J. Soc. Cosmet.Chem.

21 483-500 (1970)

t970 Society of Cosmetic Chemists of GreatBritain

The effectof glidant additionon the

flowabilityof bulk particulate solids

T. M. JONES*
Presented at the symposium on "Powders",organisedby the Pharmaceutical Societyof Ireland and the Societyof Cosmetic Chemistsof Great Britain, at Dublin, on 17th April 1969.

SynopsisSystems where the GLIDANT is chemically similar or dissimilar to the bulk SOLID are discussed,and it is shown that glidant efficiency is dependent upon the PARTICLE SIZE of both coarse and fine component and the diameter of the ORIFICE through which material is discharged. The improvement in FLOWABILITY of fine
POWDERS on admixture with coarse material is also outlined.

It is suggested that glidants may act by one or more of the following mechanisms;reduction of interparticulate friction, change in surface rugosity, separation of coarse particles, reduction of liquid or solid bridging, and minimising static charge.

INTRODUCTION

In compressing coarse granularsolids,lubricantsare addedto reduce friction betweenthe punches and dies.In addition,somelubricantsprevent the adhesion of powderparticlesto the punchfacesand thesehave been termedanti-adherents. The term glidant was first introduced by Munzel (1) to describe those agentswhich addedin small amountsimprove the flow characteristics of granulations.Now many handlingprocesses are concerned with the discharge of material from hoppers.In the compression of granules, however, the flow of bulk solidsis further controlledby feed frames and

hoppershoes so that flow into the die cavity is uniformlymaintained.It

*Department of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham.
483

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JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

has been suggested thereforethat the definitionof a glidant must include flow under theseconditions(2). Several methods have been employed to assessthe effect of glidant addition on flowability and these include rotational viscometry (3), angular characteristics (4-6), and gravity discharge from modelhoppers (7, 8). Whilst someof thesetests are of limited applicationin the quantitative assessment of flowability (5, 9) they give an indication of possible effects of glidant addition. A more practical approach has been to investigate tablet weight variation (2, 10). From the reported resultsit is possible to distinguishbetweentwo types of glidants:1. Materials chemicallysimilar to the bulk solids to which they are
added.

2. Materials chemicallydissimilarto the bulk solidsto whichthey are

added.

It has also been shownthat it is possible to improve the flowability of fine powdersby the addition of thesetwo categories of glidants (11) and it is suggested that this may be anotherdivisionof their classification (12). The way in which thesematerialsimprovethe flowability of bulk solidsvaries according to the material used. It is necessary thereforefirs fly to outline the effectsproducedby the various types of glidant and then discuss the suggested mechanisms of action.
GLIDANTS ADDED TO GRANULAR SOLIDS

Before the effect of glidant addition can be assessed it is useful to understand the problems that may be encounteredin the handling of granularsolids.It is now well established that when considering the gravity discharge of a bulk solid, the rate of flow increases as the particle sizeis reduceduntil a size is reachedbelow which flow becomes impaired by the action of interparticulate forces.Furthermore, it is generally acceptedthat difficultiesmay arise in flowability when the material is reducedin size to lesstfian 1509m. Table I lists someof the critical particle sizesbelowwhich flow impairment has been reported. It can be seen that this critical size varies accordingto the particular material investigated. It may be that problemsof flowability could be reducedby a judiciouschoice of particle size. However, it is often impracticable to use monosizedsystems.Furthermore, it may be desirable to include fine material in a blend, e.g. the

EFFECT OF GLIDANT ADDITION

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

485

Table

The particle size of bulk solids below which impaired flow occurs
Estimated critical Method of assessment

Material
Silica sand
Quartz sand
Sodium chloride Sodium carbonate Citric acid

particle size (gm)

204
150 150 35O 150

Source
(25)

offlowability
Flow through orifice

N-cyclohexyl 2benzothiazole-

sulphenamide
Strontium Acetanilide Ballotini
Lactose

nitrate

175 4OO 35O <5O

120 250

(26)

