CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES

August 2006 MOH/P/PAK/115.06 (GU)

MANAGEMENT OF IMMUNE THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA

BE R

S A TU

I AKT BERUSAHABERB

MINISTRY OF HEALTH MALAYSIA

ACADEMY OF MEDICINE

Statement of Intent This clinical practice guideline is meant to be a guide for clinical practice, based on the best available evidence at the time of development. Adherence to these guidelines may not necessarily ensure the best outcome in every case. Every health care provider is responsible for the management of his/her unique patient based on the clinical picture presented by the patient and the management options available locally.

Review of the Guidelines This guideline was issued in August 2006 and will be reviewed in August 2008 or sooner if new evidence becomes available.

CPG Secretariat c/o Health Technology Assessment Unit Medical Development Division Ministry of Health Malaysia Level 4, Block E1, Parcel E, Government Office Complex, 62590, Putrajaya. Available on the following website : http//www.moh.gov.my http://www.acadmed.org.my

GUIDELINES DEVELOPMENT AND OBJECTIVES

Guideline Development The development group for this guideline comprised of paediatricians, physicians, haematologists and an obstetrician from the Ministry of Health Malaysia and Ministry of Education. The evidence search was carried out using Pubmed, Ovid and general search engines with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura; immune thrombocytopenic purpura; platelet count; autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura; refractory thrombocytopenic purpura; ITP; thrombocytopenia AND therapy as the key words. For paediatric AND pregnancy articles the previous search terms were combined with child and children and pregnancy respectively. The search excluded secondary causes of ITP e.g. drug induced thrombocytopenia; secondary immune thrombocytopenia. Related articles were selected and out of these, relevant articles were chosen and graded using the modified version of those used by the Catalonia Agency for Health Technology Assessment (CAHTA) Spain. This guideline was also adapted from other international guidelines on Management of Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura which include Guidelines for the Investigation and Management of Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura in Adults, Children and in Pregnancy by British Society for Haematology and Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura: A practice guideline by American Society of Haematology. This guideline is also based on the findings of a systematic review of current medical literature, taking into consideration local practices. The draft guideline was posted on both the Ministry of Health Malaysia and Academy of Medicine, Malaysia websites for comment and feedback. This guideline has also been presented to the Technical Advisory Committee for Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Health Technology Assessment and Clinical Practice Guidelines Council, Ministry of Health Malaysia for review and approval. A systematic approach to the treatment modalities was suggested depending on the conditions associated with ITP. This is summarised as an algorithm of management of ITP in adults, children and pregnancy.

Objectives The main aim of the guideline is to enable practitioners to make informed evidence based decisions on the diagnosis and management of Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura (primary or idiopathic).

Clinical Questions The clinical questions of this guideline are: i) What is the clinical spectrum of Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura? ii) How is Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura diagnosed? iii) How can patients with Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura be treated optimally?

Target Population This guideline is developed for the management of patients with Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura in children, adults and pregnant mothers.

Target Group This guideline is applicable to all primary care providers, physicians, paediatricians, obstetricians and others involved in treating patients with Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura.

ii

GUIDELINE DEVELOPMENT GROUP CHAIRPERSON Dr. Jameela Sathar Consultant Haematologist Hospital Ampang Selangor MEMBERS Dr.Soo Thian Lian Consultant Paediatrician Hospital Queen Elizabeth Sabah Dr. Goh Ai Sim Consultant Haematologist Hospital Pulau Pinang Pulau Pinang Dr. Ong Swee Gaik Consultant Rheumatalogist Hospital Selayang Selangor Dr Ho Lee Ming Physician Hospital Pakar Sultanah Fatimah Muar, Johor Dr. Sinari Salleh Consultant Haematologist Hospital Sultanah Aminah Johor Bahru, Johor Dr. Mahfuzah Mohamed Paediatric Haemato-Oncologist Paediatric Institute Hospital Kuala Lumpur Dr Eeson Sinthamoney Obstetrician and Gynaecologist Hospital Ampang Selangor Assoc Professor Hany Ariffin Consultant Paediatrician University Malaya Medical Centre Kuala Lumpur

COORDINATORS Dr S Sivalal Deputy Director Health Technology Assessment Unit Medical Development Division Ministry of Health Malaysia Mr. Ganesan a/l Thankaveloo Senior Medical Assistant Health Technology Assessment Unit Medical Development Division Ministry of Health Malaysia Dr Sheamini Sivasampu Principal Assistant Director Health Technology Assessment Unit Medical Development Division Ministry of Health Malaysia

iii

SPECIALIST REVIEWERS (in alphabetical order) The draft guideline was reviewed by a panel of independent expert referees, who were asked to comment primarily on the comprehensiveness and accuracy of interpretation of the evidence supporting the recommendations in the guideline.

Professor Abdul Rahman Jamal Senior Consultant Paediatric Haematologist-Oncologist Hospital Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Dr Lin Hai Peng Senior Consultant Paediatric Haematologist-Oncologist Subang Jaya Medical Centre Selangor Dr Chang Kian Meng Head of Department and Consultant Haematologist Department of Hematology Hospital Kuala Lumpur Dr Mukundan Krishnan Head of Department and Senior Consultant Obstretic And Gynaecologist Department Obstretic & Gynaecology Hospital Ipoh Dr Ng Siew Hian Head of Department and Senior Consultant Anaesthesiologist Department of Anaesthesiology Hospital Kuala Lumpur Dr V Purushothaman Senior Consultant Haematologist Hospital Kuala Lumpur Dr Raman Subramaniam Senior Consultant Obstretic And Gynaecologist Fetal Medicine & Gynaecology Centre Kuala Lumpur

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS Guideline Development And Objectives Clinical Practice Guidelines Development Group Specialist Reviewers 1. 2. INTRODUCTION ITP IN ADULTS 2.1 2.2 Clinical Features Diagnosis a. Clinical b. Laboratory Management of Chronic ITP a. First Line Treatment i. Corticosteroids ii. Intravenous Immunoglobulin Second Line Treatment i. Splenectomy Predicting response to splenectomy Post operative complications Accessory spleen ii. Danazol iii. Azathioprine iv. Dapsone v. Anti-D7 Treatment Refractory ITP i. Eradication of Helicobacter Pylori ii. Intravenous Immunoglobulin iii. Vinca Alkaloids iv. High Dose Methylprednisolone v. Cyclosporin A vi. Mycophenolate Mofetil vii. Anti-CD20 antibody (Rituximab) viii. Combination therapy ix. Others Emergency Treatment
v

i iii iv 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7

2.3

b.

c.

8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9

d.

3.

ITP IN CHILDREN 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Management of Acute ITP Management of Chronic ITP Refractory ITP Emergency Treatment

11 12 13 14 14 16 16 16 16 17 18 19 20 21

4.

ITP IN PREGNANCY 4.1 Diagnosis a. Clinical b. Laboratory Management a. Management before 36 weeks b. Management after 36 weeks c. Management in labour

4.2

5 6.

NEONATAL CARE ALGORITHM 6.1 6.2 6.3 Treatment Algorithm : ITP in Adults Treatment Algorithm : ITP in Children Treatment Algorithm : ITP in Pregnancy

22 23 24 25 34 34 34

7.

REFERENCES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DISCLOSURE STATEMENT SOURCES OF FUNDING

vi

1. INTRODUCTION Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) affects both children and adults. It is an autoimmune disorder characterised by persistent thrombocytopenia (peripheral platelet count of less than 150 x109/L) due to autoantibody binding to platelet antigen(s) causing their premature destruction by the reticuloendothelial system, in particular the spleen. In childhood, the peak age is 2-4 years, girls and boys are equally affected, and in most children the disease is self-limiting with spontaneous recovery occurring in several weeks to several months. In adults, ITP is most common among young women and the disease is more insidious in its onset and chronic in its course 1 Level 9. The true incidence of ITP is still unknown. In children, the overall incidence of ITP is 4 5.3 per 100,000 2 Level 8 ; 3 Level 6. It has been reported that the incidence of chronic adult ITP is around 5.8-6.6 new cases per 100,000 population per year in the USA 4 Level 9. 2. ITP IN ADULTS

