Race-Thinking Before Racism

Race-Thinking before Racism Author(s): Hannah Arendt Reviewed work(s): Source: The Review of Politics, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan.
, 1944), pp. 36-73 Published by: Cambridge University Press for the University of Notre Dame du lac on behalf of Review of Politics Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1404080 . Accessed: 27/02/2013 20:08
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Cambridge University Press and University of Notre Dame du lac on behalf of Review of Politics are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Review of Politics.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded on Wed, 27 Feb 2013 20:08:32 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BeforeRacism Race-Thinking
ByHannahArendt I or Opinion Ideology. F race-thinking a German as were invention, it is now sometimes that then"German asserted, (whatever may be) was thinking" the world victorious many in of thespiritual longbefore Nazis parts its exercised Hitlerism their at started illfated conquest. attempt world the 'thirties international inter-European and appeal during strong had a statedoctrine in Germany, been because racism, only although warThe in trend public a powerful opinion. Nazi political everywher? tanks in when 1939German machine longbeenin motion had began was warfare-racism calsince-inpolitical of their march destruction, or to culated be a more ally powerful thananypaid agent anysecret of the experiences of fifth columnists. by Strengthened organization theNazis wereconfident in twodecades thevarious almost capitals, from racialpolicy wouldbe their thattheir best"propaganda" itself, and broken other they promises, had which, compromises many despite a was neither new Racism never drifted awayforexpediency's sake.1 this had before it beenusedwith never nora secret though weapon, consistency. thorough-going with is of truth the matter thatrace-thinking, its The historical simulthe19th in the18th roots century during emerged century, deep ideolthepowerful has Racism been countries. in taneously all Western It of sincetheturn ourcentury. certainly policies ogyof imperialistic of all which, and revived theold patterns raceopinions has absorbed wouldhavebeenable to create for or, however, themselves hardly by or as into to thatmatter, degenerate racism a "Weltanschauung" an of For the '"idea" of racedoes not belongin thehistory ideology. and were lastcentury dignity importhe and ideas, notuntil endofthe
1 During the German-Russian pact, Nazi propaganda stopped all attacks on but "Bolshevism" nevergave up the race-line.
36
RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM
37
it tance it one accordedas though hadbeen ofthe conmajor spiritual tributions Western ofthe world.2 for Up to thefateful ofthe"scramble Africa," days race-thinking had beenone of themany opinions free within general the which, framework of liberalism, argued fought oneanother and with to had wintheconsent public of And that opinion. ifit is true theanarchy of competing thewayforthedeformation of ideas opinions paved and theformationideologies, is so only of that the because aimof since times the of ancient has to every opinion, the Sophists, been win theconsent themultitude. ancient of The with concerned Sophists, forthe moment the art alone,invented "universal of persuasion themind arguments."3 as thehuman is Insofar mind enchanting by concerned truth, hadtodestroy dignityhuman with of the they thought. Andthough are and opinions their nature changing arevalid very by "at time and as agreement only the ofthe agreement as long the lasts"4 theSophists "from because and comes succeeded, opinion persuasion notfrom truth."5 Therefore Sophist noteven the did bother the with oftruth; wasconvinced truth, any he that in did event, not problem for andwasuseless hispurpose. promote persuasion Themost difference the and striking opinbetween ancient modem ion-holders theformer satisfied thepassing is that were with victory of a single at whereas latter the a want argumentthecostof truth, more ofarbitrary ofpast events presentations orpresent lasting victory at thecostof reality. as theSophist thesakeof argument for Just the of so the destroyed dignity human thought, themodem Sophist, the which of him for into destroys dignity facts ideologist, degenerate of Facts are to and examples hisopinion. nolonger held bepart parcel ofthe orpresent - interpretation world canchange to past anything
2 The besthistorical accountof race-thinking the pattern a "history ideas" in of of is: Erich Voegelin,Rasse und Staat (Tuebingen 1933). Up to the middleof the last were still judged by the yardstick political reason. Wrote of century, race-opinions doctrines: les croisbien vraisemblablement Tocquevilleto Gobineauaboutthelatter's "Je fausseset trescertainement de Lettres Alexis de Tocquevilleel de Arthur pernicieuses." de Cobineau. In Revue des Deux Mondes (1907), Tome 199, Letterof November 17, 1853. 3 Plato, Phaidros,261. 4 Plato, Theaetetos, 172. 5 Plato, Phaidros,260.
38
THE REVIEW OF POLITICS
suit an opinion,no factis securefromreceiving tomorrow entirely an
newandunexpected if The meaning, it isexpedient. modern propagan-
distdoesnotbother thequestion reality, with of he because is convincedof the utterworthlessness knowledge just as the Greek of of of uselessness truth. morerecent In Sophistwas convinced theutter and sincethe FirstWorld War, thisbeliefhas times, especially during receiveda tremendous reenforcement knows that because everybody even scholars, greatconservators facts,at different the of timesand in different countries have providedpartyor state propagandawith as as linesdemanded.6 manyfactsand figures themostdivergent political And whilefor the Sophiststruth itselfwas nothing but one opinion modernscholarsseem convincedthat knowledgeis among opinions, but one interpretation among interpretations. as the annothing Just cient rhetors, mastersof logic, were willingto lend theirart to the the of defendany case, so modern scholars, masters facts,have shown themselves to give away theirknowledge help any to willingenough new ideology.
of whichwereallowedto enter Among the multitude freeopinions into freecompetition the era of liberalism,7 only a fewbecame during whichwere based upon one full-fledged ideologies,that is, systems that provedstrongenough to attractand persuadea single opinion the of majority peopleand broad enoughto lead themthrough various of and experiences situations an averagemodem life.For an ideology the differs from simpleopinionin thatit claimsto possesseither key a or of history, the solutionof all the "Riddles of the Universe,"or the of laws whichare supposed intimate knowledge the hiddenuniversal fewhave won enoughpromto rulenature and man.Amongideologies
6 Two rather may be quoted outstanding examplesfromscholarsof good standing of of as characteristic "scholarship" duringWorld War I. The Germanhistorian art,
Ukrainians. Persians,HunArmenians, the Nordic race to be composedof Germans, Bulgarsand Turks (pp. 306-307). The Societyof Medicineof Paris not only garians, publisheda reportabout the discoveryof "polychesia" (excessive defecation) and for "bromidrosis" urinanalysis thedetec(body odor) in theGermanrace,but proposed
Iran inhis (Leipzig, Strzygowski Altai, undVolieeruanderung 1917)discovered Josef
to urine of tion German 20% nitrogen spies;German was"found" contain non-uric

as against 15% for other races. (See: Jacques Barzun, Race (New York, 1937),
p. 239.) 7 Forthe of 19th A host conflicting see: Carlton H. Hayes, opinions J. century Ceneration ofMaterialism York, 1941), 111-122. (New pp.
39
of the inence survive hard to and competitive strugglepersuasion, only all the out twohavecome on topand essentially defeated others: of which interprets as an economic ideology history struggle classes, The that andtheother interprets as a natural of races. fight history was that able ofboth large to masses so strong they were to appeal themselvesofficial national obtain state as docand support establish trines. far in But beyond boundarieswhich the andclassrace-thinking of free have into patternsthought, public thinking developed obligatory has them an that intellectuals opinion adopted tosuch extent notonly butgreat masses people no longer of will of accept presentation any orpresent that not agreement these facts is in with views. past The tremendous ofpersuasion inherentthemain in ideolopower is is Persuasionnotpossible without giesofourtimes notaccidental. to either or desires, other in words immediate to appeal experiences it to with needs. political Though is futile argue ideologies racism - anexplanation beextremely hassurvived of librariesrefutations may fruitful meets ideologies their ground, thebasis on which the own on from which have basis formed is neither scienAndthis they grown. by tific of as brands Darwinists liketo haveus would facts, thevarious nor historians in efforts believe, byhistorical as the laws, pretend,their todiscover lawaccordingwhich the to civilizations andfall. rise Every as has continued improved a and full-fledged ideology beencreated, It that andnotas a theoretical doctrine.is true somepolitical weapon is case racism an ideology changed times andsuch the with has but contact political itsoriginal immediate with sense; without political Their life of be none them could imagined. scientific issecondary aspect for the to and arises from desire provide watertight first, arguments, their because persuasive gothold ofscientists, also andsecondly, power in research-results their butleft were whono longer interestedtheir their interto multitude new off andhurried topreach the laboratories "scientific" We oflife preachers pretations andworld.8 oweittothese
8 "Huxley neglected of research his own fromthe '70's onward,so busy scientific and at was he in theroleof'Darwin'sbulldog' barking biting theologians." Hayes, op. cit., results scientific whichwas at least as p. 126. ErnstHaeckel's passionforpopularizing Nazi has as recently an applauding by strong his passionforscienceitself, been stressed In: Ernst Haectel, Ein Wegbereiter H. writer, Bruecher, biologischen Staatsdenlkens. Monalshefte, (1935), Heft 69. Nationalsozialistische
40
rather to anyscientific than results to-day single that is no science left intowhose has categorical system penetrated. race-thinking notdeeply Thisagainhasstimulated some havebeentempted historians, ofwhom to make science for to mistake certain either responsible race-thinking, or research for of results causesinstead consephilological biological ofrace-thinking.9 quences If it is unjust make particular to for science any responsible pseudoto scientific it is harmful reconstruct history the superstition, directly of Nazismin sucha wayas to provide with excellent it an genealogy. From Platoto Nietzsche is a there hardly philosopher whohas not left beeneither foes praised Nazi intellectuals or accused their by by ofhaving Machiavelli oftheir monstrosities. beena forerunner Recently of from dubious the honor oneofthevery in articles wasfreed beautiful was Maritain;1and someyears Jacques ago, evenNietzsche rightly
9 This quid pro quo partlywas the result the zeal of students of who wantedto in singleinstance whichrace has been mentioned. Therebytheymistook put down every authors whomexplanation race was a possibleand sometimes for harmless by relatively racists. in were Such opinions, themselves harmless, fascinating opinionfor full-fledged as of A advancedby theearlyanthropologists starting-pointstheirinvestigations. typical of of instance thenaivehypothesis Paul Broca, notedFrenchanthropologist themiddle is to of the last century, who assumedthat"the brain has something do with race and of the measured shape of the skull is the best way to get at the contents the brain" without (quoted afterJacquesBarzun,op. cit.,p. 162). It is obviousthatthisassertion of of ridiculous. the support a conception thenature man,is simply of of whose conceptof "Aryanism" As for the philologists the early 19thcentury, or has seduced almosteverystudent racismto countthemunderthe propagandists of as can be. When they even inventosof race-thinking, are as innocent innocent they it wantedto includein thesame the of overstepped limits pure research was becausethey as culturalbrotherhood many nationsas possible. In the words of Ernest Seilliere, La Philosophiede l'Impe'rialisme vols. 1903-1906) "Ce futalors une sorted'enivre(4 ses de ment:la civilisation moderne crutavoir retrouve titres famille.... et l'organisme toutesles nations dont langue presentait naquit, unissantdans une mime fraternite sanscrites." quelques affinitis (Preface, Tome I, p. xxxv.) In otherwords,thesemen and sharedits enthusiasm of traditicn the 18thcentury stillbelongedto the humanistic aboutstrange people and exoticcultures. errorof the few scholarswho common On the otherside, it has been a rather to truehumanism, place a greatdeal of responto becauseof their were immune racism or on for modern bestiality the naturalistic biologicaloutlookon life. But the sibility that As of oppositewould have come closer to the truth. a matter fact,the doctrine (fromthe 17thto the 19th) untilit had conMightis Rightneeded severalcenturies And if, to of scienceand producedthe"law" of thesurvival thefittest. querednatural as of the take another instance, theory De Maistreand Schellingaboutsavage tribes the devicesas well of political peopleshad suitedthe 19thcentury decayingresidues former we of as the theory progress, would probablyhave neverheard muchof "primitives" link" between would have wastedhis timelookingforthe "missing and no scientist ape on and man. The blame is not to be laid on any science as such, but rather certain became hypnotized who in no lesser degree than their fellow-citizens scientists by ideologies. 10 See, Review of Politics,January, 1942.
