Economic, traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves

W.M. Bandaranayake

AIMS Report Number 28

Australian Institute of Marine Science Townsville 1999

 Australian Institute of Marine Science, 1999 Copies available from: Science Communications Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No 3, Townsville Mail Centre Townsville Qld 4810. Australia AIMS Report series: ISSN 1033-6974

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data: Bandaranayake, Wickramasinghe M. Economic, traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves. Bibliography ISBN 0 642 32230 9 1. Mangrove swamps - Economic aspects - Australia. 2. Mangrove swamps - Environmental aspects - Australia. 3. Mangrove plants - Therapeutic use - Australia. 4. Mangrove ecology - Economic aspects - Australia. 5. Mangrove fisheries Economic aspects - Australia. I. Australian Institute of Marine Science. II. Title. (Series : AIMS report ; no. 28). 577.698

ii

CONTENTS
List of tables Abstract Introduction Geographic setting and biodiversity Uses of mangroves Early uses of mangroves Traditional exploitation Traditional products and uses Food from mangroves Medicinal uses Toxicants from mangroves Miscellaneous uses Traditional fisheries Conclusion Acknowledgements References

iv v 1 7 11 11 12 14 17 19 36 38 45 47 49 51

iii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Table 2. Table 3.

Medicinal uses of mangrove plants Classification of mangrove flora

24 27

Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants 43

iv

ABSTRACT

The economic benefits and traditional uses and products of mangrove ecosystems are many and varied. Apart from prawns, many other species of economic importance are associated with mangroves; these include crabs, shrimps, oysters, lobsters and fish. Traditionally, the mangroves (mangroves, mangrove minors and mangal associates) have been exploited for firewood and charcoal and their uses include the construction of dwellings, furniture, boats and fishing gear and the production of tannins for dyeing and leather production. The mangroves provide food and a wide variety of traditional products and artifacts for mangrove dwellers. Extracts and chemicals from mangroves are used mainly in folk medicine (e.g. bush medicine), as insecticides and piscicides and these practices continue to this day. However the extraction of novel natural chemical compounds from mangroves, in addition to those already known to the pharmacopoeia of the people, is in its infancy. A knowledge of the biological activities and/or chemical constituents of plants is desirable, not only for the discovery of new therapeutic agents, but because such information may be of value in disclosing new sources of already known biologically active compounds. It is of further value to those interested in deciphering the actual value of folk remedies. This report describes the traditional uses of mangroves and the worlds mangrove resources and products, in terms of their economic importance, medicinal values and other functions. It examines recent investigations on the biological activities of extracts and chemicals identified from mangroves and mangal associates. The report is intended to provide the reader with an appreciation of mangroves and the uniqueness of mangrove life and its intrinsic fascination. It is hoped that the report will serve to promote greater interest in the mangrove environment, and enhance awareness of the very special life forms which contribute towards its existence.

INTRODUCTION

Mangroves have long been a source of astonishment to the layman and of interest for the scientist. For many people living in the Indo-West Pacific and Americas-East Atlantic regions, the word mangrove will be a familiar one. For a selected few, long standing familiarity is based perhaps on vague and romantic mental pictures of waterlogged woodlands in which tangled aerial root systems foil the would-be explorer. However, the majority see them as swamps which are ridden with mosquitoes and sand flies, inhospitable, unhealthy and dangerous. There is another category of people whose knowledge of mangroves is derived from recent publicity given by concerned conservationists to preserve the ever dwindling mangrove areas of the world. Yet others living in these regions and the rest of the world have little or no concept of what it is that constitutes the mangroves. The collective noun mangrove designates a tidal wetland ecosystem formed by a very special association of plants and animals that live in the intertidal areas of low lying tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. These wetland ecosystems are among the most productive and diverse in the world, and more than 80% of marine catches are directly or indirectly dependent on mangrove and other coastal ecosystems worldwide (Ong & Gong 1983; Kjerfve et al. 1997). They occupy large tracts along sheltered coasts, estuaries and in deltas where they are influenced by tides and widely different conditions of salinity and rainfall regimes. They are also found around coastal lagoons communicating with the sea and where the effect of tides may be weak and the salinity very low. The term mangrove is also used to designate halophytic (salt loving) and salt resistant marine tidal forests comprising trees, shrubs, palms, epiphytes, ground ferns and grasses which are associated in stands or groves (Chapman 1977; Knox & Miyabara 1984; FAO 1982). Mangroves are usually found only in tropical climates as they need consistently warm conditions for development and survival. They occur in 112 countries and territories and are largely confined to the regions between 30o north and south of the equator. Notably, extensions beyond this are to the north in Bermuda (3220oN), Japan (3122oN), and to the south in Australia (3845o S), New Zealand (3803oS) and on the east coast of South Africa (3259oS) (Olsen 1997). Among recent methods used to assess the quantity of mangrove wealth in a country, remote sensing is now considered the most practical technique for mangrove inventory.

Introduction

The word mangrove may be connected with the Portuguese word mangue, the Spanish word mangle, French word manglier or the Malay word manggi-manggi in conjunction with the English word grove. Vannucci (1989) in her book The mangroves and us explains that the word is neither Portuguese nor Spanish, but the word mangue derives from the national language of Senegal. It is possible that the Portuguese first adapted the word, later to be modified by the Spanish, as a result of their exploration of the coast of west Africa. Humans have been residents of mangrove wetlands for centuries. As the coastal zone is home to about 65% of the global population, they are of great importance to many people who live along tropical shorelines (Kjerfve et al. 1997). In countries such as Indonesia, mangroves provided protection for people, a function often invaluable in a region long renowned for piracy and kidnapping. Mangroves also have traditionally been important habitat for certain maritime peoples in southeast Asia, such as the Orang Laut of Malaysia and western Indonesia (Polunin 1983). Furthermore, mangroves typically line stream and river mouths, sites which were particularly favourable for settlement because of accessibility and supplies of fresh water. The uses of mangroves are many and varied and are often quoted in scientific and popular articles (Walsh 1974 and 1977; Snedaker 1982; Chapman 1975 and 1977; Rollet 1981; Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; FAO 1985; Tomlinson 1986; Hutchings & Saenger 1987; Vannucci 1989; Field 1995; Macintosh & Zisman, 1997). However the uses of mangroves fall into two major categories, firstly the use of the mangrove ecosystem as a whole, and secondly the use of products from the mangrove plants. Ecologically, mangroves are important in maintaining and building the soil, as a reservoir in the tertiary assimilation of waste, and in the global cycle of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulfur (Odum et al. 1982; De La Cruz 1978).Protection against cyclones is a free benefit. Yet, hidden benefits from mangroves, specially in marginal areas, may even be more important than the obvious ones. They play a significant role in coastal stabilization and in promoting land accretion, the fixation of mud banks, dissipation of wind, tidal and wave energy (Saenger et al. 1983; Subramanian & Krishnamurthy 1990; Achuthankutty 1990; Hong 1996) In New Zealand, for example, there remain rows of mangrove bushes planted . to stabilize the coast by early generations of Maori people (Olsen 1997). Transplanting saltmarsh vegetation is an alternative erosion control method which is relatively inexpensive and proven to be effective on some shorelines. The aerial plant parts dissipate

Introduction

waves, act as a living groyne by accumulating sediment and the tough mat of roots and rhizomes stabilizes the substrate (Broom et al. 1981; Seneca & Broom 1982). They trap sediments and thus contribute to land building and prevent excessive shifting of coastline sand. A relatively recent commercial use is recreation and ecotourism. In mangrove swamps, leaf fall forms an appreciable annual net production. Mangroves are highly productive of organic matter, but in countries such as Papua New Guinea less than 10% of this production is grazed by herbivores (Polunin 1983), and most of it enters the detritus pool. Through the feeding activities of microbial decomposers such as bacteria and fungi, wood-boring isopods and larger detrivorous animals, the humus from fallen leaves and other plant parts are processed into finer particles. The organic matter from the leaves forms the basis of an aquatic food web, which is utilized by a range of organisms, some of which may specialize in the intact leaves and others on the particulate decomposed products (Pool et al. 1975; Clough 1982; Polunin 1983; Umali et al. 1986; Flores-Verdugo et al. 1987, Umali et al. 1986). As in other tidal ecosystems, the extent of export probably depends on the amount of water movement. Mangrove plants are exclusive to the mangrove environment. By contrast, the other living things found in the mangroves also occur in other habitats. Some of these organisms depend upon the mangroves for only part of their life cycle. For others, the mangroves provide a suitable, permanent environment, but it is one which is nonobligatory. Nevertheless, the presence of many other plants and animals is predictable, and they make a significant contribution to the life of the mangrove community. On the whole, over and above these plants and animals, the mangroves may support the existence of occasional species whose presence is almost incidental and of no critical significance to the central community. The intricate root system of plants retain alluvia which, along with the high productivity and physical structure of mangroves, create an appropriate and a valuable habitat for many zoobenthos, some of which are of commercial importance (Hong 1996). At present the most valuable mangrove-related species are penaeid prawns. The juvenile stages of several species are recruited into mangrove and adjacent tidal vegetation, while the adults breed offshore. Furthermore, the influence of mangroves extends far beyond prawn fisheries. Apart from prawns, many other species of economic importance are associated with mangroves; these include crabs, shrimps (from which belachan fish paste is made in Indonesia, Malaysia and India) oysters, lobsters and fish.

Introduction

Silviculture of mangroves (reforestation) to produce a variety of timber products, mainly charcoal, firewood and poles for dwellings has been practiced in a number of countries in southeast Asia, and mangroves have been managed as a sustained yield forest crop for more than a century (Snedaker 1982; Achuthankutty 1990; Teas 1991). A fundamental function of all forests has been to supply timber for cooking, heating and constructing dwellings, and mangrove forests are no exceptions (Watson 1929; FAO 1982). Traditionally, people have used mangroves for the benefit of the local community (Snedaker 1982; Achuthankutty 1990). In recent years the ecological, environmental and socio-economic importance of mangroves has been emphasized by international agencies, governments, local authorities, non-government organizations (NGOs), coastal communities and scientists (Mercier & Hamilton 1984; Padma 1990). Worldwide, there are about 685 protected areas containing mangroves, distributed between 73 countries and territories (Olsen 1997). Though mangrove ecosystems provide a unique and valuable range of resources and services, increasing populations have led to an increasing non-sustainable abuse of the resources. The pressures of population increase, food production and industrial and urban development have led to a large proportion of the worlds mangrove resource being threatened by destruction (Nair et al. 1979; Saenger et al. 1983; Knox & Miyabara 1984; Berjak et al. 1982; Untawale 1986; Amarasinghe 1988). Huge areas of mangrove have been lost, especially in southeast Asia and most parts of south Africa, due to demographic shifts in coastal areas, wood extraction, conversion to agriculture and rubbish dumps, coastal aquaculture and salt production, coastal industrialization, urbanization, and pollution. Large areas of land formally occupied by mangroves have been reclaimed and planted with pasture and cash crops such as rice, coconut and palm oil (Marius 1985; Bennett & Reynolds 1993; Olsen 1997). In drier areas, mangroves are converted to salt pans. Localized major uses for solar salt fields occur in Pakistan and Australia. Recently, shrimp farming has caused large scale losses of mangrove habitats in several countries, the worst cases being Ecuador, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam among others (SchaefferNovelli & Cintron 1990; Baconguis et al. 1990; Primavera 1991; Pillay 1993; Phillips et al. 1993; Clough 1993; Lacerda 1993; Hong 1996; Olsen 1997). In Papua New Guinea, Thailand and Malaysia some areas of the mangroves are destroyed by mining for tin and other minerals such as chromium, and associated titanium mining, as well as by drilling for oil (Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; Aksornkoae & Saraya 1986; Umali et al. 1986; Chan & Salleh 1987). On the south-east shores of the Mekong delta, mangroves are dying due to excessive sedimentation caused by deforestation upstream in Thailand, Laos and

Introduction

Cambodia. Destruction of mangroves by wood borers is common in some countries. While some mangrove wood is highly resistant to marine borers, most others have no borer resistance at all. In places such as Florida and Banacon Island located in Central Visayas in the Philippines most of the mangroves have no borer resistant wood and, as a result, much of the forestation is lost due to borer infestations to the extent that the phenomenon is described as an eco-catastrophe. Several molluscan and crustacean wood borers are reported from Indian mangroves. Destruction of mangroves is mainly caused by the sphaeromids and the teredinids. Barnacle infestation is the biggest threat to mangrove plantations in Banacon Island. Crab infestation, though not serious, is another problem. The crabs (e.g. Uca and Sesarma species) usually girdle the root collar and eat the fleshycambium of the propagules. Mangrove plants and seedlings suffer a high mortality or retarded growth due to seaweeds and the green ribbon-like algae (Umali et al. 1986). Apart from this, there is a peculiar situation in the Cochin backwaters in India where most of the mangroves have been destroyed by the water fern, Salvinia species, commonly called African Payal. The fern, which has a tremendous growth, has not only clogged the waterways but its rate of degradation has affected the fishery potential of the area. Ultimately, this fresh water fern has slowly adapted to the brackish water conditions and changed the entire mangrove ecosystem to a pure Salvinia ecosystem (Umali et al. 1986). Destruction of mangroves due to diseases (e.g. caused by pathogenic fungi) is rare (Odum et al. 1982, Umali et al. 1986). While the direct and indirect ecological and economic benefits of mangroves have long been recognized, little has been documented regarding the traditional uses of mangroves for commerce and for the livelihood, specially of mangrove dwellers. Recently, efforts have been made to identify toxicants and chemicals with medicinal values from mangroves and their potential economic benefits. This report is the result of communication with scientists associated with mangrove research, many people in Asia and southeast Asia and library researches. The consensus of opinion among the correspondents and the people interviewed is that knowledge of uses of mangroves is difficult to obtain, sometimes out of date, tenuous at best, and often frustratingly lacking because most usage is local and never well documented. This report examines how the mangrove forests and associated fauna provide a livelihood for many people who make traditional products, handicrafts, artefacts, and harvest mangroves for timber, many locally important foods and medicines. Recent developments in medicinal and toxicant research in mangroves are also reviewed.

GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND BIODIVERSITY

Approximately one-fourth of the worlds tropical coastline is dominated by mangroves and they extend over 15.5 million hectares world-wide (Macintosh & Zisman 1997) . The most extensive and luxurious mangroves extend across the Indo-Pacific regions where they are best developed in the delta systems of major rivers. The largest single area of mangroves in the world lies in the Bangladesh part of Sunderbans, covering an area of almost 600,000 hectares including waterways. There are about 6.9 million hectares in the Indo-Pacific region (Clough 1982; Polunin 1983; Field & Dartnall 1985; Umali et al. 1986; Macintosh & Zisman 1997), 3.5 million hectares in Africa, 4.1 million hectares in the Americas including the Caribbean (Odum et al. 1982; Scheffer-Novelli & Camargo 1982; Marius 1985; Untawale et al. 1992; Gang & Agatsiva 1992; Zahran & Al-Kaf 1996; Macintosh & Zisman 1997). Venezuela has extensive stands of mangroves and there is evidence that the areas were colonized more than 5000 years ago by nomads. Mangroves also penetrate some temperate zones, but there is a rapid decrease in the number of species with increasing latitude (Chapman 1977; Arroyo 1977; Tomlinson 1986; Macintosh & Zisman 1997). The mangrove community is dominated by plant life. The trees of the mangroves not only dominate the habitat, but also characterize it. Mangroves form unique environments and floral-faunal assemblages. They are possibly the simplest and best defined of ecosystems among the tropical forests and are one of the easiest tropical forest types to generate because of their reproductive biology and adaptation to intertidal conditions (Tomlinson 1986). They do not become established on exposed tracts of coastline. They depend for initial propagation and subsequent perpetuation on the growth of the seedlings, and for this a soft, muddy substrate is preferable. This restricts their growth to shallow, sheltered shores close to a fresh water source, where accretion of a suitable mud can take place. In most zones of the mangrove area, the substratum is waterlogged at all times, and as a result mangrove substrates are anaerobic (lack oxygen). Mangroves have the ability to grow where no other vascular plants can, as shown by their existence in calm, nutrient-rich environments. They thrive under stressful and extreme tropical environmental conditions, such as high concentration of moisture and high temperatures. They exist in muddy, shifting, saline and anaerobic conditions, acid soil, and high and low tides of brackish water, and serve as a bridging ecosystem between freshwater and marine systems. They stand with their roots in salt water, and are a special form of
7

Geographic setting and biodiversity

vegetation existing at the boundary of two environments and receiving food from the land and the sea. Hence, these plants have evolved special methods to survive in these extreme habitats. In fact, this peculiar environment has imposed several modifications on these plants. Aerial roots are the most noticeable adaptation. The seeds are often buoyant, easily dispersed by tides and shaped so that they anchor in the mud. The path of photosynthesis is different from that of other glycophytes. There are modifications or alterations in other physiological processes such as carbohydrate metabolism or polyphenol synthesis (Bhosale & Mulik 1992). The trees that comprise the mangroves may be either small and sparse, or of considerable size, achieving such a measure of luxuriant growth that the mangrove community is known by the alternative names of coastal woodlands or tidal forests. Mature mangrove communities are commonly known as mangrove swamps on account of the terrain being periodically inundated. The trees with life spans of the order of several decades can reach a height of some 30 meters or more and may have 30-40 centimeters girth producing dense closed-canopy forests. It is reported that the tallest mangrove trees in the world are found in Majagual in Ecuador, reaching over 60 meters in height (Olsen 1997). The undergrowth, except by recruits of the same species, is sparse. It is within the vicinity of the areas covered by mangrove trees that the other mangrove plants such as a lianas, grasses, and sedges find shelter (Table 2), (Chapman 1975 and 1977; Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; Ong & Gong 1983; Saenger et al. 1983; Wightman 1983; Tomlinson 1986; Lovelock 1993), and mangrove animals find both shelter and food. Mangroves can be classified into three broad categories. Firstly, true mangroves are mainly restricted to intertidal areas between the high water levels of neap and spring tides. Plant species from true mangroves belong to at least 20 different families. About 80 species of true mangrove trees/shrubs are recognized, of which 50-60 species make a significant contribution to the structure of mangrove forests (Tomlinson 1986; Lovelock 1993; Field 1995). Thirty-four mangrove species and three hybrids are known to occur in Queensland, Australia (Clough 1982; Lovelock 1993). Species diversity is much higher in the southeast region, where approximately two-thirds of all species are found, while approximately 15 species occur in Africa and 10 in the Americas (Berjak et al. 1982; Field 1995). The species composition and structure of the mangrove forest vary as a function of geophysical, geographical, geological, hydrographic, biogeographical, climatic, and edaphic factors and the environmental conditions. Rhizophora species occur in all three regions. Secondly, minor species of mangroves are distinguished by their inability to form conspicuous

Geographic setting and diversity

elements of the vegetation and they rarely form pure communities. The third category, the mangal associates, are not found exclusively in the proximity of mangroves and may occur only in transitional vegetation, landwards and seawards. However, they do interact with true mangroves and are salinity tolerant plant genera (Bonde 1991) (Table 2). Within the community are several woody, climbing plants. Among the most spectacular of the climbers are the giant bean plants (Entada spicata and Elephantorrhiza elephantina) in southern Africa which grow horizontally to form tangled stems and woody surface roots of enormous extent and size (Berjak et al. 1982). A non-woody plant which is commonly part of this community is the tall grass Phragmites australis (P. comminis) often called swamp reed and Phragmites karka. Collectively they fulfil at least some of the ecological roles of mangrove associations, through litterfall and root exudates for instance, dissolved nutrients and the droppings of bats, birds and other animals that nest and live in the canopy or among the roots. On the seaward fringe, beach and dune fixing plants like Ipomoea pes-caprae, Sesuvium portucalastrum and species of Salicornia (e.g. Salicornia arthrocnemum) consolidate the sandy sea front. Species such as Porteresia (=Oryza) coarctata tolerate some degree of salinity. On the landward side thrive the coconut (Cocos nucifera), the sagu palm (Metroxylon sagu), the pepper vine, and species of Dalbergia, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Pandanus. The only other group of vascular plants that has successfully adapted to sea water are a few species of sea grasses, which thrive on the sea front and salt marshes, and in the tropics are often found associated with mangroves and coral reefs. Epiphytic flowering plants are quite abundant in the most humid areas of mangroves (Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982). They belong to different families, most notably two species of semi-parasitic Loranthaceae, a true parasite of the genus Viscum (mistletoe), Asclopiadaceae, and Orchidaceae. Lichens, mushrooms, ferns other than Acrostichum, occur in the branches and trunks. In the drier areas exist the Bromeliaceans, prominent among them Tilandsia usneoides, that occur in the Americas. The fern Acrostichum aureum can form a dense undergrowth at the fringe of the mangrove. Within the mangrove and its very edge, where the saline flow of the tides is both regular and frequent, marine algae are locally abundant. A few species of simple green algae (Chlorophyta) may be found on the stable silt and on the aerial roots and lower parts of the trunks of mangrove trees. Red algae (Rhodophyta) encrust the pneumatophores, knee roots and prop roots. It is a common feature of tropical estuarine brackish waters bordered by mangroves that the standing stock of phytoplankton is dense in the lower reaches where it is dominated

10

Geographic setting and biodiversity

by diatoms, specially those of the genera Coscinodiscus, Pleurosigma, and Biddulphia. The zooplankton is represented by almost all aquatic groups of animals from protozoa to fish eggs and fingerlings as well as larvae of most zoological groups except Echinoderms. Pathogenic bacteria such as Shigella, Aeromones, Vibrio can survive in the nutrient rich mangrove water, and water contaminated with noxious chemicals (such as flavonoids, tannic acid and derivatives), pesticides, fertilizers and untreated domestic sewage and industrial waste. Some of these lignolytic, cellulolytic, proteolytic bacteria and other micro-organisms can break down large organic molecules such as tannins and cellulose into useful smaller fragments. Higher algae are common, specially on pneumatophores and stilt roots. The study of saprophytic fungi is important because these organisms, together with bacteria, convert lignocellulose into energy sources for other organisms in the food web. Mangrove substrata are mostly composed of fine recent sediments, but one also finds sand and peat, and occasionally fractured rocks and shingle where mangroves are not predominant species. Important elements of the mangrove soils are the microbes, bacteria, fungi, and blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria). They play an important role in mineralization and chemical transformation in mangrove soils. In the oxygen deprived mud, bacteria which can live anoxically play an equally important role. Some of them utilize sulfur compounds instead of oxygen in respiration, and are instrumental in breaking down the sulfur containing substance conchiolin of which marine shells are partially constructed. Hydrogen sulfide (which smells like rotten eggs), the major byproduct of sulfur bacteria action, imparts the characteristic odor which is noticed when the mud is disturbed. Thus, hydrogen sulfide, which is fairly freely available and reactive, has the tendency to reduce ferric iron compounds in the soil (to a variety of hydrated ferrous sulfides which are black), making the alluvial soil rich with ferrous sulfides which impart to mangrove mud a dark appearance.

USES OF MANGROVES
Early uses of mangroves
The evolutionary history of mangrove species is documented by the palaeontological records, palynology or the study of fossil pollen grains and spores, palaeobotanical and radio carbon dating methods (Muller 1961; Macnae 1968; Thanikaimoni 1987). It is now over a century since Nypa fruits were found in London clays and at Gan in southwest France (Vannucci 1989). Historically, mangroves have been economically important in certain regions of the world. Mangrove products have been traded for centuries if not for millennia between east African coasts and Arabia or India and have been a traditional source of construction timber, poles, firewood and charcoal around the Indian Ocean and everywhere in the Far East. According to Bowman (1917), quoted by Walsh (1974), the first studies on mangroves go back to 325 B.C. with a chronicle of Nearchus, commander of the navy of Alexander the Great. The earliest references to the uses of mangroves date back to the year 1230 (Walsh 1977). Reference is made to the use of Rhizophora seedlings as food in times of famine, to cure sore mouth, to produce fuel, tannin and dye and wine having an aphrodisiac effect when ingested, and of their use as philters in Arabia. The oysters that grew on Rhizophora roots in Trinidad have been described as well tasted and the bark provided a tannin dye. The bark mixed with milk or fresh butter aided in curing diseases of the liver. A wine was made from mangrove propagules. The mangroves were utilized for retention of ballasts along the shores of the Florida Keys and in Venezuela. It is reported that sea-going vessels from the shores of the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf in prehistoric and early historic times had keels made of mangrove wood, and poles of R. mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza were used in the construction of buildings in Arabian cities. Early man carried mangrove propagules from South America to southern Pacific Ocean Islands. They were to serve as seed material for trees that produced tannin and wood. Occasionally, tall mangrove trees were especially maintained and used as signal trees in creek navigation. Walsh (1977) reported that when Amerigo Vespucci visited Maracaibo, he was impressed by native buildings on stilts, he named the area Venezuela (little Venice) because the stilt-supported homes over the water reminded him of Venice. Many of the aboriginal inhabitants of Australia clearly made use of and still exploit mangrove resources (Hegerl 1982; Kenneally 1982). The fact that coastal aborigines have extensive vocabularies in their traditional languages relating to the mangroves is a direct indication of their close association with and interest in those forests
11

12

Uses of mangroves

in the past. Furthermore, the extensive occurrence of major shell middens, long deserted, for example, on the foreshores of Princess Charlotte Bay, demonstrates an obvious early dependence on mangrove related food resources. Remnants of stone fish traps at mangrove fronts elsewhere provide similar evidence. In many places in west Africa, the mangrove ecosystem and the wood itself were associated with magico-mystical practices that often symbolize resistance, myths or mystery. Some mangrove dwellers believed that their canoes would be lost unless they were tied to pegs made of Rhizophora, while others considered the mangroves to be sacred forests to be used only for the burial of the dead, as in the Solomon Islands, or to perform special rituals (Vannucci 1989; Olsen 1997). Fijians placed people suffering from leprosy in an empty house and lit a small fire on which they placed wood of Excoecaria agallocha. The ensuing smoke, besides causing them intense pain, was believed to have cured patients.