2.1 Clinical Features In adults, ITP typically has an insidious onset, with no prodromal illness. Symptoms and signs are highly variable, ranging from the common asymptomatic patient with mild bruising or mucosal bleeding to frank haemorrhage from any site, the most serious of which is intracranial. The most common manifestation in ITP is mucocutaneous bleeding with purpura, epistaxis, gingival bleeding and menorrhagia. Overall, bleeding symptoms are uncommon unless the ITP is severe (platelet count < 30x109/ l) 1 Level 9. The degree of bleeding is largely dependent on the platelet count and patients with platelet counts below 10x109/l (and usually below 5x109/l) are at greatest risk of bleeding, including intracranial haemorrhage. 2.2 Diagnosis There is no gold standard diagnostic test to confirm ITP. The diagnosis of ITP remains clinical and is based principally on the exclusion of other causes of thrombocytopenia by the history, physical examination, full blood count, peripheral blood film and autoimmune screen. a. Clinical ITP can be defined as isolated thrombocytopenia with no clinically apparent associated conditions or other causes of thrombocytopenia (e.g. HIV
1

infection, systemic lupus erythematosus, lymphoproliferative disorders, myelodysplasia, drug-induced thrombocytopenia, congenital/hereditary nonimmune thrombocytopenia, or pregnancy) 5 Level 9. Patients with isolated abnormalities on serologic tests (e.g. positive tests for antinuclear or antiphospholipid antibodies) but without a clinically evident disorder (e.g. systemic lupus erythematosus) are included within the diagnosis of ITP 6 Level 8 ; 7 Level 8. Patients with thrombocytopenia and an associated clinically apparent autoimmune disease may have an illness comparable to ITP. Lists of conditions which must be considered and excluded in the diagnostic evaluation of a patient with suspected ITP are as in Table 1. Table 1: Differential Diagnoses Falsely low platelet count In vitro platelet clumping caused by EDTA-dependent or colddependent agglutinins. Common causes of thrombocytopenia Pregnancy (gestational thrombocytopenia, preeclampsia) Drug-induced thrombocytopenia (common drugs include heparin, quinidine, quinine, and sulfonamides) Viral infections, e.g. HIV, infectious mononucleosis, hepatitis Hypersplenism due to liver disease Other causes of thrombocytopenia that mimic ITP Myelodysplasia Congenital thrombocytopenia eg. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, von Willebrand disease type 2B Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-Haemolytic uremic syndrome Chronic disseminated intravascular coagulation Thrombocytopenia associated with other disorders Autoimmune diseases eg. systemic lupus erythematosus Lymphoproliferative disorders eg. chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, non-Hodgkins lymphoma Adopted with permission from George et al 1998.
2

b.

Laboratory

The finding of thrombocytopenia on a routine blood count may be the first indication of immune thrombocytopenia. Thrombocytopenia needs to be confirmed on peripheral blood film examination to exclude pseudo-thrombocytopenia. Pseudo-thrombocytopenia due to EDTA-dependent platelet agglutination is a cause of spuriously low platelet count. This condition occurs in about 0.1% of adults, and is easily confirmed by the finding of a normal platelet count using a sample taken in citrate or heparin rather than EDTA anticoagulant 8 Level 9. An autoimmune screen should be carried out to exclude other autoimmune diseases which may be associated with thrombocytopenia, e.g. systemic lupus erythematosus or antiphospholipid syndrome. HIV antibody testing should also be done in patients with risk factors for HIV infection 5 Level 9. If the history, physical examination, blood count and peripheral blood film examination are compatible with a diagnosis of ITP and do not include atypical findings, additional investigations such as bone marrow examination and assays for platelet antibodies are not indicated 5 Level 9. Recommendations: Indications for Bone Marrow Examination - over 60 years of age - prior to splenectomy - presence of atypical features - poor response to first line treatment (eg. prednisolone) 5 Level 9 (Grade C) - relapsed ITP following complete remission 9 Level 8 (Grade C) Assays for anti-platelet antibodies such as direct platelet immunofluorescence test (PIFT) and assays for antibodies to specific platelet membrane glycoproteins (GP) IIb/IIIa and Ib/IX are not sensitive or specific enough to be recommended as routine tests in the diagnosis of ITP 10 Level 8 ; 11 Level 8. However, these tests may be useful in distinguishing between immune and non-immune thrombocytopenia in complex cases such as combination of bone marrow failure associated with immune-mediated thrombocytopenia,
3

ITP patients refractory to first and second line treatment, drug-dependent immune thrombocytopenia, miscellaneous disorders (rare) e.g. monoclonal gammopathies and acquired auto-antibody mediated thrombasthenia 5 Level 9. 2.3 Management of Chronic ITP Most adults with ITP have a good outcome except for a small subset that has severe symptomatic ITP. Eighty-five percent of patients who had platelet >30x 109/L had long term mortality risk equal to the general population even without treatment. Patients who suffered major bleeding during their follow up had median platelet counts of 10x 109/L 12, Level 6. These findings favour treating patients with platelet count <30x 109/L and/ or symptomatic ITP. This will reduce the risks of infection through immunosuppression 12 level 6; 13 , Level 6 ; 14 , Level 8. Recommendations : When to Treat Patients with platelet counts exceeding 30 x 109/L require no treatment. Treat when symptomatic or when platelet count < 30x109/L unless they are undergoing surgical procedures (Grade C) Safe Platelet Thresholds for Procedures Platelet counts considered safe in adults undergoing procedures : Dentistry > 10 x 109/L Extractions > 30 x 109/L Regional dental block > 30 x 109/L Minor surgery > 50 x 109/L Major surgery > 80 x 109/L (Grade C) a. i. First Line Treatment Corticosteroid

Two thirds of patients will respond to prednisolone at 1mg/kg body weight/ day for 2-4 weeks 15 Level 9; 16 Level 8. However long term remission is seen only in 10-20% of patients 16 Level 6; 17 Level 8. The response to oral steroids is slower compared to intravenous methylprednisolone 18 Level 3.

ii.

Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG)

IVIG is effective in elevating the platelet count in 75% of patients, of whom 50% will achieve normal platelet counts. However the responses are transient lasting between 3 to 4 weeks 19, Level 9. Combination of IVIG/ oral prednisolone seemed to be more effective than IV methylprednisolone/ oral prednisolone in adults with severe ITP 20, Level 2. There is no difference between the two dosing of IVIG 0.4g /kg/day for 5 days and 1 g/kg/day for two days 21, Level 2. Adverse effects with intravenous immunoglobulin are common but generally mild including fever, chills, rigors, headache and backache 20, Level 2.

Recommendations : First Line Therapy in Adults Oral corticosteroids are used as first line therapy at 1 mg/kg body weight /day (max 60 mg) for 2-4 weeks tapering off over several weeks (Grade B). Intravenous methylprednisolone (30 mg/kg body weight/day with total maximum daily dose of 1 gram for 3 days) is an alternative to oral prednisolone where more rapid response is required (Grade B). Intravenous immunoglobulin (1g/ kg body weight /day for 2 days or 0.4 g/kg/day for 5 days) is useful in severe ITP who require rapid rise of platelet count. (Grade A)

b. i.

Second Line Treatment Splenectomy

Splenectomy is considered as second line therapy with two thirds of patients achieving a complete remission 22 Level 8; 16 Level 8; 23 Level 8; 24 Level 8; 25 Level 8; 5 Level 9; 26 Level 9 . The rest will experience a lesser increase or only transient normalization of platelet counts. Most relapses occur within the first 6 months after splenectomy, however, a small percentage of patients continue to relapse thereafter 16 Level 8; 27 Level 8.

Predicting response to splenectomy There are conflicting data on the predictive value of the response to steroids 28 Level 8; 29 Level 8; 30 Level 8; 31 Level 8; 32 Level 8; 23 Level 8 and IVIG 33 Level 8; 34 Level 8; 30 Level 8; 29 Level 8; 35 Level 8; 23 Level 8; 32 Level 8 on splenectomy but in general they do not have a high predictive value. The most sensitive indicator of response to splenectomy is the indiumlabelled autologous platelet scanning with more than 90% response if platelet destruction is primarily in the spleen 36 Level 8. However, platelet sequestration studies are difficult to perform and currently not available in Malaysia. The timing of splenectomy does not appear to affect the response rate .
22

Level 8; 36 Level 8; 30 Level 8; 31 Level 8; 23 Level 8; 32 Level 8

Post-operative complications Splenectomized patients have a small risk for overwhelming sepsis with an estimated mortality rate of 1.2% 37 Level 1. Operative mortality rates are < 2 % in most series 38 Level 8; 12 Level 8; 24 Level 8.

Recommendations : Prevention of Post Splenectomy Sepsis At least 2 weeks before surgery, the patient should be immunized with a polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine, Hemophilus influenzae b (Hib) conjugate vaccine and meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine. (Grade B) A booster dose of pneumococcal vaccine should be given every 5 years. (Grade B) Prophylactic antibiotics with oral penicillin 250 mg bd or erythromycin 500 mg bd should be given. (Grade C) The optimal duration of antibiotic prophylaxis is still uncertain (Grade C) but is recommended lifelong in the UK guidelines. (Grade C )

Accessory spleen The presence of an accessory spleen should be considered in patients who fail to respond to splenectomy or relapse following an initial response.
6

ii. Danazol Response can be as high as 60% especially in older females and those who have undergone splenectomy 39 Level 5. It is used as a steroid-sparing agent in steroid responsive patients who require longer term high dose steroids or in patients who are refractory to steroids. The usual dose is 200 mg 2-4 times daily 39 Level 5 and a trial of at least 6 months should be allowed. iii. Azathioprine Approximately 20% of patients may achieve a sustained complete response with this agent while 30 to 40% may have a partial response 40 Level 9. The recommended dose for ITP is 2 mg/kg/day usually up to a maximum of 150mg/day 26 Level 9. The treatment should be continued for up to 4 to 6 months before a patient is considered non-responsive 41 Level 8; 42 Level 8. Azathioprine is associated with few side effects, even with prolonged use 43 . The potential side effects include a reversible leucopenia and elevated transaminases. Secondary malignancies and myelodysplastic syndrome have been reported 44 Level 9.
Level 9; 41 Level 8

iv. Dapsone Responses are seen in 50% of patient with platelet counts < 50 x109/L with sustained responses in 25% of patients. Half of all patients with chronic ITP treated with dapsone will show some response within 3 weeks 45 Level 3. It is less effective in severe cases especially those who have undergone splenectomy 46 Level 4. The usual dose is 75-100 mg orally 45 Level 3. v. Anti-D This is effective only in Rh(D) positive non-splenectomized patients with response rate of up to 75 to 90% of adults with ITP. The effect last for more than 3 weeks in 50% of responders 47 Level 8. The usual dose is 50-75mcg/ kg 48 Level 8; 47 Level 8; 49 Level 8. However this drug is not readily available in Malaysia. Recommendations : Second Line Therapy in Adults Patients not responding to steroids or requiring persistently high doses require second line therapy. The choice of therapy must be individualized. The treatment options are: - Splenectomy. - Danazol - Azathioprine - Dapsone - Anti-D Grade C
7

c.

