EE 204 Lecture 26 The Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

The RMS Value of a Periodic Function of Time:

The RMS [Root Mean Square] value of the periodic function f (t ) is defined as:
to +T

f rms =

t
o

f 2 (t )dt T
= [ f 2 (t )]avg

The RMS value is also called the effective value f eff = f rms

Example 1:
Find the average and effective (rms) values of the sawtooth waveform.

Solution:
By inspection Yav = 25
2 For the interval 0 < t < 2, y = 25t ; then Yrms =

1 T 2 1 2 y dt = 625t 2 dt = 834, and T 0 2 0

Yrms = 28.9

Example 2: Find the average and effective (rms) values of the waveform shown.
y
10

t[s]
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Solution: For 0 < t < 0.01, y = 10; For 0.01 < t < 0.03, y = 0; the period is 0.03s 1 0.01 10(0.01) 10dt = Yav = = 3.33 0.03 0 0.03 1 0.01 2 2 and Yrms 10 dt = 33.3 therefore Yrms = 5.77 = 0.03 0

The RMS Value of the General Sinusoidal Function:

Let us find the RMS value of the general sinusoidal function f (t ) = A cos(t + )

f rms = [ f 2 (t )]avg = [ A2 cos 2 (t + )]avg = [ A2

1 + cos(2t + 2 ) ]avg 2

f rms = f rms =

A A [1 + cos(2t + 2 )]avg = [1]avg + [cos(2t + 2 )]avg 2 2 A 1+ 0 2

A 2

[because the average value of a general sinusoid equals zero]

f rms =

The R.M.S. value is commonly used in sinusoidal circuits. For instance, the sinusoidal voltage v(t ) = V cos(t + v )

Has the R.M.S. value Vrms =

V 2

The value V represents the peak voltage And the value Vrms = V represents the R.M.S. voltage 2

Similarly, the sinusoidal current i(t ) = I cos(t + i )

Has a peak current I and an R.M.S. current I rms =

I 2

Household voltage varies sinusoidally in time. The commonly used 120 V household voltage is actually an R.M.S measure, it is not a measure of the peak voltage. This means that if the outlets at a certain household provide 120 V (actually 120 V (rms ) ), then:

120 V (rms)

V = 120 2 = 169.71  170 V (peak voltage)

Figure 1

We shall use the units V (rms) & I (rms ) when the R.M.S. measure is used.

Example 1:

The outlets at a certain household provide 110 V (rms ) at 60 Hz. Write an expression for the voltage v(t ) supplied by those outlets. Assume the phase angle to be zero.

Solution: v(t ) = V cos(t + v ) = V cos(t + 0) = V cos t

V = Vrms 2 = 110 V (rms ) 2 = 155.56 V

= 2 f = 2 60 = 120 = 376.991  377 [rad / s ]

v(t ) = 155.56 cos 377t V (supply voltage as a function of time)

Power Expressions in terms of the R.M.S. Voltage and Current:

The power expressions must be revised when R.M.S. values are used. For instance, the average power expression P = 1 IV cos 2

Can be rewritten as P = (

I V )( ) cos = I rmsVrms cos 2 2

The expression P = I rmsVrms cos , which assumes R.M.S. values for the voltage and 1 current does not have the factor of . 2 Similarly, when R.M.S. values of the voltage and current are used, we must drop the 1 factor from the expressions for the reactive power, apparent power and the 2 complex power. Thus:

P=

1 IV cos 2 1 IV sin 2 1 IV 2 1 I V 2

P = I rmsVrms cos Q = I rmsVrms sin S = I rmsVrms

S = I rms Vrms

(average power)

Q=

(reactive power)

S=

(apparent power)

S=

(complex power)

It is important to keep in mind that the values of the above powers remain the same, whether we use peak values or R.M.S. values. There is no such thing as R.M.S. power. This measure applies only to voltages and currents.

Example 2:

For the load impedance Z , calculate: a) the load current I b) the complex power c) the average and the reactive powers d) the current i (t ) as a function of time if the source frequency is 50 Hz.

I
VS = 220 0o

Z = 15 60o

Figure 2

Solution: a) The supply voltage Vs = 220 0o V (rms ) is clearly given in the R.M.S. measure.

I =

Vs 220 0o V (rms ) = = 14.667 60o A(rms ) Z 15 60o

[Since Vs is given in R.M.S. units I is also in R.M.S. units]

b) The voltage and current associated with the load Z Vs = 220 0o V (rms ) & I = 14.667 60o A(rms ) (both in R.M.S. units). Therefore, to we drop the factor 1 in all power expressions: 2

 S = I rms Vrms

S = (14.667 60o ) (220 0o ) = (14.667 +60o ) (220 0o )

S = 3226.74 +60o VA (the load complex power)

c) The load average and reactive powers can easily be obtained from S : P = Re( S ) = Re(3226.74 +60o ) = Re(1613.37 + j 2794.44) = 1613.37 W Q = Im( S ) = Im(1613.37 + j 2794.44) = 2794.44 VAR

d) Since I = 14.667 60o A(rms ) &

f = 50 Hz , then:

i(t ) = 14.667 2 cos(2 50t 60o ) = 20.742 cos(314.16t 60o ) A

I
VS = 220 0o

Z = 15 60o

Figure 2 Power Factor Correction:

The addition of a reactive element (capacitance or inductance) in parallel with the load in order to increase the power factor is known as power factor correction

Figure 3

When the load has a lagging pf, power factor correction is done by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the load.

