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Near East Architecture INFLUENCES A. Geographical Mesopotamia (Gk. mesos = middle + potamos = river) earliest civilization flourished in the fertile plains of the twin rivers, Tigris and Euphrates Garden of Eden and the four rivers of the Book of Genesis could have been found in these regions frequent flooding caused destruction of crops and flocks such condition is set forth in the account of the building of the Ark by Noah before the time when a system of irrigation gave security to Source: Captured image from the Lost Civilization of Mesopotamia agriculturists Ur was the home of Abraham before he set out on his travels to escape from the constant strife in his own country was irrigated by canals from river to river land was fertile enough to support the immense populations round Nineveh and Babylon geographically, Babylonia and Assyria were one country which ancient writers called Assyria civilization advanced northwards from Babylon to Nineveh on the east of Babylonia and Assyria was ancient Persia, which, under Cyrus and Darius, extended over the high plateau of Iran from the Tigris to the Indus B. Geological Chaldaea or Lower Mesopotamia alluvial district of thick mud and clay deposited by the two great rivers, Tigris and Euphrates no stone was found and no trees would grow Materials: bricks (sun-dried or kiln-dried) glazed bricks of different colors bitumen used as cementing material Assyria plenty of stone in the mountains to the north Assyrians followed the Babylonians in the use of brick generally faced the walls internally and externally, not with glazed bricks, but with alabaster or limestone slabs carved with low bas-reliefs and inscriptions of great historic importance materials: bricks stones best-known cities of Assyria, all situated in the territory of present-day Iraq: Assur Nimrud Nineveh Khorsabad

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Persia

hard, colored limestones used in the building of Susa and Persepolis roof-timbers were obtained from Elam on the west colored and textured tiles famous for their beauty materials: stones Timber limestones brick timber tiles

C. Climatic Chaldaea or Lower Mesopotamia a region of swamps and floods torrents of rain fell for weeks at a time long dry summer with miasmic exhalations essential to build towns and palaces on elevated platforms Assyria nearer the mountains and farther from the river mouths than Chaldaea similar climate with Chaldaea but with fewer swamps climatic difference had little effect on architecture Assyrians followed the Babylonian style Persia dry, hot climate high table land country of sunshine, gardens, and deserts, with a climate ranging between extremes of heat and cold unlike the damp low-lying plains of Mesopotamia it then was able to develop innovation of open columned halls in the palaces at Susa and Persepolis D. Religious Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria polytheism worship of heavenly bodies, divisions of the universe, and local deities priests claimed to divine the gods will through divination and reading of the stars ziggurats were erected for the priests to divine the will of the gods Assyrian gods grouped in triads: Anu, god of heaven, Baal, god of earth, and Ea, god of water Shamash, the sun, Sin, the moon, and Ishtar, the life-giving power Ashur, the god in the north was exalted by Assyrians to the chief place in their pantheon Marduk, exalted in Babylonia there was a continuous struggle to make Babylon the religious centre with Marduk as chief god superstition and symbolism prevailed and evidenced in the man-headed bulls, placed as beneficent genii at palace entrances to ward off evil spirits Assyrians, not great tomb-builders

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tendency towards monotheism religion of Persia was a system of ethical forces good and evil at war from the beginning of time two protagonists: Ormazd, the creator of good, with his supporting gods Ahriman, the destructive spirit, or power of evil fire was held by Zoroaster to be the manifestation of good, and fire worship needed no temples, but only altars for the sacrificial flame religion has not much influence on its architecture

