PCI Bridge Manual

Precast Prestressed Concrete
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

PRECAST/ PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE INSTITUTE
209 W. Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, IL 60606-6938
Phone: (312) 786-0300 Fax: (312) 786-0353
http://www.pci.org e-mail: info@pci.org
MNL-133-97
7115 Bridge Manual Misc. Pages 7/7/03 12:48 PM Page 1
MNL-133-97
Copyright 1997
By Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
First Edition, First Printing, 1997
Second Edition, First Printing, 2003
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of
the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
ISBN 0-937040-54-1
Printed in U.S.A.
Substantial effort has been made to ensure that all data and
information in this Manual are accurate. However, PCI
cannot accept responsibility for any errors or oversights in
the use of material. The user must recognize that no Manual
or regulation can substitute for experienced judgment. This
publication is intended for use by personnel competent to
evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and
able to accept responsibility for the application of the mate-
rial it contains.
With the sponsorship of
PCI Committee on Bridges
(Technical Activities Council)
and the
PCI Bridge Producers Committee
(Marketing Activities Council)
Under the direction of
Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee
Chuck Prussack, Co-Chairman Reid W. Castrodale, Co-Chairman
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Scott E. Olson
Roy L. Eriksson Joe Roche
Richard R. Imper Harold E. Wescott, Jr.
With contributions by
Maher K. Tadros, Principal Author
Principal Chapter Authors:
Alex Aswad Henry G. Russell Maher K. Tadros
Hussein Khalil Stephen J. Seguirant Stephen Zendegui
Mary Lou Ralls
Contributing Authors:
Sameh S. Badie James G. Gallt Mary Lou Ralls
Karen A. Bexten Richard J. Golec Mohsen A. Saleh
Kris G. Bassi James S. Guarre Eric J. Schindler
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Manouchehr Karshenas Mohsen A. Shahawy
Reid W. Castrodale M. Keith Kaufman Q. D. Spruill, Jr.
Steve L. Cheney Robert F. Mast Maher K. Tadros
Deborah B. Derrick (editing) Dennis Merwood
Project Manager and Editor-In-Chief
John S. Dick
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
CONCRETE INSTITUTE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The PCI Bridge Design Manual required the special talent and expertise of many individuals and firms. While
it is not possible to properly and completely recognize and acknowledge the contributions of so many, a par-
tial listing includes the following persons.
Bridge Design Manual Steering Committee
Chuck Prussack, Co-Chairman Reid W. Castrodale, Co-Chairman
Central Pre-Mix Prestress Co Ralph Whitehead Associates
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Scott E. Olson
Prestressed Concrete Association of Pennsylvania Elk River Concrete Products
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas Prestress Services of Kentucky, Inc
Richard R. Imper Harold E. Wescott, Jr.
Morse Bros. Inc, Prestress Concrete Group Precast Structures, Inc
Blue Ribbon Panel
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Greg Force
Prestressed Concrete Association of Pennsylvania Tindall Concrete Virginia, Inc
Reid W. Castrodale Daniel P. Jenny
Ralph Whitehead Associates Industry Consultant
Ned M. Cleland C. Douglas Sutton
Shockey Bros., Inc Purdue University
Manual Review Panel
Ernie Acree John B. Kelly
Bayshore Concrete Products Corporation Consultant
James M. Barker Sudhakar R. Kulkarni
HNTB Corporation Michigan Department of Transportation
Robert M. Barnoff Gordon Nagle
M. Barnoff & Associates Schuylkill Products, Inc
Heinrich O. Bonsted Scott E. Olson
Prestressed Concrete Association of Pennsylvania Elk River Concrete Products
Reid W. Castrodale S. K. Pal
Ralph Whitehead Associates
Vijay Chandra Rick Phillips
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas Wilson Concrete Co
William Clawson Phillip C. Pierce
HNTB Corporation McFarland-Johnson, Inc
William Gene Corley Kent Preston
Construction Technology Labs Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates
Jeffrey Davis Chuck Prussack
CPI Concrete Products Inc Central Pre-Mix Prestress Co.
Jeffrey Ehler Omar Qudus
Schemmer Associates Nebraska Department of Roads
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas Prestress Services of Kentucky
Larry G. Fischer Steve Sabra
Concrete Industries, Inc Nebraska Department of Roads
Jack J. Gabriel Rita Seraderian
Jacksonville Transportation Authority New England Region PCI
James R. Hoblitzell Lynden VanderVeen
Federal Highway Administration Nebraska Department of Roads
Richard R. Imper Edward P. Wasserman
Morse Bros. Inc, Prestress Concrete Group Tennessee Department of Transportation
Mostafa Jamshidi Harold E. Wescott, Jr.
Nebraska Department of Roads Precast Structures, Inc
Special contributions by the following persons and firms are gratefully acknowledged:
Karen Baldwin Maher K. Tadros
M. K. Communications University of Nebraska - Lincoln
Reid W. Castrodale Brian D. Goodmiller
Ralph Whitehead Associates PCI
Mark Leader Valorie Vieira
Leader Graphic Design, Inc PCI
Jerry Sill Cover Photo:
Spinnaker Litho Corp. Neil Kveberg
Project Manager, Editor-in-Chief
John S. Dick
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
Since the mid-1980s, the PCI Bridge Producers Committee and the PCI Committee
on Bridges have led plans for the development of this comprehensive Bridge Design
Manual. It was the consensus of bridge designers and producers alike that the 1980
publication, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Short Span Bridges - Spans to 100 Feet and the
1985 Design Supplement to Short Span Bridges had served their original purposes. This
Manual incorporates much more thorough information and revisions and updates
needed to reflect the extensive changes in the AASHTO Standard Specifications,
changes in concrete and manufacturing technologies, and coverage of the require-
ments of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. It also includes such timely topics as
continuity considerations, seismic requirements and spliced-beam innovations. It is
intended to have multiple uses including marketing, information and education for
bridge owners, practicing engineers, and university students.
Furthermore, regional groups and local producers have the ability to add local infor-
mation such as available sections, preferred systems, allowable bottom tension, load-
ing levels and concrete properties.
In preparation for development of the contents of this Manual, several surveys of
design professionals, owner agencies, regional associations, and precast concrete pro-
ducers were conducted over a span of ten years, the latest of which was in June 1994.
The contents of this Manual includes the top 27 topics identified by these surveys.
Much of the needed material does not exist in other publications. For example, hand
calculation examples using the LRFD Specifications, fabrication and erection, and pre-
liminary design aids appear here in a PCI publication for the first time. The exam-
ples and charts are given for concrete strengths representative of the state-of-the-art,
rather than the conventional values.
Based on the results of the surveys, a planning report was prepared for PCI in August
1994 by Richard Imper, Maher Tadros and Stephen Zendegui. The information from
the report was further developed by the PCI Bridge Design Manual Steering
Committee and became the outline and plan for the current Manual. Preparation of
the Manual began in June 1995 by a team of twenty-six authors, led by Maher
Tadros. The Manual development effort consisted of two phases. The first phase of
the Manual was published in October 1997 and the second phase scheduled for a
year later. Contents of the two phases as well as plans for future additions are given
below.
It should be emphasized that the Manual is intended to be continually expanded and
updated. As need arises, other topics from the following list such as integral bridges,
segmental bridges and bridge repair will be added. Updates are expected to be issued,
or otherwise made available, to registered Manual owners as they become necessary
and available.
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
JUL 03
BACKGROUND
Foreword
The Manual is intended to be a national document reflecting the latest knowledge
and successful practices. Since precast, prestressed concrete bridges have been in exis-
tence for almost fifty years, designers have resorted to a variety of resources, includ-
ing company brochures, state highway agency manuals, reference books and com-
puter software. These resources were fully utilized in the development of this Manual.
The authors, however, avoided making recommendations based on individual local
practices, or on ideas or concepts that have not been implemented in actual field con-
ditions. It is hoped that state highway agencies will use this Manual as their main
design guide, and supplement it with local criteria and details as needed.
There are a number of computer programs for design of precast concrete bridges.
Neither the authors nor PCI certify or endorse any of these programs. Rather, the
Manual is intended to explain the theories and practices of bridge design, regardless
of the software used in design. Some of the work presented in the Manual is based
on computer runs using several programs for verification purposes. However, the
Manuals use by designers does not require accessibility to any of these programs. A
popular method of utilizing personal computers in design is the use of spreadsheet
software. The examples given throughout the Manual are documented in adequate
detail to allow designers to develop their own spreadsheet programs for similar design
tasks.
The Manual is intended to provide a comprehensive document for the design, fabri-
cation and construction of bridges using precast or precast and prestressed concrete
components, including precast, post-tensioned products. The document is limited to
precast concrete elements produced in permanent manufacturing plants. It presents
recommendations recognizing all the best current industry practices available for use
by designers. Its flexible format allows for changes that occur in the industry. It is
intended to provide both advanced information for experienced designers and basic
information to designers, students and educators who are not familiar with bridge
design. It explains and applies the major AASHTO LRFD Specifications provisions
pertaining to prestressed concrete beams in addition to the current AASHTO
Standard Specifications criteria. In addition, it provides preliminary design aids to help
in selecting cost-effective bridge systems and in sizing of precast concrete members.
Chapter 1, Prestressed Concrete Bridges - The High Performance Solution: This is
a general promotional chapter with extensive illustrations. It includes the benefits of
precast concrete bridges for both new construction and rehabilitation. It gives exam-
ples of successful projects. This chapter includes introduction of various types of pre-
cast concrete products made nationally for bridge construction, and examples of
bridge beam shapes.
Chapter 2, Material Properties: Key properties of all major materials currently used
for precast, prestressed concrete bridge structures are explained in this chapter. It also
reviews concrete constituent materials and mix requirements for strength and dura-
bility, hardened concrete properties, prestressing and post-tensioning reinforcement,
nonprestressing reinforcement and concrete grouts. High performance concrete is
discussed. The chapter features a reference list of more than 120 relevant standards
and publications by AASHTO, ACI and ASTM. A chart cross-references the identi-
cal AASHTO and ASTM standards.
FOREWORD
JUL 03
OBJECTIVES
CONTENTS
Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction: This chapter describes the complete fab-
rication process and implications for design. It will help in educating the design pro-
fessional about general precast industry practices and explains product components
and details. It explains the impact different materials have on production. Quality
and fabrication control are described. Also covered are product evaluation and repair,
camber, sweep and accelerated curing. Transportation and erection are covered
including use of cranes, launching trusses and temporary support towers. Field-
placed concrete for decks and diaphragms is discussed.
Chapter 4, Strategies for Economy: Discusses the options that designers have to even
further improve the cost-effectiveness of precast, prestressed concrete bridges. Six sec-
tions outline and describe topics such as: geometry (span/depth, vertical and hori-
zontal curves, skewed ends and flared spans); designer options (structural system
selection, diaphragms, strand profiles, reinforcing details, bearing systems, high
strength concrete); fabrication systems; shipping and erection methods; and, the use
of other very economical precast products.
Chapter 5, Aesthetics: Sets forth guidelines by which aesthetics can become a part of
an engineers design technique, including geometry, superstructure type, pier shape,
abutment shape, surface treatment, signing, lighting and landscaping.
Chapter 6, Preliminary Design: Discusses the criteria that must be considered early
in bridge planning. Provides a host of charts and design graphs to assist in the selec-
tion of common bridge beams. Issues discussed include structure-type, hydraulics,
construction, utilities, safety and aesthetics. Piers, abutments and foundations are
discussed. Beam design charts are included for voided and solid slab beams, box
beams, AASHTO I-beams, AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beams, deck bulb-tee beams and
double-stemmed beams.
Chapter 7, Loads and Load Distribution: This subject is outlined and discussed
according to both the AASHTO Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications.
Live load effects are emphasized and moments and shear forces discussed. Live load
distribution factors are listed and described for common types of precast concrete
superstructures. Findings and recommendations are presented concerning refined
methods of analysis.
Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedure: Extensive review of design procedures
that includes: introduction to prestressed concrete fundamentals; critical section and
fiber locations; estimation of number of strands; cracking moment; ultimate flexure;
and maximum and minimum reinforcement limits. Also included: bond, transfer
and development lengths; shear; loss of prestress; deflection; slab design and analysis
and detailing for creep effects at pier joints.
Chapter 9, Design Examples: Three design problems illustrate the step-by-step
process for design. Each design case is solved by both the AASHTO Standard
Specifications and the LRFD Specifications. Bridge types included are a simple-span
adjacent box beam bridge, typical simple-span AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge
and a three-span bulb-tee beam bridge made continuous for live load and impact.
Each example solution provides details, explanation and precise reference to the
applicable specification section.
FOREWORD
JUL 03
Chapter 10, Bearings: Contains selection and detailing guides for elastomeric bear-
ings and an introduction to other types of bearings. Examples illustrate the AASH-
TO Standard Method A, Method B and AASHTO LRFD procedures.
Chapter 11, Extending Spans: Describes the effectiveness of various methods of
extending span capacity such as the use of high strength concrete, continuity, spliced
beams and post-tensioned beams. Discusses effects on substructure geometry.
Contains numerical design examples and examples of successful details of recently
constructed bridges.
Chapter 12, Curved and Skewed Bridges: Covers ordinary highway and specialty
bridges. Emphasizes stringer bridge systems. Looks at effects of skew and curvature
on design and detailing of both superstructure and substructure. Issues related to
handling and transportation are also covered.
Chapter 13, Integral Bridges: Future addition.
Chapter 14, Segmental Design and Construction: Future addition.
Chapter 15, Seismic Design: Simplified as well as detailed analysis are presented.
Connections between precast concrete superstructure and substructure for seismic
resistance are covered as well as numerical examples.
Chapter 16, Additional Bridge Products: Covers design and detailing of such pre-
cast bridge products as piers, abutments, full-depth deck panels, stay-in-place com-
posite deck panels, piles, pile caps, railings, culverts and earth retaining systems.
Chapter 17, Railroad Bridges: Includes the specific requirements for railroad
bridges, and the benefits of precast concrete. Covers typical product details and con-
struction considerations. Includes worked-out examples.
Chapter 18, Load Rating Procedures: Describes strength evaluation including rating
factors and load testing. Covers analysis and load distribution methods according to
both AASHTO Standard and LRFD Specifications.
Chapter 19, Repair and Rehabilitation: Future addition.
Chapter 20, Piles: Future addition.
Chapter 21, Recreational Bridges: Future addition.
Appendix A, Notation
Appendix B, AASHTO/PCI Standard Products
Appendix C, Local/Regional Products
FOREWORD
JUL 03
Appendix D, Sample Specifications
Appendix E, Glossary
Appendix F, PCI Certification Programs
This Manual has undergone a series of reviews during its preparation. The process
was under the direction of the Project Manager who in turn worked with the guid-
ance of the Manual Steering Committee. Formal reviews were performed by a
Manual Review Panel and a Blue Ribbon Panel. The members of the Manual Review
Panel were not asked to review all chapters of the Manual. Each member volunteered
to review the chapter or chapters where they felt they could provide expertise. Some
members of the MRP did review all chapters. The process was developed to ensure
that the Manual meets the quality standards of the Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, includes state-of-the-art information and is representative of industry prac-
tices and procedures. Members of the Manual Steering Committee, the Manual
Review Panel and the Blue Ribbon Panel were approved by the PCI Board of
Directors and are identified in the Acknowledgments section of this Manual.
The outline of the contents of the Manual was first submitted to the Manual Review
Panel (MRP) for review. The revised outline was then provided to the principal chap-
ter authors for their use in planning content. All communication between PCI and
the individual authors was conducted by the Manuals Principal Author. The princi-
pal chapter authors generally employed the services of two or more co-authors to
assist in writing and review.
Upon completion of a first draft, or Authors Draft, the manuscript was submitted
to PCI for review by the MRP. As comments were received, they were sent back to
the authors for consideration for inclusion.
A second draft, or Ballot Draft, was again reviewed by the MRP. This time, the
review accompanied a formal ballot which either requested or required the consider-
ation of the review comments to the satisfaction of the reviewer. The revised manu-
script was presented to PCI for editing and the final review.
At this stage of development, the Manual manuscript was layed-out and typeset in its final
format. It was then submitted to the Blue Ribbon Panel (BRP). Members of the BRP were
selected by the PCI Technical Activities Council (TAC) and the Manual Steering
Committee. Selection was based on the members expertise and to satisfy the requirement
by PCI policies that all technical publications be reviewed and approved by TAC.
The BRP review was returned with a formal ballot (with the same rules as the earli-
er Ballot Draft by the MRP). BRP comments were incorporated, the manuscript
given a final edit, then released for printing.
Future changes to the Manual will undergo a similar review process. However, the MRP
will be replaced with the combined members of the PCI Bridge Producers Committee
and the Committee on Bridges. The BRP review will be undertaken by TAC.
FOREWORD
JUL 03
THE REVIEW PROCESS
1 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES
THE HIGH PERFORMANCE SOLUTION
Phase 1, Under Development
2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Notation
2.1 Scope
2.2 Plant Products
2.3 Concrete Materials
2.4 Selection of Concrete Mix Requirements
2.5 Concrete Properties
2.6 Grout Materials
2.7 Prestressing Strand
2.8 Nonprestressed Reinforcement
2.9 Post-Tensioning Materials
2.10 Fiber Reinforced Plastic Reinforcement
2.11 Reinforcement Sizes and Properties
2.12 Relevant Standards and Publications
3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Scope
3.2 Product Components and Details
3.3 Fabrication
3.4 Plant Quality Control and Quality Assurance
3.5 Transportation
3.6 Installation
3.7 Diaphragms
3.8 Precast Deck Panels
3.9 References
4 STRATEGIES FOR ECONOMY
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Geometry
4.2 Design
4.3 Production
4.4 Delivery and Erection
4.5 Other Products
4.6 Additional Considerations
4.7 Summary and References
5 AESTHETICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
7115 PCI Bridge Manual TOC REV. 7/1/03 3:51 PM Page 1
6 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Notation
6.0 Scope
6.1 Preliminary Plan
6.2 Superstructure
6.3 Substructures
6.4 Foundations
6.5 Preliminary Member Selection
6.6 Description of Design Charts
6.7 Preliminary Design Examples
6.8 References
6.9 Preliminary Design Charts
7 LOADS AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
Notation
7.1 Scope
7.2 Load Types
7.3 Load Combinations and Design Methods
7.4 Live Load Distribution - Standard Specifications
7.5 Simplified Distribution Methods - LRFD Specifications
7.6 Refined Analysis Methods
7.7 References
8 DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Notation
8.0 AASHTO Specification References
8.1 Principles and Advantages of Prestressing
8.2 Flexure
8.3 Strand Transfer and Development Lengths
8.4 Shear
8.5 Horizontal Interface Shear
8.6 Loss of Prestress
8.7 Camber and Deflection
8.8 Deck Slab Design
8.9 Transverse Design of Adjacent Box Beam Bridges
8.10 Lateral Stability of Slender Members
8.11 Bending Moments and Shear Forces Due to Vehicular Live Loads
8.12 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Disturbed Regions
8.13 Detailed Methods of Time-Dependent Analysis
8.14 References
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
9 DESIGN EXAMPLES
Notation
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Design Example - AASHTO Box Beam, BIII-48, Single Span with Non-
Composite Wearing Surface. Designed in accordance with AASHTO
Standard Specifications.
9.2 Design Example - AASHTO Box Beam, BIII-48, Single Span with Non-
Composite Wearing Surface. Designed in accordance with AASHTO LRFD
Specifications.
9.3 Design Example - AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee, BT-72, Single Span with
Composite Deck. Designed in accordance with AASHTO Standard
Specifications.
9.4 Design Example - AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee, BT-72, Single Span with
Composite Deck. Designed in accordance with AASHTO LRFD
Specifications.
9.5 Design Example - AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee, BT-72, Three-Span with
Composite Deck (Made Continuous for Live Load). Designed in accordance
with AASHTO Standard Specifications.
9.6 Design Example - AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee, BT-72, Three-Span with
Composite Deck (Made Continuous for Live Load). Designed in accordance
with AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
9.7 Design Example - Precast Concrete Stay-In-Place Deck Panel System.
Designed in accordance with AASHTO Standard Specifications.
9.8 Design Example - Precast Concrete Stay-In-Place Deck Panel System.
Designed in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
10 BEARINGS
11 EXTENDING SPANS
12 CURVED AND SKEWED BRIDGES
Notation
12.1 Scope
12.2 Skew and Grade Effects
12.3 Curved Bridge Configurations
12.4 Preliminary Design
12.5 Structural Behavior of Curved-Beam Bridges
12.6 Detailed Design
12.7 Fabrication
12.8 Handling, Transportation and Erection
12.9 Design Example
12.10 Detailed Design
12.11 References
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
13 INTEGRAL BRIDGES
Future Addition
14 SEGMENTAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Future Addition
15 SEISMIC DESIGN
16 ADDITIONAL BRIDGE PRODUCTS
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Stay-In-Place Deck Panels
16.3 Full-Depth Deck Panels
16.4 Piles
16.5 Pile Bent Caps
16.6 Piers
16.7 Abutments
16.8 Earth Retaining Systems
16.9 Railings
16.10 Culverts
16.11 References
17 RAILROAD BRIDGES
Notation
17.0 Introduction
17.1 Typical Products and Details
17.2 Construction Considerations
17.3 The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-Of-Way
Association Load Provisions
17.4 Current Design Practice
17.5 Case Study No. 1Truss Bridge Replacement
17.6 Case Study No. 2Timber Trestle Replacement
17.7 Design ExampleDouble-Cell Box Beam, Single Span, Non-
Composite, Designed in Accordance with AREMA Specifications
17.8 References
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
18 LOAD RATING PROCEDURES
Notation
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Loading and Distribution
18.3 Rating Methodology
18.4 Rating by Load Testing
18.5 Rating Example
18.6 References
19 REPAIR AND REHABILITATION
Future Addition
20 PILES
Future Addition
21 RECREATIONAL BRIDGES
Future Addition
APPENDIX A
Notation
APPENDIX B
AASHTO/PCI Standard Products
APPENDIX C
Local/Regional Products
APPENDIX D
Sample Specifications
APPENDIX E
Glossary
APPENDIX F
PCI Certification Programs
Note: Each chapter contains its own thorough table of contents.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
B R I D G E D E S I G N
Since its introduction in the United States in 1949, precast, prestressed
concrete has rapidly become the preferred composite material for bridge
design and construction. Today, it remains the solution of choice for
transportation agencies and their bridge designers across the country. This
growth came, and will continue to come, from the commitment of precasters
to develop, improve, and implement advanced materials, products and
technology all aimed at enhancing the performance of these bridges and the
options available to the designer.
This publication is intended to provide the designer with an understanding
of the precast, prestressed concrete industry and an introduction to the
application of this material to bridge design and construction.
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridges
The High Performance Solution
7161 Bridge Book CH1_v2 SINGLE 9/25/03, 2:53 PM 1
The combination of prestressed high strength steel to counteract tensile
stresses, and high performance concrete to provide compressive strength,
makes this unique composite material adaptable to many situations,
especially to the design and construction of bridges.
Professor Gustav Magnel, one of the pioneers of
prestressed concrete, explained it very simply to his
students by using a stack of books. When concrete is
precompressed, as the lower row of books are, it can
carry not only its own weight but also a signifcant
amount of superimposed loads, represented by
the books on top.
There are two ways of introducing prestress into a concrete member:
Post-tensioning applies to concrete where steel strands or bars are
tensioned against the concrete after the concrete has hardened. Cement
grout is usually pumped to fll the duct.
Pretensioning applies to concrete where steel strands are tensioned
between abutments before the concrete is placed in the forms. After the
concrete has hardened, force in the strands is transferred to the concrete
by releasing anchors at the abutments. The transfer of force occurs
through the bond between concrete and steel.

The single most important event leading to the founding of the precast,
prestressed concrete industry in North America was the construction, in
1949 and 50, of the famed Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in Fairmont Park,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. From a technical perspective it is innovative, and
from an historical perspective, it is fascinating that the Walnut Lane Memorial
Bridge was constructed with prestressed concrete. Consider that there was
very little published information on the subject and no experience with linear
prestressing in this country. The bridge became a reality through a fortunate
sequence of events, and the vision, courage and persistence of a few
extraordinary individuals.
Growth of the Industry
2
Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge
Photo: Lawrence S. Williams, Inc.
The 1950s was the decade that saw the introduction of 7-wire prestressing
strand, plant pretensioning, long-line steel casting beds, chemical admixtures,
high early-strength concrete, steam curing and many other innovations.
These developments coupled with the technical and logistical support
provided by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), chartered in
1954, fostered the rapid growth of the industry. Applications of precast and
prestressed concrete designs quickly began to appear in a wide variety of
impressive structures. By 1958, there were more than 200 prestressing plants
in the United States.
Precast and prestressed concrete products, while designed in accordance
with evolving engineering standards, gained an excellent reputation because
the industry, early on, recognized the need for quality above all else.
PCIs Plant Certifcation program quickly became an integral part of plant
production. PCI Plant Certifcation assures specifers that each manufacturing
plant has been audited for its processes and its capability to consistently
produce quality products.
The National Bridge Inventory, maintained by the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA), reveals that of about 475,000 bridges with spans of
20 feet and more, 173,000 are rated as substandard.
The fact that a bridge is defcient does not imply that it is unsafe or is likely
to collapse. It may be either structurally or functionally defcient. A defcient
bridge may need signifcant maintenance, rehabilitation or sometimes, even
replacement. Proper load posting, restricted use and various other methods
of traffc control can allow these bridges to continue to be used.
What is causing the nations bridge problem? One contributing factor is
age the average age of all bridges is now about 45 years. Another factor
is increasing vehicle sizes and weights, as well as traffc volumes, that are
well beyond what many structures were designed for when they were put
into service. A third major factor was limited corrosion resistance in coastal
regions and the increasing use of de-icing salts in cold climates. These
salts seep through and under the bridge decks, corroding reinforcing bars
in decks, in beams and in substructures. Salts readily attack exposed steel
members.
Performance of Prestressed Concrete Bridges
3
Studies of the National Bridge Inventory data clearly indicate the superior
performance of prestressed concrete bridges when compared to the
performance of other materials of an equal age.
In addition, owners and designers have long recognized the low initial
cost, low maintenance requirements and extended life expectancy of
prestressed concrete bridges. This is refected in the increasing market share
of prestressed concrete, which has grown from zero percent in 1950 to
about 50 percent now. Its the only structural material to have experienced
continuous growth during this period.
This growth is not only refected in short-span bridges, but is also now
occurring for spans over 150 feet. These spans have been the exclusive
domain of structural steel for many years.
Precast concrete bridges have also been shown to be highly durable and
fre resistant, and they have excellent riding characteristics. Precast concrete
bridges can be installed during all seasons and opened to traffc more rapidly
than any other permanent type of
bridge. In addition, very slender
bridges can be achieved with
solid slabs, box beams, multi
stemmed units and I-beams. The
clean, attractive lines of concrete
beams help bridge designers
meet the most demanding
aesthetic requirements.
Since 1950, tens of thousands of prestressed bridges have been built and
many are under construction in all parts of the United States. They range in
size from short spans
to medium spans
to some of the largest bridge projects in the world.
4
Source: National Bridge Inventory Data
There are several good reasons why
precast, prestressed concrete bridges
have gained such wide acceptance.
Some bridge designers are surprised
to learn that precast, prestressed
concrete bridges are usually lower
in frst cost than other types of
bridges. Coupled with savings in
maintenance, precast bridges offer
maximum economy. Case-after-case
can be cited at locations throughout
the United States, and these bridges
are attractive as well as economical.
The overall economy of a structure
is measured in terms of its life-cycle
costs. This includes the initial cost of
the structure plus the total operating
costs. For stationary bridges, the
operating cost is the maintenance
cost. Precast, prestressed concrete
bridges designed and built in
accordance with AASHTO or AREMA
specifcations should require little,
if any, maintenance. Because of
the high quality of materials used,
prestressed members are particularly
durable. Fatigue problems are
nonexistent because traffc loads
induce only minor net stresses.
Advantages of Prestressed Concrete Bridges
5
Low Initial Cost
The state of Minnesota
saved more than 16% half a
million dollars by planning for
a prestressed alternate to a steel
bridge. The 700-foot-long bridge is
jointless up to the abutments and
is the longest continuous bridge
in the state. It also contained the
states longest single concrete span.
A Minnesota transportation offcial
stated, Originally, we didnt think
concrete was suited to thisbridge.
However, the fabricator showed
us it was a viable alternative.
Everything went smoothlywere
well satisfed
Minimal Maintenance
On the Illinois Toll Highway System, during 1957 and 1958, the
superstructures of more than 250 bridges were built with precast
prestressed concrete I-beams. They span up to 90 feet and some of
them have precast stay-in-place deck panels, precast diaphragms,
and 94 use spun-cast, hollow cylinder pile column bents. They
have withstood heavy traffc, severe weathering and very high salt
applications. Yet, these bridges have required very little maintenance.
Other projects in all parts of North America have exhibited similar
experience little or no maintenance has been required on precast
prestressed concrete bridges.
Of course, no painting is needed. Some bridge engineers estimate the life-
cycle cost of re-painting steel bridges to be 15 to 25% of the initial cost.
Painting bridges is environmentally unfriendly and can be especially expensive
when accomplished over busy highways, streams and railroad rights-of-way,
or in rugged terrain.
Precast, prestressed concrete bridge components are easy to erect,
particularly when the tops of the units form the entire deck slab called
an integral deck bridge. Formwork and site-cast concrete are eliminated.
Connections between these adjacent units often consist of welding adjoining
plates and grouting a continuous keyway. Carefully planned details speed the
construction process and result in overall economy.
6
Durable Concrete
One of the reasons for
selecting prestressed concrete
beams with integral precast decks
for this bridge was the durability
of prestressed concrete and
the resulting low maintenance
requirements. As a result of a
winter food, the single lane
bridge on a major forest road was
washed out, cutting access to a
U.S. highway for a half dozen
homesincluding one with an
elderly resident needing continuing
medical care. In only 15 days of
receiving plans, the precaster had
fabricated the two, 135-foot-long
spans with 7-6-wide integral
decks, and the bridge was opened
to traffc 3 days later 18 days in
all. The U.S. Forest Service stated
that the bridge was least expensive,
fastest and the best solution.
Integral deck bridges can be set
on precast or other abutments and
erected through practically any
weather. They can be opened to
traffc very rapidly.
7
Simple Solution
Replacing this bridge on US Route 95 in Idaho illustrates another example
of the advantages of very fast, yet simple construction:
New Years Day: Rains and melting snow washed out this bridge over the
Little Salmon River linking the northern and southern parts of the state.
January 4: The Idaho Department of Transportation contacted the precaster
to investigate solutions. They determined that the fastest way to replace the
three spans was to use a single 80-foot span comprised of bulb-tees with an
integral deck. The top fange would be 8-inches thick and 8-6 wide. The
diaphragms would also be precast onto the ends of the girders.
January 8: Engineers in the Bridge Section approved shop drawings and
tensioning calculations.
January 18: Bulb-tees were shipped 240 miles and set in placejust 17 days
after the food! Included in the shipment were intermediate steel diaphragms,
guardrail posts and guardrailall the components to complete the structure.
January 25: The project was completed. The bridge was in service just 24
days after the food!
All Weather Construction
In Ketchikan, Alaska, a bridge
on the only highway to the north
was washed out when an old dam
gave way on October 26. Integral
deck girders were selected for the
85-ft span. The 12 girders were
designed and precast in the state of
Washington, then shipped by rail
and barge to Alaska. The girders
were installed and the bridge was
completed and opened to traffc on
December 19 - only 54 days after
the washout - despite the problems
of design, remote location, great
distances, and adverse weather
conditions during the onset of an
Alaskan winter!
The planned replacement of substandard bridges can be accomplished easily
with precast prestressed sections. In some cases, existing abutments can be
used, but in others, it is easier and more economical to build new ones, or to
utilize precast abutments and wing walls supported on cast-in-place footings.
The replacement of bridges may not always be easy to plan in advance. Fires,
foods and accidents are but a few reasons for emergency replacements
or repairs. Precast concrete and industry manufacturers have consistently
demonstrated response to disasters large and small.
8
Fast Construction
Mitchell Gulch Bridge, southeast of Denver, was scheduled for
replacement with three, 10 ft by 6 ft cast-in-place box culverts. This
would require three months of traffc detour on a key commuter route
carrying 12,000 vehicles per day. A contractor-suggested alternate
resulted in the replacement of the bridge in less than 48 hours
requiring traffc interruption only from Friday night until Sunday.
The project required driving H-piles in advance of closure,
dismantling the old bridge, then installing a precast wingwall and
abutment system. Next, prestressed voided slabs were installed and
grouted along the joints. Fill was placed over the slabs and compacted.
Finally, asphalt paving was laid and the bridge opened to traffc.
Commuters on Monday morning werent any the wiser exactly as
planned!
A common requirement of bridges is that the superstructure be as shallow
as possible in order to provide maximum clearance with minimum approach
grades. Through the technique of prestressing, the designer is able to utilize
the maximum possible span-to-depth ratio. Span-to-depth ratios as high
as 35:1, or even more, can be achieved with solid slabs, voided slabs, box
beams, multi-stemmed units, I-beams or bulb-tee sections, each within
their respective span ranges. Even though deeper sections will require
less prestressing steel, the overall economy of a project may dictate the
shallowest available section.
9
Emergency Response
In1996, the bridge over Salt Creek on I-75 near Venice, Florida, was
damaged beyond repair when a tanker loaded with diesel fuel crashed
and rolled underneath. The fve-span, 330-foot-long bridge required
25 AASHTO beams, 65 ft, 3-1/2 in. long. Exposed precast piles were
salvaged by cutting them just below ground line, then splicing on
precast extensions. The extensions arrived on-site just two days after
they were ordered. The frst fve beams were delivered and erected
four days after production began, and all 25 beams arrived within
seven days. The new bridge was reopened to traffc just 18 days after
the accident.
In May 2002, two barges hit and collapsed four spans of the I-40
bridge over the Arkansas River near Webber Falls, Oklahoma. Fourteen
people were lost. Originally steel, three spans were replaced with 36,
72-in.-deep precast bulb-tee beams, 130-feet long. After a spectacular
effort by the entire design and construction team, the bridge was
opened to traffc in just 65 days. State offcials stated that, precast
concrete offered us a speed advantage over replacing the entire bridge
with steel.
Interstate 65 in Birmingham, Alabama was brought to a standstill
on a Saturday morning in January 2002, when a tanker load of gasoline
crashed and burned under a steel bridge. The state quickly designed
a replacement bridge and construction began only 16 days after the
accident. Prestressed concrete bulb-tee beams, 54-in. deep and 140-ft
long, were used in the new bridge, which was both wider and some
20-ft longer to provide for additional future lanes. Using high strength
concrete that achieved 8,500 psi in 14 days, the span-to-depth ratio
is an impressive 31:1. Fabrication of the beams required only 15 days.
The new bridge was opened to traffc just 65 days after the accident
and 36 days after construction began. A state designer said that precast
concrete could be cast and delivered to the jobsite before steel
fabricators could even procure material and start fabrication. The
general contractor said, There was no way we could have gone with
steel girders because the lead time was prohibitive. The precast was on
site within a very short period of time.
10
Slender Bridges
The Sedley Bridge provides a
crossing for county Rt. 475W over
the Norfolk Southern/CSX Railroad
tracks in Porter County, Indiana.
Faced with severe clearance
and approach embankment
constraints, the designer chose
a unique through-girder solution
that resulted in a 112-foot span
having an effective structure
depth of just 14 inches.
The Yale Avenue Bridge carries Interstate 25 over Yale Avenue, a busy
urban arterial in Denver, Colorado. The structure was Colorados entry
in the Federal Highway Administrations High Performance Concrete
Showcase program. It is designed for traditional Interstate highway
loading. The adjacent, single-cell box beams measure 67 in. wide by 30
inches deep and use 10,000 psi concrete (at 56 days). The bridge has two
continuous spans (for live load) of 100 and 114 ft and is 138-ft wide.
Composite topping has a minimum thickness of 5 in. for a total structure
depth of 35 in. and a span-to-depth ratio of 39:1.
The San Angelo (Texas) Bridges, carrying U.S. 87 over the North
Concho River and South Orient Railroad, are parallel, eight- and nine-span
structures. One bridge used primarily conventional concrete and the other,
high performance concrete as part of the Federal Highway Administrations
HPC Showcase program. Designed as simple spans, one used 0.6-in.-
diameter strands with 13,500 psi concrete to achieve a length of 157-ft
with 54-in.-deep beams plus 3-1/2-in.-thick precast concrete deck panels
plus 4-1/2-in. cast-in-place composite concrete topping to achieve a 30.4:1
span-to-depth ratio.
The Clarks Viaduct located in Omaha, is a four-span bridge over U.S.
Highway 30 and the Union Pacifc Railroad. It has a 52-degree skew and
spans of 100, 151, 148 and 128.5 ft. The superstructure is a modifed
Nebraska 1100 beam, 50-in. deep, using 8,500 psi concrete. The beams
sit on unique, individual cast-in-place pier tables to extend their spans.
The beams are made fully continuous for superimposed dead loads and
live load by splicing high-strength reinforcement extended from the ends
of the beams through the cast-in-place tables between the ends of the
beams. Including the 7-1/2-in. deck, the span-to-depth ratio is 31.5:1.
Beams that include integral
decks, such as this one, can
achieve exceptionally high span-
depth ratios. In addition, they
can be installed very quickly while
requiring little site-cast concrete.
Regardless of how they are viewed,
prestressed concrete bridges are
attractive from above, below, and
from the side because of the simple
and clean shapes of the members
used. The high span-to-depth ratios
made possible with prestressing,
result in strong, tough, durable and
yet graceful bridges.
11
Aesthetic Bridges
Two very different parks use precast concrete in special ways.
The Bridge over Clear Creek, Zion National Park, Utah, uses colored
aggregate, sandblasting and pigments to match the bridge to the
surrounding native stone. Costing just $60/SF, the project was
considerably less than either steel or CIP.
Two bridges in Kil-Cona Park in Winnipeg provide an attractive
compliment to these family recreational surroundings.
12
Attractive Bridges
More and more
often, designers are adding
architectural and aesthetic
treatments to precast bridges.
These include panels that
create an arch appearance
or decorative railings. Some
solutions are shown in the
accompanying photos.
13
Bridges are subjected to a hostile
environment as well as repeated
impact loadings. Some must endure
intense sun, high temperatures
and brackish water. Others must
withstand not only the freezing
and thawing provided by nature
but also the potential for damage
induced with the use of de-icing
chemicals. High strength prestressed
concrete has excellent freeze-thaw
and chemical resistance. Also,
prestressed concrete bridges are not
easily damaged by fre.
14
Fire Performance
The Washington State Route 509 Bridge over the Puyallup River
near Tacoma was damaged in December, 2002, when a railroad car
containing 30,000 gallons of methanol burned beneath span number
8. The span is 146 ft in length and uses 15 lines of 74-in.-deep bulb-tee
beams. An investigation revealed that the fre reached temperatures
of 3,000 degrees F. The study showed that no signifcant amount of
prestress was lost. A plan was immediately developed for repairs that
would permit the bridge to remain in service.
After this timber deck truss bridge burned, an extremely busy 2-lane
link was severed between two major population areas.
It was replaced by a safe, low maintenance, prestressed concrete
bridge with a record span for this area of 141 ft. It was erected without
falsework over an environmentally sensitive, salmon-bearing river. It
opened seven months after bid.
Steel girder bridges frequently
exhibit disturbing vibrations. The
natural frequency of vibration of
these bridges can coincide with
the frequencies of traffc and
then resonance occurs. There are
documented cases that show that
light bulbs in fxtures installed on
steel bridges burn out more rapidly
because of such vibrations. There
are indications that concrete decks
on steel bridges need replacement
signifcantly sooner then concrete
decks cast on concrete girders.
The natural frequency of vibration
of prestressed girder bridges,
because of their mass and stiffness,
does not coincide with vehicle
frequencies. The public will feel
safe, secure and comfortable when
riding on prestressed concrete
bridges. Owners report that decks
are less likely to crack prematurely
when built on stiff concrete
bridges.
Prestressed concrete is economical because it is an effcient composite of
high-strength steel and high performance concrete. To take advantage
of this effciency, precasting plants have developed sophisticated quality
control programs that assure the customer that products meet exacting
specifcations.
Precast prestressed concrete products
are rigorously inspected and quality is
controlled at the precasting plant. In fact,
each operation in the manufacturing
process provides for a point of scheduled
inspection and control.
Quality Assurance
15
Excellent Riding Characteristics
The public will not only
be safe but they will feel
more secure and comfortable
on a concrete bridge that
holds traffc vibrations to an
absolute minimum. Long
continuous spans and integral
abutments eliminate or
reduce expansion joints for a
smoother ride and reduced
maintenance.
During fabrication and handling, portions of prestressed concrete beams
are subjected to some of the highest stresses they will ever encounter as
structural members. So, in a sense, prestressed members are load-tested
during fabrication, handling and installation.
Engineers put their professional reputation on the line whenever they specify
a structural material. This requires that they work with the most reputable
and qualifed sources.
A plant that is PCI Certifed tells the engineer several important things:
The facility has demonstrated production and quality control
procedures that meet national industry standards.
A nationally recognized, independent consulting engineering frm
conducts at least two unannounced annual audits. The auditors
are accredited engineers. The frm is engaged by PCI for all audits
nation-wide.
Each plant must maintain a comprehensive Quality System Manual
(QSM) based on national standards and approved by PCI. The QSM is
available for review by owner agencies.
The rigid audits cover more than 150 items. Standards are based on the
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast
Concrete, PCI manual MNL-116. The audits evaluate concrete materials
and stockpiles, concrete mixing, transporting, placing, consolidation and
fnishing. Procedures are inspected for tensioning of strands and transfer
of prestress; concrete curing and temperature controls; product stripping,
handling and storage. In-house QC procedures are reviewed thoroughly.
In addition, engineering, shop drawings, record keeping and many other
practices related to quality production are examined.
QC personnel must be PCI-Certifed, attained by passing written and
practical examinations.
The designer will know that the producer has PCI confrmed capabilities
and that the producer stands behind their products.
Failure to maintain acceptable standards makes loss of certifcation mandatory.
16
Totally Precast Concrete Bridges
Work zones and detours are diffcult problems faced by highway agencies.
Using precast concrete and with techniques such as integral deck bridges,
traffc interruptions can be minimized because of the availability of plant-
produced sections and the speed of erecting and completing the bridge.
The versatility of the precast, prestressed concrete industry provides the
designer with many options. Can one use precast bridge components to
build an Instant Bridge? Almost! There are many ways to put a bridge
together with precast concrete products.
In addition to the well known superstructure elements girders and deck
slabs substructure components can be precast.
Precast concrete piles are quite
popular in many parts of the
country. They come in different sizes
and shapes, ranging from 10-inch-
square piles to 66-inch-diameter
cylindrical piles such as this 172-ft-
long unit.
In addition, pile caps can be precast.
17
There are many benefts to using precast concrete elements to construct
prefabricated bridges. They include:
A single contractor working with only one familiar material can control
the schedule for erection of the entire bridge.
Precast concrete structural elements are made in manufacturing plants
under controlled conditions in advance of need and stockpiled for
just-in-time delivery and erection.
No need for curing cast-in-place concrete: precast bridge piers can be
erected in one working day and beams can be erected immediately
following the piers.
Corrosion resistance and excellent concrete quality is provided through
in-plant manufacture of all of the structural elements.
Fully cured precast concrete structural elements can be delivered to the site.
These elements contain little potential for additional shrinkage or creep.
Owner agencies complete more work in a shorter period of time,
resulting in:
Reduced cost of handling traffc
Reduced accident exposure
Reduced inconvenience to the traveling public
Fewer motorist complaints
Contractors beneft from:
Reduced exposure of personnel to traffc hazards
Greater dollar volume of work accomplished in a shorter period
Fewer delays due to weather conditions
Less dependence on remote delivery of ready-mixed concrete
Lower costs for:
Forms
Cranes
Skilled feld labor
Scaffolding and shoring
The same crane already needed on the job site for erecting beams and
girders may be used for erecting bridge piers and other elements.
Piers and abutments can also be
made of precast concrete pieces
quickly assembled in the feld.
18
Reduction of motorist delays, complaints and accidents. According to
a report by the Texas Transportation Institute, costs incurred by drivers
passing through a work zone, along with engineering costs, can be
$10,000 to $20,000 per day. In urban areas, a federal report states that
the cost of work zones can reach $50,000 per day.
19
Minimal Traffc Disruption
In San Juan, Puerto Rico,
the four, totally precast concrete
Baldorioty de Castro Avenue
bridges were built in record-
setting time, attractively and
economically.
Each of four bridges, ranging
in length from 700 to 900 feet,
was erected in less than 36 hours
thats from the time traffc was
re-routed on Friday night until
traffc resumed over the new
bridge on Saturday or Sunday!
This included the piers, the
superstructure, the overlay and
lighting. It was well within the
owners construction allowance
of 72 hours per bridge; a
condition established to minimize
disruption to one of the citys
most highly traveled corridors.
In addition to speed, the
bridges also met the citys
budgetary needs. The four box-
beam bridges were constructed
for $2 million less than the next
lowest bid for another material.
In addition, the bridges will prove
durable and maintenance-free,
adding value to this investment.