Figure 4

When pf of the load is leading, power factor correction is done by connecting an inductor in parallel with the load.

Figure 5

There are a number of methods to carryout the power correction procedure. The most efficient approach utilizes the complex power.

Example 3:

The load has a power factor of 0.6 (lagging) and it absorbs 8 KW of average power when connected to the 220 0o V (rms ) , 60 Hz source. Calculate the capacitance C to be connected in parallel with this load so that the combined load has a pf of 0.90 (lagging).

IL
VS = 220 0o

VL

Figure 6 Solution:

Because the capacitor is connected to the load in parallel, the load voltage ( VL ) and current ( I L ) do not change. Therefore, the power absorbed by the load also does not change. The load average power PL = 8000 W The pf angle of the load L = + cos 1 (0.6) = 53.130o ( L > 0 due to the lagging pf)

IL
VS = 220 0o

VL

1 j C

Figure 7

Using the load power triangle:

tan L =

QL PL

tan 53.130o =

QL 8000

QL = 10666.67 VAR

Figure 8

Therefore, load the complex power is: S L = PL + jQL = 8000 + j10666.67 VA The capacitor does not absorb average power, therefore: The combined load average power Pcom = PL = 8000 W The pf angle of the combined load com = + cos 1 (0.9) = 25.842o

IL
VS = 220 0o

VL

1 j C

Figure 7

Using the combined load power triangle:

tan com = Qcom Pcom tan 25.842o = Qcom 8000 Qcom = 3874.58 VAR

Figure 9
Therefore, the combined load complex power: Scom = Pcom + jQcom = 8000 + j 3874.58 VA The combined load complex power ( Scom ) equals the sum of the load complex power ( S L ) and the capacitor complex power ( Sc ). Scom = S L + Sc Giving: Sc = (8000 + j 3874.58) (8000 + j10666.67) Sc = j 6792.09 = 6792.09 90o VA This result is to be expected, since the real part of capacitor complex power must be zero. (8000 + j 3874.58) = (8000 + j10666.67) + Sc

IL
VS = 220 0o
VL

1 j C

Figure 7

Sc = I cVc = 6792.09 90o

I c =

& Vc = Vs = 220 0o V (rms ) I c = 30.873 +90o = j 30.873 A(rms )

6792.09 90o = 30.873 90o A(rms ) 220 0o

1 j 2 fC = Vc Ic

V 1 = c jC I c

1 220 0o = j 2 60 C j 30.873

C=

30.873 = 3.722 104 F = 372.2 F 2 60 220

IC
VS = 220 0o

VC

1 j C

Figure 10 Example 4:
The load has a power factor of 0.7 (lagging). It absorbs 5 KW of average power when connected to the120 0o V (rms ) , 60 Hz source. a) Calculate the capacitance C to be connected in parallel with this load so that the combined load has a unity pf. b) Calculate the magnitude of the current supplied by the voltage source before and after power factor correction.

I
VS = 120 0o

Figure 11 Solution:
a) The same procedure will be used to calculate the value of C.

L = + cos 1 (0.7) = 45.557o

VS = 120 0o

IC
VC

1 j C

Figure 12
QL = 5000 tan 45.557o = 5098.17 VAR

Figure 13
S L = PL + jQL = 5000 + j 5098.17 VA The combined load has pf = 1 (unity pf) com = 0 Therefore, the combined load is purely resistive. We know that a purely resistive impedance has zero reactive power. Thus:

Scom = Pcom + jQcom = Pcom + j 0 = Pcom

Since the combined load average power equals the load average power, then: Scom = Pcom = PL = 5000 VA Scom = S L + Sc 5000 = (5000 + j 5098.17) + Sc

Sc = j 5098.17 = 5098.17 90o VA Sc = I cVc = 5098.17 90o I c = & Vc = Vs = 120 0o V (rms ) I c = 42.485 +90o = j 42.485 A(rms )

5098.17 90o = 42.485 90o A(rms ) 120 0o

1 120 0o = j 2 60 C j 42.485

V 1 = c jC I c

C=

42.485 = 939.12 F 2 60 120

IC
VS = 120 0o
[V] rms

+
VC

Load
5 kW p.f.=0.7 lagging
Figure 12

f=60Hz

1 j C

b) Before pf correction, the supply current equals the load current: Is = IL Using PL = I LVL cos L

5000 = I L120 0.7 I L = I s = 59.514 A(rms )

IS
VS = 120 0o

IL

Figure 14
After pf correction, the supply current does not equal the load current, because: I s = I L + Ic Using Pcom = I comVcom cos com = I sVs cos com I s = 41.667 A(rms )

5000 = I s 120 1 Thus: I s = 59.514 A(rms )

(before pf correction)

I s = 41.667 A(rms ) (after pf correction) We can see that when the pf is raised from 0.7 to unity, the supply current drops In practice, pf correction is done in order to reduce the supply current I s

IS
VS = 120 0o

IL

IC
1 j C

Figure 15

Household and industrial voltages are supplied by electric power companies. The generators at a power company are connected to the users using transmission lines. In this simplified diagram, Vs represents the generator voltage.

A practical transmission line has a nonzero resistance R This nonzero resistance results in electric power loss in the transmission line, because
2 PR = I R R = I s2 R

By increasing the pf of the load, I s is reduced resulting in reduced PR . The power company will save money in this case.

IS
VS VL

Figure 16

When the load has a leading pf, a similar procedure can be used for pf correction. However, an inductive reactance must be connected in parallel with the load.