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Alzheimer's Disease Research Paper
Alzheimer's Disease Research Paper
INTRODUCTION
“Memory is a way of holding on to the things you love, the things you are, and the things
Memories are the things we uphold. Whether it’s bad or good, those memories are
engraved in us and can’t be stolen from us. But what if as times goes by, those memories
are losing? Worst, you’re even losing your language skills, ability to recognize familiar
things and you feel a sense of depression. This means, as a person grow old he/she
Now, we are currently living in the age of technology. Our advancements in the past
few decades overshadow everything learned in the last 2000 years. This increase has
brought with it a large increase in diseases associated with old age. Alzheimer's disease
(AD) is one of the most common and feared diseases afflicting the elderly community. AD,
dementia. Although some other types of dementia are curable or effectively treatable, there
is currently no cure for the Alzheimer variety. A general overview of Alzheimer's disease
including the clinical description, diagnosis, and progression of symptoms, helps one to
further understand the treatment and care of patients, the scope of the problem, and current
research. Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease may be similar in some ways. It is important
to
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compare dementia vs. Alzheimer's disease to realize the differences between the two
conditions. Alzheimer's is the most common form of dementia marked by memory loss in
older people. Dementia is the gradual loss of intellectual function. Alzheimer's statistics
show that the disease can strike a person as early as 45, while dementia generally takes hold
after age 70. The most confused form of dementia is Multi-Infarct Dementia or MID. This
condition also attacks the blood vessels in the brain. Both disorders require testing to
determine the best course of treatment. But the clinical definition of dementia is "a
deterioration in intellectual performance that involves, but is not limited to, a loss in at least
judgment interfering with daily activities" (Institute, 1996, p.4). While, Alzheimer’s disease
Many scientists believe that Alzheimer's disease results from an increase in the production
or accumulation of a specific protein (beta-amyloid protein) in the brain that leads to nerve
cell death. The likelihood of having Alzheimer's disease increases substantially after the age
of 70 and may affect around 50% of persons over the age of 85. Nonetheless, Alzheimer's
disease is not a normal part of aging and is not something that inevitably happens in later
life. For example, many people live to over 100 years of age and never develop Alzheimer's
disease. A person with AD usually has a gradual decline in mental functions, often
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beginning with slight memory loss, followed by losses in the ability to maintain
employment, to plan and execute familiar tasks, and to reason and exercise judgment.
Communication ability, mood, and personality may also be affected. Most people who have
AD die within eight years of their diagnosis, although that interval may be as short as one
year or as long as 20 years. AD is the fourth leading cause of death in adults after heart
disease, cancer, and stroke. When comparing dementia vs. Alzheimer's disease it is very
important to discuss the differences between the two diseases. Although they have many
similarities, there are a number of differences that must be noted. Alzheimer's disease is
defined as a form of dementia characterized by the gradual loss of several important mental
functions. It is perhaps the most common cause of dementia in older Americans, and goes
beyond just normal forgetfulness, such as losing your car keys or forgetting where you
parked. Signs of Alzheimer's disease include memory loss that is much more severe and
more serious, such as forgetting the names of your children or perhaps where you've lived
for the last decade or two.Another way to compare dementia vs. Alzheimer's disease is to
language difficulties, decreased motor skills, failure to recognized or identify objects, and
disturbance of the ability to plan or think abstractly. Yet another way to determine the
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Progressive mental deterioration in old age has been recognized and described
throughout history. However, it was not until 1906 that a German physician, Dr. Alois
of Dr. Alzheimer’s patients died after years of severe memory problems, confusion and
difficulty understanding questions. Upon her death, while performing a brain autopsy, the
doctor noted dense deposits surrounding the nerve cells (neuritic plaques). Inside the nerve
cells he observed twisted bands of fibers (neurofibrillary tangles). Today, this degenerative
brain disorder bears his name, and when found during an autopsy, these plaques and tangles
Since its discovery more than 100 years ago, there have been many scientific
decline and the number of plaques and tangles in the brain. The medical community then
formally recognized Alzheimer’s as a disease and not a normal part of aging. In the 1970s,
scientists made great strides in understanding the human body as a whole, and AD emerged