RACE-THINKING BEFORERACISM
41
in shown to havebeenthespiritual father this"master-race"a of not Karl Jaspers."1 But bookof theGerman philosopher very courageous has mankind in themeanwhile, number victims the of spiritual among them he become Thomas is among because wasa CathAquinas legion. olicand authoritarian, because was a Protestant a JewLuther he and he Kantbecause wasa Prussian, Hegel because idolized he and hater, theState.To be sure, there stilla fewleft are whohavenotyetbeen their still slandered either side;they await "interpreter." by The fact that racism themainideological is of weapon imperialistic is to thatit seems though as students politics so obvious prefer many track a truism. about avoidthebeaten of an old misconception Instead, racism a nationalism stillgiven is being kindof exaggerated currency. Valuable works students, in France, haveproved of who that especially racism notonlya quitedifferent is buttends destroy to phenomenon thebodypolitic the nationare generally of overlooked. Witnessing thegigantic between for and class-thinking competition race-thinking dominion theminds modern over of to somehavebeeninclined man, intheformer expression national in thelatter expressee the of the and sion of international to the to trends, believe former be the mental for wars and thelatter be theideology civil to for preparation national wars. This has beenpossible of because thelastwar'scurious mixture of old national newimperialistic a and in old conflicts,mixture which national stillto possessa fargreater to the slogansproved appeal masses all countries of involved anyimperialistic In this than aims. war, with it should and however, itsQuislings collaborationists everywhere, be clearthat racism stirred civilconflicts every has in and up country, thatracism proved be themostingenious has to for device preparing civil that ever has war beeninvented. For thetruth thatrace-thinking is the entered sceneof active polithe ticsat thevery moment when European had and peoples prepared, to a certain extent realized, newbodypolitic thenation. the of had Fromthevery racism cut deliberately acrossall national beginning, or whether theseweredefined geographical linguistic boundaries, by or or traditional any otherstandards, deniednational-political and
it Karl Jaspers, Nietzsche,(Berlin, 1938).
42
THE REVIEW POLITICS OF
existence such. hasbeen as rather class-thinking, Race-thinking, than of theever-present which thedevelopmentthe shadow accompanied of until nations, it finally to be thepowerful comity European grew forthedestructionthose of nations. weapon speaking, Historically of have racists a worse of than record patriotism all representatives other were only the ones international and ideologies together, they who the which national denied great upon principle organiconsistently of of the of zations peoples built, principleequality solidarity are and allpeoples by idea guaranteedthe ofmankind. II A "race" aristocrats a "nation" citizens. of of against
for The birth thenation a steadily of enthusiasm the and rising most the had different, andeven peoples been characsavage strange It wasthe time Chinof the18th teristicsFrance when century. during when most famous esepaintings admired imitated, oneofthe were and of century named travellers' was Lettres Persanes when and works the The the ofsociety. honesty simplicity made favorite and reports reading were to ofthesavage uncivilized and peoples opposed thesophisticathe with tion frivolity ofculture. before 19th and century itstreLong thenon-European possibilities brought mendously enlarged travelling French of of into world thehome every citizen, average society the 18th to the of and had century tried grasp spiritually content cultures A great boundaries. enthusiasm countries layfar that European beyond the of of for"newspecimens mankind" (Herder)filled hearts the with who nation Revolution together theFrench heroes the of French wherever French flew. the of color liberated people every flag every in for countries and culminatedthe Thisenthusiasm strange foreign to because of by message fraternity, it hadbeeninspired thedesire the ofmankind" oldsayinevery andsurprising new "specimen prove les est "La ingofLa Bruyere: raison de tous climats." It still the is same humanitycentury nation-creating andthesame of back first to we towhich have trace the germs what country loving andhumanity-annihilatthe to become nation-destroying later proved who fact the author It is of power racism.12 a remarkable that first ing
BEFORE RACE-THINKING RACISM
43
the of assumed coexistencedifferent with peoples different in origins class-thinkwas time first elaborate the to same definite France, at the at a French who de nobleman wrote ing.The Comte Boulainvilliers, thebeginning the18th of works published were andwhose century after death, his of of the as interpreted history France thehistory two of different ofwhich one, Germanic nations the hadconorigin, the the had inhabitants, "Gaules," imposed them quered older upon itslaw, taken lands, hadsettled as the their had and down class, ruling the whose ofconquest" rested the "peerage" supreme rights upon "right andthe ofobedience duetothe "necessity always strongest."'3 Engaged inhisarguments the Tiers and ofthe Etat political power against rising their the formed "gens lettres de et de spokesmen,"nouveau corps" by too the had lois,"Boulainvilliers to wagewar against monarchy the because French no longer to the as wanted represent peerage king inter in the butthe nation a whole; him, a while, as for primus pares newrising hadfound most class its In to powerful protector. order the ofthe uncontested Boulainvilliers regain primacy nobility, proposed tohisfellow noblemendeny they to that shared common with a origin the French of nation toclaim to an and people, break the up unity the andtherefore eternal than bolder distinction.14 much original Being most thelater of of defenders nobility, Boulainvilliers any denied connection the with soil;heconceded the that Gaules have predestined been inFrance, the that "Francs" strangers barbarians. were and longer his (op cit.p. 38.) He based doctrine on theeternal of solely right no in asserting "Friesland has andfound difficulty that . .. conquest been true the cradle the of French nation" before (ibid. 17). Centuries theactual of imperialistic following theinracism, development only herent ofhisconcept, sawinthe he inhabitants ofFrance original logic - notof natives the in modern orinhisown terms sense, "subjects"
12 Francois Hotman,French 16th century authorof Franco-Callia sometimes is racial doctrines, by ErnestSeillibre, cit. held to be a forerunner 18thcentury of as op. "Hotmanse presente Againstthismisconception, TheophileSimarhas rightly protested: non pas commeapologiste Germains, des mais comme d&fenseur peuple opprime du par de des la royaute."(Elude Critiauesur la Formation la doctrine Races au 18e et son au expansion 19e siecle (Bruxelles,1922) p. 20. 13 Histoirede r'AncienCouvernement la France, (1727) Tome 1, p. 33. de 14 That the Comte Boulainvilliers' was meantas a politicalweapon against history theTiers Etat was statedby Montesquieu, Espritdes Lois, XXX, Chap. X.
44
from theKing- butof all those whohad theadvantage descend to theconquering of were becalled"Frenchwho to people, byright birth men."(ibid,33). Boulainvilliers deeply was influenced the 17thcentury mightby consistent doctrines he certainly oneof themost was and right disciples of Spinozain hisdays,whose he and Ethics translated whose Traite he analyzed. his reception application In of and theologico-politique was changed intoconquest conand ideas,might Spinoza'spolitical about as as questwas considered acting a kindof uniquejudgment In natural of menand nations. thiswe and human qualities privileges the tracesof the laternaturalistic transformations may detect first which might-right the was This doctrine to go through. viewis really was corroboratedthefact that Boulainvilliers oneoftheoutstanding by of his freethinkers time, thathisattacks theChristian on Church and were alone.15 hardly motivated anti-clericalism by Boulainvilliers' still however, deals withpeoplesand not theory, with itbasestheright thesuperior of on races; deed, people a historical - although historical the and noton a physical deed fact, conquest, has already certain a influence the natural on of the conqualities within the Francein quered people.It invents twodifferent peoples to the order counteract newnational as idea,representeditwasto a certainextent theabsolute in with Tiersbtat. the by monarchy alliance when idea of nationhood the Boulainvilliers is anti-national a time at wasfelt be a newand revolutionary buthad notyetshown, as to one, it did in theFrench with howclosely was connected a it Revolution, form government. of Boulainvilliers his Republican prepared country forcivil butwithout war war what civil meant. is symptoHe knowing matic many thenobility did notregard of of who as themselves repreof sentative thenation, as a separated but castewhich might ruling havemuch in with ofthe"samesociety more common a foreign people It its and condition" (ibid.30) thanwith compatriots.has been,inin their influence the thatexercised trends deed, theseantinational
15 From the noted Spinoza scholar Adolph S. Oko I learned that Boulainvilliers was the most competent exponent of Spinoza of his day and that he was an avid collector of unorthodox MSS which were circulated clandestinely.
