Radioactive waste: The problem and its management

Waste, by definition, is any material (solid materials such as process residues as well as liquid and gaseous effluents) that has been or will be discarded as being of no further use. Waste that emits nuclear radiation is radioactive waste. Certain elements that compose matter emit particles and radiations spontaneously. This phenomenon is referred to as radioactivity, it cannot be altered by application of heat, electricity or any other force and remains unchangeable. Three different kinds of rays, known as alpha, beta and gamma rays are associated with radioactivity. The alpha rays consist of particles (nuclei of helium atoms) carrying a positive charge, beta rays particles have negative charge (streams of electrons) and gamma rays are chargeless electromagnetic radiation with shorter wavelengths than any Xrays. These rays can penetrate living tissues for short distances and affect the tissue cells. But because they can disrupt chemical bonds in the molecules of important chemicals within the cells, they help in treating cancers and other diseases. Radioactive elements decay at different rates. Rates are measured as half-lives that is, the time it takes for one half of any given quantity of a radioactive element to disintegrate. The longest half-life is that of the isotope 238U of uranium. It is 4.5 billion years. Radioactivity is measured in Becquerel (Bq) units. 1 Bq = 1 decay or disintegration per second. Curie (Ci) was used earlier and 1 Ci = 37 billion Bq (3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second) or 37Bq = 1 nano-Ci. Natural radioactivity Small amounts of radioactive materials are contained in mineral springs, sand mounds and volcanic eruptions. Small amounts of radioactive materials are contained in mineral springs, sand mounds and volcanic eruptions. These are referred to as Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMs) and are ubiquitous as residual wastes in processing industries that cover fertilizers, iron and steel, fossil fuel, cement, mineral sands, titanium, thorium and uranium mining as well as emanations and waste from coal and gas-fired power plants. Artificial radioactivity Two main sources have been: (a) the civilian nuclear programmes, including nuclear power production, medical and industrial applications of radioactive nuclides for peaceful purposes, and (b) the military nuclear programme, including atmospheric underground nuclear-weapon testing and weapon production and

The cause for concern Radioactive waste, whether natural or artificial, is a potential harbinger of radioactive exposure to humans through many channels. The routes are direct exposure to materials that are radioactive, inhalation and ingestion of such materials through the air that one breathes or food that one consumes. The quantum of exposure (dose x duration of exposure) decides the deleterious effects that may result. Exposure may occur to particular organs locally or to the whole body. Sufficiently high exposure can lead to cancer. The radio-toxicity of a particular radionuclide is quantified in terms of what is referred to as potential hazard index that is defined in terms of the nuclide availability, its activity, maximum permissible intake annually and its half-life. This depends on a variety of factors like physical half-life, biological half-life, sensitivity of the organ or tissue where the nuclide is likely to concentrate, ionizing power of the radiation from the nuclide that depends on the energy of the radiation emitted from the radionuclide, etc. Classification of radioactive waste i) Exempt waste & very low level waste : Exempt waste and very low level waste (VLLW) contains radioactive materials at a level which is not considered harmful to people or the surrounding environment. It consists mainly of demolished material (such as concrete, plaster, bricks, metal, valves, piping etc) produced during rehabilitation or dismantling operations on nuclear industrial sites. Other industries, such as food processing, chemical, steel etc also produce VLLW as a result of the concentration of natural radioactivity present in certain minerals used in their manufacturing processes. The waste is therefore disposed of with domestic refuse. ii) Low-level waste : Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters etc, which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. It does not require shielding during handling and transport and is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. It comprises some 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste. iii) Intermediate-level waste : Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some requires shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludges and metal fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. Smaller items and any non-solids may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. It makes up some 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste.

iv) High-level waste : High-level waste (HLW) arises from the 'burning' of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor. HLW contains the fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and hot, so requires cooling and shielding. It can be considered as the 'ash' from 'burning' uranium. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of electricity generation. Disposal Radioactive waste management involves minimizing radioactive residues, handling waste-packing safely, storage and safe disposal in addition to keeping sites of origin of radioactivity clean. The following approaches are being advocated or are currently in practice for safe disposal of the radioactive materials. Geologic disposal : (at depths between 250m and 1000m) In practice the low-level radioactive waste is generally disposed in near-surface facilities or old mines. High-level radioactive waste is disposed in host rocks that are crystalline (granitic, gneiss) or argillaceous (clays) or salty or tuff. Sub-seabed disposal : disposing of the wastes by burial in suitable geologic media beneath the deep ocean floor Subductive waste disposal method : in between the tectonic plates of the earth. Transforming radioactive waste to non-radioactive stable waste Dispatching to the Sun : proposed for wastes that are highly concentrated