Slide down a roughened inclined plane

Flow through orifice

(27) (28) Flow through orifice

Light magnesia
Heavy magnesia

158 250 300 300 < 200 250 150-300 100-250

Quartz sand
Glass beads Sand Griseofulvin
Lactose

(29) (3O)
(31)

Flow through funnel

Flow through orifice

Static angle of repose

Angular characteristics

Sodium borate Boric acid

(32) (33) (34) (35)

Calcium gluconate
Coal

250
lOO
4OO

Flow through orifices

Angle of repose Angle of repose

Sulphathiazole

presence of 'fines' in a tablet granulationand in these casesthe addition of a flow-aid suchas a glidant shouldbe considered.
The additionof glidant material of similar chemical
constitution to the bulk solid

When fine particles of size less than the optimum for flowability are
added to a bulk solid of similar chemical constitution there is often an

improvement in the rate of flow through an orifice (7-9). The effect is demonstrated in Fig. 1 for systems of heavy grademagnesia. The improvement is dependentupon the size and concentrationof the fine particles;

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JOURNALOF THE SOCIETYOF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

1400

1200

iooo

8OO

6OO

4oo
0

20

40

60

80

I00

% w/w

odded fine powder

Figure 1 The effect of size and concentration of fine particles on the flow rate of magnesia (851 gm) through a circular hopper orifice 11.4 mm diameter.

the smaller the particlesthe lower the concentration requiredto produce an increasein flow but not necessarily a greater flow rate. The effect has alsobeenshownfor lactose(TableII).
Table II

The effect of size and concentration of fine lactose particles on the flowability of lactose granules (1 242gm). Results interpreted from (7).
Arithmetic micrometres mean size in of added fine

particles
626
335 213 163 111 -74

Estimated percentage fine material required to produce optimum flow

Indeterminate 75 50
40 25 15

Rate of flow at optimum

Rate of flow of plain granule

1.15 1.32 1.38 1.44 1.38 1.19

The concentration of fine material that is required to producea flow rate maximum is, however,stronglydependent upon the orificediameter of the hopper;the requiredconcentration of glidant increases as the orifice

EFFECT OF GLIDANT ADDITION

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

487

size decreases. It has been shown that these variables

can be related

in an

empirical equation (12).

71p.m

71p.m

253p. m

Do 0.60.3 cm

851p. m 253pm 71p.m

Do = 0.740 cm

851p. m

600 -60

Flow rates, g min-I 7oo-8o

/ / ,,,oo-oo/<oo
2531J, m 711m I)o=0,898 r.m 851p, m 71p. m

,',o-:.:C,<' .%-

--,-

Figure 2 The effect of orificediameter (Do) on the flow rate of multicomponent mixtures of magnesia.Flow rates in g min-t

A similar improvementin flowability occurswhen fine material is addedto binary mixturesof coarse components. Againthe particlesizeof

the fine component is an important variable in determining the optimum

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JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

flow conditions.Fig. 2 illustrates the effect of orifice diameter on flow rate in ternary mixturesand it can be seenthat as the orificesizeincreases, the percentage finesrequired to produceoptimum flow decreases. In compression processes, gravity dischargethrough orifices studies are of limited value sinceit is the die filling capacity of the formulation which is the important parameter. It has been shownthat theseparticle
Table III

Glidants reported to have been added to bulk solids.

Glidant Concentration

Bulk

solid

Material

for optimum

flowability
% w/w
0.5

Material arithmetic Source

mean size

Approx.

Method of assessmenl

offlowability

(gm)
Lactose Lactose S.D. LactoseAspirin
Calcium

up to 3
Talc 1

950 -> -149 805 -177

541
541

(7) (8) (5)

Flow through orifice Flow through orifice Angle of reposeand flow through orifice

No improvement

sulphate

No improvement up to 4
0.5

(1) (39)
Sulphathiazole

213 950 --> -149

-177 541 541

(35) (7)
(5)

Angle of repose Flow through orifice

Angle of reposeand flow through orifice

up to 1 No improvement

Lactose
S.D.