RACE-THINKING BEFORERACISM
45
absorbed and until became milieux theimigres did notsubside of they newandoutspoken the19th racial doctrines in late by century. It wasnotuntil actualoutbreak theRevolution forced the of great numbers theFrench of to in and nobility seek refuge Germany England, that their Boulainvilliers' showed as In ideas weapon. utility a political themeanwhile, influence theFrench his had upon aristocracy beenkept aliveas canbe seen theworks another of the DubuatComte, Comte by whowanted tie French to evencloser itscontito nobility Nangay,16 nentalbrothers. the eve of the Revolution, spokesman On of this French that feudalism so insecure he hopedfor"thecreation a felt of kindof Internationale aristocracy barbarian of of and origin,""17 since theGerman was be nobility theonlyone whose helpcouldeventually we learnagainthatthetrue of theFrench nation is expected, origin identical thatof theGermans thattheFrench with and lower classes, no are but slaves, not free birth by "affranchissethough longer by of who A of ment," grace those arefree birth, nobility. few by by years later and theFrench exiles of tried form internationale to an actually in aristocrats order getridof therevolt those to to of considered they be a foreign enslaved And although more the sideof people. practical theseattempts suffered spectacular the of disaster Valmy, "emigres" likeCharles de Villiers, about1800opposed who Frangois Dominique the"gallo-Romains" theGermanics, likeWilliamAlterwhoa to or decadelater dreamt a federation all Germanic of of never peoples,18 It admitted defeat. probably never to that occurred them they actually were so were that convinced theFrench Revolution traitors, firmly they wasa "warbetween Guizot much later foreign peoples" as Frangois putit. in WhileBoulainvilliersthecalmfairness a lessdisturbed of time hadbasedtherights nobility of on therights conquest of without solely the nature the other of directly depreciating very nation, conquered theComte Montlosier, of therather de one dubious personages among theFrench exiles his for openly expressed contempt this"newpeople
16 Les Originesde l'Ancien Couvernement la France, de l'Allemagneel de de l'ltalie (1789). 17 Seillire, op. cit.,p. XXXII. 18 See: Rend Maunier,SociologieColoniale (Paris, 1932), Tome II, p. 115.
46
risen slaves (a mixture) all races all times."19 from ... Times of and to hadchanged noblemen no longer who and obviously belonged an so hadtochange. gave the idea, old race, unconquered also, up They dear Boulainvillierseven Montesquieu, conquest to that and to alone, of des the The of determineddestinies men. Valmy "fortune armes," noble hadcome when AbbeSieyes hisfamous in the ideologies pamtold back theforests Franconia of 1tatto "send into phlet theTiers all those who the families preserve absurd of depretension being theconquering and of having scended race to succeeded their from the to of thereafter, rights;" gentlemen, according thestandards these Tiers would Ptat returnnoblesse namely,the conquerors.20 as true as It is a rather French these times when curious that fact from early that noblementheir struggle in the class discovered against bourgeoisie to another hadanother nation, they belonged genealogical and origin, were caste with soil more an tied closely upwith international than the or the ofFrance, French theories supported Germanism have all racial their counas against own ofthe the atleast superiority Nordic peoples themselves men theFrench Revolution identified For of trymen. ifthe it tothe because were with Rome, wasnot they opposing "Germentally but a "Latinism" the of manism" their nobility of bourgeoisie, because This heirs the felt Republicans. they themselves spiritual of Roman ofthe tothe identification nobility, claim historical as contrasted tribal from which the have "Latinism" prevented among causes might been as At of doctrine itsown. any as event, paradoxical emerginga racial or Frenchmen than earlier Germans Englishthe is itsounds, fact that Nor on men were insist this fixe Germanic to superiority.2' did id&e of of after defeat consciousness thePrussian racial of the birth German of the course racial the as directed itwasagainst French, 1806, change the of in Augustin During forties thelastcentury, ideologies France.
19 Montlosier thoughin exile was closely connectedwith the French chief of conditions a refugee. of the Later, police,Fouche,who helpedhimimprove sad financial he servedas a secretagent for Napoleon in Frenchsociety.See: JosephBrugerette, Le Cone IdeMonllosier(1931), and Simar,op. cit.,p. 71. 20 Qu'est-ce-quele Tiers Plat? (1789) published of before the outbreak shortly Translation the Revolution. quoted afterJ. H. Clapham, The Abbe' Sidyes (Londen, 1912) p. 62. 21 "L'Aryanismehistorique partidu feodalisme 18e siecle,s'est appuye sur du est du Seillibre, cit.,p. II. le germanisme l9e siicle" observes op.
47
still ofclasses races disto and and Thierry adhered theidentification a between"Germanic anda "celtic tinguished nobility" bourgeoisie,"'2 a the andalso, nobleman, Comte Rimusat, de the proclaimed Germanic of theEuropean theComte Gobineau de origin Finally, aristocracy. the an opinion within French developed already accepted generally into historical to doctrine, nobility a full-fledged claiming havedethe law and tected secret of thefallof civilization to haveexalted to science. Withhimrace-thinking of history thedignity a natural whose its its influences and completed first stage, began second stage were befelt the to until twentiesour of century. III Raceunity substitute national as for emancipation. Racethinking inGermany not of before defeat the the did develop oldPrussian byNapoleon. owed rise the It its to Prussian army patriots andpolitical than rather to the andtheir romanticism, spokesnobility men. sharp In contrast theFrench to of as a brand race-thinking for war the German weapon civil andfor splitting nation, race-thinking wasinvented an effort unite people to the in dominaagainst foreign tion. authors not Its look allies did for the but beyond frontiers wanted toawake the in people consciousness a ofcommon Thisactually origin. the excluded nobility their with relations notoriously cosmopolitan were characteristic Prussian ofthe than which, however, less Junkers of the ofthe rest atany it the rate, excluded possibility European nobility; of this on exclusive of the class race-thinking itself themost basing people. SinceGerman the ataccompanied longfrustrated race-thinking to the German it so states, remained closely tempts unite numerous inits with national that connected, early stages, more general feelings, it is rather difficultdistinguish to between nationalism, mere or even and This condition ischanged racism.23 particular chauvinism,clear-cut
22 Considirations l'histoire France (1840). sur de 23 This original situation whichharmless in nationalsentiments confusing expressed in themselves what we know today to be racial terms, caused a certainconfusion has whc by identifying Germanbrand of racism the withspecific German amonghistorians nationalism have strangely and much against theirwill helped to underestimate the immense international appeal of Hitlerism.
48
after of had when, 1870,theunification thenation only actually taken with racism, placeand German fully together German imperialism, deFromtheseearlytimes, not there survived a few however, veloped. Gercharacteristics haveremained which for significant thespecifically manbrand.of race-thinking. In contrast France, to to felt interests be Prussian noblemen their of connected theposition theabsolute with and, monarchy at closely least as thelegitsince time Frederick they the of II, sought recognition imate of of the Withtheexception as representatives nation a whole. thefew of the nobilreforms (from 1808-1812), Prussian years Prussian have class wasnotfrightened theriseof a bourgeois that might ity by haveto fearan to nor wanted takeoverthe government, did they The house. immoral coalition between middle-classes theruling the and of landlord the country, Prussian King, up to 1809 the greatest Raceall efforts thereformers. of inter remained paresdespite primus of the as outside nobility, a weapon certherefore, developed thinking, who the tain nationalists wanted unionof all German-speaking peoin insisted a common on Theywereliberals origin. plesand therefore rule to wererather the sensethatthey opposed theexclusive of the was defined comAs longas thiscommon Prussian by Junkers. origin of one monlanguage, can hardly speak race-thinking24 that It is characteristic only after1814 is thiscommon origin of of in described ties, frequently terms "bloodrelationship," family almost which These definitions, of unmixed of tribal origin. unity, Goerres of Josef appearin thewritings the Catholic simultaneously or Arndt F. L. suchas Ernest liberals Moritz and of thenationalistic true of failure thehopesof rousing to bearwitness theutter Jahn, to Out of thefailure raise in sentiments theGerman national people. historical out thepeopleto nationhood, of thelackof common mema future to common destinies, oriesand theapparent apathy popular instincts itself tribal to addressed was bornwhich naturalistic appeal
24 This is the case for instance in Friedrich Schlegel's Philosophischen Vorlesungen aus den lahren 1804-1806, II, p. 357. The Prussian Junker Ludwig von der Marwitz also held that peoples are distinguished by their language. The same holds true for Ernst Moritz Arndt. See Alfred P. Pundt, Arndl and the National Awakening in modern scapegoat for Germany (New York, 1935), p. 116 f. Even Fichte, the favorite German race-thinking, hardly ever went beyond the limits of nationalism.
49
as a possiblesubstitute what the wholeworldhad seen to be the for The organic of French doctrine a history of nationhood. power glorious forwhich"everyrace is a separate, complete whole'2'' was invented men who needed ideologicaldefinitions nationalunityas a subof by stitutefor politicalnationhood.It was a frustrated nationalism that led to E. M. Arndt'sstatement Germans who apparently that were the last to developan organicunity had the luck of beingof pure, a unmixed stock, "genuinepeople."2"; In these organic naturalistic of definitions peoples are the first of laterracist and theyhave,indeed,been an outstandtheories, germs of ing characteristic Germanideologiesand Germanhistorism. They nevertheless not yetactual racism, the same menwho speak in are for these"racial" termsstill maintain the main pillar of genuinenationhood, the equalityof all peoples. Thus, in the same articlein which F. L. Jahncompares laws of peoplesto the laws of animallife,he the insistson the genuineequal plurality peoples in whose complete of can alone mankind be realized.27 multitude And Arndtwho laterwas to express withthe nationalliberation of movements sympathies strong the Poles and the Italians,exclaimed:"Cursed be anyonewho would and ruleforeign subjugate peoples.""28Insofaras Germannationalfeelnot been the fruitof a genuinenationaldevelopment but ings had rather reaction foreign the to nationaldoctrines wereof occupation,29
25 JosephGoerres.In: Rheinischer Mertur (1814) No. 25. 26 "Die Deutschensind nicht durch fremde Voelker verbastardet, sind kein sie . Deutschensind ein urspruengliches Volk." Mischling geworden. . . Die gluecklichen See: Phantasienzur Berichligung der Urfeileueber kuenflige deutscheVerfassungen von Tieren habe keine echte Fortpflanzungskraft ebensowenig und 27 "Mischlinge ein Fortleben,... Der MenschenStammvater Blendlingsvoelker eigenesvolkstuemliches ist gestorben, Urgeschlecht ausgegangen. das ist Darum ist ein jedes verloeschendes fuer die Menschheit.... in einem Volke kann sich der Volkstumein Ungluecksfall Adel der Menschheit nichteinzigaussprechen." DeuLschesVolkstum In: (1810). The sameinstance expressed Goerreswho despite naturalistic is his of definition by Band der Blutsverwandtschaft") ein people ("alle Glieder umschlingt gemeinsames followsa truenationalprinciple whenhe states: "Es hat kein Stammeinen Anspruch auf den Besitz des anderen."(op. cit.) Pundt,op. cit. 29 "Not untilAustria and Prussia had fallen aftera vain struggle did I really succumbed conquest to and subjection became it beginto love Germany.... as Germany to me one and indissoluble" writesE. M. Arndt in his Erinnerungen Schwreden aus (1818) p. 82. Translation quotedafterPundt,op. cit.,p. 151.
