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Iva Dragostinova
Iva Dragostinova
Chalga discourse
This essay aims to examine nationalism in Bulgaria and in so doing, to situate its
particularities in historical, cultural and political contexts. Specifically, it will address
nationalistic ideology in relation to Bulgaria’s minorities, the Turks and the Roma. In order to
see how this process manifests in day to day life the essay will analyse the significance of
chalga. Consisting of a fusion of ‘folk’ ‘ethnic’ and ‘national’ elements mixed with western
pop, this new musical genre has emerged in the wake of Bulgaria’s ‘transition’ from
communism to capitalism. Far more that being a new genre it has become a site for
contesting identities, exploring new opportunities and stirring social insecurities. The
discussion will demonstrate the cultural, social and political elements that shape chalga and
how it embodies a reaction to capitalism in a new political and economic era. In analysing
this phenomenon the relationship between Bulgaria’s re-imagined past, newly found
European present and the ambiguities that link them will come to light. This essay aims to
situate social conflict within these wider processes and the relationship between what is
imagined to be ‘eastern’ and it’s relation to the ‘western’. In addition, the contestation which
surrounds chalga exemplifies not only ethnic tension, but class division also. Furthermore,
this essay aims to explain the complex inclusive and simultaneously exclusive elements that
shape Bulgarian nationalism through examining Bulgarian mumming rituals; in which conflict
constitutes community, which may account for why Bulgaria has avoided ethnic violence and
xenophobia.
In order to situate the significance of chalga in nationalism, the discussion will begin
with an account of Bulgaria’s communist past demonstrating historical process and political
campaigns aimed at minority groups. Specifically it will show how in communist rhetoric
controlling material culture was thought to be imperative in the creation of a cultural
revolution. The discussion will outline the motivation behind these campaigns situating them
in the quest for ‘Europeanness’ following the Second World War. Furthermore in this the
process of eliminating difference and emphasising sameness will become apparent. This will
show how the opposition between east and west was constructed and justified through the
re-remembrance of the Ottoman past.
Next the discussion will bring to light the significance of folklore in asserting an
‘authentic’ Bulgarian identity. This account will illustrate the political process of using folklore
to stress similarity and shared culture. This process was aimed at eliminating traits
considered ‘incompatible’ with the imagined ‘authentic’ Bulgarian identity. From this we will be
able to see culture as something that serves political ends and in this case acts as a re-
invention of Bulgarian identity. In this account forms of every day resistance through music
will come to light.
The discussion will then turn to the transition from communism to capitalism, and the
emergence of chalga. This new musical genre surfaces in the midst of economical struggles
and new opportunities. Importantly, this turbulent time has facilitated the opportunity for new
behaviours and the expression of contested identities. Here, the heated debate surrounding
the new genre will be closer examined. In particular the analysis will reflect on how the re-
imagined past affects the imagining of the future. In this way the discussion will illustrate that
chalga captures the past and the present, while mediating and resisting the notions tied to
modernity. In this process, chalga is a source of asserting new identities and challenging
homogenous contentions of a nation built on ethnicity. The discussion will then situate the
significance of chalga specifically in relation to Bulgarian nationalism.
Finally I will turn to the question of variations of nationalism, and address the
Bulgarian case. The discussion will explore how and why Bulgaria has avoided the fate of its
neighbours. It will bring into question if and how cultural particularities can have a constitutive
effect on the imagining of a nation. An ethnographic example of Bulgarian mumming rituals,
which are shown to be both collective and conflicting, will show the nature of social relations.
This will suggest what community and nation might mean for local populations. More
importantly, it will articulate culturally significant groupings, both in terms of ethnic and
economic relations. Out of this, oppositional aspects will surface, but in the Bulgarian case
these oppositions are simultaneously partly diffused and re-affirmed. The discussion will
demonstrate parallels between history, ritual practice and chalga. It could be said that a
notion of community in which conflict is part of its constitution accommodates ambiguity; and
this is central to Bulgarian nationalism within its inclusive and exclusive nature.
This example paints a portrait of newly emerging preoccupations, resulting from the
transition. In addition, these preoccupations are even further internalised by Bulgarian men.