as a significant area of research interest. This increased attention led in the 1990s to
important discoveries and a better understanding of complex nerve cells in the brains of AD
patients. More research was done on AD susceptibility genes, and several drugs were
approved to treat the cognitive symptoms of the disease. Over the last decade, scientists
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risk factors for AD, the processes leading to formation of plaques and tangles in the brain,
and the brain regions that are affected. Specific genes related to both the early-onset and
late-onset forms of AD have been identified, but genetic risk factors alone do not fully
explain its causes, so researchers are actively exploring environment and lifestyle to learn
what role they might play in the development of this disease. More effective treatment
options have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, AD is
still incurable. The drugs currently in use treat only the symptoms, not the cause of the
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BODY
About Alzheimer’s Disease
that the disorder gets worse over time. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of
dementia among people over the age of 65 and it is thought that up to 4.5 million people
have Alzheimer's disease, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Five percent
of people aged 65 to 74 and roughly 35 to 50 percent of people aged over 85 have the
disorder, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).
However, despite the high prevalence of Alzheimer's dis disease among elderly people,
Alzheimer's disease is not a normal part of aging. Alzheimer's disease occurs when neurons
in the brain die or break their connections with other neurons. This occurs because people
with Alzheimer's disease experience atrophy of a part of the brain called the hippocampus.
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carries electrical signals from one neuron to another and is essential for memory, judgment
and learning. In people with Alzheimer's disease, the cells that produce acetylcholine are
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damaged or killed and levels of the chemical gradually decline in the brain. This means that
the electrical signals are not transmitted effectively from one neuron to another, causing the
breakdown of neuron connections and the gradual atrophy of other parts of the brain. The
symptoms of Alzheimer's disease reflect where neuron connections are broken. For
example, memory loss, a common early stage symptom, is caused by the disruption of
neurons in the temporal and parietal lobes, which are associated with memory. Language
problems, on the other hand, are thought to be caused by the disruption of the large
networks of neurons that are associated with understanding and producing language.
People with Alzheimer's disease also have abnormal lesions called beta-amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Beta-amyloid plaques are sticky pieces of protein and
other matter than surround the neurons. Neurofibrillary tangles are twisted fibers also made
from protein that build up inside the neurons. These plaques and tangles work together to
disrupt brain function and are known to increase in quantity as the Alzheimer's disease
progresses.
Certain factors of brain dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease are known, but much about
the disease is unknown. The known factors include the onset and progress of dementia in
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patients and the presence of the plaques and tangles in their brains, which may be detected
at autopsy. But specific causes remain unknown and the role of plaques and tangles, as
either cause or result, are not well understood. It is thought that these amyloid plaques form
very early in the disease stage and set of a cascade of inflammation and cell death
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throughout the affected portions of the brain. However, no one knows why the amyloid
plaques form. Similarly, very little is understood about the tangles in the brain, or how they
The symptoms of Alzheimer's disease usually begin to appear around the age of 60.
However, some people develop a condition called early-onset Alzheimer's disease as early
Alzheimer's disease can progress slowly or rapidly, depending on the individual. Patients
generally live for an average of eight years after they are diagnosed with Alzheimer's
disease, although they may live for up to 20 years. During the final stages of the disease,
most patients require constant supervision and help performing basic self-care tasks such as
Most people do not die as a direct result of Alzheimer's disease. Instead, people with
Alzheimer's disease are more likely to contract other medical conditions that can be fatal.
Many people with Alzheimer's disease die from aspiration pneumonia (pneumonia caused
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by breathing in vomit or other fluids) because of the reduced ability to swallow in the later
stages of the disease. In 2004, the most recent year for which figures are available,
Alzheimer's disease was the fifth leading cause of death among people over 65 and the
seventh leading cause of death overall, according to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC).