Starch

Lactose No improvement Aspirin Calcium No improvement sulphate Various 5 delayed flow tablet
diluents

(40)

Vibrating funnel

No improvement
0.5 0.25 0.25

Lactose
S.D.

950 --> -149 -177 541 541 335 163

(7) (5)

Flow through orifice Angle of reposeand flow through orifice

Lactose Aspirin
Calcium

Magnesium
stearate

0.25-1
No improvement

sulphate Sulphathiazole
Various

No improvement Delayed flow

(35) (1)
(40)

Angle of repose
Vibrating funnel

tablet
diluents

Delayed flow
Polyethylene glycol 4000

tablet '
diluents

(40) Vibrating funnel

(1)

Improved flow

EFFECT OF GLIDANT ADDITION

Table

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

489

III--continued

Glidants reported to have been added to bulk solids.

Bulk solid

Glidant

Concentration Material

Approx.
Material arithmetic
mean size

Method

of assessment

for optimum flowability %

of flowability

(m)

Calcium

Improved flow
20

phosphate
Fly ash
Microcell
Ottawa sand
Ottawa sand

711

Flow through orifice

3.6

711

Flow through orifice

Hall flowmeter

Zinc stearate

0.5

Sponge
Iron

Lithium stearate

0.25

Sponge
Iron

Hall

flowmeter

Calcium
stearate

Lactose sponge
iron

0.25

Hall

flowmeter

Aluminium stearate

Delayed flow
0.25

Various tablet diluents

Vibrating funnel
Hall flowmeter

Sponge
iron Thermo-

Calcium silicate

plastic
Powder
0.5 0.25 Lactose

Fumed silica

Aspirin
S.D. Lactose Calcium

950 -+ -149 541

-177

No improvement No improvement
0.1-0.5

Flow through orifice Angle of repose and flow through orifice

dioxide

sulphate
Micro-

541

Pyrogenie
silica

crystalline
cellulose

Tablet weight
variation

S.D. Egg yolk

01-0.5 Silicoaluminate
Micro-

crystalline
cellulose

Tablet weight
variation

S.D. egg yolk

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JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

sizedistributioneffectsare relevant to the tabletting process (8, 13) and that providedsegregation is not significant the presence of a large quantity of fine material is not necessarily unacceptable (14).
Addition of materialof dissimilarchemical constitution to the bulk solid In somecases, even thoughan optimum particle sizeand size distribution is achieved, the bulk solidmay still not possess the desired flow properties. Furthermore, it may be that a monosizedsystemis required by a specification. In thesecircumstances a material chemically dissimilar to the bulk can be added to improve flowability. In this context it has been reported that the inclusion of lubricants in a tablet granulation may improve or impair its flow properties(1). The literature containsmany different types of material that have been usedas glidantsin this categoryand TableIII summaries someof these. It is obviousthat the glidantsdiffer not only in chemical properties but also in their physical characteristics such as size, frictional properties, crystalline structure and density. It can alsobe seenthat the concentration of glidant varies with the material to which it is added and that in some casesthere is some doubt as to their efficiencyin improving the flow propertiesof the bulk solid.In order to explain theseapparentanomalies in glidant efficiency a preliminarystudy has beencarriedout usinga model
system.

