS TO CHANGE INTO GLASS).

2.7.3 ACTIVE GLASS FIBERS

INCORPORATING RARE EARTH ELEMENTS (ATOMIC

NUMBER 57-71) INTO A NORMALLY PASSIVE GLASS GIVES THE RESULTING MATERIAL NEW OPTICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES. THESE NEW PROPERTIES ALLOW THE MATERIAL TO PERFORM AMPLIFICATION, ATTENUATION, AND PHASE RETARDATION ON THE LIGHT PASSING THROUGH IT. DOPING CAN BE CARRIED OUT FOR BOTH SILICA AND HALIDE GLASSES. TWO COMMONLY USED MATERIALS FOR FIBER LASERS ARE ERBIUM AND NEODYNIUM. THESE ARE USED AS EDFA AND NDFA.

2.7.4 CHALGENIDE GLASS FIBERS:

IN ADDITION TO ALLOWING THE CREATION OF

OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS, THE NON-LINEAR PROPERTIES OF GLASS FIBERS CAN BE EXPLOITED FOR OTHER APPLICATIONS, SUCH AS ALL-OPTICAL SWITCHES AND FIBER LASERS. CHALGENIDE GLASS IS ONE CANDIDATE FOR THESE USES BECAUSE OF ITS HIGH OPTICAL NONLINEARITY. THESE GLASSES CONTAIN AT LEAST ONE CHALCOGEN ELEMENT (S,Se,OR Te) AND TYPICALLY ONE OTHER ELEMENT SUCH AS P,I,Cl,Br,Cd,Ba,Si, OR Tl FOR TAILORING THE THERMAL, MECHANICAL, AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS.

2.7.5 PLASTIC OPTICAL FIBERS

ALTHOUGH GLASS FIBERS EXHIBIT CONSIDERABLY

GREATER OPTICAL SIGNAL ATTENUATIONS THAN GLASS FIBERS, THEY ARE TOUGH AND DURABLE. THE CORE OF PLASTIC FIBERS IS EITHER POLYMETHYLMETHACRYLATE OR A PERFLUORINATED POLYMER. THESE FIBERS ARE HENCE REFERRED TO AS PMMA POF AND PFP POF , RESPECTIVELY. INEXPENSIVE PLASTIC INJECTION-MOLDING TECHNOLOGIES CAN BE USED TO FABRICATE CONNECTORS, SPLICES, AND TRANSCEIVERS.

2.8 FIBER FABRICATION

TWO BASIC TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN THE

FABRICATION OF FIBER. THESE ARE VAPOUR PHASE OXIDATION PROCESS AND THE DIRECT MELT METHODS. THE DIRECT MELT METHOD FOLLOWS TRADITIONAL GLASS MAKING PROCEDURES IN THAT OPTICAL FIBERS ARE MADE DIRECTLY FROM THE MOLTEN STATE OF PURIFIED COMPONENTS OF SILICATE GLASSES. IN THE VAPOUR PHASE OXIDATION PROCESS, HIGHLY PURE VAPOURS OF METAL HALIDES (e.g. SiCl4 AND GeCl4) REACT WITH OXYGEN TO FORM A WHITE POWDER OF SiO2 PARTICLES.

 THE PARTICLES ARE THEN COLLECTED ON THE

SURFACE OF A BULK GLASS BY ONE OF THE FOUR COMMONLY USED PROCESSES AND ARE SINTERED(TRANSFORMED TO A HOMOGENEOUS GLASS MASS BY HEATING WITHOUT MELTING) BU ONE OF A VARIETY OF TECHNIQUES TO FORM A CLEAR GLASS ROD OR TUBE(DEPENDING ON THE PROCESS). THIS ROD OR TUBE IS CALLED A PREFORM. FIBERS ARE MADE FROM THE PREFORM BY USING THE FIBER DRAWING APPARATUS SHOWN IN FIGURE.(Kaiser page.71)

 THE PREFORM IS PRECISION FED INTO A CIRCULAR HEATER CALLED THE DRAWING FURNACE. HERE THE PREFORM END IS SOFTENED TO THE POINT WHERE IT CAN BE DRAWN INTO A VERY THIN FILAMENT, WHICH BECOMES THE OPTICAL FIBER.