Women are more commonly diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease than men, although this
may be because women tend to live longer than men. Although Alzheimer's disease is the
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leading cause of dementia, other conditions may cause dementia, including stroke, brain
cells (neurons) in the cerebral cortex of the brain. This area of the brain, which is the largest
and uppermost portion, controls all our thought processes, movement, speech, and senses.
This deterioration initially starts in the area of the cortex that is associated with memory and
then progresses into other areas of the cortex, then into other areas of the brain that control
bodily function. The death of these cells causes an interruption of the electrochemical
signals between neurons that are a key to cognitive as well as bodily functioning.
Currently AD can only be confirmed at autopsy. After death the examined brain of an
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Alzheimer victim shows two distinct characteristics. The first is the presence of neuritic
plaques in the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain including cerebral blood vessels.
The second characteristic, neurofibliary tangles, is what separates AD from all other forms
of dementia. Neurofibliary tangles take place within the disconnected brain cells
themselves. When examined under a microscope diseased cells appear to contain spaghetti-
like tangles of normally straight nerve fibers. The presence of these tangles was first
discovered in 1906 by the German neurologist Alois Alzheimer, hence the name
Alzheimer's disease. Although the characteristics listed above are crucial to the diagnosis of
AD upon death, the clinical diagnosis involves a different process. The diagnosis of AD is
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only made after all other illnesses, which may have the same symptoms, are ruled out. The
initial symptoms of AD are typical of other treatable diseases therefore doctors are hesitant
to give the diagnosis of Alzheimer's in order to save the patient from the worsening of a
treatable disease through a misdiagnosis. Some of the initial symptoms include an increased
memory loss, changes in mood, personality, and behavior, symptoms that are common of
depression, prescription drug conflict, brain tumors, syphilis, alcoholism, other types of
dementia, and many other conditions. The onset of these symptoms usually brings the
patient to his family doctor. The general practitioner runs a typical battery of urinalysis and
blood tests that he sends off to the lab. If the tests come back negative, and no other cause
of
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the symptoms is established, the patient is then refereed to a specialist. The specialist,
usually a psychiatrist, will then continue to rule out other possible illnesses through testing.
If the next battery of tests also comes back negative then the specialist will call on a
and CAT scan to rule out the possibility of brain tumors. A spinal tap is also performed to
determine the possibility of other types of dementias. The patient will also undergo a
complete psychiatric evaluation. If the patient meets the preliminary criteria for AD an
examination of the patients medical history is also necessary to check for possible genetic
The psychiatric team finally meets with the neurological team to discuss their findings.
If
every other possible disease is ruled out, and the results of the psychiatric evaluation are
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typical to that of a person with AD, the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease is given. The
initial symptoms of AD are usually brushed off as a natural part of aging. The myth that a
person's memory worsens over time is just that - a myth (Myers,1996, p.100-101). AD's
victims are mostly over the age of 65 and many delay treatment by attributing their
problems to age. A victim might forget a well known phone number or miss an important
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In descending order, the patient goes from (1) decreased ability to handle a complex job
to (2) decreased ability to handle such complex activities of daily life as (3) managing
finances, (4) complex meal preparation and (5) complex marketing skills. Next comes (6)
loss of ability to pick out clothing properly, (7)or to put on clothing properly, followed by
(8) loss of ability to handle the mechanics of bathing properly. Then (9) progressive
difficulties with continence and (10) toileting occur, followed by (11) very limited speech
ability and (12) inability to speak more than a single word. Next comes (13) loss of
ambulatory capability. Last to go are such basic functions as (14) sit up, (15) smile and (16)
hold up one's head (Brassard,1993,p.10). The average time from diagnosis to inevitable
death is 8 years. The family of the victim is usually able to care for the victim for an
disease between 10% and 15% of patients hallucinate and suffer delusions, 10% will
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Once a person is diagnosed as having AD, an assessment is made of the disease's stage
of progression and of the strengths and weaknesses of the victim and the victim's family.