Traditional exploitation
In villages all around the world people are dependent on mangroves for timber and firewood, to build dwellings (often on stilts) and lattice, furniture, studs for houses, rafters, joists, telegraph poles, fences, bridges, railway sleepers, poles for fish traps, harpoons, paddles and rafts, canoes and boats (Walsh 1977; FAO 1982, 1985; Saenger et al. 1983; Knox and Miyabara 1984; Field 1995; Rasolofo 1997). In Sri Lanka, straight stems of Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora and Bruguiera species are used to construct the frames of thatched roofs and window frames. The wattle of mud walls of houses are made with timber from the above species as well as Sonneratia, and the timber from coconut trees is widely used for rafters (Amarasinghe 1988). In addition to the commonly used mangroves, species such as Entada pervillei, Gluta tourtour and Ceiba pentandra are used by traditional fishermen in Madagascar to construct stilt houses and Givotia madagascariensis and Hazomalania voyroini for doors (Rasolofo 1997). Intsia bijura, a rare mangrove in Indonesia, and Xylocarpus moluccensis in west Africa provide valuable timbers for furniture making. In Bangladesh Sunderbans (beautiful forest; Sundari meaning beautiful), timber yields, principally of Heritiera fomes and Excoecaria agallocha (gewa), have exceeded 300,000 cubic meters annually, representing a major source of wood in a country poorly endowed with other forest types. About 300,000 people are directly dependent on the mangroves for wood, thatch, honey and fish (FAO 1982).

Uses of mangroves

13

Polynesians and other Pacific Ocean people use mangrove wood to construct boats to this day. Avecennia spp. are often used to construct dugout canoes. Boat builders in the mangroves knew when and where to fetch the right timber (Walsh 1977; Vannucci 1989). They preferred Excoecaria and Ceriops spp. to construct the knees, Rhizophora spp. for the masts, Avicennia spp. for the keel, and Barringtonia and Xylocarpus spp. for the planks. In Madagascar different mangrove species are used for the same purpose. Most commonly, species such as Ceiba petandra, Entada pervillei and Gluta tourtour are used for the hull, Sonneratia alba, E. pervillei, Rhopalocarpus lucidus and mascarhenasia spp. for paddles, and the stabilizers are made either of Cananga odorata, Ceiba petandra or Hazomalania voyroni (Rasolofo 1997). In the mangroves of Cananeia, the fishermen noiselessly followed tide markers such as dyes and floats in dug out canoes, listening to the speech of different fish (specially the bottom living catfish), whose sounds were magnified by the shape of the canoe. On the northern coast of the Northern Territory in Australia (Timor Sea), the only sea going rafts known to aborigines are crude rafts made of the light buoyant poles of Camptostemon schultzii (locally called wuduku) lashed together with vines. The nibong Oncosperma tigillarium (palm tree) is used throughout southeast Asia as poles to build jetties, wharves and other submerged structures because it is resistant to rot and attack by fungi and other borers in general. The corresponding palm trees of a different family, the jussara (Euterpe) and the jeriva (Arecastrum) are used in Brazil for the same purpose and reasons. When sufficient palm trees are not available, the common surrogates everywhere are species of Rhizophora, which due to their high tannin content, are resistant to rot and borers almost to the same degree as the palms. However, pilings for houses in swampy areas are made of Rhizophora (main species stylosa). In poor rural and urban communities in developing countries, fuelwood and charcoal are used widely as household power sources. Besides directly supporting the livelihoods of subsistence users, fuelwood and charcoal also create income and employment when traded as market commodities. For instance, mangrove wood is sometimes traded informally, or in the market place. In the Pacific and in Asia, mangroves such as Bruguiera and Ceriops spp. are used as a source of fuelwood for cooking, heating and cremation (Knox and Miyabara 1984; Sin 1990). Mangrove wood still provides 90% of the fuel used in Vietnam. In the urban areas fuelwood and charcoal are not confined to domestic use, but are often essential to small and medium scale trades or industries such as fuel for the manufacture of bricks and lime, baking, brewing and in textile

14

Uses of mangroves

manufacture. The Polynesians carried coconut husks to burn in the hearths carved from hardwood that they used in canoes during sea travels. In Indonesia, commercial exploitation of mangroves for charcoal was first reported in 1887. In the Philippines Rhizophora spp. and B. parviflora have been used as a substitute for the petroleum coke that is used in the manufacture of calcium carbide and ferro-alloys, which, in turn are used in the chemical, plastic, and metal industries (Walsh 1977). In Malaysia the production of charcoal is now one of the most important forms of mangrove utilization. The best charcoal with highest caloric power, exceptional slow-burning properties and no smoke, is that obtained from Rhizophora billets. For this reason, in Sind, in present day Pakistan, Rhizophora wood is used to fuel the boilers of locomotives. In Thailand, raw distillate from Rhizophora apiculata is condensed and collected from the vents of charcoal kilns. This raw condensate is essentially pyroligneous acid. Through a more complicated process, the pyroligneous acid is extracted to yield acetic acid, methanol and wood tar. In Sri Lanka coconut shells are combusted in limited supply of air to produce an excellent charcoal and activated carbon which is used in various industries. It is still being used by villagers to heat irons to press clothes. In rural cottage industries, fuelwood or charcoal have viable and valuable economic uses, such as in drying coffee or curing fish. Large scale conversion of mangroves for wood chip production began in East Malaysia and Indonesia during the 1970s. In 1971 almost 50,000 hectares were licensed in Sabah to produce wood chips, mainly for export to Japan. Malaysia halted the practice after 15 years, but mangrove wood chips are still a major export from Kalimantan, accounting for the annual loss of thousands of hectares of mangrove forest (Macintosh & Zisman 1997).

Traditional products and uses

The wide variety of traditional products from mangroves produced and utilized by coastal communities is well documented (Rollet 1981; Tomlinson 1986; Chan and Salleh 1987; Vannucci 1989; Field 1995). In Asia and the Pacific, leaves of Nypa palm, the screw palm Pandanus and the leaves of the coconut palm are woven to obtain attap or thatch to construct dwellings. Plants from the family Cyperaceae and grasses (sape) in Brazil are used for thatching and matting. Grasses and palm leaves are used to make door mats, and mats for sails, and to thatch walls and roofs. In Malaysia, an important cottage industry is the manufacture of shingles for roof thatching from the leaves of the most useful mangrove plant Nypa fruticans (Mercier & Hamilton 1984). Creepers are made use of in basketry, to obtain fibres for cords and to make fishnets. Prop and aerial roots of Rhizophora stylosa and young stems of Entada phaseoloides are used as ropes, and

Uses of mangroves

15

are useful in stringing fish to facilitate their transport. The pepper vine, Hibiscus tiliaceus, species of Dalbergia and Pandanus are used in making fibres, mats, paper and tapa cloth and grass skirts. Leaves of Typha domingensis are used to manufacture hats, and the bark is used to make floor polish and Cyperus articulatus is used to make mats and baskets. Culms of the saltmarsh rush Juncus kraussii are a favored material for the weaving of traditional articles in Natal/KwaZulu, South Africa (Heinsohn & Cunningham 1991). Coarser shoots from the plant Spartina alterniflora of the lower marshes are used as thatching for farm house roofs. The use of dried plants as packing material is a well known commercial use of marsh products (Queen 1977). Handicrafts are made from many species of mangroves. In west Africa Amoora cucullata is used to make toys and hookah pipes, Xylocarpus spp. to make pencils, and roots of Xylocarpus spp. are natural carvings. Tool handles are made from Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea. The wood of Cerbera manghas is very light, and therefore ideal for the carving of masks, figurines and puppets. E. agallocha provides match wood. Intsia bijuga is an exceptionally dense, hard timber and considered sacred by Fijians. It is used for beams, posts, canoes, yaqona bowls, clubs, and head rests. The pneumatophores of Sonneratia alba, S. caseolaris and the mangrove associate Anona spp. are used in making corks and fishing floats, and the wood is used, because it is light, to make heels for shoes (Walsh 1977). Dry fruits of Barringtonia asiatica are useful as floats for fishing lines. The pneumatophores of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and B. sexangula yield perfumes and condiments. Necklaces are made from seeds of Entada phaseoloides and Abrus precatorius. It is reported that some mangrove plant extracts are hair preservatives (Acanthus ebracteatus and A. illicifolius, xylocarpus spp.), skin cosmetics (Sonneratia caseolaris) and even aphrodisiacs (Excoecaria agallocha). The ash of species of Avicennia and R. mangle, rich sources of sodium compounds, is used as a soap substitute. Sap of the leaves of Clerodendrum inerme is used for washing dishes. The bark of B. gymnorrhiza, B. sexangula, and Ceriops tagal produces adhesives (Field 1995). To a limited degree, mangrove plants (e.g. Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha) are utilized to produce high-alpha (dissolving) pulps for the manufacture of viscose-rayon pulp and fibre, cellophane, cellulose acetate and other cellulose derivatives (Latif 1965; Kai et al. 1975; Chapman 1976; Walsh 1977; Murshed & Mian 1987). Cellulose xanthate, a relatively unstable compound derived from Rhiziphora species, is the most important among cellulose derivatives. Its importance is usually seen in the production

16

Uses of mangroves

of viscose rayon for all normal textile needs, tire cords, industrial belts, cellophanes, and as a potential raw material for the production of rayon-grade dissolving pulp. Pulpwood of R. mucronata has been exported from the Philippines to Japan for such manufacture (Walsh 1977). Before the era of synthetic yarns, man had learnt to make very fine sieves with fibers from the screw palm (Pandanus spp.), Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Thespesia populnea and finely split bamboos, reeds and sedges to catch crustaceans. The bark of Ceriops tagal produces good quality dyes and is useful in batik manufacture and decorating mats. The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), which can be considered a mangrove associated plant, is one of the most valuable (if not the most valuable) trees in Sri Lanka and some of its products are key elements in Sri Lankan culture. Almost every part of the plant has some traditional use or commercial value, and among coastal dwellers it is a source of a well established cottage industry. The husk of the fruit is used in making masks, and the fibre is used to make ropes, door mats, brooms and different types of brushes, upholstery filling and mattresses, and is a major contributor to the coir industry. Particle boards are made from by-products of the coir industry. The petioles from the leaves make excellent brooms. The timber provides wood carvings and shells for drums. Ornaments, spoons and percussion musical instruments are manufactured from the shells. Tender leaves and the inflorescence are decorative items in functions such as weddings, religious ceremonies and funerals alike. Trunks of Calophyllum inophyllum and Terminalia catappa are used for making lali, which is a canoe shaped drum, truncated at both ends for transmitting messages. The earliest historical record of the use of mangrove bark to extract tannins dates from 1760 in south America (Wilson & Merrill 1931; Walsh 1977; Hoque 1982). The use of the red mangrove Rhizophora mangle and other species along the tropical Atlantic Ocean coasts of America as well as Ceriops spp. for extraction of tannin for the leather industry and for dyeing purposes continues today (Chinese Academy of Forestry 1981; Yusof & Ali 1987; Yaga 1987; Ounjittichai et al. 1987;Higake 1987). Tannins impart flavour to wines and are being increasingly used in the manufacture of plastics, paints, ceramics and water softening agents (Atal et al. 1978). It is used as an adhesive material necessary in the laying and gluing-up stages of plywood/particle board manufacture. It also serves as an important constituent of ink, rust preventives and insecticides. Moreover, because of its viscous property, tannin is also used in deep sea oil-drilling. C. decandra and Rhizophora spp. are rich sources of gallotannin (Ravi & Kathiresan 1990). In central

Uses of mangroves

17

America, the direct use of mangroves for charcoal production and the extraction of tannin have been so extensive as to result in large scale mangrove removal and degradation (Macintosh & Zisman 1997). Though the importance of bark tannins has declined in many Asian countries, mangrove tannin is still used in Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh for curing of leather and fish nets (Balasooriya et al. 1982; FAO 1982).