E. Social Babylon a powerful priestly class arrogated to itself all the learning known as "Chaldaean wisdom" "medicine men" or physicians were included in the priestly ranks traders employed slaves to build palaces and their platforms, irrigation hired men for transport trade by caravans and canals cuneiform system of writing wedge-shaped characters on clay tablets or cylinders proved more lasting than the Egyptian records on perishable papyrus counts of the proceedings in Babylonian law courts and endless business documents Code of Laws" of Khammurabi (c. B.C. 2250) deciphering supplied a wonderful insight into habits, customs, and private life from the earliest times the family idea prevailed women were free and respected cities had rights and charters there were feudal holdings a system of police a postal service elaborate legal system complete commercial life landlord's responsibilities city dues divisions in society nobles with hereditary estates landless class of freemen slaves Assyria military autocracy with a conscript army was a dominating class fighters and sportsmen rather than traders irrigation and agriculture also occupied the Assyrians built palaces on raised platforms by the work of captive slaves 10,000 men worked for twelve years on the platform of Kouyunjik (Nineveh)
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wall sculptures portray social conditions and form an illustrated history of the battles and exploits of monarchs little reference to religion, with its sacrificial rites, on the delicately incised slabs, which are devoted to war and the chase, and the trail of cruelty is over them all social economy: carpenters, masons, smiths, makers of musical instruments, engineers, scientists, mathematicians, poets, and musicians houses were of the primitive form still prevailing in the East wall tablets depict the simplest furniture in the way of chairs, couches, and tables

military superiority imposed Persian civilization on Western Asia under the rule of the Satraps soldiers: land-owners as horsemen, and people as infantry traditions were modified by Egyptian and Greek craftsmen who migrated to this new worldempire Babylon continued the winter residence of the Kings Susa was the capital, because Persepolis was too remote for government erection of royal palaces gave ample opportunity for the development of Persian architecture and decorative art

F. History Near East Architecture is divided in the three distinct periods: Babylonian period (c. B.C. 4000-1275) Eannatum, an early Sumerian king, brought about the first union of Babylonian cities Sargon of Akkad (c. B.C. 3800), the earliest Babylonian king, ruled in Babylonia when rivalry existed between city-states King Khammurabi, B.C. 2250 great king who established the domination of Babylon formulated his "Code of Laws" Babylonian power declined later under the attacks of Hittites and Kassites B.C. 1700 Assyria became a separate kingdom Assyrian period (B.C. 1275-538) Assyrians conquered Babylonia in B.C. 1275 great military power of Western Asia until the destruction of Nineveh about B.C. 606 Tiglath-Pileser I (B.C. 1100) carried on campaigns to the north-west, and in northern Syria Ashur-nasir-pal (B.C. 885-86o) waged war on every side, and removed the government from Ashur to Calah (Nimroud), where he built a palace and patronised art Shalmaneser II (B.C. 860-825), Ashur-nasir-pals son, made himself master of Western Asia from Media to the Mediterranean, and from Armenia to the Persian Gulf, and then the Assyrians first came into conflict with the Israelites Tiglath-Pileser III (B.C. 745-727), extended his empire to the borders of Egypt and, as ally of Ahaz, King of Judah, made Hoshea, King of Israel, his vassal Sargon (B.C. 722-705), most famous of Assyrian kings first to defeat the army of the Egyptians great builder, as is testified by his magnificent palace at Khorsabad and his buildings at Calah and Nineveh Sennacherib (B.C. 705681) famous son of Sargon
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invaded Syria, defeated the Egyptian army, entered Judaea, laid siege to Jerusalem and forced King Hezekiah to pay tribute taken from the treasure of the Temple destroyed Babylon in B.C. 689 defeated the Greeks in Cilicia later settled in Nineveh to worship his gods and to build a mighty palace assassinated by his sons Esarhaddon, Sennacheribs son (B.C. 681668) fought against Arabs and Medes, invaded Phoenicia, Edom, and Cilicia, and conquered Lower Egypt in B.C. 672 built great palaces at Calah (Nimroud) and Nineveh and temples to the gods Ashur-banipal (B.C. 668656) fought three campaigns in Egypt and sacked Thebes (B.C. 666) extended the boundaries of his kingdom on the north and south records of his last campaign were sculptured on the wall slabs of his palace at Nineveh, which are now in the British Museum B.C. 634, empire was at the height of its power decline set in until in B.C. 606 Nineveh was captured and destroyed, and the Assyrian Empire divided the new Babylonian Empire only lasted for seventy years Nebuchadnezzar II (B.C. 605562) famous for the destruction of Jerusalem and for the Babylonian captivity (B.C. 597 538) associated with the wonders of Babylon, its palaces, hanging gardens, and towered walls after a short series of weak rulers, Babylon itself, under Belshazzar, to whom the prophet Daniel interpreted the writing on the wall (Dan. v.) was captured by the Persian King Cyrus in B.C. 538