Refractory ITP

Refractory ITP is defined as failure to respond to first or second line treatment. This group accounts for 5.6% of all patients with ITP and are expected to have the worst outcome with a 4.2 fold increased mortality risk 12 Level 6. The cornerstone of management is to raise the platelet counts to a safe level of more than 30 X 109/L taking into account coexisting risk factors for bleeding, patients level of acceptance of modifications in lifestyle, tolerance or lack of tolerance to treatment, and the potential toxic effects of each intervention 12 Level 6. Elderly patients are both more likely to have severe bleeding and to suffer debilitating side effects from treatment 50 Level 3. Treatment Options i. Eradication of Helicobacter Pylori The regression of ITP has been reported after eradication of Helicobacter pylori 51 Level 5. ii. Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG) Repeated infusions of IVIG are reserved for intervention during serious bleeding and to raise platelet count before surgical procedure. It is often lifesaving, but refractoriness can develop 12 Level 6. iii. Vinca Alkaloids The overall response is 50% in splenectomized patients, but is usually not sustained 52 Level 8. It may cause a transient increase in the platelet count lasting between 1 and 3 weeks in two-thirds of patients treated. The dose for vincristine is 1 mg (occasionally 2 mg) or vinblastine 5-10 mg weekly for 4-6 weeks. iv. High Dose Methylprednisolone Two studies have shown that high dose methylprednisolone is effective in the treatment of patients with refractory ITP 53 Level 9; 18 Level 3. v. Cyclosporin A Cyclosporin A can be used as monotherapy or in combination with steroids. Two small case series reported responses between 50-80% 54 level 8; 55 Level 8. The cyclosporin dose is between 2.5 to 5 mg/kg/day in divided doses. The patient should be treated for at least 4 weeks before a response can be observed. The side effects may limit widespread practical use.
8

vi. Mycophenolate Mofetil Mycophenolate mofetil had been shown to be of value in some patients with autoimmune cytopenias including refractory ITP 56 Level 8; 57 Level 5 with overall response of 62%. The dose is 1.5 to 2.0 g/day. Side effects are quite tolerable with slight nausea and diarrhoea. vii. Anti-CD20 Antibody (Rituximab) The overall response rate is reported between 40 to 50%. Younger patient have a better response 58 Level 8. Twenty eight percent of patients will have sustained response more than 6 months. The recommended dose is 375 mg/m2 rituximab weekly for 4 weeks 58 Level 8; 59 Level 8. viii. Combination chemotherapy Combination chemotherapy including cyclophosphamide, vincristine with prednisone has been reported to give a response of 80% with prolonged sustained effect 60 level 5. The side effects include myelosuppression and risk of secondary malignancies, and hence should be used with caution. ix. Others Other modalities for treatment include liposomal doxorubicin 61 Level 8 anti CD52 (Campath-1H) 62 Level 5 and protein A immunoadsorption 63 Level 5. Bone marrow transplant should only be considered in the experimental context until there is a bigger clinical trial to prove its efficacy 64 Level 9; 65 Level 9. Recommendations : Management of Refractory ITP in Adults For patients who have platelet counts between 10 to 30 X 109 /L (Grade B) without other risk factors for bleeding, treatment is not indicated unless surgery is planned. (Grade C) Modalities of treatment include eradication of Helicobacter Pylori, Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG), high dose methylprednisolone, cyclosporin A, mycophenolate mofetil, rituximab, and combination chemotherapy. (Grade C) d. Emergency Treatment

There is no published data on the efficacy of different treatments for the management of urgent, life-threatening bleeding. The serious consequences of severe, life-threatening bleeding justify the use of several regimens.
9

Appropriate interventions include platelet transfusions, high-dose parenteral glucocorticoid (e.g. methylprednisolone 30 mg/kg daily for 3 days), and IVIG, either alone or in combination with corticosteroids 26 Level 9. Conditions requiring urgent treatment in adults with ITP are: 1. 2. 3. active bleeding from the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tracts intracranial bleed bleeding into important structures e.g. upper airway

The aims of treatment are to elevate platelet count quickly (within 24 hours) and to arrest bleeding.

Recommendations : Emergency treatment 1. i.v. methylprednisolone 500mg to 1g/day for 3 days 2. IVIG 1g/kg/day for 2 consecutive days 3. Platelet transfusion Emergency splenectomy is considered if above measures fail to increase platelet count to safe level i.e. above 50x109/L. (Grade C)

Indications for platelet transfusion in ITP Platelet transfusion in ITP is only given in the following situations: 1. life-threatening haemorrhage e.g. intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) 2. severe thrombocytopenia < 10 x 109/L and patient has to undergo an emergency surgery High dose i.v. steroids and IVIG must also be given together to raise the platelet counts and to stop the haemorrhage. Platelet survival is increased if the platelets are transfused immediately after IVIG infusion 66 Level 9.

Recommendations : Platelet Transfusion Dosage 6-8 U of platelet concentrate, or 1 U/10 kg body weight. (Grade C) 1 U of platelets to increase count of a 70-kg adult by 5-10 x 109/L and an 18-kg child by 20 x 109/L (Grade C)
10

3.

ITP IN CHILDREN

In children, ITP is usually an acute, self-limiting disorder that resolves spontaneously. The clinical onset is usually acute, with a spectrum of bleeding severity ranging from superficial (petechiae, purpura) to lifethreatening. Hepatosplenomegaly or lymphadenopathy is absent. The majority will give a history of a viral infection in the preceding 2-4 weeks. 75% of patients remit spontaneously with 70% achieving platelet count of more than 50 x109/L by the fourth week of illness 67 Level 9. The diagnosis can be made clinically based principally on the history, physical examination (no stigmata of malignant disease or congenital thrombocytopenia), full blood count (isolated thrombocytopenia), and examination of the peripheral blood smear (exclude abnormal cells). Bone marrow examination is seldom required. Less than 4% of 127 children had a different diagnosis from ITP following bone marrow examination 68 Level 8 . It is only indicated if the patient is not responding to therapy or before starting steroids (to avoid partially treating an undiagnosed acute leukaemia) 26 Level 9 . The need for other investigations depends on clinical indications : ANF and DNA antibodies in those progressing into chronic ITP, CMV serology in those under 1 year of age, immunoglobulin levels in those with recurrent infections and HIV screening for those at risk e.g. parents with HIV infection, intravenous drug users. Coagulation profile is needed for those with suspected non-accidental injury, inherited bleeding disorders or meningococcal infection.

Recommendations : Diagnosis of ITP in Children Full blood count with differential and a peripheral blood film examination are the only two recommended laboratory investigations in a child with typical clinical features of ITP (Grade C) Bone marrow examination is only indicated in patients not responding to therapy or before starting steroids. Additional investigations are done as clinically indicated (Grade C)

11

3.1

Management of Acute ITP

Outpatient observation and monitoring will suffice for those with platelet count > 20 x109/L without bleeding tendencies. Precaution with physical activities, avoidance of contact sports and seeking immediate medical attention if bleeding occurs should be advised 69 Level 9. A repeat platelet count should be performed within the first 7-10 days to ensure there is no evidence of a serious evolving marrow condition. Otherwise, the count can be repeated only when clinically indicated 69 Level 9. Hospitalisation is required in acute severe life-threatening or mucosal bleeds regardless of platelet count or if platelet count is < 20 x109/L without bleeding but with poor access to health care. Hospital admission also depends on parents request and on their confidence in homecare 70 Level 9. Treatment is indicated if there is a life threatening bleeding episode (e.g. ICH) regardless of platelet count or if the platelet count is < 20 x109/L with mucosal bleeding 5 Level 1. There is insufficient evidence to guide treatment in those with platelet count of <10 x109/L without bleeding manifestations. Treatment should be individualized. The choice of treatment is : IVIG 0.8 g/kg as a single dose 71 Level 1 or oral steroids (oral prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day for not more than 14 days or oral prednisolone 4 mg/kg/day for 4 days) 72 Level 6. Both steroids and IVIG may shorten the thrombocytopenic phase in responsive cases but do not influence outcome of disease. They are both effective in raising platelet count more rapidly compared to no treatment 73 Level 1 . However, there is no direct evidence indicating either treatment is superior to the other, reduces bleeding complications or mortality from ITP or influences progression to chronic ITP 74 Level 9; 26 Level 9; 2 Level 8. Recommendations : Management of Acute ITP in Children Hospitalisation is required in acute severe life-threatening or mucosal bleeds regardless of platelet count or if platelet count is < 20 x109/L without bleeding but with poor access to health care. (Grade C) Management of ITP should not depend only on platelet numbers but also on clinical severity. IVIG and oral steroids are the recommended choices of treatment but they do not influence the final outcome of the disease. (Grade A)
12

