BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

Bridging the Gap Between Indigenous English and Standard English Mariette Anderson, Roanna Chan, Sydney Franks, Melonie Gryschuk University of Regina

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

Summary Of Report Corey is a grade 3 student in Saskatoon. His family is of Cree First Nations descent, and he has lived on his First Nations reservation, as well as in the city. His grandfather is a Cree monolingual, which has influenced Coreys language development, as he is fluent in Cree and English. Coreys mother has mentioned that Cree has been spoken less frequently, the longer they live in the city. Coreys classroom experience has revealed aspects of Indigenous English in his spoken and written English, which led to speech and language assessment referrals in grades one and two, and has resulted in an absence from regular ELA classes for resource sessions twice weekly. From a professional standpoint, Corey requires continued development of Standard English to ensure comprehension of the English language, while simultaneously developing his Cree language to develop cultural literacy. A number of sources have been addressed to support claims regarding Coreys well being in regards to language and bidialectal development. It is also important to involve his community and parents in his language and cultural development, to ensure maturation in his bilingualism. Useful classroom resources and teaching modifications will be suggested and explained in order to embrace Coreys language, while maintaining his cultural integrity. This assessment suggests that Corey should be presented with the tools to effectively develop his Standard English, while continuing to maintain and master his Cree language. Corey should embrace his cultural heritage by continuing to practice Cree in the home, and enforce the use and development in both languages. It is essential to involve Coreys language in the classroom to avoid othering him. It also important to include a variety of other languages in the classroom so that other students will develop a cultural ear and learn that other languages, as

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

well as other English dialects, are welcome in the classroom. Corey should be taught how to code-switch between his English dialects; in the home, his Indigenous English and Cree can be embraced and developed, while Standard English can be improved in the classroom. Sources, to be discussed in depth, suggest that bidialectal Indigenous students should be able to code-switch in specific situations, and maintain cultural history, through key Indigenous activities, stories, and games. Literature Review Firstly, a firm understanding of what indigenized English is, is essential in language assessment and support. Just as many other contact languages are started, Indigenized English also started as a pidgin as Aboriginal peoples first began interacting in English with white settlers (Peltier, 2009). Indigenized English is a variation of English that includes futures of indigenous languages. There have been many articles written about the phenomenon of indigenized variations of English in present day mainstream classrooms. As future teachers, it is of utmost importance to create a classroom climate that feels safe and one that nurtures students development. The classroom must provide a space that gives each student an equal opportunity to explore and develop their unique identities. In Sharla Peltiers article entitled, First Nations English Dialects in Young Children: Assessment Issues and Supportive Intervention, she stresses the importance of not penalizing a student for exhibiting features of indigenized English. She goes on to explain that different English variations that display such features is what allows Aboriginal peoples to communicate within their cultural community (Peltier, 2009). Moreover, it is explained that indigenized Englishes have become, to a certain extent, the only remaining trace of Aboriginal language (Ball, 2008). These dialects of English that exhibit indigenized

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

features, such as: differing vowel pronunciation, grammar differences (gender ambiguity), vocabulary differences and discourse structure variations (in terms of narrative and sequencing) (Helt & Blair, 1993). Specifically in Coreys case, the differences between him and his classmates in a mainstream classroom are not only linguistic, but rather cultural and linguistic. Spielmann (1998) conducted a research that analyzed the properties of everyday communication in Ojibway societies and he found that storytelling, humour, and conversational teasing were relevant in Aboriginal peoples oral tradition. Knowing that there are similarities between all indigenous languages, it is important that Corey spends time in the mainstream classroom, instead of being pulled out for EAL sessions because Coreys Cree background affects how he participates in the mainstream classroom. There are certain social discourse rules, including the use of silence, listening and observing versus speaking and demonstrating knowledge, that affect Aboriginal students participation in the classroom. It is important for Corey to remain in the classroom to observe how his classmates use English to be successful. He should not be shunned by his Cree tendencies, but instead he should be explicitly taught how to, in a way, code-switch, between Indigenous-specific social discourse and the social discourses that are present in his grade three classroom. Ball, Berdhert and Deby (2005) explain that changing the way a child sounds and interacts in conversation can alienate a child from their community (p. 6). And this is the last thing we want to do for Corey. Although Standard English is useful and often times dictates how successful a child may be academically, it is equally important that the child remains successful and an integral part of their community. Because Corey is already a fluent speaker of English and Cree, the focus of Coreys teacher should be maintaining his Cree and not to worry so much about standardizing

