Film processing

Latent image: an invisible image produced in a film emulsion after it has been exposed to the X-ray beam. It requires exposure to a developer and fixer before the image is visible and permanent.

Image formation : exposure of the film to the x-ray beam X-ray radiation or forms causes ionic changes in the silver bromide crystals in the film emulsion so that it acquires a silver atom. It is the deposition of reduced silver atoms in particles or zones that causes the black zones or foci on the film. The amount of silver deposited depends on the intensity of the initial radiation x-ray exposure. Image intensification : a technique used to increase the brightness of the image while maintaining its sharpness. Used particularly in fluoroscopy and viewing directly or indirectly through a television camera and monitor, cineradiography, videotape or split-film device. The processing of radiographs involves a number of chemical reactions a n d changes, which m u s t take place under carefully controlled conditions if a satisfactory radiograph is to be produced. S u c h factors as: 1. location a n d construction of t h e processing room 2. good organization of t h e materials to be used 3. efficient u s e of t h e room a n d t h e x-ray specialist's skills 4. satisfactory adjustment to adverse environmental conditions Just as t h e military pilot h a s long since ceased to "fly by t h e seat of his pants," t h e proficient x-ray specialist no longer processes film by means of "a little bit of this a little bit of that a n d wait 'til it looks right." Given properly exposed film a n d workable facilities a n d supplies, t h e proficient x-ray specialist c a n be depended u p o n to produce radiographs of a quality a n d uniformity that are desired by t h e radiologists. The following processing of the film are: Developer process Fixer Developer process Development is essentially a chemical reduction in which silver halide is r e d u c e d o r c o n v e r t e d t o m e t a l l i c s i l v e r . T h er e a r e t w o m e t h o d s f o r developer process are: Manual developer Automatic developer

MANUAL DEVELOPER SOLUTION The chemistry of t h e solutions in automatic a n d manual processing is basically t h e same. There are a f e w variations between t h e t w o a n d these occur in t h e developer. Because of these variations, t h e developer solution will be addressed in detail from both manual a n d automatic processing. The manual developer solution is composed of four basic agents: an activator, reducers, a restrainer, a n d a preservative. Each of t h e agents is mixed with water, which acts as a solvent. Because each of t h e agents h a s its own specific function, each o n e will be dealt with in a separate paragraph. a. Activator. The activator (or alkali), sodium carbonate, softens t h e gelatin of t h e emulsion a n d provides t h e necessary alkaline medium to t h e solution so that t h e reducing agents c a n diffuse into t h e emulsion a n d attack t h e exposed silver bromide crystals. In general, t h e more alkaline t h e developer, t h e more powerful a n d rapid is its action. A disadvantage of sodium carbonate is that when a film is processed in an x-ray developer containing it a n d t h e n transferred to a warm acidfixing bath, tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas may form in t h e soft gelatin. As t h e bubbles escape, t h e y form tiny craters or pits in t h e emulsion, thereby breaking up t h e normal character of t h e silver image. The finished film or radiograph is blistered. To overcome this effect, t h e temperature of t h e developer, rinse, a n d fixer solutions should be approximately t h e same. b. Reducers. (1) Reduction process . t h e latent image site is a speck of silver capable of initiating development. The latent image site provides a place where t h e reducers accomplish t h e process of breaking d o w n t h e silver bromide crystal to black metallic silver. The reducing agents act as electron donors to t h e latent image site, giving it a negative charge. T h u s , t h e positively charged silver ions may m o v e into t h e areas of t h e sensitivity speck a n d become attracted to it. As this process continues, more silver ions are attracted a n d deposited as atoms of silver. The final result is t h e breakdown of t h e entire crystal to black metallic silver. (2) Reducing agents. The agents commonly used are ElonTM (another trade n a m e is M e t o l T M ) a n d hydroquinone. The activity of these chemicals requires their presence in an alkaline solution. Chemical functions differently in attacking t h e emulsion. The ElonTM starts development by attacking t h e exposed silver bromide crystals swiftly with resultant production of gray tones in t h e image. ElonTM is unpredictable above 75F a n d hydroquinone ceases its activity below 60F. The activity of t h e hydroquinone is slower, b u t it serves to build up t h e black tones required in t h e image. The reducers, acting as a team, produce a good image with satisfactory contrast in a minimum of time, as long as t h e temperature of t h e solution remains in t h e optimum range. Reducers are not too stable in t h e presence of oxygen, which t h e y c a n readily absorb from t h e air or from t h e water. c. Restrainer. The restrainer (potassium bromide) limits the action of t h e reducing agents to t h e breaking up of t h e exposed silver bromide crystals only without attacking t h e unexposed crystals in t h e emulsion during t h e normal development. If t h e restrainer is omitted, t h e reducers are hyperactive a n d break d o w n t h e unexposed crystals, fogging t h e film. If t h e film is left in t h e developer too long, t h e
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reducers will override t h e restrainer a n d chemical fog will result. Also, t h e bromide released from t h e crystals into t h e solution will gradually restrain t h e action of t h e reducing agents to a point where t h e y no longer function efficiently. Therefore, when a replenisher solution is mixed, it should n o t include t h e restrainer. d. Preservative. The preservative (sodium sulfate) retards t h e activity of t h e reducing agents to within controlled limits so that t h e "life" of t h e developing solution is maintained over a reasonable period of time. Since t h e reducing agents react quickly with oxygen, this reaction must be controlled or t h e developing solution will n o t last very long. Sodium sulfate works very well as a preservative because it retards oxidation of t h e reducing agents a n d prevents t h e formation of stains on t h e film. AUTOMATIC DEVELOPER SOLUTION Because of t h e increased speed a n d temperatures used for automatic processing, t h e chemicals used in t h e manual developer are n o t adequate. Therefore, although t h e functions of t h e chemicals are basically t h e same, some of t h e chemicals used are different. The automatic developer consists of five chemicals: an activator, reducers, a restrainer, a preservative, a n d a hardener. a. Activator. The activator is t h e same chemical (potassium hydroxide) used in manual developer solution a n d it serves t h e same purpose. It swells a n d softens t h e emulsion so that t h e reducing agents c a n enter a n d act u p o n t h e silver bromide crystals. It also provides t h e necessary alkaline medium for t h e solution. b. Reducer. The reducer (phenidone a n d hydroquinone) reduces t h e exposed silver bromide crystal to black metallic silver. ElonTM, used in manual developing, is unpredictable above 75F a n d is replaced by phenidone in automatic processors. Phenidone, which functions effectively at temperatures of 80 a n d 100F, builds up t h e gray tones of t h e image. Hydroquinone, used in both manual a n d automatic solutions, bring o u t t h e black tones, producing contrast. c. Restrainer. The restrainer (potassium bromide) is also k n o w n as t h e starter solution. The same chemical is used in both automatic a n d manual solutions. I t s function remains t h e same, to restrain t h e action of t h e reducers on unexposed silver bromide crystals. It is n o t used in replenisher solutions for t h e reason explained above. d. Preservative. The preservative is once again t h e same chemical with t h e same function as in t h e annual developer. It prevents rapid oxidation of t h e chemicals a n d prolongs their useful life. e. Hardener. Gluteraldehyde, a hardening agent, is used in automatic system b u t n o t in manual developer. I t s function is to control t h e swelling of t h e emulsion, thereby reducing film transportation problems a n d preventing emulsion damage during processing. f. Solvent. The chemicals in both kinds of developer solutions are all dissolved in water. This is necessary both for t h e action of t h e chemicals a n d for t h e softening of t h e emulsion.