28 Blick aus der Zeil auf die Zeit (1814).-Translation quoted after Alfred P.
(1815).
50
to a peculiar destined createa wall aroundthe character, negative which to act as substitutes frontiers for couldnotbe clearly people, either or defined geographicallyhistorically. If in theearly form French of had aristocracy, race-thinking been out as of and invented an instrumentinternal division, had turned to be a weapon civil for form German had this of race-doctrine war, early out beeninvented a weapon internal of national as and turned unity a weapon national to be As for wars. thedecline theFrench of nobility as an important within French class nation the wouldhavemadethis if useless thefoesof theThirdRepublic notrevived had it, weapon so upon the accomplishmentGerman of national the unity organic of havelostitsmeaning notmodem doctrine history would had imperto ialistic schemes to wanted revive in order appealto thepeople it, the and to hidetheir faces hideous under respectable of nationalcover ism. for The samedoesnotholdtrue another source German of racism more remote from scene politics, a the of had which, though seemingly farstronger political genuine bearing uponpresent ideologies. raceromanticism been accusedof having has Political invented as it hasbeenand couldbe accused having of invented every thinking, otherpossibleirresponsible Adam Muellerand Friedrich opinion. of confusion are in the Schlegel symptomatic highest degree a general temofmodern in almost opinion gainground can thought which any No no no idea event, political was safe porarily. realthing, historical from all-embracing all-destroying of thesefirst the mania and literati to find newand original for opportunities newand fascinating opinas ions. "The worldmustbe romanticized," Novalis puts it, who a wanted bestow highsenseuponthecommon, mysterious a "to apthe of pearance upontheordinary, dignity theunknown thewellupon an One was known."30 of theseromanticized objects thepeople, obor on into that notice thestate, the couldbe changed a moment's ject - in theearlier or or either else days family, nobility, anything that or to cross minds one of these of intellectuals - later the happened the of whengrowing olderthey had learned reality dailybread-335.
30 Neue Fragmentensammlung See: Schriffen (1798). (Leipzig,1929). Tome II,
BEFORE RACISM RACE-THINKING
51
Thereforeis it to for patron.31 happened be asked bysome paying the ofany free almost to impossiblestudy development ofthe competthe is so amazingly without ofwhich 19th full, century ingopinions form. across Romanticism German in its coming was intellectuals What these modern first prepared notso actually but general much development single ofany the mentality opinion the more once have ofmodern German these scholars; latter proved than not that there be found can to they any hardly ideology which would even submit the if only person willingly reality which a romantical canhardly to the afford overlook is at stake, reality their of position. this the excelFor peculiar Romanticism behavior, provided most lentpretext itsunlimited of in of idolization the"personality"the whose arbitrariness thevery became ofgenius. individual, very proof Whatever served so-called the of the namely, productivity individual, the the of ofhis"ideas," could made center be entirely arbitrary game a whole outlook life world. of and Thisinherent hasmade of cynicism Romantic personality-worship certain well of attitudes intellectuals arefairly who modern possible last when oneofthe heirs this of movement, byMussolini, represented hedescribed revohimselfatthe as same "aristocrat democrat, time and andreactionary, andanti-proletarian, and lutionary proletarian pacifist The meant of romanticism,never individualism anti-pacifist." ruthless more is free than "everybody to create himfor anything serious that self ownideology." his Whatwasnewin Mussolini's experibloody ment the was "attemptcarry outwith possible to it all energy.'"32 Because thisinherent of the "relativism" direct of contribution romanticism development to the canalmost negbe of race-thinking In anarchic whose entitle lected. the at any rules game everybody given time at least personal arbitrary to one and itis almost mata opinion, ter course every that conceivable of be would formulated and opinion characteristicthis Much than chaos the was fundaprinted. more duly in as an mental belief personality ultimate in itself. Germany, aim In between nobility therising was where conflict the the and middle-class
31 For the romantic attitude Germanysee Carl Schmitt, in Polilische Romanlik (Miinchen,1925). 32 Mussolini, e Relativismo Fascismo. In: Diulurna (Milano, 1924). The translationquotedafterF. Neumann, Behemoth. 462-463. p.
52
never out scene, developed personality-worship fought on thepolitical as the means gaining least at some ofsocial of kind emancipation. only Thegoverning ofthe conclass its showed traditional country frankly in forbusiness itsdislike association merchants for with and tempt of latter's wealth importance, itwasnot so that and spite the growing tofind means winning kind self-respect.clasthe of some of The easy sicGerman inwhich middle-class the Bildungsroman, Meister, Wilhem hero educated noblemen actors is the in and because bourgeois his by ownsocial is without is evidence of the sphere "personality," enough ofthe hopelessness situation.33 German intellectuals, they though hardly promoted political any of to which belonged, an fight themiddle-classes they fought embittered battle and,unfortunately, successful forsocial highly equality. Even those hadoffered penfor defence nobility who their the still of felt their interestsstake it at when came social to ranks. order In very toenter with andqualities birth, formulated of competition rights they thenew of which concept the"innate personality" wasto win general within Like of of approval society. thetitle theheir an old bourgeois the was and family, "innate personality" given birth notacquired by merit. as thelack common of for formation the ofthe by Just history of nation beenartificially overcome thenaturalistic had concept by in thesocial itself supwas nature so, sphere, deevlopment, organic to a it. when had posed supply title political reality refused Liberal titles soon of to shabby writers boasted "true as nobility"opposed the of a Baron others or be which andascould given taken and away, that natural like or serted, implication, their by privileges, "force not to human deed.34 could beretracedany genius," Thediscriminatoryofthis social new was point concept immediateofmere affirmed. the social which anti-Semitism ly period During long the of as a introduced prepared discovery Jew-hating political and it lack the innate oftact, lack personality," weapon,wasthe of"innate lack theinnate for the innate ofproductivity, etc., disposition trading,
33 Goethe,Wilhelm Book V, ch. 3. Letter Meister his friend of to Werner. Meister, 34 Compare the very interesting pamphletagainst the nobilityby the liberal ueber den Ceburtsadel(1807, Berlin), p. 68; "Der wahre Buchholz,Untersuchungen noch genommen werden; denn gleichder Kraftund dem Adel.... kannwedergegeben durchsich selbst." Genie setzter sich selbstund besteht
BEFORERACISM RACE-THINKING
53
from businessman thebewhich the of separated attitude theaverage to In search summon havior his Jewish of up colleague. its feverish of withsome of itsownagainst castearrogance theJunkers, the pride the for to out,however, leadership, bourgeoisie daring fight political on from very to the wanted lookdownnotso much other beginning lower Most significant for classes their of own,buton other peoples. is thesmallliterary of Clemens these work which Brentano35 attempts was written and readin theultra-nationalistic of Napoleonfor club the that in haters gathered together 1808under nameof "Die Christlich-Deutsche In hishighly and sophisticated witty Tischgesellschaft." between "innate the Brentano out manner, points thecontrast personthe whomhe immediand ality," genialindividual, the "philistine" the with and Thereafter, German atelyidentifies Frenchmen Jews. all to to wouldat leasttry attribute other peoples thequalibourgeois - at first the to tieswhich nobility as typically the despised bourgeois later As to and French, to theEnglish, always theJews. to themysterious qualities which "innate an at received birth, were personality" they the the for claimed themselves. exactly sameas those realJunkers in of to contributed therise Although thiswaystandards nobility of race-thinking, Junkers the for themselves hardly did anything the ofthis It wasAdamMueller whoinsisted purity on shaping mentality. of descent a testof nobility, it was Hallerwhowent as and beyond theobvious factthatthepowerful rulethose ones of deprived power it law be by stating as a natural thattheweakshould dominated by thestrong. of course, when Noblemen, applauded enthusiastically they thattheir of was notonlylegalbut in aclearned usurpation power with a cordance natural of laws,and it was rather consequence bourthat the courseof the 19thcentury definitions during geois they "mesalliances" carefully ever more than before.36 avoided
35 ClemensBrentano, Der Philister Vor,in und nach der Ceschichte (1809). 36 See Sigmund Konservatismus." "Die Stufen preussischen des Neumann, Hislorische Studien,Heft 190 (Berlin, 1930). Especially pp. 48, 51, 64, 82. For Adam Mueller, see: Elemente Staatslunst, 3 and 7 Vorlesung. der esp. In this respectit is interesting note that the only Junker this period to of to of develop a politicaltheory his own, Ludwig von der Marwitz,never indulgedin racial terms. and not Accordingto him,nationsare separated language-a spiritual by a physicaldifference--and he although is violently opposed to the FrenchRevolution, of he actuallyspeaks like Robespierre when it comes to the possibleaggression one
54
Thisinsistence common origin an essential nationon tribal as of hoodformulatedGerman nationalists andafter warof the by during 1814andtheemphasis bytheRomantics theinnate on laid personand natural the for ality nobility prepared wayintellectuallyracein From former the of doctrine thinkingGermany. the sprang organic with natural from latter its the arose theendof the at laws; history the ofthe homunculus superman natural whose descentury grotesque it the As as trends sidebyside, ran tiny is to rule world. long these but were temporary ofescape from means realities. Once they political welded the basis racism, a full-fledged as formed very for they together, did first but This,however, nothappen in Germany, in ideology. and middle-class intellectuals by but France, wasnotaccomplished by a highly and the de nobleman, Comte Gobineau. gifted frustrated IV Thenew tohistory. key In 1853, Count de his Arthur Gobineau published Essaisurl'Inedes Humaines turn which, some years atthe galite Races only fifty later, ofthe wastobecomekind standard for theories a of work race century, inhistory. first The sentence the of four-volume - "Thefallof work civilization most is the same obscure the and, time, most striking at the ofall phenomenahistory"37indicates of the new clearly essentially andmodem interestitsauthor, new of the pessimistic which mood pervades work which theideological that capable his of is force was and all previous factors conflicting times from and True, uniting opinions. has to as as about mankind wanted know much possible immemorial, fallen extinct but Gobibefore cultures, empires, past peoples; nobody, offinding single one onesingle force neau, reason, thought according
nation againstanother: "Wer seine Grenzen zu erweitern der soil als ein trachtet, treuloser und Verraeterunterder gesamten betrachtet europaeischen Staaten-republik
werden." See: "Entwurf Friedenspaktes." in: Printed Gerhard eines Ramlow, "Ludwig
von der Marwitz und die Anfaenge konservativer in Politik und Staats-auffassung Preussen."Hislorische Studien,Heft 185, p. 92.