Fig. $ illustrates the effect of particle shape and concentrationof glidant on the flow rate of mixtures of magnesiumstearate with lactose. The lactosewas granulatedwith 15% w/v PVP in 50% alcoholand the variation in shape produced by passing coarse equidimensionallactose granulesthrough a dry granulator so that fracture occurred. It is clearthat for both particle forms, the rate of flow is improvedby the addition of magnesium stearate (-66m) up to a limiting concentration of glidant. Abovethis concentration (between 0.25 and 1%) flow rate is not significantlychangeduntil an excessive amount of glidant is added. At the lower concentration,the resultsare in goodagreementwith those of Gold, Duvall, Palermoand Slater (7) but theseauthorsreport the results of investigations usingonly one orificediameter. Table VI presentsthe data of the present investigationin terms of a glidant efficiency factor f where f = Rate of flow in presence of glidant Rate of flow in absenceof glidant

EFFECT OF GLIDANT ADDITION

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

491

900

--

800 --

Y' 600 -50C L

400
00

200 'mm mmm/m

I 00
o 2

I0

12

/o w/w magnesium stearate

Figure $

The effect of magnesiumstearate 66pro (-230 mesh) on the flow rate of lactose 951gin (14/22 mesh) granules.
Orifice diameter 8.67mm 11.58mm
12.62mm

Particle shape Regular Irregular []

It can be seenthat the efficiencyof magnesiumstearate decreases as the

orifice size increases.

Furthermorea closer inspection of thesesystems(Fig. t) suggests that the optimum glidant concentrationis also dependent upon orifice size, i.e. a situation analogousto the addition of fine to coarse matehal of
similar chemical constitution.

This couldoffersomeexplanationof the apparentdisagreement between the reported effectsof the useof magnesium stearateas a glidant in tablet-

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JOURNAL OFTHE SOCIETY OFCOSMETIC CHEMISTS

Table IV

The efficiency of magnesiumstearate (-66[tm) as a glidant whenadmixed with lactose (951 gm --14/22 mesh)
Orifice

diameter (mm)

Shape of granules
0.25

f value

Glidant concentration % w/w

0.5 1.157 1.151 1.078 0.75 1.133 1.117 1.038 1.0 1.151 1.116 1.066 2.0 1.181 1.105 1.016 4.0 1.163 1.162 1.062 8.0 1.309 1.229 1.184

8.67

11.58
12.62 8.67

Regular

1.098 1.093 1.095

11.58 12.62

Irregular

1.112 1.085 1.062

1.205 1.103 1.061

1.175 1.118 1.076

1.177 1.138 1.081

1.195 1.123 1.081

1.185 1.148 1.121

1.347 1.226 1.205

ting sincein some publishedreports magnesiumstearate is claimed to improve the flow rate of granuleswhereasother authors maintain that it hasno glidantproperties (1, 7, 10).The orificediameters usedin the laboratory assessments are comparatively small when considering thoseused in manufacturingplants and thereforedifferences may be expectedin the efficiency of any particular concentrations of glidant.
GLIDANTS ADDED TO FINE POWDERS

The removal of superfineand ultrafine powder from fine and granular powdersoften improvestheir flow properties.Farley and Valentin (15) have demonstrated the effect of particle size distribution on the cohesion and tensilestrengthfor a number of inorganicmaterials and from their resultsit can be seenthat the cohesion of a bulk solidmay be significantly reducedby careful control of the sizerangeof the material. In some cases, however, it may not be possible to vary the sizedistribution of the material. It has been reported that the addition of coarse granular solids to suchsystems improves their handling characteristics (16), for example,the addition of about 1% of zinc oxide, kaolin or heavy magnesium carbonate significantly improves the flowability of sulphanilamide powder (17, 18). Fig. 5 illustratesthe effectof addinga coarse, free flowingpowderto a binary mixture of two powders whichhaveimpairedflow properties. It can be seenthat an improvementin flow rate can be achievedby a suitable combinationof the componentsize fractions. To producegravity discharge of superfine powders,however,a vast excess of coarse material is required(16, 19) and clearlyin many cases this

EFFECTOF GLIDANTADDITION ON FLOW-ABILITY OF SOLIDS

493

Jolna

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JOURNALOF THE SOCIETYOF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

