180 - 2010

,
180

2010
: ,

180 - 2010

1.
1.1

,

.
.. . -

. :
1879: Frege

1895-97: Cantor
1899: Cantor

1902: Russell:
Cantor
. Q,
Q Q A. , = {Q | Q A}.

1.2

.
1930: Hilbert
1950: ,
(symbol manipulation).
.
1965: Robinson (resolution)

1970: Kowalski Colmeraurer
(Prolog)

.

:

(Logic circuits)
, (, ,
). (AND, OR,
NOT).
.
.
2

180 - 2010

: Boolean data types

Boolean : true, false.
and, or, not
.
(Program Design)
, (program
specifications) .
(,
), (pseudocode)
.
()
. ,
,
.

.

.
(Logic programming)


. :
.

. ,
.
(Automated Reasoning)
.
(.. ,
)
.
(program verification)
.
,
,
.
(Artificial Intelligence)

.
,
(knowledge representation).
(Data and Knowledge Bases)

(Relational Data Model)
.
.

180 - 2010

(query languages) (inference rules)

(Predicate calculus).

2.
()
.
. , , :
1.
2.
3.
. ..,
.
.
.

.

2.1

:
1. (conjunction).
: x :
x > 4 x < 9. x A: x>4 B: x<9.
: x 4 ( x
) 9, A B. , A B
x>4 x<9 ( 4 < x <
9).
2. (negation).
: : 50 7.
() 50 7.
3. (disjunction).
: : 60 6 :
60 5.
: 60 6 5.

180 - 2010
,
60 6 5.
4. (implication).
: : 10
: 5. (
, ) 10,
5.
5. (equivalence).
: : 16 2 :
16 . ( )
16 2 16
.

2.1.1
, :

, ,
,
.
, , ,
.
: 10,
5 ,
5, 10 .

,
, . :
0 0
x=3, x=5
x y
.

. ,
x > 3 x > 0 .
;


.
5

180 - 2010

2.2

(Consistency)

:
(inconsistent).
:
1.
: S1 = {x < 5, x 5}, S2 = {y=3, y3}
2. , :
S3 = { x 2, x }.

.
3.
: S4={x>2, x , x },
S5={x>y, y>z, z>x}.
S4 S5 .
: .
:
.
. , S6 = {x>y, y>z}
x,y,z
.
.
. , S7={ 2
} .
( ).
. ;
. , S5={x>y, y>z, z>x}
(x>y) (y>z) (z>x) .
.
, 2
( 2 ) .

. (contingent). ,
x .

2.3

(Consequence and Entailment)

S4={ p1: x>2, p2: x , p3: x }.

p1 p2 p4: x ,
6

180 - 2010
p3. p1 p2 p4
. p4 p1 p2, p1
p2. , p1 p2 p4
p4 p1 p2 .
, p2 p3 p5: x=2 p1
p3 p6: x .

2.4

,
,
,
(Inference, Validity, Entailment, Equivalence)

; {p1, p2, , pn},
c c p1, p2, , pn,
p1, p2, , pn c.
: c p1, p2, , pn
p1, p2, , pn / c
p
1

p2
.
.

pn
c
: c p1, p2, , pn
c.
c p1, p2, , pn ,
(valid). p1, p2, , pn c
, (sound).
p1, p2, , pn / c
p1, p2, , pn |= c.

.
....., ......
: p1, p2, , pn / c
p1, p2, , pn c .
p1, p2, , pn , c .
:
1.

p1 : q >2
p2 : q
c: q

-.
7

180 - 2010
2.

p1 : 6 >2
p2 : 6
c: 6

.
3.

p1 : 3
p2 : 5
c:

- -.
p1, p2, , pn |= c
. ; p1 p2 pn c.

|= , |= .
, x 4 |= x , x |
x 4. |= |=
. , x 2 |= x x
|= x 2.
: |= |= ,
.
.
.

3. (Propositional Calculus)
()
. , s:
2 3 . H s

p q.

180 - 2010

p q
().
s p q.


. 1
;
, .

3.1

:
() :
.
,
,
.
( ).

truth-functional.

180 - 2010

() :
. ,
.
:

() :
.
:

3.2

. ( C)

10

180 - 2010

. , ( C)
( ) C.

, C ;
( C)
, ( ) C
.
(scope).