Food from mangroves

In central America, archaeological evidence has confirmed the use of mangrove fuelwood in salt production dating back to before the Spanish period. Along the coastal lagoons of west Africa the villagers produce salt by using a technique of boiling brackish water placed in a clay bowl over a fire made from Avicennia spp. The ash from the leaves of A. africana is a substitute for salt, and salt is extracted from wood ash. Potassium carbonate and sodium chloride (salt) are obtained from Salicornia brachiata and Aegialitis rotundifolia respectively. Extracts of the heartwood of Avicennia alba and A. officinalis have tonic properties, and fruits of Rhizophora spp. and Sonneratia caseolaris are reported to yield a wine and a fruit drink respectively. In the Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India, a local industry is the production of honey. Annually swarms of Apis dorsata and A. mellifera (species of honey bees in the Sunderbans and west Africa respectively) build large honey combs and produce wax and wild honey (Macintosh & Zisman 1997). In northern India Pongamia pinnata is an important summer food plant for a variety of wild solitary and social bees (Apoidea) (Jain & Dhingra 1991). A tract of approximately 200,000 hectares of mixed mangrove species can produce up to 20 tonnes of honey annually (Field 1995). The bulk of the honey is produced from the pollens of Ceriops and Avicennia marina. The best quality honey is produced from Aegialitis rotundifolia and Cynometra ramifolia. The scented white fragrant flowers of Sonneratia caseolaris open at night for the bats to feed on the hundreds of stamina and at the same time pollinate the flowers. The tender leaves of Avicennia marina and Pluchea indica, the radicals of B. gymnorrhiza and B. sexangula, the fruits, seeds and seedlings of Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, B. sexangula, Oncosperma filamentosum, the fleshy fruits and the terminal buds of Oncosperma tigillaria are universally used as a vegetable, and some of the products are traded in the markets. The fruits of the two Brugueira species are eaten as a betel substitute. The hypocotyls of Bruguiera spp. and fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris are the staple food of some Papua New Guineans. The tender leaves of the plant are eaten

18

Uses of mangroves

as a curry and the water from the boiled leaves is used as an anti-poison by Sri Lankans. The fiddleheads of Acrostichum aureum are edible. The kernel of the fruit of Terminallia catapa is rich in lipids and is eaten by Australian aborigines, Fijians and coastal dwellers in Sri Lanka (James 1983; Sotheeswaran & Sharif 1994) and is a valuable seasonal food in parts of coastal Irian Jaya (Polunin 1983). Interesting mangrove recipes for the curious traveller involve the use of Avicennia fruit dip, and olives from the same plant (Field 1995). The skin from the fruit is removed and boiled and the fruit is then soaked in wine made from Nypa palm, blended with oil, salt and pepper and mixed with yogurt to produce the fruit dip. Olives are made by removing the tannins in strong brine solutions. The fruits of Kandelia candel and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza contain starch and if they are sliced, soaked in water to flush out the tannins and then ground to a paste, they can make excellent cakes or sweetened stuffing for pastry. In Oceania, the fruit of B. eriopetala are treated in the same way, but instead of making a paste, they are air dried, or boiled and eaten with coconut cream. The seeds of Inocarpus fagifer (or fagiferus; Tahitian chestnut) can be eaten when roasted or boiled and the young leaves are said to be edible. R. racemosa, and Philoxerus vermicularis are utilized in smoking fish, because their smoke adds color and flavor to the fish. The inflorescence of the palm family is tapped in many countries to obtain a sugary sap for processing into alcoholic drinks, sugar and vinegar. The sugar sap of the inflorescence of the common nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) and the coconut palm Cocos nucifera provide a diversity of products. Yeast is isolated from coconut and nipa tuba in the Philippines (Yamagata et al. 1980). Ethanol is made by distilling the fermented sugary phloem sap and the principal carbohydrate present in the fresh sap is sucrose (Paeivoeke et al. 1984). Other products obtained from the nypa palm include cooking oil and cigarette wrappers, an edible jelly and a sort of salt are made from the ashed leaflets. One reason why people in the paddy fields or in the mangroves prefer nypa palm to paper for cigarette wrappers is that they can become humid with no loss of smoking value. The alcoholic drink produced from the fermented sweet sap of the tapped young inflorescence of the coconut palm is named toddy (referred to as rah) by the Sri Lankans. This practice is restricted to the coconut plantations along the coast. Toddy is distilled to produce a drink popularly known as arrack, the most popular alcoholic drink in Sri Lanka. The buttresses of Heritiera spp. are used to make holders for clay pots to collect toddy. Series of coconut palms are inter-connected at the level of the

Uses of mangroves

19

canopy with two lines of ropes made from coconut fibre. The toddy collectors walk from one tree to the next on one rope while holding on to the other rope, to collect the toddy, thus avoiding climbing each individual tree. The unfermented sweet sap is boiled to obtain a sweet syrup (or treacle), or sugar candy (referred to as pani and jaggery respectively), both of which are substitutes for sugar. These two products are much sought after in preparing traditional sweets during the festive seasons. The combination (kiri pani) of yogurt (curd) and treacle (pani) is the most popular dessert. The water of the immature coconut fruit (referred to as kurumba or thambili) mixed with the tender kernel is a popular beverage. It is a rich source of potassium and sodium chloride, and in emergencies, the sterile water was used in rural hospitals as a substitute for saline. The mature kernel of the fruit is processed to produce coconut milk or powder which is the basis of Sri Lankan and Thai cuisine. The grated dried kernel (copra) is commonly known as desiccated coconut which is processed to yield coconut oil and used in cooking as well as in the manufacture of soap. The oil is also used as a hair cream and as a fuel to illuminate traditional lamps. Cattle food (poonak) is a byproduct of this process. Copra and copra meal are used occasionally as feed for prawns. An alternative source of tea are the leaves of five mangrove species, B. cylindrica, Ceriops decandra, R. apiculata, R. lamarckii and R. mucronata (Kathiresan 1995). Leaves of Osbornia octodonta are used as a flavoring agent. The flowers of Oncosperma tigillaria are added to rice as seasoning. A widely spread wild variety of rice has been used in spite of its low yield in Papua New Guinea. Very often the wild rice Porteresia coarctata can provide energy food to bridge difficult times. Large mangrove areas in Vietnam were converted to rice cultivation. Efforts are being made to isolate DNA series from the genome of the wild grass and introduce it into the genome of rice to increase tolerance of those varieties to be cultivated in salinity affected soils (Vannucci 1989).

Medicinal uses
When asked the question, Can you use this mangrove plant as medicine? the local inhabitants from many mangrove areas answered in the affirmative and went on to describe its various uses. However, the response to the question, What do you do when you are sick? was often, We go to the hospital or to the clinic! when such a facility is available nearby. This may be the case with some mangrove dwellers. The total population of countries with mangroves in their coastal zones amounts to almost three quarters of the worlds population, and these areas are the most affected by tropical diseases associated with

20

Uses of mangroves

insect vectors (Giglioli 1980). In the developing world most of the mangrove areas consist of rural settlements, at the lowest level of the socio-economic scale, and with a high incidence of tropical diseases and problems of biting or noxious insects such as mosquitoes and biting midges (sometimes wrongly called sand flies). The increase in popularity of western medicine, aid from developed countries and the introduction of a public health system has intensified the use of such medical facilities among some rural populations including mangrove dwelling and mangrove-dependent people (Subudhi et al. 1992). However this does not and should not undermine the potential of mangroves as a pharmaceutical resource. In the developed world the mangrove zone is established as a resort area with a high level of sophistication, costly public health facilities and technologies to fight these diseases. In spite of the available facilities, extracts and chemicals from mangroves are widely used by mangrove dwellers for bush medicine. The extraction of novel natural chemical compounds by chemists, in addition to those already known to the pharmacopoeia of the people, continues to this day. Numerous mangroves and mangal associates are used as folk medicinal, insecticidal and piscicidal plants (Vieira et al. 1968; Subudhi et al. 1992). Linne (the Swedish botanist) named one of the most widespread and important species of mangroves Avicennia in honor of the famous Arab physician and philosopher Abu Sina (980-1036 AD), whose name he latinized as Avicennia; for this purpose. The Arabs developed a rich pharmacopoeia from many different species of mangroves. More recently metabolites, some with novel chemical structures, and belonging to a diversity of chemical classes, have been characterized from mangroves and mangal associates. Among the latest additions are an array of substances from gums and glues to alkaloids and saponins and other substances of interest to modern industry and medicine. Benzoquinone and naphthoquinone derivatives, naphthofurans, flavonoids, polyphenols, rotenone and flavoglycans, sesquiterpenes, di- and triterpenes and related limonoids, essential oils, sterols, carbohydrates, O-methyl-inositols, sugars and iridoid glycosides, alkaloids and free amino acids, pheromones, gibberellins, phorbol esters, oxygen heterocyclics, sulfur compounds, lipids and hydrocarbons, long chain aliphatic alcohols and saturated acids, free fatty acids including PUFAs are among these classes (Table 3). Mangrove plants are a rich source of steroids, triterpenes, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins (Simes et al. 1959; Arthur et al. 1966; Saxena 1975; Aynechchi et al. 1982; Sinha & Dogra 1985; Kinoshita et al. 1990; Oswin & Kathiresan 1994; Bandaranayake 1994, 1996, 1998a, 1998b). Plant saponins which are glycosides of both triterpenes and

Uses of mangroves

21

sterols, are soluble in water and possess the property of forming stable soapy froth when shaken with water. The use of saponins as natural detergents and fish poison was known to primitive people. The interesting pharmacological properties associated with the Chinese drug ginseng, which is considered a panacea and a drug for longevity, are attributed to the various saponins present in it (Shibata 1982). Plant saponins, such as dioscin, are commercially sought after as starting materials for the synthesis of steroidal hormones (Correll et al. 1955). Plant saponins have other interesting biological activities (Mahato et al. 1988a and 1988b) such as spermicidal (Kamboj et al. 1976), molluscicidal (Marston & Hostettmenn 1985), antimicrobial, inflammation-inhibiting, and cytotoxic activities (Mahato et al. 1988a and 1988b). Avicennia officinalis produces pharmacologically significant steroidal saponins and sapogenins. Limonoids (modified terpenes) have attracted much attention recently because of their marked insect antifeedant and growth regulating activity (Champagne et al. 1992). There are many types of flavonoids such as flavans, catechins, chalcones, flavonones, flavones, flavanols and isoflavonoids (Mabry et al. 1970; Subramanian & Vedantham 1974; Subba Raju & Srimannarayana 1978; Subramanian & Krishnamoorthy 1990; Subrahmanyam et al. 1992; Tempesta 1992). Geissman and Crout (1969) and Orzechowski (1962) reviewed the role of flavonoids as therapeutic agents. For some time it has been recognized that several classes of flavonoids show antioxidant activity toward a variety of oxidizable compounds (Larson 1988). The majority of natural products used in medicine today are alkaloidal in nature and they normally exert some type of pharmacological activity, usually on the nervous system. Evidence from both in vivo and in vitro experiments indicates that the basic nitrogen compounds such as amino acids and alkaloids include many representatives that are potent inhibitors of various biological oxidative processes (Larson 1988; Collins et al. 1990). Tannins are water soluble polyphenols which differ from most other natural phenolic compounds in their ability to precipitate proteins such as gelatin from solution. This property, sometimes called astringency, is the reason for their past and present use in the tanning of animal skins and is the basis of a qualitative chemical test for the presence of tannins in plant extracts (Balasooriya et al. 1982). Polyphenols present in medicinal plants and present in food and beverages contribute to the prevention of diseases. They are one of the important components of the defense strategies developed by plants. Tannins deter herbivores and microorganisms from predation. Tannins are distributed in

22

Uses of mangroves

two groups according to their structures: proanthocyanidins which are phenolic polymers (condensed tannins), and hydrolysable tannins which are polymers of phenolic esters (Seshadri & Venkataraman 1959; Seshadri & Trikha 1971a and 1971b). Several biological activities such as cytotoxic, anti-neoplastic, antibacterial, antiherpetic, anthelmintic, are reported for tannins and many proanthocyanidins and they provide defense against herbivores or invading parasites (Fong et al. 1977; Stafford 1988). Their potential value as cytotoxic and antineoplastic agents and as antimicrobial agents, for example in wood preservation or prevention of dental caries, has been demonstrated (Scalbert 1991). Extracts from different mangrove plants are reported to possess diverse medicinal properties (Walsh 1977; Rollet 1981; FAO 1985; Tomlinson 1986; Sultana et al. 1986; Barr et al. 1988; Vannucci 1989; Premanathan et al. 1992 and 1993; Field 1995; Pare et al. 1993). Common uses of mangroves in bush medicine are given in Table 1. Novel inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase have been characterized from the Malaysian tree Calophyllum inophyllum (Patil et al. 1993). Chemicals identified from Calophyllum inophyllum are prospective lead compounds for anticancer drugs (Iinuma et al. 1994a and 1994b; Tosa et al. 1997). A triterpenoidal saponin isolated from Acanthus illicifolius and a novel alkaloid isolated from Atriplex vesicaria have revealed antileukemic activity and the alkaloid may be an active bactericidal component (Kokpol et al. 1985; Pezzuto et al. 1993). A. vesicaria which is also rich in tannins is an antitumor agent. Extracts of Brugueira sexangula bark were active against two tumors, Sarcoma 180 and Lewis Lung carcinoma (Loder & Russell 1966 and 1969). A chemical and pharmacological survey of plants in the Australian region revealed that several mangrove plants possess antiviral activity. Among them were several plants from the mangrove habitat which included species of Avicennia, Bruguiera, Excoecaria, Heritiera, Juncus, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Barringtonia asiatica, Camptostemon schultzi, Podocarpus dispermus, and Cyanometra iripa (Collins et al. 1990). Sixteen different mangrove plants have been tested for antiviral activity. A. illicifolius, A. marina, B. cylindrica, E. agallocha, R. mucronata, R. lamarkii. Salicornia brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastum, Sueda maritima, and S. monica exhibited antiviral activity against TMV. Of these, the extracts of the seeds of B. cylindrica and the leaves of E. agallocha exhibited the highest activity(>70%) (Padamakumar & Ayyakkannu 1994). Extracts of seaweeds, seagrasses and mangroves from the southeast coast of India have