561/zm

600-650

650-700

600-650

500-600

400300-400

500

48/.t.m

200300

90/.t.m

trigure &. The effectproduced on flowrate by varying the composition of a ternary mixture of magnesia. Flow rates in g rain-1. Orifice diameter 8.98 mm

is undesirable in the finalproductor difficultto handledueto segregation. The additionof smallquantities of fineglidants suchasA erosil, magnesium oxide and corn starchcan be shownto improvethe flow properties of mildly cohesive powders (4, 6, 36-38).
MECHANISM OF GLIDANT ACTION

An improvement in flowabilityof bulk solids is produced by the addition of manytypesof glidants andseveral mechanisms of action maybeinvolved.
Frictional effects

Sincemany of the materialsusedasglidantsare alsoefficient lubricants (1) a reductionof interparticulate friction may be involved.The reduction may take place in two ways. Firsfly, when fine material adheresto the surfacesof an irregular shapedbut equidimensional coarsefraction the

EFFECT OF GLIDANT ADDITION

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

495

reduction in surfacerugosity will minimisethe mechanicalinterlockingof the particle and thereby reducethe rolling friction. This would be particularly relevant when flow improvement is caused by the addition of material of similar chemical constitution to the original granulation. Secondly,the added material may possess a coefficient of friction which is
lower than that of the bulk solid to which it is added and therefore decrease

interparticle friction. It has beensuggested that the glidantswhich possess laminar crystalline forms, e.g. talc, graphite, roll up under low shear stresses to producea 'ball bearingtype' action (20). In addition, it may be that some substances are acting as boundary lubricants between the particlesbut it is considered that the low shearstresses involved in most handlingprocesses do not seemgreat enoughto place too much emphasis
on this mechanism.

Separationeffects

Althoughglidantsmay possess a minute crystallitesize (of the orderof severalnm) on addition to bulk which the individual particlesmay become aggregated (sizes up to several[tm) (2). The aggregates increasethe interparticulate distancesof the coarse
material and may reduce the forces of attraction between the surface asperities. This is also the casefor fine material added to coarsematerial of similar chemical constitution but under these conditionsthe separation is much greater. Thus, during the gravity discharge of a bulk solidfrom a

hopper,the pointsof slippage in a freefall archoverthe orificeareincreased by the interpositionof the fine particlesand flow may be increased(21). Many of the glidantsusedare alsoflow conditioning or anticakingagents, e.g. calciumphosphate, silicoaluminates. The physicalseparation of the coarse particleswhichis produced when thesematerials adhere to their surfaces is thought to reducethe action of capillary adhesion forcesand also prevent the formation of solid bridges betweenparticles(22, 23). This is of importancewhere bin residence time is prolonged or the formulationsubjectedto a variable environment.The particlesizeof the addedmaterialis important sinceit is the ability of the
additive to coat the surface of the coarse material that determines its

efficiency (2, 19). The combination of both frictionaland separation effects shouldthereforeproducea usefulimprovementin flowability and this can be demonstratedby the improvementin flow producedon the addition of finesand talc to a tablet granulation {8).

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JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

Antistaticeffects
Many powdersacquire a static charge during their handling and it has been shown that the addition of lfo or more of magnesiumstearate, polyethyleneglycol 4 000 or talc effectively lowers the accumulationof static chargein a number of pharmaceutical formulations(24).