. , (
C) {, C}, {, C}.
(substitution). ( )
p q ( p q) p, q

11

180 - 2010
. , ( (
C)) (B D) p q p ( ( C))
q (B D).
.
, ( ( C))
(B D) ( ( C)) (B D).
!
.
((B D) C) (B D)
( ( C)) (B D).
/.
1, 2, ..., n 1, 2, ..., n {1/1, 2/2, ...,n/Yn}.
j , Ej
j . ..,
j = {A / ( C), B / B D}, Ej ( ( C)) (B
D).
,
.


.
:
0
1
( C) 2
(( (C D)) E) 4
C D 3 (( (C
D)) E), 2

3.3

:
(1) ( )
(1) ( )
(2) ( ) C A (B C) ( )
(2) ( ) C A (B C) ( )
(3) ( )
12

180 - 2010
(3) ( )
(4) (B C) ( ) ( C) ( )
(4) (B C) ( ) ( C) ( )
(5) ( ) ( )
(5) ( ) ( )
.
, (4) .

C B C (B C) C ( ) ( C)

.

,
. ,
:
(4) ( ) C ( C) (B C)
,
( ) C C ( ) ( (1))
(C ) (C ) ( (4))
( C) (B C) ( (1))
(4) ( ) C ( C) (B C)
( ) C { /
, / C}.
C ( ). ,
, .
:
( ) (C D) ( C) ( D) (B C) (B D)

13

180 - 2010
( ) (C D) (( ) C) (( ) D) ( (4))
(( C) (B C)) (( D) (B D)) ( (4))
( C) (B C) ( D) (B D) ( (2))
( C) ( D) (B C) (B D) ( (1))
,
.
:
( ) ( C) (C A) ( ) (B C) (C )
( ) ( C) (C A) ( ) ( C) (A C) ( (1))
( ) ((B ) C) ( (4))
(( ) (B )) (( ) C) ( (4))
(( ) ( )) (( ) C) ( (1))
((( ) ) ) (( ) C) ( (2))
( ) (( ) C) ( (5))
( ) (( C) (B C)) ( (4))
( ) (B C) (C ) ( (1))

3.4 (Normal Forms)

. , ,
.
(conjunctive normal form)
(disjunctive normal form) .
:
: (literal) .
(minterm) .
(maxterm) .
, .
A B C A A . A B
A A .
() M 1 ()
M 2 , M 1 M 2 .
, () .
A C A C A B C .
(DNF)
.
(CNF)
.

14

180 - 2010

( A B ) ( A D E ) C DNF.
( A B ) ( A B C ) D DNF.
A B C DNF CNF.
A B C DNF CNF.
, , A B , A B DNF CNF.
A (B C ) DNF CNF.

3.4.1 DNF
Input: ,
Output: DNF
(0) - ( .. ( A B) C
A B C ).
(1)
. ,
(3). ,
,
(2) (1)
( 4 4) .
(1).
(3)
( 5).
(4) ,
.
(5)
( ).

( A B ) (( B (C ((C D ) A))) C )
- . (1),
(C D ) A
. (2), 4,

( A B ) ((B (C (C A) ( D A))) C )
, B (C (C A) ( D A))
.
(2), 4,
( A B ) (( B C ) ( B C A) ( B D A) C )

15

180 - 2010
,
. (2),
4,
( A B C ) ( A B C A) ( A B D A) ( A C )
( B B C ) ( B B C A) ( B B D A) (B C )
(3), .
:
( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B D) ( A C ) ( B C )
( B C A) ( B D A) ( B C )
(4) :
( A B C ) ( A B D ) ( A C ) ( B C )
, (5)
S: ( A B D ) ( A C ) ( B C )

. DNF
:
A

ABD

A C

B C

S .

16

180 - 2010

CNF :
.
CNF DNF (dual) .
, .

A (B C ) ( A B ) ( A C ) . ,
A ( B C ) ( A B ) ( A C ) .

3.5 (Negation)
,
, .
,
.
:

A C B C .
( A C ) ( B C ) ( A B ) C .

17

180 - 2010

:
A

;
.
, , , ( DNF).
.
, (negation).
: .
:
.

X :
A

X .

, .

(1) ( )
(2) ( ) ( De Morgan)
(2) ( ) ( De Morgan)
(3) ( ) ( ) ( ).

18

180 - 2010
Y Y. (2)
: ( B) ( B) (1) : ( ) ( B).
.
(2): ( ) ( B) (1) : (A B)
( B). .

: { , } { , }

.
( B) C :

3.6

19

180 - 2010
,
.
{ , } |= .
.
.