According to Dimov (2001, pp.136-68), men in Bulgaria today seek “strength and
power” over society. This is represented in chalga by social symbols such as western cars,
mobile phones, access to beautiful women, sex, fraudulent business deals (delavera) and
lots of money. Chalga songs seem to reflect new values and behaviours brought about by the
tensions stemming from the transition from communism to capitalism. Bulgaria’s new found
political freedom came with a cost: joblessness, increased poverty, and inflation to name a
few (Rice 2002, p.34). So while the elites claim chalga is ‘cheap’, for the rest of the nation it
becomes a way of confronting and ridiculing economic hardship and dislocated identities. But
while this example illustrates class relations and chalga’s symbolic meaning in relation to
economic turmoil, the defining factor, which troubles some elites, academics and politicians,
is the manifestation of Turkish and Roma influences (Levy 2002, p.200).
For them, this aspect veers away from the notion of a pure Bulgarian identity, which
aims to distance Bulgarians from any multi-ethnic traces of the past (Levy 2002, p.201).
Chalga’s association with Roma culture distinctly adds to their derogative comments. Rom
musicians on the other hand regarded the term positively. For them the meaning was
situated in the impressive, masterful, celebratory good (Peicheva and Dimov sited in Rice
2002, p.31). From these oppositional perspectives we can see that Chalga captures the
association with Roma and Turkish cultural influences and in turn, its contestation. More
importantly it exemplifies people’s views of those associations and how those seem to
influence whether they regard the genre and its label in neutral, positive or negative terms as
will be illustrated in the next instance.
Chalga portrays the contested nature of Bulgarian nationalism. This is because
symbolically it captures at once “popular art, commoditisation, economic value, and
behaviours made possible in a new era” (Buchanan 2007, p.237). Furthermore it celebrates
hybrid identities and embraces what is imagined as Balkan, therefore constructed as non-
European. Chalga is a satirical reflection on the diffusion of binaries such as us/them rooted
in a paradoxical understanding of the national cultural identity (Levy 2002, p.200). The
combination of hybrid elements in this genre create a symbol which articulates the place of
its makers, fans and opponents in relation to Bulgarian, Rom, Turkish and other Balkan
cultures; in so doing it participates in the making of a new Bulgarian national identity (Rice
2002, p. 36). In this way the emergence of chalga is highly significant.
The significance of Chalga lies in its ability to challenge two major communist-
ideology driven projects: cultural progress based on a western-European elite model and
monoethnic nationalism. These values still hold true for some politicians and intellectuals in
the post-communist period. Furthermore, chalga itself contains some aspects of these ideas
(2002, p.36). The use of Bulgarian language, the occasional reference to Bulgarian village
tradition and its extraordinary popularity among Bulgarians place the genre within a
conceptual framework, which is interpreted in the country as Bulgarian (2002, p.37). In
addition, its modern themes and ironic lyrics, such as the devaluation of currency and owning
BMW’s link it to developments in a modern global culture. Through chalga people can make
light of the difficult economic situations they find themselves in, hoping that progress
associated with western European global markets will come their way (2002, p.37). The
contestation this genre fuels is not only rooted in what some elite term ‘cheap’, it also stems
largely from its ‘eastern’ qualities. In this way it is highly connected to Bulgarian identity
politics and could be interpreted as Bulgaria’s “revived old national identity syndrome” (Levy
2002, p.200). Chalga seems to fly in the face of values held high during the communist
period and according to those who oppose it “performs Bulgaria’s Ottoman legacy” (Rice
2002, p.37).
By performing Bulgaria’s Ottoman legacy, chalga seems to expand Bulgarian
national identity beyond previously constructed notions of a unique, “pure”, “clean”
monoethnic cultural identity (Buchanan 2007, p.238). For some Bulgarian’s raised under a
government that constructed and promoted a narrow Bulgarian nationalism in music, the
popularity of chalga and the relative absence of narodna muzika on the radio, becomes an
offence to their national feelings (Rice 2002, p.37). The conflict resulting from contesting
national identity is based on a self/other distinction, which is directed at the ‘local other’
(Turks and Roma), rather than the ‘distant other’ (the West). This tendency is rooted in
displacement. Caught between East and West, some Bulgarians are worried about their
position in the world (2002, p.38). In desiring to be part of a European culture, the notion of
an ‘authentic’ Bulgarian identity remains imagined as Bulgarian ethnicity. In order to fully
grasp the extent to which chalga brings together historical, political and social factors, an
analysis concerning nationalism in relation to chalga will illuminate its significance further.