(Received.' 2nd January 19(;9)

REFERENCES

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (0) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)
(20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37)

Strickland, V. A. Jnr. Drug Cosmetic Ind. 8 318 (1959). Augsberger,L. L. and Shangraw, R. F..[. Pharn. $ci. 418 (1966). Harwood, C. F. and Pilpel, N. Lab. Pract. 17, 1236 (1068). Tawashi, yon R. PharmazeutischeTechnologie, 2 64 (1063). Gold, G., Duvall, R. N., Palermo, B. T. and Slater, J. G. J. Pharm. Sci. 1201(1966). Craik, D. J. and Miller, B. F. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 10 136T (1958). Gold, G., Duvall, R. N., Palermo, B. T. and Slater, J. G. J. Pharm. Sci., ,1 667 (1968). Hammerness,F. C. and Thompson,H. O. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc.Sci. Ed. 4'1 58 (1958). Jones, T. M. Mfg. Chemist30 38 (March 1068). Hansen, G. Arch. Pharm. Chemi. 01 632 (1954). Bulsara, P. U., Zenz, F. A. and Eckert, R. A. IEC Proc. Des. and Der. 3 348 (1964). Jones, T. M. and Pilpel, N.J. Pharm. Pharnacol. 18 429 (1966). Sumner, E. D., Thompson, H. O., Poole, W. K. and Grizzle, J. E. J. Pharm. Sci. 5 1441 (1966). Tucker, S. J. and Hays, H. M. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc.Sci. Ed. 48 362 (1959). Farley, R. and Valentin, F. H. H. Powder Technol.I 344 (1967/68). HawksIcy, P. G .W. Inst. Fuel Conf. on Pulv. Fuel 656 (1947). Shotton, E. and Simons, F. M. J. Pharm. Pharmacol.2 231 (1950). Davis, H. Pharm. J. 150 118 (1943). Irani, R. R. and Callis, C. F. Particle Size; Measurement, Interpretation and Application 3 (1963). (John Wiley, N.Y.). Train, D. and Hersey, J. A. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 12 97T (1960). Jones, T. M. J. Pharm. Sci. 57 2015 (1968). Hardesty, J. O. and Kumagai, R. Agr. Chem. 7 (2) 38 (1952). Whynes, A. L. and Dee, T. P. J. Sci. Food Agr. 8 577 (1957). Gold, G. and Palermo, B. T. J. Pharm. Sci. 54 1517 (1965). Rose, H. E. and Tanaka, T. Engineer, 208 465 (1959). Burak, N. Chem.Ind. London844. (1966). Jones, T. M. and Pilpel, N.J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 17 440 (1965). Jones, T. M. Ph.D. thesisUniversity of London (1967). Smalley, I. J., Hearer, A. A. and McGrath, L. Trans. Inst. Mining Met. (Sect. C Mineral ProcessExtr. Met.) 76 183 (1967). Harwood, C. F. and Pilpel, N. Chem. ProcessEng. 49 92 (July 1968). Segovia, E. Acta Pharm. Suecica, 4 171 (1967). Kaneniwa, N., Ikekawa, A. and Aoki, H. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 15 1441 (1967). Egrova, V. I. Med. Prom. SSSR. 20 (11) 47 (1966). Brown, R. L. S.C..Monograph No. 14 150 (1961). Nelson, E. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc.Sci. Ed. 44 435 (1955). Gstirner, F. and Pick, C. Arch. Pharm. 300 757 (1967). Czetsch Lindenwald, H. v. E1 Khawas, F. and Tawashi, R. J. Soc. CosmeticChemists, 16 251 (1965).

EFFECT

OF GLIDANT

ADDITION

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

497

(38) (39) (40) (41)

Okada, J., Matsuda, Y. and Wada, Y. Yakugaku Zasshi, 88 647 (1968). Hersey, J. Rheol. Acta, 4 235 (1965). Leoveanu, O., Zaharia, N. and Pilea, V. Rev. Chim. 17 112 (1966). Jones, W. D. Fundamental Principles of Powder Metallurgy (1960). (Edward Arnold, London). (42) Maly, J. Acta Fac. Pharm. Bohemoslovenicae, VIII 81 (1963). (43) Berry, F. and Payne, M. Paper presented to Institution of Chemical Engineers Symposium on Aggregation (28th March 1968). (44) Forsythe, R. E., Scharpf, L. G. Jr. and Marion, W. W. Food Technol.18 153 (1964).
DISCUSSION

MR. J. C. WILLIAMS; In view of the difficulties of assessing the effect of glidants on the flowability may I ask whether you have consideredthe use of a shear cell as a

meansof assessing the flowability of your materials?