There are different types of assessments available to evaluate the level of dysfunction of the
patient. Based on one of these assessments a care plan is put together by a team consisting
of a family member, a paid or unpaid care provider, and the victim's physician. Throughout
the progression of the disease, and depending on the needs of the patient, a wide range of
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expensive medication, such as psychoactive drugs to lift depression and sedatives to control
violence, may be required. Unfortunately, although a wide range of treatments have been
tested, most prove to be ineffective. At the beginning of the disease the family is able to
look after the patient without much effort. Frequently families will hire a care giver in order
to alleviate some of the work. Simple changes in the home can make life much easier for
the sufferer, help them keep their self esteem, and prolong their stay at home. Examples of
low-cost modifications to the environment include reducing the noise levels in the home
(telephones, radios, voices, etc.); avoiding vividly patterned rugs and drapes; placing locks
up high or down low on doors leading outside (AD sufferers are known to wander off);
of closets in order to simplify choices (Alzheimer,1992, p.17). These costs are paid for by
the victim's family. Many of these, and other more expensive modifications are introduced
in long-term care settings. They help in maintaining the safety and security of the victim as
well as reducing their confusion. The patient's and the family's condition should be assessed
every six months (Alzheimer,1992, p.21). In response to constantly changing needs, the
aspects of care must be constantly modified. Other issues that usually arise during the care
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of the patient are assessment of the competence of the victim, power of attorney, and
condition deteriorates to the point where home care is no longer possible and they must be
moved to a long-term care facility. In Canada care, support and information for victims and
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their families comes from the health care system and the Alzheimer's Society of Canada.
The care giver must obtain information and education about the disease in order to
effectively care for the victim. During the course of the disease victims might wander,
strain on the care giver as well as causing depression and deterioration of their own health
the care giver. Through a support group the care giver is given the emotional and practical
help needed to accomplish the large task of looking after the victim for as long as possible.
Currently there are 300,000 persons in Canada with AD. This figure is more than that of
Parkinson's disease, cancer and multiple sclerosis combined. With continuous growth in the
percentage of Canadians over the age of 65, this figure could hit 700,000 by the year 2020
(Carlton,1996,p.17). These large and increasing figures translate into a large burden on the
health care system. Even when using the most conservative estimates of the average
number of years spent in an institution and the number of afflicted Canadians, the costs to
health
care are immense. At $33,000 (1989) per patient per year in an institution and
with an average stay of three years until death, the cost of AD will amount to $3
billion over the next three years; and if the entry into the disease state remains
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constant, it will cost the Canadian taxpayer [an added] $1 billion per year
thereafter.(Brassard,1993,p.11)
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There have been many studies that conclude that the number of incidences of AD is on
the rise. A very high incidence was reported in a U.S. survey conducted in East Boston by
the Harvard Medical school. It showed the incidence of AD to be 3% for people between
the ages of 65-74, 18.7% for those between 75-84, and 47.2% for those over 84
(Evans,1989,p.4). AD is a democratic disease. It affects persons of both sexes and all races
and ethnic backgrounds. The major risk factors for AD are age and heredity. Persons with a
high incidence of AD in their family history are most susceptible. A specific subtype of AD
exists that is solely connected to heredity. This subtype is known as Familial Alzheimer's
disease (FAD). FAD is also known as Early Onset Alzheimer’s disease, named so because
its symptoms start to develop much earlier than in the regular sporadic
type. Only 5%-10% of all cases are of this type. FAD is suspected when AD can be traced
over several generations and there is a history of, among previously affected family
members, a similar age of onset and duration of the disease ( usually 4 years ) .
