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Faults and - Protection
Faults and - Protection
Faults and - Protection
Fault Rate
In the order of 1 fault per 100 years per transformer
Protection Grouping
As far as possible, select one protection type in each protection group (X/Y or Main/Backup) to cover each type of fault. This will achieve the best diversity of fault coverage.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
provides very sensitive protection for oilfilled transformers and reactors only suitable for transformers fitted with an oil conservator arguably the best overall transformer protection for internal faults can be sensitive to accidental bumps or pump starts
major internal faults (inter-turn faults or faults involving earth) which result in oil surges to the conservator.
Normal state
alarm float to ground level gas receiver
contacts mercury wetted relayfor alarm to conservator reverse flow oil guard trip float
contacts
GAS OIL
oil surge
Qualitrol
Overtemperature
generally regarded as overload protection also deals with failure of or interference with pumps and fans or shutting of valves to pumps Winding hot spot temperature is the main issue, but both oil and winding temperatures are usually measured and used to:
initiate an alarm trip circuit breakers control fans and pumps
Overtemperature
Two temperatures must be monitored
Winding temperature (WTI) - (short thermal ) this can rise rapidly, without much of an increase in oil temperature Oil temperature (OTI) - (long thermal ) this can rise slowly to a critical point without an unacceptable winding temperature increase
Temperature Measurement
most common device uses a Bourdon Tube (invented 1849) to measure temperatures
probe placed in oil-filled pocket at the top of transformer - mercury expansion in the probe causes the spiral Bourdon tube to try to straighten, rotating a mechanical arm
heater
Alternatives
embedded fibre optic sensors for direct measurement of winding hot spot temp are also popular, especially during factory tests an RTD (resistance temperature detector) can also used to measure top oil temp winding temperature can also be calculated, (in e.g. a PLC or RTU) from measured top oil temp and load current these approaches have not displaced the proven, economical and robust Kihlstrom
Temperature vs life
economic gains are possible from short time overloads - life used calculations may permit higher temperatures for short periods, but WTI trip needs to be more complex or monitored 110 C winding hot spot temperature gives standard 20-25 year life of insulation Roughly every 7 C increase in temperature doubles the rate of loss of life for paper in oil insulation
Advantages of Fuses
Fuses provide reasonable protection at low cost good for low cost (small) transformers Some (HRC) fuses are actually better than a relay/circuit breaker combination in limiting the amount of damage to plant (and personnel)
Disadvantages of Fuses
The cost of replacement, including time They often do not offer protection at currents just above fuse rating - often failing explosively. This means fuses are for protection against faults, not protection against overloads No better sensitivity to earth faults than to interphase faults (c.f. O/C and E/F relays) Time-current characteristics are influenced by ambient temperature and pre-fault load current
Lightning Performance
lightning-caused overvoltages may cause transient line charging and transformer inrush, leading to fuse deterioration or even spurious operation
peak voltage
recovery voltage
Type K can sometimes blow spuriously, hence the development of type T Dont mix the two types
Co-ordination of fuses
a margin between the maximum clearing time of the downstream fuse and the minimum melting time of the upstream fuse is required HRC fuses - charts used EDO fuses
75% of min. melting time rule tables of max coordination current
100
125
200
160
Fuse Rating
250
40
35
50
32
63
80
Graphically grading EDO Fuses (method 1) Fuse As max clearing time to be less than 75% fuse Bs min melting time at max fault current
Starting current of motors lasts about 10s Restarting of heating, air-conditioning, or refrigeration plant after prolonged outage lasts many minutes
Relay Locations
LV NEF
LOAD
Physical Arrangements
Older installations often economically configured as 2 x O/C relays + 1 x E/F relay where a 2:1:1 current distribution is possible, 3 x O/C + 1 x E/F is better This improves sensitivity and speed
c 33kV 11kV
O/C
E/F O/C
Winding fault current is not easily seen at primary terminals (i.e. residual earth fault connection). A NEF relay, on the other hand, sees actual fault current, and so is a better option
From Network Protection and Automation Guide Areva
Grading Relays
Each O/C or E/F relay must be time graded with its neighbouring O/C or E/F relay There must therefore be a time margin between successive relay settings, typically around 0.4s for the highest fault current relays need to be graded only for highest fault current this ensures discrimination at all lower fault currents
Grading Relays
The requirement for time grading means that overcurrent and earth fault relays can be quite slow Next relays up in the hierarchy are differential relays
3.0
Relay grading chart
2.5
Time margin between relay curves at max fault current (100A here) must be 0.4s
1.5
1.0
0.5
unearthed generator
unearthed generator
CONTRIBUTION OF TRANSFORMER DELTA TERTIARY TO FAULT CURRENT DURING AN EARTH FAULT WITH UNEARTHED GENERATOR
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
two types, operating on very different principles: Biased differential relays based on the balance of ampere-turns High impedance differential relays based on Kirchhoffs Current Law
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Sensitive down to <10% of rating fast operating (20 - 40 ms) Depending on CT location, will also detect terminal faults (a snake across a bushing, for example)
RELAY
RELAY FAULT
RELAY
INTER-TURN FAULT
CT Equivalent Circuit
leads + relay
RCT Zmag
10 A
7A
3A
Rct
8 ohm 12000A CT1
R leads
2 ohm
R leads
SETTING RESISTOR (ca. 1000 ohm) RELAY <10 ohm
Rct
3600A CT2
This CT saturates due to the fault current flowing through it. It now looks like a short circuit!