THE TURNING SPEED OF THE TAKEUP DRUM AT THE BOTTOM OF THE DRAW TOWER DETERMINES HOW FAST THE FIBER IS DRAWN. THIS IN TURN WILL DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF THE FIBER, SO THAT A PRECISE ROTATION RATE MUST BE MAINTAINED. AN OPTICAL FIBER THICKNESS MONITOR IS USED IN A FEEDBACK LOOP FOR THIS SPEED REGULATION TO PROTECT THE BARE GLASS FIBER FROM EXTERNAL CONTAMINANTS, SUCH AS DUST AND WATER VAPOUR, AN ELASTIC COATING IS APPLIED TO THE FIBER IMMEDIATELY AFTER IT IS DRAWN.

2.8.1 OUTSIDE VAPOUR-PHASE OXIDATION

THE FIRST FIBER TO HAVE A LOSS OF LESS THAN

20dB/km WAS MADE AT THE CORNING GLASS WORKS BY THE OUTSIDE VAPOUR PHASE OXIDATION PROCESS(OVPO). THIS METHOD IS SHOWN IN FIGURE 2.28. FIRST A LAYER OF SiO2 PARTICLES CALLED A SOOT IS DEPOSITED FROM A BURNER ONTO A ROTATING GRAPHITE OR CERAMIC MANDREL. THE GLASS SOOT ADHERES TO THIS BAIT(TRAP) ROD AND, LAYER BY LAYER, A CYLINDRICAL, POROUS GLASS PREFORM IS BUILT UP.

 BY PROPERLY CONTROLLING THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE METAL HALIDE VAPOUR STREAM DURING THE DEPOSITION PROCESS, THE GLASS COMPOSITIONS AND THE DIMENSIONS DESIRED FOR THE CORE AND THE CLADDING CAN BE INCORPORATED INTO THE PREFORM. EITHER STEP INDEX OR GRADED INDEX PREFORMS CAN THUS BE MADE. WHEN THE DEPOSITION IS COMPLETED, THE MANDREL IS REMOVED AND THE POROUS TUBE IS THEN VIRTRIFIED(TO FORM GLASS) IN A DRY ATMOSPHERE AT A HIGH TEMPERATURE(ABOVE 1400 C) TO A CLEAR PREFORM. THE CLEAR PREFOM IS SUBSEQUENTLY MOUNTED IN A FIBER DRAWING TOWER AND MADE INTO A FIBER. THE CENTRAL HOLE IN THE TUBE PREFORM COLLAPSES DURING THIS DRAWING PROCESS.

2.8.2 VAPOUR PHASE AXIAL DEPOSITION

THE OVPD PROCESS IS A LATERAL(FROM THE SIDES)

DEPOSITION METHOD. ANOTHER OVPO TYPE PROCESS IS THE VAPOUR PHASE AXIAL(FROM THE AXIS) DEPOSITION (VAD) METHOD. IN THIS METHOD, THE SiO2 PARTICLES ARE FORMED IN THE SAME WAY AS DESCRIBED IN THE OVPO PROCESS. AS THESE PARTICLES EMERGE FROM THE TORCHES, THEY ARE DEPOSITED ONTO THE END SURFACE OF A SILICA GLASS ROD WHICH ACTS AS A SEED. A POROUS PREFORM IS GROWN IN THE AXIAL DIRECTION BY MOVING THE ROD UPWARD. THE ROD IS ALSO CONTINUOUSLY ROTATED TO MAINTAIN CYLINDRICAL SYMMETRY OF THE PARTICLE DEPOSITION.