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

his variation of English. Usable bilingualism is important to his success as a student in school and as a member of his discourse community. Furthermore, pull-out EAL programs are inappropriate for Indigenous students who are bilingual in English and Aboriginal language because such programs are intended to quickly assimilate students into the mainstream culture (Westernoff, 1994). Our focus, however, as Coreys teacher, is to help him learn to be successful in the classroom and at home. This is the premise of our assessment: to provide Corey with the tools to effectively master Standard English as well as steadily develop his Cree language. Hall, Cheng and Carlson (2006) conducted research and concluded that the benefits of quality and variety in communicative contexts create a multi-contextual communicative expert (p. 233). Basically, this type of learner will acquire the skills to code-switch between languages and become an expert at knowing when and where language is best utilized. Learning to codeswitch based on where the student is (at school or at home) and whom the student is interacting with (a community member, peer, or educator) is an essential skill that bidialectal Indigenous students need. Lambert (1975) explains that this gradual and fluid switching between maintains an Indigenous persons identity while bridging the gap between living in two very different worlds, so to speak. Moreover, as educators and speech language pathologists who value students with more than one language, it is important that the classroom environment nurtures the understanding between written and spoken English. This will ensure that all students gain an appreciation for the differences in English variations, and consequently, should instill in students a deeper understanding and tolerance to differences in present day English (Epstein & Xu, 2003).

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

Cultural Considerations Language and culture are two aspects that are inseparable. Both of these factors are necessary to instill identity to its fullest sense. Corey is a fluent speaker of both Cree and English. For Corey, both his teachers and parents need to work together to nurture his Cree language, while helping him to develop Standard English. As a speaker of the Cree language, and being in a school system that strongly enforces the use of Standard English, it is Coreys right to maintain his Cree language. Coreys language is a part of his identity, so it is very important that it is not lost. Many school systems tend to oppress First Nations languages. It is very important for schools to foster First Nations languages, rather than marginalizing them and the people who speak them. Schools should incorporate all cultures into their classroom, as there are many different backgrounds and cultures that children can come from. Coreys teacher should not only embrace the Cree culture, but they should also incorporate other cultures into their teaching. Although it is important for Corey to be able to communicate strongly in English, it is also crucial that he continues to embrace his culture and his language. Corey has to maintain his ability to communicate in Cree, as his grandparents only speak in Cree. It is vital for Corey to continue using his Cree language, both at home and at school, so that he will not lose the language. Rather than encouraging Corey to speak only English at school and trying to change his linguistic practices, his teachers should respect his use of English rather than trying to change the way he speaks. It is important for Coreys school, and his community, to collaborate to strengthen the sense of identity and work towards protecting all languages in the school system and the community.

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

Community and Parental Support Community involvement is essential for Coreys linguistic development. Volunteers in the community, such as elders and storytellers, would illustrate the acceptance of his own language and culture in the classroom, and would envelope his peers in the Indigenous culture. Moreover, the use of historical artifacts and games could enrich other students learning about the culture. One essential aspect of this approach is to include other students cultures as well to avoid othering Coreys culture and alienating him among his peers. In addition, parental involvement in the school and Coreys learning is also very important. Teachers and parents must communicate with each other on the progress of the child and share any concerns that either may have. Coreys family must continue using their Cree language at home and nurture their language and culture, but they also have to support Coreys learning and development of English. It is important that Coreys parents understand that they should embrace their language and continue to use it. Coreys teachers and parents must agree on the language goal that they wish Corey to achieve. Coreys parents must enforce their Cree language at home in balance with the cultural community. Referrals Coreys current linguistic situation implies that his development is not affecting his language. His written and spoken Indigenized English simply involves an accent that is common for many First Nations dialects. Because this accent is present, it deters from his actual linguistic ability; the accent detected in his Indigenized English dialect could be misinterpreted as a lower level of comprehension in classroom ELA classes. As long as Corey continues to develop fluency in both Cree and English, there is no reason to continue extra sessions in the resource room. This would require a wait and see approach to allow Corey to develop his Standard