Uses of mangroves

23

been tested in vitro for antiviral activity against Newcastle disease, vaccinia, Semliki Forest, encephalomyocarditis and hepatitis B viruses. The leaf extracts of B. cylindrica and bark of R. mucronata showed antiviral activity against all the viruses tested (Premnathan et al. 1992). Two systematic antiviral resistance-inducing proteins have been isolated from the leaves of Clerodendrum inerme (Olivieri et al. 1996). Pongamia pinnata, an Indian medicinal plant used in the Ayurvedha and Siddha traditional medicine systems for the treatment of clinical lesions of skin and genitalia also possess antiviral properties (Elanchezhiyan et al. 1993). Acanthus illicifolius, Avicennia marina and E. agallocha showed significant analgesic activity but were less effective when compared to morphine (Kokpol et al. 1985; Padamakumar et al. 1993). A triterpenoidal saponin isolated from Acanthus illicifolius is useful in the treatment of paralysis, asthma, rheumatic pains and has revealed analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities (Minocha & Tiwari 1980 and 1981; Jongsuvat 1981). The spirit extracted from Clerodendron inerme and A. illicifolius is anti-inflammatory. The leishmanicidal activity of the spirit from A. illicifolius due to the presence of 2-benzoxazolinone, compares well with existing chemotherapeutic agents against Leishmania presently available in the market (Kapil et al. 1994). Ipomoea pes-caprae exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and is a traditional medicinal plant used in Thailand for the treatment of various types of inflammation including jellyfish sting and dermatitis. According to folk medicine the fruits of the large glabrous shrub Lumnitzera racemosa are curative in skin disorders. Chemicals identified from the plant exhibited antihypertensive activity (Lin et al. 1993). Three of the eleven hydrolyzable tannins characterized from the leaves of the plant, and chemicals characterized from the Chinese tallow Sapium sebiferum possess hypertensive activity (Hsu et al. 1994). The root of Balanites aegyptiaca is anthelmintic, and the edible leaf has been regarded as an effective medicine for sleeping sickness. Clerodendron inerme is reported to exhibit uterine stimulant activity and febrifugal and pesticidal properties (Achari et al. 1990). Antifungal compounds have been characterized from Diospyros spp., H. littoralis and X. granatum (Prasad & Simlot 1982; Chittawong 1987; Okorie & Taylor 1977; Chou, et al. 1977). The young unripe fruits of X. moluccensis strongly inhibit the respiratory reactions of mitochondria from rat liver (Kubo et al. 1976). The bark pressings of Xylocarpus granatum and X. moluccensis, referred to as the puzzle-nut trees by Fijians are a cure for fevers including those caused by malaria (Alvi et al. 1994). Extracts from the bark of

24

Uses of mangroves

Table 1. Medicinal uses of mangrove plants. Botanical name Acanthus illicifolius *** Uses aphrodisiac, asthma, blood purifier, (Fr), diabetes, diuretic, dyspepsia, hepatitis, leprosy (Fr, L, R) neuralgia, paralysis, ringworms, rheumatism, skin diseases, snake bites, stomach pains, (B, Fr, L). antiseptic, blood purifier, boils, (Fr), colds, (B, Fr), gangrenous wounds, (B), rheumatism, (L), skin allergies, (B), snake bites, (B, Fr, L). boils and wounds, (Rhizome), rheumatism, (L). haemataria, leprosy, ulcers, (L, B). leukemia, (B). asthma, diabetes, rheumatism, (L,B) cancer, cure for thrush, gangrenous wounds, lice, mange, ring worms, skin parasites, tumors, (B), ulcers, (B). antifertililty, skin diseases, tumors, ulcers, (Resin). blood purifier, boils, snake bites, (Fr). incontinence, rheumatism, (B).throat pains, ulcers of the mouth, (L, B). rheumatism, small pox, ulcers, (St). aphrodisiac, diuretic, hepatitis, (Fr, L), leprosy, (B). cure for thrush, (B, L), tumors, ulcers, (Resin and Seeds). rheumatism, (B, St). nerve tonic, (L). abdominal pains, intestinal disorders, malaria, purgative, sleeping sickness, syphilis, (L). hepatitis, (Fr, L, R). ulcers antitumor, (B). eye diseases, (Fr). antitumor, (B). antitumor, (B). diabetes, (B, L). antitumor, (B). antitumor, rheumatism, (B, L). anticancer, disinfectant, (B, L), bone fracture, (Fr), eye diseases, (B).

Acanthus ebracteatus Acrostichum aureum Aegiceras majus Atriplex vesicaria Aegiceras corniculatum Avicennia africana Avicennia alba Avicennia ebracteatus Avicennia germinans Avicennia marina Avicennia officinalis Avicennia nitida Avicennia tomentosa Bacopa monniera Balanites aegyptica Bruguiera cylindrica.

*** ** ** * ** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** * ***

Bruguiera caryophylloides *** Bruguiera exaristata Bruguiera gymnorhiza Bruguiera parviflora Bruguiera sexangula Bruguiera rumphii Bruguiera sexangula Caesalpinia bonducella, (bonduc) Calophyllum inophyllum *** *** *** *** *** *** * *

Uses of mangroves

25

Table 1. (continued) Botanical name Carapa obovata . Carapa moluccensis Cerbera manghas Ceriops decandra Ceriops candolleana Ceriops tagal Clerodendron inerme Concocarpus erecta . Derris uliginosa Derris trifoliata Excoecaria agallocha Fagara zanthoxyloides Heritiera littoralis Hibiscus tiliaceus Hippomane mancinella Ipomoea pes-caprae Kandelia rheedii Lumnitzera coccinea Lumnitzera racemosa Murrayella periclados Nypa fruiticans Pluchea indica Oncosperma tigillarius Pongamia pinnata ** ** * * * * * *** *** *** *** * *** * * * *** ** ** * *** ** *** * Uses diarrhoea, febrifuge, (Fr). diarrhoea, febrifuge, (Fr). purgative, (B), rheumatism, (Fr, Seed). hepatitis, ulcers, (B, Fr, L). diabetes, (B). stops hemorrhages, (B). antiseptic, arrests bleeding, (L), asthma, hepatitis, ringworm, stomach pains, (L, B, Latex), uterine stimulant, (L). catarrh, (R), febrifuge, (L), gonorrhoea, malaria, stops bleeding, (B) arrests haemorrhages, (Fr), antispasmodic, stimulant, (B). laxative, (L, R, T). epilepsy, (L, Sap), conjunctivitis, dermatitis, haematuria, leprosy, (L, Sap, St), purgative, (L, sap), toothache, (Sap). dental hygiene, (St). diarrhoea, (St). ear infections, (Flowers). conjunctivitis, (L, Sap). jelly fish sting dermatitis, (L). diabetes, (B, Fr, L). thrush, (L). antifertility, asthma, diabetes, snake bite, (Fr). antibiotic, (B). asthma, diabetes, leprosy, rheumatism, snake bite, (L, Fr). fever, (L, R), gangrenous ulcers, (L), rheumatism, scabies, (L, shoots), sinusitis,(B, St),. clinical lesions of skin and genitalia, (B, L, St), fever, (L), piles, rheumatism, (L), scabies, (L), sinus, (B), skin diseases, stomach pain and intestinal disorders, (B), tumors, wounds, ulcers, (Whole plant). antiemetic, antiseptic, diarrhoea, haemostatic, (B), hepatitis, (B, Fl, Fr, L), stops bleeding, typhoid, (B). hepatitis, (Flowers, L).

Rhizophora apiculata Rhizophora lamarckii

*** ***

26

Uses of mangroves

Table 1. (continued) Botanical name Rhizophora mangle *** Uses angina, boils and fungal infections, (B), antiseptic, diarrhoea, dysentery, elephantiasis, fever, malaria, leprosy, (B, L), minor bruises, (B), plaster for fractured bones, (B), tuberculosis, (B, L). elephantiasis, febrifuge, haematoma, (B), hepatitis, (B, Flower, Fr, L, R), ulcers, (B). stops bleeding, (Fl, L). hepatitis, (L, St). stress, (B). antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, coughs, diabetes, eye infections, gastrointestinal disorders, headache, stings and bites, (B, L). hepatitis, (L). hepatitis, (L). hepatitis, (L). arrests haemorrhages, (B, L), asthma, febrifuge, ulcers, (B). poultice in swellings and sprains, (Fr). hepatitis, (L). bleeding, hemorrhages, piles, sprain poultices, (Fr). checks hemorrhages, (juice). analgesic, antiseptic, internal pains, (Whole plant). cholera, fever, malaria, (B). aphrodisiac, (Fr), fever, malaria, (B).

Rhizophora mucronata Rhizophora racemosa Salicornia brachiata Sapium sebiferum Scaevola sericea Sesuvium portulacastrum Sueda maritima Sueda monoica Sonneratia acida Sonneratia alba Sonneratia apetella Sonneratia caseolaris Sonneratia ovata Spinifex longifolius Xylocarpus granatum Xylocarpus moluccensis *** ** * B L Fr R St

*** *** *** * * * * * *** *** *** *** *** * ** **

mangroves mangrove minors mangrove associates bark leaves fruits roots stems

Uses of mangroves

27

Table 2. Classification of mangrove flora. Family Acanthaceae * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * ** * ** * * * * * * * *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** * *** Species Acanthus ebracteatus Acanthus flexicaulis Acanthus illicifolius Acanthus volubili Sesuvium portulacastrum (vine) Crinum penduculatum Gluta tour tour Gluta velutina Alstonia macrophylla Cerbera floribunda Cerbera mangas Cerbera odollam Ervatamia pandacaqui Strophanthus cumingii Schefflera odorata Rhabdadenia biflora (paludosa) (vine) Cyananchium (Cyanchum) carnosum Dischidia nummularia (saccata) (epiphyte) Finlaysonia obovata Hoya coronaria Hoya parasitics (epiphyte) Ischnostemma carnosum (vine) Asplenium nidus Gymnanthera nitida (vine) Sarcolobus carinatus Sarcolobus globulus Asplenium macrophyllum (fern) Asplenium nidus (fern) Thespidium basiflorum Pluchea indica Sphaeranthus africanus Avicennia africana Avicennia alba Avicennia balanophora Avicennia bicolor Avicennia eucalyptofolia Avicennia germinans Avicennia integra Avicennia lanata Avicennia marina/variety resinifera Avicennia nitida Avicennia officianalis Avicennia schaueriana Avicennia tomentosa Batis maritima Batis argillicola

Aizoaceae Amaryllidaceae Anacardiaceae Apocynaceae

Araliaceae Asclepiadaceae

Aspleniaceae Asteraceae

Avicenniaceae (verbanaceae)

Batidaceae (Bataceae)

28

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued) Family Bignoniaceae * * * * * * * ** ** ** * * ** ** * * * *** *** * * * ** ** * * *** * * * * *** *** *** ** ** ** ** * * * * * * * * Species Amphitecna latifolia Anemopaegma chrysoleucum (vine) Anemopaegma phryganocydia(vine) Cydista equinoctialis Dolichandrone spathacea Phryganocydia phelloosperma (vine) Tabebuia palustris Camptostemon moluccensis Camptostemon philippinense Camptostemon schultzii Heliotropum curassavicum Tillandsia usneoides Capparis sepiaria Casuarina equisetifolia Cassine viburnifolia Arthrocnemum indicum Atriplex stocksii Haloscarcia halocnemoides Haloscarcia indica Salicornia brachiata Salsola kali Suaeda arbusculoides Suaeda fruticosa Suaeda maritima Suaeda monoica Suaeda nudiflora Suaeda virginicus Tecticornia australasica Combretum spp. Concocarpus erectus Concocarpus procumbens Laguncularia coccinea Laguncularia concocarpus Laguncularia racemosa Lumnitzera littorea Lumnitzera lutea Lumnitzera racemosa Lumnitzera rosea Terminalia catappa Pluchea indica Sphaeranthus indicus Tuberostylis axillaris Tuberostylis rhizophorae (epiphyte?) Ipomoea pes-caprae Stictocardia tiliaefolia Cycas rumphii

Bombacaceae

Boraginaceae Bromeliaceae Capparaceae Casuarinaceae Celastraceae Chenopodiaceae

Combretaceae

Compositae (Asteraceae)