The significance of Chalga in Nationalism
Chalga has become a “sign of modern hybridity and a specific form of
multiculturalism” (Levy 2002, p.202). Its popularity has become the subject of increasing
ideological argument on the cultural identity of Bulgarians. The politics of 1989 implied a
clear national orientation towards western values and standards (2002, p.202). According to
Levy (2002, p.202), such an orientation stimulates and re-enforces at least a hostile attitude
towards any presumed “non-Bulgarian” influences, which are understood to mean influences
coming from the local cultures of Roma and Turks (Silverman 1983, p.55). The debates this
genre has stirred has revealed views of the national as single, uniform concept, which
remains vague with respect to the place of local minorities in the context of national
discourse (Levy 2002, p.202).
Paradoxically, the Balkan has been conceptualised as the ‘other’, an enemy inside
the nation, while the western (distant other) has been considered as promising, leading the
nation to modern civilization and future prosperity (2002, p.203). Against this background,
chalga has become a problematic site raising not only issues of identity, but tolerance,
pluralism and cultural relativism (2002, p.203). Underneath the moral panic concerning ‘good
taste’ threatened by ‘bad music’ lies a fear “that this music would result in the ‘Gypsification’
and ‘Turkification’ of the nation” (Rice 2002, p.39). Furthermore, this fear generates what
could be seen as racism, defined as “a myth of desired cultural purity played out against
‘others’ who are perceived as being not only different but inferior” (Shechner, cited in Levy
2002, p.203). What is of interest here is the ‘othering’ of minority groups in Bulgarian national
discourse, which chalga seems to confront as will become apparent next.
Chalga performs an Ottoman legacy that is simultaneously external to Bulgaria (due
to its musical styles from neighbouring countries) and internal (Rom musicians and elements)
(Rice 2002, p.39). In this process it diffuses the neat distinctions of national ideology between
“our” culture and “other” culture. Chalga proclaims an expanded identity, that embraces
‘Balkanness’ and in this way challenges nationalistic discourse, which insists on the
uniqueness of Bulgarian culture. From this we can see that “in contrast to folk music, chalga
is anti-ethnocentric” (2002, p.39). In the Bulgarian case, cultural elites’ preoccupation with
notions of what is ‘authentic’ or ‘phoney’ is an attempt to assert national discourse. This
concern is not simply aesthetic, but prevailing in the inclusion and exclusion of “others”, who
threaten Bulgaria’s ‘authentic’ national identity (Levy 2002, p.208).
The evidence of chalga as a musical symbol of an expanded national identity can be
found in both its musical features and in the extreme critique it has evoked from the elite. A
famous conductor in an interview in 1998 said that chalga was the only thing that would
make him emigrate from Bulgaria (Dimov 1995, p.10). Additionally this new genre not only
evoked public scrutiny, but made it into Parliament. A petition to the Bulgarian Parliament in
1999, pleaded for a “cleansing” of the national soundscape of what, for the Bulgarians who
signed it, were “bad”, “vulgar” and “strange” sounds coming from the experiences of the local
Roma and Turks (Levy 2002, p.207). This petition expressed concern about an ‘invasion’ by
‘their’ music, echoing the re-remembered Ottoman past. The antagonists of chalga
repeatedly claimed that it “brings ‘bad taste’ and other ‘disgusting’ characteristics to which
our children are exposed” (2002, p.209).
All this public noise in Bulgaria seems to mirror 1950s U.S.A when established pop-
singers testified against the ‘brutal’, ‘degenerate’ and ‘false’ music of ‘non-civilized’ black
Americans (2002, p.209). Although there is no direct musical parallel to chalga, its cultural
significance and ability to stir highly strung debates in Bulgaria “could be seen as ‘the black
music of the Balkans’” (2002, p.209). A number of Bulgarian scholars have interpreted
chalga as “the Balkans in Bulgaria” and “above all Balkan” (Stetalova sited in Rice 2002,
p.39). This points out that its popularity represents “a broadening of contemporary Bulgarian
identity” (Dimov 1995, p.95). Furthermore, those who make chalga their cultural choice
reverse the standard nationalist discourse which favours ‘ours’ while denigrating the foreign
(1995, p.95). But although nationalists may object to an expansion of national identity, this
does not fully explain their disgust. If the genre is understood as Balkan, then in theory it
should minimise its contested link to Roma and Turkish influence. It is precisely when it is
understood as the “gypsy in Bulgaria” that the elite’s disgust is evoked (Rice 2002, p.39).
This will be examined next.