Treatment options include : IVIG 0.8 g/kg as a single dose, or oral prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day for not more than 14 days, or oral prednisolone 4 mg/kg/day for 4 days

3.2

Management of Chronic ITP

Chronic ITP in children is defined as persistent thrombocytopenia after 6 months of onset, is strikingly different from that in adults with complete, spontaneous remission seen in the majority 75 Level 6; 76 Level 6. There is a wide spectrum of manifestations. However, there is insufficient evidence in the literature to determine the best management for these patients 77 Level 9. As far as possible, allow the disease to remit spontaneously. However, other causes of thrombocytopenia e.g. SLE should be considered. Asymptomatic patients can be left without therapy with advice regarding precautions during physical activities, contact sports, dental/surgical procedures and menses. Symptomatic children may need short courses of treatment (as for acute ITP) during periods of relapse or for surgical procedures. Prolonged steroid therapy or regular infusions of IVIG are not justified 75 Level 6. For those with persistent bleeding problems, second-line therapies include steroids e.g. dexamethasone (oral 1mg/kg) given on 4 consecutive days every 4 weeks for 4 months 78 Level 8 or oral methylprednisolone for 7 days (30 mg/kg for 3 days followed by 20 mg/kg for 4 days) every 4 weeks for maximum of 6 courses 79 Level 8 and anti-D immunoglobulin 45-50 ug/kg immunoglobulin in Rh positive patients 80 Level 6. Second-line therapy should only be started following consultation with a paediatric haematologist.

Recommendations : Management of Chronic ITP in Children Allow chronic ITP children to remit spontaneously as far as possible (Grade B) Use of steroids or IVIG should be for acute bleeding manifestations only (Grade B)A paediatric haematologist should be consulted if second-line therapy is required (Grade C)
13

3.3 Refractory ITP Splenectomy is rarely indicated in children with ITP as spontaneous remissions continue to occur up to 15 years from diagnosis 75 Level 6. It is important to note that the risk of dying from childhood ITP is very low (0.002%) whilst the mortality associated with post-splenectomy sepsis is 1.4 2.7% 36 Level 8; 81 Level 8. However, splenectomy is justified when there is a life threatening bleeding event or severe lifestyle restrictions and where there has been no or only transient success with intermittent IVIG, pulsed steroids or anti-D 82 Level 9. Up to 70% of children achieve complete remission post-splenectomy 83 Level 6. It is important to ensure pre-splenectomy immunization against pneumococcus, haemophilus and meningococcus . Post-splenectomy patients require life-long penicillin prophylaxis and 5-yearly pneumococcal booster (CDC 1993). Agents that have been used when first and second-line therapies fail include Rituximab 84 Level 8 and cyclosporin 54 Level 8. Children who reach this stage should be managed by a paediatric haematologist.

Recommendation : Management of Refractory ITP in Children In children with symptomatic refractory ITP, splenectomy is an option. There is insufficient evidence to recommend third-line immunomodulating agents (Grade C)

3.4

Emergency Treatment

Serious bleeding e.g. severe epistaxis, GIT bleeding or bleeding causing a drop in haemoglobin concentration was seen in 17% of 332 pts over 10 years 85 Level 9. However, the most serious form of bleeding i.e. intracranial bleeding has a very low incidence of 0.1 to 0.5 % 86 Level 8 ; 87 Level 8 ; 88 Level 8. The following methods have been employed in cases of serious bleeding / intracranial haemorrhage : Platelet transfusion A rapid increase in the platelet count is necessary in life-threatening haemorrhage. The immediate administration of a larger than usual (8-12
14

units per sq meter) transfusion of donor platelets plus i.v. methylprednisolone 30 mg/kg (maximum 1 gm) over 20 to 30 minutes have been advocated 89 Level 6; 4 Level 6. Intravenous methylprednisolone The usual dose used is 30 mg/kg/day for three days. Seventy percent of children have been reported to show an unsustained rise in platelet counts 90 Level 8; 91 Level 8; 92 Level 8 . Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) Infusion of IVIG has been reported to cause a rapid rise in platelet count to at least above 30 x109/L in 80% of children. A single dose of 0.8 g/kg or 1 g/kg 71 Level 8 has been shown to be as effective as doses of 0.25 0.5 g/kg/ day for two days in a randomized multicentre study 93 Level 5. Combination IVIG and methylprednisolone Several authors have combined IVIG with methylprednisolone to increase the platelet count rapidly in life-threatening bleeds 94 Level 8 reported 11of 11 patients had increased platelet count above 40 x109/L following infusion of IVIG plus methyl-prednisolone and this was sustained for at least 24 hours (Level 8). In a consensus statement, 5 Level 9 also reported on the efficacy of this combination. Emergency splenectomy This measure will lead to a rapid increase in platelet count; at least 75% of patients will respond 95 Level 9 ; 96Level 8. If this procedure is to be performed, the laparoscopic method is preferred. Laparoscopic splenectomy has been associated with a shorter hospital stay, diminished blood loss and lower cost compared to an open procedure 97 Level 9 ; 98 Level 9.

Recommendations : Emergency Treatment In the event of life-threatening haemorrhage, a two-to-three fold transfusion of donor platelets is required. (Grade C) Concomitant use of IVIG alone (0.8 g/kg stat) or in combination with methylprednisolone (30mg/kg/day; max 1 gm for three days) is recommended. Emergency splenectomy (preferably laparoscopic) may be justified. (Grade C)
15

4.

ITP IN PREGNANCY

Thrombocytopenia in pregnancy is relatively common, occurring in 7 to 10% of unselected pregnancies. However, ITP only accounts for approximately 3% of these cases 99 Level 9 as compared to gestational or incidental thrombocytopaenia of pregnancy (74%) and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (21%) 100 level 6. ITP in pregnancy must be differentiated from other causes of thrombocytopenia. Table 2 Differential Diagnoses Gestational or incidental thrombocytopaenia of pregnancy (mild thrombocytopaenia >70 x 109/L occurring in late gestation) 2. Pre-eclampsia 3. HELLP syndrome 4. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) 5. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) 6. Antiphospholipid syndrome 7. Folate deficiency 8. Viral: Dengue, HIV, HCV 9. Drug-related 10. Spurious due to platelet clumping or macrothrombocytes Modified from British Committee for Standards in Haematology General Haematology Task Force (2003) 1.

4.1

Diagnosis

a. Clinical The diagnosis of ITP in pregnancy remains one of exclusion as there is no confirmatory laboratory test 101 Level 9. Therefore it is important to obtain a detailed history and physical examination to exclude other secondary causes and to assess the clinical severity of haemostatic defects 102 Level 9. b. Laboratory The aim of investigation is to confirm thrombocytopenia and to exclude secondary causes. If gestational thrombocytopenia is suspected, only regular monitoring of platelet counts is required without further investigations 103 Level 9; 100 level 6 .
16

Recommendations : Investigations for Thrombocytopenia in Pregnancy The important investigations include : 1) Full blood count 2) Peripheral blood film: to exclude platelet clumping and red cell fragmentation (in TTP, pre-eclampsia, HELLP or DIC) 3) Coagulation screen (PT, APTT, fibrinogen, D-dimer) 4) Liver function tests 5) HIV screening 6) ANA 7) Lupus anticoagulant/ anticardiolipin antibody for patients with past history of unexplained pregnancy losses/ (Grade C) thrombosis 102 level 9 Bone marrow examination is unnecessary unless there is suspicion of myelodysplastic syndrome, leukaemia or lymphoma 104 Level 9 (Grade C)

4.2 Management Although pregnancy is not discouraged in woman with preexisting ITP, maternal and foetal complications can occur. Close collaboration between haematologist, obstetrician, neonatologist and anaesthetist is needed to ensure a good pregnancy outcome 26 Level 9. Platelet counts in women with ITP may decrease as pregnancy progresses and need to be monitored closely as follows: 1st to 2nd trimester 3rd trimester at term : : : monthly 2 weekly weekly

The principal of management in ITP during pregnancy is to do least harm to both the mother and the foetus. The decision to treat is based on assessment of the risk of significant haemorrhage. Corticosteroids are considered safe with regards to potential teratogenecity and foetal toxicity as 90% of the administered dose is metabolized in the placenta 105 Level 6.
17

Intravenous immunoglobulin is effective and safe for use in pregnancy. Its effect is transient and last for about a month 104 Level 9. Splenectomy should be avoided if possible or should be deferred to the second trimester to prevent miscarriage 26 Level 9. Anti-D Immuneglobulin among Rh positive non-splenectomized women can be considered as second line therapy 106 Level 9. Androgen analogues such as danazol and all the other potential teratogenic agents like cyclophosphamide or vinca alkaloids are strictly prohibited in pregnant women.

Recommendations : Modalities of Treatment for ITP in Pregnancy Corticosteroids and IVIG are effective and safe in pregnancy and are used as first line therapy. (Grade B) Androgen analogs such as danazol and cytotoxic agents are contraindicated in the treatment of ITP in pregnancy due to its teratogenecity. (Grade C) Splenectomy is considered only if above measures fail to elevate the platelet counts and patient has serious bleeding. This is best deferred until the second trimester to prevent miscarriage. (Grade C)

a.