Convulvulaceae Cycadaceae

Uses of mangroves

29

Table 2. (continued) Family Cyperaceae * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * ** ** ** ** *** *** *** *** ** ** ** * ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Species Cladium procerum Clerodendrum inerme Cyperus ferruginea Cyperus javanicus Cyperus polystachyos Cyperus rotundus Cyperus stoloniferous Eleocaris dulcis Fimbristylis cymosa Fimbristylis ferruginea Fimbristylis rara Schoenoplectus littoralis Scirpus littoralis Thoracostachyum sumatrum Humata repens (fern) Diospyros compacta (ferrea) Diospyros Littorea variety germinata Diospyros melanoxylon Vaccinium piperifolium (epiphyte) Excoecaria acuminata Excoecaria agallocha Excoecaria dallachyana Excoecaria guinensis Excoecaria halocnemoides Excoecaria indica Excoecaria ovalis Excoecaria parviflora Glochidion littorale Glochidion mindorense Glochidion perakense Hippomane mancinella Mallotus papillaris Sapium indicum Flacourtia jangomas Scolopia macrophylla Flagellaria indica Scaevola plumieri Scaevola sericea Scaevola taccada Aeluropus lagopoides (grass) Cynodon dactylon (grass) Cyperus rotundus Myriostachya wightiana Porteresia coarctata (grass) Sporobolus virginicus Urochondra setulosa Calophyllum inophyllum Garcinia bankana

Davalliaceae Ebenaceae

Ericaceae Euphorbiaceae

Flacourtiaceae Flagellariaceae Goodeniaceae

Gramineae

Guttifera

30

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued) Family Juncaceae Lecythidaceae * * * * * * *** * * * * ** * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** * * *** * * Species Juncus acuminatus Barringtonia acutangula Barringtonia asiatica Barringtonia conoidea Barringtonia inlyta Barringtonia racemosa Cyanometra iripa Cynometra ramifolia Caesalpinia bonduc (vine) Caesalpinia crista (vine) Caesalpinia nuga (vine) Sophora tomentosa Aganope heptaphylla (vine) Bauhinia binata Cumingia philippinensis Dalbergia amerimnon (vine) Dalbergia candenatensis (vine) Dalbergia ecastophyllum (vine) Dalbergia torta Dalbergia heterophylla (vine) Dendrolobium umbellatum (vine) Derris araripensis (vine) Derris heptophylla (vine) Derris heterophylla (uliginosa) (vine) Derris lianoides (vine) Derris nicou (vine) Derris trifoliata (vine) Derris urucu (uliginosa) (vine) Desmodium umbellatum (vine) Intsia bijuga (Afzelia bijuga) Inocarpus fagifer (fagiferus) (vine) Inocarpus papuanus (vine) Mora oleifera Mora excelsa Muellera moniliformis (fruticans) Peltophorum pterocarpum Pithecellobium umbellatum Pongamia pinnata Pongamia velutina Smythea lanceata (vine) Crinum pedunculatum Amyema gravis (epiphyte) Amyema mackayense (epiphyte) Amyema thalassium (epiphyte) Dendrophthoe pentandra Loranthus quinquenervis Lysiana maritima Pemphis acidula Pemphis madagascariensis

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) (Subfamily: Caesalpinoideae)

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) (Subfamily: Papilionoideae)

Liliaceae Loranthaceae

Lythraceae

Uses of mangroves

31

Table 2. (continued) Family Lycopodiaceae * * * * * * * * * *** *** *** * * * * * * * * * ** * * ** ** ** ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** ** ** ** ** ** ** Species Viscum ovalifolium Lycopodium carinatum (fern) Lycopodium phlegmaria (fern) Crena patentinervis Tristellateia australasiae Brachypteris ovata Hibiscus tilaceus Pavonia rhizophorae Pavonia spicata (scabra) Thespesia acutiloba (acutissima) Thespesia populneoides (populnea) Thespesia australasica Conostegia polyandra Medinella crassifolia (epiphyte) Melastoma villosum Ochthocharis bornensis Ochthocharis javanica Pogonanthera reflexa Agalaia cucullata Agalaia odorata Agalaia roxburghiana Amoora cucullata Carapa granata (grandiflora) Carapa obovata Carapa moluccensis Carapa procera Xylocarpus granatum Xylocarpus mekongenesis Xylocarpus moluccensis Acacia holosericea Ficus annulata Ficus bracteata Ficus crassiramea Ficus diversifolia Ficus microcarpa Ficus obscura Ficus sundaica Horsfieldia irya Meropa angulata Morinda citrifolia Myristica hollrungii Myristica subalulata Myrsine umbellulata Aegiceras corniculatum (majus) Aegiceras floridum Ardisia elliptica (granatensis) Ardesia littoralis Myrsine umbellulata Rapanea porteriana Rapanea umbellulata

Malpighiaceae

Malvaceae

Melastomaceae

Meliaceae

Mimosaceae Moraceae

Myristicaceae

Myrsinaceae

32

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued) Family Myrtaceae * ** ** ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * *** * * * * ** *** * ** ** Species Cathormion umbellatum Melaleuca acaciodes Melaleuca leucadendra (leucadendron) Melaleuca octodonta Osbornia octodonta Nephrolepis acutifolia (fern) Agrostyphyllum spp. (epiphyte) Bulbophyllum xylocarpi (epiphyte) Bulbophyllumdixeni(epiphyte) Cymbidium canaliculatum Dendrobium crumentum (affine) (epiphyte) Dendrobium discolor (rhizophoreti) (epiphyte) Dendrobium flavidilum (epiphyte Dendrobium indivisum (epiphyte) Dendrobium gemellum (epiphyte) Dendrobium pensile (epiphyte) Dendrobium salaccensis (epiphyte) Dendrobium secumdem (epiphyte) Dendrobium spurium (epiphyte) Dendrobium sublatum (epiphyte) Dipodium spp. (epiphyte) Eria albido-tomentosa (epiphyte) Lusia zollingeri (epiphyte) Lygodium scandens (epiphyte) Paphiopedilum exul (epiphyte) Phreatis minutaflora (vine) Polystachya flavescens (vine) Taeniophyllum spp. (epiphyte) Trichoglottis misera. (epiphyte) Vanda spp. Calamus aqualitis Calamus erinaceus Cocos nucifera Euterpe cuatrecasana Livistona benthamii Nypa fruticans Oncosperma filamentosum (filamentosa) Oncosperma horridum (horrida) Oncosperma tigillarium Phoenix reclinata Phoenix paludosa (spinosa) Raphia vinifera Pandanus affinis Pandanus odoratissimus Pandanus spiralis Azteca spp. Pelliciera rhizophoreae Pittosporum ferruginea Aegialitis annulata Aegialitis rotundifolia

Oleandraceae Orchidaceae

Palmae (Arecaceae)

Pandanaceae

Pellicieraceae Pittosporaceae Plumbaginaceae

Uses of mangroves

33

Table 2. (continued) Family Poaceae * * * * * * * * * * ** ** ** * * *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** ** * ** ** ** ** * * *** Species Cynodon dactylon Sporobolus virginicus Xerochloa imberbis Podocarpus polystachyus Crypsinus spp. (fern) Drynaria quercifolia Drymoglossum piloselloides (fern) Lecanopteris sinosum Platycerium coronarium (fern) Pyrrosia adnascens Acrostichum aureum (fern) Acrostichum danaeifolium (fern) Acrostichum speciosum (fern) Colubrina asiatica Smythea lanceata Bruguiera caryophylloides Bruguiera conjugata Bruguiera cylindrica Briguiera eriopetala Bruguiera exaristata Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Bruguiera hainesii Bruguiera parviflora Bruguiera sexangula Cassia fistula Ceriops candollena Ceriops roxburghiana variety . decandra Ceriops tagal variety. Australis Ceriops timoriensis Kandelia candel Rhizophora apiculata Rhizophora candel Rhizophora conjugata Rhizophora harrisonii Rhizophora lamarckii Rhizophora mangle Rhizophora mucronata Rhizophora racemosa Rhizophora samoensis Rhizophora selala Rhizophora stylosa Guettarda mindorense Guettarda speciosa Hydnophytum formicarum (epiphyte) Hydnophytum membranaceum Hydnophytum philippinens Morinda bracteata Mymecodia echinata Mymecodia tuberosa (antoinii) (epiphyte) Rustia occidentalis Scyphiphora hydrophylacea

Podocarpaceae Polypodiaceae

Pteridaceae

Rhamnaceae Rhizophoraceae

Rubiaceae

34

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued) Family Rutaceae * * * * *** *** *** ** * * * * *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** ** * * ** ** ** * * * * * * * * Major mangrove components Minor mangrove components Mangal associates Species Merope angulata Merope gangulata Paramignya angulata Paramignya longispina Salsola foetida Salsola persica Salvadora oleoides Salvadora persica Allophyllus cobbe Dodonaea viscosa Planchonella obovata Pouteria obovata Sonneratia alba Sonneratia acida Sonneratia apetala (lanceolata) Sonneratia Caseolaris Sonneratia griffithii Sonneratia gulngai Sonneratia ovata Heritiera fomes Heritiera globosa Heritiera littoralis Heritiera minor Heritiera ornithocephala Kleinhovia hospita Tamarix gallica Pelliciera rhizophora Brownlowia argentata Brownlowia lanceolata Brownlowia tersa Typha domingensis Poikilospermum suaveolens (epiphyte) Clerodendrum inerme Premna integrifolia Prema obtusifolia Teijsmanniodendron hollrungii Vitex pinnata Colummela trifolia

Salsolaceae Salvadoraceae Sapindaceae Sapotaceae Sonneratiaceae

Sterculaceae

Tamoricaceae Theaceae Tiliaceae

Typhaceae Urticaceae Verbenaceae

Vitaceae *** ** *

References: Chapman 1976 and 1987; Rollet 1981; Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; Berjak et al. 1982; Ong & Gong 1983; Saenger et al. 1983; Tomlinson 1986; Umali et al. 1987; Lovelock 1993; Field 1995.

Uses of mangroves

35

Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Ceriops tagal, C. decandra, Xylocarpus granatum, X. moluccensis and Laguncularia racemosa are considered to have astringent, antidiarrhoea, antiemetic and haemostatic properties (Kokpol et al. 1990a). Extract from Derris uliginosa and Ipomoea pes-caprae is a stimulant and antispasmodic (Pongprayoon et al. 1992). The fermented juice of the Sonneratia fruit is useful for arresting haemorrhage (Bose et al. 1992). The mature fruits of X. moluccensis are used as aphrodisiacs. In Thailand and Java the leaves and roots of Pluchea indica (known as kukronda among the Thai people) have been reported to possess astringent and antipyretic properties and are used as a diaphoretic in fevers. Fresh leaves are used in the form of poultices against atonic and gangrenous ulcers. Cigarettes prepared from the chopped stem bark are smoked to relieve the pain of sinusitis. In Indo-China the leaves and young shoots are crushed, mixed with alcohol, and applied to the back in cases of lumbago, and also are used for rheumatic pains and in baths to treat scabies (Mukhopadhyay et al. 1983). Excoecaria agallocha (koeora) has been the subject of numerous chemical investigations. According to the Indian materia medica a soft reddish substance (Tejbala) obtained from the lower part of the trunk of E. agallocha was reputed as an aphrodisiac tonic. This may be the cause of its over-exploitation, as happens with all plant and animal products reputed to be aphrodisiacs. However, E. agallocha may have been exploited in these regions for other reasons. Being a member of the Euphorbiaceae, it exudes an acrid milk sap, or latex rich in alkaloids (Kawashima et al. 1971; Ramamurthi et al. 1991a and 1991b). In traditional medicine this sap and decoctions from different parts of the plant (mainly the leaves) are used for different purposes, such as purgatives, and against epilepsy (Reddy et al. 1991). A paste made from the wood is applied externally on ulcers and leprous sores or, alternatively, the ulcers and sores are exposed to the smoke from the wood. Excoecaria paste is used as a cure for leprosy wherever the tree grows in the Asia-Pacific region. The balsam from the bark of Calophyllum inophyllum is used as a cicatrisant, and in Asian medicine an infusion from the leaves is a remedy for eye diseases (Iinuma et al. 1994a and 1994b). The littoral shrub, Fagara zanthoxyloides, found in Nigeria and in the coastal sands north of the Casamance River in Senegal, is used in dental hygiene as chewing sticks against the bacteria Bacteroides gingivalis and B. melaninogenicus (Berghen 1982; Rotimi et al. 1988). Leaves of Cerbera manghas are reduced to a pulp by chewing, and are employed for stuffing hollow teeth (Pillai 1985). Brahmi (Bacopia

36

Uses of mangroves

monniera), a reputed nerve tonic in Indian ayurvedic literature, improves the learning performance of rats (Singh & Dhawan 1982). In Koh Kong province in Cambodia, a fungus called sam bok sramoch (home for the ant) found among the mangroves is dried and used as medicine for lung disease (Olsen 1997). Two antimicrobial substances have been obtained from a mangrove isolate of the fungus Preussia aurantiaca (Poch & Gloer 1991).