Vrelay setting
Detects faults where current flows from inside to outside the CT defined zone Does not detect intra-winding faults, (shorted turns)
detects winding to earth faults and interphase faults, but not interturn faults
Hi Z Diff
Hi Z
Dif f
Z Hi
f Dif
C
REF
BIAS WINDINGS
BIAS WINDINGS
OPERATING WINDING
BIAS WINDINGS
introduced to compensate for undesired unbalance current flowing in the operate winding
Electro-mechanical biased differential relay Metropolitan-Vickers Type DT circa 1950 Moving coil design - 3.5VA and 2 x 0.2VA at In operating time: <1 cycle to 3.5 cycles 1 operate and 2 bias coils
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Inrush current
Multiple CT inputs
relays with up to five bias windings, (to accommodate transformers connected to five other circuits) are available
CT connections and ratios for older type relays (pre early 90s)
CTs for a delta connected primary must be star connected CTs for a star connected primary must be delta connected The vector group of the protected transformer must be taken into account or the scheme wont balance
prevents any zero sequence currents flowing in the star winding from entering the relay
since they are not present in the line on the delta side.
CT ratio selection
The CT ratios must be opposite to the transformer ratio CT ratios must allow for the fact that current flowing into the relay from the delta connected CT's is root 3 times the CT secondary current
CT's with ratios such as 1000/0.577 are, for this reason, quite common.
CT connections
B O
B - BIAS WINDING O - OPERATING WINDING
B B O B B O B
N A A2 B C2 B2 A1 A2 a2 a1 b c2 C B1 B2 b2 b1 c b2 a2 a
C1
C2
c2
c1
A B C
Yd1
N
a b c
A A2 B C2 B2 A1 A2 a2 a1
a a2 b2
B1
B2
b2
b1
c2
C1
C2
c2
c1
A B C
Yd11
a b c
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
if currents into the two sides of a relay are I1 & I2, then relay is constructed so that there are two counteracting forces:1.
2.
DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT I1 - I2
operating point
OPERATE REGION
0.5In
0%) cally 2 e (typi nt slop consta Bias increases here to setting allow for CT saturation
t tan ns co
range
margin
RESTRAIN REGION
maximum slope of 'through current' curve depends on tapping range and CT mismatch
GE T60 relay
SETTINGS
typical setting allows: 15% margin above the line representing
the worst mismatch of transformer ratio & CT ratios (remember root 3 for delta CTs!)
Example:
132/66kV 80MVA auto Transformer with a delta tertiary winding is protected by a biased differential relay Transformer tapping is on 132kV winding (just above the LV tap) Tapping range is -15 to +5% (ie 85% to 105% of 132kV = 112.2 to 138.6 kV) CT's HV LV 600/1 delta connected 1200/1 delta connected
Example:
132kV 66kV
600/1
1200/1
B R
Bottom tap
For T = -0.15
3 (1 + 0.15) 2 3 3 + (1 + 0.15) 2 3
=16.2%
Top tap
For T = +0.05
(1 + 0.05) 2 3 3 + (1 + 0.05) 2 3 3
=4.9%
600/1
1200/1
B R
1. calculate voltages at extremes of tapping range 132kV x 0.85 = 112.2kV bottom tap 132kV x 1.05 = 138.6kV top tap
132kV
66kV
600/1
1200/1
B R
2. Select a convenient current to work with same answer for any current, (load or fault), as we are working out a ratio (i.e. the slope Idiff Ibias) So assume 600A at 132kV
On 66kV
Ibias66 = 600 A 112 .2 kV CT 66 kV 112 .2 kV = 600 A 1200 66 kV = 0 .85 A
Irestraint = {|Ibias132|+|Ibias66|}/2 = 1.85/2 = 0.925A Idiff = Ibias132 - Ibias66 = 1.00 - 0.85 = 0.15
Allow a 20% margin above mismatch line, whose slope is 16.2%. This is simply a line with slope 16.2% x 1.2 = 19.4%
Idiff
Slope = 50%
Slope = 20%
Plenty of margin
(|Ibias_132 |+ |Ibias_66| ) 2
Repeat the process for the top tap, which is clearly not as onerous in this case
UNRESTRAINED ELEMENT
separate, less sensitive function, providing faster operation for HV terminal faults only differential element only - no bias of any type, fundamental or harmonic must be set to remain stable on the heaviest through fault and on energization see manufacturers manual
CT REQUIREMENTS
some CT saturation is permissible for through faults, mainly due to the DC component of the fault current Most manufacturers provide simple equations to determine CT class - no nasty calculations required
Overfluxing protection
Caused generally by too high a voltage or too low frequency May cause magnetizing current to increase to unacceptable levels/duration Generally provided in modern biased differential relays
EARTHING TRANSFORMERS
operation protection
Earthing transformers
provides a good earth reference for a delta winding during earth faults restricts the voltage rise on the healthy phase during earth faults inoperative during balanced voltage conditions carry significant current only during earth faults (unless tertiary supply) - I0 only earthing transformer and associated power transformer always tripped together
LOAD
Earthing Transformer
Technical Ratings
per phase impedance is equal to zero sequence impedance short time rating (typically 3 sec) continuous rating (typically 30A)
V N
Z1=0
Construction
not supplied with conservators, but instead use diaphragms to accommodate oil expansion no conservator means no Buchholz protection no overtemperature protection either!
LOAD
O/C relay does not operate for external earth faults Def Time and IDMT E/F relays operate for external earth faults
Earthing Transformer
need to consider continuous and short-time ratings, and set earth fault below these curves combination of IDMT and definite time relays used to do this
thermal protection
1 10
TIME - SECONDS
1 10
30
10
2300
1 10
0.1 10
1 10
400/0.577 A 1600/1 a B b C N all 1600/0.333 N 0 N 0 N N OVERALL BIASED DIFFERENTIAL ARRANGEMENT FOR 132kV/33kV STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMER WITH EARTHING TRANSFORMER external earth fault c