Management before 36 weeks

Management can be divided into 3 groups based on clinical presentation and platelet count. 1) Asymptomatic patients with mild to moderate thrombocytopenia (platelet count >20 x 109/L) a. No treatment is required b. To expect further drop of platelet during 3rd trimester Symptomatic patients or those with moderate to severe thrombocytopenia (platelet count <20 x 109/L)
18

2)

a.

Corticosteroid prednisolone 1mg/kg/day with rapid taper to keep <30mg/day (safe from adverse foetal effects) AND/ OR b. IVIG 1g/kg (according to pre-pregnant weight) every month 3) Severe thrombocytopaenia (platelet count <10 x 109/L) The approach in managing these groups of patients is to deliver the minimum amount of therapy necessary. a. high dose corticosteroid (methylprednisolone/dexamethasone) AND b. periodic high dose IVIG 1g/kg x 2 days

Splenectomy during 2nd trimester is considered if above measures fail to elevate the platelet count.

Recommendations : When to treat? Platelet count < 20 x 109/L before 36 weeks Symptomatic bleeding at any trimester Platelet count < 30 x 109/L after 36 weeks

(Grade C)

b.

Management after 36 weeks

The mother should be assessed at 36 weeks by both the haematologist and the obstetrician. platelet count >30 x 109/L safe for normal vaginal delivery in patients with otherwise normal coagulation 108 Level 9 platelet count <30 x 109/L admit for pulsed IVIG and close monitoring The mode of delivery in a mother with ITP is based on obstetric indications .

109 Level 9

Caesarian section is only for obstetric indications and the patient will require: i. iv corticosteroids if platelet count between 30-50 x 109/L ii. IVIG and iv corticosteroids if platelet count <30 x 109/L iii. IVIG and iv corticosteroids plus platelet transfusion if platelet count <10 x 109/L
19

Recommendations : Mode of delivery The mode of delivery in mothers with ITP is decided primarily by obstetrical indications (Grade C) The use of vacuum extraction and complicated instrumental delivery should be avoided if possible (Grade C)

c. Management in labour Platelet count above 50 x 109/L is safe for caesarian section under general anaesthesia but not epidural anaesthesia. Epidural anaesthesia is best avoided because of the risk of epidural haematoma and cord compression. However, patients who prefer epidural analgesia need to be admitted earlier for IVIG infusion in order to raise the platelet counts to a safe level >80 x 109/L 104 Level 9 . If platelet counts are less than 50 x 109/L and patient requires immediate caesarian delivery, administer IVIG and methylprednisolone. Give platelet transfusion just prior to surgery.

Safe Platelet Thresholds for delivery vaginal delivery: > 30 x 109/L caesarean section: > 50 x 109/L epidural anaesthesia: > 80 x 109/L (Grade C)

20

5.

NEONATAL CARE

The overall incidence of thrombocytopenia in newborns born to mothers with ITP is reported to vary from 14.3 to 37.5% 110 Level 8; 111 Level 8. Severe thrombocytopenia (<50 X 109/l) occurs in 8.9 to 14.7% 48 Level 8; 112 Level 8. Bleeding is fortunately a rare event 113 level 8 with overall incidence of intracranial haemorrhage about 0 to 1.5% 48 Level 8. Prediction of neonatal thrombocytopenia is difficult, and there is no relationship with maternal platelet counts. Infants from splenectomized mothers were more likely to have thrombocytopenia 110 Level 8; 113 Level 8 as were mothers who had presence of circulating antiplatelet antibody 110 Level 8. Thrombocytopenia is more likely if there is a previous sibling with thrombocytopenia 115 Level 8. Cordocentesis and foetal scalp sampling to measure foetal platelet counts carry more risks than potential benefits and are not recommended 26 Level 9. The application of scalp electrodes for monitoring in labour should be avoided 26 Level 9 . Cord blood platelet count should be done and the neonate with thrombocytopenia should be monitored daily. The platelet counts reach a nadir on days 2 to 5 116 Level 8. Severe thrombocytopenia (<20 X 109/L) or clinical haemorrhage can be treated with IVIG with good response in 75% of patients 117 Level 8. Life threatening complications should be treated with immediate platelet transfusions and IVIG 26 Level 9. Recommendations : Management of Neonates Born to Mothers with ITP The neonatology team should be alerted prior to delivery. (Grade C). The cord blood platelet count should be done for newborns of mothers with ITP. In those with low platelet counts, the count should be monitored till after the nadir, which is usually from Day 2 to Day 5. (Grade C) Treatment is only required when there is clinical bleeding or when the platelet count is < 20 x 109/L. The first line therapy is with IVIG (1 g/kg). Newborns with life-threatening haemorrhage should receive concurrent platelet transfusion. (Grade C)
21

TREATMENT ALGORITHM : ITP IN ADULTS

Presentation Acute Hemorrhage platelets < 30 x 109/L platelets 30 - 50 x 109/L platelets > 50 x 109/L

Methylprednisolone (1g/day for 3 days) IVIG (1g/kg/day for 2 3 days) Platelet transfusion

Prednisolone (1 mg / kg / day)

Prednisolone if bleeding or no treatment

No treatment

Chronic Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura platelets 30 - 50 x 109/L platelets < 30 x 109/L

No treatment but Prednisolone if bleeding

Active Bleeding

No Active Bleeding Prednisolone Azathioprine Danazol Dapsone IVIG i.v. anti-D

IVIG
Methylprednisolone Splenectomy

Medical Therapy

platelets < 30 x 109/L

platelets 30 x 109/L

Consider splenectomy or other immunosuppression plt < 30 x 109/L Refractory immune thrombocytopenic purpura

Gradual discontinuation of therapy

platelets 30 x 109/L No treatment

platelets < 30 x 109/L

Note: Consideration for treatment Note account patients should take into: Consideration for treatment should take into account patients lifestyle, lifestyle, access toto emergency healthhealth access emergency services and services and educational status status educational
Bleeding Medical therapy

No bleeding

No treatment

Inhibitors of platelet clearance Prednisolone IV immunoglobulin Vinca Alkaloids Danazol

Immunosuppressive drugs Azathioprine Cyclophosphamide Cyclosporin Mycophenolate mofetil

Others Rituximab H pylori eradication

Experimental agents BMT Campath

Modified 73 Level 1 with permission

22

TREATMENT ALGORITHM : ITP IN CHILDREN

ACUTE PRESENTATION Bleeding

Yes

No

Serious, life-threatening haemorrhage

mucosal bleed only

platelets < 10x 109/L

platelets > 10x 109/L No active treatment

consider treatment under appropriate conditions

Platelet transfusion (2-3 fold of normal dose) plus i.v methylprednisolone or combined with IVIG Emergency splenectomy

Prednisolone 2mg/kg/day for 2 weeks OR prednisolone 4mg/kg x 4 days or IVIG 0.8 gm/kg stat

CHRONIC ITP Bleeding

Yes

No

Acute

Recurrent, trouble-some Impedes lifestyle

Dental or surgical procedure

No treatment

As per acute ITP

Second-line therapies pulse dexamethasone pulse methylprednisolone i

Short-term coverage as per acute ITP

23

TREATMENT ALGORITHM : ITP IN PREGNANCY

Platelet count at diagnosis* < 10 x 109/L 10 20 x 109/L OR bleeding > 20 x 109/L AND asymptomatic

Methyprednisolone (500mg if <50kg or 1g if >50kg BW daily for 3 days) IVIG (1g/kg/day for 2 3 days) Platelet transfusion

Prednisolone 1 mg/kg/d with rapid taper to <30mg/d IVIG

No treatment

No response

Response

consider splenectomy if severe bleeding monitor ** (defer till second trimester if possible) OR i.v. methylprednisolone and IVIG reassess at 36 weeks

Note: * after exclusion of other causes of thrombocytopenia Note: in *pregnancy of other causes of after exclusion ** frequency of visitspregnancy thrombocytopenia in depends ** frequency of visits severity of on gestation and depends on gestation and severity of thrombocytopenia thrombocytopenia