The Future
Innovation in bridge construction has been, and will continue to be the
ongoing focus in the precast concrete industry. The development of
horizontally curved precast concrete bridges is one such example out of
the past.
Another development was the use of precast deck panels. Used as stay-in-
place forms, the panels improve safety on the jobsite, reduce feld placement
of reinforcing steel and concrete for bridge decks, resulting in considerable
savings. The panels become composite for live loads with the feld-placed
concrete and are now common in many states.
20
Material properties, such as corrosion resistance, fre resistance and durability
have been improved in a process of continuous evolution. These inherent
qualities of precast, prestressed concrete together with a high degree of
design fexibility also make it ideal for a wide variety of other applications
such as poles, storage tanks, retaining walls, railroad sleepers and sound
barriers. All have benefted from plant standardization and the production
repetitions achieved from it.
21
Concrete in the 12,000 to 14,000 psi range is already commercially available.
The Louetta Road Bridge in Houston, Texas and the 120th Street and Giles
Road Bridge in Sarpy County, Nebraska, both completed in 1996, are
examples of bridges with 12,000 to 14,000 psi concrete girders and 5,000
to 8,000 psi concrete decks. Further, the Louetta Road Bridge utilizes high
strength precast concrete hollow segmental piers. The Federal Highway
Administration, jointly with PCI and numerous states, has consistently
promoted the use of High Performance Concrete in bridge applications.
High Performance Concrete often involves higher than average compressive
strength. But other factors, such as stiffness, permeability and abrasion
resistance, in addition to strength, may be requirements of High Performance
Concrete. This often depends on the geographic location of the bridge and
the component for which it is used.
The benefts of High Performance Concrete include: 1) reduced initial
construction costs resulting from wider beam spacing and, 2) longer spans
and reduced long-term costs that result because of fewer replacements
and fewer repairs.
22
Lightweight aggregate concrete with strengths in the 7,000 to 10,000 psi
range is possible. Lightweight concrete reduces dead loads and results in
lower seismic forces.
Synthetic, organic and steel fbers have been shown to improve toughness
and shrinkage cracking. Recent developments in high performance fber-
reinforced concrete hold promise in terms of performance and cost-
effectiveness.
Strands of larger diameters and higher strengths will become more common
as higher strength concretes are used and the demand for higher prestress
force increases. When 0.6-inch diameter strands are used in conjunction with
high strength concrete, in the 10,000 to 12,000 psi range, standard I-beams
and other products have signifcantly increased span capabilities. Standard
products can be stretched to spans never thought possible before. Epoxy-
coated and enhanced strands will further increase product versatility.
Nonmetallic reinforcement such as glass, carbon and aramid fber composites
will be increasingly used for special applications. A recent demonstration
project has shown the compatibility of carbon fber strands for prestressing
a double-tee bridge. Both internally bonded pretensioning and external
unbonded prestressing systems were used.
Prestressed concrete got its start as a unique composite material. Further
developments by the industry and its suppliers have continued to refne the
performance of the product for a wide range of bridge applications.
Today, it gives the public extraordinarily good value for their money.
The reputation of the precast, prestressed concrete industry has been built
on the strength, imagination, consistency and integrity of its people and
products alike. These attributes will continue to make prestressed concrete
the solution of choice for the nations bridges... not only today, but far into
the future.
23
0.7
Nonmetallic Strand
Corrosion-Resistant Coatings
Stainless-Clad
Corrosion-Resistant Steel
209 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago IL 60606
Tel: 312/786-0300 Fax: 312/786-0353 Email: info@pci.org www.pci.org
CONCRETE INSTITUTE
NOTATION
2.1 SCOPE
2.2 PLANT PRODUCTS
2.2.1 Advantages
2.3 CONCRETE MATERIALS
2.3.1 Cement
2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85
2.3.1.2 AASHTO M240
2.3.1.3 Restrictions
2.3.2 Aggregates
2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures
2.3.3.1 Purpose
2.3.3.2 Calcium Chloride
2.3.3.3 Corrosion Inhibitors
2.3.3.4 Air-Entraining Admixtures
2.3.4 Mineral Admixtures
2.3.4.1 Pozzolans
2.3.4.2 Silica Fume
2.3.5 Water
2.4 SELECTION OF CONCRETE MIX REQUIREMENTS
2.4.1 Concrete Strength at Release
2.4.2 Concrete Strength at Service Loads
2.4.3 High Performance Concrete
2.4.4 Durability
2.4.4.1 Freeze-Thaw Damage
2.4.5 Workability
2.4.6 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
2.4.6.1 Based on Strength
2.4.6.2 Based on Durability
2.4.7 Unit Weight
2.4.7.1 Normal Weight Concrete
2.4.7.2 Lightweight Concrete
2.4.7.3 Blended Aggregates
2.4.8 Effect of Heat Curing
2.4.9 Sample Mixes
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
4402 Bridge Manual Ch2 8/18/03 12:18 PM Page 1
2.5 CONCRETE PROPERTIES
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Compressive Strength
2.5.2.1 Variation with Time
2.5.2.2 Effect of Accelerated Curing
2.5.3 Modulus of Elasticity
2.5.3.1 Calculations (E
c
)
2.5.3.2 Variations (E
c
)
2.5.4 Modulus of Rupture
2.5.5 Durability
2.5.6 Heat of Hydration
2.5.7 Shrinkage
2.5.7.1 Calculation of Shrinkage
2.5.8 Creep
2.5.8.1 Calculation of Creep
2.5.9 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
2.6 GROUT MATERIALS
2.6.1 Definitions and Applications
2.6.2 Types and Characteristics of Grout
2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements
2.6.2.2 Materials
2.6.3 ASTM Tests
2.6.4 Grout Bed Materials
2.6.5 Epoxy Resins
2.6.6 Overlays
2.6.7 Post-Tensioned Members
2.7 PRESTRESSING STRAND
2.7.1 Strand Types
2.7.1.1 Epoxy-Coated Strand
2.7.1.1.1 Effect of Heat
2.7.2 Material Properties
2.7.3 Relaxation
2.7.4 Fatigue Strength
2.7.4.1 Stress Range
2.7.5 Surface Condition
2.7.6 Splicing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
2.8 NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT
2.8.1 Deformed Bars
2.8.1.1 Specifications
2.8.1.2 Corrosion Protection
2.8.2 Mechanical Splices
2.8.2.1 Types
2.8.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement
2.8.4 Fatigue Strength
2.9 POST-TENSIONING MATERIALS
2.9.1 Strand Systems
2.9.2 Bar Systems
2.9.3 Splicing
2.9.4 Ducts
2.10 FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC REINFORCEMENT
2.10.1 Introduction
2.10.2 Mechanical Properties
2.10.2.1 Short-Term
2.10.2.2 Long-Term
2.10.3 Applications
2.10.4 Products
2.11 REINFORCEMENT SIZES AND PROPERTIES
Table 2.11.1 Properties and Design Strengths of Prestressing Steel
Figure 2.11.1 Idealized Stress-Strain Curve for Seven-Wire Low-Relaxation
Prestressing Strand
Table 2.11.2 Reinforcing Bar Sizes
Table 2.11.3 Common Stock Styles of Welded Wire Reinforcement
Table 2.11.4 Sizes of Wires used in Welded Wire Reinforcement
2.12 RELEVANT STANDARDS AND PUBLICATIONS
2.12.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications
2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Methods of Test
2.12.3 ACI Publications
2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications
2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods
2.12.6 Cross References ASTM-AASHTO
2.12.7 Cited References
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
NOTATION
A = constant
A
*
s
= nominal area of prestressing steel
B = constant
C(t, t
0
) = creep coefficient at a concrete age of t days
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient
(E
c
)
t
= modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days
f
c
= specified concrete compressive strength
f
ci
= the concrete compressive strength at time of initial prestress
(f
c
)
t
= concrete compressive strength at an age of t days
(f
c
)
28
= concrete compressive strength at an age of 28 days
f
f
= fatigue stress range in reinforcement
f
min
= minimum stress level in reinforcement
f
ps
= stress in prestressing strand
f
r
= modulus of rupture
f
s
= ultimate strength of prestressing steel
H = annual average ambient relative humidity
k
c
= product of applicable correction factors = k
la
x k
h
x k
s
k
cp
= correction factor for curing period
k
h
= correction factor for relative humidity
k
la
= correction factor for loading age
k
s
= correction factor for size of member
k
sh
cp
x k
h
x k
s
K = constant
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of transverse deformation on reinforcement
S = surface area of concrete exposed to drying
S(t, t
0
) = shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
S
u
= ultimate shrinkage strain
t = age of concrete
t
la
= loading ages
t
0
= age of concrete at the end of the initial curing period
V = volume of concrete
w
c
= unit weight of concrete
ps
= strain in prestressing strand
= concrete weight factor taken as 1.0 for normal weight concrete, 0.85 for
sand-lightweight concrete, and 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete
NOTATION
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
This chapter contains a description of the properties of all major materials currently
used for precast, prestressed concrete bridge structures. It includes a discussion of
concrete constituent materials, mix requirements, hardened concrete properties, pre-
tensioning and post-tensioning reinforcement, nonprestressed reinforcement and
grouts used between precast members and other components. Recent developments
in high performance concrete and nonmetallic reinforcement are also introduced.
Discussion of the materials used in fabrication and construction is included in
Chapter 3.
The production of precast concrete components in a plant environment offers sever-
al advantages compared to on-site production. Many of these advantages occur
because one company is responsible for quality control throughout production. This
results in closer monitoring of raw materials, steel placement, concrete production
and delivery, concrete curing and shipment. The overall effect is to produce a prod-
uct with more consistent material properties than can be achieved with site-cast con-
crete.
In many aspects, the material properties of precast components are superior to those of
cast-in-place members. Precast concrete components are required to achieve a mini-
mum concrete strength for release and removal from their precasting beds at an early
age (12 to 18 hours). This often results in a concrete that has a 28-day compressive
strength in excess of the specified 28-day strength. Consequently, the concrete has a
higher modulus of elasticity and less creep than would occur if the actual strength were
equal to the specified strength. The use of accelerated curing to achieve the release
strength also results in less shrinkage and creep. From a durability aspect, precast con-
crete members have a low permeability and, therefore, are better suited for use in
aggressive environments such as coastal areas and areas where deicing salts are used.
The five major component materials of concrete produced today are cement, aggre-
gates, chemical admixtures, mineral admixtures and water.
Cement for use in bridge construction generally conforms to one of the following
specifications:
AASHTO M85 Portland Cement
AASHTO M240 Blended Hydraulic Cement
The AASHTO Specification M85 lists eight types of portland cement as follows:
Type I Normal
Type IA Normal, air-entraining
Type II Moderate sulphate resistant
Type IIA Moderate sulphate resistant, air-entraining
OCT 97
Material Properties
2.1
SCOPE
2.2
PLANT PRODUCTS
2.2.1
Advantages
2.3
CONCRETE MATERIALS
2.3.1
Cement
2.3.1.1
AASHTO M85
Type III High early strength
Type IIIA High early strength, air-entraining
Type IV Low heat of hydration
Type V High sulphate resistance
Type I portland cement is a general purpose cement suitable for all uses where the
special properties of other types of cement are not required. Type II portland cement
is used where precaution against moderate sulphate attack is important. Type II
cement can also be used to reduce the heat of hydration. Type III portland cement
provides high strengths at an early age and is particularly appropriate for obtaining
high release strengths. Type IV portland cement is used to reduce the heat of hydra-
tion and is particularly beneficial in mass concrete structures. Type V portland
cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulphate attack. Types IA, IIA and IIIA,
correspond in composition to Types I, II and III respectively, except that small quan-
tities of air-entraining material are included in the cement.
The AASHTO Specification M240 lists six classes of blended cement as follows:
Type IS Portland blast-furnace slag cement
Type IP Portland-pozzolan cement
Type P Portland-pozzolan cement
Type S Slag cement
Type I (PM) Pozzolan-modified portland cement
Type I (SM) Slag-modified portland cement
Blended hydraulic cements are produced by intergrinding and/or blending various
combinations of portland cement, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, fly ash and
other pozzolans. These cements can be used to produce different properties in the hard-
ened concretes. Types IS, IP, I(PM) and I(SM) are used for general concrete construc-
tion. Type P is used where high early strengths are not required. Type S is used with
portland cement in concrete or with lime in mortar but is not used alone in structural
concrete.
The Standard Specifications generally restrict cement to portland cement Types I, II or
III; air-entrained portland cement Types IA, IIA or IIIA; or blended hydraulic cements
Types IP or IS. It should also be noted that not all types of cement are readily available
and that the use of some types is not permitted by some states.
Aggregates for concrete consist of fine and coarse materials. Fine aggregate for normal
weight concrete should conform to the requirements of AASHTO M6. Coarse aggre-
gate for normal weight concrete should conform to the requirements of AASHTO
M80. Lightweight aggregate for use in lightweight or sand-lightweight concrete should
conform to the requirements of AASHTO M195. The maximum size of aggregate
should be selected based on mix-requirements and the minimum clear spacing between
reinforcing steel, clear cover to reinforcing steel and thickness of the member in accor-
dance with AASHTO specifications. If aggregates susceptible to alkali-aggregate reac-
tivity are used in prestressed concrete members, special precautions must be observed.
These include the use of low alkali cements, blended cements or pozzolans.
Chemical admixtures are used in precast, prestressed concrete to provide air entrain-
ment, reduce water content, improve workability, retard setting times and accelerate
strength development. Chemical admixtures, except air-entraining admixtures,
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.3.1.1 AASHTO M85/2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures
OCT 97
2.3.1.2
AASHTO M240
2.3.1.3
Restrictions
2.3.2
Aggregates
2.3.3
Chemical Admixtures
should conform to the requirements of AASHTO M194. This specification lists the
following types of admixtures:
Type A Water-reducing
Type B Retarding
Type C Accelerating
Type D Water-reducing and retarding
Type E Water-reducing and accelerating
Type F Water-reducing, high range
Type G Water-reducing, high range and retarding
Water-reducing admixtures and high range water-reducing admixtures are used to
allow for a reduction in the water-cementitious materials ratio while maintaining or
improving workability. Accelerating admixtures are used to decrease the setting time
and increase the early strength development. They are particularly beneficial in pre-
cast concrete construction to facilitate early form removal and release of prestressing.
Since admixtures can produce different results with different cements, and at differ-
ent temperatures, selection of admixtures should be based on the plant materials and
conditions that will be utilized in production. Compatibility between admixtures is
also important and should be specifically addressed when using combinations of ad-
mixtures produced by different companies.
Calcium chloride has been used in the past as an accelerator since it is very effective
and economical. The use of calcium chloride in concrete promotes corrosion of metals
due to the presence of chloride ions. Consequently, calcium chloride should not be per-
mitted in prestressed concrete members. Accelerators without chlorides may be used.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are also available for use in concrete to protect rein-
forcement from corrosion. These admixtures block the passage of chloride ions to the
steel reinforcement and, thereby, reduce or eliminate corrosion of the reinforcement.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are more likely to be effective in cast-in-place bridge
components that are directly exposed to chloride ions than in precast concrete bridge
girders that are already highly impermeable.
Air-entraining admixtures are used in concrete primarily to increase the resistance of
the concrete to freeze-thaw damage when exposed to water and deicing chemicals.
They may also be used to increase workability and facilitate handling and finishing.
Air-entraining admixtures should conform to AASHTO M154. The air content of
fresh concrete is generally determined using the pressure method (AASHTO T152)
or the volumetric method (AASHTO T196). The pressure method should not be
used with lightweight concrete. A pocket-size air indicator (AASHTO T199) can be
used for quick checks but is not a substitute for the other more accurate methods.
Mineral admixtures are powdered or pulverized materials added to concrete to
improve or change the properties of hardened portland cement concrete. Mineral
admixtures are used in concrete to increase early strength development or to reduce
the heat of hydration. They may also be used to improve the resistance of concrete to
reactive aggregates and to replace cement. They have also been used in high strength
concrete to produce higher strengths at later ages. The use of mineral admixtures may
affect the workability and finishing characteristics of fresh concrete.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.3.3 Chemical Admixtures/2.3.4 Mineral Admixtures
OCT 97
2.3.3.1
Purpose
2.3.3.2
Calcium Chloride
2.3.3.3
Corrosion Inhibitors
2.3.3.4
AirEntraining Admixtures
2.3.4
Mineral Admixtures
AASHTO M295 lists three classes of mineral admixtures as follows:
Class N Raw or calcined natural pozzolans
Class F Fly ash
Class C Fly ash
High-Reactive Metakaolin (HRM) is a manufactured white powder that meets the
requirements of a Class N pozzolan. HRM has a particle size significantly smaller
than that of cement particles, but not as fine as silica fume. Fly ash is a finely divid-
ed residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal in power generation
plants. Class F fly ash has pozzolanic properties; Class C has some cementitious prop-
erties in addition to pozzolanic properties. Some fly ashes meet both Class F and
Class C classifications. Selection of these materials will depend on their local avail-
ability and their effect on concrete properties.
Silica fume meeting the requirements of AASHTO M307 may also be used as a min-
eral admixture in concrete. Silica fume is a very fine pozzolanic material produced as
a by-product in electric arc furnaces used for the production of elemental silicon or
ferro-silicon alloys. Silica fume is also known as condensed silica fume and microsil-
ica. The use of silica fume can improve the early age strength development of con-
crete and is particularly beneficial in achieving high release strengths in high strength
concrete beams. The use of silica fume in concrete generally results in concrete that
has low permeability. The use of silica fume increases the water demand in concrete.
Consequently, it is generally used in combination with a water-reducing admixture
or a high range water-reducing admixture. Concrete containing silica fume has sig-
nificantly less bleeding and the potential for plastic shrinkage is increased. Therefore,
early moisture loss should be prevented under conditions which promote rapid sur-
face drying such as low humidity and high temperatures.
Water used in mixing concrete must be clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, sugar,
vegetable or other injurious substances. Water known to be of potable quality may be
used without testing. However, if there is doubt, water should meet the requirements
of AASHTO T26. Mixing water for concrete should not contain a chloride ion con-
centration in excess of 1,000 ppm or sulfates as SO
4
in excess of 1,300 ppm.
This section discusses various aspects of concrete mix requirements that need to be
considered by the owner or the owners engineer. Selection of concrete ingredients
and proportions to meet the minimum requirements stated in the specifications and
contract documents should be the responsibility of the precast concrete producer.
Wherever possible, the mix requirements should be stated on the basis of the required
performance and not be over-restrictive to the producer. The producer should be
allowed to show through trial batches or mix history that a proposed mix design will
meet or exceed the specified performance criteria. Consequently, prescriptive require-
ments such as minimum cement content should be avoided.
For prestressed concrete bridge beams, the Engineer generally specifies minimum
strengths at time of release of the prestressing strands and at 28 days, although ages
other than 28 days may be used. The Engineer may also specify a minimum com-
pressive strength at time of beam erection, or a minimum compressive strength at
time of post-tensioning if a combination of pretensioning and post-tensioning is uti-
lized. For most prestressed concrete bridge beams, the specified strength at time of
release will control the concrete mix proportions. Based on AASHTO specifications,
the release strength is selected so that the temporary concrete stresses in the beam,
before losses due to creep and shrinkage, do not exceed 60% of the concrete com-
pressive strength at time of release in pretensioned members and 55% of the concrete
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.3.4.1 Pozzolans/2.4.1 Concrete Strength at Release
OCT 97
2.3.5
Water
2.4.1
Concrete Strength
at Release
2.4
SELECTION OF
CONCRETE MIX
REQUIREMENTS
2.3.4.2
Silica Fume
2.3.4.1
Pozzolans
compressive strength at time of stressing of post-tensioned members. In addition, the
strength is selected so that, in tension areas with no bonded reinforcement, the ten-
sile stress will not exceed 200 psi or 3 where f
ci
is the compressive strength of
concrete at time of initial prestress in psi. In areas with a specified amount of bond-
ed reinforcement, the maximum tensile stress cannot exceed 7.5 .
The design of most precast, prestressed concrete members is based on a concrete
compressive strength at 28 days of 5,000 to 6,000 psi. However, because the mix pro-
portions are generally dictated by release strengths, concrete strengths at 28 days are
frequently in excess of the specified 28-day value and actual strengths of 8,000 psi or
more are often achieved. Consequently, mix requirements are generally based on the
release strengths and the precaster only has to ensure that the mix will provide con-
crete with a compressive strength in excess of that specified for 28 days.
Concrete with a compressive strength in excess of 8,000 psi has not been commonly
specified for precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams. There is, however, a trend
toward the greater utilization of higher strength concretes to achieve more durable
and economical structures. Some states are using the higher strength characteristics
of high performance concrete to stretch spans or widen beam spacings by using
beams with concrete strengths in excess of 10,000 psi. In such cases, strength is typ-
ically specified at 56 days because of the strength gain that is possible in higher
strength concretes between 28 and 56 days.
The minimum compressive strength, in some cases, may be controlled by the need
to meet a minimum requirement for special exposure conditions as discussed in
Section 2.4.6.2.
Durability is a concern when bridges are exposed to aggressive environments. This
generally occurs where deicing salts are utilized on highways during winter or in
coastal regions where structures are exposed to salt from sea water. The Engineer
must be concerned about the deleterious effects of freezing and thawing, chemical
attack and corrosion of embedded or exposed metals. The ideal approach is to make
the concrete as impermeable as possible. In this respect, precast, prestressed concrete
has inherent advantages over cast-in-place concrete since it is produced in a con-
trolled environment that results in high quality concrete. In addition, the mix pro-
portions needed to achieve a relatively high strength concrete often produce a rela-
tively impermeable concrete. As a result, precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams
have an excellent record of performance in aggressive environments.
Freeze-thaw damage generally manifests
itself by scaling of the concrete surface.
This occurs as a result of temperature
fluctuations that cause freezing and
thawing when the concrete is saturated.
Freeze-thaw damage is magnified when
deicing chemicals are present. To mini-
mize freeze-thaw damage, a minimum
air content is generally specified. The
presence of entrained air provides space
for ice to expand without developing
high pressures that would otherwise dam-
age the concrete. Table 2.4.4.1-1, based
on ACI 211.1, provides the required air
f
ci
f
ci

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.1 Concrete Strength at Release/2.4.4.1 FreezeThaw Damage
OCT 97
2.4.2
Concrete Strength
at Service Loads
2.4.3
High Performance
Concrete
2.4.4
Durability
2.4.4.1
FreezeThaw Damage
Minimum
Air Content*, percent
Nominal
Maximum
Aggregate
Size, in.
Severe
Exposure
Moderate
Exposure
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/2
7-1/2
7
6
6
5-1/2
6
5-1/2
5
4-1/2
4-1/2
Table 2.4.4.1-1
Total Air Content for
Frost-Resistant Concrete
*The usual tolerance on air content as delivered is 1.5 percent
content for severe and moderate exposure conditions for various maximum aggregate
sizes. Severe exposure is defined as a climate where the concrete may be in almost con-
tinuous contact with moisture prior to freezing, or where deicing salts come in con-
tact with the concrete. This includes bridge decks. Salt laden air, as found in coastal
areas, is also considered a severe exposure. A moderate exposure is one where deicing
salts are not used or where concrete will only occasionally be exposed to moisture prior
to freezing. This is generally the case for bridge beams. It should be noted that some
state highway departments specify air contents that are slightly different from those
shown in Table 2.4.4.1-1. In addition, many states do not require air entrainment in
prestressed concrete beams because beams are sheltered by the deck or other condi-
tions exist such that air entrainment is not required for good performance.
The ease of mixing, placing, consolidating and finishing freshly mixed concrete is
called workability. Concrete should be workable but should not segregate or bleed
excessively. Excessive bleeding increases the water-cementitious materials ratio near
the top surface and a weak top layer of concrete with poor durability may result. For
prestressed concrete bridge beams, particular attention should be paid to ensure that
concrete has adequate workability so that it will consolidate around the prestressing
strands, particularly at end regions of beams where a high percentage of nonpre-
stressed reinforcement is present. It is also important that concrete can be placed in
the webs of beams without segregation. Workability can be enhanced through the use
of water-reducing admixtures, high range water-reducing admixtures and air entrain-
ing agents. No standard test exists for the measurement of workability. The concrete
slump test is the most generally accepted method used to measure consistency of con-
crete but it should not be used as a means to control workability.
The water-cementitious materials ratio is the ratio of the amount of water, exclusive
of that absorbed by the aggregate, to the amount of cementitious materials in a con-
crete or mortar mixture. As such, the amount of water includes that within the
admixtures and that in the aggregate in excess of the saturated surface-dry condition.
The amount of cementitious material includes cement and other cementitious mate-
rials, such as fly ash and silica fume. The total cementitious materials content for
compressive strengths from 4,000 to 8,000 psi can vary from 600 to 1,000 pcy and
will also vary on a regional basis.
When strength, not durability, controls the mix design, the water-cementitious mate-
rials ratio and mixture proportions required to achieve specified strength should be
determined from field data or the results of trial batch strength tests. The trial batch-
es should be made from actual job materials. When no other data are available, Table
2.4.6.1-1, which is based on ACI 211.1, may be used as a starting point for mix de-
sign procedures for normal weight concrete.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.4.1 FreezeThaw Damage/2.4.6.1 Based on Strength
OCT 97
2.4.5
Workability
2.4.6
Water-Cementitious
Materials Ratio
2.4.6.1
Based on Strength
Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio
By Weight
Compressive
Strength at 28
days, psi
6,000
5,000
4,000
Non-Air-Entrained
Concrete
0.41
0.48
0.57
Air-Entrained
Concrete
0.40
0.48
Table 2.4.6.1-1
Approximate Ratios
for Trial Batches
When durability is a major consideration in the concrete mix design, the water-
cementitious materials ratios for various exposure conditions should be limited to the
values specified in ACI 318 and shown in Table 2.4.6.2-1. For precast, prestressed
concrete members exposed to deicing salts or spray from sea water, the maximum
ratio will generally be 0.40.
The unit weight of normal weight concrete is generally in the range of 140 to 150
pcf. For concrete with compressive strengths in excess of 10,000 psi, the unit weight
may be as high as 155 pcf. The unit weight will vary depending on the amount and
density of the aggregate and the air, water and cement contents. In the design of rein-
forced or prestressed concrete structures, the combination of normal weight concrete
and reinforcement is commonly assumed to weigh 150 pcf but may be assumed as
high as 160 pcf.
Lightweight concrete and sand-lightweight concrete (also called semi-lightweight
concrete) may also be utilized in precast, prestressed concrete bridge construction
with the use of suitable lightweight aggregates. Lightweight aggregate concretes gen-
erally have a unit weight of 90 to 105 pcf. Sand-lightweight aggregate concretes have
a unit weight of 105 to 130 pcf with a common range of 110 to 115 pcf. When light-
weight concrete is used in prestressed concrete members, special consideration must
be given to using mix design procedures for lightweight concrete as given in ACI
211.2.
Where suitable lightweight aggregates are available, a common practice is to blend
lightweight with normal weight aggregates to achieve a desired concrete unit weight.
This is done to control beam (or other product) weights to satisfy shipping limita-
tions, jobsite conditions such as crane size or reach limits, or plant or erection equip-
ment capacities.
Because of the need for early strength gain, Type III cement is often used in precast
concrete so that forms may be reused on a daily basis. This generally requires that the
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.6.2 Based on Durability/2.4.8 Effect of Heat Curing
OCT 97
2.4.7
Unit Weight
2.4.7.1
Normal Weight Concrete
2.4.7.2
Lightweight Concrete
2.4.7.3
Blended Aggregates
2.4.8
Effect of Heat Curing
Exposure Condition
Maximum Water-Cementitious Materials
Ratio for Normal Weight Concrete
Concrete intended to have low
permeability when exposed to water
0.50
Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing in a
moist condition or to deicing chemicals
0.45
For corrosion protection for reinforced
concrete exposed to chlorides from deicing
chemicals, salt, salt water or brackish
water, or spray from these sources
0.40
Table 2.4.6.2-1
Maximum Requirements for
Various Exposure Conditions
2.4.6.2
Based on Durability
release strength be achieved no later than 18 hours after the concrete is placed and
may be achieved at 12 hours or less. To accelerate the strength gain, it is often neces-
sary to raise the temperature of the concrete. In some situations, such as with high
strength concrete, the increase in temperature can be provided by the internal heat of
hydration. However, in most situations, it is necessary to utilize an external source of
heat, such as steam or radiant heat, to reach the necessary release strengths. The use
of external heat causes the concrete temperature to be higher at an earlier age than
would be achieved from the natural heat of hydration. A consequence of achieving a
high release strength is a reduction in the later age strengths compared to strengths
that would have been obtained if the concrete had not been heat cured. This is illus-
trated in Figure 2.4.8-1. The effect of heat curing on the concrete compressive
strength development must be taken into account in the selection of mix require-
ments and in the preparation of trial mixes.
Sample concrete mixes for six different concrete compressive strengths are shown in
Table 2.4.9-1. These are concrete mixes from different precasting plants. It should
not be assumed that these mixture proportions will always produce the same concrete
compressive strengths when used with different materials.
Concrete properties such as modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, shear strength and
bond strength are frequently expressed in terms of the compressive strength. Generally,
expressions for these quantities have been empirically established based on data for
concretes having compressive strengths up to 6,000 psi. With recent research, these
empirical relationships have been reevaluated for concrete compressive strengths up
to 10,000 psi. Unless indicated otherwise, the relationships in this section may be
assumed applicable for concrete with compressive strengths up to 10,000 psi. Where
alternative expressions are available, they are discussed in each section. For concretes
with compressive strengths in excess of 10,000 psi, the recommendations given in
ACI 363 and Zia et al (1991) should be considered.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.4.8 Effect of Heat Curing/2.5.1 Introduction
OCT 97
2.4.9
Sample Mixes
2.5
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
2.5.1
Introduction
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age, days
Compressive
Strength, psi
moist cured
heat cured
Figure 2.4.8-1
Effect of Curing on Concrete
Compressive Strength Gain
Compressive strength is generally measured by testing 6x12-in. cylinders in accor-
dance with standard AASHTO or ASTM procedures. The precast concrete industry
also uses 4x8-in. cylinders. Some state highway departments permit the use of either
6x12-in. or 4x8-in. cylinders for quality control. For high strength concretes, the use
of smaller size cylinders may be necessary because of limitations on testing machine
capacities. For precast, prestressed concrete members it is particularly important that
the concrete cylinders used to determine release strengths be cured in an identical
manner to the bridge members. In general, this is accomplished by curing the con-
crete cylinders alongside the prestressed concrete member until release of the pre-
stressing strands. A more advanced technique of match curing is also available. In this
procedure, the cylinders are enclosed in a container in which the temperature is con-
trolled to match the temperature of the concrete member. The test cylinders then
undergo the same time-temperature history as the concrete member.
The variation of concrete compressive strength with time may be approximated by
the following general calculation:
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.2 Compressive Strength/2.5.2.1 Variation with Time
OCT 97
Table 2.4.9-1
Sample Production Concrete
Mixes
Mix A B C D E F
Specified Strength, psi
Release 3,500 4,000 5,000 6,000 6,000 8,800
28 Days 5,000 6,000 7,500 7,500 10,000 13,100
Quantities per cu yd
Cement, lb 705 705 850 750 750 671
Fly Ash, lb 0 0 0 140 0 316
Silica Fume, lb 0 0 0 0 95 0
Sand, lb 1,055 1,085 935 1,085 1,030 1,029
Coarse Aggregate, lb 1,790 1,920 1,770 1,980 1,870 1,918
Water, lb 270 285 300 230 230 247
Air Entrainment, fl. oz. 5 0 17 0 3 0
Water-Reducer, fl. oz. 25 53 29 0 10 0
High Range Water-Reducer, fl. oz. 125 0 145 160 85 200
Concrete Properties
Water-Cementitious Ratio 0.38 0.40 0.36 0.26 0.31 0.25
Slump, in. 3-1/2 4-3/4 4 6 5 9
Unit Weight, pcf 141.5 147.8 140.0 145.0 147.4
Air Content, % 6.0 6.0
Release Strength, psi 3,800 4,350 5,300 6,700 9,070 8,800
28-day Strength, psi 5,700 6,395 8,000 9,400 10,450 13,900
56-day Strength, psi UNKN UNKN
N/A N/A N/A 5.0
UNKN UNKN UNKN
UNKN
15,200
2.5.2
Compressive Strength
2.5.2.1
Variation with Time
UNKN Unknown; NA Not Applicable
(f
c
)
t
= (f
c
)
28
(Eq. 2.5.2.1-1)
where:
(f
c
)
t
= concrete compressive strength at an age of t days
(f
c
)
28
= concrete compressive strength at an age of 28 days
A and B = constants
The constants A and B are functions of both the type of cementitious material used and
the type of curing employed. The use of normal weight, sand-lightweight or all light-
weight aggregate does not appear to affect these constants significantly. Typical values
recommended by ACI 209 are given in Table 2.5.2-1. The constants for current prac-
tice shown in Table 2.5.2.1-1 are based on the sample mixes shown in Table 2.4.9-1.
These mixes have release strengths that vary from 63 to 87% of the 28-day strength.
As shown in Figure 2.4.8-1, a concrete that is heat cured will have higher initial
strengths but lower strength at later ages when compared to the same concrete that is
moist cured. It should be emphasized that these are general relationships and varia-
tions will occur for different concretes and curing procedures. When fly ash is used
as a mineral admixture, it may be appropriate to determine the compressive strength
at 56 days to take advantage of the later strength gain. Therefore, it is important that
the strength gain relationship be established through trial mixes or previous experi-
ence using local producer data. This is particularly important for release strengths
which can occur as early as 12 hours. If the relationship is unknown, the values list-
ed in Table 2.5.2-1 for current practice will give an approximate relationship.
The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of uniaxial normal stress to corresponding strain
up to the proportional limit for both tensile and compressive stresses. It is the mate-
rial property that determines the amount of deformation under load. It is used to cal-
culate camber at release, elastic deflections caused by dead and live loads, axial short-
ening and elongation, prestress losses, buckling and relative distribution of applied
forces in composite and non-homogeneous structural members. Modulus of elastici-
ty is determined in accordance with ASTM C 469.
For concrete compressive strengths less than 8,000 psi, the following calculation may
be used to predict the modulus of elasticity:
(E
c
)
t
= (Eq. 2.5.3.1-1)
where:
(E
c
)
t
= modulus of elasticity of concrete at an age of t days, psi
w
c
= unit weight of concrete, psi
33(w ) f
c
1.5
c t
( )
t
A+Bt
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.2.1 Variation with Time/2.5.3.1 Calculations (E
c
)
OCT 97
2.5.2.2
Effect of Accelerated Curing
2.5.3
Modulus of Elasticity
2.5.3.1
Calculations (E
c
)
Source Curing Cement A B
ACI 209 Moist I 4.00 0.85
ACI 209 Moist III 2.30 0.92
ACI 209 Steam I 1.00 0.95
ACI 209 Steam III 0.70 0.98
Current Practice Heat III 0.28 0.99
Table 2.5.2.1-1
Values of
Constants A and B
(f
c
)
t
= concrete compressive strength at an age of t days, psi
The above equation was based on an analysis for concrete strengths up to about
6,000 psi. According to ACI 363, the above calculation tends to over-estimate the
modulus of elasticity for higher strength concretes. Several alternative equations have
been proposed for the calculation of modulus of elasticity and the following by
Martinez (1982) has received general acceptance:
Deviations from predicted values are highly dependent on the properties and pro-
portions of the coarse aggregate used in the concrete. Consequently, where local pro-
ducer data are available, they should be utilized in place of the values determined
from these standard equations. This is particularly important in computing the cam-
ber at release as these modulus of elasticity equations have not been developed specif-
ically for determination of the modulus of heat cured concrete at an early age.
The modulus of rupture is a measure of the flexural tensile strength of the concrete.
It can be determined by testing, but the modulus of rupture for structural design is
generally assumed to be a function of the concrete compressive strength as given by:
(Eq. 2.5.4-1)
where:
f
r
= modulus of rupture, psi
K = a constant, usually taken as 7.5
= 1.0 for normal weight concrete
0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete
0.75 for all-lightweight concrete
For high strength concretes, a value of K greater than 7.5 has been proposed.
However, for most applications, a conservative value of 7.5 is still used for high
strength concretes.
Durability refers to the ability of concrete to resist deterioration from the environ-
ment or service conditions in which it is placed. Properly designed concrete should
survive throughout its service life without significant distress. The following test pro-
cedures may be used to check the durability of concrete made with a specific mix:
Freeze-thaw resistance ASTM C 666, C 671 and C 682
Deicer scaling resistance ASTM C 672
Abrasion resistance ASTM C 418, C 779 and C 944
Chloride permeability AASHTO T277 or T259
Alkali-aggregate reactivity ASTM C 227, C 289, C 342, C 441 and C 586
Sulphate resistance ASTM C 452 and C 1012
It is not necessary to perform all the above tests to prove that a concrete will be durable.
In general, a concrete that has a low permeability will also have a high resistance to freeze-
thaw cycles and surface scaling. It should also be noted that a concrete that does not per-
form very well in the above tests will not necessarily perform poorly in the field.
Concrete that performs well in the above tests, will nearly always perform well in an actu-
al structure. This is the case for precast concrete members that are produced under con-
trolled factory conditions.
f K f
r c
=
( ) , , ,
.
E f
w
145
c t c t
c
=
( )
+
( )
40 000 1 000 000