Toxicants from mangroves

A number of mangroves and associates contain poisonous substances which also show biological activities such as antifungal, antibacterial, antifeedant, molluscicidal and pesticidal properties (Chou et al. 1977; Chapatwala et al. 1981; Teixeira et al. 1984; Marston & Hostettmenn 1985; Thangam & Kathiresan 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992 and 1993; Ravelonjato et al. 1992; Achary et al. 1993; Ghatak & Bhusan 1995) and a number of mangrove insecticidal plants seem to have been recognized first as fish poison. The synthetic insecticides DDT, BHC, and malathion are commonly used world-wide in mosquito control. However, these chemicals are well known to cause environmental pollution. To overcome this, natural insecticides of plant origin have been investigated. Terrestrial plant extracts, when combined with synthetic insecticides, have been reported to reduce the required insecticide dose and hence reduce pollution. The synergistic mosquito larvicidal activity of extracts of Dictyota dichotoma (algae growing on aerial roots of Rhizophora spp.) and the stilt roots of R. apiculata have been investigated. The extracts showed synergism with the insecticides and R. apiculata exhibited highest synergistic activity with BHC (Thangam & Kathiresan 1991; Molyneux 1972). E. agallocha is toxic to many young aquatic organisms (Krishnamoorthy et al. 1995). The latex exhibits antimicrobial characteristics and larvicidal properties against the salt marsh mosquito Culex sitiens (Reddy et al. 1991). Mangrove dwellers throughout south and southeast Asia produce insecticides and larvicides that kill worms from Derris eliptica, D. scandens, and D. uliginosa. The Malay tubah Derris urucu, D. nicou, and D. sericea and D. trifoliata are good sources of rotenone, widely used as a commercial insecticide (Mars et al. 1973; Lawanyawudhi 1982; Kokpol et al. 1990b; Payne 1991). The root of Derris trifoliata is known colloquially as dynamite, because of its extensive use as fish poison, and an amorphous saponin isolated, is recognized as the active principal (Parente & Mors 1980). Constituents with piscicidal properties have been characterized from fresh twigs and bark of Balanites aegyptiaca, E. agallocha, Aegiceras majus, A. corniculatum and Heritiera littoralis (Ly 1986; Kokpol et al. 1990b). They are

Uses of mangroves

37

rich sources of terpene glycosides (saponins) and flavonoids (Rao & Bose 1961 and 1962; Kawashima et al. 1971; De La Cruz et al. 1978, 1979 and 1984; Miles et al. 1985, 1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1989, 1991; Chittawong 1987 and 1988; Gomez et al. 1986 and 1989). The toxicity of aqueous extracts from different parts of Aegiceras corniculatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Derris trifoliata and Heritiera littoralis were determined using juvenile Nile tilapia, Sarotherodon niloticus, as test organism. Juvenile tilapia, under the stress of mangrove toxicants, exhibited behavior similar to those described for fish subjected to metabolic poisons like rotenone (Ohigashi et al. 1974; Wiriyachitra et al. 1985; Lho 1986; Gomez et al 1986; Kokpol et al. 1990a and 1990b; Reddy et al. 1991). The seed of Barringtonia asiatica can be used as a small-scale fish poison. Sapium indicum is an Indian poisonous plant and piscicidal agent, and the unripe fruit contains an unusual metabolite which is an irritant (Taylor et al. 1981). The root, bark, kernel, fruit and branches of the East African brackish water tree Balanites aegyptiaca are lethal to mollusks and three potent molluscicides have been identified (Ufodike & Omoregie 1994). Chemicals isolated from Heritiera littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum demonstrated ichthyotoxicity and antifungal activities (Okorie & Taylor 1977). E. agallocha exudes an acrid milk sap, or latex, which is a strong irritant and injurious to human eyes, hence the name blinding tree. The latex of E. agallocha exhibits antimicrobial characteristics (Kathiresan & Thangam 1987a and 1987b; Reddy et al. 1991; Krishnamoorthy et al. 1995) causing metabolic depression of the rice-field crab Oziotelphusa senex and also inhibits the ATPase system in the gills and hepatopancreas tissues of the crab. Soil bacteria and yeast react with the latex, which probably helps in the detoxification of the latex in nature (Ramamurthi et al. 1991a and 1991b). Hippomane mancinella, a tree indigenous only to the Florida Everglades commonly called manchineel is one of the most ill-famed poisonous plant species in the Caribbean and the North American continent (Adolf & Hecker 1975 and 1984) and has been the subject of several investigations. The term manchineel literally means the little apple that makes horses mad. Even accidental contact with the plant (specially the leaves and the fruits) causes bullous dermatitis and severe conjunctivitis (Guillet et al. 1985). The fruits resembling small apples (hence named guavas or beach apples) are very toxic causing serious illness or even death to humans and livestock. The tree is known also as a source of honey, which is reported to be nontoxic. The latex from the leaves, twigs and bark of the tree, which is a rich source of alkaloids, crystalline tannins and diterpenes,

38

Uses of mangroves

inflicts severe inflammation and blisters on human skin and is particularly irritating to the eye and mucous membranes. Caribs poison their arrows with the latex (Rao 1974; Adolf & Hecker 1975 and 1984; Morin 1985). The sap of velutina is extremely irritant and toxic. The Cerbera odollam fruit is poisonous and is used as a means of committing suicide by the Marquesans. Extracts of Lumnitzera racemosa have a reputation against snake bite (Martz 1992). Extracts from Clerodendrum inerme are a pest control which can act as surface protectants of cow pea seeds against the pulse beetle (El-Ghar & El-Sheikh 1987). Different parts of the plant Casuarina equisetifolia (Ironwood) caused acute catarrhal and intestinal nephritis, and toxic hepatitis in the fish Tilapia hornorum. Compounds with agrochemical activity and compounds which act as antifeedants towards boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) have been characterized from Arundo donax and Eleocharis dulcis (Miles et al. 1993a, 1993b and 1994). Kubo et al. (1976) isolated the African army worm Spodaptera exemta antifeedant metabolite from the premature fruit of the African tree X. moluccensis. Insect antifeedant has been identified from X. granatum. Steam volatiles of the young coconut bark contain many aromatic and aliphatic compounds and the total extracts generated positive electroantennogram (EAG) responses of the coconut pest, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Gunawardena 1994). Fungi are rarely discussed, even though there may be some significant pathogens of mangroves in the fungal flora. For example, a gall disease Cylindrocarpon didynum in the Gambia is lethal and is estimated to have cost firewood valued at $40 million (Teas 1991).

Miscellaneous uses
In Iriomote Island, Japan, the germinated propagules of Rhizophora and Bruguiera spp. are planted in pots for decorations (Field 1995). Chan and Salleh (1987) have shown that pest species of mangrove plants could perhaps be turned into useful ones. For example, the ribs of the Acrostichum speciosum, the giant fern pest, is used as support for cultivated climbers such as beans. Alcoholysis or catalytic pyrolysis of Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum) seed oil yield a diesel oil-like (mineral oil-like) fuel (Adeyeye 1991; Patil et al. 1993; Agra et al. 1992). The bark, wood, seed and volatile oil from species of Melaleuka are used in various applications (Brinkman & Xuan 1991; Warnigati et al. 1992; Bishop 1995). Direct herbivory of mangrove leaves, leaf buds, and propagules is variable among

Uses of mangroves

39

different countries. In some countries mangrove forests are often used as grazing grounds for buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep, and as an important source of forage, for which the sprouts and young shoots of Avicennia are preferred. The gathering of leaves of Avicennia, Suaeda and Porteresia, remains widespread in the Middle East and southern Asia, for feeding camels, goats and sheep (Bhosle et al. 1976). In south Florida, identified grazers of living plant parts (other than wood) include the white-tail deer, tree crabs and insects including beetles, larvae of lepidopterans (moths and butterflies), and orthopterans (grasshpppers and crickets) (Odom et al. 1982). In west Africa Paspalum vaginatum and Acrostichum aureum serve as pasture and litter for beddings for cattle, and Philoxerus vermicularis is fodder for goats and sheep. The fronds and tender trunk of the coconut palm is a delicacy for elephants in Sri Lanka. In Borneo, young leaves of Avicennia trees produce the best fodder and green manure, and ash from the bark of B. eriopetala, B. gymnorrhiza and R. conjugata is used as fertilizer. Kandelia rheedii, D. uliginosa, Dolichandrone spatheca and B. gymnorrhiza are useful plants for green manure. The rice fields in Sumatra are cultivated according to a brush fallow system, and the fields are covered with brush (Melanostoma) and sedges, which provide much needed fertilizer. Leaf and leaf litters of some mangroves have nutritive values (Bhosle et al. 1976; Shinoda et al. 1984). Fully grown leaves of Ceriops decandra and E. agallocha could be used, instead of natural withering of leaves, to decompose and enrich the nutrient quality of water (Sil et al. 1995). Enteromorpha clathrata, a marine seaweed, which can grow in saltmarshes and has the ability to conduct highly productive agriculture in areas that are now deserted through seawater irrigation, can provide a new resource for feed, food and biomass (Moll & Deikman 1995). The Chinese mangroves are similar to the species of Indo-China and Philippines. Besides protecting and aiding in the building-up of the coastal line, the mangroves provide edible fruits and useful products such as marine algae as food for both humans and livestock, and leaves and shoots as green manure (Shao-Ye 1980). Asians gather shells to produce lime in kilns. In Vietnam and in the Philippines, farmers supplement their income by collecting and sorting shells from the mangrove mud flats for the same purpose and for tourists (Velasco 1980). Crab shells have found their way into mass production of high-technology products such as artificial skin, and drainage pipe pollutant removers. The crab shells contain the polymer chitin and its derivative chitosan. These are used in making non-allergic contact lenses, a major industry initiated by the USSR Academy of Sciences. Crab shells are also used as wastewater filters for the textile industry. Dyes used in the printing of fabrics are discharged with the waste

40

Uses of mangroves

water and chitin from the crab shells when combined with calcium decolorize (remove the dye) the water which is then recycled (Aldon & Dagoon 1997). An alternative economic activity is the exploitation of the fish, mollusks and crustaceans that abound in the mangrove areas. Although impossible to quantify, hunting also remains a significant activity in many areas and extends to illegal exploitation of rare and endangered species for sale as skins and stuffed specimens for tourist markets (Chan & Salleh 1987). Mangroves are habitats for many vertebrates such as turtles, snakes, lizards, and frogs. The famous Royal Bengal Tiger, declared an endangered species, along with sharks and crocodiles, endangers the lives of honey and wax collectors. It is a permanent dweller of the Sunderbans where its normal food consists of large herbivores such as wild pig and deer, and fish, otters and birds. They compete with man, monkeys and birds for the honey. Because mangroves present a more diverse structural habitat than most coastal ecosystems, they harbor a greater variety of bird life than areas such as saltmarshes, mud flats, and beaches. They also serve as breeding habitats. The main food of these birds are small marine creatures. The composition of the avifauna community in mangrove ecosystems is, in fact, highly diverse (Kjerfve et al. 1997). They can be divided into six groups based on similarities in methods of procuring food. These groups (guilds) are the wading birds (e.g. egrets, herons, ibis, pelicans), probing shore birds (e.g. plover, clapper rail), floating and diving water-birds (e.g. ducks, cormorants, grebes, pintail), aeriallysearching birds (seagulls, terns ), birds of prey (e.g. eagles, vultures, hawks, owls) and arboreal birds (composed mainly of birds that feed and/or nest in the mangroves) (e.g. blackbirds, swallows, pigeons, cuckoos, robins, woodpeckers, thrushes, warblers, swamp sparrows). Mangrove ecosystems play a seemingly important role in providing wintering habitat for migrant birds. The birds produce considerable amounts of faeces, which facilitate the trees growth and increase the amount of organic matter as feed for aquatic creatures and benthos. Saltmarsh plants are herbaceous flowering plants, many of which are conspicuously succulent, and like mangroves are halophytes. In temperate climates these plants constitute the major component of the saltmarsh communities covering large areas that would be dominated by mangrove trees were the temperatures more favourable. Saltmarshes have been used by people for centuries for hunting, fishing, grazing, and harvesting shellfish. For example, Spartina patens marshes at times provide grazing