(1915).
37 Translation after The Inequalily Races translated Adrien Collins of quoted by
55
Pretowhich civilization andeverywhere rise fall.38 would and always Darwinism any or Without such demonstrated. cisely a lawGobineau historian boasted of other evolutionist to influence this him, theory ofnatural detected introduced into family sciences, history the having the all utterances natural ofall courses events, law of reduced spiritual "that of science or cultural to phenomenasomething byvirtue exact our cansee, ears hear, hands touch."9 our our can can eyes of in midst Thefirst set aspect surprising ofthetheory, forth the 19th is the is certainly fact the the that author fasoptimistic century, At inthe of fall cinated the andhardly interested rise civilizations. by time writing EssaiGobineau butlittle of the to the the thought gave useofhistheory a weapon actual as of and possible politics, therefore hadthecourage draw inherent consequences law to the sinster ofhis ofdecay. contrastSpengler predicts the ofWestern who In to only fall Gobineau foresees "scientific" with less culture, precision nothing than thedefinite ofMan- or in hiswords, thehuman of disappearance race from faceof theearth. the After volumes rewriting four of to human heconcludes: might temptedassign total "One be a history, of the duration 12 to 14 thousand to human over earth, rule years which is divided two era into periods: first passed the has and away theyouth . . thesecond begun willwitness . has the and possessed course down toward decrepitude." declining It has rightly observed Gobineau, been that years thirty before was with of Nietzsche, concerned theproblem "decadence.'"40 There this that thebasic is,however, difference, Nietzsche experipossessed enceof European as of the decadence, writing he didduring climax thismovement Baudelaire France, with in in Swinburne England, in Gobineau hardly was aware the of andWagner Germany, whereas last ofthis be as modem taedium andmust regarded the vitae, variety
38 Not evenHegel.For hisconcept history itsdialectical of developof with law the was nor ment concerned neither thesecret theriseand fallof cultures with with of of death nations solely but with as as truth revealed thehistorical in process a whole. on from It seemto spring hand, race-thinking. Decay doctrines, theother always in is that Disraeli, certainly notcoincidence another early"believer race,"Benjamin was as fascinated thefallof cultures Gobineau, contemporary. his as by 39 Essai,TomeIV, bookVI, p. 340. 40 See Robert du de La (Paris, Dreyfus, vie et les prophtiies Comte Cobineau Ser. de 1905). In: Cahiers la quinzaine, 6, Cah. 16,p. 56.
56
heir Boulainvilliers theFrench of and exiled who any nobility without for and feared thefateof psychological complications simply rightly as WhenGobineau writing work, the was his in aristocracy a caste.41 oftheBourgeois-King, andtheEmperor days Louis-Philippe, Napoleon III thisfateappeared sealed.In France, unlike either or Germany thenobility no fearthevictory theTiers of needed longer England, Their and couldonlycomplain. btat. It had already happened they as sometimes comes nearto the distress, expressed Gobineau, by very of thepoets decadence of a fewdecades who, later, great despair sang thefrailty all things of human "la neige of d'antan," "thesnows yester-year." No matter whatsources nourished vision thehistorian the of had who prophesied end of mankind a slow natural the in catastrophe, calledhistory, had an obvious it in with which affinity poems gloried death though were soleaimoflife: as it the "Then norsunshall star waken, Noranychange light: of Norsound waters of shaken, Norany sound sight: or Norwintry nor leaves vernal, Nordays things nor diurnal; the eternal Only sleep In an eternal night." The (Swinburne, Garden Proserpine.) of Nor can it be doubted thatthisanticipation deathhad something of to do with sudden the outburst brutality theend of thecentury, of at when for be were the to of poets among first yearn a machinery death, itin France, the the or under war, in England againunder signofcivil cover imperialistic or in Germany of the behind cloudsof conglory, fused which "derGermnanen mythicism preached Untergang."
41 Gobineau accepts almostliterally the 18th century doctrines about the French and is people: the bourgeoisie called "issue.... des esclavesgallo-romains" the nobility is supposedto be germanic. (See Essai, Tome II, book IV, p. 445 and the article"Ce i in: qui est arrive la Franceen 1870," published Europe, 1923.) Gobineau-the French dubious-had strong originof his titlebeingrather personalreasonsto preferan international aristocracy. He claimed for himselfa special genealogywhich led over a Scandinavian he pirateto-Odin; whereupon exclaimed:"Moi aussi,je suis de la race des Dieux." (See: J. Duesberg,"Le Comtede Gobineau." In Revue CGnerale,1939, t. 142.)
57
It is to this of mood, peculiar pessimistic to theactive despair the last of century Gobineau hisbelated owed fame. decades the that This, he to the does mean however, notnecessarily that himself belonged of"the and dance Conrad). generation (Joseph merry ofdeath trade" He wasneitherstatesman believed business a poet a in nor who who death. wasonly curious He a mixture frustrated of nobleman praised This andmodern intellectual almost accident who racism. invented by when not the could simply thathe happened hesaw accept olddoctrines ofthe peoples two within France that, view changed in of circumand he hadto change old lineof defence thebest men that the stances, he In are to necessarilyontopofsociety. sadcontrasthisteachers,had toexplain the men, not best could even toregain noblemen, why hope their former the he position. bystep, identified fallofhiscaste Step with fallofFrance, ofWestern the then of and civilization, then the whole mankind. of he hemade discovery which was that for Thereby so much that writers biographers,discovery and the admired later by thefallofcivilizations to a degeneration andthat the is due ofrace that ofrace dueto the mixture blood. Thisimplies every is of decay mixture the race is bad and produces races that lower always victorious. Thiskind argumentation, commonplace the of after turn the of almost of in all doctrines Gobineau's did notfit with theprogress century, the who became with soon obsessed another fixe, contemporaries, idle of thevictorious bour"survival thefittest." liberal of The optimism a of wanted newedition theold might-right andnot geoisie theory, thekey history theproof inevitable In vainGobineau to or of decay. slave sides to tried geta wider audience taking in theAmerican by on thebasic hiswhole and system dispute byconveniently building to He almost years 50 conflict between andblack. hadto wait white the become success a theelite, notuntil first war world and among claim with wave death-philosophieshisworks wide its of could popularity.4t2
42 Compare the Gobineau memorial issue of the French Review Europe, 1923. Especially the article of Clement Serpeille de Gobineau, "Le Gobinisme et la pensie en pleine guerre, que L'Essai sur les Races ce n'est que.... moderne." "Mais.... m'apparut comme domine par une th&se feconde, et seule capable d'expliquer certains phenomin&s qui se diroulaient sous nos yeux.... j'ai eu la surprise de constater que mon opinion etait presque unanimementpartagee. Apris la guerre,je remarquais que pour presque tous les hommes des jeunes generation l'oeuvre de Gobineau fut une revelation.'
58
for What Gobineau himself was actually looking in the political was thedefinition thecreation an "dlite" of which was to field and he a of Instead princes, proposed "raceofprinces," replace aristocracy. theAryans, whom pictured in danger being he of as submerged the by lower that classes democracy. non-Aryan through old foeof feudalism: the to The concept racemadeit possible organize "innate of personthem members a natural of as alities" German of to define romanticism, of If to over others. raceandmixture races all destined rule aristocracy, Gobineau not did aretheall-determining for individual-and factors the that to the breeds it is possible pretend assume existence "pure" of no in individual superiorities comeintoexistence every physical might man matter socialsituation thatevery whathispresent is, exceptional the to sons belongs the"true surviving of . . . theMerovings," "sons ofkings." to be whose members Thanks race, "dlite" an would formed of and this to couldlayclaim theold prerogativesfeudal families, only of that felt the by asserting they likenoblemen; acceptance therace was that conclusive as proof an individual ideology suchcouldbecome ran thatthrough veins "blueblood"and thata supehis "well-bred," Froman identical riororigin claimed event, political superior rights. the two the drew contradictory of therefore, decline thenobility, Count of raceand theformation a consequences thedecayof thehuman But newnatural applicaaristocracy. he did notliveto seethepractical when overcame inherent all tionof histeachings which contradictions, the out started to effect inevitable the new race-aristocracy actually it. in effort destroy to of decay mankind a supreme noblethe exiled of the Following example hisforerunners, French not deGobineau in hisrace-"dlite" onlya bulwark saw men, against of the but also against "Canaanmonstrosity" patriotism.43 mocracy for to France happened be the"patrie" excellence, still And since par - was - whether or or hergovernment kingdom Empire Republic of worst of all men, and since, stillbasedupontheessential equality a evenpeoplewith the in all, shewas in histime onlycountry which
43 Essai, Tome II, Book IV, p. 440. Comparep. 445, note: "Ce motpatrie.... ne et ont nousest vraiment revenu que lorsqueles couchesgallo-romaines relevela tAte joue a un r6le dans la politique. C'est avec leur triomphe le patriotisme recommence~ que etreune vertu."
59
to it for civilrights, was natural Gobineau pay blackskincouldenjoy after but and not people, to theEnglish, later, allegiance to theFrench this Nor victors.44 should theFrench of defeat 1871,to theGerman an lackof dignity judged be accidental this or considered opportunism like The thatnothing succeeds succoincidence. old saying unhappy cessreckons peoplewhoare used to various arbitrary with and opinthe are to ions.Ideologists pretend possess keyto reality forced who actheir aboutsingleinstances intochanging twisting and opinions to to thelatest events never afford comeintoconflict can and cording to It be their with deity: ever-changing reality. would absurd ask reliare convictions boundto justify of very ability peoplewhoby their situation. anygiven the when Nazis,in estabthat It must conceded up to thetime be their bestowed themselves a race-"`lite," as contempt frankly lishing was French racism themost theGerman, on all people, conincluding attitude of fell forit never intotheweakness patriotism. sistent, (This the evenduring lastwar;true, "essence the did notchange aryenne" of but of no longer a monopoly theGermans rather theAnglowas and but the and theNormans, nation, Saxons, Swedes patriotism law Even and still were considered fictitious nominal values.")45 "prejudices, nation"46 ofthe"Germanic inthesuperior believed Taine genius firmly to the to Renanwas probably first opposethe"Semites" and Ernest he "division genre du as the"Aryans" a decisive humain," although local force which to held civilization be the greatsuperior destroys All race as originalities wellas original differences.47 thelooseracial
44 See Seillibre, cit.,Tome I: Le Comtede Cobineau et rAryanisme historique, op. I'est I'Angleterre en plus haut p. 32: "Dans l'Essai I'Allemagneest 'a peine germanique, du sans doute,mais sous l'influence succis." It is degr..... Gobineau changerad'avis, his to interesting note thatfor Seillierewho during studiesbecame an ardentadherent les s'acclimater vraisemblablement ou of Gobinism-("la sphereintellectuelle devront reasonforGobineau's du poumons XXe siecle")--successappeared as quite a sufficient revised suddenly opinion. 45 Examples could be multiplied. The quotationis taken fromCamille Spiess, Cobinismeen France, (Paris, 1917). Impe'rialismes. 46 For Taine's standsee: JohnS. White, Taine on Race and Genius. In: Social Research,February1943. 47 In Gobineau'sopinion,the Semiteswere a whitehybridrace bastardized a by des el withblacks.For Renan see: HistoireCGndrale Sysstme mixture compare Langues, in The samedistinction his LanguesS&mitiques, pp. (1863). le partie, 4, 503 and passim. I, p. 15.