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

English with the rest of his peers, while allowing him to also develop and utilize his Cree at home. This approach would not alienate Corey, at such a young age, from his peers and would allow him to develop with other grade three students. Developing a fluency in both English and Cree is a necessary approach to ensure Coreys cultural heritage is intact while developing an understanding of English. Testing, since he has already been tested and referred to specialists, would be unnecessary. Coreys language is simply developing with an accent from his First Nations heritage. Allowing Corey to participate in regular ELA sessions with his peers would enrich his experiences in the English language in school. This would be beneficial for his English development because he would be able to listen to other students while reading and speaking, and could receive help while writing in Standard English. After placing Corey back in regular ELA sessions, his development in English should increase along with his peers. Corey could be reassessed after some time in the ELA sessions to establish improvement in his language. His fluency in Cree can be assessed at home with frequent practice through oral and written language. Fluency in both languages would allow him to assess situations in which Indigenized English is appropriate versus situations in which Standard English is appropriate. This knowledge will help to develop his code-switching abilities, and could be assessed through conversations with different peers, authoritative figures, and community members. Pedagogical Considerations Corey must continue to develop Standard English; however, it is important not to devalue Coreys First Nation English Dialect (FNED). Furthermore, the Aboriginal English dialect is key in supporting his identity and it creates important ties to his cultural community. Therefore, it is important to continue to support, as well as encourage, development in Cree to reduce the

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

likelihood of language atrophy of his first language. According to Peltier, Aboriginal children speak their mother tongue at school are readily acknowledged as students learning English as a second language (2010). In addition, children who speak Aboriginal English dialects are also learning a new language, the standard form of English (Peltier, 2010). The Aboriginal child, such as Corey, will become bi-dialectal, thus learning to recognize which situations he should use Cree English dialect and Standard English. Learning Standard English is important for positive learning outcomes in an academic setting because typically children are expected to use Standard English language and speech patterns when they come to school. As the child is exposed to Standard English in the classroom, most do acquire this dialect as well (Peltier, 2011, p.128). However, it is not sufficient to simply immerse Corey into a classroom where Standard English is spoken, but the teacher must first assess him and subsequently explicitly teach the variations between the two dialects so that Corey will become proficient in code-switching. Code switching maintains the Aboriginal persons individual and social integrity and supports pragmatic and semantic bridges for living in two worlds (Peltier, 2010, p. 6). The world he encounters outside of the school where he can speak his home English and at school where he speaks school English, the language of the classroom. In assessing Corey, the teacher should be aware of the differences between FNED and Standard English in order to better assess Coreys struggles when communicating in Standard English. After an informal analysis, the teacher can structure the classroom and pedagogical activities that will help develop fluency in Standard English. Peltier (2011) identifies four areas of variance between FNED and Standard English: [First.] the omission of regular past tense verb marker ed or use of a past tense irregular form not used in Standard English (e.g. jamped for jumped). [Second,] substitution of gender pronouns (e.g., he/she, him her)[Third,] Aboriginal [people]

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

10

tend not to state the obvious[Fourth,] substitutions of there or here for a prepositional phrase may be frequent (e.g., Put the shoes there/ Put the shoes on the shelf under the stairs.) (p. 129) In addition to these features, FNED differs from Standard English in speech sounds and grammatical patterns. Students make substitutions between f/p, b/v, n/r, w/l; furthermore, certain consonants do not obviously contrast as strongly as in Standard English including p-b, d-t, k-g. ch-j, s-sh-z and consequently, the child may use this sound interchangeably (Peltier, p.129). These variations in FNED can manifest as difficulties in writing and spelling and reflect the phonology of FNED (Peltier, 2010, p. 131). Furthermore, Sterzuk (2008) suggests that teaching dialect speakers to read and write using the non-standard code, designing reading and writing programs to include additional steps for dialect speakers (p. 17) is an important aspect to teaching students with indigenized English. Peltier (2011) recommends that teachers create awareness of dialects by teaching the differences in naturally occurring contexts in the classroom environment beginning with developing direction-following abilities. Furthermore, classroom activities can include developing the use of gender pronouns and building Coreys phonetic inventory to include speech sounds of Standard English (p. 130). As Corey acquires Standard English skills and the ability to recognise when to use Cree dialect or Standard English, he will develop a further ability to code-switch. This ability to code-switch will scaffold between the FNED and Standard English; and therefore, enable Corey to use the knowledge he has about Cree and apply it to Standard English. Code switching emerges in the learning process. Peltier (2011) uses the therapeutic approach to assist students who use FNED to acquire Standard English at school. She suggests to gradually apply code-switching appropriately in different situations (p.131). The