(Pollen,1993,p.89). Much research has been conducted in an attempt to locate the gene that
is responsible for FAD. Currently, researchers have isolated genes 1, 14, and 21
p.2). There is also a possibility that a specific genetic mutation merely puts a person at risk
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injury.(Statement,1996,p.4). Finding the specific location of the gene
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will pave the way for a diagnostic or even predictive test for FAD. Similar genetic tests
already exist for cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy. Locating the AD gene will also
allow scientists to study why the particular gene is not functioning properly and may give
clues to treatment and cure. The long term goal of this research is the same as that of any
other genetic research and that is gene therapy - which is the possibility that science could
one day alter our genetic make-up. The other much more common type of AD is Sporadic
Alzheimer's Disease (SAD). This includes all other types of the disease which are not
linked to heredity. Genetic research is also playing a major role in the progress towards a
diagnostic or predictive test for SAD. Recently, a gene involved in the transport of
(Statement,1996,p.6). The gene exists in three different forms or alleles (Apo E 2,3,4) and
each person has a combination of two of the three. Thus an individual can have any one of
the following combinations: Apo E 2/2, 3/3, 4/4, 2/3/, 3/4 or 2/4. Researchers have found a
relationship between the number of copies of the 4 allele and the person’s probability of
Although scientists are unsure of the initial cause of Alzheimer's disease, it is known
that the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are caused by the disconnection and death of
neurons in the brain. Based on what scientists understand about Alzheimer's disease, the
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• Age. By far the greatest risk factor for developing Alzheimer's disease is age. The
number of people with Alzheimer's disease doubles every five years after the age of
(NINDS).
• Family history. People who have a sibling or parent with Alzheimer's disease are
more likely to develop the disease themselves. This risk is greater if more than one
member of the family has been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. Although the
the genes of certain people that makes them especially susceptible to the disease.
• Head injury. There is strong evidence that suggests that people who sustain serious
head injury are more likely to develop Alzheimer's disease later in life. However,
this link has not been firmly substantiated by medical research and is more
factors might play a role in the development of Alzheimer's. These include lack of
activities. For example, numerous studies have shown that people with advanced
degrees are less likely to develop Alzheimer's, possibly due to increased brain
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elasticity. In addition, there may be a link between obesity and the metabolic
fully understood. Many experts believe that the risks associated with normal
Symptoms
Symptoms of Alzheimer's disease usually begin to appear around the age of 60.
Alzheimer's disease is primarily marked by the onset and progression of dementia, a decline
in mental function that may interfere with the ability to perform daily functions. Dementia
Alzheimer's disease may include memory lose is often the first sign of having an
alzheimer’s disease. Memory can be categorized in two ways: short-term memory and long-
term memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember events that occurred a short
time ago or to recall things that were recently learned (such as a person’s telephone number
or the name of a restaurant). Short-term memory is stored in the temporal lobe in the brain.
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This is often the first part of the brain to be affected by Alzheimer's disease. Long-term
memory is theability to remember events that happened in the distant past or recall things
that were learned earlier in life. Long-term memory is stored in both the temporal and
parietal lobes of the brain. It is usually lost during later stages of the disease. Loss of the
ability to use and understand language or known as Aphasia. This is usually the result of
neuron damage to the left side of the brain, which is associated with language. People with
Alzheimer's disease may forget words and have difficulty communicating with others
(extensive aphasia). They may also have problems understanding spoken or written words
(receptive aphasia). People also experience Agnosia or the loss of ability to recognize
familiar people, places or things. It is usually the result of neuron damage in the occipital or
parietal lobes. Agnosia also involves an inability to interpret signals from the body, such as
when the bladder is full or pain signals that imply serious conditions (e.g., chest pain). This
also includes Apraxia, an impaired ability to carry out motor activities, even when motor
The psychiatric symptoms of dementia are most likely caused by imbalances in brain
chemistry and are often the most distressing for the patient and the patient’s family and
friends. Some people with Alzheimer's disease do not experience all or any of these
depressant medication. They may include personality changes. This is often a marker of the
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early stages of Alzheimer's disease. Changes in personality may include irritability, apathy
and a tendency to withdraw from the company of friends and relatives. They may also
experience depression. Most people with Alzheimer's disease show some signs of
depression throughout the progression of the disease. This may be mistaken as a reflection
of recent events, especially if the person has recently lost a loved one. The development of
depression is a risk factor for further psychiatric symptoms, including hallucinations and
delusions.
