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Basics of Field Geology
Basics of Field Geology
Basics of Field Geology
Rex A. Crouch
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Copyright 2008 by Rex A. Crouch
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Preface
This text addresses the basics of field geology for the amateur geologist
and prospector with the assumption that the reader has an introduction
to earth systems, mineralogy, petrology, and structural geology.
Observation and data collecting, using the transit compass, plotting
features on a map, and the geologic report are addressed herein.
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Chapter 1 - Observing and Collecting Data
Taking a bearing
Color standardization
Symbol standardization
Preparation
Report format
Target audience
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Chapter 1 - Observing and Collecting Data
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found. Upheaval Dome in another. Other complex
Canyonlands National Park is features are understood only
believed to be a collapsed salt when detailed field mapping has
dome by one camp of geologists been conducted and
and a meteorite impact site by interpreted.
Planning/Research
Observing/Mapping/Collecting
Reporting
While each phase leads into the next, the writing of the report should
actually begin during the planning and research phase.
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technology change and allow boulders setting on top of mafic
geologists to see datum under a bedrock, valleys or flowing
different light. Be prepared to water bodies across the strike.
accept the researched data and The primary school of thought is
test it to ensure its validity. to map what is in-place or
geologic bodies that are part of
Observing/Mapping/Collecting – the bedrock but what about that
This phase is what geologists call huge granite boulder setting on
“Boots on the ground.” top of mafic bedrock. Some
Outcrops are observed. The geologists will annotate this
rock type is identified. boulder on their maps as they
Distinctive items such as crystals may encounter the granite
or fossils are scrutinized. bedrock it originated from 10s
Besides the fine details, or 100s of kilometers away—this
geologists look for the obvious is a great example of glacial
such as slicken slides, big granite activity.
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Numeric that correlates the notes to the features drawn on the
map
Name of formation – if known
Specific location
Characteristics such as thickness
Name of rock
Description of rock – the description should also be systematic
addressing rock and mineral properties
o Color
o Type (igneous/sedimentary/metamorphic)
o Texture
o Foliation (as appropriate)
o Folds (as appropriate)
o Cleavage (as appropriate)
o Luster
o Hardness
o Streak (as appropriate)
o Magnetics (as appropriate)
o Luminance (as appropriate)
A sketch of the geologic feature may be made or a digital photo
taken. In either case, ensure that a ruler is included in the sketch
or photograph and annotate in the notes the orientation of the
image. Photographs using coins or local items for scale from the
country where the photo was taken lose meaning outside of that
country and locally even after time; pesos change size every year.
A ruler is a good scale because a centimeter is a centimeter
around the world.
A small insert map may also be prudent if macro view would add
value to the description.
If a hand sample is taken ensure the number identifying the
sample is annotated in the notes.
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Collecting Hand Samples.
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Size – Rocks with homogenous of the crystals that the
matrices may be fist sized. limestone contains.
Rocks with large crystals or
coarse grains may warrant a Marking orientation – Rocks
having folds and foliations need
larger sample.
to have to have their orientation
Representing the formation – annotated. Clearly mark which
Taking one large pyrite crystal side is up. If this is difficult mark
would poorly represent the a band around the rock showing
limestone formation that the level line and annotate one
contained a few crystals. In this side as “TOP” and indicate the
case taking a hand sample of bearing from when the rock fit
limestone would be prudent and into the outcrop
of course take a representation
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Chapter 2 - Using the Transit Compass and Global Position System
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The various parts of the Brunton are depicted below.
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west the compass will point must remember that the report
away from true north. Turn the will never be greater than 90
Adjusting Screw until the degrees; subsequently a bearing
graduated circle has of 91 degrees will be reported as
corresponds to the declination S89E. The east and west
on the map. In Maine the indicators on the compass seem
compass will have to be to be reversed however this
adjusted about 18 degree west orientation assists in reporting in
whereas in Washington the the correct format.
compass will have to be
adjusted about 18 east. Along There are many methods for
the Mississippi River there may taking a bearing. The transit
be no need to adjust the compass may be mounted on a
compass. tripod or alidade mount for the
greatest accuracy. In rugged
Taking a Bearing. terrain the tripods can be very
cumbersome. The compass to
A bearing is the direction the cheek method using the peep
compass needle is pointing. In sights is a fast method for taking a
geology there is a specific
bearing.
format for reporting a compass
bearing—this report will never This handbook recommends the
be greater than 90 degrees. As waist level measurements
an example, if the bearing reads technique.
35 degrees then the report
would be annotated as N35E. If
the bearing was 91 degrees we
Ensure there are no metallic objects such as belt buckles that may
affect the compass needle
Open the compass housing to about the 2/3 point
Hold the compass at waist level
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While looking down at the compass, sight the objective in the
mirror, ensure the system is level using the round level
Depress the Lift Pin locking the needle in place
Observe and record the bearing
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This final principle brings us to critical for us to measure the
strike and dip. Geologic strike and dip to discern what
activities rarely leave rock in a has happened at the site as well
horizontal position and it is as the region.