As stated throughout this essay, chalga emerged in a post-totalitarian situation,
which liberated the local culture from old ideological taboos and created a space for more
visible identification of different local ethnic groups. But the democratisation process has not
been effective enough in eliminating the negative attitudes associated with Turkish and Roma
culture (Levy 2002, p.209). Cultural elites cling to an older point of view that identifies the
nation with its majority ethnic culture. By occupying a space within which ‘authentic culture’
becomes ambiguous, chalga and its popularity have constructed a counter discourse, that
attacks and discredits the discourse of the elite and the “nationalist idea of cultural purity and
authenticity” (Rice 2002, p.40). Rice goes on to suggest that, the commentary of the elite
implies that they understand chalga’s threat to their position, not so much intellectually, but at
a gut level. This is then expressed as an aesthetic disgust with the music because of its
symbolic association with ‘gypsy culture’, characterised by some as “simply not from our
world” (Statelova sited in Rice 2002, p.44). In addition, their derogatory comments may stem
from noticing that, their ability to set, monitor and control taste and public ideology is being
outwitted by mass-mediated, market driven, transmitted discourses such as chalga (2002,
p.40). We can see from this, that these ideological tensions resonate in a process of
deconstruction of what was hailed as the Bulgarian ‘authentic identity’. Furthermore, these
tensions bring us to the question of the inherited Ottoman legacy, its current place in Bulgaria
and how this relates to its European status.
Maria Todorova (1997) points out that there are two views regarding the Ottoman
legacy. One is that Balkan nation-states and their cultures represent a complete break with
the Ottoman past; the other argues for a “complex symbiosis of Turkish, Islamic and
Byzantine/Balkan traditions” (1997, p.164) that “on a level of popular culture and everyday
life, proved much more persistent” (1997, p.180). The first model represents political
affiliation and fits with the Bulgarian elites aspirations. Bulgarian politicians have tried since
1989, to move Bulgaria out of the Balkans conceptually and into an integrated Europe (Rice
2002, p.41). But this move has been prevented culturally at least in part by chalga, whose
fans revel precisely in Bulgaria’s Ottoman legacy. It could be said that, chalga is the cultural
expression of Todorova’s “symbiosis” model. With this in mind, it is imperative to consider
chalga’s “local, nonverbal, artistic manifestation of more widespread questioning of the idea
of nationalism and the nation-state” (2002, p.41).
In order to situate Bulgarian nationalism it is useful to come back to Ernst Gellner’s
(1997, pp.37-39) five stages of the development and practice of nationalism in Eastern
Europe:
(1) the status quo of the Russian, Hapsburg and Ottoman empires;
(2) the development of nationalism as a “self evident…principle of political
legitimacy” during the nineteenth century;
(3) the emergence of small states that were “appallingly fragile and feeble”
between the world wars;
(4) ethnic cleansing in an attempt to make congruent the political unit and
ethnicity of the population;
(5) “The attenuation of nation feeling”, a stage which may be “part reality,
part wish fulfilment”.
For Gellner, the countries of Eastern Europe were interrupted in this historical
process at or before the third stage by antinationalist ideology of communism. The Bulgarian
case seems to have been at stage two and three during the communist period, as
exemplified through nationalistic ideology regarding folklore. For him the point of interest was
whether particular countries would emerge in the post-communist period at stage three, four
or five and he predicts that it will be different in different places (Gellner cited in Creed
2004:57). The former Yugoslavia clearly emerged in stage four, but this nationalist pattern is
particular to Yugoslavia and can not be generalised as Balkan (Todorova 1997, p.185). The
Bulgarian case as illustrated by the conflict over national identity between the elite and the
popularity of chalga seems to bring together Todorova’s claims for “a varied and historically
contingent Balkans” and Gellner’s prediction of different stages of nationalism in different
places. Bulgaria endured its stage four attempts at ethnic cleansing hidden behind the mask
of the “Great Excursion” at the end of the communist period (Neueberger 2004, p.75). But
this played out differently than in the case of its Balkan neighbours (Creed 2004, p.56).
Currently, it seems to be working its way through stage five, a period of attenuated
nationalism to which chalga is contributing in important ways, “even as intellectuals drag their
feet” (Rice 2002, p.42). Chalga seems to articulate ordinary Bulgarian’s hope for a new
understanding of Bulgarian national identity, which is not rooted in the state and majority
etnicity (2002, p.43). Through this process this new genre could be providing a way for
Bulgarians to understand themselves in a new way, which transcends the limitations of a
uniform ethnic nationalism.
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