THE LECTURER: I have done somework on a shear cell; unfortunately the price of these instruments is somewhat high. At the moment we are concernedwith the rate of flow improvement rather than the absolute conditions at the surface of the particles, so perhaps the straightforward flow measurement is more relevant.
gIR. R. CHUDZIKOWSKIi It seemsto me that by restricting yourself to discussing the effect of "glidants" only, you have (somewhat)obscuredthe overall picture of
"flowability" of bulk particulate solids. This becomes more clear when viewed in the light of the basic equation for any flow (material, electricity, heat), viz: driving force
flOW

sum of resistances

which, in this particular case will become:

Flow of particulate solids gravity
Sum of frictional, cohesive, adhesive, etc., forces.

Thus, properties pertaining to the driving force of gravity, will be apparent density of the bulk, its head, etc. and the "resistances" can be differentiated into interparticulate friction, friction between the particles and the hopper, "packing" at the orifice, various forces of cohesion (Van der Waals', electrostatic, etc.), "sticking" due to
moisture, etc. All, or some of these, forces contribute to the overall resistance, and in

certain conditions one, or some of them, may become the governing factor. Its diagnosiswill then suggesta remedy. The condition of flow is that the driving force must exceed the resistances,and this may be achieved either by increasing the numerator, or decreasing the denominator. When, for instance, frictional forces are the governing factor small quantities of fines have a beneficial effect by reducing rugosity of the particles. When, however, the percentage of fines is greatly increased, various cohesive forces come increasingly into play (at the same time reducing the bulk density), and they may in turn become the governingfactor of an impaired flow. Such interpretation also helps to explain apparent paradoxes of borderline cases where, for instance, an addition of a coarse powder will make a "fluffy" bulk flow, by increasing its apparent density, while an addition of an otherwise most effective "glidant" will have an adverse effect, by further reducing it.

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JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

TIE LECTURER:This paper does not attempt to consider the overall picture of flowability of bulk particulate solidsbut is an attempt to clarify someof the confusion that exists in the literature concerning the use of gildants. For example, Strickland (1) states that "magnesium stearate which is an excellent lubricant at the tablet-die wall interface actually tends to retard the flow of granularions", yet Gold and Palermo (24) show that it increasesthe flow rate of granularions.

DR. M. AllMAD: In Fig. 3 you have compared glidant efficiency of regular and irregular particles. I consider it essential that you should give some estimate of the shapes of the "regular and irregular" particles that you have used, otherwise this simply adds to the volume of ill-defined literature which cannot be used for reference. In your openingremarks, you said "equidimensionalregular particles". It is, however, a very well-knovn fact that cubes and spheres,for example, covered by the said phrase have very different flow rates.
TIlE LECTURER:I admit that this is a very preliminary investigation of this phenomenon and we have gone onto measuring the shapes of the particles.
A MEMBER OF TIlE AUDIENCE: It is known that the flow rates out of hoppers vary vith the angle of the hopper and the orifice. You do not say how these measurements were carried out and vhat apparatus you used. You talk about fine particles, but you go very fine in your experiments. I would also like to emphasisethat humidity can affect the results very considerably; ve do our testing in humidity controlled rooms,
ve could not do it otherwise.

TIlE LECTURER: The method and techniques are well reported elsewhere (12). As far as the gildants, which are chemically similar to the fine component, are concerned, once we get down to superfine powders of this nature, surface adhesion occursand I have some results which show that the improvement from these compounds is virtually non-existent since both glidant and fine particle have poor flow properties. The small variation in humidity in the laboratory whilst these results were determined vasshown to produce no change in flow rate in the systemsinvestigated. DR. ]N. A. ARMSTRONG: From the line in Fig. I represented by the black circles, I note that the flow rate increasesabove about 80% of fine powder. Would you care to
comment?