Measuring the strike and dip of a The dip angle will always be
geologic feature uses all three orthogonal to the strike.
functions of the transit compass
being the magnetic needle, A trick for finding the strike is to
Round Level, and Long Level. pour some water on the rock.
The water will flow in the
The strike is found by placing the direction of the dip and the
edge of the compass against the strike is orthogonal as stated.
inclined rock and adjusting the
compass position until the round
level is center.
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The dip is found by placing the compass flat against the rock orthogonal
to the strike.
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Global Positioning System.
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All GPS units have similar the reference frame and
features allowing the user to spheroid models. Select the
select UTM or Latitude and most current WGS when setting
Longitude. UTM is used for up the GPS unit. The earth is
most applications today to not even a perfect oval; it has
including modern geology tasks. varying degrees of roundness at
Most computer applications and different locations. The
even maps use UTM. When spheroid of Earth changes
selecting UTM there are two locally. In the United States we
additional selections to be made use North American Datum or
being the database and the NAD 83.
spheroid. Because the earth
does not remain stationary nor A word of caution, because
is it a perfect sphere there are there are so many different
different reference frames and coordinate systems available
spheroid models in use. The from Range and Township,
World Geodetic System (WGS) Latitude and Longitude, State
allows us to define the Earth’s Plane, and many variations in
reference frame. As we learn UTM dependent upon the age of
more about the earth we update the data and spheroid location,
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geologists must ensure that any could become a significant
data or maps used have been distance.
converted into the same
coordinate system. The Another important function of
difference between UTM NAD most GPS units is the ability to
27 and UTM NAD 83 may be on establish Way Marks. Geologists
the order of 10s of meters mark important locations on
dependent upon location. A their GPS units and enter
failure to ensure the correct detailed data about the location.
spheroid is in used compounded Good geologists also ensure that
by a commercial GPS unit’s data and location of any
potential error of 4 – 9 meters observation is entered into their
geology notes.
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Chapter 3 - Plotting Geologic Features on a Map
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Ordovician RGB 249/129/166
Silurian RGB 177/114/182
Devonian RGB 153/153/201
Carboniferous RGB 153/189/218
Permian RGB 103/198/221
Mesozoic RGB 127/173/81
Triassic RGB 103/195/183
Jurassic RGB 77/180/126
Cretaceous RGB 127/195/28
Cenozoic RGB 225/225/0
Paleogene RGB 255/179/0
Neogene RGB 253/204/138
Quaternary RGB 255/255/77
Symbol Standardization.
The following page presents some of the most commonly used geologic
symbols. A complete list may be derived from the Federal Geographic
Data Committee which standardizes all geologic symbols.
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Preparation.
The geologist looks for and finds simply walk the area but for
any general trend in the strike. large detailed projects it may be
The purpose of looking for a necessary to emplace stakes at
trend in the strike is to assist the the beginning and end of each
geologist in establishing traverse traverse line and run a line
lines. Traverse lines are straight between the stakes. The
lines that traverse the working distance between the lines
area in a parallel manner. The depends on how much accuracy
traverse lines should be is needed as well as the visibility
perpendicular to the general between the lines. In wooded
trending strike if there is one. areas, traverse lines may be as
This will reveal as much geology close as 5 meters apart. The
as possible during the mapping. geologist is not locked into
Simply following the trend of the walking on the line; this is a
strike would be boring. For guide to ensure the area is
small areas, geologists may properly studied.
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Adequate food, water, sun screen, insect repellent, flash light, extra
batteries for everything, and rain gear should also be available.
While mapping, the geologist carefully draws each geologic feature and
annotates it with a number. This number corresponds to the notes and
samples taken.
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The Field Map.
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The Mapping Story
The geologist begins in the northwest corner of the mapping area and
proceeds southeast along the A to A’ route as shown on the map- This A
to A’ line is not really a route but a line drawn on the map by the
geologist that is orthogonal to the general strike of the geology and will
be used in the lab to visualize the subsurface geology. The geologist first
finds a schist outcrop. Pulling a slightly rusted rock hammer from its
sheath, the geologist looks for and finds a section of rock that may be
easily removed. Hitting the outcrop several times sent a sharp piece of
rock up and into the air; a subtle reminder to put on the safety glasses.
Removing the sample and examining it through a hand lens revealed tiny
garnets that had been sheared in a counterclockwise direction. This was
interesting. The geologist labeled the sample “FMN 1a” to mean “Field
Map Name”, outcrop 1, “a” being first sample from outcrop 1. Because it
was a foliated rock with some folding the geologists carefully put the rock
sample back on the outcrop and marked its orientation so the foliation
and folding could be understood when the rock was returned to the lab.