Persian period (B.C. 538333) Cyrus, made war on Croesus, King of Lydia, and then the Greek colonists in Asia Minor fell under the rule of Persia, after the capture of Babylon (B.C. 538) Cambyses (B.C. 529551), Cyrus son, extended the Persian conquests to Egypt marvelous buildings of Memphis and Thebes caused the introduction of the column into Persian architecture columns in a somewhat grotesque form were seen in the halls of Susa and Persepolis Darius (B.C. 521485) carried Persian arms into Europe as far as the Danube hankered after Greece in B.C. 494 captured Miletus, destroying the famous Ionic temple defeated the allied Greeks at Ephesus, but was him-self defeated at Marathon (B.C. 490) Xerxes (B.C. 485465) defeated by the Greeks, not only in the sea battle of Salamis (B.C. 480), but also in the land battle at Plata (B.C. 479) Alexander the Great (B.C. 333323) Western Asia became a Greek province after Alexander's death, passed under the Seleucid (B.C. 312280) and Sassanian (A.D. 226642) dynasties various Perso-Mahometan dynasties arose after the Arab conquest in A.D. 642, which made Bagdad a new capital of great magnificence
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ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria massive simple military commanding absence of columns whitewashed buildings except for the ziggurats Persia columnar with great hypostyle halls commanding formal and monumental IMPORTANT FEATURES System of Construction Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria combination of arch and vaults: arcuated foundation: elevated platforms of crude bricks faced with hard bricks or stones Persia post and lintel: columnar foundation: broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural Walls Babylonia bricks faced with dried colored, glazed bricks use of polychrome glazed tiles whitewashed or painted Assyria bricks faced with alabaster and limestone with low bas-relief which record the military and sports exploits external walls were plainly treated sometimes with vertical projections and processes or with half columns as half cylinders Persia double mud brick walls for stability burned, colored, glazed tiles for facing Plans Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria rooms were grouped around a quadrangle (corridor in appearance) Persian predominance of square rooms and lavish use of columns Openings Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria
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spanned with semi-circular arch at palaces entrances, arches were enhanced by decorative archibolts (molding on the face of an arch following the contour even to projecting members) windows were not used, light were admitted through doors or pipe halls

Persian windows below ceiling levels doors and windows surround the platform Roofs Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria early dwellings used palm logs with parched clay flat roofs, rendered with water proofing by use of bitumen with battlement cresting to conceal the roof, except where domes protrude Persian flat timber roofs (cedar) roofs were covered with turf terrace Mouldings Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria no characteristic mouldings, nor architraves nor capitals Persian use of mouldings Ornaments Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria ceramic decoration in the form of: colored and glazed bricks colored terra-cotta cones inserted into clay walls sculptural decoration in the form of statues and bas-relief chiseled alabaster slab, more refined than that of the Egyptians motifs were: hunting scenes battles deities (mythological subjects) palace gates were adorned with portal guardians set into deep jambs (colossal monsters with bodies of bulls, wings of eagles and human heads with strong countenance) rosettes, guilloche, palmette and lotus flower Persian colored glazed ceramics, woven fabrics and gilding motif lion procession of arches bodyguard of the kings palace decorations sculpture and bas-relief entrances of palaces and towns flanked by colossal king-headed winged bull similar to Assyria