platelets > 30 x 109/L safe for spontaneous vaginal delivery

platelets < 30 x 109/L

admit for IVIG and close monitoring

if caesarean section obstetrically indicated

platelet count

>50 x 109/L

30-50 x 109/L

<30 x 109/L

<10 x 109/L

safe for Caesarean Section

iv corticosteroids

i.v. methylprednisolone + IVIG

i.v. methylprednisolone + IVIG + platelet transfusion

24

REFERENCES 1. George, J.N., Woolf, S.H., Raskob, G.E. (1998). Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: a guideline for diagnosis and management of children and adults. American Society of Hematology. Ann Med. Feb; 30(1):38-44 Lilleyman, J.S. (1999). Management of childhood idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Br J Haematol, 105 : 871-875 Zeller, B., Helgestad J., Hellebostad, M., Kolmannskog, S., Nystad, T., Stensvold, K., Wesenberg, F. (2000). Immune thrombocytopenic purpura in childhood in Norway: a prospective, population-based registration. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. Oct-Nov; 17(7):551-558 McMillan, R. (1997). Therapy for adults with refractory chronic immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. Ann Intern Med,126 : 307 -314 George, J.N., Woolf, S.H., Raskob, G.E., Wasser, J.S., Aledort, L.M., Ballem, P.J., Blanchette, V.S., Bussel, J.B., Cines, D.B., Kelton, J.G., Lichtin, A.E., McMillan, R., Okerbloom, J.A., Regan, D.H., Warrier, I.(1996). Idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. a practice guideline developed by explicit methods for the American Society of Hematology. Blood, 88, 3-40 Kurata, Y., Miyagawa, S.,Kosugi, S., Kashiwagi, H., Honda, S., Mizutani, H., Tomiyama, Y., Kanayama, Y., Matsuzawa, Y. (1994). High-titer antinuclear antibodies, anti-SSA/Ro antibodies and anti-nuclear RNP antibodies in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Thromb Haemost. Feb;71(2):184-7. Stasi, R,, Stipa, E., Masi, M., Oliva, F., Sciarra, A., Perrotti, A., Olivieri, M., Zaccari, G., Gandolfo, G.M., Galli, M., (1994). Prevalence and clinical significance of elevated antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Blood. Dec 15; 84(12):4203-4208. Pegels, J.G., Helmerhorst, F.M., van Leeuwen, E.F., van de Plas-van Dalen, C., Engelfriet, C.P., von dem Borne, A.E. (1982). The Evans syndrome :characterization of the responsible autoantibodies. Br J Haematol. Jul: (3):445-450 Mak, Y.K., Yu, P.H., Chan, C.H., Chu, Y.C. (2000) . The management of isolated thrombocytopenia in Chinese adults: does bone marrow examination have a role at presentation? Clin Lab Haematol. Dec;22(6):355-358. Brighton, T.A., Evans, S., Castaldi, P.A.,Chesterman, C.N., Chong, B.H (1996) . Prospective evaluation of the clinical usefulness of an antigen-specific assay(MAIPA) in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura and other immune thrombocytopenias. Blood. Jul 1;88(1):194-201 Warner, M.N., Moore, J.C., Warkentin, T.E., Santos, A.V., Kelton, J.G. (1999). A prospective study of protein-specific assays used to investigate idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Br J Haematol, Mar: 104(3):442-447 Portielje, J.E.A., Westendorf, R.G.J., Kluin-Nelemans, H.C., Brand, A. (2001) Morbidity and mortality in adults with ITP. Blood, 97: 2549-2554
25

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Cohen, Y.C., Djulbegovic, B., Shamai-Lubovitz, O., Mozes, B. (2000). The bleeding risk and natural history of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in patients with persistent low platelet counts. Arch Intern Med. Jun 12;160(11):1630-1638. Vianelli, N., Valdre, L., Fiacchini, M., de Vivo, A., Gugliotta, L., Catani, L., Lemoli, R.M., Poli, M., Tura ,S. (2001) . Long-term follow-up of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in 310 patients. Haematologica. May; 86(5):504-509. George, J.N., el-Harake M.A., Raskob, G.E. (1994). Chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. N Engl J Med. Nov 3; 331(18):1207-1211 Stasi,R., Stipa,E., Masi,M., Cecconi,M., Scimo,M.T., Oliva,F., Sciarra,A., Perrotti,A.P., Adomo,G., Amadori,S.(1995). Long-term observation of 208 adults with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Am J Med, May:98(5):436-442 Zimmer, .J, Andres, E., Noel, E., Koumarianou, A., Blickle, J.F., Maloisel, F. (2004). Current management of adult idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in practice: a cohort study of 201 patients from a single center. Clin Lab Haematol. Apr; 26(2):137-142. von dem Borne,A.E., Vos,J.J., Pegels,J.G., Thomas,L.L., van der Lelie, (1988). High dose intravenous methylprednisolone or high dose intravenous gammaglobulin for autoimmune thrombocytopenia. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed),Jan 23:296(6617):249-250. Dwyer,J.M.(1992). Manipulating the immune system with immune globulin. N Engl J Med, Jan 9:326(2):107-116 Godeau, B., Chevret, S., Varet, B., Lefrere, F., Zini, J.M., Bassompierre, F., Cheze, S., Legouffe, E., Hulin, C., Grange, M.J., Fain, O., Bierling,P. (2002). Intravenous immunoglobulin or high-dose methylprednisolone, with or without oral prednisone, for adults with untreated severe autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura: a randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet. Jan 5; 359(9300):23-29. Godeau, B., Lesage, S., Divine, M., Wirquin, V., Farcet, J.P., Bierling , P. (1993). Treatment of adult chronic autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura with repeated high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin. Blood. Sep 1; 82(5):1415-1421 Pizzuto, .J, Ambriz, R. (1984). Therapeutic experience on 934 adults with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: Multicentric Trial of the Cooperative Latin American group on Hemostasis and thrombosis. Blood. Dec; 64(6):1179-1183 Fabris, F., Tassan, T., Ramon, R., Carraro, G., Randi, M.L., Luzzatto, G., Moschino, P., Girolami , A. (2001). Age as the major predictive factor of long-term response to splenectomy in immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Br J Haematol. Mar; 112(3):637640. Kumar, S., Diehn, F.E., Gertz, M.A., Tefferi, A. (2002). Splenectomy for immune thrombocytopenic purpura: long-term results and treatment of postsplenectomy relapses. Ann Hematol. Jun; 81(6):312-319. Epub Jun 5. Schwartz, J., Leber, M.D., Gillis, S., Giunta, A., Eldor, A., Bussel, J.B. (2003). Long term follow-up after splenectomy performed for immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Am J Hematol. Feb; 72(2):94-98
26

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

British Committee for Standards in Haematology General Haematology Task Force (2003). Guidelines for the investigation and management of idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura in adults, children and in pregnancy. British Journal of Haematology, 120, 574-596. Bell, W.R Jr.(2002). Role of splenectomy in immune (idiopathic) thrombocytopenic purpura. Blood Rev. Mar;16(1):39-41 Naouri, A., Feghali, B., Chabal, J., Boulez, J., Dechavanne, M., Viala, J.J., Tissot,E. (1993). Results of splenectomy for idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Review of 72 cases. Acta Haematol.; 89(4):200-203 Radaelli, F., Faccini, P.,Goldaniga, M., Guggiari, E.,Pozzoli, E., Maiolo, A.T., Ciani, A., Pogliani, E.M. (2000). Factors predicting response to splenectomy in adult patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Haematologica. Oct; 85(10):1040-1044 Ruivard, M., Caulier, M.T., Vantelon, J.M., Tournilhac, O., Schaeffer,A., Godeau, B., Bierling, P. (1999). The response to high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin or steroids is not predictive of outcome after splenectomy in adults with autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura. Br J Haematol. Jun; 105(4):1130-1132 Mazzucconi, M.G., Francavilla, V., Felici, C., Macale, E.,Conti, L., Gandolfo, G.M.,Arista, M.C., .Peraino, M., Chistolini, A.(1999). Long-term follow-up of autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura (ATP) patients submitted to splenectomy. Eur J Haematol. Apr;62(4):219-222. Choi, C.W., Kim, B.S., Seo, J.H., Shin, S.W., Kim,Y.H., Kim, J.S., Sohn, S.K., Kim, J.S., Shin, D.G., Ryoo, H.M., Lee, K.H., Lee, .J.J, Chung, I.J., Kim, H.J., Kwak, J.Y., Yim, C.Y., Ahn, J.S., Lee, .J.A., Park, Y.S. (2001). Response to high-dose intravenous immune globulin as a valuable factor predicting the effect of splenectomy in chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura patients. Am J Hematol. Mar; 66(3):197-202. Law, C., Marcaccio, M., Tam, P., Heddle, N., Kelton, J.G., High-dose intravenous immune globulin and the response to splenectomy in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura Schneider, P., Wehmeier, A., Schneider, W.(1997). Highdose intravenous immune globulin and the response to splenectomy in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. New England Journal of Medicine, 337: 10871088 Schneider, P., Wehmeier, A., Schneider, W.(1997). High-dose intravenous immune globulin and the response to splenectomy in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. New England Journal of Medicine, 337: 1087-1088 Bussel, .JB., Kaufmann ,C.P., Ware, R.E., Woloski, B.M. (2001).Do the acute platelet responses of patients with immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) to IV anti-D and to IV gammaglobulin predict response to subsequent splenectomy? Am J Hematol , May;67(1):27-33. Najean, Y., Rain, J.D., Billotey, C,. (1997). The site of destruction of autologous 111 in-labelled platelets and the efficiency of splenectomy in children and adults with idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura: a study of 578 patients with 268 splenectomies. Br J Haematol, 97(3):547-550
27