Uses of mangroves

41

grounds for cattle. Mangroves and salt marshes provide an important habitat and food for bees and foraging birds (e.g. geese) (Charman & Macey 1978; Pehrsson 1988; Ringius 1980; Massey et al. 1984; Jain & Dhingra 1991; Lange et al. 1992; Laing & Raveling 1993; Kuo et al. 1993; Burchmore 1993; Erwin et al. 1994; Mulder et al. 1996). Widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima), dwarf spikerush (Eleocaris parvula), and seeds of saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus) are food for the pintail waterfowl (Anas acuta) (Prevost et al. 1978). During spring and fall, the greater snow goose (Chencaerulescens atlantica) make migratory stopovers and graze on the substrate and vegetation of the brackish tidal marsh in the St. Lawrence estuary. The birds feed mainly on the rhizomes of Scirpus americanus (Belanger & Bedard 1994). In Venezuela, mangrove forests are homes to large colonies of cormorants and to a lesser extent to pelicans. Several furbearing species of importance to man inhabit saltmarshes, the more important species being muskrats, raccoons, minks and nutria (Queen 1977). Even today in Hong Kong, the use of mangroves as a natural sewage-treatment plants is being considered. Enteromorpha, a benthic algae also found in salt marshes, is used as a biological indicator in estuaries for pin-pointing aqueous (as opposed to sediment) metal contamination (Say et al. 1990). Plants such as Bacopa monnieri, Melaleuca quinquenervia and Scirpus lacustris can be used in biomonitoring of metal pollution in closed water bodies (Heckman 1986; Gupta et al. 1994). A number of investigations examining the ability of aquatic plants to purify waste waters from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources is in progress (Montgomery & Price 1979; Gorham et al. 1980; Chaturvedi 1986; Fiedler et al. 1991; Gumbricht 1992; Gassner & Neugebohrn 1994; Gupta et al. 1994; Vajpayee et al. 1995). The common reed, Phragmites australis, which is both a freshwater and saltmarsh habitant, is used as a botanical approach to the treatment of waste water (Biddlestone et al. 1991). A concentrated emulsion of the berry of Balanites aegyptiaca has been recommended for treating ponds and canal dead-ends (Liu & Nakanishi 1982; Ufodike & Omoregie 1994). In north Africa species of Atriplex are made use of to improve range land (El-Hamrouni 1986) and they are candidates for biomass production on marginal saline lands (Wallace et al. 1982). Melaleuka leucadendron is a useful and versatile tree for acid sulphate soils (Brinkman & Xuan 1991). In west Malaysia and parts of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, the acid sulphate soils carry a natural vegetation of mangrove in saline areas and Melaleuca in the brackish areas. Ultraviolet (UV) absorbing phenolic compounds and carotenoid-like pigments present in

42

Uses of mangroves

the leaf epidermis of tropical mangroves have been shown to be protective against the damaging effects of UV B radiation (Lovelock et al. 1992a; Lovelock & Clough 1992b). Mangrove plants yield gibberellins which are plant growth regulators (Ganguly et al. 1970; Ganguly & Sircar 1974). Sex pheromone components have been identified from an unnamed Planotortrix leaf roller moth species found on Avicennia resinifera (Foster et al. 1987).

Uses of mangroves

43

Table 3: Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants. Chemical Class Alkaloids and aminoacids References Arthur et al 1966; Barr et al 1988; Chou et al 1977; Collins et al 1990; Joshi 1981; Loder and Russell 1966, 1969; Pezzuto et al 1993; Popp et al 1984; Prakash et al 1983; Wright and Warren 1967; Yamauchi et al 1987 Bagachi et al 1988; Hogg and Gillan 1984; Kokpol et al 1993; Misra et al 1984, 1985, 1988; Sotheeswaran and Sharif 1994; Wannigama et al 1981 Achmadi et al 1994; Aynechi et al 1982; Kagan and Mabry 1969; Kinoshita et al 1990; Lawanyawudhi 1982; Mabry et al 1970; Molyneux 1972; Nair et al 1979; Neilson et al 1986; Orzechowski 1962; Ravelonjato et al 1992; Saxena 1975; Seshadri and Venkataraman 1959; Seshadri and Trikha 1971a, 1971b; Stafford 1988; Subba Raju and Srimannarayana 1978; Tanaka et al 1981, 1992; Tempesta 1992. Adolf and Hecker 1975, 1984; Achuthankutty 1990; Bose et al 1992; Calis et al 1994; Chapatwala et al 1981; Erickson et al 1995; Fauvel et al 1995; Foster et al 1987; Gangully et al 1970; Gangully and Sircar 1974; Gunawardena 1994; Hoffman 1976; Hsu et al 1994; Jongsuvat 1981; Kapil et al 1994; Kato 1972; Kato et al 1975, 1980; Kokpol et al 1990b; Larson et al 1988; Leone De Pinto et al 1993; Lho 1986; Lin et al 1993; Liu and Nakanishi 1982; Ly 1986; Miles et al 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1994; Mukhopadhyay et al 1983; Nahar et al 1986; Ohigashi et al 1974; Olivieri et al 1996; Oswin and Kathiresan 1994; Patil et al 1993; Payne 1991; Poch and Gloer 1991; Pongprayoon et al 1992; Popp 1984a, 1984b; Rao 1974, 1977; Ramamurthi et al 1991b; Ravi et al 1990; Richter et al 1990; Shinoda et al 1984; Siddhanta et al 1991; Sil et al 1995; Simes et al 1959; Spencer and Flippen-Anderson 198..; Subrahmanyam et al 1992; Sutton et al 1985; Tanaka et al 1981; Taylor et al 1981; Untavale et al 1977; Yamauchi et al 1987. Goh and Jantan 1991; Iinuma et al 1994a, 1994b; Tosa et al 1997. Ali et al 1980; Gomez et al 1989; Kapadia et al 1997; Tezuka et al 1973 Akihisa et al 1990; Ghosh et al 1985; Kokpol et al 1985, 1990a; Misra et al 1984; Parente and Mors 1980; Rao and Bose 1959, 1961, 1962; Sinha and Dogra 1985 Achari et al 1990, 1992; Alvi et al 1994; Bell and Duewell 1961; Champagne et al 1992; Chittawong 1987, 1988; Connolly et al 1993; Evans 1994; Ghosh et al 1985; Hensens and Lewis 1966; Kawashima et al 1971; Kokpol et al 1985; Mahato et al 1988a, 1988b; Majumdar and Patra 1976a, 1976b, 1977, 1978, 1979a, 1979b, 1979c, 1980; Miles et al 1985, 1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1989, 1991; Minocha and Tiwari 1980, 1981; Misra et al 1985; Mulholland and Taylor 1992; Okorie and Taylor 1997; Pare et al 1993; Pascoe et al 1986; Raha et al 1991; Rao and Bose 1959, 1961, 1962; Srivastava et al 1962; Subrahmanyam et al 1992; Subramanian and Vedantham 1974; Sultana et al 1986.

Fatty acids, alcohols, lipids

Flavonoids and related compounds

Miscellaneous

Oxygen heterocycles Quinones Steroids and related compounds

Terpenoids and related compounds

TRADITIONAL FISHERIES

The mangrove dweller was necessarily a fisherman. The rural indigenous diet of many mangrove dwellers consists primarily of fish, and subsistence consumption of fisheries is extensive. Subsistence fishing methods are generally simple. Many marine products could be gathered by hand or with the assistance of weirs, while in areas such as the northern coast of Irian Jaya and the Tanibars, Malaysia and Vietnam fishermen hunt for fish. Hunting often employs poisons, gill and cast nets, plunge-baskets or stake traps and spears (Polunin 1983). In south Sumatra fixed fishing gears are the most commonly used. The bag nets (tuguk) are set up in series perpendicular to the current across the estuary. The cone- shaped nets are fastened to nibong poles, which also keep the mouth of the big net open. These big nets will strain fish and shrimps from the water following the rise and fall of the tides. In the use of long-line in mangrove rivers, practiced normally during the low tidal range, fish are lured and caught by baited hooks. A baited long-line has about 300 hooks and its ends are fixed to stakes with markers. Unbaited long-line is used mainly for catching scaleless fish such as rays. Malaysians utilize three types of traps to catch crabs. Simple baited traps, crab lift nets and crab hooks. The collapsible lift net consists of a small square piece of netting stretched out by two diagonally-crossed pieces of rattan or bamboo attached to sinkers. At the junction of the cross-pieces, a wire baitholder and a rope carrying a float are fixed. The collapsible net has entrances at both ends and is stretched out by galvanized iron hoops. In the third method, the fisherman scouts around the forest for crab holes. Once a hole is located, the hook is pushed in, to pull the crab out. In east Java young boys and girls collect chanos fry with small buckets and small triangular push nets. Sometimes the fry are lured into a trap, which is no more than a man-made shallow pool enclosing several compartments. The collection of cockles from either natural or cultured beds is an important traditional fishing activity (Umali et al. 1986). Fishermen in Malaysia, Sumatra and Vietnam collect cockles (e.g. Anadara granosa) buried in the mangrove mud by hand or with rakes either to be consumed or traded in the market. It is common in mangrove villages to rear fish and crabs in small ponds or pens within the mangrove waters, closer to homes, in the backyards or under stilt houses, fenced with mangrove poles. Traditionally, the small fish ponds are restocked by opening them to the tide. In Vietnam crustacean aquaculture has been integrated with coastal rice farming (polyculture). Marine shrimps migrate at spring tides on the tidal flats and farmers use fallow rice fields to trap and grow shrimps. Juvenile mangrove crabs (mud crabs) are cultured in small backyard ponds, cages, boxes or
45

46

Traditional fisheries

fallow rice fields. The cages and boxes for rearing fish are made of a variety of materials, including mangroves, and at times are suspended in mid-stream from floats or tethered to poles. Ponds, cages and boxes are covered with coconut fronds or Gracilaria to serve as shelters, to increase surface area for attachment by crabs and to reduce cannibalism (Hung 1992; Chong 1993; Aldon & Dagoon 1997). Compartmented hollow blocks within the cages also minimize fighting among crabs. They are fed with propagules of Rhizophora, rice bran, copra, cassava roots, shrimp-head waste, trash fish, house waste and garbage (Hung 1992; Chong 1993; Aldon and Dagoon 1997; Olsen 1997). An alternative traditional method of rearing fish and crustaceans is to build rafts with capture nets, in which fish are reared, and to moor the rafts adjacent to the mangrove forest (Field 1995). A semi-capture, semi-captive type of fishery called brush pile fishery is practiced in south India and in Sri Lanka. Twigs and branches, mainly of Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata and Lumintzera racemosa are used to form brush piles or brush parks (locally called mas athu). The fishermen build up small forests of cut mangrove tree branches that they push into the mud in the shallow waters of estuaries and lagoons. These look like giant bundles of brooms protruding above maximum high tide. The total area of the brush may vary from 1 m2 to 50 m2. This device creates an ecological niche where fish gather and grow. These mini forests are harvested after several months and are renewed annually. Brush parks constructed with Avicennia marina produced the highest yields (Costa & Wijeyaratne 1994). The fishermen also plant mangrove tree saplings to increase their mud flat dwelling area by trapping silt, and to attract shrimp and fish. Fish ponds and pens, cage culture or brush pile and other regular artisanal fishing methods are inexpensive, use locally available materials, and are not destructive of the ecosystem. Traditional fishing is intensive in Madagascar, and relies extensively on mangrove forest products to produce fishing traps and canoes. Fishermen build out of mangrove wood a dyke-like structure (valakira), mainly to catch prawns. Here the people use the dead wood of Avicennia marina or the green wood of Ceriops tagal to cook (boil) prawns and fish which are dried on mangrove lattice (Rasolofo 1997).

CONCLUSION

It is clear that mangroves are potentially of great commercial value. This is not often recognized. It is unfortunate that in many parts of the tropical world mangrove forests are reclaimed indiscriminately. Mangroves need to be protected from destruction and there is a need to recognize mangrove forestation as an acceptable land use system (Bennett and Reynolds 1993). Conservation of mangrove resources has become a global issue. Mangrove ecosystems provide a unique and valuable range of resources, services and products but they have always been an undervalued resource. For instance, the production of traditional products from mangroves can be better exploited. Rollet (1981) compiled a bibliography of mangrove literature that cited more than 6000 references to research reports and journal articles for the period 1600-1975. The great bulk of past (Snedaker,1974 and 1982; Walsh 1974) and recent publications are devoted to vegetation or the biology and ecology of mangroves and to the problems of management. Two important reasons justify the study of the chemical constituents of mangroves. Firstly, mangroves are one of the easiest tropical forest types to generate. They have the ability to grow where no other vascular plants can. Because of their extreme habitats these plants have evolved special methods of survival. Production of unique chemicals may be one such strategy. Marine organisms and plants produce novel metabolites unique to the environment. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the mangrove plants produce metabolites which may in turn be unique to them and are of interest to the curious chemist (Table 3). Studies of potential commercial importance are needed, focusing on the extraction of tannins and the use of the plants for the production of methanol, acetic acid and coal tar. Secondly, the chemistry of mangrove plants is of growing importance because of their great potential as a source of novel agrochemicals and compounds of medicinal value (Tables 1 and 3). They may also provide a new source for many already known biologically active compounds. Numerous mangroves and mangal associates are used in folklore medicine and have found applications as insecticides and piscicides (Table 1). Even though there are some recent investigations of the chemical constituents describing several novel compounds, the exploration of mangroves for pharmacologically important compounds is still in its infancy (Table 3). A knowledge of the chemical constituents of these plants is desirable, not only for the discovery of new therapeutic agents, but also because such information may be of further value to those interested in deciphering the actual value of folkloric remedies.
47

48

Conclusion

In conclusion, mangroves should be the object of conservation practices, not only for their own sake, but most of all for the purpose of a balanced, sustainable non-degrading type of use of the tropical coastal zone.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This review report is the result of communication with scientists associated with mangrove research, and many people, specially mangrove dwellers, from Asia and southeast Asia. My thanks are due to all those who provided useful information. Critical comments and suggestions from Drs. E. Wolanski and D. Johnston are gratefully acknowledged.

49

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