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

11

therapeutic approach can be represented in concentric circles. The first circle (centre) represents the childs sound system; in Coreys case this is Cree FNED. The second circle represents classroom English; or rather Standard English, which is used in the classroom. The third circle is the increasing awareness between the two dialects. The fourth circle represents production practice. This is the practical application of the learned skills, which includes applying phonic, spelling and other reading and writing skills. The fifth circle represents purposeful use where opportunities are provided where the student practices and develops proficiency in codeswitching, with teacher reinforcement (p. 131). Classroom practice is required to develop the skill of code-switching. With these approaches in pedagogical programming integrated in the classroom, it is likely to see improvements in spelling, writing, and fluency. Assessments, that will be scheduled at a later date, should give some indication to the degree of improvement in Coreys academic performance, and whether or not a different approach should be considered. Classroom Environment The teacher must create a classroom environment, which is inviting and secure, where all cultures are openly accepted and treated equally. The teacher can display many different languages through posters or word walls where activities can be designed to help students observe the differences and similarities of all the languages represented in the classroom demographic. By representing every students culture, the class will feel a sense of belonging in the space. It would be favourable to invite parents and other community members into the classroom to help construct a word wall. Furthermore, fostering pride in each students cultural heritage and celebrating the diversity of each student in the class will decrease postcolonial influences that are often reinforced in Saskatchewans Eurocentric schools.

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

12

The classroom environment must also allow numerous opportunities for children to talk amongst themselves as well as with the teacher (Heath, 1983, p. 74). Verbal interactions with the teacher are necessary to reinforce any prior learning. Students should be encouraged to talk about their experiences and to tell stories. Moreover, storytelling is an essential cultural aspect of First Nations Cultures and it is in these verbal exchanges that the student will be able to practice what they have learned about using Standard English. However, it is also important not to correct students in the classroom if they use FNED pronunciations or grammatical forms during verbal interactions. Rather, the teacher should note the differences and provide modeling during other oral activities or games (Peltier, 2011, p.132). In addition to storytelling, games, and language activities can be incorporated into the daily routine, which also help develop oral language skills. Developing oral language skills in Standard English can only be achieved with intense and frequent occasions to practice the language that students have not acquired at home. In Coreys situation, the home and cultural environment supports the use of Cree and the Cree FNED; therefore, the classroom is where he will be able to practice the skills he is developing in Standard English. Classroom Activities Learning Circles Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development has responded to the growing need for elementary learning on First Nations reserves. The guide provides learning activities; however, Elder involvement is also encouraged. This PDF document includes six units; Unit 1 focuses on Storytelling, Unit 2: The Seasons, Unit 3: Sharing, Unit 4: Colours, Unit 5: Games, and Unit 6: Aboriginal Day. Unit 1: Storytelling, provides several examples of First Nations stories, which

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

13

can be told by an Elder or another individual. Activities can be designed around these stories, which will be able to bridge a cultural activity into the classroom where the teacher and students could find differences between languages. The document can be a good resource for Coreys teacher, who has limited knowledge about First Nations culture, to design classroom activities, which provides the students the chance to investigate differences as well as the opportunity to talk about the differences, thus creating awareness about the differences and similarities between FNED and Standard English (McCue, 2010). Please refer to the PDF document in the annex section for the complete unit plans. Literacy Development Literacy development is important in any classroom; however, as previously mentioned, studies show that FNED speakers tend to lag behind and exhibit difficulties in writing and spelling; therefore, teachers need to create a space that fosters literacy development. Gail Boushey and Joan Moser have created a program called The Daily 5, Fostering Literacy Independence in the Elementary Grades. The Daily Five compliments Peltiers (2011) recommendations in using the Therapeutic Approach in practical applications for spelling, reading, and writing, as well as providing opportunity for talk (Peltier, p.131). Furthermore, The Daily 5 has been used successfully in ESL classrooms (Boushey & Moser, 2006, p. 102). Its successes can be attributed to the adaptability of the program to all students in the class. In addition to its adaptability, the Daily 5 includes explicit instruction on pedagogical material as well as what expectations are for student behaviour during The Daily 5 activities. For example, students are taught how to transition from one area of the classroom to the other, typically it is modeled by students, one student who demonstrates the correct way to behave and one student who demonstrates an incorrect way to behave. The reason for modeling the two behaviours is