60
talkwhich so characteristicFrench is of writers after evenif 1870,48 are in sense the of word, follows anti-national, they notracists anystrict lines. pro-Germanic If theconsistent to anti-national of Gobinism trend served equip theenemies French of of the ThirdRepublic and, democracy later, with realor fictitious beyond frontiers their the of the allies country, of the racewiththe "ilite" concept specific amalgamation equipped the international with intelligentsia new and exciting psychological means playon thegreat to of Gobineau's des "fils playground history. rois"werecloserelatives all the romantic and saints and of heroes of all can and century, ofwhom hardly geniuses supermen thelate19th of hide their German Romantic The inherent irresponsibility origin. mixture Romantic a from received newstimulant Gobineau's opinions of races, event thepast because mixture a of this indicated historical of which within depths one'sownself. the This meant couldbe traced thatinner could as experiences be interpretedof historical significance, that the of "SinceI read one'sownself become battlefield history. had theEssai,every sources time thatsomeconflict stirred thehidden up of mybeing, havefeltthata relentless I battle was goingon in my the the soul,the battlebetween black,the yellow, Semiteand the confessions be as this and similar Aryans."49 might forthe Significant of whoarethetrue heirs Romanof state mind modern of intellectuals, to nevertheticism whatever indicate, opinion they happen hold,they theessential harmlessness political and innocence people of whom less, into wouldhavebeenable to force eachand every probably ideology line. V The "'rights Englishmen" the"rights men." and of of the were Whiletheseedsof German race-thinking planted during of the indications thelater wars, first development English Napoleonic back to Revolution maybe traced and the French appeared during it themanwhoviolently denounced as the"most (crisis) astonishing
48 This has verywell been exposedby JacquesBarzun,op. cit. 49 This surprising writer historian and is gentleman nobodyelse thanthewell-known Elie Faure, Cobineau el le Problamedes Races, in Europe, 1923.
61
The that hitherto Burke.50 has in world," toEdmund happened the but not his has on tremendous influence work exercised only England onthe is whole all and Continent, above onGerman thought, political well-known. fact, The must stressed be because resemof however, blances German English with between and ascontrasted the race-thinking counFrench the that brand. stem These resemblances from fact both to distries the a defeated Tricolor showed certain having tendency criminate as foreign the of against ideas Libert~-Egaliti-Fraternite inBritish Socialinequality thebasis English ventions. of society, being Conservativesnota little felt uncomfortable it came the to matwhen ter the of "rights men." of to held Accordingopinions widely by19th to thenational character. Tories, century inequality belonged English of Beaconsfield "somr-thing thantheRights Men in found better therights Englishmen" to Sir James in of "few and Stephen things sobeggarlythe as degree which French to the allowed (seemed) history themselvesbe excited to suchthings.""' about This is one of the reasons they to afford develop why could along race-thinking national until endofthe19th the whereas same the in lines century, opinions from their anti-national showed true face. France, thevery beginning The main of the of argument Burke principles" against "abstract theFrench is contained thefollowing "It Revolution in sentence: has beentheuniform of ourconstitution our to claim assert and policy as inheritance tous from forefathers, our derived liberties,an entailed andtobe transmitted posterity; estate toour as an specially belonging to the of without reference whateverany to people this kingdom, any other more or of This general prior right."52 principle inheritance tothe nature liberty been ideological from of has the basis applied very nationalism its touch race-feeling of received curious English which ever the of French Revolution. Formulateda middlesince time the by it signified direct class of the ofthefeudal writer, acceptance concept title as thesum with and total privileges of inherited liberty together of land.Without class encroaching therights theprivileged upon
50 Reflections the Revolution France, (1790). (Everyman'sLibraryEdition, on in New York), p. 8. 51 Liberty,Equality, Fraternity, (1873), p. 254. See: Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Ceorge Bentinck, 184. p.
52 Op. cit.,p. 31.
62
withinthe Englishnation,Burkeenlargedthe veryprinciple these of themas a to includethe wholeEnglishpeople,constituting privileges Hence he drewhis contempt those for kindof nobility amongnations. who claimedtheirfranchise the rights men,rights as of whichhe saw fitto claimonlyas "the rights Englishmen." 30.) of (p. In England nationalism developedwithout has seriousattackson the old feudal classes. This has been possible because the English from the 17thcentury and in everincreasing on had numbers, gentry, the so acturanksof the bourgeoisie thatsometimes assimilated higher ally the commonman could attain the positionof a lord. By this caste arroganceof nobility was taken processmuch of the ordinary and a considerable sense of generalresponsibility the nation for away as a whole was created;but by the same token,feudal conceptsand the could influence politicalideas of the lowerclasseseasier mentality was than it was possibleelsewhere. Thus, the conceptof inheritance "stock." and applied to the entireBritish acceptedalmostunchanged The consequence thisassimilation noble standards of was that the of became almost obsessedwith specific English brand of race-thinking inheritance theories and theirmodernequivalent, eugenics. to Ever since the European peoples had made practicalattempts of all includein theirconception humanity the peoples of the earth, between theyhave been irritated the factof greatbodilydifferences by The themselves thepeoplesthey and foundon othercontinents.53 18th in identical enthusiasm the diversity whichthe all-present for century thin of nature man and reasoncould findexpression givena rather had the whether Christian coverof arguments the all-important to question, of the unityand equalityof all men,based upon common teaching would be keptin the descentfroma singleoriginalcouple of parents, heartsof men who werefaced withtribeswhich,as far as we know, neverhad foundby themselves adequateexpression humanreaof any and son or humanpassionin either cultural deeds or popularcustoms,
53 A significant moderate can if echo of thisinnerbewilderment be foundin many Voltairethought important it an 18thcentury travelling enoughto makea special report. ce notein his Dictionaire Philosophique:"Nous avonsvu d'ailleurscombien globe porte blanc qui et de races d'hommes diffkrentes,a quel pointle premier negreet le premier l'un de I'autre."(Article: Homme.) durent etreetonnes se recontrerent
63
This which developed human low had institutions to a very level. only new problem which on sceneof Europeand appeared the historical had withthe moreintimate of African tribes America knowledge British in America some and this and caused, already possesespecially a to were forms into sions, relapse socialorganizational which thought have been definitely But even slavery, by liquidated Christianity. on racial the erected a strict did basis, notmake slaveactually though before 19thcentury. the peoplesrace-conscious holding Duringthe whole18thcentury, American it themselves considered slave-holders a temporary it institution wanted abolish gradually. to Most of and them havesaidwith "I when would Jefferson:tremble I think probably that God is just." In France, the where problem black of tribes beenmet with the had desireto assimilate and educate,54the greatscientist Leclercde a of which had baseduponthe classificationraces Buffon55 given first and classifying others their all had differences, European peoples by In Germany, strict Herderhad by juxtaposition."5 taught equality refused applythe"ignoble to word"raceto menand eventhefirst cultural historian mankind make oftheclassification of to use ofdifferent species, GustavKlemm,"7 respected idea of mankind still the as framework hisinvestigations. for general Butin America England, and whose had people to solvea problem co-habitation theabolition slavery, after of were of things considerably - a country lesseasy.Withtheexception SouthAfrica, of inwhich racism fluenced Western after "scramble" Africa the the for in only nations werethefirst deal with race-problem to the 'eighties these in practical The abolition slavery of the politics. sharpened inherent conflicts rather thanfound solution existing for a serious difficulties. This was especially forEnglandwhere "rights Englishthe of true
54 To what extent the men of the FrenchRevolution were aware of theterrible in wordsof Robespierre: dangerinvolved colonialpossessions be seenby thefamous may "Perissentles coloniess'il doit nous en couternotrehonneur, notreliberte!" 55 HistoireNaturelle,(1769-89). 56 Or to put it' in the admirably precisewords of Tocqueville: "Buffonet apres ' lui Flourens des croient la diversite races,mais I'unitide I'espice humaine." cit., op. Letterof May 15, 1852. 57 Allgemeine der Kulturgeschichle Menschheit, (1843-1852). See Tome I, p. 196.