. { , } |= .
{ , } |= .

. .
, , /C / C
. : P 1 ,.., P n / C
P 1 ..... P n / C .

3.7 (Tautologies and Contradictions)

,
.
:

A A
A A

20

180 - 2010
A A A A
. .
: .
.
: S: A (A B ) (A B ) .
A ( A B ) ( A B )

A (A ( B B ))
( A A) ( A ( B B ))
( A A) ( B B ) . S
,
. S .
: S : A B (A B ) .
A B (A B )
A (( B A) ( B B ))
(( A A) B ) ( A ( B B ))

( A A) ( B B )
. S .

3.8
P1 , P2 , , Pn / C C .
P1 , P2 ,
, Pn C . C ,
. .
C |= C
|= C

, . ?
.

.
{ P1 , P2 , , Pn } -.
P1 P2 ... Pn P1 , P2 , , Pn / C
.

.

21

180 - 2010

. F
. , S ,
:

S
S
S
S

T
F
T
F

S
F
T
S

.
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

,
,,C. 3,5,6 7
A B C , A B C , A B C , A B C

. :

( A B C ) (A B C ) (A B C ) (A B C )
( A B C ) ((A B ) (C C )) (A B C )
( A B C ) ((A B ) T) (A B C )
( A B C ) (A B C ) ( A B )
(( A A) (B C )) (A B )
(T (B C )) (A B )
(B C ) (A B )

3.9
Equivalence)

(Material

Implication

and

|=

. P1 P2
... Pn |= .
.
22

180 - 2010

. |= ;
.
.
X Y . :
X

X Y

X Y .
|= , .
.. ( A B ) Y A ,
( A B ) A

( A B )

( A B ) A

, |= , |= X Y , X Y .
|= X Y ,
.
X ,
Y . Y
, |= .
|= |= X Y .
, X Y
2 (material implication).

X

X Y

|=
|=.
. |=
.

23

180 - 2010
X Y Y X Y X .
(antecedent) Y (consequent).
:
.
( A B ) (A B )
. |= ( A B ) (A B ) ,
:

A B

A B

( A B ) (A B )

( A B ) (A B )
A B |= . ( A B ) (A B )
A B .
:
X

X Y

:
A B
.
A B
.

3.10
CNF, DNF
.
.

. ,
( A B C )
, A B C .
:

.

24

180 - 2010

F .

M 1 M 2
M 1 M 2 . F
.

M 1 , M 2 M 3 ,

M 1 , M 2 M 3
, .
.

DNF
.

: A, A, B, B

: A, A, A B , F, T, A B B

: o
: T, A, A C , A B C , F.

: A B C D A B C D
A B D .

DNF : ( A B ) ( B C D ) ( A D ) , , F

DNF.

( A B ) ( A B C ) ( B C D ) ,
( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B C ) , A F , B T DNF.

DNF
. , ( C) (A B C)
(A B C) DNF.
( A B ) ( A B C )
( A C ) ( A B C ) .
.
F

DNF. F
A A , A B B , A D D
DNF . . F
DNF .
25

180 - 2010

3.10.1 .. DNF
:
()
,, :
(1) A B A B
(2) A B ( A B ) (A B )
() De Morgan:
(3) ( A1 A2 .... An ) A1 A2 .... An
(4) ( A1 A2 .... An ) A1 A2 .... An
()
(5) A A
DNF
(1) (1) (2)
.
(2) (3), (4) (5)
.
(3)

.
(4) , ,
F
.
: (( A B ) C ) ( A C ) DNF.
(1)
((A B ) C ) (A C )
((A B ) C ) (A C )
(((A B ) C ) (A C )) (((A B ) C ) (A C ))
(2) 2 :
((( A B ) C ) (A C )) (((A B ) C ) ( A C ))
((( A B ) C ) (A C )) ((A B ) C A C )
(3) 3 :
( A B A) ( A B C ) (C A) (C C )
(A C A C ) ( B C A C )

26

180 - 2010
(4) 4 :
( A B A) ( A B C ) (C A) C
(A C A) ( B C A)
F ( A B C ) (C A) C F ( B C A)
( A B C ) ( A C ) C ( A B C )
C ( A B C )

DNF
. DNF
. , ( A B ) B
A B .
, ( A B ) ( A B ) DNF
( A B ) A B .
:
( A B ) B A B
( A B ) B A B


.
.
DNF
.

27