After the specimen was properly marked and documented in the note it
was safely bagged. The uneven surface of the foliated rock was difficult
to take a strike a dip on. At last, a small section was found smooth
enough for the task. Thinking, “Am I a pretzel or a geologist?” The
geologist had to contort to new forms to read the dip angle on the
Vernier. The notes were begun with “1. Schist outcrop - Green colored
metamorphic rock with a greasy luster bearing garnets 2 mm in diameter
exhibiting counterclockwise shearing. The garnets are spaced
sporadically. The sample shows a gentle2 cm folding with a regular
rhythm orthogonal to the foliation. Strike and dip is N54E 25.” The
location from where the sample was removed was observed with the GPS
and also recorded in the notes. After finishing the note, the geologist
thumbed through several screens on the GPS to the Way Marks. A way
mark was entered on the GPS itself; this would later be downloaded to a
computer. While scrolling through the screen keyboard the battery low
screen came on. Business as usual; a couple of minutes were spent
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changing the batteries. The outcrop was paced off several times and
while setting on the outcrop, the geologist drew a scale drawing of the
outcrop on the geologic map and labeled it with “1”. Then using a
protractor the geologist made a line on the map to represent the N54E
strike, a triangle for the foliation was added to the symbol and the dip of
25 was written. Thinking for a couple of minutes which way to put the
swirl to show counterclockwise motion in the shear the first outcrop was
complete.
Climbing down off the rock was much easier then climbing up and within
a meter the geologist encountered another outcrop. Examining the
outcrop closely showed that it was the same schist as seen before. It had
same gentle folding and the garnets were the same size. While pacing off
the outcrop to annotate it on the map the geologist found that the
outcrop is in contact with a banded iron outcrop. This is exciting, the
geologists starts to draw conclusions about the previous environment
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where the rocks formed, imagining a sea floor near the end of the
Precambrian but the geologist stopped. Think, “I haven’t learned enough
about the area to start drawing conclusions." The banded iron outcrop
looked rather ugly with the red oxidation coating. A lot of effort was
involved in collecting a sample. The rock that ultimately separated from
the outcrop was much larger than wanted but after examining it under a
hand lens it was found to be a gem worth weighting down the backpack.
Silver to black colored banded iron with metallic luster and narrow bands
of chert with waxy luster. Small vugs containing various metallic crystals
demanding further examination under a microscope with some calcite
and a larger vug was also present containing dark grey botryoidal iron.
The sample was labeled as “FMN 3a” and a detailed note was lovingly
entered for this metallic specimen. As banded iron is a sedimentary rock
a dip angle was sought. While taking the strike a lot of care was taken to
ensure the metallic content of the rock did not disturb the compass
bearing. Moving the compass closer and closer to the rock did not
change the bearing. This probably indicated that there was little to no
magnetite in the banded iron. The strike and dip were found to be N54E
25. This and the UTM coordinates were also entered into the notes.
While sitting on the outcrop and drawing it to scale on the map sheet the
mosquitoes insisted that the geologist should feed them. Applying some
repellent seemed to serve as a restraining order as they buzzed around
the face and ears but didn’t land. This was a low point in the topology
and there was some standing water between here and the next outcrop.
Moving through the smelly stagnate water the geologist came to the next
outcrop some two meters away. This was the same banded iron except it
was dipping in the opposite direction. This meant that the area of
standing water was obviously the low point in a syncline and the top of
the basalt outcrop was probably an anticline. Although there was an
urgency to move away from t he mosquito breeding ground the geologist
mapped the outcrop with as much care as the previous outcrops—and
then moved out quickly. The geologist continued to move along the A to
A’ route carefully mapping another basalt outcrop of equal in height to
the previous basalt outcrop, another schist outcrop, and another banded
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iron formation. There were three additional outcrops to the east side of
this traverse and all three were inferred with dotted lines to connect to
those mapped on the traverse.
The two segments of basalt that were disconnected and offset needed a
closer examination. The geologist found that each of these two segments
of basalt were about the same thickness as those mapped on the traverse
and seemed to be the same rock. Each was found to be about a half
meter shorter in elevation than the basalt outcrops to the east and their
offset was about 1.5 meters trending S36W. Both were accurately
mapped. The geologist was confident that this was a left lateral slip fault.
Drawing it on the map and labeled it as “4” there was a personal tug of
war as to whether the fault could be continued to the southeast on the
map even though there was no visual evidence to support that it had
continued to fault. Ultimately the geologist continued the fault on the
map but annotated it as inferred and labeled it as “5.” The fault was
described in the notes and the reasoning why it was believed to be a fault
were carefully detailed and why the other segment was presented as
inferred was detailed.
As the tops of the basalt were relatively flat they were given geologic
symbols showing them as flat. The geologist also believed that the two
basalt outcrops were dikes but represented the hinge of two anticlines—
the dikes were possibly the cause of the syncline between them.
The geologist stopped for lunch and reviewed the field notes and the
map. After enjoying a sandwich the geologist crisscrossed the area to
ensure nothing was missed. All outcrops were mapped. A good rock
sample was obtained, labeled, and entered into the notes at each
outcrop. The geologist was already mentally preparing the geologic
report.
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Chapter 4 - The Geologic Report
Report Format.
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The following is offered as a guideline if no format is defined:
Title of Project
Name of Geologist(s)
Date
Abstract
1) Introduction
a) The Project’s Purpose
b) Geographic Location
c) Methodology Used
2) Local Geology
3) Regional Geology
a) Rock Unites
b) Fossils
c) Lithology
4) Structure
a) Faults
b) Folds
c) Unconformities
5) Summary
6) References
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Target Audience.
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Bibliography.
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