1 5
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.3.1 Calculations (E
c
)/2.5.5 Durability
OCT 97
2.5.5
Durability
2.5.3.2
Variations (E
c
)
2.5.4
Modulus of Rupture
Heat of hydration is the heat generated when cement and water react. The amount
of heat generated is largely dependent on the chemical composition of the cement
but an increase in cement content, fineness or curing temperature will increase the
heat of hydration. Heat of hydration is particularly important in heat-cured concretes
where the heat generated by the chemical reaction of the cement in conjunction with
heat curing can be used to accelerate the development of compressive strength. The
heat of hydration can be measured using ASTM C 186. When prestressed concrete
beams are heat cured, the heat generated by hydration cannot escape from the sur-
face of the member. Consequently, under this condition, the beams may be consid-
ered as mass concrete. Procedures for determining the temperature rise in mass con-
crete are described in ACI 207.1. However, as an approximate calculation, it can be
assumed that a temperature rise of 10F will occur for each 100 lb of cement used in
the concrete. More precise calculations can be made using the actual concrete mix
proportions, specific heat of the concrete and heat generated per unit mass of cement.
Precast concrete members are subjected to air drying as soon as they are removed from
the forms. During this exposure to the atmosphere, the concrete slowly loses some of its
original water, causing shrinkage to occur. The amount and rate of shrinkage vary with
the relative humidity, size of member and amount of nonprestressed reinforcement.
Procedures to calculate the amount of shrinkage and creep have been published in
the LRFD Specifications, by CEB-FIP (1990) and ACI 209. These procedures are
based on the recommendations of ACI 209 which are summarized in this section.
Shrinkage after 1 to 3 days for steam-cured concrete:
Shrinkage after 7 days for moist-cured concrete:
where:
S(t, t
0
) = shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
S
u
= ultimate shrinkage strain
t = age of concrete, days
t
0
= age of concrete at the end of the initial curing period, days
Although Eq. 2.5.7.1-1 was developed for steam-cured concretes, it may be applied
to radiant heat-cured concretes if more specific information is not available.
In the absence of specific shrinkage data for local aggregates and conditions, the fol-
lowing average value for the ultimate shrinkage strain is suggested:
where:
k
sh
= product of applicable correction factors
= k
cp
x k
h
x k
s
k
cp
k
h
k
s
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3a)
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3)
S k x 10
u sh
- 6
= 545
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-2)
S(t,t
(t - 7
35+(t - 7
S
0 u
)
)
)
=
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-1)
S(t,t
(t - t
55+(t - t
S
0
0
0
u
)
)
)
=
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.6 Heat of Hydration/2.5.7.1 Calculation of Shrinkage
OCT 97
2.5.7
Shrinkage
2.5.7.1
Calculation of Shrinkage
2.5.6
Heat of Hydration
For shrinkage of concrete
moist-cured for other than 7
days, the curing correction
factor, k
cp
may be taken
from Table 2.5.7.1-1.
The relative humidity cor-
rection factor, k
h
, may be
taken from Table 2.5.7.1-2.
A relative humidity map
taken from LRFD Specifica-
tions is shown in Figure
2.5.7.1-1.
The above correction factors are based on the following equations:
Shrinkage: k
h
= 2.00 0.0143H for 40 H 80 (Eq. 2.5.7.1-3b)
= 4.286 0.0429H for 80 < H 100 (Eq. 2.5.7.1-3c)
Creep: k
h
= 1.586 0.0084H for 40 H 100 (Eq. 2.5.7.1-3d)
where H = annual average ambient relative humidity in percent
The size correction factor, k
s
, depends on the volume to surface area of the
member and may be taken from Table 2.5.7.1-3. The volume to surface area
ratio for long members may be computed as the ratio of cross-sectional area to
section perimeter.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
MAY 00
Moist Curing
Period, days
Shrinkage Factor,
k
cp
1 1.20
3 1.10
7 1.00
14 0.93
28 0.86
60 0.79
90 0.75
Table 2.5.7.1-1
Correction Factor k
cp
for Initial Curing Period
Table 2.5.7.1-2
Correction Factors k
h
for Relative Humidity
Average Ambient Relative
Humidity, %
Shrinkage
Creep
40 1.43 1.25
50 1.29 1.17
60 1.14 1.08
70 1.00 1.00
80 0.86 0.91
90 0.43 0.83
100 0.00 0.75
Factor, k
h
Factor, k
h
The above correction factors are based on the following equations:
Shrinkage: k
s
= 1.2e
0.12V/S
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3e)
Creep: k
s
= 2/3 (1+1.13e
0.54V/S
) (Eq. 2.5.7.1-3f )
where:
V = volume of concrete, in.
3
S = surface area of concrete exposed to drying, in.
2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
MAY 00
Figure 2.5.7.1-1
Average Annual Ambient
Relative Humidity
Table 2.5.7.1-3
s
for Size
Section
Volume/Surface (in.)
Shrinkage Creep
Type I 3.05 0.83 0.81
Type II 3.37 0.80 0.79
Type III 4.06 0.74 0.75
Type IV 4.74 0.68 0.73
Type V 4.44 0.71 0.74
Type VI 4.41 0.71 0.74
BT-54 3.01 0.84 0.82
BT-63 3.01 0.84 0.82
BT-72 3.01 0.84 0.82
Factor, k
s
Factor, k
s
Beam
Prestressed concrete beams are subjected to the effects of creep as soon as the pre-
stressing force is released in the plant. Creep of concrete results in time-dependent
changes in camber and prestress forces. The amount and rate of creep vary with the
concrete age at loading, stress level, relative humidity, size of member and amount of
nonprestressed reinforcement. The following calculations are based on ACI 209.
Creep strains are determined by multiplying the elastic strains by a creep coefficient,
C(t, t
0
).
For steam-cured concrete loaded at 1 to 3 days and moist-cured concrete loaded at
7 days:
where: C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient.
Although Eq. 2.5.8.1-1 was developed for steam-cured and moist-cured concretes, it may
be applied to radiant heat-cured concretes if more specific information is not available.
In the absence of creep data for local aggregates and materials, the following average
value is suggested :
where:
k
c
= product of applicable correction factors
= k
la
x k
h
x k
s
k
la
k
h
k
s
For loading ages later than 7 days for moist-cured concrete and 1 to 3 days for steam-
cured concrete, the loading age correction factor, k
la
, may be taken from Table 2.5.8.1-1.
Correction factors are based on the following equations:
For steam-cured concrete: k
la
= 1.13(t
la
)
0.094
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2b)
For moist-cured concrete: k
la
= 1.25(t
la
)
0.118
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2c)
where: t
la
= loading age, days
The relative humidity correction factor, k
h
, may be taken from
Table 2.5.7.1-2. A relative humidity map taken from the LRFD
Specifications is shown in Figure 2.5.7.1-1.
s
, depends on the volume to surface
area of the member and may be taken from Table 2.5.7.1-3.
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2a)
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2) C k
u c
= 1 88 .
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-1)
C(t,t
(t t
1 (t t
C
0 u
)
)
)
.
.
=

+
0
0 6
0
0 6
0
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.8 Creep/2.5.8.1 Calculation of Creep
OCT 97
2.5.8
Creep
2.5.8.1
Calculation of Creep
Loading Age, days
7 0.94 1.00
10 0.90 0.95
14 0.88 0.92
28 0.83 0.84
60 0.76 0.77
90 0.74 0.74
Steam Cured, Moist Cured,
Factor k
la
Factor k
la
Table 2.5.8.1-1
la
for Loading Age
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies with the aggregate type as
shown in Table 2.5.9-1, which is based on ACI 209. The range for normal weight
concrete is generally 5 to 7 x 10
-6
per F when made with siliceous aggregates and 3.5
to 5 x 10
- 6
per F when made with calcareous aggregates. The range for structural
lightweight concrete is 3.6 to 6.0 x
10
-6
per F depending on the type
of aggregate and the amount of nat-
ural sand. For design, coefficients of
6 x 10
-6
per F for normal weight
concrete and 5 x 10
-6
per F for
sand-lightweight concrete are fre-
quently used. If greater accuracy is
needed, tests should be made on the
specific concrete. Since the coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion for steel
is also about 6 x 10
-6
per F, the
thermal effects on precast, pre-
stressed concrete members are eval-
uated by treating them as plain con-
crete and utilizing the coefficient of
thermal expansion for concrete.
When precast, prestressed concrete members are placed adjacent to each other, load
transfer between adjacent members is often achieved through a grouted keyway. The
keyway may or may not extend for the full depth of the member. The keyway is
grouted with one of several different grouting materials which are described in this
section. In some bridges, no additional deck work is performed after grouting. In
other bridges, a composite concrete deck may be cast on the members or the top sur-
face of the members may be coated with a waterproofing membrane and overlaid
with an asphaltic wearing course.
ASTM Specification C 1107 covers three grades of packaged dry hydraulic-cement
grouts (non-shrink) intended for use under applied load. These grouts are composed
of hydraulic cement, fine aggregate and other ingredients and generally only require
the addition of mixing water for use. Three grades of grout are classified according to
the volume control mechanism exhibited by the grout after being mixed with water:
Grade A pre-hardening volume-adjusting in which expansion occurs before harden-
ing
Grade B post-hardening volume-adjusting in which expansion occurs after the
grout hardens
Grade C combination volume-adjusting which utilizes a combination of expansion
before and after hardening
Performance requirements for compressive strengths and maximum and minimum
expansion levels are given in ASTM C 1107. Although these grouts are termed non-
shrink, the intent is to provide a final length that is not shorter than the original
length at placement. This is achieved through an expansion mechanism prior to any
shrinkage occurring.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.5.9 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion/2.6.2.1 Performance Requirements
OCT 97
2.5.9
Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
2.6
GROUT MATERIALS
2.6.1
Definitions and
Applications
2.6.2
Types and
Characteristics
of Grout
2.6.2.1
Performance Requirements
Rock Type millionths/
o
F
Chert 6.6
Quartzite 5.7
Quartz 6.2
Sandstone 5.2
Marble 4.6
Siliceous Limestone 4.6
Granite 3.8
Dolerite 3.8
Basalt 3.6
Limestone 3.1
Table 2.5.9-1
Coefficients of Thermal
Expansion of Concrete
Different cementitious materials may be used to produce grout. These include port-
land cement, shrinkage-compensating cement, expansive portland cement made with
special additives, epoxy-cement resins and magnesium ammonium phosphate
cement (Gulyas et al 1995).
The properties of grout are determined using the following ASTM test methods:
C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
(Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens)
C 138 Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric)
of Concrete
C 157 Test Method for Length Change for Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar
and Concrete
C 185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
C 827 Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical Specimens
from Cementitious Mixtures
C 1090 Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens
from Hydraulic-Cement Grout
The same materials that are used for grouting keyways between precast concrete
members may be used for grout beds to support structural and non-structural mem-
bers. In some cases, the grout will be very stiff and is referred to as dry pack. Dry pack
will often have a very high compressive strength because of the low water-cementi-
tious materials ratio. It is often compacted by hand tamping.
Epoxy-resin grouts can be used between precast concrete members where increased
bonding and tensile capacity is required. When these are used, consideration should
be given to the higher coefficient of thermal expansion and the larger creep proper-
ties of epoxy grouts.
When concrete overlays are placed on precast concrete members, a 1/16- to 1/8-in.
thick layer of grout consisting of one part cement, one part sand and enough water
to make a thick, creamy, paint-like consistency is brushed onto the concrete surface.
The grout is placed a short distance ahead of the overlay concrete. The grout should
not be allowed to dry prior to the overlay placement. Otherwise, the dry grout may
act as a poor surface for bonding. It is particularly important that the concrete sur-
face be clean and sound and that the grout be well brushed into the concrete surface.
Grouting of post-tensioned members is described in the PTI Post-Tensioning Manual
(1990).
Although prestressed concrete may be produced with strands, wires or bars, pre-
stressed precast concrete bridge members are generally produced using seven-wire
strand conforming to ASTM A 416 (AASHTO M203). Seven-wire strand consists of
a straight center wire that is wrapped by six wires in a helical pattern. Strand sizes
range from 3/8-in. to 0.6-in. diameter, as shown in Table 2.11.1. The larger size
strands are used in prestressed concrete beams because this results in fewer strands.
The use of 0.6-in. diameter strand is essential to take full advantage of high strength
concrete.
Two types of strands are covered in ASTM A 416: low-relaxation and stress-
relieved (normal-relaxation). However, in recent years, the use of low-relaxation
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.6.2.2 Materials/2.7.1 Strand Types
OCT 97
2.6.4
Grout Bed Materials
2.6.5
Epoxy Resins
2.6.6
Overlays
2.6.7
PostTensioned Members
2.7
PRESTRESSING
STRAND
2.7.1
Strand Types
2.6.2.2
Materials
2.6.3
ASTM Tests
strand has progressively increased to a point that normal-relaxation strand is seldom
used. Two grades of strand are generally used in prestressed concrete construction.
These are Grades 250 and 270, which have minimum ultimate strengths of 250,000
and 270,000 psi, respectively. In general, Grade 270 is used in prestressed concrete
bridge beams. Grade 250 strand may be used where lower levels of precompression
are required. In addition to smooth, uncoated strands, epoxy-coated strands are avail-
able.
Epoxy-coated strand is seven-wire prestressing strand with an organic epoxy coating
which can vary in thickness from 25 to 45 mils. Two types of coatings are available.
A smooth type has low bond characteristics and is intended for use in unbonded,
post-tensioned systems, external post-tensioned systems, and stay cables. An epoxy-
coated strand with particles of grit embedded in the surface is used in bonded pre-
tensioned and post-tensioned systems.
In addition to the strand having an external coating, it can also be manufactured with
the interstices between the individual wires filled with epoxy. This prevents the entry
of corrosive chemicals, either by capillary action, or other hydrostatic forces. This
type of strand should be specified when there is risk of contaminants or moisture
entering at the ends of tendons. Epoxy-coated strand should comply with ASTM A
882. This specification requires that all prestressing steel strand to be coated shall
meet the requirements of ASTM A 416.
For pretensioned applications with epoxy-coated strands where accelerated curing
techniques are employed, the temperature of the concrete surrounding the strand at
the time of prestress transfer should be limited to a maximum of 150 F and the con-
crete temperature should be falling. The epoxy-coating will not be damaged if this
recommended temperature is not exceeded during the curing cycle. Concrete tem-
peratures under sustained fire exposure conditions will most likely be considerably
higher than the epoxy can withstand. This could result in a complete loss of bond
between the strand and the concrete. Although bridge structures may not require a
specific fire resistance rating, the likelihood of vehicle fires and subsequent effects of
elevated temperatures should be evaluated. More specific information on the use of
epoxy-coated strand is given in the report by the PCI Committee on Epoxy-Coated
Strand (1993).
Cross-sectional properties, design strengths and idealized stress-strain curves of Grade
250 and 270 low-relaxation seven-wire strands are given in Section 2.11. Also, see
Chapter 8, Section 8.2.2.5.
Relaxation is the time-dependent reduction of stress in a prestressing tendon. When
a strand is stressed and held at a constant length, the stress in the strand decreases
with time, as illustrated in Figure 2.7.3-1. Relaxation losses increase with stress level
and temperature. The relaxation losses of low-relaxation strand are considerably less
than the losses in normal-relaxation strand. Relaxation of a prestressing strand
depends on the stress level in the strand. However, because of other prestress losses,
there is a continuous reduction of the strand stress, which causes a reduction in relax-
ation. Therefore, several complex and empirical relationships have been proposed for
the determination of relaxation losses. Several of these methods are based on the loss
that would occur if the strand were under constant strain. This loss is then reduced
by the effects of elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage. Early research work on relax-
ation was performed by Magura (1964). Subsequently, many other design recom-
mendations have been made. The most recent recommendation is in the LRFD
Specifications.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.7.1 Strand Types/2.7.3 Relaxation
OCT 97
2.7.1.1.1
Effect of Heat
2.7.2
Material Properties
2.7.3
Relaxation
2.7.1.1
Epoxy-Coated Strand
Tests of epoxy-coated, low-relaxation strands have shown the relaxation to be signif-
icantly higher than that of uncoated strand. The use of relaxation losses equal to dou-
ble the relaxation loss calculated for uncoated strand have been recommended by
manufacturers. Individual manufacturers of epoxy-coated strand should be consult-
ed for suitable relaxation loss values.
If the precompression in a prestressed concrete member is sufficient to ensure an
uncracked section at service loads, the stress range in the strands is not likely to be
high enough for fatigue of the strand to be a critical design factor. Fatigue consider-
ations have not been a major factor in the specification of prestressing strand for
bridges because bridge beams are designed to be uncracked. The actual and allowable
fatigue life of prestressing strand depend on the stress range and the minimum stress
level. The stress range may be affected by the strand radius of curvature, particularly
in harped strand.
The following design provisions for fatigue were introduced in the LRFD Specifications:
The stress range in prestressing tendons shall not exceed:
18,000 psi for radii of curvature in excess of 30 ft and
10,000 psi for radii of curvature not exceeding 12 ft
A linear interpolation may be used for radii between 12 and 30 ft
In a pretensioned member, the prestressing force in a strand is transferred from the
strand to the concrete by bond. Strand surface condition has long been recognized as
a primary factor affecting bonding of concrete to prestressing strand. An increase in
the surface roughness, such as a light surface rust, increases the bond between the
concrete and the strand and results in a shorter development length. However,
researchers have found it difficult to consistently quantify the effects of surface char-
acteristics (Buckner 1994). This means that the increase in bond strength can possi-
bly provide an extra margin of safety, but is not always consistent and should not be
counted on to provide a shorter development length unless tests are conducted with
specific strand. Chemicals on the strand surface can result in a reduction in bond
between the concrete and strand and longer development lengths. Consequently PCI
recommends that Prestressing strand shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.7.3.1 EpoxyCoated Strand/2.7.5 Surface Condition
OCT 97
2.7.4
Fatigue Strength
2.7.4.1
Stress Range
2.7.5
Surface Condition
2.7.3.1
EpoxyCoated Strand
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
0
Time, days
Strand Stress,
ksi
Low-Relaxation Strand
Stress-Relieved Strand
(Normal-Relaxation)
10 20 30 40 50
Figure 2.7.3-1
Comparison of
Relaxation Losses
416 and shall be certified by its manufacturer to bond to concrete of a normal
strength and consistency in conformance with the prediction equations for transfer
and development lengths given in both ACI and AASHTO specifications.
Lengths of prestressing strand can be connected using specialized strand connectors.
Generally, this is not necessary in precast, prestressed concrete bridges. In situations
where splicing of strands is necessary, consult the specific manufacturers literature for
details. The use of splice chucks in plant production is described in Chapter 3.
Nonprestressed reinforcement generally consists of deformed bars or welded wire
reinforcement (previously refered to as welded wire fabric). Material properties and
sizes of nonprestressed reinforcement are given in Tables 2.11-2 through 2.11-4 and
Figure 2.11-1.
Reinforcing bars should be deformed except plain bars may be used for spirals or for
dowels at expansion or contraction joints. Reinforcing bars are generally specified to
have yield strengths of 40,000 or 60,000 psi (Grade 40 or Grade 60 respectively). In
some situations, a yield strength of 75,000 psi (Grade 70) may be specified, although
this would be unusual in bridges.
Reinforcing bars should conform to one of the following ASTM specifications:
A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 706 Specification for Low-Alloy Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars
The most widely used type and grade of bars conform to ASTM A 615 Grade 60 and
include bars with sizes from No. 3 through No. 11, No. 14 and No. 18. When weld-
ing is required or when more bendability and controlled ductility are required, as in
seismic-resistant design, low-alloy reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM A 706 should
be considered.
When coated reinforcing bars are required as a corrosion protection system, the bars
may be either zinc-coated or epoxy-coated and conform to ASTM A 767 or ASTM
D 3963 (AASHTO M284), respectively. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are generally
used in bridge decks exposed to a salt environment.
The most common method for splicing reinforcing bars is the lap splice. However,
when lap splices are undesirable or impractical, mechanical or welded connections
may be used to splice reinforcing bars. In general, a mechanical connection should
develop, in tension or compression, at least 125% of the specified yield strength of
the bars being connected. This is to ensure that yielding of the bars will occur before
failure in the mechanical connection.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.7.5 Surface Condition/2.8.2 Mechanical Splices
OCT 97
2.7.6
Splicing
2.8
NONPRESTRESSED
REINFORCEMENT
2.8.1
Deformed Bars
2.8.1.1
Specifications
2.8.1.2
Corrosion Protection
2.8.2
Mechanical Splices
Mechanical connections can be categorized as compression-only, tension-only and
tension-compression. In most compression-only mechanical connections, the com-
pressive stress is transferred by concentric bearing from one bar to the other. The
mechanical connection then serves to hold the bars in concentric contact. Various
types of mechanical connections are available that will handle both tension and com-
pression forces. These connectors use a variety of couplers that may be cold swaged,
cold extruded, hot forged, grout filled, steel filled or threaded. Tension-only mechan-
ical connections generally use a steel coupling sleeve with a wedge. This is only effec-
tive when the reinforcing bar is pulled in tension. Most mechanical connection
devices are proprietary and further information is available from individual manu-
facturers. Descriptions of the physical features and installation procedures for select-
ed mechanical splices are described in ACI 439.3R.
Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) is a prefabricated reinforcement consisting of
cold-drawn wires welded together in square or rectangular grids. Each wire intersec-
tion is electrically resistance-welded by a continuous automatic welder. Pressure and
heat fuse the intersecting wires into a homogeneous section and fix all wires in their
proper position. WWR may consist of plain wires, deformed wires or a combination
of both. WWR can also be galvanized or epoxy coated. WWR conforms to one of
the following ASTM standard specifications:
A 185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain, for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for
Reinforcement
Wire sizes are specified by a letter, W or D, followed by a number indicating the
cross-sectional area of the wire in hundredths of a square inch. Plain wire sizes use the
letter W; deformed wire sizes use the letter D. Wire sizes from W1.4 to W45 and D2
to D45 may be specified. Wire spacings generally vary from 2 to 12 in. Common
stock styles and wire sizes are listed in Table 2.11-3. The Engineer should check on
availability of styles before specifying because all sizes may not be locally available.
The Standard Specifications limits the allowable stress range in straight reinforcement
caused by live load plus impact at service load to:
f
f
= 21 0.33f
min
+ 8(r/h) (Eq. 2.8.4-1)
where:
f
f
= stress range between maximum tensile stress and minimum stress
f
min
= minimum stress level, tensile stress is positive, compressive stress is negative
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformation, taken as
0.3 when actual values are not known.
Post-tensioning systems may be conveniently divided into three categories depending
on whether the stressing tendon is wire, strand or bar. For bridge construction, wire
systems are generally not used. Further information on post-tensioning systems has
been published by the Post-Tensioning Institute (1990). For details of proprietary
systems, the manufacturers literature should be consulted.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.8.2.1 Types/2.9 PostTensioning Materials
OCT 97
2.8.2.1
Types
2.8.3
Welded Wire
Reinforcement
2.8.4
Fatigue Strength
2.9
POSTTENSIONING
MATERIALS
Strand systems utilize the same strand and strand types that are used for preten-
sioned concrete members. In post-tensioning systems, the strands are generally com-
bined to form a complete tendon and may consist of any quantity from a single
strand to 55 strands. Anchorages for strand systems utilize the wedge principle in
which the individual strands are anchored with wedges into a single tendon anchor-
age. In a post-tensioned multi-strand system, all strands are tensionsed at the same
time. Strand tendons may be tensionsed in the plant, on the construction site, or in
the finished structure.
Bar systems generally utilize a single bar in a post-tensioning duct. The surface of the
bar may be smooth with rolled threads of the required length at both ends, or the
thread deformation may be rolled-on over the entire length of the bar during manufac-
turing. This permits the bar to be cut at any point and threaded fittings added. The
bars are anchored using a threaded nut. Different types of anchorages are used at the
tensioning and dead end anchorages. Bars for use in post-tensioning systems should
conform with ASTM A 722 This specification covers both plain and deformed bars.
Various proprietary systems are available for splicing both strand and bar systems.
Couplers are required to develop at least 95% of the minimum specified ultimate
strength of the tendon without exceeding the specified anchorage set (Post-
Tensioning Institute, 1990).
Ducts for post-tensioning systems may be either rigid or semi-rigid and made of fer-
rous metal or polyethylene. They may also be formed in the concrete with removable
cores. The use of polyethylene ducts is generally recommended for corrosive envi-
ronments. Polyethylene ducts should not be used on radii less than 30 ft because of
the polyethylenes lack of resistance to abrasion during pulling and tensioning the
tendons. The inside diameter of ducts should be at least 1/4 in. larger than the nom-
inal diameter of single bar or strand tendons. For multiple bar or strand tendons, the
inside cross-sectional area of the duct should be at least twice the net area of the pre-
stressing steel. Where tendons are to be placed by the pull-through method, the duct
area should be at least 2.5 times the net area of the prestressing steel.
A newly emerging technology, with potential application in prestressed concrete,
consists of prestressing bars and tendons made from fiber reinforced plastic (FRP)
composites. This class of material consists of a polymer matrix such as polyester, vinyl
ester, epoxy, or phenolic resin which is reinforced with fibers such as aramid, carbon
or glass. These composites have tensile strengths similar to conventional strand and
bar systems and are particularly suitable for applications where weight, durability,
corrosion resistance and resistance to electromagnetic currents are relevant. Details of
FRP composites are given in ACI 440.
The mechanical properties of FRP vary significantly from one product to another.
Factors such as type and volume of fiber and resin play a major role in establishing
the characteristics of the product. The mechanical properties of all composites are
affected by loading history, loading duration, temperature and moisture.
Furthermore, standardized tests for determination of the mechanical properties have
yet to be developed to the same extent that exists for steel products. Despite these
limitations, a comparison of properties with conventional steel strands and bars can
still be made.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.9.1 Strand Systems/2.10.2 Mechanical Properties
OCT 97
2.10.2
Mechanical Properties
2.9.1
Strand Systems
2.9.2
Bar Systems
2.9.3
Splicing
2.9.4
Ducts
2.10
FIBER REINFORCED
PLASTIC
REINFORCEMENT
2.10.1
Introduction
The tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion and unit
weight for several types of FRP composites are given in Table 2.10.2.1-1, which is
based on ACI 440. Because an FRP bars and tendons are anisotropic, the mechani-
cal properties are those measured in the longitudinal or strong direction. Unlike steel,
the tensile strength of FRP bars is a function of bar diameter. Due to shear lag, the
fibers located near the center of the bar cross section, are not stressed as much as those
near the outer surface of the bar. This results in reduced strength in larger diameter
bars. FRP bars and tendons reach their ultimate tensile strength without exhibiting
any yielding of the material. Consequently, fiber reinforced plastic composite bars
and tendons do not possess the ductility of steel tendons. However, design methods
are being developed to ensure that members reinforced with FRP composites will
possess adequate ductility.
Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep whereas the resins
exhibit high creep. The orientation and volume of fibers have a significant influence
on the creep and performance of the composites. Consequently, relaxation losses may
be much higher with FRP composite bars and tendons. FRP bars and tendons exhib-
it good fatigue resistance.
Despite the above limitations, composite materials have already been used in a vari-
ety of civil engineering applications in the field on a limited basis. Further details of
these applications are given in ACI 440.
According to ACI 440, nine companies have marketed FRP composites as concrete
reinforcement in North America. At the present time, there is a rapid evolution and
considerable research underway on fiber reinforced plastics. Consequently, the reader
should verify current products and their availability with individual manufacturers.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.10.2.1 ShortTerm/2.10.4 Products
OCT 97
2.10.2.1
ShortTerm
2.10.2.2
LongTerm
2.10.3
Applications
2.10.4
Products
Property Steel Strand
Glass Fiber
Tendon
Carbon Fiber
Tendon
Tensile Strength (ksi) 270 75-175 200-250 240-350 170-300
Modulus of Elasticity (ksi) 29,000
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
(millionth/ F)
6.5 5.5 5.5 0 -0.5
Unit Weight (pcf) 490 94-125 150 94-100 78
Glass Fiber Bar
Aramid Fiber
6,000-8,000 7,000-9,000 22,000-24,000 7,000-11,000
Tendon
Table 2.10.2.1-1
Comparison of Properties
of Steel Strand
and FRP Reinforcement
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Seven-Wire Low-Relaxation Strand Grade 270
Nominal Diameter (in.) 3/8 7/16 1/2 0.6
Nominal Area (A
*
s
, in.
2
)
0.085 0.115 0.153
Nominal Weight (plf ) 0.29 0.39 0.52 0.53 0.74
Minimum Tensile Strength (kip)
23.0 31.0 41.3 45.1 58.6
Minimum Yield Strength (kip) 20.7 27.9 37.2 40.6 52.7
0.70f
s
A
*
s
(kip)
16.1 21.7 28.9 31.6 41.0
0.75f
s
A
*
s
(kip)
17.2 23.3 31.0 33.8 44.0
0.80f
s
A
*
s
(kip)
18.4 24.8 33.0 36.1 46.9
Seven-Wire Low-Relaxation Strand Grade 250
Nominal Diameter (in.) 3/8 7/16 1/2 0.6
Nominal Area (A
*
s
, in.
2
)
0.080 0.108 0.144
Nominal Weight (plf ) 0.27 0.37 0.49 0.74
Minimum Tensile Strength