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FIXER SOLUTION Although t h e concentration of t h e fixer solution varies for t h e t w o methods of processing, t h e chemicals used are basically t h e same. The fixer h a s four chemical agents: an acidifier, a clearing agent, a hardener, a n d a preservative. All of t h e chemicals are mixed with water, which serves as t h e solvent. a. Acidifier . The acidifier (acetic acid) neutralizes any alkaline developer that may be carried over from t h e developing solution a n d provides t h e required acidity for t h e other chemicals to function. The acidifying action quickly stops development a n d prevents formation of stains. b. Clearing Agent . The clearing agent (sodium thiosulfate or ammonium thiosulfate) dissolves t h e residual unexposed silver bromide crystals in t h e emulsion without damage to t h e silver image. The unexposed crystals h a v e of course, been unchanged by t h e developer. If t h e film is n o t properly cleared, t h e remaining unexposed silver bromide crystals will darken on exposure to light a n d obscure t h e radiographic image. These chemicals are commonly k n o w n as "hypo." The clearing action of h y p o involves a chemical reaction between t h e sodium or ammonium thiosulfate a n d t h e silver bromide in t h e emulsion, wherein silver thiosulfate is formed a n d remains in solution. c. Hardener. The hardening agent (platinum alum, chrome alum, or aluminum chloride) decreases t h e possibility of physical injury to t h e gelatin emulsion. A swollen emulsion is easily scratched or distorted during t h e washing a n d drying process. The hardener restrains swelling of t h e gelatin a n d hardens it so that it c a n withstand t h e normal effects of processing. d. Preservative. The preservative (sodium sulfite) prevents decomposition of t h e clearing agent by t h e acid with a resultant precipitation of sulfur, as long as normal developing temperatures are maintained. It assists in clearing the film a n d prevents t h e residual developer carried over in t h e film from oxidizing a n d discoloring t h e fixing bath.

Electron micrograph of a developed silver bromide grain.

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