 AS THE POROUS PREFORM MOVES UPWARD, IT IS TRANSFORMED INTO A SOLID, TRANSPARENT ROD PREFORM BY ZONE MELTING(HEATING IN A NARROW LOCALIZED ZONE) WITH THE CARBON RING HEATER AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 2.29.
THE RESULTING PREFORM CAN THEN BE DRAWN INTO A FIBER BY USING THE FIBER DRAWING APPARATUS.

BOTH STEP AND GRADED INDEX FIBERS IN EITHER MULTIMODE OR SINGLE-MODE VARIETIES CAN BE MADE BY VAD METHOD.

THE ADVANTAGES OF VAD METHOD ARE:

1) THE PREFORM HAS NO CENTRAL HOLE AS OCCURS WITH THE OVPO PROCESS. 2) THE PREFORM CAN BE FABRICATED IN CONTINUOUS LENGTHS WHICH CAN AFFECT PROCESS COSTS AND PRODUCT YIELDS. 3) THE FACT THAT THE DEPOSITION CHAMBER AND THE ZONE MELTING RING HEATER ARE TIGHTLY CONNECTED TO EACH OTHER IN THE SAME ENCLOSURE ALLOWS THE ACHIEVEMENT OF A CLEAN ENVIRONMENT.

2.8.3 MODIFIED CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION CHEMICAL VAPOUR THE MODIFIED

DEPOSITION(MCVD) PROCESS WAS PIONEERED AT BELL LABORATORIES AND WAS WIDELY ADOPTED ELSEWHERE TO PRODUCE VERY LOW LOSS GRADED INDEX FIBER. THE GLASS VAPOUR PARTICLES, ARISING FROM THE REACTION OF THE CONSTITUENT METAL HALIDES GASES AND OXYGEN, FLOW THROUGH THE INSIDE OF A REVOLVING SILICA TUBE. AS THE SIO2 PARTICLES ARE DEPOSITED, THEY ARE SINTERED TO A CLEAR GLASS LAYER BY AN OXYHYDROGEN TORCH WHICH TRAVELS BACK AND FORTH ALONG THE TUBE.

 WHEN THE DESIRED THICKNESS OF GLASS HAS BEEN DEPOSITED, THE VAPOUR FLOW IS SHUT OFF AND THE TUBE IS HEATED STRONGLY TO CAUSE IT TO COLLAPSE INTO A SOLID ROD PREFORM. THE FIBER THAT IS SUBSEQUENTLY DRAWN FROM THIS PREFORM ROD WILL HAVE A CORE THAT CONSISTS OF THE VAPOUR-DEPOSITED MATERIAL AND A CLADDING THAT CONSIST OF THE ORIGINAL SILICA TUBE.

2.8.4 PLASMA ACTIVATED CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION

PCVD METHOD IS SIMILAR TO MCVD PROCESS IN

THAT DEPOSITION OCCURS WITHIN A SILICA TUBE. HOWEVER A NONISOTHERMAL(NON CONSTANT TEMPERATURE) MICROWAVE PLASMA(GAS OF POSITIVE IONS AND FREE ELECTRONS IN ABOUT EQUAL NUMBERS) OPERATING AT LOW PRESSURE INITIATES THE CHEMICAL REACTION. WITH THE SILICA TUBE HELD AT TEMPERATURES IN THE RANGE OF 1000-1200C TO REDUCE MECHANICAL STRESSES IN THE GROWING GLASS FILMS, A MOVING MICROWAVE RESONATOR OPERATING AT 2.45 GHz GENERATES A PLASMA INSIDE THE TUBE TO ACTIVATE THE CHEMICAL REACTION.

 THIS PROCESS DEPOSITS CLEAR GLASS MATERIAL DIRECTLY ON THE TUBE WALL; THERE IS NO SOOT FORMATION.
THUS NO SINTERING IS REQUIRED.

WHEN ONE HAS DEPOSITED THE DESIRED GLASS THICKNESS, THE TUBE IS COLLAPSED INTO A PREFORM JUST AS IN THE MCVD CASE.