(kip) 20.0 27.0 36.0 54.0
Minimum Yield Strength (kip) 18.0 24.3 32.4 48.6
0.70f
s
A
*
s
(kip) 14.0 18.9 25.2 37.8
0.75f
s
A
*
s
(kip) 15.0 20.3 27.0 40.5
0.80f
s
A
*
s
(kip) 16.0 21.6 28.8 43.2
Deformed Prestressing Bars Grade 150
s
(f
= 150 ksi)
s
(f
= 250 ksi)
s
(f
= 270 ksi)
Nominal Diameter (in.) 5/8 1 1-1/4
Nominal Area (A
*
s
, in.
2
)
0.28 0.85 1.25 1.58
Nominal Weight (plf ) 0.98 3.01 4.39 5.56
Minimum Tensile Strength (kip)
42.0 127.5 187.5
Minimum Yield Strength (kip) 33.6 102.0 150.0
0.70f
s
A
*
s
(kip)
29.4 89.3 131.3
0.75f
s
A
*
s
(kip)
31.5 95.6 140.6
0.80f
s
A
*
s
(kip)
33.6 102.0 150.0
0.217
9/16
0.65
51.8
46.6
36.3
38.9
41.4
0.192 0.167
1/2 Special
0.216
1-3/8
237.0
189.6
165.9
177.8
189.6
2.11
REINFORCEMENT SIZES AND PROPERTIES
Table 2.11-1
Properties and Design Strengths
of Prestressing Steel
OCT 97
These curves can be approximated by the following equations:
250 ksi strand 270 ksi strand
For
ps
0.0076: f
ps
= 28,500
ps
(ksi) For
ps
0.0086: f
ps
= 28,500
ps
(ksi)
For
ps
> 0.0076: f
ps
= 250 0.04/(
ps
0.0064)(ksi) For
ps
> 0.0086: f
ps
= 270 0.04/(
ps
0.007)(ksi)
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
Figure 2.11-1
Idealized
Stress-Strain Curve
for Seven-Wire
Low-Relaxation
Prestressing Strand
150
170
190
210
230
250
270
0.000 0.010 0.015 0.005 0.020 0.025 0.030
Strain,
ps
Stress,
f
ps
, ksi
270 ksi
250 ksi
Table 2.11-2
Reinforcing Bar Sizes
ASTM Standard Reinforcing Bars
Bar Size Weight Nominal Dimensions
Designation No. (plf)
Diameter (in.) Area (in.
2
) Perimeter (in.)
3 0.376 0.375 0.11 1.178
4 0.668 0.500 0.20 1.571
5 1.043 0.625 0.31 1.963
6 1.502 0.750 0.44 2.356
7 2.044 0.875 0.60 2.749
8 2.670 1.000 0.79 3.142
9 3.400 1.128 1.00 3.544
10 4.303 1.270 1.27 3.990
11 5.313 1.410 1.56 4.430
14 7.650 1.693 2.25 5.320
18 13.600 2.257 4.00 7.090
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
Table 2.11-3
Common Stock Styles of
Welded Wire Reinforcement
Style Designation Steel Area Approximate
Former Designation Current Designation
(in.
2
/ft) Weight
(By Steel Wire Gage) (By W-Number) Longit. Trans.
12x6-10x7 12x6-W1.4xW2.5 0.014 0.050 23
12x6-8x4 12x6-W2.0xW4.0 0.020 0.080 35
12x6-10x6 12x6-W1.4xW2.9 0.014 0.058 27
6x6-10x10 6x6-W1.4xW1.4 0.029 0.029 21
4x12-8x12 4x12-W2.1xW0.9 0.062 0.009 25
6x6-8x8 6x6-W2.1xW2.1 0.041 0.041 30
4x4-10x10 4x4-W1.4xW1.4 0.043 0.043 31
4x12-7x11 4x12-W2.5xW1.1 0.074 0.011 31
6x6-6x6 6x6-W2.9xW2.9 0.058 0.058 42
4x4-8x8 4x4-W2.1xW2.1 0.062 0.062 44
6x6-4x4 6x6-W4.0xW4.0 0.080 0.080 58
4x4-6x6 4x4-W2.9xW2.9 0.087 0.087 62
6x6-2x2 6x6-W5.5xW5.5 0.110 0.110 80
4x4-4x4 4x4-W4.0xW4.0 0.120 0.120 85
4x4-3x3 4x4-W4.7xW4.7 0.141 0.141 102
4x4-2x2 4x4-W5.5xW5.5 0.165 0.165 119
Availability of styles should be verified by the local supplier.
(lb/100 ft
2
)
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
OCT 97
Table 2.11-4
Sizes of Wires used in Welded
Wire Reinforcement
Nominal Nominal Area (in.
2
/ft of width)
Wire Size Number Diameter* Weight* Center to Center Spacing (in.)
Plain Deformed in. plf 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
W45 D45 0.757 1.530 2.700 1.800 1.350 0.900 0.675 0.540 0.450
W31 D31 0.628 1.054 1.860 1.240 0.930 0.620 0.465 0.372 0.310
W30 D30 0.618 1.020 1.800 1.200 0.900 0.600 0.450 0.360 0.300
W28 D28 0.597 0.952 1.680 1.120 0.840 0.560 0.420 0.336 0.280
W26 D26 0.575 0.884 1.560 1.040 0.780 0.520 0.390 0.312 0.260
W24 D24 0.553 0.816 1.440 0.960 0.720 0.480 0.360 0.288 0.240
W22 D22 0.529 0.748 1.320 0.880 0.660 0.440 0.330 0.264 0.220
W20 D20 0.504 0.680 1.200 0.800 0.600 0.400 0.300 0.240 0.200
W18 D18 0.478 0.612 1.080 0.720 0.540 0.360 0.270 0.216 0.180
W16 D16 0.451 0.544 0.960 0.640 0.480 0.320 0.240 0.192 0.160
W14 D14 0.422 0.476 0.840 0.560 0.420 0.280 0.210 0.168 0.140
W12 D12 0.390 0.408 0.720 0.480 0.360 0.240 0.180 0.144 0.120
W11 D11 0.374 0.374 0.660 0.440 0.330 0.220 0.165 0.132 0.110
W10.5 0.366 0.357 0.630 0.420 0.315 0.210 0.158 0.126 0.105
W10 D10 0.356 0.340 0.600 0.400 0.300 0.200 0.150 0.120 0.100
W9.5 0.348 0.323 0.570 0.380 0.285 0.190 0.143 0.114 0.095
W9 D9 0.338 0.306 0.540 0.360 0.270 0.180 0.135 0.108 0.090
W8.5 0.329 0.289 0.510 0.340 0.255 0.170 0.128 0.102 0.085
W8 D8 0.319 0.272 0.480 0.320 0.240 0.160 0.120 0.096 0.080
W7.5 0.309 0.255 0.450 0.300 0.225 0.150 0.113 0.090 0.075
W7 D7 0.299 0.238 0.420 0.280 0.210 0.140 0.105 0.084 0.070
W6.5 0.288 0.221 0.390 0.260 0.195 0.130 0.098 0.078 0.065
W6 D6 0.276 0.204 0.360 0.240 0.180 0.120 0.090 0.072 0.060
W5.5 0.264 0.187 0.330 0.220 0.165 0.110 0.083 0.066 0.055
W5 D5 0.252 0.170 0.300 0.200 0.150 0.100 0.075 0.060 0.050
W4.5 0.240 0.153 0.270 0.180 0.135 0.090 0.068 0.054 0.045
W4 D4 0.225 0.136 0.240 0.160 0.120 0.080 0.060 0.048 0.040
W3.5 0.211 0.119 0.210 0.140 0.105 0.070 0.053 0.042 0.035
W3 D3 0.195 0.102 0.180 0.120 0.090 0.060 0.045 0.036 0.030
W2.9 0.192 0.098 0.174 0.116 0.087 0.058 0.044 0.035 0.029
W2.5 0.178 0.085 0.150 0.100 0.075 0.050 0.038 0.030 0.025
W2.1 0.162 0.070 0.126 0.084 0.063 0.042 0.032 0.025 0.021
W2 D2 0.159 0.068 0.120 0.080 0.060 0.040 0.030 0.024 0.020
W1.5 0.138 0.051 0.090 0.060 0.045 0.030 0.023 0.018 0.015
W1.4 0.134 0.049 0.084 0.056 0.042 0.028 0.021 0.017 0.014
* Based on ASTM A 496
(in.) (plf)
The following list of standards and manuals is provided for the convenience of the
reader because not all documents are referenced in the text of this chapter. The com-
plete serial designation of each document includes a year of adoption. However, since
these documents are updated on a frequent basis, the year has been omitted. The
reader is referred to the respective organizations for the latest revisions and year of
adoption.
HB Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
LRFD AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
HM Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling
and Testing
M6 Fine Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
M31 Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
M32 Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
M42 Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
M43 Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction
M53 Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
M54 Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement
M55 Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
M80 Coarse Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
M85 Portland Cement
M144 Calcium Chloride
M154 Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
M194 Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
M195 Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
M203 Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
M204 Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
M205 Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically
M221 Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
M225 Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
M240 Blended Hydraulic Cement
M275 Uncoated High Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete
M284 Epoxy Coated Reinforcing Bars
M295 Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral
Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
M302 Ground Iron Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars
M307 Microsilica for Use in Concrete and Mortar
T24 Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
T26 Quality of Water To Be Used in Concrete
T106 Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (Using 2 in. or 50 mm Cube
Specimens)
T131 Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12 Relevant Standards and Publications/2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Methods of Test
OCT 97
2.12
RELEVANT STANDARDS
AND PUBLICATIONS
2.12.1
AASHTO Standard
Specifications
2.12.2
AASHTO Standard
Methods of Test
T137 Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
T152 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
T160 Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic Cement Mortar and Concrete
T161 Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
T196 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method
T199 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Chase Indicator
T259 Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration
T277 Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride
207.1 Mass Concrete
209R Predictions of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass
Concrete
211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
213R Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
215R Considerations for Design of Concrete Structures Subject to Fatigue Loading
221R Guide for the Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in Concrete
223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
226.1R Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag as a Cementitious Constituent in
Concrete
226.3R Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
315 Details and Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
343R Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures
345R Guide for Concrete Highway Bridge Deck Construction
363R State-of-the-Art Report on High Strength Concrete
423.3R Recommendations for Concrete Members Prestressed with Unbonded Tendons
439.3R Mechanical Connections of Reinforcing Bars
440 State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures
A 82 Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
A 184 Specification for Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement
A 416 Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A 421 Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A 496 Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement
A 497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete
Reinforcement
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.2 AASHTO Standard Methods of Test/2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications
OCT 97
2.12.3
ACI Publications
2.12.4
ASTM Standard
Specifications
A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 706 Specification for Low-Alloy Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 722 Specification for Uncoated High Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete
A 767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars
A 882 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand
A 884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for
Reinforcement
C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C 94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement
C 260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
C 330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
C 470 Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically
C 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use
as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
C 845 Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement Concrete and Mortar
C 989 Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and
Mortars
C 1107 Specification for Package Dry, Hydraulic-Cement Grout (Nonshrink)
C 1240 Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic Cement, Concrete and Mortar
D 98 Specification for Calcium Chloride
D 448 Specification for Standard Sizes of Coarse Aggregate for Highway Construction
D 3963 Specification for Fabrication and Jobsite Handling of Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
Steel Bars
C 42 Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of
Concrete
C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using
2-in. or 50-mm Cube Specimens)
C 138 Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
C 157 Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar
and Concrete
C 173 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
Method
C 185 Test Method for Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar
C 186 Test Method for Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.4 ASTM Standard Specifications/2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods
OCT 97
2.12.5
ASTM Standard Test
Methods
C 191 Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
C 227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
(Mortar-Bar Method)
C 231 Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
C 289 Test Method for Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical
Method)
C 342 Test Method for Potential Volume Change of Cement-Aggregate Combinations
C 418 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting
C 441 Test Method for Effectiveness of Mineral Admixtures of Ground Blast-Furnace
Slag in Preventing Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due to the Alkali-Silica
Reaction
C 452 Test Method for Potential Expansion of Portland Cement Mortars Exposed to
Sulfate
C 469 Test Method for Static Modulus and Poissons Ratio of Concrete in Compression
C 512 Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression
C 586 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete
Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)
C 597 Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
C 671 Test Method for Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing
C 672 Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing
Chemicals
C 682 Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in Air-Entrained
Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures
C 779 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Horizontal Concrete Surfaces
C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete
C 805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete
C 827 Test Method for Change in Height at Early Ages of Cylindrical Specimens from
Cementitious Mixtures
C 900 Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete
C 944 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the
Rotating-Cutter Method
C1012 Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a
Sulfate Solution
C1090 Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens from
Hydraulic-Cement Grout
C1202 Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion
Penetration
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.5 ASTM Standard Test Methods
OCT 97
This list of cross references is provided for ease of comparing two similar documents.
In many cases, the two documents are not identical and should not be interchanged
without review of their content.
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, First Edition, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1994
Buckner, D. C., An Analysis of Transfer and Development Lengths for Pretensioned
Concrete Structures, FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation, Report No.
FHWA-RD-94-049, 1994, 108 pp
CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, Bulletin dInformation No. 213/214, Comite Euro-
International du Beton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1990
Gulyas, R. J., Wirthlin, G. J. and Champa, J. T., Evaluation of Keyway Grout Test
Methods for Precast Concrete Bridges, PCI JOURNAL, V. 40, No. 1, January-
February 1995, pp. 44-57
Magura, D. D., Sozen, M. A. and Seiss, C. P., A Study of Stress Relaxation in
Prestressing Reinforcement, PCI JOURNAL, V. 9, No. 2, April 1964, pp. 13-57
Martinez, S., Nilson, A. H. and Slate, F. O., Spirally Reinforced High Strength
Concrete Columns, Research Report No. 82-10, Department of Structural
Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, August, 1982
PCI Committee on Epoxy-Coated Strand, Guidelines for the Use of Epoxy-
Coated Strand, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38, No. 4, July-August 1993, pp. 26-32
Post-Tensioning Manual, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1990
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16thEdition, American Association of
Zia, P., Leming, M. L., and Ahmad, S. H., High Performance Concretes, A State-
of-the-Art Report, Report No. SHRP-C/FR-91-103, Strategic Highway Research
Program, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1991
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
2.12.6 Cross References ASTM-AASHTO/2.12.7 Cited References
OCT 97
ASTM AASHTO
A 82 M32
A 184 M54
A 185 M55
A 416 M203
A 421 M204
A 496 M225
A 497 M221
A 615 M31
ASTM AASHTO
A 616 M42
A 617 M53
A 722 M275
C 42 T24
C 109 T106
C 150 M85
C 157 T160
C 173 T196
ASTM AASHTO
C 185 T137
C 191 T131
C 231 T152
C 260 M154
C 330 M195
C 470 M205
C 494 M194
C 595 M240
ASTM AASHTO
C 618 M295
C 666 T161
C 989 M302
C 1202 T277
C 1240 M307
D 98 M144
D 448 M43
2.12.6
Cross References
ASTM-AASHTO
2.12.7
Cited References
NOTATION
3.1 SCOPE
3.2 PRODUCT COMPONENTS AND DETAILS
3.2.1 Concrete
3.2.1.1 Cement
3.2.1.2 Aggregates
3.2.1.3 Admixtures
3.2.1.3.1 Water-Reducing Admixtures
3.2.1.3.2 Retarders and Accelerators
3.2.1.3.3 Air-Entraining Admixtures
3.2.1.3.4 Corrosion Inhibitors
3.2.1.3.5 Mineral Admixtures
3.2.2 Prestressing Steel
3.2.2.1 Pretensioning
3.2.2.2 Post-Tensioning
3.2.2.3 Strand Size and Spacing
3.2.2.4 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Pretensioning
3.2.2.5 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Post-Tensioning
3.2.2.6.1 Types of Epoxy Coating
3.2.2.6.2 Anchorage of Epoxy Coated Strand
3.2.2.6.3 Protection of the Epoxy Coating
3.2.2.6.4 Epoxy Coating and Elevated Temperatures
3.2.2.7 Indented Strand
3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars
3.2.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3.1 Reinforcement Detailing
3.2.3.2 Developing Continuity
3.2.3.2.1 Continuity with Post-Tensioning
3.2.3.2.2 Continuity with Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members
3.2.3.3 Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3.3.1 Epoxy-Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3.3.2 Galvanized Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3.4 Welded Wire Reinforcement
3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details
3.2.4 Embedments and Blockouts
3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments
3.2.4.2 Embedments and Blockouts for Diaphragms
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
OCT 97
4494 Bridge Manual Ch3-new 6/30/03 1:57 PM Page 1
3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction
3.2.4.4 Lifting Devices
3.2.4.4.1 Strand Lift Loops
3.2.4.4.2 Other Lifting Embedments
3.2.4.5 Blockouts for Shipping
3.2.5 Surface Treatments
3.2.5.1 Protecting Product Ends
3.2.5.1.1 Ends Cast into Concrete
3.2.5.1.2 Exposed Ends
3.2.5.1.3 Epoxy Mortar End Patches
3.2.5.1.4 Portland Cement Mortar End Patches
3.2.5.1.5 Patching Ends with Proprietary Products
3.2.5.2 Intentionally Roughened Surfaces
3.2.5.3 Cosmetic Surface Treatments
3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes
3.2.5.5 Durability-Related Treatments
3.2.5.6 Protection of Exposed Steel
3.3 FABRICATION
3.3.1 Forms and Headers
3.3.1.1 Self-Stressing Forms
3.3.1.1.1 Applications of Self-Stressing Forms
3.3.1.2 Non-Self-Stressing Forms
3.3.1.2.1 Design of Non-Self-Stressing Forms
3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms
3.3.1.4 Advantages of Precast Concrete Formwork
3.3.1.5 Other Form Considerations
3.3.1.6 Headers
3.3.1.6.1 Header Configuration
3.3.1.7 Internal Void Forms
3.3.1.7.1 Mandrel Systems
3.3.1.7.2 Retractable Inner Forms
3.3.1.7.3 Sacrificial Inner Forms
3.3.2 Prestressing
3.3.2.1 Types of Pretensioning Beds
3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds
3.3.2.1.2 Strutted Beds
3.3.2.2 Strand Profile
3.3.2.2.1 Straight Strands
3.3.2.2.2 Harped Strands
3.3.2.2.3 Harping Devices
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OCT 97
3.3.2.2.4 Anchorage of Harping Devices
3.3.2.3 Tensioning
3.3.2.4 Pretensioning Configuration
3.3.2.5 Tensioning Prestressing Steel
3.3.2.5.1 Tensioning Individual Strands
3.3.2.5.2 Tensioning Strands as a Group
3.3.2.6 Prestressing Strand Elongation
3.3.2.7 Variables Affecting Strand Elongation
3.3.2.7.1 Dead End and Splice Chuck Seating
3.3.2.7.2 Elongation of Abutment Anchor Rods
3.3.2.7.3 Prestressing Bed Deformations
3.3.2.7.4 Live End Chuck Seating
3.3.2.7.5 Temperature Corrections
3.3.2.7.6 Friction
3.3.2.8 Detensioning
3.3.2.8.1 Hydraulic Detensioning
3.3.2.8.2 Detensioning by Heat Cutting
3.3.2.8.3 Detensioning at Bulkheads
3.3.2.8.4 Harped Strand Considerations at Detensioning
3.3.2.9 Strand Debonding
3.3.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement and Embedments
3.3.3.1 Placement and Securing
3.3.3.2 Installation of Lifting Devices
3.3.3.3 Concrete Cover
3.3.3.4 Steel Spacing Design
3.3.4 Concrete Batching, Mixing, Delivery and Placement
3.3.4.1 Delivery Systems
3.3.4.2 Consolidation Techniques
3.3.4.3 Normal Weight Concrete
3.3.4.4 Lightweight Concrete
3.3.4.5 High Performance Concrete
3.3.5 Concrete Curing
3.3.5.1 Benefits of Accelerated Curing
3.3.5.2 Preventing Moisture Loss
3.3.5.3 Methods of Accelerated Curing
3.3.5.3.1 Accelerated Curing by Convection
3.3.5.3.2 Accelerated Curing with Radiant Heat
3.3.5.3.3 Accelerated Curing with Steam
3.3.5.3.4 Accelerated Curing with Electric Heating Elements
3.3.5.4 Curing Following Stripping
3.3.5.5 Optimizing Concrete Curing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OCT 97
3.3.5.5.1 Determination of Preset Time
3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application
3.3.5.5.3 Maximum Curing Temperature
3.3.6 Removing Products from Forms
3.3.6.1 Form Suction
3.3.7 In-Plant Handling
3.3.7.1 Handling Equipment
3.3.7.2 Rigging
3.3.7.3 Handling Stresses
3.3.7.4 Lateral Stability During Handling
3.3.8 In-Plant Storage
3.3.8.1 Storage of Eccentrically Prestressed Products
3.3.8.2 Storage of Concentrically Prestressed or Conventionally Reinforced Products
3.3.8.3 Stacking
3.3.8.4 Weathering
3.3.9 Roughened Surfaces
3.3.9.1 Roughening Exposed Surfaces
3.3.9.2 Roughening Formed Surfaces
3.3.10 Match-Cast Members
3.3.10.1 Match-Casting Techniques
3.3.10.2 Joining Match-Cast Members with Epoxy
3.4 PLANT QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
3.4.1 Plant and Inspection Agency Interaction
3.4.2 Product Evaluation and Repair
3.4.2.1 Surface Voids
3.4.2.2 Honeycomb and Spalls
3.4.2.3 Repairing Large Voids
3.4.2.4 Cracks
3.4.2.4.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
3.4.2.4.2 Cracks Due to Restraint of Volume Change
3.4.2.4.3 Differential Curing Cracks
3.4.2.4.4 Accidental Impact Cracks
3.4.2.5 Crack Repair
3.4.2.5.1 Autogenous Healing
3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection
3.4.2.5.3 Crack Repair by Concrete Replacement
3.4.2.6 Camber
3.4.2.6.1 Measuring Camber
3.4.2.6.2 Thermal Influences on Camber
3.4.2.6.3 Mitigation of Camber Growth
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OCT 97
3.4.2.7 Sweep
3.4.2.7.1 Mitigation of Sweep
3.4.3 Water-Cement Ratio
3.4.3.1 Water-Cementitious Material Ratio
3.4.3.2 Water-Cement Ratio and Durability
3.4.3.3 Water-Cement Ratio without Water-Reducing Admixtures
3.4.3.4 Water-Cement Ratio with Water-Reducing Admixtures
3.4.3.5 Controlling Water-Cement Ratio
3.4.3.6 Testing Water-Cement Ratio
3.4.4 Strand Condition
3.4.5 Concrete Strength Testing
3.4.5.1 Number of Cylinders
3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size
3.4.5.3 Alternate Cylinder Capping Methods
3.4.5.4 Cylinder Curing Systems and Procedures
3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets
3.4.5.4.2 Self-Insulated Cylinder Molds
3.4.5.4.3 Long-Term Cylinder Curing
3.4.5.5 Concrete Cores
3.4.5.6 Non-Destructive Testing
3.4.6 Tolerances
3.5 TRANSPORTATION
3.5.1 Weight Limitations
3.5.2 Size Limitations
3.5.3 Trucking
3.5.3.1 Flat-Bed Trailers
3.5.3.2 Low-Boy Trailers
3.5.3.3 Pole Trailers
3.5.3.4 Steerable Trailers
3.5.3.5 Truck Loading Considerations
3.5.4 Rail Transportation
3.5.5 Barge Transportation
3.5.6 Lateral Stability During Shipping
3.6 INSTALLATION
3.6.1 Jobsite Handling
3.6.1.1 Single-Crane Lifts
3.6.1.2 Dual-Crane Lifts
3.6.1.3 Passing from Crane to Crane
3.6.1.4 Launching Trusses
OCT 97
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.6.1.4.1 Launching Trusses for Single-Piece Construction
3.6.1.4.2 Launching Trusses for Segmental Construction
3.6.2 Support Surfaces
3.6.2.1 Inspection of Support Surfaces
3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers
3.6.3 Abutted Members
3.6.3.1 Vertical Alignment
3.6.3.2 Shear Keys
3.6.3.2.1 Grout or Concrete in Shear Keys
3.6.3.2.2 Grouting Procedures for Shear Keys
3.6.3.3 Welded Connectors
3.6.3.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning
3.6.3.5 Skewed Bridges
3.7 DIAPHRAGMS
3.7.1 Cast-In-Place Concrete Diaphragms
3.7.2 Precast Concrete Diaphragms
3.7.2.1 Individual Precast Concrete Diaphragms
3.7.2.2 Secondary-Cast Precast Concrete Diaphragms
3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms
3.7.4 Temporary Diaphragms for Construction
3.7.5 Diaphragms in Skewed Bridges
3.8 PRECAST DECK PANELS
3.8.1 Deck Panel Systems
3.8.2 Handling Deck Panels
3.8.3 Installation of Deck Panels
3.9 REFERENCES
OCT 97
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A
s
= area of a prestressing strand, in.
2
A*
s
= total prestressing steel area, in.
2
D = prestressing steel elongation, in.
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel, ksi
f 'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of prestressing steel, ksi
L = total length of prestressing steel from anchorage to anchorage, in.; length of member, ft
P
s
= design jacking force, kips
OCT 97
NOTATION
This chapter describes materials and techniques used in the fabrication, handling,
transportation and erection of precast, prestressed concrete bridge components. It
also discusses how the components are integrated into the completed structure.
Familiarity with this chapter will enable bridge designers to take advantage of the
flexibility and economy of precast, prestressed concrete products. It will help to avoid
the pitfalls that make precast systems less cost-effective. In addition to fabrication,
quality control procedures are described which maximize product quality, making
plant-cast components superior to site-cast construction.
OCT 97
Fabrication and Construction
3.1
SCOPE
Precast, prestressed concrete bridge products generally consist of concrete, reinforce-
ment and various embedments used for temporary or structural connections.
Variations in these components affecting cost and constructability are summarized in
this section. These descriptions are not intended to be all-inclusive, and the reader is
directed to the references for further information.
Plant-cast concrete bridge products are structurally efficient sections which are rela-
tively thin and congested with reinforcement and embedments. It is therefore imper-
ative that fresh concrete (portland cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water,
and admixtures) have sufficient workability to fill all spaces without voids, honey-
combing or segregation. The following sections describe variations in individual con-
crete constituents that can be beneficial or detrimental to concrete placement, con-
solidation, and finishing, but discounting the influence of other components in the
mixture. In reality, the behavior of fresh concrete will depend on the interaction of
all constituents. Both fresh and hardened concrete properties vary widely due to the
availability and nature of local materials. Most Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
(PCI) Certified Plants have standard in-house mixtures with proven histories of
placeability, strength and durability. Bridge designers should consult their local pro-
ducers for information on their experience with local materials.
The quantity and fineness of cement play important roles in the behavior of fresh
concrete, as described in ACI 225R. Lean mixtures (those using less cement) with
coarsely ground cement are generally harsh and difficult to consolidate and finish. As
the quantity or fineness of the cement increases, the mixture becomes more cohesive.
Very rich mixtures with finely ground cement can be overly cohesive or sticky.
AASHTO M85 Type III cement, normally used in precast products for its high-early
strength characteristics, is the finest grind of portland cements available. As the fine-
ness of the cement increases, the cement content which produces optimum worka-
bility with minimum water, is reduced.
The behavior of fresh concrete can be significantly affected by the physical properties
of the aggregates, as described in ACI 221R. The maximum size and gradation of the
fine aggregate, as well as the shape and texture of both the fine and coarse aggregates,
affect the water content required to produce workable concrete. Rough, angular
aggregates require more cement and water for workability than smooth, rounded
aggregates. Too many flat or elongated pieces of coarse aggregate can result in a harsh
mixture. Porous aggregates will affect the water demand if not sufficiently saturated
at the time of batching.
The maximum coarse aggregate size should be smaller than the tightest space the
concrete is expected to fill. ACI 318 limits the maximum coarse aggregate size to one-
fifth the narrowest dimension between form sides, one-third the depth of slabs, or
three-quarters the minimum clear dimension between reinforcement. The smallest
practical maximum coarse aggregate size is 3/8 in., however, this should not be inter-
preted as permitting a 1/2 in. minimum clear dimension between reinforcement.
Other restrictions apply. See Section 3.3.3.4 for discussion on steel spacing.
All admixtures in a given concrete mix must be compatible with each other as well as
with the cement. Combinations of admixtures can accentuate or mitigate placement
and finishing problems. The admixture manufacturer should be consulted before
combinations are used.
OCT 97
3.2.1.3
Admixtures
3.2 Product Components and Details/3.2.1.3 Admixtures
3.2
PRODUCT
COMPONENTS
AND DETAILS
3.2.1
Concrete
3.2.1.1
Cement
3.2.1.2
Aggregates
In precast plants, fresh concrete mixes are augmented with one or more admixtures. The pur-
pose of an admixture is to produce a desired property of concrete, either in its fresh or hardened
form. ACI 212.3R provides a detailed description of commonly available chemical admixtures.
Strength and durability considerations of hardened concrete for bridge applications normally
dictate concrete mixtures with low water-cementitious material ratios. Without chemical
admixtures, these mixtures can exhibit poor workability. Normal water-reducing admixtures
decrease water demand from 5 to 12 percent for the same workability, or increase workabil-
ity for the same water content. High range water-reducing admixtures (superplasticizers)
decrease water demand from 12 to more than 30 percent. Under most conditions, water-
reducers are used for both purposes; to reduce water demand and provide optimum worka-
bility. The ability to produce workable concrete while maintaining low water-cementitious
material ratios aids in the early strength gain necessary for a daily production cycle.
Concretes using water-reducing admixtures are also less likely to segregate during placement.
Water-reducing admixtures normally do not increase the working life of fresh concrete, and
frequently decrease it, particularly with high range water-reducers. Rapid loss of workability
can often be controlled by the addition of a retarding admixture. Water-reducing admixtures
have also been known to retard the set of concrete. This can be controlled by the introduc-
tion of a non-chloride accelerating admixture.
In some cases, high range water-reducers make finishing more difficult because of the lower
water content and the resulting lack of bleed water which normally rises to the surface. This
can also be true of air-entraining admixtures. At low and moderate cement contents,
air-entraining admixtures make fresh concrete more workable and cohesive, reducing segre-
gation and bleed water. However, at high cement contents, the mixture can become overly
cohesive or sticky. Air-entrainment also reduces concrete strength in approximate proportion
to the amount entrained, unless the mix proportions are readjusted. Excessive air contents
can affect both early- and long-term concrete strengths, and should be avoided.
Corrosion inhibitors are occasionally specified for the protection of embedded steel, and
have various affects on the behavior of fresh concrete. Calcium nitrite, for example, acceler-
ates the set of the concrete, reduces the amount of entrained air, and increases the likelihood
of plastic and drying shrinkage cracking. When these chemical admixtures are used, proper
mix adjustments and curing techniques should be specified in accordance with the manu-
facturers recommendations.
Mineral admixtures are sometimes used for economy, strength or durability considerations.
Fly ash can be an economical alternative if used to replace cement, and will usually increase
the workability of concrete. However, its set retarding properties generally make it unattrac-
tive for use in a daily production cycle. ACI 226.3R provides guidance on the use of fly ash.
Fresh concrete with up to 5 percent silica fume by weight of cement will normally behave
much like conventional concrete. However, higher dosages can result in overly cohesive mix-
tures, difficult finishing due to lack of bleed water, longer setting times and increased shrink-
age. As with all concrete constituents, this detrimental behavior can be controlled with good
mix design, batching, placing and curing practices. The report by the PCI Committee on
Durability (1994), provides helpful information on the use of silica fume.
Most precast concrete bridge components are prestressed for added strength and ser-
viceability. Prestressing is achieved by one of two methods: pretensioning or post-ten-
sioning. The primary difference between the two methods is the point in production
at which the prestressing tendons are tensioned.
OCT 97
3.2.1.3.4
Corrosion Inhibitors
3.2.1.3.5
Mineral Admixtures
3.2.2
Prestressing Steel
3.2.1.3.1 Water-Reducing Admixtures/3.2.2 Prestressing Steel
3.2.1.3.2
Retarders and Accelerators
3.2.1.3.1
Water-Reducing Admixtures
3.2.1.3.3
Air-Entraining Admixtures
Pretensioning is most economical for plant-cast products, since much of the neces-
sary material used in post-tensioning is eliminated. Post-tensioning may be required
in the plant if pretensioning equipment or facilities are inadequate or not suited for
the project. Bridge designers should consult their local producers for information on
plant capabilities.
Combinations of pretensioning and post-tensioning within the same member have
proven to be cost-effective. For example, combinations of pre- and post-tensioning
may reduce the concrete strength required at transfer of prestress. In other cases, pre-
tensioned strands have been designed to carry a predetermined percentage of the
dead load in simple span (e.g., its own weight plus that of the cast-in-place deck with-
out shoring). Then, post-tensioned tendons continuous over several spans are added
for strength for subsequent dead and live loads.
Figure 3.2.2-1a and b shows several types and sizes of prestressing tendons. For pre-
tensioning, the common tendon material is 7-wire strand, whereas in post-tension-
ing, single- or multi-strand tendons or high strength bars are commonly used.
In pretensioning, strands are first jacked to a specified force in a predetermined pro-
file. Concrete is placed in direct contact with the tensioned strands and then cured.
When the concrete achieves the specified release strength, forms are stripped and the
tension in the strands is released. For some products, tension in the strands is first
released, then the product is removed from fixed forms. See Section 3.3.6 for more
information on form or product removal. The force in the strands is transferred to
the product by the bond which develops between the concrete and surface of the
strands.
Post-tensioning is a method where the prestressing force is introduced into the con-
crete after it has been cast and cured. The tendons are then jacked between anchor-
ages embedded in the concrete. Post-tensioning tendons may be internal or external
to the concrete cross section.
For internal tendons, ducts or sleeves are provided in the concrete into which the pre-
stressing tendons are inserted. Internal tendons may remain unbonded after stressing, or
may be bonded by pressure grouting the ducts. Another type of internal tendon is a sin-
gle strand that has had a factory application of grease followed by insertion into a plas-
tic hose-like sleeve. These remain unbonded and the grease protects against corrosion.
OCT 97
3.2.2 Prestressing Steel/3.2.2.2 Post-Tensioning
3.2.2.1
Pretensioning
Figure 3.2.2-1
Prestressing Steel
3.2.2.2
Post-Tensioning
b) 7-Wire Prestressing Strands
From the left: 3/8 in.; 3/8 in. indented; 1/2 in.; 9/16 in.; 0.6 in.; 0.6 in. epoxy-coated
with embedded grit
a) Post-Tensioning Bars
External tendons, although outside of the concrete cross section, are normally con-
tained within the structure. For example, tendons within the voids of box girders are
considered external. External tendons are normally draped between anchorage points
to achieve the desired profile. By definition, external tendons are unbonded. All
unbonded tendons, whether internal or external, should be permanently protected
against corrosion.
Seven-wire prestressing strand meets the requirements of AASHTO M203 and is
used for both pretensioned and post-tensioned applications. It is available in the sizes
and grades shown in Chapter 2, Table 2.11.1. The predominant size and grade used
for pretensioning is 1/2 in. diameter, uncoated, 270 ksi. Most proprietary post-ten-
sioning systems accommodate either 1/2 in. or 0.6 in. diameter, 270 ksi strand. Two-
and three-wire strands are also available, but their use, along with the other sizes and
grades of seven-wire strand, is much less common for bridge applications.
The minimum clear distance between pretensioned strands, as required by the AASHTO
Standard and LRFD Specifications, is 3 times the nominal strand diameter, or 1.33 times
the maximum aggregate size, whichever is greater. However, smaller center-to-center
spacing of strand (1.75 in. for 1/2 in. strand, 2 in. for 0.6 in. strand) has been used suc-
cessfully in various parts of the country for many years. A Federal Highway
Administration Memorandum (1996) permits the lesser spacings as the result of num-
erous research studies. Post-tensioned tendons, which are mechanically anchored and do
not rely on bond to the concrete at transfer, are exempt from these requirements.
A typical anchor for pretensioned strand is shown in Figure 3.2.2.4-1. Normally
referred to as a strand chuck, the device consists of a hardened steel barrel with a
machined conical core. This barrel receives the jaw or wedge assembly. Wedges are
used in sets of 2 or 3 pieces. They are held in alignment by a rubber O-ring and
are tapered to match the comical shape of the barrel. The wedges have machined ser-
rations or teeth that bite into and grip the strand, distributing the radial load to the
barrel. The cap is spring loaded to keep the wedges in place during jacking or ten-
sioning.
A coupler, or splice chuck, as the name suggests, is used to splice two lengths of
strand together. As shown in Figure 3.2.2.4-2, they are essentially the same as strand
chucks, with the exception that in place of the spring loaded head, they are furnished
with male and female threads, enabling them to screw onto each other back-to-back.
Couplers are not used within precast members, but rather are used to connect strand
between members or strand passing through the member with bridle strand. See
Section 3.3.2.4 for a description of bridle strand.
OCT 97
3.2.2.2 Post-Tensioning/3.2.2.4 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Pretensioning
3.2.2.3
Strand Size and Spacing
3.2.2.4
Strand Anchors and Couplers
for Pretensioning
Figure 3.2.2.4-1
Strand Chuck Showing Internal
Components
Figure 3.2.2.4-2
Strand Splice Chuck Showing Internal
Components
Most anchors for post-tensioned strand are proprietary, but generally use wedges sim-
ilar to pretensioning anchors. These anchorages are embedded in the concrete prior
to stressing, and are reinforced to resist the bursting stresses associated with high
localized concentrated loads. In many cases, the wedges are hydraulically pressed into
conical holes in the anchor head to reduce seating losses after jacking. Post-tension-
ing tendons vary from single strand tendons to multiple strand tendons which occu-
py the same duct and anchorage device. Figure 3.2.2.5-1a-1d shows typical post-ten-
sioning anchorages.
Proprietary post-tensioning couplers are also available to join a new tendon to one
which has already been placed and stressed. One such coupler is shown in Figure
3.2.2.5-2.
OCT 97
3.2.2.5 Strand Anchors and Couplers for Post-Tensioning
3.2.2.5
Strand Anchors and Couplers
for Post-Tensioning
Figure 3.2.2.5-1a-1d
Types of Post-Tensioning Anchorages
Figure 3.2.2.5-2
Post -Tensioning Coupler
c) "Special" Cast Multi-Strand Anchorage
a) Monostrand Anchorage
Wedges
d) "Basic" Plate Multi-Strand Anchorage
b) "Flat" Multi-Strand Anchorage
Seven-wire prestressing strand with an organic coating meeting the requirements of
ASTM A882 is available for conditions which require a higher degree of corrosion pro-
tection. In pretensioned and bonded post-tensioned applications, this normally applies
to exposure conditions which are particularly harsh, such as direct exposure to seawater.
For unbonded post-tensioned applications, unless an alternate system of corrosion pro-
tection is employed, the epoxy coating provides the only barrier between the uncoated
strand and the environment. The following sections present information and procedures
for the use of epoxy-coated strand which are different from, or in addition to, those for
uncoated strand. These sections are not intended to be all inclusive. A report by the PCI
Ad Hoc Committee on Epoxy-Coated Strand (1993) provides excellent guidance on the
use of epoxy-coated strand.
It should be emphasized that the use of epoxy-coated strand has significant cost impli-
cations. The cost of coated strand is approximately three times the cost of uncoated
strand, and the set-up labor costs can increase by as much as 30 percent. For most bridge
applications where the prestressing tendons are bonded, the plant-cast quality of the con-
crete, the concrete cover, and the limits on tensile stresses under service loads, provide
excellent corrosion protection without coated strand.
Two types of coatings are available. For pretensioned or bonded post-tensioned applica-
tions, the coating is embedded with aluminum oxide grit to aid in the bond of the con-
crete to the coating. Coating without the grit is smooth and will not allow concrete
bond. It is intended for unbonded post-tensioned, external post-tensioned or cable stay
applications. The thickness of the coating for strand meeting ASTM A882 may vary
from 25 to 45 mils. Strand with less variable coating thickness is also available, and may
be necessary for compatibility with stressing hardware. Manufacturers of epoxy-coated
strand should be consulted. For pretensioned applications, holes in the stressing abut-
ments will usually need to be enlarged to accommodate the coating thickness.
Coatings with grit are extremely abrasive and appropriate precautions must be taken
during handling. All workers should wear heavy protective gloves when handling the
strand. Dragging the strand over steel form soffits or through holes in stressing abut-
ments can abrade forms and elongate holes. This can result in out-of-tolerance strand
positioning. Holes should be checked periodically. Dragging the strand over inappropri-
ate surfaces or through unchamfered holes can cause damage to the coating or erosion
of the grit. Any coating damage should be repaired in accordance with the manufactur-
ers recommendations. Loss of the grit will reduce effectiveness of the concrete bond.
Special anchors with bite-through wedges designed specifically for epoxy-coated strand
must be used for stressing and seating. Once seated, wedges should not be allowed to
unseat during stressing, since the serrations can become contaminated with epoxy coat-
ing. Therefore, final stressing of epoxy-coated strand should be accomplished with a sin-
gle stroke of the jack. Anchorage seating losses are typically higher for epoxy-coated
strand than for uncoated strand (see Sects. 3.3.2.7.1 and 3.3.2.7.4). This should be con-
sidered in the stressing and elongation calculations. Wedge assemblies must be thor-
oughly inspected and cleaned prior to reuse. Epoxy-coated strand should not be gripped
in locations where it was damaged, heated or previously gripped.
When the length of the concrete member is substantially shorter than the length of the
stressing bed between abutments, a technique is used to save material costs. Uncoated
bridle strand is often coupled to the epoxy-coated strand for the stressing bed length
outside the member. See Section 3.3.2.4 for more discussion on bridle strand. This
coupling can be done by one of two methods. The epoxy coating can be stripped from
the end of the strand using a device specifically designed for this purpose. The strands
OCT 97
3.2.2.6 Epoxy-Coated Strand/3.2.2.6.2 Anchorage of Epoxy-Coated Strand
3.2.2.6
Epoxy-Coated Strand
3.2.2.6.1
Types of Epoxy Coating
3.2.2.6.2
Anchorage of
Epoxy-Coated Strand
Nominal Diameter Tensil Strength Normal Steel Area Nominal Weight
of Strand of Strand of Strand of Strand
in. (mm) lb (KN) in.
2
(mm
2
) lb/1000 ft
(kg/1000 m)
Grade 250
1/4 (0.250) (6.35) 9,000 (40.0) 0.036 (23.22) 122 (182)
5/16 (0.313) (7.94) 14,500 (64.5) 0.058 (32.42) 197 (294)
3/8 (0.375) (9.53) 20,000 (89.0) 0.080 (51.61) 272 (405)
7/16 (0.438) (11.11) 27,000 (120.1) 0.108 (69.68) 367 (548)
1/2 (0.500) (12.70) 36,000 (160.1) 0.144 (92.90) 490 (730)
(0.600) (15.24) 54,000 (240.2) 0.216 (139.35) 737 (1,094)
Grade 270
5/16 (0.313) (7.94) 16,500 (74.3) 0.061 (39.36) 210 (313)
3/8 (0.375) (9.53) 23,000 (102.3) 0.085 (54.84) 290 (432)
7/16 (0.438) (11.11) 31,000 (137.9) 0.115 (74.19) 390 (582)
1/2 (0.500) (12.70) 41,300 (183.7) 0.153 (98.71) 520 (775)
(0.600) (15.24) 58,600 (266.7) 0.217 (140.0) 740 (1,102)
Table 3.2.2.7-1
Properties of Indented Strand
can then be joined using a standard splice chuck. Alternatively, a special splice chuck can
be manufactured to grip epoxy-coated strand on one side, and uncoated strand on the
other.
Sharp deflection of the strand profile, such as harping in pretensioned or external post-
tensioned applications, should be minimized. Friction at the deflection point during ten-
sioning can cause damage to the coating. Tensioning the strands in a straight profile,
then pulling or pushing them into the deflected position, minimizes damage. Cushion-
ing materials can also help alleviate such damage. In internal post-tensioned applications,
galvanized spiral-wound metal duct is not recommended, as damage to the coating can
result from abrasion at the duct seams. Smooth polyethylene duct will minimize damage.
At elevated temperatures like those sometimes used during accelerated curing of the con-
crete, the stability of the coating may be reduced, which can lead to a partial or total loss
of prestress at release. ASTM A882 requires the epoxy coating to be capable of with-
standing temperatures up to 150F without reduction of bond. Accordingly, the temper-
ature of the concrete surrounding the strand must be below 150F and falling prior to
release of prestress. The possibility of exposure of the members in the structure to fire,
and the subsequent potential loss of prestress, should be evaluated when specifying
epoxy-coated strands.
Seven-wire prestressing strand with small indentations in the outer wires conforming to
ASTM A886 is available in the sizes and grades shown in Table 3.2.2.7-1. This materi-
al is identical to normal prestressing strand meeting the requirements of AASHTO
M203 with the exception of the indentations. The purpose of the indentations is to
increase bond between concrete and strand and decrease the transfer and development
length of pretensioned strand.
Indented strand is only used in short members where rapid transfer of the prestress
force is critical. One common application is in precast, prestressed concrete railroad
ties. Nearly all bridge products are of sufficient length to accommodate the transfer
and development length provided by normal strand. However, some short span pre-
stressed bridge members (e.g., stay-in-place deck forms) may benefit from the use of
indented strand. Due to the decreased transfer length of indented strand, splitting
OCT 97
3.2.2.6.2 Anchorage of Epoxy-Coated Strand/3.2.2.7 Indented Strand
3.2.2.6.3
Protection of the
Epoxy Coating
3.2.2.6.4
Epoxy Coating and
Elevated Temperatures
3.2.2.7
Indented Strand
and bursting forces at the ends of pretensioned members will increase compared to
members using normal strand.
Prestressing bars conforming to AASHTO M275 are fabricated from high-strength
steel with a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 150 ksi. The bars are either plain
or deformed. Available sizes of deformed prestressing bars are shown in Chapter 2,
Table 2.11.1. Plain bars are not commonly used in prestressing.
Deformed bars are generally used for post-tensioned applications where the tendon
profile is straight and relatively short. In this application, the deformations are not
specifically intended to provide bond with the concrete, as with mild reinforcement,
but rather to allow the bars to be anchored or coupled with screw-on devices specif-
ically designed for this purpose. Anchorage devices are normally of the plate variety,
and are installed prior to casting the concrete to distribute the post-tensioning force
during stressing. Figure 3.2.2.8-1 shows a typical anchorage device and coupler sys-
tem. Prestressing bars are normally not used in pretensioned applications.
Due to the relatively short lengths and large bar areas, the stressing operation is char-
acterized by short elongations, which at times are difficult to measure and compare
to theoretical values. Accurate ram calibrations are important for proper stress appli-
cation. Prestressing bars may be bonded by grouting, or may be left unbonded with
appropriate corrosion protection measures.
The uses of prestressing bars include transverse post-tensioning of bridge decks,
diaphragms and precast multi-beam decks (flat slabs, slab beams, box beams, etc.), as
well as the connection of precast members to other precast members or cast-in-place
construction. Figures 3.2.2.8-2 through 4 illustrate some of these applications.
Note that in Figure 3.2.2.8-2, the detail shown is often used for skewed bridges with
skew angle greater than 20 degrees. For bridges with skew angle less than 20 degrees, or
zero, lateral post-tensioning extends from edge-to-edge of bridge. (See Sect. 3.6.6.3).
OCT 97
3.2.2.7 Indented Strand/3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars
3.2.2.8
Prestressing Bars
Figure 3.2.2.8-1
Prestressing Bar Anchor
and Coupler
Figure 3.2.2.8-2
Voided Slab Beams Connected
through Diaphragns with
Threaded Post-Tensioning Bars
Ties These Two Slabs Together
Near Bar (Shown)
Prestressing
and Pocket
Transverse
Grouted Keyway
Pocket Beyond
Bar
Edge of Bridge
Far Bar (Beyond)
Standard Section At Diaphragm
Ties These Two Slabs Together
Duct
Precast, prestressed concrete bridge products are nearly always supplemented with
nonprestressed reinforcement, widely referred to as mild steel, mild reinforce-
ment, or conventional reinforcement. This material conforms to AASHTO M32,
AASHTO M225, AASHTO M31 or ASTM A706. AASHTO M32 and AASHTO
M225 address cold-worked steel wires which are smooth and deformed, respectively,
and used primarily as spiral reinforcement for piles and columns. They are also used
in the fabrication of welded wire reinforcement. AASHTO M31 is the most common
type of deformed reinforcing bar (although this specification also includes plain bars,
they are rarely used as concrete reinforcement). ASTM A706 applies to low-alloy steel
deformed bars which are intended for circumstances where embrittlement, some-
times associated with AASHTO M31 bars, must be avoided. This can apply to field
bent bars, or to bars to be welded. However, in some parts of the country, the avail-
ability of ASTM A706 bars is limited, particularly in small quantities. Procedures for
field bending of AASHTO M31 bars, as well as proper preheating to permit welding
are widely used. Consideration should be given to availability when specifying ASTM
A706 reinforcement.
Prestressing steel is usually provided for all positive moments in flexural members,
but may be supplemented with nonprestressed reinforcement. In many cases, nega-
tive moments at the supports of continuous spans are resisted entirely by mild steel,
either in the cast-in-place deck, or in connections between precast members. Axial
loads can be resisted entirely by prestressing steel, nonprestressed reinforcement, or a
combination of both. Shear and torsion effects generally require the use of nonpre-
stressed reinforcement. Flexural stresses transverse to the prestressing steel, bursting
forces due to development of the prestressing forces, tensile stresses in the top flange
of eccentrically prestressed members during handling, and confinement of the core
of concrete piles and columns are all resisted by mild reinforcement. The following
sections suggest configurations of nonprestressed reinforcement that are compatible
with prestressed concrete members, and are considered standards in the industry.
OCT 97
3.2.2.8 Prestressing Bars/3.2.3 Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3
Nonprestressed
Reinforcement
Figure 3.2.2.8-3
Box Beams Connected through
Diaphragns with Threaded
Post-Tensioning Bars
Figure 3.2.2.8-4
Deck Bulb-Tees Connected
through Diaphragns with
Threaded Post-Tensioning Bars
Section Standard
SECTION A-A
Grout Pocket
Transverse Prestressing Bars
Keyway
Section Thru Diaphragm
Grouted
Grout
A
A
Transverse Prestressing Bars
In pretensioned applications, prestressing strand must be pulled from reels through
one stressing abutment, over the casting bed, and into the opposite stressing abut-
ment (or coupled into bridle strand already anchored to the opposite abutment).
This is done either by hand, or using a winch system which can pull several strands
at a time. In either case, threading the strand through closed mild steel configura-
tions, such as shown in Figure 3.2.3.1-1a, becomes labor intensive, particularly when
the reinforcement cannot be bundled into compact groups and spread after stressing
(such as with heavy spiral reinforcement or some welded wire reinforcement cages).
Whenever possible, mild reinforcement should be detailed for placement after the
prestressing strand has been strung in the bed and stressed. If this is not feasible, the
bars should be open at the top to allow the strands to be pulled over them. The bars
may be capped after stressing if necessary. Only where mild reinforcement is required
for torsion or confinement should closed bars or spirals be considered.
Care must also be taken when specifying single bar ties with bends at both ends , such
as used in compression members (shown in Figure 3.2.3.1-1b) and in the anchorage
zones of prestressed concrete flexural members. These bars should be detailed with
the assumption that they are the last ones placed in the assembly, and that the pre-
stressing strands cannot move to accommodate them. Bars with 90 bends at one
end, and 135 bends at the other, with the bends alternating from side to side of the
member, are generally satisfactory for placing after stressing. Section 3.2.3.5 offers
suggested nonprestressed reinforcement configurations for common prestressed concrete
bridge products. Note that 135 hooks are required in the AASHTO specifications in
regions requiring seismic resistance or for members resisting torsion.
When detailing bars which enclose prestressing strands, proper consideration should be
given to the bend radius. The dimension from the edge of the member to the strand
must be sufficient to allow for both the bend radius and the required concrete cover.
OCT 97
3.2.3.1 Reinforcement Detailing
3.2.3.1
Reinforcement Detailing
Minimum Dimension = Concrete Cover + Stirrup Bar Diameter + Stirrup Bend Radius
* See text regarding 135 hooks
Pretensioned Strands
a) Pretensioned Beam
b) Pretensioned Column
Pretensioned Strands
One-piece
Top Longitudinal Bars
Ties
Alternate
Ties or
Stirrup*
Cap Bar
1 1
1
Closed Stirrup
Square Spiral*
90 Ends*
Difficult Details
Preferred Details
Difficult Details
Preferred Details
Figure 3.2.3.1-1a-1b
Reinforcement Details Showing
Fabrication Considerations
Several methods are available for developing continuity in adjacent spans with pre-
cast concrete bridge members. These are discussed in Sections 3.2.3.2.1 through
3.2.3.2.3 and specifically address development of the negative moments over the
interior piers. Often, positive moments must also be considered over the piers. The
most economical means of developing positive moments over the piers is by extend-
ing the necessary number of strands from the bottom flange of the precast member,
and anchoring them into the pier by bending them up to provide sufficient develop-
ment length. These strands may also be anchored by mechanical means, but this
option is more expensive.
Continuity of precast, prestressed concrete spans can be achieved in several ways. The
solution shown in Figure 3.2.3.2.1-1a could be considered the most structurally effi-
cient. The precast members are pretensioned for the portion of the dead load
imposed prior to developing continuity, and post-tensioning is added for all subse-
quent loads, with the tendon profile following the continuous span moment enve-
lope. However, considering that only a limited number of standard section depths are
readily available, that site conditions usually limit the range of span lengths, and that
post-tensioning carries a higher cost than pretensioning, this may not be the most
cost-effective alternative.
OCT 97
3.2.3.2 Developing Continuity/3.2.3.2.1 Continuity with Post-Tensioning
Pretensioned Harped
Split-Duct Couplers (Seal with Tape)
Top of Girder
b) Duct Splices Over Pier
3"
Strands For Simple
Continuity
L
C Pier
Duct Projection
Span Loads
Grout
Vents
a) Bridge Elevation Showing Tendon Profiles
Pretensioned Straight Strands
for Simple Span Loads
Draped Strands for
Post-Tensioned
Figure 3.2.3.2.1-1a-1b
Continuity Developed with Post-Tensioning
3.2.3.2
Developing Continuity
3.2.3.2.1
Continuity with
Post-Tensioning
A simple solution for bridges with cast-in-place decks is to proportion the longitudinal
nonprestressed reinforcement in the deck over the piers to resist the negative moments.
This is a very common and cost-effective method of developing continuity because it
involves only straight reinforcing bars which are easily placed and spliced. A typical
detail used in the State of Washington is shown in Figure 3.2.3.2.2-1. The detail is
not typical of most agencies in the method used to transfer end reactions.
Precast members which are full depth, or are topped only with a non-structural wear-
ing surface, must be post-tensioned over the piers as described earlier, or must have
projecting reinforcement spliced in some manner to provide negative moment capac-
ity. Several methods have been successfully employed in splicing the projecting rein-
forcement, some of which are illustrated in Figure 3.2.3.2.3-1.
If the pier is of sufficient width, the simplest and least expensive method is to pro-
vide a non-contact lap splice of mild reinforcement extending from the top of the
precast members (Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1a). These bars may also be hooked to aid with
development (Fig. 3.2.3.2.3-1b). In this case, the bars should be allowed to be field
bent, since the form normally extends past the end of the member, and may interfere
with the placement of pre-bent bars. In both cases, the bars should be staggered hor-
izontally to avoid interference with bars from the facing member, and with rein-
forcement projecting from the pier.
When the pier does not provide sufficient width for lapped or hooked bars, non-
prestressed reinforcement projecting from the top of the precast members may be
spliced mechanically by welding, with grouted splice sleeves, or with mechanical
splices. Some of the more common splice details are shown in Figures 3.2.3.2.3-1c
through 1e. A wide variety of generic and proprietary splicing details are available.
Each detail has advantages and disadvantages with respect to material cost, labor cost,
tolerances for fabrication and erection, and the degree of quality control required to
properly execute the splice. Bridge designers should consult local producers for infor-
mation on the splice details favored by builders in the local area.
OCT 97
3.2.3.2.2 Continuity with Nonprestressed Reinforcement/3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members
3.2.3.2.3
Continuity in
Full-Depth Members
3.2.3.2.2
Continuity with
Nonprestressed
Reinforcement
Top of Prestressed
Joint w/
Moment Reinf.
Face of Diaphragm
Construction
3
'
-
1
0
"
Longitudinal Negative
after Pouring Traffic
Oak Block (Wedge)
2'-0" Length, Remove
#5 Ea. Face @
Transverse Slab Reinf.
Dowel
Barriers
@ 1'-0" Max
#4 Stirrups
C Hinge
18"
L
C Pier
L
5
"
1'-6" Max.
Surface
Roughened
Girder
Figure 3.2.3.2.2-1
Example of Continuity Developed with Conventional Deck Reinforcement
(typical Washington State Detailsee text)
Yet another solution involves coupling prestressing strands that extend from the top
of the precast members. After coupling the strands, the members are jacked apart at
the pier to induce required tensile forces in the coupled strands. This is shown in
Figure 3.2.3.2.3-1f and reported by Tadros, et al (1993) and Ficenec, et al (1993).
With the members held apart, the cast-in-place closure is made. Once the closure
concrete attains design strength, the jack is released to apply compression across the
joint. The resulting continuous spans behave much the same as with the post-ten-
sioned solution, without the expense of the post-tensioning hardware.
Reinforcing bars coated for corrosion protection are naturally more expensive than un-
coated bars, both in material and labor costs. Epoxy coating conforming to AASHTO
M284 or ASTM A934 and galvanizing conforming to ASTM A767 roughly double
the cost of uncoated material. Special epoxy coatings, such as designed for the pro-
tection of steel pipe, raise material costs even higher when specified for use on rein-
forcing bars. Increased development lengths of epoxy-coated bars will slightly
increase the amount of material required.
The quality of plant-cast concrete, the control of concrete cover, and the limits on
tensile stresses for prestressed concrete members under service loads provide excellent
corrosion protection for uncoated reinforcement under normal exposure conditions.
Coated reinforcement should only be considered for severe exposure conditions.
OCT 97
3.2.3.2.3 Continuity in Full-Depth Members/3.2.3.3 Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement
3.2.3.3
Coated Nonprestressed
Reinforcement
Figure 3.2.3.2.3-1a-1f
Methods to Establish
Continuity
Jacking Force
a) Lapped Bars b) Lapped Bars with Hooks
c) Welded Splice d) Grouted Sleeves
e) Mechanical Connectors f ) Spliced and Tensioned Projecting Strands
The effectiveness of epoxy coatings in preventing corrosion is only as good as the
integrity of the coating, as summarized by DArcy, et al (1996). Consequently, spec-
ifications for the bars for shipping, handling, placing, and protection during concrete
placement are increasingly restrictive. Labor costs are increased for these types of bars
due to the special handling required to prevent damage to the coating, and to repair-
ing areas damaged due to cutting, bending or handling. When specifying bars to be
cut and bent prior to coating, consideration should be given to constructability. For
example, hooked bars projecting from the ends of precast members may interfere
with the formwork at the member ends. In many cases, field bending of bars is the
best option for constructability.
When specifying reinforcement to be bent prior to hot-dip galvanizing, the specifi-
cations should direct the fabricator to ASTM A767, which dictates larger finished
bend diameters for #7 bars and larger than is standard for uncoated bars. This is
important in preventing embrittlement of the steel during the hot galvanizing
process.
Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) has long been the standard for reinforcing floor
slabs, wall panels and other flat-cast products. Recently, this material has gained pop-
ularity as a substitute for nonprestressed reinforcing bars in precast concrete bridge
products. Depending on the configuration of the sheets, the cost of this material can
be from 50-100 percent higher than mild reinforcing bars. However, savings in labor
and inspection costs can more than offset the material cost disadvantage. The price
and availability of WWR suitable for precast bridge products varies in different geo-
graphical regions. Local producers should be consulted for information on the cost
effectiveness of WWR in their area.
Sheets of WWR can be made in virtually any configuration up to approximately 14.5
ft wide, with smooth (AASHTO M55) or deformed (AASHTO M221) wires up to
5/8 in. in diameter (W31 or D31, the equivalent of a #5 reinforcing bar). The sheets
are normally shipped flat and bent at the precast plant, since shipping pre-bent sheets
can result in a large amount of ghost freight. The sheet lengths are limited by the
length of available benders, which is currently a maximum of about 30 ft.
Figure 3.2.3.4-1 shows the end reinforcement of a typical prestressed concrete bridge
beam using WWR. The labor savings results from eliminating the need to tie indi-
vidual bars into the required configuration. Improvement in quality can also be
expected, since the bar spacing of WWR is much more precise than can be expected
from tying individual bars.
The key to efficient use of WWR is standardization. Purchasing is most economical
when ordering in truckload quantities. Therefore, unless the project is large, the pre-
cast producer must be reasonably assured that any WWR that ends up in inventory
will be usable on future projects. WWR configurations should also be detailed to
allow installation after the prestressing strands have been strung and tensioned. Much
of the savings attributed to the use of WWR will be lost if the strands must be pulled
through long runs of enclosed reinforcement.
Figure 3.2.3.5-1 shows suggested nonprestressed reinforcement configurations for
various types of standard precast concrete bridge products. WWR cages can be pat-
terned after these configurations.
OCT 97
3.2.3.3.1 Epoxy-Coated Nonprestressed Reinforcement/3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details
3.2.3.3.2
Galvanized Nonprestressed
Reinforcement
3.2.3.4
Figure 3.2.3.4-1
in a Bulb-Tee
3.2.3.5
Suggested
Reinforcement Details
3.2.3.3.1
Epoxy-Coated Nonprestressed
Reinforcement
3.2.3.5 Suggested Reinforcement Details
a) Solid or Voided Slab Beam c) Full-Depth Deck Panel
Prestressing
Stirrup
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Stirrup
Stirrup
Prestressing
Strand
Strand
d) Channel Beam
b) Box Beam
Stirrup
Ea. Stem
Prestressing
Strand @ End
Prestressing
Strand @ Midspan
Strand
Prestressing
Stirrup
Stirrup
Transverse
Reinforcement
Bottom
Flange Ties
Flange Ties
(Ends Only)
Harped Strand
@ Midspan
Bottom
@ Midspan
At Midspan
* Alternate types shown; use one type throughout
g) I- and Bulb-Tee Beams
At End
Longitudinal
f ) Cast-in-Place Diaphragm
Prestressing
Strand @ End
Strand
Prestressing
Harped Strand
Projecting
Reinforcement
Stirrups*
e) Deck Bulb-Tee
Reinforcement
Between Beams
Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse
Reinforcement
Stirrups
Stirrups*
Through Holes in Beams
Reinforcement
in Pairs
Reinforcement
Figure 3.2.3.5-1a-1g
Recommended Reinforcement Configurations for Standard Products
OCT 97
Embedments and blockouts in precast concrete bridge products are used typically for
the following:
hanging utilities
for connecting the members to other members of the structural system
for attaching cast-in-place concrete formwork
for handling and shipping the members
The following sections describe common embedments and blockouts used for these
purposes. A wide range of details are used throughout the country. Bridge designers
should consult with local producers for preferred details.
Numerous types of embedments are available for connecting miscellaneous items,
such as utilities and guardrails, to precast concrete members. These embedments
range from simple threaded inserts to complex welded assemblies. Depending upon
OCT 97
3.2.4 Embedments and Blockouts/3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments
3.2.4
Embedments and Blockouts
3.2.4.1
for Attachments
Common Attachments
Wide Flange
Section
(2) High Strength Bolts
Through Oversized Holes
Plate Washer
Pipe Sleeve
Shim As Required
Guardrail Beam
Jam and Splice Nuts
Deck Bulb-Tee
Precast Corbel
(Steel Corbel Optional)
b) Guardrail Connection
Plate Washer
(2) High Strength Bolts
Flange
Double
Bolt
Fabric Pad
Saddle
a) Utility Connections
Pipes or Conduits
Steel Angle
A
A
SECTION A-A
Nut
Channel-Type
Threaded Rods
Nut
Insert w/Anchors
(2) Drill-in Adhesive Anchors
Secondary-Cast
the anticipated exposure, the embedments can consist of uncoated steel, coated steel,
stainless steel, plastics or any other material which is both suitable for the intended
purpose and compatible with both the concrete and reinforcing steel. Examples of
common connections are shown in Figure 3.2.4.1-1a-1b.
The combined tolerances for all parts of the system should be considered when
detailing attachments to inserts embedded in precast members. Slotted or oversized
holes are highly recommended wherever possible. Section 3.4.6 provides information
on industry standard tolerances.
Embedments for diaphragms depend on the type of diaphragm used, ranging from
threaded inserts and holes for reinforcement for cast-in-place concrete and attach-
ment of temporary diaphragms, to welded assemblies for precast concrete and steel
diaphragms. A detailed discussion and examples of typical diaphragms are included
in Section 3.7.
Deck construction usually falls into one of three methods:
cast-in-place concrete over bulb-tees or I-beams
cast-in-place concrete over composite stay-in-place deck panel forms
no cast-in-place concrete but simply connecting totally precast concrete members
(normally referred to as adjacent precast multi-beam decks)
Embedments and blockouts required for decks vary for each type of construction.
Placing cast-in-place concrete over bulb-tees or I-beams requires supplementary
formwork, which is normally hung from the girders. This can be done economically
with a series of holes and bolts, through either the girder flange or web, as shown in
Figure 3.2.4.3-1. Form attachment can also be accomplished with proprietary sys-
OCT 97
3.2.4.1 Embedments and Blockouts for Attachments/3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction
3.2.4.2
for Diaphragms
3.2.4.3
for Deck Construction
Figure 3.2.4.3-1
Typical Cast-In-Place
Deck Forming Methods
Cast-in-Place Deck
Plywood Forming
Joists
Stringers
Prefabricated Steel
Overhang Frame
Varies along
Span
Shims
and Wedges
Bolts Through
Holes in
Girders
tems, such as that shown in Figure 3.2.4.3-2. Other methods can also be employed
to attach the formwork.
Composite stay-in-place deck forms fall into two general categories. The first is thin pre-
stressed concrete deck panels designed to span between spread box beams or flanges of
bulb-tees, I-beams or steel beams. The second is thin, wide flanges cast integrally with
bulb-tees in the plant. The bulb-tees (or similar wide-flanged products) are abutted in
the field. These are shown in Figure 3.2.4.3-3a-3b. Neither system requires embedments
or blockouts in the beams, except for forming the edge overhang slab in deck panel sys-
OCT 97
3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction
Figure 3.2.4.3-2
Proprietary Cast-In-Place
Deck Forming Method
Composite Bridge Deck Systems
3/8" Diameter
2-1/2" Minimum
15
Cast-in-
Place Deck
Coil Rod
Beam
Precast
Thin-Flanged Deck Bulb-Tees
Cast-in-Place Concrete
I-Beams
Deck Panel
b) Thin-Flange Deck Bulb-Tee Deck System
a) Precast Concrete Composite Deck Panels
tems. Typical embedments in deck panels are discussed in Section 3.8. Thin-flange deck
bulb-tees require no embedments or blockouts for deck construction, except perhaps
inserts for attachment of the formwork at the edge of the cast-in-place deck.
Methods to connect multi-beam decks vary depending on the type of members being
joined. Connections are normally welded or post-tensioned. Section 3.6.3 discusses
typical details and considerations.
Lifting devices embedded in precast concrete bridge members normally consist of
strand lift loops, bolts or proprietary metal inserts. For very heavy lifts, prestressing
bars have also been used. The type of lifting device employed depends upon several
considerations:
configuration of the member
load on each device
angle of the lifting strap
distance of the embedment from the edge of the concrete
preference of the precast plant
The strength of the embedded lifting device is governed by the weakest link in its
load path. This can be the strength of the device itself, the bond between the device
and the concrete, or for shallow embedments, the strength of the shear cone that can
be pulled from the concrete. Most precast plants and vendors of proprietary lifting
devices have extensive experience in the design and use of lifting devices.
Bent reinforcing bars should not be used as lifting devices. Bending a bar decreases
the ductility of the material in the region of the bend. Highly concentrated loads
from a shackle or crane hook, have been known to fracture bent bars in a brittle man-
ner. In addition, bent reinforcing bars do not have the flexibility of strand lift loops.
When picking with angled cables, which is very common in both plant handling and
field erection, flexibility is critical in distributing the load uniformly to all legs of the
loop.
Prestressing strand lift loops are widely used due to their high strength and flexibili-
ty. Loops can be bent into nearly any configuration suited to the intended applica-
tion. They are also economical since in many cases they are made from what would
otherwise be waste strand, such as the tail end of a strand pack, or tails cut from a
production run. Strand which has been damaged by gripping jaws or pitted with rust
should not be used for lift loops.
The capacity of strand lift loops is governed by the following:
size and grade of the strand
configuration of the loop
length of embedment into the concrete
diameter of the pin used through the loops during lifting
Typical lift loop configurations are shown in Figure 3.2.4.4.1-1. The capacity of lift
loops embedded with angled legs, as shown in Figure 3.2.4.4.1-1c, are reduced due
to the increased resultant force in each leg. Loops lifted with angled cables are simi-
larly reduced, particularly when their projection from the concrete is insufficient to
allow the loops to flex to the same angle as the cable. Strand embedment must be of
sufficient length to preclude bond failure. Tails can be added to the ends of the loops
OCT 97
3.2.4.3 Embedments and Blockouts for Deck Construction/3.2.4.4.1 Strand Lift Loops
3.2.4.4
Lifting Devices
3.2.4.4.1
Strand Lift Loops
to increase embedment, such as shown in Figures 3.2.4.4.1-1b and 3.2.4.4.1-1c. The
surrounding concrete should be adequately reinforced to prevent splitting and loss of
bond. Small diameter shackle pins or hooks, when used through strand lift loops, can
significantly decrease the capacity of the loop.
Bolts used for lifting perform much the same as headed studs. Embedment must be
sufficient to prevent concrete shear cone failure, and edge distance must be consid-
ered when it encroaches on the shear cone.
A wide range of proprietary lifting devices also is available. For bridge applications,
these are normally limited to products that are relatively thin and light such as pre-
cast wing walls, barriers and soundwalls.
Precast members are normally secured to the truck, railcar or barge with chains or
straps (tie-downs), which are draped over the top of the member and tightened.
Wide, thin top flanges can sustain damage if the tension in the chain or strap is
applied to the tip of the flange. Some producers provide blockouts in the flange adja-
cent to a web for tie-downs to pass through. Section 3.5.3.5 discusses these blockouts
in further detail.
Since most bridge products are cast in precision-made steel forms, it makes sense to
design and fabricate the form so that the precast member requires minimum addi-
tional surface treatment. In most cases, this finishing needs to be performed by hand,
so the most obvious savings are economic. Finishing operations such as removing lips
or fins at form joints, patching paste bleed at form joints, and sacking bugholes, add
time to the production cycle and increase the production cost of the product.
OCT 97
3.2.4.4.1 Strand Lift Loops/3.2.5 Surface Treatments
3.2.5
Surface Treatments
3.2.4.4.2
Other Lifting Embedments
3.2.4.5
Blockouts for Shipping
Figure 3.2.4.4.1-1a-1c
Typical Lift Loop
Configurations
c) Hollow Pile Lift Loops
3
"