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

14

that the visual helps the student who may have difficulty following oral instructions by supporting it with a visual example, which can be helpful for an EAL student of a student who may not be socialized to classroom environments. Once demonstrated, students are then given the opportunity to practice with positive feedback from the teacher about what they did well. The Daily 5 is an in depth program and beyond the scope of this case study; however, it is strongly encouraged that the teacher uses this resource to develop a literacy program that can support FNED English learners. The routine is briefly explained by describing each of the five steps. First, The Daily 5 spends a great deal of time creating and practicing classroom routines and creating a healthy classroom culture. A sense of community provides members with the ownership to hold others accountable for behaviors of effort, learning, order, and kindness, (Boushey & Moser, 2006, p. 21) and if a student is disrupting others during their work time, the community will join together to encourage, support, and hold this child accountable for his or her learning behaviour (p. 22). A gathering place is necessary where instructions and discussions take place. Then students are provided with a book box where they keep the books they have chosen, but the books must be developmentally appropriate or good-fit book. A Good-fit book is a book that the child can read with 99% accuracy, because books that are too difficult for the reader increase off-task behaviour, whereas a good-fit book is empowering and encourages the student to read (Boushey & Moser, 2006, p.29). The books in the book boxes are changed weekly and can therefore reflect the changing interests of the student at times the teacher may choose to include additional books into the box to stimulate other interests. The first step is Read to Self, this is simply reading to ones self, quietly and on task in an area in the class which has been chosen by the student. Prior to reading to self the teacher explains three ways to read a book, read and talk about the pictures, read the words, and retell a

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

15

previously read book. In Read to Self, the teacher is free to circulate in the room to make observations or to sit with a student for some one on one time with the teacher. The Read to Self lessons are taught over the period of approximately one week and increasing the minutes of Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) until students can successfully read for thirty minutes (Boushey & Moser, 2006, p. 63). The second step, EEKK, is an acronym for Elbow, Elbow, Knee, Knee. In EEKK, students learn how to sit closely together with elbows and knees touching, so that they are sitting close together to read to each other. This sitting arrangement allows partners to look on and read the same book if they choose (Boushey & Moser, 2006, p. 63) Boushey & Moser (2006) explain, this second strategy is especially useful when working on fluency. The more fluent readers read first and the less fluent readers follows. This allows for the less fluent reader to hear the pace, intonation, and correct words so they can read like their partners (Boushey & Moser, p. 63). Students can also read different books, reading to one another, where after reading discussions take place between the students to check for understanding. Once again, the conversations will give the FNED language speaker a chance to practice the Standard English dialect in the classroom. EEKK, like read to self, is taught over a week and students are given explicit instructions and modeling so they can learn visually and apply it in the practice time. The third step is Listen to Reading, this is where students listen to someone else read. Typically this is done in the listening centre with audio books. However, Bushey and Moser (2006) explain how children come to [school] with varying backgrounds and levels of family support it necessary to provide the lap time that many of our children have missed out on. Parent and grandparent volunteers or even older reading buddies may help fill this deficit for

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

16

children who have missed the auditory support (Boushey & Moser, p. 75). Listening to Reading allows students to hear stories from a book that may have otherwise been too difficult. The fourth step is Work on Writing and Word Work, this step like the others can be easily adapted to the level of the student. Work can be used to investigate the differences between FNED and Standard English or to practice writing and spelling skills in many different ways and materials. Older children may choose to keep journals, whereas a student who struggles with writing may choose to just copy words they see on posters displayed in the classroom. Some materials suggested are: whiteboards, magnetic letters, Wikki Stix, clay, letter stamps, and coloured markers (Boushey & Moser, 2006, p.87). The fifth and final step is putting it all together. Students are free to choose the way they would like to spend their time in the literacy block, which can last anywhere from 30 to 45 minutes, depending on the age of the children and their ability. Children choose their activity, but they are expected to stay on task for the duration. Once the routines are well established, children work independently, thus liberating the teacher for time to work one-on-one with a student or a small group of students. One-on-one time with students is important to assess development as well as to plan programming which meets the needs of each individual student. Conclusion Through different teaching mechanisms and classroom enrichment, Corey would be able to maintain and enrich his Cree fluency while continuing to develop his Standard English. The sources noted describe the benefits of First Nations language and Indigenized English. As stated earlier, it has cultural benefits with relation to his family and among First Nations peers. His English development will be beneficial in our current society, where Standard English is still highly ranked. Corey will need the tools to develop his code-switching abilities, as well as his