These usually occur during the middle stage of Alzheimer's disease. Hallucinations may
be visual or aural and may be exacerbated by loss of hearing or sight. Although people with
Alzheimer's disease may sometimes be aware that the hallucination is false, in later stages
of the disease they may have a strongly held belief in things that are not real. This is called
which they imagine their home has been invaded, that personal items have been stolen, or
that loved ones have been replaced by impostors. These can be extremely upsetting to both
care-givers and Alzheimer's patients. People with Alzheimer's disease may also experience
apraxia, which is an inability to perform tasks on demand. This symptom occurs when the
neuron connections in the parietal lobe of the brain are affected. The first element that is
affected by Alzheimer's disease is usually complex motor skills such as those required to
perform most daily tasks (e.g., writing, brushing hair). Next, a person may be unable to
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complete tasks that were learned during childhood, such as tying a shoelace or brushing
teeth. The last element of motor function to be lost is instinctive motor function such as
mistaken for the changes in memory function and mild confusion that people may
experience as they get older. Most older people occasionally misplace items or forget the
exact details of something that happened in the past. These minor changes are different
from Alzheimer's disease because Alzheimer's disease progressively gets worse until the
many individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and developed several methods of “staging”
Nerve cell damage typically begins with cells involved in learning and memory and
gradually spreads to cells that control other aspects of thinking, judgment and behavior. The
Within this framework, we have noted which stages correspond to the widely used
concepts of mild, moderate, moderately severe and severe Alzheimer’s disease. We have
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also noted which stages fall within the more general divisions of early-stage, mid-stage and
late-stage categories.
Unimpaired individuals experience no memory problems and none are evident to a health
Individuals at this stage feel as if they have memory lapses, forgetting familiar words or
names or the location of keys, eyeglasses or other everyday objects. But these problems are
Early-stage Alzheimer’s can be diagnosed in some, but not all, individuals with these
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(Mild or early-stage Alzheimer’s disease)
At this stage, a careful medical interview detects clear-cut deficiencies in the following
areas:
• Decreased capacity to perform complex tasks, such as marketing, planning dinner for
• The affected individual may seem subdued and withdrawn, especially in socially or
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Major gaps in memory and deficits in cognitive function emerge. Some assistance with day-
• Be unable during a medical interview to recall such important details as their current
address, their telephone number, or the name of the college or high school from which they
graduated.
• Become confused about where they are or about the date, day of the week or season.
• Have trouble with less challenging mental arithmetic; for example, counting backward
• Need help choosing proper clothing for the season or the occasion.
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• Usually retain substantial knowledge about themselves and know their own name and the
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Memory difficulties continue to worsen, significant personality changes may emerge, and
affected individuals need extensive help with daily activities. At this stage, individuals may:
• Lose most awareness of recent experiences and events as well as of their surroundings.
• Recollect their personal history imperfectly, although they generally recall their own
name.
• Occasionally forget the name of their spouse or primary caregiver but generally can
• Need help getting dressed properly; without supervision, may make such errors as putting
• Need help with handling details of toileting (flushing toilet, wiping and disposing of tissue
properly).
suspiciousness and delusions (for example, believing that their caregiver is an impostor);
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hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that are not really there); or compulsive, repetitive
This is the final stage of the disease when individuals lose the ability to respond to their
environment, the ability to speak, and, ultimately, the ability to control movement.
• Frequently individuals lose their capacity for recognizable speech, although words or
• Individuals need help with eating and toileting and there is general incontinence
• Individuals lose the ability to walk without assistance, then the ability to sit without
support, the ability to smile, and the ability to hold their head up. Reflexes become
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