C
l
r
.
a) I-, Box or Bulb-Tee Beam Lift Loops
Tail
M
i
n
.
1
'
-
0
"
60 Min.
Grouted Recess
Grouted
4
"
b) Solid or Voided Slab Beam Lift Loops
4
" Recess
Recess
Grouted
Theoretically it is possible, using rigid steel forms and compaction of the concrete by
vibration, to produce members that are uniform in appearance and with a glass-like
finish. This finish will not only be aesthetically pleasing, but it will produce a surface
with maximum durability. A densely compacted cement-paste surface finish pro-
duced against steel forms results in a surface with minimum porosity and permeabil-
ity, and maximum long-term durability. Any additional surface treatments or patch-
ing are unlikely to improve, or even match, the durability of densely compacted con-
crete. In reality, however, some areas on pretensioned products will require surface
treatment in spite of the best possible form design.
This section does not cover patching of major honeycomb areas or large voids. It
also does not cover the repair of structural cracks or large spalls caused by form
removal. These subjects are discussed in Section 3.4.2.
The parts of a prestressed product that typically require surface treatment are the ends
where the prestressing strands exit and have been trimmed-off after detensioning.
Usually for production expediency, and because of the physical constraints of the
bulkheads, the projecting strands are initially cut off during stripping about 6 in.
from the concrete surface. Then, during the finishing process, the strands are trimmed
flush to the member. Depending upon the method of incorporation into the bridge
structure, there are two techniques used to patch the strand ends.
If the ends of the member are incorporated into the pier or abutment with cast-in-
place concrete, the treatment of the strand ends is not critical. The producer only
needs to protect them from corrosion during storage. In this case, after the strand is
cut off flush, it is satisfactory to simply paint them with a two-component epoxy. A
thin coat, approximately 1/8 in. thick, will suffice and only in a 2 in. square area over
each strand. In applying the epoxy, it is important that the strand and surrounding
concrete be relatively clean. Often, if the strands are burned off with a poorly adjust-
ed oxy-acetylene torch, the surrounding area is blackened with acetylene soot and
melted slag, which should be removed prior to epoxy application. It is for this reason
that many producers prefer to grind off the projecting strand with a hand-held high-
speed disc grinder. This method leaves a clean area for the epoxy coating.
Strand ends which are to be exposed for the service life of the structure are normally
recessed and patched. Various methods are used. A common procedure is to provide
a recess with a proprietary expanded foam cube placed on each strand, directly
against the inside of the bulkhead. This recess-forming device, sometimes called a
doughnut, is approximately 1 1/2 in. square and 3/4 in. thick, with a hole through
the center to accommodate the strand. The doughnut is split on one edge and can be
placed over the strand at any location before or after tensioning. During the finish-
ing process, the expanded foam and projecting strand are burned out using an oxy-
acetylene torch. The recess is first cleaned-out to remove any remains of the expand-
ed foam and strand slag, then patched flush with the concrete surface.
For maximum durability, the material used to patch the recess should be appropriate.
A poorly selected material applied in the recess will soon shrink, deteriorate, or even
fall out. This will leave the strands exposed to the environment, promoting corrosion
by the capillary action of liquid through the interstices of the seven-wire strand.
Epoxy mortar is often used to patch strand recesses, since it is widely assumed to be
less permeable and more durable than portland cement mortar. This is generally true,
OCT 97
3.2.5 Surface Treatments/3.2.5.1.3 Epoxy Mortar End Patches
3.2.5.1.3
Epoxy Mortar End Patches
3.2.5.1.2
Exposed Ends
3.2.5.1
Protecting Product
Ends
3.2.5.1.1
Ends Cast into Concrete
assuming the epoxy has been appropriately selected and mixed, and the correct epoxy
binder-to-sand ratio has been used. However, field experience has shown that the use
of incorrect procedures to prepare epoxy mortars, particularly in selection of the sand
type, gradation, and mixing procedures, can result in a porous patch that provides
inadequate protection of the strand end.
Epoxy mortar sands should to be angular in shape, since sands with rounded parti-
cles tend to roll under the trowel, making placement difficult. The sand should also
be dry. Two good sand gradations are blends by volume of two parts 12 mesh to one
part 80 mesh, or three parts 16 mesh to one part 90 mesh. When graded sands are
not available, 30 mesh silica sand works reasonably well. Most epoxy resin suppliers
can furnish these sands.
Another disadvantage of epoxy mortar patches is that pure epoxies generally have a
higher coefficient of thermal expansion than concrete. Larger patches, particularly
those using pure epoxy, can fail due to differential expansion and contraction of the
patch and the parent concrete. More than cost reduction, this is the primary reason
that a silica sand extender is used in epoxy mortar. The incorporation of sand
reduces the coefficient of thermal expansion of the epoxy mortar mixture.
Considering the high demand for quality control and the cost of epoxy mortars, some
producers patch the strand recesses with portland cement mortar. This mortar is con-
siderably less expensive, and also has a coefficient of thermal expansion similar to that
of the parent concrete. It is easier to work with, and can be matched to the member
finish. A patch made with gray portland cement and sand will generally be darker
than the surrounding concrete. This outcome can be mitigated by using 25 - 40 per-
cent white portland cement in the patch mix. The usual cement-to-sand ratio is 1:2,
and an epoxy bonding compound is applied to the recess before the mortar is trow-
eled in. The dry-pack method of placement is also common. Properly executed,
these portland cement patches perform as well or better than epoxy mortar patches,
and are more economical.
Proprietary patching compounds can also be used to fill recesses. In general, these are
at least as expensive as epoxy mortar. The majority of these materials are portland
cement based and contain combinations of accelerators, bonding agents, fillers, and
workability, curing and shrinkage-compensating aids. The performance of such
material should be carefully evaluated by the producer. In some cases, long-term
durability could be sacrificed in favor of ease of initial application.
Other proprietary patching compounds are available that are not portland cement
based. Examples are: polyester resin-based materials, high alumina cement-based
material, and magnesium phosphate cement-based materials. These materials are
often promoted as providing a solution to patching in temperatures below 40 F,
where portland cement and epoxy-based mortars are not recommended. However, in
practice this is rarely necessary because in cold weather climates, precast members are
usually cured with heat. With careful timing, the producer can take advantage of the
elevated temperature of the member immediately after stripping to perform the patch
and cure the patching material. Use of these proprietary non-portland cement-based
patching materials should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis by an accredited con-
crete laboratory.
Another bridge product surface that often requires non-cosmetic treatment is one
which is intentionally roughened to promote mechanical bond of cast-in-place con-
crete to the member. This is usually specified when the member is to be made com-
OCT 97
3.2.5.1.3 Epoxy Mortar End Patches/3.2.5.2 Intentionally Roughened Surfacess
3.2.5.2
Intentionally
Roughened Surfaces
3.2.5.1.5
Patching Ends with
Proprietary Products
3.2.5.1.4
Portland Cement
Mortar End Patches
posite with cast-in-place concrete. Most I-beams and bulb-tees are designed to act
compositely with a cast-in-place deck. Section 3.3.9 covers the preparation of these
surfaces in detail.
Surface finishes resulting from good daily production practices will not be entirely
glass-like. Some of the most common imperfections are:
small surface bugholes formed by entrapped water and air bubbles
at the form skin, particularly on vertical surfaces
dark lines and areas denoting high cement paste concentrations
pour-lines due to the overlapping of individual concrete placements
granular surface areas where the paste has bled out of form joints
imperfections and offsets at form joints
There are as many theories about the cause of these aesthetic surface blemishes as
there are suggested methods to avoid them. The best methods of placement and com-
paction do not consistently eliminate their occurrence. For this reason, many pro-
ducers rub or sack the surface of the member immediately after it is stripped. This
involves wetting down the member, hand-applying a 1:1 fine sand and portland
cement mortar to the surface using a sponge-faced trowel to fill any bugholes, then
curing the application. Often, this surface is then rubbed with a burlap sack and
cement powder. This procedure, which is more art than science, benefits greatly from
the care, knowledge and diligence of an experienced concrete finisher. In general,
unless the bridge is in a high visibility zone, this additional finishing needs only to be
done on the exterior surface of the fascia beams. For high visibility zones where a uni-
form appearance is required, pigmented sealers can be applied.
A wide variety of architectural concrete finishes, normally used for building cladding
applications, could be used in the production of precast concrete bridge members.
These include colored concrete using integral dyes, the use of white cement, exposed
aggregate finishes, ribs or other textured surfaces, and the application of stains.
Practically, however, except for the application of stains, these treatments are rarely
employed for large structural members, such as I-beams or bulb-tees. The need to
optimize the concretes early strength gain normally precludes the use of white
cement, which is usually ground to AASHTO M85 Type I specifications. The other
processes may also prove difficult to control under large-scale production runs typi-
cal of large bridge members. The same is not true of other types of bridge products,
such as median barriers or soundwalls, where architectural treatments are standard
practice. Figures 3.2.5.4-1 and 2 show some typical architectural finishes. Local pro-
ducers should be consulted for economically available architectural treatments.
Architectural Finishes with
Exposed Aggregate
a) Top: Surface Retarded & Exposed
Bottom: Medium Sandblast
b) Top: Surface Retarded & Exposed
Bottom Left: Deep Sandblast
Bottom Right: Light Sandblast
OCT 97
3.2.5.2 Intentionally Roughened Surfacess/3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes
3.2.5.4
Architectural Finishes
3.2.5.3
Cosmetic Surface Treatments
Some specifications require a final surface treatment be applied to precast concrete bridge
members as added assurance of long-term durability. The most common treatment
employed is the application of a penetrating sealer, such as a silane or siloxane coating.
Various studies conclude that, assuming the material is properly selected and applied,
these materials enhance the long-term durability of concrete, as summarized by DArcy,
et al (1996). From a producers perspective, one of the difficulties associated with the
application of silanes is that the members must be kept dry for a minimum period before
application. In rainy climates, this requires the members to be stored and the work per-
formed under cover. Considering the size and number of the products involved, most
precast plants do not have facilities appropriate for this operation. The most economical
application of these sealers is usually accomplished in the field, since delivery schedules
are no longer an issue, and the application can wait for good weather, or can be done
under the cover of the completed bridge deck. Epoxy coatings have also been specified
to provide surface protection, long-term durability, and wear resistance. Most surface
treatments have limited life and need periodic renewal to achieve continued protection.
Another issue that should not be overlooked is protection of projecting reinforcing
bars, strand and metal hardware embedded in the member. If the products are expect-
ed to be stored for a significant length of time, projecting reinforcing bars and strand
are normally coated with zinc-rich paint for protection against corrosion prior to
incorporation into the structure. If this is not done, the projecting steel quickly devel-
ops a surface coating of rust. Although this is usually not detrimental over short stor-
age periods, and can be cleaned off immediately before delivery, wet weather will
cause this rust to run down the faces of the member, causing unsightly stains that are
difficult to remove.
The most common protection for metal embedments is hot-dip galvanizing before
they are cast into the concrete (AASHTO M111). This results in the optimum long-
term protection of the embedments. When welding galvanized embedments, it is
important to first remove the zinc coating from the area of the weld. Toxic fumes are
produced from welding on galvanizing, and the zinc may contaminate the weld
metal, which can result in a structurally deficient weld. After the welding has been
performed, the damaged coating should be restored, either by soldering over the
area with zinc rod, or by painting the area with a zinc-rich paint.
For this reason, zinc-rich paints are sometimes specified in lieu of galvanizing. The
embedments are given an initial coat of paint before being cast into the concrete, and
are given subsequent coats after the welding has been completed. Epoxy-based and
other volatile solvent zinc-rich paints were once popular for this application. How-
ever, with increasing Hazardous Waste Disposal Regulations, the recent tendency has
been towards water-based zinc-rich paints.
OCT 97
3.2.5.4 Architectural Finishes/3.2.5.6 Protection of Exposed Steel
Architectural Finishes Made
with Formliners
3.2.5.5
Durability-Related Treatments
3.2.5.6
Protection of Exposed Steel
a) Left: Striated
Right: Hammered Rib
b) Left: Cedar Stake
Right: Ashlar Stone
Precast, prestressed concrete bridge products are fabricated under strictly controlled
plant manufacturing conditions to assure the highest level of quality possible in con-
crete construction. Industry standards demand uniform quality of finished products
nation-wide. This section will discuss standard methods of concrete forming, batch-
ing, placing and curing, as well as tensioning of the prestressing steel and placement
of nonprestressed reinforcement. Fabrication methods and production capabilities
differ from plant to plant, with varying consequences for the design of precast con-
crete bridge members. Bridge designers should consult with local producers for spe-
cific information on plant capabilities.
Forms used in the precast, prestressed concrete industry are unique to the standard
product they are intended to produce, though most forms have three common char-
acteristics. First, forms are fabricated with a constant cross section. Second, they are
long and slender, with overall lengths ranging from 20 ft to more than 600 ft. Finally,
they must be capable of producing the same concrete shape repeatedly to very accu-
rate dimensional tolerances. For example, the PCI manual, MNL-116, allows a cast-
ing tolerance for the width of an I-beam web of only +3/8 in., -1/4 in. Therefore,
most bridge product forms use steel construction. Figure 3.3.1-1 shows typical forms
used in the industry.
A self-stressing form is used not only to produce the concrete product, but also to
resist the initial prestressing force. The forms longitudinal stiffeners and skin are used
as the compression member against which the prestressing strands are jacked. This
method is often cost-effective, since it eliminates the need for a traditional prestress-
ing bed (see Sect. 3.3.2.1). Figure 3.3.1.1-1 shows a typical self-stressing form and
its associated stressing hardware.
Members of different cross-sections can be cast in the same self-stressing form, as
long as the form is designed for the largest and most highly pretensioned section. For
OCT 97
3.3 Fabrication/3.3.1.1 Self-Stressing Forms
Figure 3.3.1-1a-1d
Common Precasting Forms
3.3
FABRICATION
3.3.1
Forms and Headers
3.3.1.1
Self-Stressing Forms
a) AASHTO I-Beam b) Stemmed Channel Section
c) AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee d) Beam/Piling
example, it is quite common to cast 24 in. deep stemmed members in a 36 in. deep
self-stressing form by using 12 in. false bottoms in the stems. Likewise, 8 ft-wide
stemmed members can be cast in a 10 ft wide self-stressing form by using false
sides. The prestressing force is still distributed over the original form configuration.
This can also be done with other member types.
Self-stressing forms have become a popular solution for precast members where the
location of the prestressing force is not excessively high or eccentric. For bridges, they
are used for stemmed members, prismatic or trapezoidal beams, box beams and void-
ed slab beams. There are two basic considerations that limit the use of self-stressing
forms. First, the eccentricity of the prestressing force must be small enough to allow
the load to be distributed to the form in a reasonably uniform manner. Second, this
type of form requires the strands to be jacked against the entire cross-section of the
form, including the sides, which must be in place during stressing. Set-up crews must
be able to assemble the reinforcement cage and install embedments from the top
only. If the form is deeper than the length of a persons arm, it is difficult to place
material in the bottom of the form.
Self-stressing forms can also be designed to accommodate harped or draped strands.
The vertical reaction from deflected strands can be transferred through the form into
the foundation. For this reason, among others, it is usually necessary to mount the
form on a reinforced concrete slab. These slabs run full length, and are slightly wider
than the form. The self-stressing form is attached to this slab to maintain alignment,
to provide intermediate bracing for the compressive force, and to provide anchorage
to prevent the form from being lifted off the ground during stripping.
If a product cast in a self-stressing form is to be heat cured, it is essential to recognize
that the form will expand as the concrete temperature is elevated. For a 600 ft length
of form, it is not uncommon for the form to expand up to 6 in. during the curing
cycle. Also, the form will shorten due to the prestressing force imparted during jack-
ing. For these reasons, the form attachment to the slab must not restrain the form in
the longitudinal direction. The usual approach is to weld or bolt a 20 to 40 ft section
of the form to the slab, either at one end or in the center, and design all the other
connections to allow longitudinal movement.
3.3.1.1 Self-Stressing Forms/3.3.1.1.1 Applications of Self-Stressing Forms
OCT 97
3.3.1.1.1
Applications of
Self-Stressing Forms
Figure 3.3.1.1-1
Self-Stressing Form for a
Stemmed Section
Tall, slender bridge members such as I-beams, bulb-tees, deck bulb-tees and large
stemmed members are usually cast in forms that are not self-stressing. The primary
reason for this is that the prestressing strands, nonprestressed reinforcement, and
embedments are, by necessity, placed in the form with the sides removed. Also, these
types of members usually have a relatively high location (eccentricity) of prestress.
Since the bulk of the prestressing force would need to be distributed to in-place form
sides, self-stressing forms are not appropriate for these applications.
The prestressing force and deflected strand vertical reactions for this type of member
are normally resisted by an independent prestressing bed. These beds are discussed in
detail in Section 3.3.2.1.
The design and fabrication of form sides for casting prestressed concrete bridge mem-
bers are not governed solely by the equivalent fluid pressures induced during concrete
placement, but also by the need to minimize temporary and permanent deforma-
tions, and to account for the affects of external form vibration, repeated heating and
cooling cycles, and repeated use.
In practice, this requires the forms to be fabricated from steel. When using 1/4 in.-
thick form skins, continuous vertical and horizontal stiffeners are usually required at
no more than 2'-6" on center in each direction. Some manufacturers fabricate forms
with 3/16 in.-thick steel skin and the same stiffener spacing. During repeated use,
this steel tends to oil-can between bulkheads, or suffer premature damage due to
fatigue induced by external form vibration. Vertical stiffeners are usually fabricated
from 1/4 in. plate with folded flanges. Horizontal stiffeners can be standard steel
shapes, or can be fabricated by the form manufacturer. Each form supplier has their
own preference and usually provides the form design to accommodate the specified
casting procedure.
Innovative form design not only facilitates rapid assembly and disassembly on a daily
basis, but also provides long life from each form. Most producers purchase forms that
are easily modified to accommodate various member sizes with similar cross-sections.
For example, I-beam and bulb-tee forms are commonly designed with a standard
shape for top and bottom flanges, and a variable web height. This allows the same
form to be used for shallow and deep members with varying span lengths. The forms
are split horizontally, usually near mid-height, and bolt-in fillers are used to vary
the girder depth. Figure 3.3.1.3-1 illustrates a typical adjustable form. Girder widths
3.3.1.2 Non-Self-Stressing Forms/3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms
3.3.1.2
Non-Self-Stressing Forms
3.3.1.2.1
Design of
Non-Self-Stressing Forms
3.3.1.3
Adjustable Forms
Figure 3.3.1.3-1
Bulb-Tee Form Used to
Fabricate the Florida DOT
Section. Horizontal Joint is
where Form can be Separated
for Installation of Fillers to
Increase Depth of Section
OCT 97
can also vary by adjusting the width between form sides. However, since the shape of
the form sides is normally fixed, other horizontal girder dimensions are affected
incrementally. Some manufacturers have forms which can accommodate wider top
flanges. Producers should be consulted for dimensions of forms which can vary from
the local standard.
I-beam and bulb-tee bottom flanges are formed in two ways. Some producers use flat
steel pallets, with the sides and top of the bottom flange form being part of the side
form. This allows for easy adjustment of width. Other producers use pans which
form the bottom and sides of the bottom flange. The top of the bottom flange form
is part of the side form. In this case, varying girder widths require different pan
widths.
Voided slab beams and box beams are normally cast on horizontal steel pallets with
removable side forms. Pallets are usually sized to accommodate the widest member
anticipated. Narrower members can be cast with relative ease. Concrete slabs can be
used in lieu of steel pallets, although the uniformity of heat for curing the bottom
flange of the member becomes less reliable. Figure 3.3.1.3-2 illustrates typical pris-
3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms
OCT 97
Figure 3.3.1.3-2a-2c
Various Form Configurations
Removable Sides
Holes for Heat Curing Tubes
to Allow Longitudinal Movement
Expansion Anchors in Slotted Holes
c) Square Piling Quad Form on a Concrete Bed
Concrete Foundation
b) Box Beam Form on a Concrete Bed
Steel Frame
Bent Plate Stiffeners
Heat Curing Tubes
(Typ. Ea. End)
Key (Typ.)
Wood Shear
Form Soffit
a) Voided Slab Formed on a Steel Pallet
1/2" Recess Blockout
Tack Weld Nut (Typ.)
Cross-tie
Top of Table (Pallet)
Both Sides)
Bolt (Typ.
Void Form
Void Form
Tie-down
Cast-in
Support Pipe
Void Hold-down
matic form configurations. The depth is not as easily varied because most producers
do not have a variety of form sides on hand. Bridge designers should consult with
local producers for available form depths. Small increases in depth using standard
form sides are accommodated by adding to the form side, most commonly with
steel angles. Decreases in depth can be achieved by manually holding the concrete
down below the top of the form. Special drop screeds are used for this purpose.
Members with mild reinforcement projecting from the top complicate the use of
drop screeds.
A unique and attractive feature of plant-cast bridge members, in contrast to typical
jobsite construction, is the elimination of through-bolts, she-bolts, or snap-ties.
Such devices are laborious to place, inhibit placement of reinforcement and embed-
ments, and require patching of the resulting recesses. Most forms used in the precast
industry are held together only at the top and bottom, resulting in increased pro-
ductivity, and patch-free vertical surfaces. Also, precast formwork joints are designed
to minimize paste bleed during concrete placement.
Side forms for deep, thin bridge members tend to be heavy and usually require strip-
ping by crane or some other mechanical device. Since form sides are relatively slen-
der, cranes usually cannot remove them in one piece for the full length of a long
member. Form sides are normally bolted together in 20 or 40 ft sections. To reduce
the equipment and labor required to strip the forms, some producers install roll-
away form sides. This system uses side forms mounted on trolleys and transverse
rails that allow them to be rolled away laterally from the member during stripping.
Long side forms can then stay in one piece for subsequent production. A disadvan-
tage of this system is that the sides need to be retracted far enough to allow the work
crews access for production. Many plants do not have sufficient space for this system,
particularly those with parallel prestressing beds.
Side forms that are vertical, or which form shear keys in the sides of members, must
be removed daily to strip the product. This increases both labor costs and wear and
tear on the forms. Where possible, the sides of products should have a minimum
draft of 1/8 in. per ft (1/4 in. per ft is preferable) so that the side forms may stay in
place during stripping. Concrete members formed in rigid, single-piece forms, always
require adequate draft on surfaces that could otherwise meet at right angles.
The terms header, endplate, bucketand bulkhead are used interchangeably in
the precast concrete industry to describe devices used to form the ends of precast
3.3.1.3 Adjustable Forms/3.3.1.6 Headers
OCT 97
3.3.1.6
Headers
Forms for Ends of Sections
3.3.1.4
Advantages of Precast
Concrete Formwork
3.3.1.5
Other Form Considerations
a) I-Beam End Plate
b) Stem Bulkheads or Buckets for a Triple-Stemmed Section
members. In this manual, the word endplate is used to describe a device that forms the
end of a single member, or the last member in a series of members cast end-to-end in a pre-
stressing bed. The word bulkhead is used to describe a device that forms the adjacent ends
of two members cast in series. Header can refer to either an endplate or bulkhead. Figure
3.3.1.6-1 illustrates typical endplates and bulkheads. They can also be seen in Figure 3.3.1-
1c.
A requirement common to both endplates and bulkheads is the penetration of the
prestressing strands. The hole that each individual strand passes through not only
controls the strand location, but also may be subject to forces from intentional or
unintentional deflection of the strand. Some headers are designed with slots at edges
to accommodate placement after some or all of the strands have been tensioned.
Holes should be oversized a minimum of 1/16 in. and the edges should be rounded.
Sharp edges can damage a strand during tensioning, with potentially catastrophic
results. Both endplates and bulkheads must be restrained longitudinally to resist
movement during concrete placement, as well as being dragged along with the
strands during tensioning. Most producers are reluctant to drill form sides for bolt-
ing endplates, due to damage to the forms caused by the penetrations. Various alter-
nate methods are used to secure the endplates, such as cable clamps to fix the bulk-
heads on the strands already tensioned.
Forms designed to cast several members in series can present problems with the
extended projection of strands or reinforcing bars. Header configurations that can
present problems are normally limited to shallow members, such as stemmed mem-
bers or slab beams. These standard bulkheads are just wide enough to allow cutting
of the strands between members, and cannot accommodate extended projections.
Extended projections can also create problems during stripping of the members. In
some cases, it is more economical to use threaded reinforcing bar couplers to provide
extended projections.
Members such as voided slab beams, hollow box beams and hollow piling require
internal voids. Forming can be achieved in one of three ways:
a retractable mandrel system
a collapsible form which is retracted after the concrete has hardened
casting over sacrificial forming material
All internal forms must be accurately located and held in place during concrete place-
ment. In monolithic pours, the inner forms will have a tendency to float. The force
required to hold the inner form in place can be calculated assuming the concrete to
be completely liquefied. Hold-down systems usually consist of vertical compression
struts, which react against crossbeams that span the top of the form. These vertical
struts are normally tapered, coated with a debonding agent, and withdrawn after the
concrete has hardened. In designing such systems, the inner form must be analyzed
to determine the spacing of the restraining struts, both for the span of the form mate-
rial, and for the local stresses imposed by the struts. When expanded polystyrene
blocks are used, appropriately sized pads are placed on top of the block under each
strut to prevent localized compression failure of the block.
Flotation forces during concrete placement can be controlled to some extent by pour-
ing procedures and timing. If the concrete initially placed directly under the void
form is allowed to approach initial set prior to further concrete placement around the
vertical form sides, the flotation forces are substantially reduced. In the fabrication of
box beams, some producers place the bottom slab as a first stage. After the concrete
3.3.1.6 Headers/3.3.1.7 Internal Void Forms
OCT 97
3.3.1.6.1
Header Configuration
3.3.1.7
Internal Void Forms
hardens, normally the next day, the void form is placed, an epoxy bond coat is
applied to the cold joint, and the webs and top flange are placed. For void forms with
vertical sides, this results in very little uplift.
A system of forming internal voids employs a vibrating steel slip-form, normally
referred to as a mandrel, which is pulled through the concrete during placement. The
concrete used with this technique must be designed with a low slump, so that it does
not collapse after the mandrel passes. Mandrels must have a constant cross-section
throughout their length, and are not easily modified to produce shapes with varying
dimensions. Together with the necessary
winches and tooling required for their oper-
ation, mandrels represent a significant
investment for the precast producer. Conse-
quently, their use is normally limited to
standard cross sections. Figure 3.3.1.7.1-1
shows a typical mandrel used for casting
hollow prestressed concrete piles. The de-
sign of endplates and bulkheads is compli-
cated by the need for the mandrel to pass.
Solid sections or diaphragms within a pre-
cast member, if required, are usually added
with a secondary cast.
Retractable inner void forms are stationary, and the concrete is cast around them to
create the void. These forms must be designed to collapse for removal after the con-
crete has hardened. Articulating forms of this nature, as well as their retraction tool-
ing, are expensive, and are normally reserved for standard shapes with large voids
(such as box beams), or for large projects which can tolerate high initial tooling costs.
Figure 3.3.1.7.2-1a-1b illustrates a typical retractable form.
Sacrificial inner forms can be made from wax-coated cardboard tubes or boxes, pre-
fabricated plywood boxes, or blocks of expanded polystyrene. The choice of materi-
al depends on the size and shape of the voids. For example, voids in a typical 4 ft-
wide x 2 ft-deep slab beam are usually formed with cardboard tubes capped with ply-
wood endplates. However, to create the inner void of a large box beam, the choice
may be between blocks of expanded polystyrene cut with hot wires, or boxes con-
structed from plywood. Expanded polystyrene is the most common choice because it
3.3.1.7 Internal Void Forms/3.3.1.7.3 Sacrificial Inner Forms
OCT 97
3.3.1.7.1
Mandrel Systems
3.3.1.7.2
Retractable Inner Forms
3.3.1.7.3
Sacrificial Inner Forms
Figure 3.3.1.7.1-1
Cylindrical Slip-Form
Mandrel for Hollow Piling
Figure 3.3.1.7.2-1a-1b
Removable Void Form
a) Void Form Expanded for Casting b) Void Form Retracted for Removal
eliminates the risk of collapse that can occur with hollow void forms. Figures
3.3.1.7.3-1a and 1b illustrate typical applications of sacrificial inner forms.
Careful control of the prestressing operation is critical to the quality of prestressed
concrete products. The following sections describe common types of beds used for
pretensioning, typical procedures and controls employed to ensure that the proper
level of prestress is delivered to the concrete. Pretensioning procedures apply only to
strand, since prestressing bars are not used in pretensioned applications. An article by
Preston (1990) describes the manufacture of strand and its corrosion characteristics;
precautions during use and for handling; and, special considerations during concrete
curing and detensioning.
In addition to the self-stressing forms described in Section 3.3.1.1, two basic types of
prestressing beds are commonly used in precasting plants. These are generally referred
to as abutment-type beds, and strutted beds. In contrast to self-stressing forms,
both types are independent of the formwork used to cast the member.
A bed employing abutments normally consists of a full length concrete slab, which is
substantially thickened at each end to provide foundations for the support of vertical
steel or concrete uprights (abutments). A typical profile is shown in Figure
3.3.2.1.1-1. The center portion of the slab is designed to carry the highest design
axial force from the prestressing operation, as well as vertical forces created by deflect-
3.3.1.7.3 Sacrificial Inner Forms /3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds
OCT 97
3.3.2
Prestressing
3.3.2.1
Types of Pretensioning Beds
3.3.2.1.1
Abutment Beds
Figure 3.3.2.1.1-1
Permanent Prestressing Bed
with Fixed Abutments
Slots for Abutment Posts
a) Plan View
b) Elevation View
Steel Abutment Posts
Steel Cross-Head
Slab Thickened Slab
Prestressing Strand
near Abutment
Figure 3.3.1.7.3-1a-1b
Stay-In-Place Inner Forms
a) Waxed Cardboard Tube b) Polystyrene Foam Billet
ed strands. The thickened ends are designed to transfer concentrated loads from the
abutments into the body of the slab, and to resist overturning moments from the
eccentricity of the prestress force. Global overturning is usually countered by the
inertial resistance of the concrete foundations mass. Although abutment beds have
the highest capacity among available types, all pretensioning beds are limited in the
number of strands that can be accommodated, either due to the total prestressing
force, or strand eccentricity from the beds center of resistance. Bridge designers
should check with local producers for pretensioning capabilities.
Steel abutments are usually inserted into slots or trenches cast into the foundation.
Though slots limit the transverse adjustment capability of the abutments, they are more
economically incorporated into the foundation design. Trenches provide a large degree
of flexibility, but are more expensive to accommodate. The type chosen depends upon
the anticipated use of the facility. When necessary, strands are distributed transversely by
cross-heads spanning horizontally between uprights. Distributions, or templates,
which are independent of the stressing hardware, are also employed to deflect strands
vertically or horizontally from the configuration of the holes in the standard stressing
hardware to the configuration required for the precast member.
Strutted beds employ independent compression struts running from end-to-end.
Figure 3.3.2.1.2-1 schematically shows a strutted bed. The strands are stressed
between cross-heads, which span from strut-to-strut. These set-ups are normally
reserved for strand patterns in a few horizontal planes, such as with prestressed slab
beams or wall panels.
Pretensioning strands can project straight through the length of a member, can be
deflected in straight segments to a desired profile, or can be a combination of both.
Straight strands are the simplest to install and tension, while deflected strands, nor-
mally referred to as harped or draped strands, more closely follow the moment
envelope of flexural members. Figure 3.3.2.2-1 illustrates how varying strand profiles
correlate with typical moment envelopes. Post-tensioned strands can be straight, or
can be draped in a curved profile to best fit the moment envelope. Post-tensioned
bars are normally used for straight profiles only.
3.3.2.1.1 Abutment Beds/3.3.2.2 Strand Profile
OCT 97
3.3.2.1.2
Strutted Beds
3.3.2.2
Strand Profile
Figure 3.3.2.1.2-1a-1b
Strutted Prestressing Bed
b) End View
a) Plan View
Compression Strut (Typically a Prestressed Concrete Pile, Beam or Steel Shape)
Pad or Foundation
Steel Cross-Head
Shim as Required
Hold-Down Bolts
Pretensioned members containing only straight strands are normally wide and relatively
shallow, such as voided slab beams and some box beams. The strands are distributed hori-
zontally across the width of the member as uniformly and symmetrically as possible, though
they can be offset to some degree to avoid openings or other obstructions. By necessity, the
eccentricity of the prestressing force is relatively small. Otherwise, excessive tensile and com-
pressive stresses can develop at the member ends, where these stresses are not offset by the
member dead load moment. Straight strands in the top of the member can compensate for
this to some degree, but often result in design inefficiencies. The most common approach
to control end stresses is to debond some of the strands at the member ends. This method
is discussed further in Section 3.3.2.9. Harping strands which are distributed across a wide,
shallow member is very difficult and should be avoided.
Harped strands are most commonly used in the webs of relatively deep members, such as
I-beams, bulb-tees, stemmed sections and deep box beams. The resulting reduction of the
eccentricity of the prestressing force at the member ends reduces or eliminates the need
for debonding. Harped strands can be deflected in one or more locations along the length
of the member. As Figure 3.3.2.2-1 shows, a single midspan harp provides better corre-
lation to the moment envelope than straight strands, but not as good as multiple harp
locations in a concrete member. For negative moments created by cantilevers, the strands
can be lifted at the support and held along the top of the member for the length of the
cantilever. For safety reasons, the slope of deflected strands should not exceed about 9 deg.
3.3.2.2 Strand Profile/3.3.2.2.2 Harped Strands
OCT 97
Figure 3.3.2.2-1a-1c Bottom Fiber Stresses for Three Strand Profiles
0.0
1.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
0
0.0
1.0
2.0
4.0
3.0
120 60 30 90
0.0
1.0
2.0
4.0
3.0
120 60 30 0 90
120 60 30 0 90
120' GIRDER WITH (41) STRANDS
c) Double Harp at 0.4L
S
T
R
E
S
S