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

Bisharat N., Omari, H., Lavi, I., Raz, R. (2001). Risk of infection and death among post-splenectomy patients. J Infect, Oct: 43(3):182-186. Harold, K.L., Schlinkert, R.T., Mann, D.K., Reeder, C.B., Noel, ,P,, Fitch, T.R., Braich, T.A., Camoriano, J.K.( 1999). Long-term results of laparoscopic splenectomy for immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Mayo Clin Proc. Jan;74(1):37-39 Ahn, Y.S., Rocha, R., Mylvaganam, R., Garcia, R., Duncan, R. & Harrington, W.J. (1989). Long-term danazol therapy in autoimmune thrombocytopenia: unmaintained remission and age-dependent response in women. Annals of Internal Medicine, 111, 723-729 Stasi,R., Provan,D.(2004). Management of Immune Thrombocytopaenic Purpura in Adults. Mayo Clin Proc. Apr;79(4):504-522 Quiquandon I, Fenaux P, Caulier MT, Pagniez D, Huart JJ, Bauters F. (1990). Reevaluation of the role of azathioprine in the treatment of adult chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: a report on 53 cases. Br J Haematol. Feb;74(2):223228 McMillan, R., Wang, L., Lopez-Dee, J., Jiu, .S, Loftus, .C. (2002). Many alpha IIb beta3 autoepitopes in chronic immune thrombocytopenic purpura are localized to alpha IIb between amino acids L1 and Q459. Br J Haematol. Sep; 118(4):11321136. Bouroncle, B.A, Doan, C.A. (1969). Treatment of refractory idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. JAMA. Mar 17;207(11):2049-2052. Kyle R.A., Gertz M.A. Second malignancies after chemotherapy. In : Perry M.C., Wiiliams & Wilkins; 1992: 689-702 Godeau, B., Durand, J.M., Roudot-Thoraval, F., Tenneze, A., Oksenhendler, E., Kaplanski, G., Schaeffer, A., Bierling, P., (1997) Dapsone for chronic autoimmune thrombocytopaenic purpura: a report of 66 cases. British Journal of Haematology, 97, 336-339. Hernandez ,F., Linares, M., Colomina, P., Pastor, E., Cervero, A., Perez,A. Perella,M.(1995). Dapsone for refractory chronic idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Br J Haematology, 90, 473 475. Scaradavou, A., Woo, B., Woloski, B.M., Cunningham-Rundles, S., Ettinger, L.J., Aledort, L.M., Bussel, J.B. (1997). Intravenous anti-D treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura: experience in 272 patients. Blood. Apr 15;89(8):2689-2700. Bussel, J.B., Graziano, J.N., Kimberly, R.P., Pahwa, S., Aledort, L.M. (1991). Intravenous anti-D treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura: analysis of efficacy, toxicity, and mechanism of effect. Blood. 1991 May 1;77(9):1884-1893. Newman, G.C., Novoa, M.V., Fodero, E.M., Lesser, M.L., Woloski, B.M., Bussel, J.B. (2001). A dose of 75 microg/kg/d of i.v. anti-D increases the platelet count more rapidly and for a longer period of time than 50 microg/kg/d in adults with immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Br J Haematol. Mar; 112(4):1076-1078.
28

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

Cortelazzo, S., Finazzi, G., Buelli,M., Molteni,A., Viero,P., Barbui,T. (1991). High risk of bleeding in aged patients with ITP. .Blood, 71:31-33 Fujimura, K., Kuwana, M., Kurata, Y., Imamura, M., Harada, H., Sakamaki, H., Teramura, M., Koda,K., Nomura, S., Sugihara, S., Shimomura, T., Fujimoto, T.T., Oyashiki, K., Ikeda, Y. (2005). Is eradication therapy useful as the first line of treatment in Helicobacter pylori-positive idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura? Analysis of 207 eradicated chronic ITP cases in Japan. Int J Hematol. 81(2):162-168 Sikorska, A., Slomkowski, M., Marlanka, K., Konopka, L., Gorski, T.(2004). The use of vinca alkaloids in adult patients with refractory chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenia. Clin Lab Haematol. 26(6):407-411. Akoglu, T., Paydas, S., Bayik, M., Lawrence, R., Firatli, T. (1991). Megadose methylprednisolone pulse therapy in adult idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Lancet. Jan 5;337(8732):56. Emilia, G., Morselli, M., Luppi, M., Longo, G., Marasca, R., Gandini, G., Ferrara ,L., DApollo, N., Potenza, L., Bertesi, M., Torelli,G. (2002). Long-term salvage therapy with cyclosporin A in refractory idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Blood 99 : 14821485 Kappers-Klunne, M.C., vant Veer, M.B.(2001). Cyclosporin A for the treatment of patients with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura refractory to corticosteroids or splenectomy. British Journal of Haematology, 114: 121-125. Provan, D., Moss, A.J., Newland, A.C., Bussel, J.B. (2006). Efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil as single-agent therapy for refractory immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Am J Hematol. Jan, 81(1):19-25. Zhang, W.G., Ji ,L., Cao, X.M., Chen, Y.X., He, A.L., Liu, J., Zhao, W.H., Zou, S.P. (2005). Mycophenolate mofetil as a treatment for refractory idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Acta Pharmacol Sin ; 26(5):598-602 Braendstrup, P., Bjerrum, O.W., Nielsen, O.J., Jensen, B.A., Clausen, N.T., Hansen, P.B., Andersen, I., Schmidt, K., Andersen, T.M., Peterslund, N.A., Birgens, H.S., Plesner, T., Pedersen, B.B., Hasselbalch, H.C. (2005). Rituximab chimeric anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody treatment for adult refractory idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Am J Hematol, 78(4):275-280. Stasi, R., Pagano, A., Stipa, E., Amadori, S. (2001). Rituximab chimeric anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody treatment for adults with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Blood. Aug 15; 98(4):952-957 Figueroa,M., Gehlson,J., Hammond,D., Ondreyco,S., Piro L, Pomeroy T, William F, McMillan R (1993). Combination chemotherapy in refractory ITP. NEJM, 328:12261229 Cosgriff, T.M., Black, M.L., Stein, I.I.I,W. (1998). Successful treatment of severe refractory idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura with liposomal doxorubicin. American Journal of Hematology, 57: 85-86
29

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

Willis , F., Marsh, J.C., Bevan, D.H., Killick, S.B., Lucas, G., Griffiths, R., Ouwehand, W., Hale, G., Waldmann, H., Gordon-Smith, E.C. (2001). The effect of treatment with Campath-1H in patients with autoimmune cytopenias. Br J Haematology, 114: 891-898 Cahill, M.R., Macey, M.G., Cavenagh, J.D., Newland, A.C. (1998). Protein A immunoadsorption in chronic refractory ITP reverses increased platelet activation but fails to achieve sustained clinical benefit. British Journal of Haematology, 100, 358-364. Martino, R., Sureda, A., Brunet, S. (1997). Peripheral blood stem cell mobilization in refractory autoimmune Evans syndrome: a cautionary case report. Bone Marrow Transplant. Sep; 20(6):521 Butler, J.P., Durrant ,S.T.S, Frost, T. (2003). Successful remission of chronic, refractory ITP following non-myeloblative alloeniec stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplantation, 31, 621-622 British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Blood Transfusion Task Force (2003). Guideline for the use of platelet transfusion. Br J Haematol, Jul:122(1):10-23. Imbach P. Immune Thrombocytopenia Purpura. In: Lilleyman JS, Hann IM, Blanchette VS, editors. Pediatric Hematology 2nd edition, London. Churchill Livingstone, 1999 Halperin, D.S., Doyle, J.J. (1988). Is bone marrow examination justified in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura? Am J Dis Child. May; 142(5):508-5011 Bolton-Maggs, P.H., Dickerhoff, R., Vora, A.J. (2001). The nontreatment of childhood ITP (or the art of medicine consists of amusing the patient until nature cures the disease). Semin Thromb Hemost. Jun;27(3):269-275. Kuhne, T., Imbach, P., Bolton-Maggs, P.H., Berchtold, W., Blanchette, V., Buchanan, G.R. (2001). Newly diagnosed idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in childhood: an observational study. Lancet Dec 22-29;358(9299):2122-2125. Blanchette,V.,Imbach,P., Andrew,M., Sommerville- Nielsen S, Barnard D, Bernestein M, Chan KW, Esseltine,D., de verber,B., Israel,S., Kobrinsky, N., Luke,B. (1994). Intravenous anti D and oral prednisolone in childhood acute immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. Lancet,344(8924):703-707 Carcao, M.D., Zipursky,A., Butchart,S, Leake,M., Blanchette,V.S. (1998). Short course of oral prednisolone therapy in children presenting with acute immune thrombocytopaenic purpura (ITP). Acta Paediatrica Supp, 424: 71-74 Blanchette, V.S., Luke,B., Andrew, M., Adams, M., Mcmillan, J., Wang, E., Milner, R., Ali, K., Barnard, D., Bernstein, M., Chan, K.W., Esseltine, D., deVeber, B., Gent, M. (1993). A prospective randomised trial of high dose intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy, oral prednisone therapy and no therapy in childhood acute immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. Pediatr; 123(6):989-995. Cines, D.B., Blanchette, V.S.(2002). Immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. N Engl J Med,346(13) : 995 1008 Reid MM. Chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: incidence, treatment, and outcome.Arch Dis Child. 1995 Feb; 72(2):125-128.
30