THE LECTURER: One of the possiblereasonsat this,level is segregation. We start off with a uniformly packed, uniformly mixed, incrementally packed bed so that during flow, if segregationoccurs,it would perhaps be reflected in that sort of change. MR. F. F. ADEY: Why was magnesium stearate chosen as a material for investi-

gationwhen it is well known as a lubricant and not as glidant?Pyrogenie silicaiswell

known as a glidant without lubricant properties, and it might have been a better
choice.

TIlE LECTURER: I picked magnesium stearate because,as I have already stated, in the literature this confusion exists, some people say it does not work as a glidant, others say it does.This is an attempt in the first instanceto seeexactly what is happening with magnesium stearate. Gold and Palermo (24) have produced results showing this improvement of flow which tended to contradict a number of earlier studies. It has ot been looked at since then and I am not claiming that magnesium stearate always

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ADDITION

ON FLOWABILITY

OF SOLIDS

499

acts as a glidant; I would not advocate its use as such. I think the addition of these types of material to pharmaceutical formulations is to be discouragedwhen they can be avoided, i.e. if they are unnecessary.

MR. G. DUNCALF: One practical effect of glidant addition is a marked change in caseof aeration of some mixtures. The degreeof aeration and therefore flowability is considerably dependent upon the degree and type of agitation given to the mixture
before use.

Equally important is the rate of deaeration. Practical tests have shown that with some mixtures there are marked differences in rate of flow (in this case measured by dispersing from a pack with 4-8 orifices, of say, 6 mm diameter) dependingupon whether the tests are carried out within minutes of mixing or some time later. With some mixtures the rate of deaeration and reduction of flowability may be significant in less than 15 min and in other casesnot for many hours. Is it possible that some of the discrepanciesin effect of glidants noted in the literature could have been due to the fact that this aeration and flowability factor had not been considered,and that the degreeof agitation and time elapsedbetween mixing

and testing had not been standardised? Judging by commentsalready made, similar
variations in flow behaviour are often encountered under practical conditions and the same comnents might apply.
40C

0.1

0.2

03

0.4

0'5

Particle

size,

mm

Figure 6

The effect of change in bulk density on the flow rate of various size fractions of magnesia.

TE LEcxu: The effect can be illustrated by referring to the changes that occur in flow rate for different initial states of packing (Fig. ). These are some results for magnesia flowing through a circular orifice 7.4 mm in diameter. As the particle size decreasesthe flow rate increases to a maximum. Below this particle size, flow is impaired becauseof the influence of interparticulate forces.

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The two sets of points indicate that for non-cohesive material the effect of the initial state of packing is not very significant, perhaps becausethe flow limiting condition is bed dilation to a characteristic bulk density at the orifice region. Once interparticulate forces become relevant, the initial state of packing seems to be quite important becausethe bed is trying to dilate before it flows.

A MFMUFR OF TF AUX)IFNCF: We have also found a discrepancy between results, and having donesomework in this I would agreethat one can very easily be misled by making the mix in the morning and leaving the sample, doing it later in the day and getting a quite different set of results, i.e. until one realised that there had been a dramatic change in bulk density and therefore a move away from flowability.

THF LFCTURE:I wonder whether a lot of the problems here may be environmental changes.You may get surface adsorption of moisture and capillary adhesion,
electrostatic changes, etc.

A MFMBF OF ZHFAUX)IFNCF: I wonder if one can get back to the original set of

conditions? If this dramatic changeis not appreciated,you might well get conflicting
results.

Tu LECZUFR:In my experience with those materials not subject to any interparticulate forcestheir flow rate is not considerably affected by bulk density (Fig. ). A change in bulk density in the hopper has not made much difference in the eventual rate of flow from that hopper.