(
K
S
I
)
a) Straight Strands
S
T
R
E
S
S

(
K
S
I
)
X (FT)
S
T
R
E
S
S

(
K
S
I
)
b) Single Harp at Midspan
X (FT)
X (FT)
Note: These Graphs Represent Simple Span I-Girders
on a 6 ft Spacing Designed for Zero Tension.
BOTTOM FIBER STRESSES
3.3.2.2.2
Harped Strands
3.3.2.2.1
Straight Strands
Devices used to deflect pretensioned strands at the point of the harp vary from plant-
to-plant. Figure 3.3.2.2.3-1 illustrates common types. Some devices maintain the
same strand spacing throughout the length of the member, others bundle the strands
into one or more vertical rows, and still others bundle the strands at one or more dis-
crete locations. Maintaining constant strand spacing throughout the member is nor-
mally not necessary unless the member is unusually short. In fact, it limits the max-
imum strand eccentricity which could otherwise be achieved. Bundling strands at
discrete locations provides optimum eccentricity, though the strands must be splayed
between the harp point and the member ends to assure bond development of each
individual strand. Different harping devices are used with different products and
with different harping methods.
Some forms are designed to accommodate deflected strands, and therefore provide
for the attachment of harping devices to the form. This is common with one-piece
forms without removable sides, such as used to cast stemmed members. With this
type, the endplates and bulkheads are designed to hold the strands in position at the
ends of products (Fig. 3.3.2.2.3-1b). The strands are first stressed straight, then are
subsequently pushed down from the top of the form at midspan with fork type
harping devices using greased, tapered steel pins. The harping hardware can normal-
ly be anchored anywhere along the length of the form. After the concrete has cured,
the tapered pins are pulled from the top of the members, and the holes are filled.
Strands can also be pulled down and anchored from beneath some forms.
For other types of bridge members, such as I-beams, bulb-tees and box beams, most
plants anchor harping devices to the concrete floor of the prestressing bed with
embedments at a constant spacing. Normally, the member design is not especially
sensitive to the harp location, and generous tolerances on the longitudinal location
of the harp point (on the order of 18 - 20 in.) should be specified to allow the use of
established anchor locations. At the ends of the member, the harped strands are usu-
3.3.2.2.3 Harping Devices/3.3.2.2.4 Anchorage of Harping Devices
OCT 97
Figure 3.3.2.2.3-1a-1c
Harping Devices
Pipe Sleeve
Nut
a) Two Columns with
Uniformly Spaced Rows
b) Single-Stacked
Column
c) Strand Bundle
3.3.2.2.3
Harping Devices
3.3.2.2.4
Anchorage of Harping Devices
ally not held in position by the endplates, but rather by steel horses and blocks
which are beyond the endplates of the form. When the harped strands are held at a
location away from the endplate, it is difficult to maintain small tolerances on their
vertical position at the point they enter the member. Therefore, if the member design
is not sensitive to vertical location of the harped strands at the member ends, gener-
ous tolerances (on the order of 1 in.) should be specified.
The vertical and horizontal forces developed by the harping operation are shown in
Figure 3.3.2.2.4-1. Both must be considered when selecting the type and number of
harping devices. Local producers should be consulted for harping capabilities on spe-
cific products. Vertical harp forces which exceed the capacity of the harping devices
can usually be split into two or more locations which straddle the intended location.
Horizontal forces occur when the angle of the harped strands differ on each side of
the harping device and can be a problem for the push-down harping method
described above. The tapered pins used in this procedure are relatively long and slen-
der, and are normally not designed for combined flexure and axial loads. For this rea-
son, unless the tapered pins are designed for combined flexure and axial loads,
stemmed members manufactured with this method should be designed with straight
strands, or a single harp at midspan only. Devices holding harped strands from
beneath the form are generally not subject to this limitation.
Procedures used to tension prestressing steel vary widely, but all share the objective of
imparting the intended amount of precompression to the concrete at a given loca-
tion. The following sections describe the procedures and controls used in the ten-
sioning operation, as well as corrections for the influence of external variables. Precast
plants compensate for the effects of external influences in each casting line, and
should be consulted for specific information. Though the discussion below chiefly
addresses pretensioning with strand, many aspects are also applicable to post-ten-
sioning with strand or bars.
A typical pretensioning set-up is shown in Figure 3.3.2.4-1. The end of the bed from
which the strands are tensioned or jacked is referred to as the live end, while the
3.3.2.2.4 Anchorage of Harping Devices/3.3.2.4 Pretensioning Configuration
3.3.2.3
Tensioning
3.3.2.4
Pretensioning Configuration
Figure 3.3.2.2.4-1a-1c Calculating Harping Forces
F
v
= P
s
(sin )
F
h
= P
s
- P
s
(cos )
F
h
= 0
F
v
= 2P
s
(sin ) F
v
= P
s
(sin
1
) + P
s
(sin
2
)
F
h
= P
s
(cos
2
) - P
s
(cos
1
)
a) Each Point of b) Single-Point c) Harp with Asymmetrical
a Double Harp Harp Strand Trajectories
F
h
v
F P
s

F
s
P
v
F
h
F
s
P
v
1
2
s
P
P
s
s
P
OCT 97
opposite end is called the dead end. In most cases, the precast member is shorter
than the prestressing bed. In order to reduce the amount of strand that is cut off and
wasted daily, the member is positioned in the line as close as possible to the dead end.
This also reduces the amount of stressed free strand which must be dealt with dur-
ing detensioning (as discussed in Sect. 3.3.2.8). This minimum dimension is nor-
mally dictated by the need to deflect the strands from standard holes in the abut-
ments into the endplate at the end of the precast member, while maintaining a shal-
low slope on the strands (see Sect. 3.3.2.2.2). Positioning the member in this man-
ner normally leaves free strand at the live end. In order to reduce strand waste, most
producers use lead or bridle strands at the live end, which are spliced onto the
production strands, and then reused each day of casting.
Prestressing steel is tensioned to the intended force with hydraulic pumps and rams.
The tensioning system is calibrated to correlate the force delivered to the prestressing
steel with a gage pressure read by the operator. The single most important control
over this operation is a check of the calculated value of steel elongation compared to
the actual elongation measured during the tensioning process. These values must
agree (within 5 percent for pretensioning, 7 percent for post-tensioning) to validate
the procedure. Many variables enter into elongation calculations, all of which must
be considered to properly compare the results. Strands may be tensioned individual-
ly, or as a group. In pretensioning, procedures differ for these two methods.
A strand tensioned individually is first jacked to an initial force, or index load, some-
where between 5 - 25 percent of its final tensioning force. The reason for this is to take
up any slack in the system, which can hamper the reliability of elongation measurements.
An initial measurement of the ram extension is taken, and the strand is then tensioned
to 100 percent of its intended force. The ram extension is again measured, and the dif-
ference between the measured extensions should reasonably match the calculated incre-
mental elongation. This same procedure is also used for post-tensioning single strands or
bars. Post-tensioned bars are normally tensioned individually.
For strands tensioned as a group (this is sometimes called gang stressing or multiple
strand stressing), the pretensioning procedure is slightly different than that for strands ten-
sioned individually. Prior to jacking the strands to their initial load, each individual strand
is preloaded to an initial force smaller than the index load (usually about 2000 lbs). This
is done to assure that all strands begin the tensioning process with the same amount of force.
The tensioning then proceeds in the same manner as for individual strands. Preloading is
3.3.2.4 Pretensioning Configuration/3.3.2.5.2 Tensioning Strands as a Group
OCT 97
3.3.2.5.2
Tensioning Strands as a Group
3.3.2.5
Tensioning Prestressing Steel
3.3.2.5.1
Tensioning Individual Strands
Figure 3.3.2.4-1 Typical Prestensioning Bed Profile Showing Strand Tensioning and Deviation Devices
Nuts
Lock-Off
Hydraulic
Fixed Live End
Hold-down
Straight Strands Pan (Bottom Form
Template
Distribution
Harped Strands
Strand
(Strand Hold-up)
Harp Horse
Form
Rods
Sliding Plates
Tension
Sliding
or Form Platform)
Plate
Rams
Abutment
Fixed Dead End
Abutment
normally not required in stressing multiple-strand post-tensioning systems, since the
strands are confined within a duct, and have about the same amount of slack.
The basic equation for the elongation of prestressing steel is:
(Eq. 3.3.2.6-1)
Variations in the steel area and modulus of elasticity are common, though usually
quite small. The areas of prestressing strands shown in Table 2.11.1 are reliable aver-
age values, as are the areas for prestressing bars. Average values for the modulus of
elasticity are 28,600 ksi for prestressing strand, and 29,000 ksi for prestressing bars.
The use of average values for area and modulus of elasticity are normally satisfactory
for elongation calculations. If a higher-than-normal degree of precision is necessary,
mill certificates available from the steel manufacturers provide the actual area and
modulus of elasticity for each heat of material.
Equation 3.3.2.6-1 is based on several idealized assumptions. The prestressing steel:
has a uniform cross-section of constant area and modulus of elasticity
is held by infinitely stiff supports at each end
is maintained at a constant temperature
In reality, strand often has factory splices within its length; prestressing bed compo-
nents deform to varying degrees under load; and, some movement or seating occurs
at the anchorage devices. Steel temperatures are rarely constant, particularly when the
temperature of the fresh concrete differs substantially from the ambient temperature.
Consequently, the basic equation must be modified to account for these unavoidable
factors.
External variables fall into two categories; those requiring adjustments to the jacking
force, and those that merely result in additional elongation. Since the operator is jack-
ing to a pre-determined gage pressure, irrespective of the ram extension, the definitive
point in time separating the two categories is when the jacks reach 100% of their
intended load, just prior to seating the live end chucks. For multiple-strand jacking,
all external influences occurring before live end seating show up as additional elonga-
tion. Live end seating, and the effects of any subsequent external influences, are cor-
rected by adjustments to the jacking force, subject to the limitations on the maximum
stress in the strand given in AASHTO Standard Specifications. PCIs Quality Control
Technician/Inspector Level I & II Training Manual and PCI manual, MNL-116 provide
further discussion on influences external to the prestressing process, as well as exam-
ples of elongation calculations.
As the strands are tensioned, they move through the chucks as the wedges seat. The
additional elongation from this source is the incremental movement that occurs
between the index load and final load. This is normally small (on the order of 1/8 in.
per chuck), since most of the movement occurs while jacking to the index load. Dead
end and splice chuck seating are independent of whether the strands are jacked indi-
vidually, or as a group. However, where bridles are used with multiple-strand ten-
sioning, the same number of splice chucks should be used on each strand in the sys-
tem to assure uniform elongation values.
Some multiple-strand stressing systems employ steel blocks and anchor rods for jack-
ing purposes. Figure 3.3.2.4-1 illustrates this system. The stretching of these rods
may add to the elongation of the system, and the apparent elongation of the strands,
depending on where the measurements are taken.
D
PL
A E
s
s
=
3.3.2.5.2 Tensioning Strands as a Group/3.3.2.7.2 Elongation of Abutment Anchor Rods
OCT 97
3.3.2.6
Prestressing Strand
Elongation
3.3.2.7
Variables Affecting
Strand Elongation
3.3.2.7.1
Dead End and Splice
Chuck Seating
3.3.2.7.2
Elongation of Abutment
Anchor Rods
Prestressing beds are heavily loaded, and will shorten axially during jacking. For abut-
ment-type beds, this is usually minimal. For strutted and self-stressing beds, the rela-
tively small area of the compression members can result in significant shortening.
Uprights and cross-heads will also deflect under load. For multiple-strand tensioning,
these deformations are of no consequence, other than to add elongation to the system.
However, prestressing bed deformations will influence the final load on strands
stressed individually. Theoretically, the bed shortens incrementally as each strand is
jacked. Strands tensioned early in the sequence will lose force as subsequent strands
are tensioned. This is normally corrected by over-tensioning strands jacked early in the
sequence. Depending on the number of strands, one or more groups can be over-ten-
sioned to average values. If the earliest strands cannot be jacked high enough to com-
pensate for the total bed shortening (due to specification limits), then re-tensioning is
required. Post-tensioning is comparable to pretensioning with self-stressing forms,
with the obvious difference being that the form is the concrete member itself.
When strand is pretensioned individually, it is normally pulled through the live end
chuck by a center-hole ram which bears directly on the chuck. The direction of the
pull is opposite that which seats the wedges. Therefore, when the strand is released,
it will move through the chuck significantly more than dead end or splice chucks (on
the order of 3/8 in.). This is corrected by increasing the jacking load to compensate
for the expected seating value.
Multiple-strand pretensioning systems normally are locked-off with abutment anchor
rods as described in Section 3.3.2.7.2. Therefore, the live end chucks seat much the
same as dead end or splice chucks, with the result being a small net gain in elonga-
tion. With most systems, seating of abutment anchor rods is relatively small (about
1/8 in.). Some multiple-strand post-tensioning rams have secondary pistons which
seat the live end wedges prior to releasing the load, thereby reducing the amount of
seating loss at the live end.
Strands tensioned at cold temperatures, then exposed to relatively warm concrete (or
grout for post-tensioning), will relax and lose some of the force imparted during jack-
ing. The opposite is true of warm temperatures and cool concrete. Table 3.3.2.7.5-1
3.3.2.7.3 Prestressing Bed Deformations/3.3.2.7.5 Temperature Corrections
OCT 97
3.3.2.7.4
Live End Chuck Seating
3.3.2.7.5
Temperature Corrections
3.3.2.7.3
Prestressing Bed
Deformations
Table 3.3.2.7.5-1
Percentage of Strand
Stress Change due to
Temperature Differentials
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
10 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
15 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
20 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
25 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
30 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
35 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7
40 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
45 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2
50 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.5
55 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7
60 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
65 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2
70 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.4
75 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.7
80 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.9
85 0.4 0.8 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2
90 0.4 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.4
95 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.2 4.7
100 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Temperature Variation (Degrees Fahrenheit)
%

o
f

B
e
d

I
n

U
s
e
shows the percentage of prestress change as a function of the temperature differential
and the percentage of the bed used. Again, corrections for anticipated temperature
differentials can be made by adjusting the jacking force. This correction is not applic-
able to self-stressing forms because the form changes length with temperature change,
countering changes in strand force.
Friction is another external variable that must be addressed in the prestressing oper-
ation. In pretensioning, friction is normally not a problem with straight strands, but
can significantly reduce the force in the strands at the dead end if the strands are
deflected at several points along the bed. If this is a problem with a particular bed set-
up, it will be indicated by a reduction in the measured elongations.
Rather than compensating for friction in the jacking load or elongation calculations,
most plants have developed tensioning or harping procedures that diminish the
effects of friction. For example, some proprietary harping devices feature rollers to
decrease friction losses when the strands are tensioned in the draped position (Fig.
3.3.2.2.3-1a). These devices are usually expensive and limit the eccentricity that can
otherwise be achieved with harped strands. Some plants tension the strands in a
straight, or partially deflected profile, then complete harping after the strands are
jacked. The resulting change in geometry will increase the force in the strand. With
multiple-strand pretensioning systems, the strands can either be under-tensioned to
compensate for the expected increase in force, or the rams can be relaxed concurrent
with the harping operation to maintain the same force level in the strands. Strands
that are jacked individually can be tensioned to lower forces to compensate for the
added force due to the change in geometry.
Friction in post-tensioning is unavoidable, and is therefore inherent in elongation
calculations. In curved tendons, the strands are in contact with the duct for most of
their length, and consequently develop a significant amount of friction. The PTI
Post-Tensioning Manual provides guidance and example calculations for the amount
of friction that can be expected when post-tensioning tendons.
Once the concrete has achieved its specified release strength (as determined by cylin-
der tests or other non-destructive testing methods), the force (tension) in the strands
is released from the prestressing bed into the product. This is commonly referred to
as detensioning. If the concrete cure has been accelerated by heat, the product should
still be warm and moist at the time of detensioning. Otherwise, the unstressed con-
crete will cool and contract, sometimes resulting in cracking along the length of the
member.
Strands can be released hydraulically, by heat cutting, or a combination of both.
Hydraulic release is normally used with multiple-strand tensioning systems, while
heat cutting is used with both multiple- and single-strand systems. The sequence of
detensioning is very important for safety reasons, as well as for avoiding damage to
the product. Strands should always be detensioned symmetrically.
With hydraulic release, the strands are usually relaxed from the live end with the same
tensioning system used to jack them. Because the strand is bonded with the concrete,
the free strand at the dead end will tend to pull the product toward the dead end as
the live end is released. The smaller the amount of free strand, the less the tendency
to slide. If the member slides, it can bind in the form. Items projecting through the
formwork, such as harping device hold-downs, can damage both the product and the
formwork. Sliding can be prevented in two ways:
3.3.2.7.5 Temperature Corrections/3.3.2.8.1 Hydraulic Detensioning
OCT 97
3.3.2.7.6
Friction
3.3.2.8
Detensioning
3.3.2.8.1
Hydraulic Detensioning
1) Let the live end down in increments, while heat cutting the appropriate number
of strands at the dead end. For example, in a line with 8 strands, the live end can
be released in 25 percent increments, with 2 strands being cut at the dead end after
each increment.
2) Use short stroke let-down rams at the dead end. These rams are released pro-
portionally to the live end rams, allowing the force in the strands to remain the
same at either end of the member.
When heat cutting is used without hydraulic release, individual strands must be cut
simultaneously at both ends of the member. When strands are indiscriminately cut
at one end only, the force in each remaining strand will increase, possibly to the
breaking point. The prestressing forces must be kept as equal as possible at each end
throughout the entire procedure. For safety reasons, heat cutting should only be
applied to relatively short lengths of tensioned free strand, and then only after apply-
ing initial detempering heat to allow the strands to yield and relax prior to cutting.
This process not only results in improved safety, but also reduces the shock to the pre-
cast member.
When several members are cast end-to-end in a line, it may be necessary to cut the
strands between members simultaneously with the ends, depending on the type of
bulkheads used. Bulkheads can be designed to resist the compressive forces developed
between members as the ends of the line are released. In this case, the strands between
members can be cut after the line has been detensioned. However, soft bulkheads,
such as those made from wood, will crush and allow the precast members to slide if
the strands between members are not cut simultaneously with the ends.
The vertical forces developed by harped strands can cause cracking in the tops of
members if the harp hold-downs are released prior to detensioning. These forces can
sometimes exceed the weight of the member, and cause the member to lift from the
bed. In these cases, enough prestress must be delivered prior to releasing the hold-
down devices to reduce the uplift. This partial detensioning must be done symmet-
rically at both ends of the bed to prevent overstressing the remaining strands.
In pretensioned members, strands can be debonded for all or part of the member
length for three reasons:
to reduce excessive concrete stresses at the member ends
to allow the casting of members having differing numbers of strand in the same bed
to prevent concrete bonding to strands intended to serve for temporary handling
and shipping purposes
Various methods are used for debonding, including encapsulating the strand in
sheaths (also referred to as blanketing or sleeving), or applying a bond breaker to
the surface of the strand. The effectiveness of these methods vary.
The bond of concrete to tensioned strand develops from several mechanisms as
described by Gerwick (1993). These include:
chemical adhesion
shrinkage of the concrete surrounding the strand
mechanical interlock on the deformations between the intertwined wires
3.3.2.8.1 Hydraulic Detensioning/3.3.2.9 Strand Debonding
OCT 97
3.3.2.8.3
Detensioning at Bulkheads
3.3.2.8.4
Harped Strand Considerations
at Detensioning
3.3.2.9
Strand Debonding
3.3.2.8.2
Detensioning by Heat Cutting
the swelling of the strand after release due to Poissons ratio, commonly referred to
as the Hoyer effect.
Bond breakers on strand generally serve to reduce only the chemical adhesion, and
therefore, are not as effective as strand encapsulation.
Strands are encapsulated with different materials, some more effective than others.
The key properties of encapsulating materials are watertightness, strength and dura-
bility to withstand concrete placement, and nonreactivity with concrete or steel. The
material must provide enough space between the concrete and strand to mitigate the
effects of concrete shrinkage and strand swelling. The sheaths must be properly sealed
to avoid intrusion of cement paste during concrete placement.
In precast concrete fabrication, the placement of mild reinforcement and embed-
ments is generally simpler than in cast-in-place construction, which further improves
the quality of plant-cast products. This section describes methods used by precast
concrete manufacturers to secure embedments, and provides detailing hints that take
full advantage of plant-cast products.
Precast products are normally cast in an orientation providing the easiest access for
placement of embedded items. Although most methods of securing embedments do
not differ between precast and cast-in-place construction, the ease of access is critical
to the quality of the finished product. For example, vertical members, such as piles,
piers and abutment walls, are cast and shipped horizontally by precast plants, and are
only tipped to vertical for erection purposes. In members that are not pretensioned,
mild steel reinforcement cages are typically set into forms, rather than the forms
being placed around them, facilitating the inspection of concrete cover and embed-
ment locations. Placing, tying and inspecting mild reinforcing bars is much more
efficient when the member is cast horizontally at ground level, rather than high in
the air or below grade.
Tensioned prestressing strands provide an excellent platform for supporting mild
reinforcement. Whenever possible, mild reinforcement transverse to the member
should be detailed to be tied directly to the strands. This provides excellent control
of the bar location, and minimizes the need for chairs or bolsters. Chairs can be
used to support the strands if they sag under the weight of the bars. Whenever pos-
sible, mild steel reinforcement should be detailed for installation after pretensioned
strands are stressed. Sections 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.4 provide suggestions on efficient
reinforcement configurations.
The installation of lifting devices is critical to the safe handling of precast concrete
products. Improperly designed or installed devices can fail, with potentially cata-
strophic consequences. Section 3.2.4.4 describes common configurations.
Proprietary devices should be installed in accordance with the manufacturers recom-
mendations. Generic devices must be properly designed and installed. For any type
of lifting device, a very important consideration is proper consolidation of concrete
around the device and its anchors.
The most common type of generic lifting device for large bridge products is preten-
sioning strand lift loops. In many cases, multiple loops are required at each location.
When using multiple loops, each must be held at the same height above the concrete
surface, and must be engaged by the straight pin of a shackle. It is very important that
3.3.2.9 Strand Debonding/3.3.3.2 Installation of Lifting Devices
OCT 97
3.3.3
Nonprestressed
Reinforcement and
Embedments
3.3.3.1
Placement and Securing
3.3.3.2
Installation of Lifting Devices
each strand in the group carry its proportionate share of the load. Curved engage-
ment surfaces, such as a hook or the curved end of a shackle, will load the loops
unevenly, potentially creating a progressive failure of individual loops. The legs of
each loop should be splayed to allow concrete to envelop them individually. Bundled
loop legs can exhibit significantly reduced capacity.
The amount of concrete cover over reinforcement is important in providing protec-
tion of the steel from corrosion. Cover must be sufficient to allow the largest aggre-
gate particles to pass between the reinforcement and the form. Due to superior con-
trol of form dimensions, reinforcement placement, concrete quality, curing and
inspection procedures, ACI 318 allows the concrete cover requirements for precast
products to be reduced when compared to cast-in-place construction. Concrete cover
in precast fabrication is normally assured by the use of chairs or bolsters, by the
rigidity of pretensioned strands, or by a combination of both.
The spacing of prestressing steel and mild reinforcement must be sufficient to allow
the largest aggregate particles to pass freely between strands or bars. Section 3.2.2.3
discusses the minimum spacing of prestressing strand. For precast concrete, the
AASHTO Standard Specification requires the minimum clear distance between par-
allel mild reinforcing bars in a layer to be not less than one bar diameter, 1.33 times
the maximum aggregate size, or 1 in. These restrictions are intended to allow con-
crete to fully envelope the reinforcement. At closer spacings, the reinforcement can
act much like a sieve, segregating the larger coarse aggregate particles from the cement
paste and smaller aggregate.
Most precast plants use coarse aggregate gradations with a maximum particle size of
3/4 in. For members with reinforcing bar sizes of #8 or less, this means a minimum
clear distance between bars of 1 in. At this spacing, it is not practical to effectively
use even the smallest of internal vibrators (normally called stingers, the smallest of
which are 1 in. in diameter) to consolidate the concrete, making external vibration
the only reliable method available for consolidation. Limiting possible consolidation
methods can increase production costs, particularly if the standard form sides are not
stiff enough to withstand external vibration, or have not been previously equipped
with external vibrators. When possible, reinforcement spacing should be maximized
to allow concrete to be consolidated with either internal or external vibration, to
reduce cost and improve quality of the finished product.
Other embedments can also create congestion. Post-tensioning ducts in thin girder
webs can obstruct a substantial percentage of the web, making internal vibration dif-
ficult for the concrete below the level of the duct. Forcing internal stingers past ducts
can dent and possibly puncture the ducts, creating blockages that are difficult to clear.
In this case, the webs should be detailed thick enough for easy passage of the stinger,
or external vibration should be used to consolidate the concrete below the level of the
ducts. Bridge designers should consult local producers for advice on embedment con-
figurations and clearances.
Procedures used to batch and mix concrete for precast concrete bridge products do
not differ substantially from those used in cast-in-place concrete construction.
Concrete is normally batched and mixed in a central stationary mixer, though shrink
mixing (partial central and partial truck mixing) can also be used. However, in plants
that mix their own concrete, the proximity of the mixer and final destination allows
a wider range of delivery and placement systems.
3.3.3.2 Installation of Lifting Devices/3.3.4 Concrete Batching, Mixing, Delivery and Placement
OCT 97
3.3.3.3
Concrete Cover
3.3.4
Concrete Batching,
Mixing, Delivery and
Placement
3.3.3.4
Steel Spacing Design
The general requirements for equipment and procedures used for batching, mixing,
delivering and placing concrete are covered in detail in PCI manual, MNL-116. The
required result of all processes, from mixer to final placement, is to provide concrete
of a uniform, compacted consistency without segregation of aggregates and paste.
A wide range of systems are used by precast plants to deliver concrete from the mixer to the
forms, including pumps, conveyors, sidewinders, truck mixers, and short-haul buggies
carrying buckets or hoppers. Typically, delivery system capacities are designed to ensure a
continuous supply of freshly mixed concrete for the duration of the pour. By necessity, pre-
cast concrete products are limited in weight, and do not require placement of large volumes
of concrete. Concrete can be batched, mixed, delivered and placed by the plant in relative-
ly small quantities, resulting in improved control of the concrete consistency.
As discussed in Section 3.3.1.2.1, forms for standard precast concrete bridge prod-
ucts are normally of steel construction, and are usually much stiffer than the typical
forms used in cast-in-place construction. Part of the reason for this is to allow the use
of external form vibration. Areas of the cross-section that are difficult to reach with
internal vibrators, such as the bottom flange of deep I-girders, are easily consolidat-
ed with external vibration. Concrete consolidated with properly executed external
vibration is extremely dense and durable. In many cases, combinations of internal
and external vibration are used to enhance the consolidation of the concrete.
The term normal weight concrete is conventionally used to describe mixtures con-
taining naturally occurring igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic mineral aggre-
gates. Such aggregates are predominantly siliceous or calcareous in composition, with
a specific gravity between 2.25 and 2.65. The resulting concrete unit weights are nor-
mally between 145 and 160 pcf, with 28-day compressive strengths ranging in excess
of 10,000 psi in some parts of the country.
The use of normal weight concrete is predominant in the production of precast con-
crete bridge products. For most types of bridge members, normal weight concrete
provides the best performance for the lowest cost. Efficient, state-of-the-art precast
bridge products generally require relatively high concrete strengths in slender sections
which are congested with reinforcement. The resulting need for low water-cement
ratios and high workability has led to the widespread use of water-reducing admix-
tures. As discussed in Section 3.2.1.3.1, water-reducing admixtures can reduce the
workable life of concrete. However, since the interval between mixing and placing is
short when precast plants mix and deliver their own concrete, optimum workability
is usually maintained throughout the duration of the pour.
Lightweight and semi-lightweight concretes can be produced with unit weights rang-
ing from approximately 100 pcf up to the unit weight of normal weight concrete.
This is done by replacing varying quantities of normal weight aggregate with light-
weight aggregate. For example, replacement of normal weight coarse aggregates with
some of the ESCS (expanded shale, clay and slate) lightweight coarse aggregates can
result in structural concretes with unit weights as low as 110 pcf. Further reduction
of the concrete unit weight is achieved by also replacing the normal weight sand with
lightweight sand. Additional information about structural lightweight concrete is
found in ACI 213R. (Also, see Sects. 2.4.7.2 and 2.4.7.3.)
Members made with lightweight concrete are easier to handle and ship, and reduce
the superstructure weight, with resulting economies in substructure and seismic
3.3.4 Concrete Batching, Mixing, Delivery and Placement/3.3.4.4 Lightweight Concrete
OCT 97
3.3.4.2
Consolidation Techniques
3.3.4.3
Normal Weight Concrete
3.3.4.4
3.3.4.1
Delivery Systems
design. However, depending on the type of aggregate, lightweight concrete can exhib-
it lower compressive strength though always has a lower modulus of elasticity than
comparable normal weight concrete, resulting in increased deformations (camber,
deflections, elastic shortening). Creep deformation is independent of modulus of
elasticity and, with some lightweight aggregates, can be less than comparable normal
weight concrete. The ultimate shrinkage of lightweight concrete is also generally
higher than normal weight concrete. Creep, shrinkage and splitting tensile strength
(which affects shear strength) values should be provided by the aggregate supplier.
Procedures for batching, mixing, transporting and placing lightweight concrete are
essentially the same as for normal weight concrete, although special handling of the
lightweight aggregate concrete must be considered. Lightweight aggregate suppliers
should be consulted for recommendations. For the softer lightweight aggregates,
overmixing should be avoided to prevent grinding of the aggregate. When using a
lightweight mixture for the first time, verification should be provided that standard
handling and placing techniques will result in concrete of uniform consistency.
High performance concrete is a mixture exhibiting one or more specific properties in
its hardened form, such as high strength, low permeability, low shrinkage or abrasion
resistance. Some of these properties occur naturally when striving to achieve others.
For example, the density needed for concrete to exhibit low permeability normally
also results in high strength. There are those who believe that to achieve high perfor-
mance concrete, mineral admixtures must be added to conventional, normal weight
concrete. This is not necessarily the case. As reported by Pfeifer, et al (1996), the low
water-cementitious materials ratio and accelerated curing required to achieve
overnight release strength results in concrete of comparable durability to moist-cured
concrete with silica fume. In some parts of the country, materials and fabrication pro-
cedures are of such high quality that precast plants routinely produce high perfor-
mance concrete with standard normal weight mixes.
Batching and mixing procedures for high performance concretes containing chemi-
cal or mineral admixtures are essentially the same as for standard concretes, with the
exception of the addition of the admixture. Admixtures should be charged into the
mixer in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. Water-reducing
admixtures usually provide better performance if added after the cement and water
have reacted for several minutes. Depending on the type of high performance con-
crete, some delivery systems are better than others. For example, concretes with rela-
tively high dosages of silica fume tend to be overly cohesive, and are difficult to
pump. Section 3.2.1.3 discusses the effects that different types of admixtures have on
concrete placement and consolidation. Sophisticated techniques, such as external
form vibration, are generally required to successfully place high performance concrete
in typical precast concrete bridge members.
The economic viability of precast concrete depends on the ability of the plant to fabri-
cate precast products on a daily basis. In certain applications, forms are usedturned
overtwice each day. For some precast products, the required concrete strength at
stripping may be low enough to allow normal curing practices for the relatively short
duration between pouring and stripping. However, most pretensioned products require
relatively high concrete strengths at the release of prestress, which cannot be achieved
without accelerating the strength gain of the concrete. This section describes methods
used by precast plants to accelerate concrete curing, and the beneficial effects these
techniques have on the properties of the concrete. Section 3.3.5.5 addresses both the
quality control aspects and optimization of accelerated curing.
3.3.4.4 Lightweight Concrete/3.3.5 Concrete Curing
OCT 97
3.3.4.5
High Performance Concrete
3.3.5
Concrete Curing
Apart from the use of Type III cement and accelerating admixtures, the primary method of
accelerating the strength gain of concrete is with the application of heat. This process, along
with prevention of moisture loss from the hardening concrete, is called accelerated curing.
In a typical precast plant, stripping of the prior days casting and set-up of a new mem-
ber are normally scheduled to be accomplished in a standard 8-hour shift. Assuming
concrete placement occurs within the subsequent 4 hours, that leaves 12-16 hours to
cure the concrete and achieve the required stripping or release strength prior to the start
of the next cycle. For most bridge products, accelerated curing is the only way to achieve
these strengths in the available curing period. Optimum application of modern cements,
admixtures, and accelerated curing systems can result in concrete strengths at release of
prestress of 6,500 psi or higher, facilitating a wide variety of sophisticated, long span
products. The ability to achieve high levels of overnight strength is not uniform through-
out the country, nor is it consistent from plant to plant. Bridge designers should consult
with local producers. For economy, the specified release and stripping strengths should
always be the minimum required by design, subject to the AASHTO Standard
Specifications minimum values of 4000 psi for pretensioned members (except piles), or
3500 psi for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
Accelerated curing is also beneficial to concrete durability. Studies by Klieger (1960)
and Pfeifer, et al (1987, 1996) have shown that accelerating the early strength devel-
opment of concrete by heat curing improves freeze-thaw durability and chloride per-
meability, as well as decreasing absorption and the volume of permeable voids with-
in the concrete. This is particularly important in areas where de-icing chemicals are
common, and in coastal areas.
Moisture loss from exposed surfaces must be prevented during the entire curing cycle.
Several methods are used to achieve this:
covering the exposed surface with wet burlap
covering with a polyethylene sheet vapor barrier
covering with impermeable curing blankets
applying a curing compound
Moisture loss varies with the geographic location of the plant, the ambient condi-
tions, and whether the bed is inside or out. In cool climates with relatively high
humidity, covering the product with an impervious sheet during the curing cycle is
generally all that is necessary. In hot climates with low humidity, additional means of
moisture retention, such as wet burlap or other absorbent material, may be necessary.
Failure to take precautions can allow rapid evaporation of mix water from the con-
crete, resulting in plastic shrinkage cracking and, in severe cases, a loss of strength
development in the affected area. Bridge designers should consult with local manu-
facturers for applicable moisture loss prevention techniques.
Accelerated curing begins only after the concrete takes its initial set, which is gener-
ally 3-5 hours after batching. Once heat is applied, the temperature of the concrete
may increase at a rate of up to 80F per hour to a maximum concrete temperature of
190F, where it may be held for the remainder of the curing period. Section 3.3.5.5
provides further discussion on optimizing the accelerated curing cycle.
When heating the air surrounding the forms, uniform concrete curing temperatures are
sometimes difficult to control in members of variable or complex shape. Differential
3.3.5 Concrete Curing/3.3.5.3 Methods of Accelerated Curing
OCT 97
3.3.5.1
Benefits of
Accelerated Curing
3.3.5.3
Methods of
Accelerated Curing
3.3.5.2
Preventing Moisture Loss
expansion between portions of a member with varying volume-to-surface ratios can cre-
ate thermal stresses at the interface, possibly causing cracks. Thermostatic control is also
difficult in some cases, since many heaters are not adjustable (they are either on or off ),
and the temperature of the air in the enclosure will not be the same as the temperature
of the concrete. For these reasons, it is important to monitor the internal temperature of
the concrete and not the temperature of the enclosure.
All accelerated curing methods perform substantially better when used with metal
forms as compared to wooden forms. Wooden forms have inherent insulating prop-
erties that restrict heat from reaching the concrete. Steel forms and concrete have sim-
ilar thermal expansion properties, but the coefficient of thermal expansion for wood
is only about half of that for concrete, resulting in increased wear on wooden forms
during repeated heating cycles. Care must be taken when placing heaters around
wooden forms, which have been known to catch fire during the curing process.
With accelerated curing, the heat of hydration of the cementitious materials in the
concrete must be considered when determining the amount of heat to apply to the
member. Massive members with large volume-to-surface ratios generate large
amounts of heat during the hydration process. High performance concrete combin-
ing portland cement with mineral admixtures also exhibits increased heat of hydra-
tion. Internal concrete temperatures of the first members cast under these circum-
stances should be closely monitored to assure they remain below the maximum allow-
able temperature.
The most common method of accelerated curing is provided by elevating the tem-
perature of the air surrounding the form. A typical convection process involves tent-
ing the form with a frame and a polyethylene sheet or insulated tarp, and placing
gas-fired forced air heaters under
the tent. Figure 3.3.5.3.1-1 shows
an insulated tarpaulin on a track-
mounted reel. Depending upon
the member size, heaters from
50,000 - 500,000 Btu/hr are com-
mon. A rule of thumb is that one
cubic yard of concrete will require
about 2,000,000 - 4,000,000 Btu-
hrs to raise the concrete tempera-
ture approximately 100F in a 12-
hour curing period.
Heat can also be provided by electric or gas radiant heaters. Producers have success-
fully cured small products by using common hardware-store-variety heaters under the
enclosure. For larger products, such as stemmed members or box beams, finned tubes
installed under the form can be used to circulate hot water or hot oil from a localized
or central boiler. In the case of hot water, a typical 2-in. dia. finned tube operating at
200F will produce about 1,200 Btu/ft/hr. Elaborate piping schemes are employed in
an attempt to maintain uniform heat throughout the concrete cross section. Anti-
freeze is added to the water to prevent the line from freezing when the system is shut
down.
Another method used to provide accelerated curing is steam. Steam may be provid-
ed in a closed circulating system or as live steam which is allowed to enter the enclo-
sure, or a combination of both. Live steam exhibits the same thermal characteristics
3.3.5.3 Methods of Accelerated Curing/3.3.5.3.3 Accelerated Curing with Steam
OCT 97
3.3.5.3.1
Accelerated Curing
by Convection
3.3.5.3.2
Accelerated Curing with
Radiant Heat
3.3.5.3.3
Accelerated Curing
with Steam
Figure 3.3.5.3.1-1
Track-Mounted Insulated
Tarpaulin Reel
as convection or radiant heat, with the added benefit of providing a water-saturated
environment. This largely eliminates the potential for moisture loss from exposed
concrete surfaces. The ability to pipe the steam to the most advantageous locations,
and to control the boiler temperature and flow, allows good uniformity in the curing
process.
Two significant disadvantages of live steam curing are the high cost of energy required
to generate the steam, and the deleterious effect steam and condensed hot water have
on the plant, tooling and forms. Even the best curing covers and energy-efficient boil-
ers result in relatively high curing costs. In addition, collection of the condensate run-
off is costly and messy, and steam causes metal tooling and forms to corrode at an
accelerated rate. This can be particularly detrimental to strand anchorage devices and
harping hardware.
The heat for accelerated curing can also be provided by electrical heating elements
attached to the skin of metal forms. These elements are firmly secured to the form
skin, which is then covered with 2 - 3 in. of sprayed-on foam insulation. The heat is
provided by conduction through the insulated form skin to the concrete.
Several advantages exist with this technology. First, the time-temperature curve can
be programmed to deliver the optimum curing cycle. This can also be done with
other curing systems, but with less direct control of the concrete temperature.
Further discussion of the optimum curing cycle can be found in Section 3.3.5.5.
The second advantage is that electric curing is energy efficient. The forms are heated
directly, rather than energy being wasted by heating the surrounding environment.
Exposed areas of concrete are covered with impervious curing blankets that are rela-
tively light and easily removed. Typical installations demonstrate energy consump-
tion significantly less than with other systems. Though there are initial costs associ-
ated with the elements, power distribution and computer controls, the long-term
energy savings and superior curing control can provide a rapid pay-back when com-
pared to other systems.
A third advantage of electric curing is that by planning the spacing and control of the
electric heating elements, different parts of a member can be cured with varying ener-
gy outputs. Thin flanges can be treated differently than bulky webs, resulting in a
more uniform cure of the entire cross section, with less potential for cracking due to
thermal stresses. This degree of control is not available with any other curing system.
Besides the relatively high initial cost, one disadvantage of electric curing is that it can
only be used with metal forms.
Specifications sometimes require an additional period of moist curing following the
accelerated curing cycle. Studies by Klieger (1960) have shown that this additional
moist curing period is not necessary, and may in fact be detrimental to the freeze-
thaw durability of the concrete. Accelerated curing by the application of heat is
equivalent or superior to the moist cure period specified for cast-in-place concrete.
Further hydration of the cement under moist conditions is not necessary after the
accelerated cycle.
Specifications sometimes require controlled cooling rates for heat-cured members
during cold winter months due to a perceived potential for thermal shock. Many
years of experience with accelerated curing have shown that thermal shock does not
occur and is not a problem. In addition, recent studies by the Massachusetts Highway
3.3.5.3.3 Accelerated Curing with Steam/3.3.5.4 Curing Following Stripping
OCT 97
3.3.5.4
Curing Following Stripping
3.3.5.3.4
Accelerated Curing with
Electric Heating Elements
Department have shown that precast bridge products, removed from the casting bed
at 160F in -5 to +10F ambient conditions, took 24 to 96 hours to cool to ambient
temperatures and continued significant strength gain during the cooling period.
Additional discussions of extended moist curing and stripping to storage in cold tem-
peratures can be found in PCI Publication TR1 (1981).
The methods used to accelerate the initial cure of concrete in precast bridge mem-
bers, as well as the benefits of accelerated curing, are discussed in Section 3.3.5.
Section 3.3.5.3 introduces the concept of an optimum curing cycle, which is made
up of three critical stages:
the preset or initial set period
the period during which the temperature of the concrete is increased
the period during which the maximum curing temperature is maintained
Regardless of curing method, plants monitor concrete temperature with thermocou-
ples embedded in the product. Because of heat due to hydration of the cementitious
materials, it is important that the temperature of the concrete, not the air under the
enclosure, be monitored during this process. This is discussed in Section 3.3.5.3. In
more sophisticated systems, a computer monitors the thermocouples and automati-
cally adjusts the heat applied to the product by activating switches or valves. Some
plants use night watchmen to control the heat application. In either case, the goal is
to add heat energy to augment the heat of hydration and achieve a temperature that
follows a predetermined optimum cycle.
The following sections describe the quality control aspects of this process.
As introduced in Section 3.3.5.3, application of heat should begin only after the con-
crete has taken its initial set. Temperatures as low as 125F have been shown by
Hanson (1963) to significantly decrease the 28-day strength of the concrete when
applied with an insufficient preset period. Concrete placed in warm or cold temper-
atures should be maintained at the placement temperature until the preset period is
complete. This preset period is currently established by AASHTO T197 (ASTM
C403) for each mix design in use. Unfortunately, this test procedure is difficult and
time consuming to perform in the plant.
In recent years, an alternate test method has been developed that is easier to perform.
In lieu of initial set, it is now recognized that the optimum time to start the applica-
tion of heat may correspond more closely to the initial development of the cements
heat of hydration. This point can be determined by a hydration chamber, which is an
enclosure in which freshly mixed concrete is placed and maintained in nearly adia-
batic conditions. Using commercially available chambers, it is possible to determine
the onset of hydration, and hence determine the optimum preset period. Electric cur-
ing equipment suppliers are currently working toward next-generation curing sys-
tems in which the computer controller, with the aid of a hydration chamber, auto-
matically determines the optimum preset time and programs the curing cycle.
Excessive delay periods reduce the effectiveness of accelerated curing.
Once heat is applied, the rate of heat gain must be controlled to prevent damage to
the concrete. The AASHTO Standard and LRFD Specifications limit the temperature
rise to a maximum of 40F per hour. However, assuming the proper preset period is
3.3.5.4 Curing Following Stripping/3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application
OCT 97
3.3.5.5
Optimizing Concrete Curing
3.3.5.5.1
Determination of Preset Time
3.3.5.5.2
Rate of Heat Application
observed, Pfeifer and Landgren (1982) has shown that increases of up to 80F per
hour do not significantly reduce the 28-day strength of the concrete when compared
to lower temperature rate gains. In reality, properly optimized heat gain is normally
dictated by parameters other than the maximum rate allowable.
The optimum rate of heat application can be determined by balancing the concepts
of concrete maturity, the thermodynamic law of heat exchange, and the power
requirements of the curing system. Maturity is defined as the area under the time-
temperature curve. A typical time-temperature curve is illustrated in Figure 3.3.5.5.2-1.
For a given concrete mix, equal maturities theoretically result in equal concrete
strengths, and can be obtained with different rates of heat application by varying the
length of time the heat is applied. The desirability of long preset periods, combined
with the need for a minimum level of maturity to achieve the required concrete
release strength, can lead to the conclusion that the concrete temperature should be
raised rapidly. However, the law of heat exchange requires a larger amount of heat
energy for rapid increases in temperature than for more gradual increases.
These considerations have implications for both the initial and operating cost of the
curing system. For example, with an electric curing system, the watt density of the
heating elements on the form would need to be high, resulting in a close spacing of
the elements. The system would also require greater peak power capacity. The high
initial cost of the elements, as well as a larger power supply, is usually not justified
when the peak power demand will be required for less than 25 percent of the curing
cycle. Economic analysis of the installation and operating costs show that the opti-
mum solution is to install a system that under 100 percent power raises the concrete
temperature at a slower rate, usually between 15F - 20F per hour. Curing system
equipment suppliers can assist with this determination.
Both AASHTO Specifications limit the maximum concrete temperature during accel-
erated curing to 160F, while the PCI manual, MNL-116, allows a maximum con-
crete temperature of 190F. This remains the subject of debate, as some producers
maintain that field experience has shown no detrimental effect from curing temper-
atures as high as 200F. Given the proper preset period, laboratory tests by Pfeifer
(1982) have shown that curing temperatures as high as 180F do not significantly
decrease the 28-day strength of the concrete when compared to concrete cured at
lower temperatures.
3.3.5.5.2 Rate of Heat Application/3.3.5.5.3 Maximum Curing Temperature
OCT 97
Figure 3.3.5.5.2-1
Typical Time-Temperature
Curing Cycle Graph
8-14 hrs.:
4-8 hrs.:
0-4 hrs.:
0 hrs.: Concrete placement
Preset period
Increase heat @
20-80F per hr.
Cure @ constant
temperature until
release
complete
Time (hours)
100F
2
60F
0
80F
140F
120F
160F
180F
4 6 8 10 12 14
3.3.5.5.3
Maximum Curing Temperature
Irrespective of whether a product is cured normally or by accelerated methods, com-
mon procedures and precautions must be followed to safely remove the member from
the form without damage. This procedure is referred to as stripping the products
or, sometimes, stripping the beds. The sequence of tasks are generally performed in
the following order:
1. Verify that the strength of the concrete in the product is at or above the specified
stripping or release strength. Concrete strength testing is discussed in Section
3.4.5.
2. For accelerated curing systems, cease heating. In some of the more sophisticated
systems, the heat can be stopped before Step 1 based on the maturity calculated
from the time-temperature curve. See Section 3.3.5.5.2.
3. Remove curing blankets, tarpaulins, and where necessary, form sides. For pretensioned
products which have been heat cured, the members must still be warm and moist at
the time of detensioning. If not, the unstressed concrete, still restrained by the ten-
sioned strands, will cool and contract, possibly resulting in transverse cracking through
the member. See Section 3.3.1.5 for a discussion on the removal of side forms.
4. Remove all remaining ties, inserts and other devices that will prevent lifting the
product free of the form, with the exception of the strand hold-down devices.
Strand hold-downs are to be released at the appropriate time in the detensioning
sequence. Section 3.3.2.8.4 provides discussion on releasing strand hold-downs.
5. For pretensioned products, detension the prestressing bed using the procedures
and precautions outlined in Section 3.3.2.8. Cut all strands at both ends of a
member if the line has been detensioned hydraulically.
6. Connect proper rigging to the lifting devices embedded in the member, and install lat-
eral stability hardware, if required. See Sections 3.2.4.4 and 3.3.3.2 for information on
lifting devices. Section 3.3.7.4 discusses lateral stability issues for long slender members.
After performing the steps in the previous section, the member is now ready to be
stripped from the form and transported to the yard for storage. When lifting the
product from the form, the cranes, rigging, and lifting devices should be sized con-
sidering the amount of suction expected from the specific form. Concrete stresses
should also be determined considering such effects. Suction on pretensioned mem-
bers whose sides have been removed is normally minimal, since elastic shortening and
camber that result at the release of prestress will usually break the bond between the
remaining forms and the concrete. Pretensioned members should not have transverse
monolithic ribs or diaphragms unless provisions are made in the formwork to pre-
vent the member from locking itself into the form as it shortens. Conventionally
reinforced members picked from fixed forms with numerous drafted vertical surfaces
can experience significant suction. For purposes of analysis, increasing the member
dead load by 50% is normally sufficient to account for form suction.
Precast plants are normally designed in linear fashion in order to facilitate the most
efficient movement of products from the casting bed to yard storage. Figure 3.3.7-1
shows the linear pattern of a typical precast plant. Usually, products just stripped are
first moved from the casting bed to a designated finishing area. The finish area is set
up to provide ready access to all portions of the member that need post-stripping fin-
ish work. For deep members, this area may include scaffolding or platforms with rail-
ings that meet OSHA fall protection standards. Many of the finishing tasks described
in Section 3.2.5 are performed in this area. Once the member is moved into storage,
access is normally limited due to stacking and stored adjacent members.
3.3.6 Removing Products from Forms/3.3.7 In-Plant Handling
OCT 97
3.3.6
Removing Products
from Forms
3.3.6.1
Form Suction
3.3.7
In-Plant Handling
Precast products should be handled only by properly designed and installed lifting
devices. The lifting devices used in the plant may or may not be the same as those
used for erection in the field, since the product orientation in the completed struc-
ture may not be the same as that in which it is cast, stored and shipped. Erection con-
siderations are sometimes significantly different than handling and storage consider-
ations in the plant.
Precast products are moved around the yard by a variety of equipment, ranging from
forklifts for smaller products to large gantry cranes on tracks. Rubber-tired gantry
cranes, normally referred to as travel lifts, or straddle-carriers, are probably the most
common choice by precast producers. See Figure 3.3.7.1-1. This equipment is
designed to lift and transport heavy loads without the need for shuttle trucks or other
equipment, and are not confined to movement on tracks. Travel lifts can use relatively
narrow aisles to pass between stored products, allowing the producer to maximize
3.3.7 In-Plant Handling/3.3.7.1 Handling Equipment
OCT 97
3.3.7.1
Handling Equipment
Figure 3.3.7.1-1
Straddle-Carrier
Figure 3.3.7-1
Typical Precasting Plant
Showing Linear Plan
yard storage. Travel lifts are widely available in capacities that accommodate the heav-
iest practical precast members. Maximum piece weights can be limited by lifting
equipment available in the plant, or by the maximum weight that can be shipped by
truck. Bridge designers should consult local producers for plant handling capability.
When multiple lifting points are used, techniques for equalizing the load on each lift-
ing device are necessary to assure that the rigging is statically determinate. This is usu-
ally done with rolling blocks, spreader beams or lifting trusses. Figure 3.3.7.2-1
shows typical rigging arrangements for multiple point lifts.
The most critical time in handling a precast member in the plant is when it is ini-
tially lifted from the form. The concrete strength is lower and, in pretensioned mem-
bers, the prestressing force is higher than at any other time in the life of the member.
To minimize concrete stresses due to the eccentricity of prestress, pretensioned flex-
ural members are handled with lifting devices as close as practical to the location
where the member will be supported in the structure. With the exception of mem-
bers with pretensioned cantilevers, lifting devices are located near the ends.
Concentrically pretensioned or conventionally reinforced members are handled at
two or more points in order to restrict the concrete tensile stresses below the crack-
ing limit. Normally, a factor of safety of 1.5 is applied to the concrete modulus of
3.3.7.1 Handling Equipment/3.3.7.3 Handling Stresses
OCT 97
3.3.7.2
Rigging
3.3.7.3
Handling Stresses
Figure 3.3.7.2-1a-1d
Rigging for Multiple Point
Lifting
L
.292L .104L .292L .104L
.104L
.292L
.292L
L .104L
Lift Loops
Rolling Blocks
Spreader Beams
Spreader Beams
Rolling Blocks
Choker
Lift Loops
c) Plant Handling of
Stemmed Members
Slender Members
a) Plant Handling of Long, b) Rolling Blocks for Field
Handling and Turning
Stemmed Members
d) Field Handling of
rupture (see Section 2.5.4), resulting in an allowable tensile stress of for nor-
mal weight concrete. In addition, an impact factor is applied to the dead weight of
the member if form suction is expected to be significant, as discussed in Section
3.3.6.1. Optimum lifting locations equalize positive and negative moments in mem-
bers of constant cross-section where the section modulus is the same at the top and
bottom. For example, members lifted at two points will have equal positive and neg-
ative moments if the lifting points are located 0.207 times the member length from
the ends. The use of optimum lifting locations is not always necessary, as long as the
concrete stresses are within allowable limits. In many cases, available plant equipment
determines the lifting locations. Phillips and Sheppard (1980) and the PCI Design
Handbook provide useful information on handling precast concrete products.
Long, slender sections can become unstable when handled with lifting devices locat-
ed near the ends. Studies by Mast (1989 and 1993) conclude that the most impor-
tant parameter for lateral stability during handling is the lateral bending stiffness of
the member. The simplest method to improve lateral stiffness is to move the lifting
devices in from the ends. However, doing so normally increases the concrete stresses
at lifting and, sometimes, the required concrete release strength. Other methods of
improving lateral stiffness are available, as discussed by Imper and Laszlo (1987), but
add to the cost of the product.
Precast products must be stored so they do not touch the ground and in a manner
that minimizes the potential for damage. Foundations should be of sufficient size and
strength to resist crushing or excessive settlement. Properly designed storage is nor-
mally governed by consideration of the control of permanent concrete deformations
rather than control of concrete stresses. Although improper storage can lead to crack-
ing, spalling, or other damage, supports which cause no apparent initial damage can
result in undesirable permanent deformations caused by creep of the concrete.
Storage techniques depend on the product type, and whether the members are eccen-
trically prestressed, concentrically prestressed or conventionally reinforced.
Eccentrically prestressed flexural members (without pretensioned cantilevers) should
be supported as close to the ends as possible. Storing members on supports a signif-
icant distance from the ends may result in undesirable camber growth. Deep mem-
bers, such as I-beams or bulb-tees, should always be stored plumb. The dead load of
an out-of-plumb member induces moments about its weak axis, which can lead to a
permanent horizontal sweep. Long, slender members may require temporary bracing
for stability during long-term storage.
Concentrically prestressed piles are supported in storage at relatively short intervals along
their length (approximately 20 ft). Piles are normally long and slender, with a relatively
high level of prestress. Although they can be handled and shipped with relatively large
spaces between supports, storing them in this manner for more than a few days can result
in permanent deformations. Conventionally reinforced beams and columns are normal-
ly stored with supports under the lifting locations. Wall panels, which are usually cast
flat, can be stored in this orientation for a short period, but generally are turned on edge
for long-term storage to prevent permanent bowing or warping.
5 f
c