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

Blanchette, V.S., Price,V. (2003). Childhood chronic immune thrombocytopaenic purpura: unresolved issues. Pediatr Hematol Oncol, 25(supp 1): 28-33 Lilleyman, J.S. (2000). Chronic childhood idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. Sep; 13(3):469-483 Andersen, J.C., (1994). Response of resistant idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura to pulse high dose dexamethasone therapy. N Engl J Med,330:560 564 Ozer,E.A., Yaprak,I., Atabay,B., Turker,M., Aksit,S., Sarioglu,B.(2000). Oral cyclic megadose methylprednisolone therapy for chronic immune thrombocytopaenic purpura in childhood. Eur J Hematol 64:411-415 Tarantino, M.D., Madden, R.M., Fennewald, D.L., Patel, C.C., Bertolone, S.J. (1999). Treatment of childhood acute immune thrombocytopenic purpura with anti-D immune globulin or pooled immune globulin. J Pediatr. Jan;134(1):21-26. Eraklis, A.J.,Filler, R.M. (1972). Splenectomy in childhood; a review of 1413 cases. J Pediatr Surg, 7(4):382-388 Eden, O.B., Lilleyman, J.S., (1992). Guideline for the management of idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. The British Paediatric Haematology Group. Arch Dis Child, 67(8): 1056-1058. Bolton-Maggs, P.H.( 2000). Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Arch Dis Child. Sep;83(3):220-222. Bengstson, K.L.(2003). J Pediatr 143(5): 670-673 Medeiros, D., Buchanan, G.R.( 1998). Major hemorrhage in children with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: immediate response to therapy and long-term outcome.J Pediatr. Sep;133(3):334-339. Lilleyman, J.S. (1994). Intracranial haemorrhage in idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Paediatric Haematology Forum of the British Society for Haematology. Arch Dis Child, 71(3): 251-253 Iyori, H., Bessho, F., Ookawa, H, Konishi,S., Shirahata, A., Miyazaki, S., Fujisawa, K., Akatsuka, J (2000). Japanese Study Group on childhood ITP. Intracranial hemorrhage in children with immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. Japanese Study Group on childhood ITP. Ann Hematol, 79(12):691-695 Bolton-Maggs, P.(2003). Severe bleeding in idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol: 25: S47-S51 van Hoff J, Ritchey, A.K. (1988). Pulse methylprednisolone therapy for acute childhood idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. J Pediatr. Sep;113(3):563-566. Kuhne, T., Freedman, J., Semple, J.W., Doyle, J., Butchart, S., Blanchette, V.S. (1997). Platelet and immune responses to oral cyclic dexamethasone therapy in childhood chronic immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. J Pediatr,130(1):17-24
31

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84. 85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

Borgna-Pignatti, C., Rugolotto,S., Nobili, B., Amendola, G., De Stefano, P., Maccario,R., Locatelli, F.(1997). A trial of high dose dexamethasone therapy for chronic idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura in childhood. Journal of Pediatrics,30(1):13-16 Chen, J.S., Wu, J.M., Chen, Y.J., Yeh, T.F.(1997). Pulsed high dose dexamethsone therapy in children with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol,19(6): 526-529 Warrier, I., Bussel, J.B., Valdez, L., Barbosa, J., Beardsley, D.S. (1997). Safety and efficacy of low-dose intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) treatment for infants and children with immune thrombocytopaenic purpura. Low-Dose IVIG Study Group. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol : 19(3):197-201 Barrios, N.J., Humbert, J.R., McNeil,J., (1993). Treatment of acute idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura with high dose methylprednisolone and immunuglobulins. Acta Hematol , 89(1):6-9 Kuhne T, Imbach P. (1998). Management of children with acute and chronic immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Transfus Sci. Sep;19(3):261-268. Medeiros, D., Buchanan, G.R. (2000). Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: beyond consensus. Curr Opin Pediatr. Feb; 12(1):4-9. Hashizume, M., Ohta, M., Kishihara, F., Kawanaka, H., Tomikawa, M., Ueno, K., Tanoue, K., Higashi, H., Kitano, S., Sugimachi, K. (1996). Laparoscopic splenectomy for idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura: comparison of laparoscopic surgery and conventional open surgery. Surg Laparosc Endosc 6(2):129-135 Marcaccio, M.J. (2000). Laparoscopic splenectomy in chronic idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura. Semin Hematol, 37(3) : 267-274 Karim ,R., Sacher, R.A.(2004). Thrombocytopenia in pregnancy. Curr Haemato Rp, Mar: 3(2):128-133

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100. Burrows, R.F., Kelton, J.G. (1993). Pregnancy in patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura: assessing the risks for the infant at delivery. Obstet Gynecol Surv,48:781-788 101. Burrows, R.F., Kelton, J.G. (1992). Thrombocytopenia during pregnancy, in Haemostasis and Thrombosis in Obstretrics and Gynaecology, ed I.A. Greer, AGG Turpie and CD Forbes. Chapman & Hall London 102. Gill,K.K., Kelton,J.G. (2000). Management of idiopathic thrombocytopaenic purpura in pregnancy. Semin Hematol,37:275-289 103. Shehata, N., Burrows, R., Kelton, J.G.(1999). Gestational thrombocytopenia. Clin Obstet Gynecol, 42: 327-334 104. Letsky, E.A., Greaves, M.(1996). Guidelines on the investigation and management of thrombocytopenia in pregnancy and neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia.
32

Maternal and Neonatal Haemostasis Working Party of the Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force of the British Society of Haematology. British Journal of Haematology, 95: 21-26 105. Smith, B.T., Torday, J.S.(1982). Steroid administration in pregnant women with autoimmune thrombocytopenia. NEJM 306, 744-745 106. Michel, M., Novoa, M.V., Bussel, J.B.(2003). Intravenous anti- D as a treatment for immune thrombocytopenia during pregnancy. Br J Haemotol, 123: 142-146 107. Webert, K.E., Mittal, R., Sigouin, C., Heddle, N.M., Kelton, J.G. (2003). A retrospective 11 year analysis of obstretic patients with idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura. Blood, 15 December (102) 4306-4311. 108. Lichtin, A.(1996). The ITP practice guideline: what, why, and for whom? Blood, 88, 1-2 109. Cines ,D.B., Bussel, J.B.(2005). How I treat ITP. Blood, October 106 (7) 2244-2251 110. Yamada, H., Kato, E.H., Kobashi, G., Kishida, T., Ebina, Y, Kaneuchi M, Suzuki S, Fujimoto S. (1999). Passive immune thrombocytopenia in neonates of mothers with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: incidence and risk factor. Semin Thromb Hemost.; 25(5): 491-496 111. Song, T.B., Lee, .Y., Kim, Y.H., Choi, Y.Y. (1999). Low neonatal risk of thrombocytopenia in pregnancy associated with immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Fetal Diagn Ther. Jul-Aug;14(4):216-219 112. Burrows, R.F., Kelton, J.G. (1993). Fetal thrombocytopenia and its relation to maternal thrombocytopenia. NEJM,329:1463-1466 113. Fujimura, K., Harada, Y., Fujimoto, T., Kuramoto, A., Ikeda, Y., Akatsuka, J., Dan, K., Omine, M., Mizoguchi, H. (2002). Nationwide study of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in pregnant women and the clinical influence on neonates. Int J Hematol. May; 75(4):426-433. 114. Bussel, J.B., Graziano, J.N., Kimberly, R.P., Pahwa, S., Aledort, L.M. (1991). Intravenous anti-D treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura: analysis of efficacy, toxicity, and mechanism of effect. Blood. May 1;77(9):1884-1893. 115. Christiaens G.C., Nieuwenhuis H.K., Bussel J.B., (1997). Comparison of platelet counts in first and second newborns of mothers with immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Obstet Gynecol. Oct;90(4 Pt 1):546-552 116. Burrows, R.F., Kelton, J.G.( 1990). Low fetal risks in pregnancies associated with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Oct;163(4 Pt 1):11471150. 117. Blanchette, V., Andrew ,M., Perlman, M., Ling,E., Ballin, A.(1989). Neonatal autoimmune thrombocytopenia: role of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy. Blut Jul,59(1):139-144
33

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The committee of this guideline would like to express their gratitude and appreciation to the following for their contribution: Panel of external reviewers who reviewed the draft form. Technical Advisory Committee for Clinical Practice Guidelines for their valuable input and feedback. CPG Secretariat, particularly Datin Dr Rugayah Bakri, Head of Health Technology Assessment Unit, and Ms Hanita Muhsin, Nursing Manager, Medical Development Division, Ministry of Health Malaysia.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT The panel members have no potential conflict of interest to disclose.

SOURCES OF FUNDING The development of the CPG on Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura was supported financially in its entirety by the Ministry of Health Malaysia and was developed without any involvement of the pharmaceutical industry.

34

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE SCALE

Level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Strength of Evidence Good Good Good to Fair Good to Fair Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor Study Design Meta-analysis of RCT, Systematic review Large sample RCT Small sample RCT Non-randomised controlled prospective trial Non-randomised controlled prospective trial with historical control Cohort studies Case-control studies Non-controlled clinical series, descriptive studies multi-centre Expert committees, consensus, case reports anecdotes

Adapted from Catalonian Agency for Health Technology Assessment & Research, (CAHTAR) Spain

GRADES OF RECOMMENDATIONS
A At least one meta analysis, systematic review, or RCT, or evidence rated as good and directly applicable to the target population

Evidence from well conducted clinical trials, directly applicable to the target population, and demonstrating overall consistency of results; or evidence extrapolated from meta analysis, systematic review, or RCT

Evidence from expert committee reports, or opinions and /or clinical experiences of respected authorities; indicates absence of directly applicable clinical studies of good quality