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Columns Mesopotamia: Babylonia and Assyria no columns Persian capital was usually double-bull or double unicorn beneath the capital are recurring vertical scroll slender body shaft with flutings high molded base EXAMPLES Mesopotamia: Babylonian Earliest architecture developed to accommodate religious, legal, governmental, and military systems Temples Erected to a local deity Usually the nucleus of a civil building comples Built on plinths made from the crumbled remains of the old brick Ziggurat Embodiment of the rain-giving mountains The White Temple, Uruk (modern Warka), Iraq (4th C. BC) Predecessor of the ziggurat Alternating niches and buttresses, typically Sumerian Much of the platform (originally white-plastered) and triple stairway have survived The Ziggurat, Ur (modern Muqariiya), Iraq Shared platform with three temples The Ziggurat, Chogo Zanbil, Iran (mid 13th c BC), in ancient Elam Best preserved ziggurat Main stairway passed through structure Palaces The Palace, Mari (now Tell Hariri), Syria (3rd BC) Best preserved of the early period Arrangement of rooms round a succession of courtyards was typical Assyria and the new Babylon polychrome brickwork introduced during the 2nd BC high wall slabs carved in low reliefs temples were sometimes on ziggurats, 3-7 storeys with ramps spiraling to the summit during the late Assyrian cities: Nimrud, Nineveh, and Khorsabad, supreme buildings were palaces human-headed winged bull or lion sculptures guard the entrances of the palaces during the time of Nebuchadnezzar (6th BC), new Babylon, architecture was derived from Mesopotamia and Assyrian Styles

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Nimrud and Nineveh (early 1st BC) both cities had temples, palaces, and fortified walls with crenellated towers layout of Ashurnasirpal IIs palace in Nimrud became standard: with ziggurat complex throne room administrative block residential wing public court enclosed by the structure first wall slabs carved with scenes of war occurred in Nimrud Khorsabad laid out by Sargon (c. 717 BC) similar in plan to Nimrud and Nineveh massive defensive wall of mudbrick and stone walls punctuated by doublegated towers with citadels private temples and small ziggurat were incorporated on a platform The New Babylon rebuilt city contained the royal palace, the Hanging Gardens, and a ziggurat (perhaps the Tower of Babel) a summer palace to the north was linked to the inner city by a grand processional way processional way passed through the famous Ishtar Gate, decorated with blue-glazed bricks (reconstructed in Berlin Museum)

Persian and Sassanian Cyrus the Greats Persian capital at Pasargadae was spaciously laid out on a plain, whereas the great complex later built at Persepolis was closely grouped on a rock terrace fine carving in stone is a characteristic of Persian architecture after Alexanders defeat of the Persians, towns such as Antioch and Seleucia were built by Macedonian and Greek immigrants a period of artistic decline was reinvigorated by the Sassanians, whose capital was Ctesiphon The Palace of Persepolis, Iran (Persian) began by Darius I in 518 BC built mainly under Xerxes I (reigned 486-465 BC) palace terrace was approached by a double staircase, leading to a gatehouse faced with polychrome bricks palace of Darius was smaller
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Xerxes built his own palace and started the Hall of the Hundred Columns (throne room)

The Palace of Ctesiphon, near modern Baghdad (Sassanian) probably 4th AD a part of a huge open fronted audience hall with elliptical vault of baked brick, 37 m high, is still standing great influence on modern structural forms one of the wings has survived, with attached columns and blind arcades in Roman manner (but with regular axes)

REFERENCES Books: Fletcher, Sir Banister. A History of Architecture. 20th Edition. Oxford: Architectural Press, 1996. Nuttgens, Patrick and Richard Weston. The Complete Handbook of Architecture: From the First Civilizations to the Present Day. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006. Internet Sources: West Asiatic Architecture. Old and Sold Antique Digest. http://www.oldandsold.com/articles23/architecture-146.shtml. July 26, 2008. Other Sources: Lecture notes of Arch. Clarissa L. Avendao History Powerpoint from the Center for the Designed Professions (CDEP)

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