3.3.7.3 Handling Stresses/
3.3.8.2 Storage of Concentrically Prestressed or Conventionally Reinforced Products
OCT 97
3.3.7.4
Lateral Stability
During Handling
3.3.8
In-Plant Storage
3.3.8.1
Storage of Eccentrically
Prestressed Products
3.3.8.2
Storage of Concentrically
Prestressed or Conventionally
Reinforced Products
Multiple supports must be set and maintained at the proper elevation to provide uni-
form support to the member. This is not as critical for two-point supports, because
differential settlement between supports has no detrimental effect on concrete stress-
es. However, misplaced or differential settlement of multiple supports can have a sub-
stantial effect on both concrete stresses and permanent deformations. Figure 3.3.8.2-1
illustrates this condition.
In most precast plants, yard storage is limited. Deep flexural members, such as I-
beams or some box beams, are generally placed close to one another to conserve
space. Shallow members, such as deck panels, stemmed members, or piles, are nor-
mally stacked. When stacking products, foundations and supports between levels,
must be of sufficient size and strength to support the increased weight. Foundations
and intermediate supports must align vertically, providing a direct load path to the
foundation. Short members should not be stacked on longer members, unless the
supports can be aligned vertically, or analysis shows that the lower members will not
3.3.8.2 Storage of Concentrically Prestressed or Conventionally Reinforced Products/3.3.8.3 Stacking
OCT 97
Figure 3.3.8.2-1a-1b Product Storage Points
Settlement in a Two-Point Support System: No Redistribution of Moment
No Change in Moments Due to Settlement
a) Two-Point Supports
Change in Moment Due to Settlement
b) Multiple Supports
M+
0
M+
M-
M- Decreases
M+ Increases
0
M Diagram
0
M+
0
M Diagram
M+
0
M-
0
M+
0
M+
0
3.3.8.3
Stacking
be damaged or otherwise compromised. Figure 3.3.8.3-1 illustrates some dos and
donts for stacking. Steel projecting from the tops of members, such as stirrups or
lifting devices, can hamper stacking. Supports between levels must be of sufficient
height to prevent damage to the projecting steel, or marring of the upper-level con-
crete soffits.
For long-term storage, consideration should be given to the effects of weathering. It
is not practical to expect precast concrete products to be stored indoors, or to be
effectively protected from the environment. Section 3.2.5.6 discusses measures which
may be taken to prevent corrosion of exposed steel, and the resulting unsightly stain-
ing of the concrete surface. When a like new appearance is desired in the finished
structure, the most cost-effective choice is to clean the concrete surfaces at comple-
tion of construction.
Many precast concrete bridge products are designed to behave compositely with cast-
in-place concrete. That is, the two separate concrete placements are intended to act
as a unit when resisting externally applied loads. In order for this to occur, shear must
be transferred across the interface between the two concrete layers. Typical designs
use the shear friction concept at the interface. Design advantages are realized when
the surface of the precast member which will interface with cast-in-place concrete is
intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 in., although the
shear friction concept does not require roughening. Roughening of surfaces is very
common in the precast industry. Methods used depend upon whether the surface to
be roughened is exposed or formed.
A requirement common to both exposed and formed roughened surfaces is that they
must be clean and free of laitance prior to placing the cast-in-place concrete. It is also
generally desirable to moisten the precast surface prior to the second placement.
3.3.8.3 Stacking/3.3.9 Roughened Surfaces
OCT 97
3.3.8.4
Weathering
3.3.9
Roughened Surfaces
Figure 3.3.8.3-1
Some Dos and Do Nots
When Stacking Precast
Products
DO DO NOT
The standard method of roughening exposed surfaces is to rake or broom the
concrete while it is still in its plastic state. After the concrete has been struck level, a
workman rakes the surface with a tool that creates grooves at a specified spacing and
depth. These grooves normally run transverse to the direction of the anticipated shear
force, and must be deep enough to pro-
duce the desired roughness, but not so
deep so as to dislodge individual aggregate
particles near the surface. Figure 3.3.9.1-1
shows a typical raked surface. This type of
surface is common on the tops of I-beams,
bulb-tees, and box beams that are subse-
quently made composite with a cast-in-
place concrete bridge deck.
Obviously, formed surfaces cannot be roughened in the same manner as exposed sur-
faces. Several methods are used to roughen formed surfaces:
chemical surface set retarders bush-hammering castellations
deep sandblasting shear keys
Surface set retarders, which locally retard the setting of cement, are painted onto the
form in the desired location prior to casting the concrete. After form removal, the
retarder is pressure washed from the concrete surface, resulting in a roughened,
exposed-aggregate finish. Set retarders are formulated with different strengths to
result in varying depths of retardation. Normally, the strongest formulation is
required to achieve the roughness desired for composite action. Both sandblasting
and bush-hammering are done manually after the product is stripped. They are labor
intensive. Shear keys and castellations are formed into the concrete surface. Figure
3.3.9.2-1 shows typical shear key and castellation configurations. Roughened formed
surfaces are normally used at the interface with cast-in-place concrete diaphragms, or
at girder ends which frame into cast-in-place piers.
3.3.9.1 Roughening Exposed Surfaces/3.3.9.2 Roughening Formed Surfaces
3.3.9.1
Roughening Exposed Surfaces
Typical Castellations and Shear
Keys in Formed Surfaces
Figure 3.3.9.1-1
Roughened Composite Surface
L Diaphragm
5"
3/4" X 3 1/2" X 7"
Shear Key
1 1/2"
Shear Key
C
a) Beam End for End Diaphragm Cast
C
a
s
t
e
l
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
1
"
90
1
"
b) Beam Web for Intermediate Diaphragm Cast
2" Dia.
Hole
3" Dia.
Hole
2" or 3"
1/4"
3.3.9.2
Roughening Formed Surfaces
OCT 97
Match-cast precast products are typically used in segmental construction to ensure
the proper fit-up of mating surfaces between precast segments while providing for the
profile grade and horizontal alignment required by design. Segment sizes are most
often determined by available handling and shipping equipment capacities, but may
also be dictated by the amount of form the manufacturer has on hand. Although
practically any type of precast product can be match-cast, this construction method
applies primarily to long-span construction using flanged box beam or deep I-beam
segments.
Two basic techniques are used to match-cast precast bridge segments, one employing
a stationary form, the other involving a form that is moved for every casting. With
the stationary form, the first segment is cast with endplates at both ends of the form.
After this segment has been cured to a concrete strength adequate for stripping, it is
lifted out of the form and positioned adjacent to the form so that one of its ends
serves as the endplate for the match-cast end of the second segment. The other end
of the second segment is formed with one of the original endplates.
The positioning of the first segment relative to the form is critical, since it dictates
the alignment of the two segments in the completed structure. Sophisticated survey-
ing techniques, together with adjustable screw jacks and stops, are normally used to
accurately position the segment. Prior to casting, the match-cast end of this segment
is coated with a debonding agent to allow separation of the segments after casting.
After the second segment achieves stripping strength, both segments can be stripped
from the form. The first segment is moved to storage, while the conventionally
formed end of second segment assumes the role of the endplate for the third segment
to be cast. This process continues until all segments are cast.
The moving form technique begins in a similar manner, however, after the first seg-
ment is cast and cured, it is left stationary on the form pallet. The form is stripped,
moved longitudinally, and positioned adjacent to the first segment. The second seg-
ment is then match-cast against the first in the same manner as described above. This
approach has the advantage of decreasing segment handling, but requires multiple
form pallets and significantly more space.
A common method of joining match-cast segments is by cementing them togeth-
er with a thin (approximately 0.02 to 0.04 in.) layer of epoxy bonder. Because the
epoxy coat is thin, it is essential that the member ends be properly matched. The nor-
mal construction sequence begins with the application of a slow-setting epoxy to the
mating ends. The epoxy should be applied in accordance with the manufacturers rec-
ommendations. The ends are then assembled, and an initial post-tensioning force is
applied across the interface. Gerwick (1993) notes that the best results are obtained
when the epoxy cures under a stress of about 40 psi. This is done progressively for
each pair of match-cast segments. Once a predetermined number of segments have
been joined, and the epoxy in all joints has cured, a final post-tensioning force is
applied to the superstructure (or portion of the superstructure). In I-beam bridges,
final post-tensioning is usually done after the cast-in-place deck has been placed.
3.3.10 Match-Cast Members/3.3.10.2 Joining Match-Cast Members with Epoxy
OCT 97
3.3.10
Match-Cast Members
3.3.10.1
Match-Casting Techniques
3.3.10.2
Joining Match-Cast
Members with Epoxy
Plant-cast concrete bridge products benefit substantially from the controlled condi-
tions under which they are fabricated. Section 3.3 offers many examples of fabrica-
tion procedures that are easier to control and inspect that is the case with field con-
struction. PCI Certified Plants are required to maintain rigorous quality control pro-
grams that satisfy the requirements of the project specifications, or PCI manual,
MNL-116, whichever are more stringent. Twice each year, certified plants receive
unannounced audits for compliance with these requirements by an independent
engineering firm that is employed by and reports to PCI. The following section dis-
cusses plant quality control procedures, and the resulting benefits to the purchaser.
The production process for precast, prestressed concrete differs substantially from
common field construction. Consequently, it is important that quality control per-
sonnel be qualified to inspect all phases of fabrication. PCI currently offers three lev-
els of training and certification for quality control personnel, with a fourth level
under development. Since the evaluation criteria for plant certification includes per-
sonnel qualifications, PCI Certified Plants must employ in-house quality control per-
sonnel who have been suitably trained in the inspection of precast, prestressed con-
crete products. This is not necessarily the case with outside inspection sources.
However, some agencies have taken advantage of PCI training seminars, and require
that their agency personnel are appropriately certified.* In addition, the production
process frequently begins before sunrise with the testing of release cylinders, and ends
after sunset with the covering of the product for accelerated curing. This time span
complicates the inspection of all phases of fabrication by an individual inspector.
Precast plants efficiently schedule their team of in-house inspectors to cover all phas-
es of production.
In order to make the best use of available personnel, several agencies have developed
Quality Control/Quality Assurance programs that shift the accountability and
responsibility for product quality to the manufacturer. Under these programs, the
manufacturer is responsible for performing day-to-day quality control functions,
while the agency assumes the role of review and acceptance. PCI Plant Certification
provides the basis for these programs, which are then expanded to cover any specific
needs of the agency. These industry/agency partnerships are part of the National
Quality Initiative (NQI), which has been endorsed by the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA), American Road and Transportation Builders Association
(ARTBA), American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), Associated General
Contractors of America (AGCA), American Public Works Association (APWA), and
the concrete and asphalt industries. For more information on these programs, con-
sult the AASHTO reports titled Quality Assurance Guide Specifications (1996) and
Implementation Manual For Quality Assurance (1996).
As with any manufacturing process, non-conformances can occur in precast concrete
bridge products. Examples may include voids or cracks in the concrete, missing or
improperly located inserts or holes, and incorrect projection of reinforcement. Non-
conformances fall into one of three categories, including:
those that can be accepted in spite of the non-conformance
those that can be repaired satisfactorily
those requiring rejection of the member
In spite of the finest placing and consolidation techniques, surface voids or bug-
holes resulting from water and air bubbles trapped against the side forms should be
3.4 Plant Quality Control and Quality Assurance/3.4.2.1 Surface Voids
OCT 97
3.4
PLANT QUALITY
CONTROL AND QUALITY
ASSURANCE
3.4.1
Plant and Inspection
Agency Interaction
3.4.2
Product Evaluation
and Repair
3.4.2.1
Surface Voids
*For further details contact the PCI Director of Certification Programs
anticipated in hardened concrete surfaces. These minor imperfections are usually not
structurally detrimental. Additional finishing requirements should be based on the
end use of the product, and should be established in the contract documents. It is
generally not practical to specify an acceptable level of imperfections, such as an
allowable percentage of void area within a given square foot of concrete surface, since
these judgments are highly subjective. Maximum acceptable void sizes (diameter and
depth) can be specified, although the evaluation of these criteria is tedious. The most
cost-effective choice is to accept the surface as-is. Beyond this, it is questionable
which is more economical: to identify and patch individual voids larger than speci-
fied; or to simply finish the entire surface as described in Section 3.2.5.3. The PCI
manual, MNL-116, provides a description of different grades of surface finishes.
Larger imperfections, such as honeycombed surfaces or spalls, require mortar patch-
ing. This type of repair, while being relatively simple to execute, is difficult to con-
trol from the perspective of long-term durability. The relatively shallow nature of the
patch creates differential shrinkage between the patching and parent materials,
potentially resulting in cracking or failure of the patch. The following techniques are
recommended and will mitigate problems with durability:
proper preparation of the void
application of a bonding agent
a patching mortar that exhibits low shrinkage properties
careful curing of the patch
Most producers have proven patching materials and established procedures with
proven performance histories. For honeycombed areas, it is important to remove all
loose material to expose sound concrete prior to applying the patch. See Section 3.2.5
for further information on patching materials and procedures.
Like conventional structural concrete, it is important that patches be properly cured
after application, because their durability depends on the ultimate strength of the
material and control of shrinkage. Application of a non-weathering, non-staining
curing compound to a patch surface is recommended.
Very large voids, including those in pretensioned bridge products, can often be
repaired by the concrete replacement method. By necessity, this repair procedure is
performed prior to transferring the prestressing force to the member. First, the defec-
tive concrete is carefully chipped out to expose sound concrete. Care must be taken
to avoid damaging reinforcing bars or strands. An epoxy-bond coat is then applied,
and new concrete is consolidated into the void using internal vibration. This new
concrete is specified to be the same or better than the concrete used in the original
placement. The cure of the patch is carefully controlled and accelerated until it reach-
es the strength required for transfer of the prestressing force.
The key to the quality of concrete replacement is the ability to fully consolidate the
new concrete into all portions of the void. From this perspective, the orientation of
the void is important. For example, replacement of concrete in the top of an I-beam
bottom flange is relatively easy to achieve. It is more difficult on vertical surfaces,
such as I-beam webs.
Cracks develop in conventionally reinforced precast members when the tensile stress-
es exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. In prestressed members, cracks occur
3.4.2.1 Surface Voids/3.4.2.4 Cracks
OCT 97
3.4.2.4
Cracks
3.4.2.2
Honeycomb and Spalls
3.4.2.3
Repairing Large Voids
when the tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete combined with
the internal stresses imparted by the prestressing. Tensile stresses develop in several
ways:
restraint of volume changes
internal forces from prestressing
externally applied loads
Precast concrete bridge products are designed to be furnished crack-free. However,
cracks should not be considered a reason for rejection unless the product is struc-
turally or aesthetically impaired beyond repair. The following sections discuss cracks
related to fabrication, common fabrication procedures used to minimize such crack-
ing, and methods of repairing cracks that occur. Section 3.3.7.3 discusses control of
cracks during plant handling. Gerwick (1993) provides a comprehensive discussion
of cracking. Also, see PCI Fabrication and Shipment Cracks in Precast or Prestressed
Beams and Columns (1985).
A common cause of cracking is shrinkage of the cement paste while the concrete is
in its plastic state. During this period, the concrete has developed little or no tensile
strength. Excessive evaporation of moisture from the surface will cause the paste to
shrink, resulting in cracks that are jagged, discontinuous, and multidirectional in
appearance, not unlike a crack pattern observed in a dried mud puddle. The shallow
nature of these cracks (usually less than 1/2 in.) means they normally are not of struc-
tural concern, and can easily be repaired by rubbing full with mortar. However, they
are unsightly, and often raise questions about the acceptability of the product. The
best solution is to prevent these cracks from occurring altogether by providing a sat-
urated atmosphere over all exposed surfaces during the curing process.
Volume changes are most pronounced along the longitudinal axis of a member, and
can result from several sources, including:
temperature changes
drying shrinkage
elastic shortening upon release of prestress
creep of the concrete
If these movements occur before the member is stripped, certain forms or attach-
ments may restrain the change in volume, possibly resulting in tensile stresses and
cracking. Cracks of this nature are normally continuous, narrow and relatively
straight. To mitigate this potential for cracking, forms should be of a constant cross
section, with no appreciable offset at joints, and attachments restraining the longitu-
dinal movement of the member should be removed as soon as possible after acceler-
ated curing is discontinued. Attachments transverse to the longitudinal axis of the
member, such as monolithically cast diaphragms, should not be used unless provi-
sions are made in the formwork to accommodate the anticipated volume changes.
Prestressing strands can also restrain longitudinal volume changes. It is not uncom-
mon for an I-beam to develop vertical cracks at intervals along its length when it is
allowed to cool with the strands still tensioned. One way to prevent this is to keep
the member warm until it is ready to be detensioned, although this is not always
practical for beams that remain in forms over the weekend. Zia and Caner (1993)
found this potential for cracking to diminish with increased length of free strand in
the casting bed.
3.4.2.4 Cracks/3.4.2.4.2 Cracks Due to Restraint of Volume Change
OCT 97
3.4.2.4.1
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
3.4.2.4.2
Cracks Due to Restraint of
Volume Change
Differential curing can also contribute to volume change cracking. Some products,
such as stemmed members, have cross-sectional regions with varying volume-to-sur-
face ratios. Depending upon the type of accelerated curing used, some regions can be
warmer than others, causing a thermal differential which can result in cracking. This
phenomena contributes to a relatively common crack at the interface between the
web and flange of stemmed members. One advantage of electric curing is that by
varying the spacing and control of the heating elements for areas of different volume-
to-surface ratios, relative heat gain can be better balanced. Figure 3.4.2.4.3-1 shows
a common electric curing configuration for stemmed members. The elements are
more closely spaced in the flange than in the web, since the large open top results in
significant heat loss from the flange with less heat of hydration. The flange and web
elements are controlled separately by flange and web thermocouples to provide uni-
form heat gain in the different segments.
Another source of cracks during fabrication is from accidental impact. This type of
cracking comes in all shapes and forms, and must be evaluated on an individual basis.
A common example is cracking of the top flange of I-beams or bulb-tees during form
removal. These cracks are not considered structurally significant unless they show
signs that the reinforcement crossing the crack has yielded, such as for large crack
widths or displacement of the adjacent surfaces.
Under certain conditions, cracks in precast concrete members can literally repair
themselves by autogenous healing. This process can be best described as unhydrated
portland cement crystals growing together across the crack in the presence of mois-
ture and under a clamping force. Zia and Caner (1993) recommends the region of
the crack be kept moist a minimum of 7 days.
The most common method of repairing relatively narrow structural cracks is by
epoxy injection. Modern epoxy injection methods using equipment that automati-
cally meters, mixes and injects the two-component epoxy are very convenient and
give excellent results. Follow manufacturer recommendations to seal cracks and
install epoxy injection ports. Cracks as small as 0.002 in. have been successfully
injected in the field with full penetration. Cracks, however, should be evaluated with
regard to location and effect on serviceability. Small cracks in compression zones in
service and not exposed to severe environments, may be best left alone. The ACI
3.4.2.4.2 Cracks Due to Restraint of Volume Change/3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection
OCT 97
3.4.2.4.3
Differential Curing Cracks
3.4.2.4.4
Accidental Impact Cracks
3.4.2.5
Crack Repair
3.4.2.5.1
Autogenous Healing
3.4.2.5.2
Crack Repair by
Epoxy Injection
Figure 3.4.2.4.3-1
Form Cross-Section Showing
Electric Heat Element Layout
and Insulation
Thermocouple
Flange Stem Flange
Stem Thermocouple
Heating Circuit
Electrical Junction Box
Flange
Flange Stem
2" Polyurethane Foam
(Typ.)
5
4
2 1 3
6
7
8 9 10 11
12 20
15
14
16
17
13
19 18
Committee 224 report, Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures, states that tolera-
ble crack widths are 0.006 in. for concrete exposed to seawater and seawater spray,
wetting and drying; 0.007 in. for concrete exposed to deicing chemicals; and 0.012
in. for concrete exposed to humidity, moist air or soil. It is recommended that the
agency and precast producers establish limits for acceptable crack widths as well as
repair procedures for those cracks that are determined to need repair. This type of
repair is not always aesthetically acceptable, but most producers have developed cos-
metic procedures to improve the appearance of the repair.
Large cracks which suggest yielding of the reinforcement generally are not repaired
by epoxy injection. If the damage is localized, an appropriate repair procedure is to
remove the damaged concrete and replace it in the manner described in Section
3.4.2.3. In cases where this repair is not applicable, judgment must be exercised as to
the structural severity of the crack.
Camber is defined as the net upward deflection of an eccentrically prestressed mem-
ber due to the combined member dead load moment and eccentricity of the prestress
force. Camber can increase or decrease with time, depending on the level of prestress
and sustained loads. A typical camber versus time graph is shown in Figure 3.4.2.6-1.
Camber can be predicted with relative accuracy at the time of initial prestress, but
the prediction of long-term camber should be considered an approximation.
Measuring and recording actual initial camber, and comparing results to the theoret-
ically computed value, is valuable in quantifying the consistency of production and
quality control. Small variations in initial camber indicate good consistency in stress-
ing and concreting procedures, while large camber variations may represent poor
consistency. Camber that is significantly lower than expected can indicate inadequate
tensioning, improper quantity or placement of strands, or loss of bond between con-
crete and strand (excessive strand slip). Low camber can also result from concrete
release strength that is higher than anticipated, such as in members that remain in the
form over a weekend prior to initial prestress. Camber significantly higher than
expected can result from low concrete strength, excessive force in the strands, or
improper quantity or placement of strands.
The PCI manual, MNL-116, requires measurement of camber to be taken on all
members produced from the first cast on a new or unusual bed layout, and on no less
than 25 percent of all other members produced each day. This measurement is to be
3.4.2.5.2 Crack Repair by Epoxy Injection/3.4.2.6.1 Measuring Camber
OCT 97
3.4.2.5.3
Crack Repair by
Concrete Replacement
3.4.2.6
Camber
Figure 3.4.2.6-1
Typical Time-Camber Graph
(Deck Bulb-Tee)
Midspan Deflection Estimate
Overlay @ 10
1
/2 years
Overlay @ 3 years
2500
Time (Days)
2
2.5
3
3.5
4.5
4
5
500 0 1000 2000 1500
Guardrail
4000 3000 3500
4" Final
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