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

17

Cree and English knowledge and fluency. By consistently practicing Cree at home, and Standard English in the classroom, he will continuously learn both languages in depth, and experience both languages. By adding cultural knowledge, games, and artifacts about all cultures in the classroom, he will be able to gain an understanding about languages similar and different to his own, as well as avoid alienation from his peers. Participating in regular ELA sessions will help Corey become part of the class, rather than separated due to his language use, and therefore will create an enriching environment for his continued learning at a regular pace. With the termination of resource sessions in EAL, Corey would benefit from a reassessment after a year of immersion in the mainstream classes to determine if his language development is consistent with non-First Nations students. His Cree language development would be difficult to assess without exceptional knowledge of the language. In contrast, his ability to code-switch between his Indigenized English and Standard English would be clearly visible and could be evaluated in different situations in the classroom and playground.

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

18

References

Ball, J., & Bernhardt, B. M. (2008). First Nations English dialects in Canada; Implications for speech-language pathology, Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 22(8), 570-588. Retrieved from http://www.ecdip.org/docs/pdf/Dialects%20Clinical%20Linguis tics %20article.pdf

Ball, J., Bernhardt, B., & Deby, J. (2005). Implications of First Nations English dialects for supporting childrens language development. Retrieved from http://dspace.library.uvic.c a:8080/bitstream/handle/1828/1440/WIPCE%2520Dialectics%2520Paper2006.pdf? sequence=1

Boushey, G. & Moser, J. (2006). The Daily 5: Fostering literacy independence in the elementary grades. Portland: Stenhouse Publishers.

Epstein, R.I., & Xu, L. X. J. (2003). Roots and wings: Teaching English as a second dialect to Aboriginal students: A review of the literature, 1-47. Unpublished manuscript, University of Saskatchewan.

Hall, J.K., Cheng, A., & Carlson, M.T. (2006). Reconceptualizing multicompetence as a theory of language knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 220-240.

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

19

Heath, Shirley Brice. (2002). A lot of talk about nothing. In Miller Power, Brenda & Hubbard, Ruth Shagoury (Eds.). Language Development: A reader for teachers (pp. 74-79). Saddle River, N.J. Merrill Prentice Hall. (Reprinted from A lot of talk about nothing, 6(8) pp.3948, by S. B. Heath, 1983 the National Council of Teachers of English)

Heit, M., & Blair, H. (1993). Language needs and characteristics of Saskatchewan Indian and Mtis students: Implications for educators. In S. Morris, K. McLeod, & M. Danesi (Eds.), Languages and learning: Aboriginal and heritage language education in Canada (pp. 103-128). Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press.

Lambert, W.E. (1975). Culture and language as factors in learning and education. In A. Wolfgang (ed.), Education of immigrant students. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

McCue, Harvey, 2010. The learning Circle. Classroom Activities on First Nations in Canada. Retrieved from http://www.aadncaandc.gc.ca/eng/1316530132377/1316530184659#un1

Peltier, S. (2010). Facilitating Language Literacy Learning for Students with Aboriginal English Dialects. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 32, 114-55.

Peltier, S. (2011, June). First Nations English DialectsAlive and Well. Queens University Strathy Guest Collumn. Retrieved from http://www.queensu.ca/strathy/Blog/gu est/Peltier.html#sharla.

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS ENGLISH AND STANDARD ENGLISH

20

Peltier, S. (2011). Providing culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate services. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology. (35)2, 127-34.

Peltier, S. (2009). First Nations English dialects in young children: Assessment issues and supportive interventions. Encyclopedia of Language and Literacy Development, 1-10. Retrieved from http://www.literacyencyclopedia.ca/pdfs/topic.php?topld=276

Spielmann, R.W. (1998). Youre so fat! Exploring Ojibwe discourse. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

Sterzuk, A. (2008). Whose English counts? Indigenous English in Saskatchewan Schools. McGill Journal of Education, 43(1), 9-19.

Westernoff, F. (1994). L1 loss: Implications for speech and language assessment. JSLPA, 18(3), 163-168.