64
which orientation men"werenot replaced a newpolitical might by of in The abolition slavery theBritish the of havedeclared rights men. the Civil in preceding American possessions 1834 and thediscussion in confused found Englanda highly War, therefore, publicopinion which doctrines naturalistic which soil was a fertile forthe various these decades. aroseduring who The first these represented thepolygenists challengof was by between theBibleas a bookof piouslies,denied relationship ing any of their main achievement thedestructiontheidea was human "races;" link all of thenatural as theuniting between menand all peoples. law arbiracial Whilenotstating predestined superiority, polygenism any of the from another thedeepabyss one all isolated peoples by trarily and ofhuman and understanding communication physical impossibility influence theactualbehavior Englishmen of on had a decisive abroad, that their to aloofness which seemed indicate impartial they typical by theworld divided between themselves all other is and peoples. Polythe explains "East is East and Westis West; And never genism why intermartwain muchto prevent shallmeet,"(Kipling)and helped of andto promote discrimination individuals mixed origin. riage against to these are According polygenism, peopleactually not truehuman to cell because race,but "every is the beings they belong no single of on theater a civilwar.s58 of as theinfluence polygenism Lasting to be in thelongrun,in the 19thcenproved English race-thinking it in of tury wassoonto be beaten thefield public opinion another by the doctrine. This doctrine started also from principle inheritance of but added to it the political of principle the 19thcentury, progconcluit but whence cameto theopposite farmore ress, convincing thatthe sionthatmanis notonlyrelated manbutto animal to life, alone of existence lower thatgradual racesshows differences clearly for man an separate and beastand that all-powerful struggle existence all Darwinism especially was dominates living by strengthened things. But thefactthatit followed old pathof themight-right doctrine. the of had whilethisdoctrine whenin the exclusive service aristocrats into it the proudlanguage conquest, was now translated of spoken
58 A. Carthill, LostDominion, The (1924), p. 158.
65
the whohad known hardstruggle therather of bitter language people of their to therelative fordailybread, and had fought security way upstarts. success it such Darwinism with met overwhelming because provided, on thebasisof inheritance, ideological the for weapons raceas well as classruleand couldbe used foras wellas against race-discrimias was neutral has and nation. Darwinism, such, Politically speaking, to as well of and led,indeed, all kinds pacifism cosmopolitanism as to For thesharpest forms imperialistic of discussion, ideologies.59 political Darwinism the for two offered important concepts: struggle existence with of assertion thenecessary automatic of "survival and optimistic to thefittest" theindefinite which seemed lie in the and possibilities, the life evolution manoutofanimal andwhich of started new"science" ofeugenics. The doctrine thenecessary of with of survival thefittest itsimplicationthat those topofsociety on arethe"fittest" as the died eventually old conquest doctrine died,namely, thevery had at moment when, either Englandherself, ruling the the in classesor, abroad, English in were domination colonial secure, possessions no longer absolutely doubtful whether thosewhoare "fittest" and whenit became highly still tomorrow. other ofDarwinism, The would be thefittest part today thegenealogy manfrom of animal unfortunately survived. life Eugenthe of ics pretended be able to overcome arbitrarinessthesurvivalto with who doctrine which couldforetell would comeout as the nobody when to provide means development of for fittest to be able and which, fields as would leadit to theimmortal ofeverlasting adopted a nation, a from The process selection onlyto be changed of had fitness.6) the natural which behind backs menintoan "artiof worked necessity
59 Duringtheseventies of and 'eighties the last century, Darwinism stillwas almost anti-colonial in exclusively the hands of the utilitarian partyin England. And the first as HerbertSpencer,who treated of sociology partof biology, philosopher evolutionism, of to the and an everlasting believednaturalselection benefit evolution mankind peace. in See: Friedrich Brie, Imperialistische (Halle, Stroemungen der englischen Litteratur, 145. 1928). Pp. 144, was stressed Germany in of during 0()This possibleconsequence applied eugenics to des the 'twenties a reaction Spengler'sUntergang Abendlandes.See for instance: as Otto Bangert, Cold oder Blut, (1927). "Eine Kulturekannalso ... von ewigerDauer sein.... " p. 17.
66
THE
REVIEW
OF POLITICS
ficial," consciously applied physical tool.6' Finally the last disciples of
Darwinism Germany research in decidedto leave the fieldof scientific linkbetween to forget about the searchforthemissing man altogether, to and ape, and startedinsteadtheirpracticalattempts change man intothatsomething Darwinists that an thought ape is.
But before Nazism in thecourseof itsimperialistic policyattempted to change man into a beast, therewere numerous efforts develop to him on a strictly basis into a God."" Not only Herbert hereditary a but and "had as strong Spencer, all theearlyevolutionists Darwinists faith humanity's in Selected as angelicfuture in man'ssimian origin.",-:' inheritance believedto resultin "hereditary was and again genius,""' was not of politics, of but aristocracy held to be the naturaloutcome, the of naturalselection, purebreed.To transform wholenationinto a the whichthe best selected, choiceexemplars, from naturalaristocracy of was would developinto the heights geniusesand supermen, one of liberalintellectuals the many"ideas" whichfrustrated producedwhen to replace the old governing classes by a new "elile" they hoped
61 For the inherent of see of bestiality eugenics, the early remarks ErnstHaeckel, and state"caused because of the "uselessexpensesforfamily who defendsmercy-death illness.See: Lebensnunder, 128 ff. p. by incurable 62 Almosta century of had beforeevolutionism put on theclothes science,warning thatwas thenmerely of the voiceshad alreadyforetold inherent consequences a madness Voltairemorethanonce, had playedwithevolutionary in thestageof pure imagination. Morale et Theologie," opinions--seechiefly"Philosophie Generale: Metaphysique, se OeuvresCompletes, (1785), Tome 40, p. 16 ff.He wrote:"L'Imagination complait des brutea la matiere de d'abord a voir le passage imperceptible la matiere organisee, de aux de de plantesaux zoophytes, ces zoophytes animaux, ceux-cia I'homme, I'homme et d'un petit immaterielles; de aux genies, ces geniesrevetus corpsaeriena des substances creespar l'Etre supreme des peut.... jusqu'' Dieu m.me.... maisle plus parfait genies un Dieu et lui?... n'y a-t-ilpas visiblement entre il devenir Dieu? n'y a-t-ilpas l'infini Article: "Chaine des vide entrele singeet I'homme?"In: Dictionnaire Philosophique. Etres Cre6s." 63 Hayes, op. cil., p. II11. stresses strong the practicalmoraleof all Hayes rightly He theseearly materialists. explains"this curiousdivorceof moralsfrombeliefs" by howas have described a timelag" (p. 130). This explanation, "what latersociologists who, like weak if one recallsthat,on the otherhand, materialists ever appears rather Haeckel in Germanyor Vacher de Lapouge in France, had left the calm of stiudies from such a time-lag;that, suffer did for and research propaganda activities, notgreatly docwho on the otherhand, their by contemporaries were not tinged theirmaterialistic of such as Barres and Co. in France,were verypracticaladherents the perverse trines, whichsweptFrance duringthe DreyfusAffair.The suddendecay of morals brutality of worldseemsto be caused less by an autonomous development certain in the Western "ideas" thanby a seriesof new politicaleventsand new politicaland social problems, and confused a whichconfronted bewildered humanity. in 64 Such was the titleof the widely read book of Fr. Galton, published 1869, decades. aboutthesame topicin the following whichcaused a floodof literature
67
writers who means. non-political At theendof thecentury, through of as and treated political used terms biology zoology a mattopics the of wrote Views ourForeign terof course, zoologists "Biological and an as guide statesmen.65 Policy" though haddetected infallible for they of the All of them with new forwarded possibilities which "survival in with thefittest" be controlled regulated accordance the and could ofthe national interests English people.66 of evolutionist doctrinesthat is The most aspect these dangerous with on the combined inheritance concept theinsistence personal they which character had beenso important achievements individual and for self-respect 19th ofthe middle-class. middle-class This the century that thearistocrats the not but for who called scientists could prove the were true of thenation, whom men the in representatives great of race" personified. scientists was These an provided ideal "genius the from when "proved" early the stateescape political responsibility they ment Benjamin of of the man "the is Disraeli that great personification its ofthis found its The race, choice exemplar." development "genius" another of evolutionism declared: end when logical disciple simply is the "TheEnglishman Overman thehistory England the and of is ofhisevolution."67 history It is significantEnglish itwasfor for that as German race-thinking it came from the middle-class and notfrom nobility, it writers that to the of wasborn the of desire extend benefitsnoble to standards all it In of classes that wasnourishedtrends true national and by feelings. ofgeniuses heroes much this more were and Carlyle's concepts respect,
65 The mostimportant worksof thiskind are: Thomas Huxley, The Struggle for in Existence Human Societl, (1888). His mainthesis:The fall of civilizations necesis is saryonlyas longas birth-rate uncontrolled. BenjaminKidd, Social Evolution, (1894). on of JohnB. Crozier,History Intellectual Development theLines of ModernEvolution, Karl Pearscn, National Life (1901), Professor Eugenics at London of (1897-1901). was amongthe first describeprogress a kind of impersonal to as monster University, which devourseverything that happens to be in its way. Charles H. Harvey, The Biology of BritishPolitics (1904), argues that by strictcontrolof the "struggle for life" withinthe nation,a nation could become all-powerfulfor the inevitable withotherpeople forexistence. BiologicalView of Our ForeignPolicy" was "A fight London, February,1896. published P. Charles Michel in Saturday by Review,, 66 See especiallyK. Pearson,op. cit., But Fr. Galton had alreadystated: "I wish of to emphasizethe fact thatthe improvement the naturalgiftsof future generations of thehumanrace is largely underour control." cit. (ed. 1892), p. xxvi. op. 67 See: Testament JohnDavidson (1908). of
68
the weaponsof a "social reformer" than doctrines a man who has of been veryunjustlyaccused of being the "Fatherof BritishImperialwhichearnedhim equallywide audiencesin ism."68His hero-worship and in Germany came fromthe same sourcesas the personEngland of It and ality-worship GermanRomanticism. was the same assertion of an innategreatness the individualcharacter, of indeglorification pendentof his social environment. Among the men who influenced the colonialmovement fromthe middleof the 19th century untilthe outbreak actualimperialism its end,not one has escapedthe infAuof at ence of Carlylebut not one could be accused of preaching outspoken racism.Carlylehimself, his essay about the "Nigger Question" is in withthemeanswhich concerned helptheWest Indiesto produce might "heroes."CharlesLiilke,whose GreaterBritain(1869) sometimes is takenas the beginning imperialism69 an advancedradicalwho of was the Englishcolonists beingpartof the same British as nation glorified lands as mere againstthosewhowouldlook downupon themand their colonies.J.R. SeeleywhoseExpansionof England (1883) sold 80,000 in copies in less than two years,still respects the Hindus a foreign them clearly from "barbarians."70Even people and distinguishes Froude whose admiration the Boers, the first for whitepeople to be of to the tribalphilosophy racism, converted clearly mightappear susfor pect,even Froude opposed too manyrights South Africabecause in South Africameantthegovernment the natives of "self-government the Europeancolonists thatis not self-government.'"71 and by was Englishnationalism bornand stimVerymuchas in Germany, itself whichneverhad entirely ulated by a middle-class emancipated of race-thinking. bore the first fromthe nobility and therefore germs wall an whoselack of unity But unlikeGermany, provoked ideological or the Isles were for as a substitute historical geographical facts, British fromthe surrounding worldby naturalfrontiers completely separated
68 See: C. A. Bodelsen,Studiesin Mid-Victorian (1924), p. 22 ff. Imperialism Illusion (1928). "Imperialism 69 See: E. H. Damce, The Victorian began witha book.... Dilke's GreaterBritain...." or than the Hindu, our mindsare not richer largerthan 70 "We are not cleverer beforehim ideas the him as we astonish barbarianby putting his. We cannotastonish of." (ed. 1914), pp. 255-256. thathe neverdreamt 71 Two Lectureson SouthAfrica.
69
a of as had and England a nation to devise theory unity among people the from the seas,separated who livedin far-flung colonies beyond them The onlylinkbetween mother of by country thousands miles. common The separawas common common descent, origin, language. that do links themselves in tionof theUnitedStates had shown these notguarantee other colonies and too, domination; notonlyAmerica, the to not with sameviolence, tendencies deshowed strong though lines In velop along otherconstitutional thanthe mother country. British order savethese to former nationals, Dilke,influenced Carby of of a lyle, spoke "Saxondom"72 wordthatseemed capable winning backeventhepeopleof theUnitedStatesto whom one-third his of bookis devoted.73 Dilkecouldactas though War the a radical, Being of Independence not been a warbetween nations, the two had but form 18thcentury war,in which belatedly of civil he sided English with Republicans. here one of thereasons thesurpristhe For lies for that socialreformers radicals the of and were promoter nationingfact alism England:notonly they in want keepthecolonists to because did for outlets thelower actualheldthem butthey classes; they necessary to the on these which ly wanted retain influence themother country more sonsoftheBritish exercised.74 radical Isles Whatever politilater cal writers haveused"Saxondom" in Dilke'swork had a it for, may that for nation no longer heldtogether a was political genuine meaning in of "The ideawhich all thelength mytravels bya limited country. - thekeywherewith has beenat oncemyfellow to and myguide unlock hidden the ofstrange lands is theconception new things ... of the grandeur our race already it of the which is girdling earth, to destined (Preface) For Dilke, perhaps, eventually overspread." of race"was neither physical common a inheritance, origin, "grandeur
72 "Saxondom is withus, whether have concenyou see it or not..... historians tratedupon constitutional issues only because theyare blind to the issues that matter. Half theworldis English:What aboutthe rest?"Quoted from Damce, op. cit.,p. 161. 73 See Damce, op. cit.,p. 161. 74 This motif strongest Froudewho "wishesto retain coloniesbecausehe is with the it in stateof sccietyand a noblerway of thought possibleto reproduce thema simpler life thanwere possiblein industrial England."C. A. Bodelsenop. cit.,p. 199. Seeley's Expansion of England was planned in the same way: "When we have accustomed ourselves contemplate whole Empiretogether we call it all England we shall to the and see thathere too is a United States,"p. 184.
70
factnorthekeyto history a much but neededguidein thepresent the link a world, onlyreliable within boundless space. Because colonists spread overtheearth, so hapall it had English thatthe mostdangerous of nationalism, idea of the pened concept in received Englandan especially stimu"national mission," strong national mission suchdeveloped a longwhile as for Although lant.75 influences in all countries where and untinged racial by peoples aspired to nationhood, proved it to havea peculiarly affinity to close finally The above-quoted nationalists all be considrace-thinking. English may eredas caseson theborderline.7 all of them For not though giving theidea of mankind as thesupreme consider up England guarantee for to this humanity. couldnotbutbe inclined overstress nationalThey isticconcept because its inherent of dissolution thebondbetween of soil and peoplewhich implied themission in was idea,a dissolution which English for wasnota propagated but politics ideology an estabfact lished with which statesman to reckon. What separates had every them from later racists that is noneofthem everseriouswas definitely with other as races, ly concerned discrimination against peoples lower ifonly thereason thecountries were for that Canabout, they talking werealmost ada and Australia, and did nothaveanyserious empty population problem. not thatthe first statesman It is, therefore, by accident English in who repeatedly his as a stressed belief racesand race-superiority was of factor history politics, a manwhowithout and any determining and the English colonists "the interest the colonies in particular to which do not govern" wanted extend we colonial deadweight British to Asia andwho, indeed, imperial power forcefully strengthened with in theposition Great of Britain theonly population colony a grave It was Benjamin Disraeli whomadetheQueen and cultural problem. of which Disraeli of Englandthe Empress India. The reasons led of to evenin theearly'thirties be sucha consistent upholder race75 It would lead us too farhereto discussthereligious the and origin, secularization, in of the finalperversions thisidea whichended shamefully thedifferent pan-movements of our century. 76 For thesamephenomenon Francesee Auguste Discourssur r'Ensemble in Comte, the du Positivisme regen(1848), in whichhe expressed hope for a unitedorganized, underthe leadership-"prisidence"-of France, p. 384 ff. eratedhumanity
71
sentimental "this that newfangled princithinking he opposed modern first There aremanifold. was,probably of all, ple of nationality""77 as thefact he,being Jew considered hisownparty an a that and by tomake asset the that didnot an of fact he wasclever upstart, enough "race" with as to middle-class butto another society belong average was boast There alsocerof. olda genealogyany could as aristocracy hadexercised the which heroic tainly, influence Carlyle's historiography a in ambitious men upon position political young wholacked natural as personwhom wasas convenient andsocial andfor life, hero-worship But was intellectuals. there also beenforGerman had ality-worship him within which thedefinite ofhispolicy line brought automatically recent close tomore ideologies.78 very relationship sttaesman regarded as the who India Disraeli the English was first to linked ties an Empire who wanted cutthe which cornerstone of and of Continent.79 he theEnglish to nations the people the Thereby laid This rule the ofa foundations fundamental inBritish inIndia. change with usual ofconquerors had ruthlessness colony been governed the ofmen Burke called breakerslawinIndia." was "the of whom had It at now receivecarefully to a administration aimed the which planned establishment permanent ofa measures. byadministrative government near the to danger Thisexperimentbrought has very against England that "breakerslawin Burke already of which had warned, namely, the of "the become makers lawfor India" might England."80 Fortunately
77 W. F. Monypenny G. E. Buckle, The Life of BenjaminDisraeli,Earl of and Beaconsfield (New York, 1929) Vol. I, Book 3. 78 This peculiartendency Disraeli's politicalconvictions stressed all his of is by It biographers. is mostclearly expressedin his studyof the life of his friendLord
George Bentince in which he stated: "The truthis, progress and reaction, are but words to mystifythe millions. . .. the vicissitudes of history find their main soluticn--all is
.... Language and religion do not make race. There is only one thing which makes a race and that is blood." 79 "Power and influence we should exercise in Asia; consequently in Eastern
in race" and in his novelEndymion whichhe defines:"It (Race) is the key to history
in Europe; consequently WesternEurope." (Monypenny-Buckle, cit., II, p. 210). op. falls and exhausted But "If ever Europe by her shortsightedness into an inferior state,
for England there will remain an illustrious future." (Ibid., I, Book IV, ch. 2). For "England is no longer a mere European power. ... she is really more an Asiatic power than a European." (Ibid., II, p. 201). 80 Burke, op. cit., p. 42-43: "The power of the House of Commons.... is indeed great; and long may it be able to preserve its greatness.... and it will do so, as long as it can keep the breaker of the law in India from becoming the maker of law for England." About the "backward and inward effect" of empire-making see: Ernest Barker, Ideas and Ideals of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1941), p. 33.
72
this up complaints enough, tonow hasnot happened; despite repeated oftheIndian in of the about interference Parliathe party England ment their with the thepower Parliament, demoof administration,8' cratic as have institutions thesoundness thenation a whole of and than proved stronger all imperialistic aspirations.82 The new the introducedDisraeli signified establishment policy by ofanexclusive ina foreign was whose function rule caste country only which of andnotcolonization. the For realizationthis conception Disbe raeli notlive seeaccomplished, would, to racism did indeed, an inthe transformation ofthe It tool. foreshadowedmenacing dispensable from nation an "unmixed of a first-rate a into race organizapeople ofnature" toputitinDistion" felt that itself "the as aristocracy raeli's words.83 own in of we so is followed far thestory an opinion which What have have ofour weonly after the all terrible now, experiences times, come has eleracism revived of But to seethefirst dawn racism. although itis the of of inevery ments race-thinking country, not history an idea which were we concerned. "immanent with endowed some by logic" for of a hadbeen source convenient arguments varying Race-thinking in of but had conflicts, itnever possessed kind monopoly any political it and life the nations; hadsharpened exploitrespective political ofthe but or interests existing ed existing problems, it political conflicting of or new newconflicts produced categories never created had any constelfrom and Racism sprang experiences political thinking. political have and which still were unknown would been lations strange utterly or or as of defenders"race" Gobineau Disraeli to devoted even such between men brilliant facile the of and is There an abyss Nietzsche.
The 81 The most is of writingsA. Carthill's LostDominion example these interesting (1924). foes and 82 It is very violent uncompromising tonote one interesting that ofthemost were and for F. Sir in of democracy England, James Stephen, whom equality liberty as as confessed early 1883, for thing" cit.p. 253 andpassim), (op. "bignames a small we of of in is "thatthere no transaction thehistory England which havemore just See: "Foundations of the the causetobe proud.... than establishment Indian Empire." 1883. No. of in of theGovernmentIndia," The Nineteenth Century, LXXX October Disraeli 83 In his novelConingsby, from Wit and Wisdom Benjamin of quoted (New York,1881),p. 289.
73
of deeds active an abyss and men brutal and conceptions the bestiality, which intellectual no isabletobridge. ishighly It explanation probable that thinkingterms race the in of in would disappearedduetime have with of together other opinions thenineteenth irresponsible century, ifthe"scramble Africa" thenew ofimperialism not for and era had Western tonew exposed humanity andshocking experiences. Imperialism would necessitatedinvention have the ofracism the possible as only for and if even no race-thinking ever "explanation" excuse itsdeeds, in civilized hadexisted the world. it didexist, proved be a powerful to Since, however, race-thinking forracism. very The existence such opinion of an which could help boast a certain of tohide destructive ofthe the tradition served forces new doctrine without appearance national this of which, respectability or theseeming sanction tradition, havedisclosed utter of its might with Western or of standards the incompatibilityall political moral even it to the of European past, before wasallowed destroy comity the nations.

Race-Thinking Before Racism - Ardent

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Race-Thinking Before Racism - Ardent

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Race-Thinking before Racism Author(s): Hannah Arendt Reviewed work(s): Source: The Review of Politics, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan.

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

suit an opinion,no factis securefromreceiving tomorrow entirely an

newandunexpected if The meaning, it isexpedient. modern propagan-

Iran inhis (Leipzig, Strzygowski Altai, undVolieeruanderung 1917)discovered Josef

to urine of tion German 20% nitrogen spies;German was"found" contain non-uric