C
a
m
b
e
r

(
i
n
.
)
3.4.2.6.1
Measuring Camber
taken as soon as possible after initial prestress, but not to exceed 72 hours after trans-
fer of the prestressing force. The elapsed time to measurement of camber after release
should remain consistent for a plant.
Several methods are used to measure initial camber. The simplest is to measure the
upward deflection at midspan immediately after initial prestress, but before the mem-
ber is lifted from the form, using the form soffit as the point of reference. Some prod-
ucts, such as stemmed members, are not easily accessible for this measurement. Once
a product is stripped and moved to the yard, camber can be measured with a string-
line, laser level, or a surveying level and rod. Camber measurements should be taken
to a well defined point on the member, such as the top corner of a bottom flange,
and not to an inconsistent surface, such as an intentionally roughened top flange.
Camber measurements should not be taken when the member is influenced by tem-
porary differences in surface temperature. On a sunny day, the top of the top flange
can be significantly warmer than the rest of the member, leading to a temporary
increase in camber. Camber readings under these conditions will be misleading.
Practical methods for mitigating camber growth are limited. As discussed in Section
3.3.8.1, eccentrically pretensioned flexural members should be stored on dunnage
located as close to the ends as possible (or final support locations for members with
cantilevers). Moving the dunnage away from the ends toward midspan reduces the
dead load deflection, and can lead to increased permanent upward deflection. Adding
a load to a member in storage to reduce long-term creep and camber is generally not
feasible. Control is best accomplished by scheduling production closer to erection or,
if not possible, by allowing for increased camber in the design and detailing of the
structure. In an unusual situation where camber is not adequate, it can be increased
by moving the dunnage in from the ends during storage.
Sweep is defined as horizontal bowing of a member, and can result from one of the
following:
misaligned forms
lateral offset of the pretensioning strands
improper tensioning
thermal effects (sun on one surface)
improper storage
Sweep is usually measured with a string-line after the first day of production in a new
form set-up. Once the initial casting is found to be acceptable, it is generally satis-
factory to estimate the straightness of subsequent members, measuring only when the
eye indicates a potential problem. As with camber, sweep should not be measured
when the member is influenced by temporary differences in surface temperature from
face-to-face.
The most obvious methods to control straightness are to assure that the forms are
installed straight and true and that the prestressing strands are properly located. Also,
as discussed in Section 3.3.8.1, precast members which are within tolerance for sweep
must be stored plumb. Excessive sweep can sometimes be corrected by leaning the
member in the direction opposite the sweep during storage. In this case, the effects
of creep will work to straighten the member. In other cases, long slender members
can be pulled laterally into alignment prior to final attachment in the structure.
3.4.2.6.1 Measuring Camber/3.4.2.7.1 Mitigation of Sweep
OCT 97
3.4.2.6.3
Mitigation of Camber Growth
3.4.2.7
Sweep
3.4.2.7.1
Mitigation of Sweep
3.4.2.6.2
Thermal Influences on Camber
The definition of water-cementitious materials ratio and its relationship to mix
design is discussed in Chapter 2 Section 2.4.6. In addition to portland cement, cer-
tain mineral admixtures are cementitious and contribute to the strength of concrete.
These are discussed in Section 2.3.4. Additional information may be found in the
PCI manual, TM-103.
The high water demand of mineral admixtures has a significant impact on concrete
workability. The influence of water-cementitious materials ratio on workability
depends on the proportions of the different cementitious materials. For example, if a
mix uses 225 pcy of water, 500 pcy of AASHTO M85 Type III cement, and 50 pcy
of silica fume, its water-cementitious materials ratio is 0.41 (225/500+50). Assume
this mix has a slump of 4 in. with a certain dosage of a water-reducing admixture. If
the silica fume content is increased to 100 lb, and the cement content is reduced to
450 lb, the water-cementitious materials ratio is still 0.41, but the concrete will have
a slump less than 4 in. if the same dosage of admixture is used. Trial mixes that inves-
tigate the relationship between mix constituents, plastic concrete properties, and
hardened properties are essential in effective use of these admixtures and various mix
designs. A discussion on calculating the relative equivalency of cementitious materi-
als in mix designs is given in ACI 211.1.
It has been well documented that the primary variable affecting concrete durability is the
water-cementitious materials ratio. Studies by Pfeifer, et al (1987, 1996) have shown that
lowering the water-cementitious materials ratio of a given mix reduces the chloride per-
meability of the concrete. Neville (1981) provides extensive discussion on the benefits of
low water-cementitious materials ratios in improving concretes resistance to abrasion,
freeze-thaw deterioration, chemical attack and deterioration in sea water.
A basic tenet is that the strength of concrete, be it compressive, tensile, or flexural, is
inversely proportional to the water-cementitious materials ratio. Furthermore, the
values of modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, creep and permeability also have inverse
relationships to the water-cementitious materials ratio. Hence, in producing high
quality concrete, the goal is to keep the water-cementitious materials ratio to a min-
imum, and to maintain consistency throughout the concrete placement.
Before the advent of water-reducing admixtures, the only means of obtaining a low
water-cementitious materials ratio was to use minimal water in the mix. In order to
achieve the strength necessary to make precast concrete bridge products feasible, con-
cretes used high cement contents, very low slumps, and water-cementitious materi-
als ratios in the range of 0.45 to 0.50. Good placement and consolidation were dif-
ficult to achieve with the relatively unsophisticated equipment available at the time.
Water-reducing admixtures have made it possible to produce workable concrete while
simultaneously decreasing the water content. The effects of water-reducing admix-
tures on the workability of concrete are discussed in Section 3.2.1.3.1. Normal water-
reducing admixtures can generally produce workable concrete with water-cementi-
tious ratios as low as 0.40. High range water-reducing admixtures can further reduce
the ratio to about 0.30 or slightly lower. Water-cementitious materials ratios at this
low level can be handled in precast plants because of the short duration between mix-
ing and placing, as well as the use of sophisticated consolidation techniques. This is
generally not true of cast-in-place construction.
3.4.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio/3.4.3.4 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio with Water-Reducing Admixtures
OCT 97
3.4.3
Water-Cementitious
Materials Ratio
3.4.3.1
Mineral Admixtures and
Workability
3.4.3.2
Water-Cementitious Materials
Ratio and Durability
3.4.3.3
Ratio without Water-Reducing
Admixtures
3.4.3.4
Ratio with Water-Reducing
Admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures can also be viewed as cement-reducers. Because the
strength of concrete increases as the water-cementitious materials ratio decreases, in
many cases the cement content can be reduced while maintaining concrete strength.
The PCI manual, MNL-116, requires water to be added to the mixer within a toler-
ance of 1.5% or one gallon, whichever is greater, from that which is specified in the
mix design. This quantity of water includes free moisture in the aggregates, as dis-
cussed in Section 2.4.6. Most plants use some form of moisture meter that allows for
continuous adjustment of water, based on the free moisture contained in the aggre-
gates. Batching scales are accurately calibrated to assure that materials delivered to the
mixer are within the specified tolerances.
Concrete slump measured in accordance with AASHTO T119 provides a good mea-
sure of batching consistency for all types of concrete. For concretes without water-
reducing admixtures, it can also provide an indication of water-cementitious materi-
als ratios. However, this is generally not true of concretes with water-reducing admix-
tures. Concretes with very low water-cementitious materials ratios can exhibit high
slumps when dosed with high-range water-reducers, yet are superior for use with pre-
cast products. As discussed in Section 3.2.1.3, concrete with water-reducing admix-
tures is less likely to segregate during placement than conventional concrete.
Consequently, slump is not an appropriate indicator of water-cementitious materials
ratio, and hence long-term performance, in mixes using water-reducing admixtures.
The actual water-cementitious materials ratio of water-reduced concrete is best deter-
mined by calculation using the recorded quantity of each constituent added to the
mixer, plus the free moisture in the aggregates.
Prestressing strand must be protected from corrosion prior to use. Most strand sup-
pliers provide protective wrappings for this purpose. Once this wrapping is removed,
the strand pack should still be protected from extended exposure to the elements. The
high tensile strength of strand makes it more susceptible to corrosion than lower
strength steels. Storage under cover is preferred as a means of minimizing corrosion,
but is not always practical.
Strand in which corrosion has pitted the surface should not be used. However, the
presence of light rust on strand is not detrimental to bond, and in fact light rust can
increase bond. If no pitting has developed on the strand surface, then there has been
no loss of effective strand area. The rule of thumb is that if rust can be removed with
a pencil eraser, and the strand shows no pits, then the rust level is not detrimental
and the strand is acceptable for use. An article by Sason (1992) provides suggestions
and photographs to assist in strand surface evaluation.
Special care must be used to prevent contamination of strand from form release
agents, mud, grease or other contaminants. Form release agents should be applied to
the form before stringing the strands in the bed. After stringing and tensioning, the
strand should be inspected for contamination, and cleaned with an effective solvent
if necessary before concrete placement.
Packing bands on strand packs should not be cut with a torch flame as doing so may
damage the strand. In addition, welding in the vicinity of strands must be strictly
prohibited.
3.4.3.4 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio with Water-Reducing Admixtures/3.4.4 Strand Condition
OCT 97
3.4.3.6
Testing Water-Cementitious
Materials Ratio
3.4.3.5
Controlling Water-
Cementitious Materials Ratio
3.4.4
Strand Condition
There are generally three intervals when it is important to evaluate the compressive
strength of the concrete in a prestressed bridge member:
at the time of transfer of the prestressing force
at the time of transportation and erection
at 28 days
If the member is shipped and erected after 28 days, strength tests are normally not
required for shipping. Cylinder ages other than 28 days may be specified for mem-
bers that will receive loads at ages appreciably different from 28 days. Also, recent,
higher strength concrete mixes have been used that specify strength testing at 56 days.
By far, the most common method of evaluating concrete compressive strength is by
making and testing cylinders of the production concrete. This testing is done in
accordance with the relevant specifications. PCI manual, MNL-116 provides guide-
lines used by the industry for concrete strength testing. It includes further discussion
on the compressive strength of concrete.
Molds used for forming concrete test cylinders must meet the requirements of AASHTO
M205, which describes both reusable and single-use molds. In general, reusable
molds are used in precast plant production. When very high strength concretes are
being produced, it may be necessary to use very rigid molds, such as reusable steel
molds, to ensure that dimensional tolerances of the test cylinders are maintained.
Otherwise, precision grinding of the ends may be necessary.
PCI manual, MNL-116, requires the strength at any given age to be determined by
the average of at least two cylinder tests, with the exception of the release strength or
predictive strengths less than 28 days, which can be determined by one cylinder test.
Many specifications for bridge products require an average of two cylinder tests each
time the concrete strength is to be determined, and still others require three cylinder
tests for any age. Testing two cylinders at three separate ages requires a minimum of
six cylinders for each product or production line of products cast in a continuous
pour. From a producers perspective, there is a certain level of risk in casting only the
minimum number of test specimens. If the first cylinder broken falls below the spec-
ified release strength, too few specimens remain for the required testing. Many plants
cast extra cylinders to account for this possibility. When sophisticated curing systems
are used, the concrete maturity can give a good indication of when the first cylinder
should be tested, as discussed in Section 3.3.5.5.2. When the number of cylinders
made is not adequate, alternate methods of determining the concrete compressive
strength are necessary, as discussed in Sections 3.4.5.5 and 3.4.5.6.
Test cylinders made in a plant are cast in accordance with AASHTO T23, with the
exception that PCI manual, MNL-116, permits the use of 4 x 8 in. cylinders in lieu
of the otherwise specified 6 x 12 in. cylinders. Because of the high strength of con-
crete commonly associated with precast bridge products, the smaller cylinders are
more compatible with the limitations of more common and less costly testing
machines.
Studies by Neville (1966) indicate that 4 x 8 in. test cylinders can result in a slightly
higher compressive strength than 6 x 12 in. cylinders. This becomes more pro-
nounced with increasing concrete strength. Accordingly, PCI manual, MNL-116,
requires that side-by-side 4 x 8 in. and 6 x 12 in. samples be made and tested to devel-
op a correlation between the two sizes. Table 3.4.5.2-1 shows a sample correlation of
concrete strength for the two cylinder sizes.
3.4.5 Concrete Strength Testing/3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size
OCT 97
3.4.5.1
Number of Cylinders
3.4.5.2
Test Cylinder Size
3.4.5
Concrete Strength Testing
The ends of cast cylinders or drilled cores are usually not plane, flat and at right
angles to the side of the cylinder. PCI manual, MNL-116, requires cylinders to be
capped unless their ends are cast or ground to within 0.002 in. of a plane surface.
The capping material used historically has been a fast setting sulfur compound
applied in accordance with ASTM C617. This method generates toxic sulfur fumes
and involves the hazard of handling very hot molten sulfur. Though this method
served the industry well for many years, it is now used much less often. In 1985,
AASHTO adopted a method of compression strength testing (AASHTO T22 Annex)
using neoprene pads and steel retainer caps. This reusable capping system reduces the
cost of sample preparation, since neoprene pads are less expensive than sulfur capping
compound and the labor required to prepare a cylinder for testing is reduced. This
capping system also produces more consistent test results, and diminishes the effect
of the human element in the capping operation. The average compressive strengths
obtained are equivalent to, or slightly higher than, cylinders capped with molten sul-
fur.
The strength of concrete test cylinders made to evaluate the strength of the concrete
in a precast bridge member is only meaningful if the cylinders and the member have
been cured under similar time-temperature conditions. The common practice of
placing cylinder molds on top, along side, or under product forms may not produce
representative test specimens. Cylinders cured in this manner generally do not gain
strength as rapidly as the product, and sometimes the reverse can be true. This
method is unreliable and can provide misleading results.
Cylinder curing cabinets are essentially insulated enclosures into which standard
cylinder molds are placed. There are two basic types of cabinets: a wet system where
water is used as the heat transfer medium, and a dry system where air in the cabinet
is the heat transfer medium. Both systems usually incorporate an electric heating sys-
tem with a temperature controller that senses the product temperature and in turn
controls the heating system to closely approximate the product temperature.
The water-filled cabinet provides more uniform heat to the test specimen and is eas-
ier to control. The test specimen temperature will slightly lag that of the product dur-
ing the warm-up period, since the water must be heated before the heat can get to
the cylinder mold. Temperatures of cylinders in water-filled cabinets will not follow
the member if the product temperature begins to fall significantly. The insulated cab-
inet is incapable of dissipating the heat energy unless the cabinet is opened to the sur-
rounding air.
The dry cabinet consumes less energy than the wet cabinet and is easier to maintain.
However, it is susceptible to creating slightly variable temperatures in the cylinders,
as temperature is difficult to control with precision. The dry cabinet is easier to cool.
Neither cabinet is readily portable and therefore must be set up permanently in one
3.4.5.2 Test Cylinder Size/3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets
OCT 97
3.4.5.4
Cylinder Curing Systems
and Procedures
Table 3.4.5.2-1
Sample Correlation of Cylinder
Compressive Strengths for 4 x 8
in. versus 6 x 12 in. Cylinders
3.4.5.4.1
Cylinder Curing Cabinets
Concrete Strength Range
(psi)
2,000 3,000 1.00
3,500 5,500 1.05
5,500 7,500 1.07
7,500 11,000 1.12
f
c
(4" x 8")
f
c
(6" x 12")
3.4.5.3
Alternate Cylinder
Capping Methods
location. The initial cost of both cabinets is quite highthe wet cabinet being the
most expensive. Either cabinet is a better solution than placing test specimens with
the product.
The state-of-the-art method of curing concrete test specimens utilizes metal molds
that are self-insulated and have a built-in heater and temperature sensor that work in
conjunction with a solid-state temperature controller. A thermocouple located to
sense the internal temperature of the precast concrete member being cured is plugged
into the controller, along with the thermocouple from the cylinder mold. The con-
troller continuously compares the temperature of the member with the temperature
of the test specimen, and toggles the test mold heater on or off depending on whether
the temperature of the test specimen is above or below the product temperature. This
system is capable of maintaining the temperature of the test specimen within 5F of
the product temperature, regardless of whether the temperature of the product is ris-
ing or falling.
Typically, all cylinders are initially cured under conditions similar to those of the
product. After the release cylinders are tested and the member is stripped, the later-
age cylinders are removed from their molds, and placed in moist storage at 73.4F
( 3F) in accordance with AASHTO T23.
Some specifications require that the cylinders be stored with the product. Most pre-
cast concrete bridge members have much larger volume-to-surface ratios than the
cylinders. Consequently, storage under the same conditions would cause the cylin-
ders to both dry and cool much faster that the product they are intended to repre-
sent. Experience has shown that cylinders stored in this manner, particularly during
the cold winter months, suffer diminished strength development and do not accu-
rately represent the strength of the product. They should never be used for acceptance
testing of the concrete mix or ultimate strength of the concrete in the product.
As mentioned in Section 3.4.5.1, when the number of cast cylinders is inadequate,
an alternate means of determining concrete strength is necessary. One of the most
common procedures involves drilling and testing cores from the precast member in
accordance with AASHTO T24. Cores are usually removed from a neutral location
in the product, such as near the neutral axis of a flexural member, and must also be
located to avoid reinforcement and other embedments. These cores are not evaluat-
ed by the same criteria as cast cylinders, since the aggregates are cut at the sides and
cannot be compared to a molded specimen. ACI 318 states that concrete in an area
represented by core tests shall be considered structurally adequate if the average of
three cores is equal to at least 85 percent of f
c
and if no single core is less that 75 per-
cent of f
c
. Campbell and Tobin (1967) provides further information on core
strengths. Further, the size and shape of the core must be considered when evaluat-
ing its strength, as described by Neville (1966). All holes resulting from cores must
be filled with a low shrinkage concrete having a compressive strength at least equal to
that of the precast member.
Several alternate procedures can be used to test the concrete strength of products
without destroying the product or the area tested. PCI manual, MNL-116, lists the
methods currently available. These procedures are normally employed for compara-
tive or qualitative purposes, and are not intended to replace cylinder testing. Non-
destructive test methods are acceptable provided the following conditions are met:
A correlation curve is established for each combination of concrete mix design, cur-
ing procedure and age of test
3.4.5.4.1 Cylinder Curing Cabinets/3.4.5.6 Non-Destructive Testing
OCT 97
3.4.5.4.2
Self-Insulated Cylinder Molds
3.4.5.4.3
Long-Term Cylinder Curing
3.4.5.5
Concrete Cores
3.4.5.6
Non-Destructive Testing
A minimum of 30 tests is used for each correlation curve
Test results fall within the 95 percent confidence limits of the correlation curve
Correlation curves are established for each test instrument, even of the same type
If properly correlated with cylinder tests, non-destructive tests may be used to evalu-
ate the release strength of products if the number of available cylinders is insufficient.
Rebound hammer testing is commonly used to determine concrete strength at all
ages for dry-cast products, such as hollow-core slabs.
Good design and detailing practices for precast components and connections always
considers allowable tolerances for fabrication, erection, and interfacing field con-
struction. PCI manual, MNL-116, lists industry standard tolerances for typical pre-
cast concrete bridge members. Details allowing generous tolerances usually result in
economies during construction, while extremely stringent tolerances can be very
expensive and in some cases, may not be achievable. Designers should consult local
producers when considering tolerances that are tighter than the industry standards.
3.4.5.6 Non-Destructive Testing/3.4.6 Tolerances
OCT 97
3.4.6
Tolerances
One of the most important aspects of precast component design is the ability to move
the member from the precast plant to the jobsite. Three modes of transportation are
used in the industry: truck, rail and barge. The following sections describe issues
involved in selecting a mode of transportation. The availability of transportation
modes, and limitations on member weights and sizes, vary widely depending on the
geographical location of the plant and jobsite. Bridge designers should consult with
local producers on transportation considerations in their area.
The maximum shipping weight of a precast member depends upon the mode of
transportation and geographical location of the plant and jobsite. For shipping by
truck, restrictions vary from 50-220 kips, depending on state regulations and avail-
able equipment. Normally, the maximum weight is determined by the number and
minimum spacing of axles that distribute the load to the roadway surface. The min-
imum spacing requirement is more difficult to achieve with short heavy members
than with long heavy members. Single axle loads of 12-16 kips generally do not
require overload permits, as long as the axle spacing exceeds the specified minimum
spacing. Special permits may allow an increase in load per axle, but may require
escorts, engineering evaluation costs, or an indirect routing of the load. Maximum
axle loads permitted vary from state to state. Some states further limit axle loads after
a period of freezing temperatures.
Standard rail cars can usually accommodate larger loads than a standard truck. Rail
cars range in capacity from approximately 120-200 kips. However, unless the rail sys-
tem runs directly from the precast plant to the jobsite, members must be trucked for
at least some portion of the route, and the weight of the member may be restricted
by the trucking limitations.
The same trucking limitations can be true of barge transportation. However, for
marine construction accessible by barge, the weight is only limited by the rated
capacity of the loading equipment or barge. Very large precast concrete floating pon-
toons for bridges (in excess of 5,500 tons) have been successfully delivered by barge.
The ability to ship a precast member can be limited by its overall dimensions.
Dimensional restrictions depend on state regulations, equipment limitations, and
physical constraints along the route to the jobsite. Physical constraints include height
and width clearances, and required turning radii. Alternate routes can often be select-
ed to alleviate these constraints.
For trucking with an overdimension permit, state regulations generally restrict the
height of a loaded member to 14 ft above the roadway surface. Without a permit, this
may be restricted to 12 ft. For width, either with or without permits, the ranges are
12-16 ft and 8-10 ft, respectively. Most states do not restrict the length of a load,
though many require permits for loads over a specified length. Permitted loads may
or may not require escort vehicles. Maximum lengths are normally dictated by the
smallest turning radius enroute.
Delivery by rail can be significantly more restrictive. Clearances limited by tunnels
and other obstructions are often very restrictive. Long precast members, which may
span several rail cars, require at least one end support to articulate to accommodate
the turning radius of each car. This can further exacerbate clearances at the midpoint
of the member. Dimensional limitations for rail delivery are heavily route dependent,
and must be closely coordinated with the railroad.
3.5 Transportation/3.5.2 Size Limitations
OCT 97
3.5.2
Size Limitations
3.5
TRANSPORTATION
3.5.1
Weight Limitations
Product dimensions are usually not limited by barge delivery. In most cases, if a prod-
uct can be made and handled in the plant, it can be shipped by barge. As with weight
restrictions, this usually applies only if both the precast plant and jobsite are accessi-
ble by barge.
The most common mode of transporting precast concrete products is by truck, since
most precast plants do not have easy access to rail spurs or waterways. Trucking is
accommodated with four basic configurations of trailers:
standard flat-bed trailers
low-boy trailers
pole trailers
steerable trailers
Each truck configuration is pulled by a standard tractor, with the differences provid-
ed by the trailer arrangement. The following sections describe in general terms the
characteristics of the various trailers. As trailer dimensions and hauling capacities vary
throughout the country, the dimensions and capacities given in the following sections
should be considered approximate.
Relatively small precast concrete products are shipped on standard flat-bed trailers, as
shown in Figure 3.5.3.1-1. The trailers are 8 ft wide and 40-50 ft long, with the top
of the bed approximately 4.5 ft above the roadway surface. The beds are typically sup-
ported on dual axles at the back of the trailer and on dual axles at the rear of the trac-
tor a total of four axles. For loads without special permits, hauling capacity is lim-
ited to approximately 50-60 kips. This type of trailer is normally used to transport
short span flexural members, such as stemmed members or voided slab beams, and
other miscellaneous bridge products, such as substructure components or stay-in-
place deck panels.
Low-boy trailers are used when height restrictions become a problem for flat-bed
trailers. Approximately 35 ft of the center section of the trailer is lowered to reduce
the top of the bed to within 2 ft of the roadway surface. These trailers are used to
haul tall loads, such as wall panels shipped on edge or large segments as shown in
Figure 3.5.3.2-1. The overall dimensions and hauling capacity of these trailers are
similar to standard flat-bed trailers because they are usually supported by four axles.
3.5.2 Size Limitations/3.5.3.2 Low-Boy Trailers
OCT 97
3.5.3.1
Flat-Bed Trailers
3.5.3.2
Low-Boy Trailers
Figure 3.5.3.1-1
Typical Flat-Bed Trailer
Figure 3.5.3.2-1
Low-Boy Trailer
3.5.3
Trucking
Pole trailers are configurations where the front and rear axle-sets (or jeeps) are
connected with a telescoping pole, as shown in Figure 3.5.3.3-1. Therefore, the dis-
tance between the front and rear axles is adjustable. Typical pole trailers can extend
to approximately 60 ft between supports, and are used to carry precast members
longer than can be handled with standard flat-bed trailers. Their hauling capacity
depends on the number and spacing of axles, as discussed in Section 3.5.1.
The trailing end of a very long precast member is usually supported by a detached
steerable trailer. Members as long as 177 ft have been delivered with this equipment.
There are two basic types of steerable trailers.
One type of trailer is outfitted with a cab and steering wheel, as shown in Figure
3.5.3.4-1. The steerable trailer is secured to the member, which in turn is secured to
the tractor or front jeep. During delivery, the steerable trailer is operated by a driver
who, in conjunction with the tractor driver, maneuver the member to the jobsite.
Another type of steerable trailer is remotely steered by the tractor driver. The drivers
controls activate hydraulic cylinders that off-set the rear dollies. This trailer is effi-
cient and highly maneuverable. It is shown in Figure 3.5.3.4-2.
3.5.3.3 Pole Trailers/3.5.3.4 Steerable Trailers
3.5.3.3
Pole Trailers
3.5.3.4
Steerable Trailers
Figure 3.5.3.3-1
Typical Pole Trailer with Additional
Pole Extending Beyond Rear Axle-Sets
Figure 3.5.3.4-1
Steerable Trailer
Figure 3.5.3.4-2
Remotely-Steered Trailer
OCT 97
Precast products should be loaded on trucks with supports located as close as possi-
ble to the lifting devices. Concrete stresses should be checked considering impact
during transportation (generally, an addition or deduction of 20 percent of the mem-
ber weight is adequate for calculation for impact during truck delivery). For mem-
bers with multiple lift points, rocker assemblies are used to equalize the load at each
support location, as shown in Figure 3.5.3.5-1.
Chains, wire rope or nylon straps are used to secure the load to the trailer or jeep. As
mentioned in Section 3.2.4.5, some producers provide blockouts in the top flange to
prevent damage from the chains, as shown in Figure 3.5.3.4-1. When using pole
or steerable trailers, the front and rear supports are generally designed to swivel to
allow for the relative rotation between the front and rear jeeps during turns. Chains
must be secured to the top of the swivel assembly to allow the jeep to turn relative to
the member, as shown in Figure 3.5.3.5-2.
Economically, rail transportation is usually only viable for transporting precast mem-
bers over relatively long distances, or for projects on railroad rights-of-way. Rail cars
are constrained to travel on tracks, which normally necessitates moving the member
from storage to the rail siding by truck or travel crane. Also, rail cars endure consid-
erably more impact than trucks, and require substantially more longitudinal and
transverse lashing, as shown in Figure 3.5.4-1. As mentioned in Section 3.5.2, long
precast members must straddle several cars, and require swivel supports to accom-
modate relative rotation, much like pole or steerable truck trailers. A rail car swiv-
el support is shown in Figure 3.5.4-2. Compared to trucks, rail cars are difficult to
obtain on a consistent and reliable basis.
3.5.3.5 Truck Loading Considerations/3.5.4 Rail Transportation
3.5.3.5
Truck Loading Considerations
Figure 3.5.3.5-2
Swivel Support onJeep
Figure 3.5.3.5-1 Rocker Support Assembly on Pole Trailer
Figure 3.5.4-1 Railcar Lashing Example Figure 3.5.4-2 Railcar Swivel Support
OCT 97
3.5.4
Rail Transportation
Where available, barge transportation is the most economical mode of transportation
for precast concrete products. In local areas, barging is generally limited to marine
construction, as shown in Figure 3.5.5-1. However, barges are also used to transport
precast products over very long distances for land-based projects, with either truck or
rail being used from the dock to the jobsite. The large hauling capacity and dimen-
sional flexibility of barge transportation make it the most attractive, and in some
cases, the only feasible mode of transportation.
The large hauling capacity of a barge with respect to its deck area, usually requires
the members to be stacked on the deck. In this case, the stacking considerations dis-
cussed in Section 3.3.8.3 must be observed. The wood dunnage between the stack
and the deck generally must align with the internal barge bulkheads. To conserve
deck space, wide-flanged members can be nested, as shown in Figure 3.5.5-2. The
members are blocked and lashed together, and secured to the deck as a unit. This
process improves the stability of each individual member during the journey.
For open ocean tows, a significant amount of lashing is required to secure the load.
In many cases, vertical uprights, or stanchions, are used to prevent the load from
shifting. Under storm conditions, impact can be significant, sometimes as high as
100 percent, and members must be supported with this in mind.
Long, slender members can become unstable when supported near the ends, as dis-
cussed in Section 3.3.7.4. Studies by Mast (1993) conclude that, unlike handling, the
most important parameter for lateral stability during shipping is the roll stiffness of
the trailer or jeep. Methods used for improving the lateral stiffness of long, slender
members for handling, as discussed by Imper and Laszlo (1987), do nothing to
improve the roll stiffness of the support during transportation. Most producers have
extensive experience with shipping long members, and should be consulted on max-
imum practical shipping lengths. In lieu of experience, the roll stiffness of trans-
portation vehicles should be evaluated according to the method proposed by Mast
(1993), particularly when roadway superelevations and cross-slopes will be encoun-
tered on the delivery route.
3.5.5 Barge Transportation/3.5.6 Lateral Stability During Shipping
OCT 97
Figure 3.5.5-2
Barge Loaded with Beams
Figure 3.5.5-1
Barge Loaded with Piles
3.5.5
Barge Transportation
3.5.6
Lateral Stability
During Shipping
When a bridge member arrives at the jobsite, it must be erected into position for final
integration into the structure. The following sections describe the methods used to
install typical precast concrete bridge components, and the materials and procedures
used in the integration process.
A variety of methods are employed to erect precast concrete bridge members, rang-
ing from single mobile cranes to sophisticated launching trusses. The method chosen
depends primarily on member weights and lengths, available crane capacities and
access conditions at the site. Erection costs are strongly influenced by the number of
cranes required, the crane capacity, and the speed of erection. Additional information
can be found in the PCI report, Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast
Concrete, MNL-127.
The preferred method of erecting long beams is with a single crane located at either
bridge beam support or somewhere between supports. Single cranes located at a sup-
port are generally limited to short spans of 60 ft or less. I-beams as long as 120 ft have
been erected with a single crane placed at midspan. This requires good access for both
the crane and the delivery vehicle near midspan to reduce the reach the crane must
make to lift the girder. Figure 3.6.1.1-1 shows a single-crane lift.
Single-crane lifts require a sufficient length of boom to keep the cables at a specified
minimum angle from horizontal, generally 60. Spreader bars or struts can also be
used to maintain this minimum angle.
Erection utilizing two cranes is usually faster than with one crane, but also more
expensive. This method is normally used when long beams can be delivered along the
bridge span, and cranes positioned at the supports can swing the beams from the
delivery vehicle directly to their final position. Figure 3.6.1.2-1 shows a dual-crane
lift. Dual-crane lifts do not require the very long boom lengths of single-crane lifts.
This is important in situations where headroom is limited, such as erection under a
bridge overpass or near or under power transmission lines.
3.6 Installation/3.6.1.2 Dual-Crane Lifts
OCT 97
Figure 3.6.1.1-1 One-Crane Lift Figure 3.6.1.2-1 Two-Crane Lift
3.6
INSTALLATION
3.6.1
Jobsite Handling
3.6.1.1
Single-Crane Lifts
3.6.1.2
Dual-Crane Lifts
Passing beams from crane to crane is normally required when erecting long beams
over waterways and railways, where neither the cranes or the delivery vehicles have
access between supports. Using this process, a crane is placed at each of the near and
far supports. A truck with steerable trailer, backs the girder to the near crane, which
lifts the end of the beam off the steerable trailer. As the tractor, supporting the other
end of the girder, backs up, the near crane moves the girder end as far out into the
span as allowed by its lifting capacity. The far crane is then hooked onto a separate
lifting device at the end out into the span and, provided it has the capacity, picks up
the load until the near crane can be released. If neither crane has sufficient load
capacity at the transfer point, a triangular load transfer plate is used to spread the load
between cranes until the girder is close enough to be carried by the far crane alone.
The far crane and tractor continue to move the girder out into the span until the near
crane can lift the end of the girder off the tractor. Erection then proceeds in the same
manner as for dual crane lifts.
Launching trusses are used when, due to ecological or practical considerations, the
methods described in Sections 3.6.1.1 through 3.6.1.3 are not feasible. This general-
ly occurs with long spans in the range of 160-200 ft. Launching trusses eliminate the
need for cranes, delivery vehicle or temporary support towers to be placed near mid-
span, and can be used for both single-piece or segmental construction. Launching
trusses are usually shipped in pieces and assembled at the jobsite. Methods of
installing the trusses vary depending on the type of construction.
The use of launching trusses for single-piece construction is usually reserved for long,
single-span crossings where access is possible only at the ends. In this scenario, a crane
is positioned at both the near and far abutments, and the truss is assembled on a run-
way behind the near abutment. Due to its relatively light weight and strength, the
locations where the truss may be picked are flexible, and the crane at the near abut-
ment is able to pass the truss to the crane at the far end. Figure 3.6.1.4.1-1 shows
a launching truss in position.
The long, precast beams are shipped from the plant either as single pieces, or in seg-
ments that are assembled into full-length girders in a staging area at the jobsite. A
truck with steerable trailer backs the beam to the near crane, which lifts the end of
the beam off the steerable trailer, and places it on a trolley on top of the truss. The
tractor then backs the beam across the span until the crane at the far end can reach
the end on the trolley. The crane at the near end picks the beam from the tractor, and
both cranes swing the beam to its final position.
3.6.1.3 Passing from Crane to Crane/
3.6.1.4.1 Launching Trusses for Single-Piece Construction
Figure 3.6.1.4.1-1
Setting Precast Beam with Launching Truss
Figure 3.6.1.4.2-1
Assembling Precast Segments with
Launching Truss
3.6.1.4.1
Launching Trusses for
Single-Piece Construction
3.6.1.3
Passing from Crane to Crane
3.6.1.4
Launching Trusses
OCT 97
Launching trusses for segmental construction are very sophisticated equipment, and
are generally reserved for large, multi-span, segmental box beam construction. These
trusses are designed to launch themselves from pier to pier, and to lift and hold large
box sections in place until the segment is post-tensioned to the structure. Figure
3.6.1.4.2-1 shows a launching truss used for segmental construction.
The construction of supports for precast flexural members is important to provide
uniform bearing for the generally high concentrated forces at the beam ends.
Elastomeric bearing pads are used predominantly as beam supports. Therefore, the
as-cast condition of both the support surface and the beam soffit are critical in pro-
viding good bearing. Many designers specify a rectangular grout pad, approximately
1.5 in. thick, to be accurately placed on the pier or abutment as a second stage pour,
as shown in Figure 3.6.2-1. Support surfaces may be level or sloped to match the
roadway profile. When level support surfaces are used with sloped beams, a beveled
recess in the beam soffit is used to assure proper slope. For members with two or
more support stems, the relative elevation of the multiple support surfaces is critical
to prevent warping of the section.
Prior to mobilizing erection equipment, the support surfaces should be checked for
horizontal and vertical control, as well as flatness and level or slope. This can be done
with standard surveying equipment and a carpenters level. Flatness is normally lim-
ited to 1/16 in. tolerance, and is checked by passing a straightedge over the surface.
Any dishing of the surface can be detected by light under the straightedge. The
same type of check is performed on the beam soffit or bearing recess. Support sur-
faces and beam soffits which are out of tolerance, normally are corrected by grinding.
When precast concrete beams are too long or too heavy to be shipped as a single
piece, they can be cast in segments, erected on temporary support towers, and spliced
together in their final position. Support towers usually extend the full width of the
bridge to accommodate continuous erection and splicing operations. A solid foun-
dation, usually a compacted crushed gravel base, must be provided for the towers,
since very little settlement can be tolerated between the time the splice is completed
and the post-tensioning is applied across the joint. Two or more timber mats, placed
in perpendicular directions, support the towers and distribute the loads to the base.
3.6.1.4.2 Launching Trusses for Segmental Construction/
3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers
OCT 97
Figure 3.6.2-1
Elastomeric Pad and Grout
Pedestal Bearing Detail
L Girder
Bearing Pad
3/4" Recess
Grout
C
1 1/2" @ L Brg.
C
Vertical
Level
3.6.1.4.2
Launching Trusses for
Segmental Construction
3.6.2
Support Surfaces
3.6.2.1
Inspection of
Support Surfaces
3.6.2.2
Temporary Support Towers
The towers themselves are typically heavy-duty aluminum scaffold frames, cross-
braced for lateral stability and to reduce the unsupported length of the posts. Figure
3.6.2.2-1 shows a typical temporary support tower. The top of each post of the frame
is supplied with a screw jack, which supports a continuous steel beam across the full
width of the bridge. A series of headframes, or interconnected steel beam platforms,
are supported on the continuous steel beams and support the girder segments at the
splice. Normally, provisions are made for hydraulic jacks to be placed under the gird-
ers for final adjustments prior to completing the splice. Abdel-Karim (1992) provides
further information on the use of temporary support towers.
Precast members are abutted by placing them side-by-side on the supports, and con-
necting them together so that loads on the bridge deck are shared by adjacent mem-
bers. AASHTOStandard Specifications refer to abutted deck members as precast con-
crete multi-beam decks. Members that are commonly abutted include solid and void-
ed beams, deck bulb-tees, stemmed members and box beams. Connection details
include welding, bolting, grouted shear keys, cast-in-place overlays and transverse
post-tensioning. The following sections describe materials and procedures used to
connect abutted members.
The allowable differential camber between abutted deck members is usually limited
to 1/2 in. This is an important consideration since there is often no concrete overlay
to compensate for the vertical offset at the joints. However, the stiffer nature of
abutted deck members leads to less total camber, and consequently less differential
camber, than members that receive a cast-in-place deck. Small amounts of offset
between abutted deck members are normally mitigated by feathering grout across the
shear key joint. Larger offsets can be minimized by shimming the girder ends to split
the offset difference between the ends and midspan, or by leveling the members at
midspan with a jack/lever arrangement prior to making the connection between
members. Caution must be exercised when leveling thin-flanged abutted members,
since weld plates can spall out of the thin flange under the loads imposed by the lev-
eling. Connections should be detailed to accommodate the allowable differential
camber, as shown in Figure 3.6.3.1-1.
3.6.2.2 Temporary Support Towers/3.6.3.1 Vertical Alignment
OCT 97
3.6.3
Abutted Members
3.6.3.1
Vertical Alignment
Figure 3.6.2.2-1
Temporary Support Tower
Load sharing between abutted members is normally achieved through shear keys, as
shown in Figure 3.6.3.2-1, which are filled with grout or concrete. The clamping
force required to confine the joint is typically provided by lateral ties consisting of
welded connections or transverse post-tensioning. The shear key configuration and
joint width vary depending on the type of member and joint filler to be used. Most
producers have preferred configurations of shear keys for each standard product, and
Stanton and Mattock (1986) provides recommendations for the design and configu-
ration of shear keys. Abutted members which subsequently receive a composite cast-
in-place overlay may not require shear keys or lateral ties.
The choice of grout or concrete to fill shear keys depends primarily on the minimum
width of the joint. Concrete can only be used with joint widths approximately 2 in.
or greater for two reasons: the joint must accommodate a pencil vibrator (1 in. dia.)
for consolidation of the concrete, and the aggregate must be sized 1/5 the minimum
joint dimension. Narrower joints are filled with a flowable grout composed primari-
ly of portland cement and fine aggregate, as described in Section 2.6. Both grout and
concrete joint fillers must be non-shrink.
Thirty minutes prior to grouting shear keys, the joint surfaces must be wetted to
achieve a saturated, surface dry condition. The temperature of both the air and con-
crete should be a minimum of 40F. A volume of grout adequate to fill one or more
joints is mixed and poured, preferably with a rolling trough that directs the grout into
the joint. The grout is sometimes poured over the joint on the deck, and scraped into
the joint with a squeegee, but this tends to stain the deck surface. Consolidation of
3.6.3.1 Vertical Alignment/3.6.3.2.2 Grouting Procedures for Shear Keys
OCT 97
3.6.3.2
Shear Keys
3.6.3.2.1
Grout or Concrete
in Shear Keys
3.6.3.2.2
Grouting Procedures
for Shear Keys
Figure 3.6.3.1-1
Welded Flange Connection
Showing Condition with
Different Camber
never hammered after one edge is welded.
Note : Plate must be bent prior to installation,
*
Camber
Differential
Connector
Bent Connector Plate
*
C
L
Shear Key Beyond
Figure 3.6.3.2-1
Typical Shear Key Connection
C
L JOINT
Grout
1/2" 1"
2 1/8"
1 1/2"
Foam Backer Rod
the grout is accomplished by rodding. The quality control of this operation is impor-
tant to ensure the soundness and durability of the joint.
Welded connectors generally consist of plates or angles embedded in the sides of the
top flange, and anchored to the concrete with welded reinforcing bars, studs or
deformed bar anchors. In some plants, connectors consist of full flange width rein-
forcing bars welded to plates on both edges of the flange. These connectors are
recessed from the top surface of abutted deck members to provide the required cover
from the roadway surface, as shown in Figure 3.6.3.1-1. This recess is sized to assure
adequate access for field welding the connecting plate. Stanton and Matlock (1986)
recommends the maximum spacing of welded connectors be the width of the top
flange, or 5 ft, whichever is less. Welded connections are most commonly used with
deck bulb-tees and stemmed members.
Lateral post-tensioning, located at or above the sections mid-depth, is most often
used as the lateral tie system for voided slab beams and box beams, although it can
also be used in the flange or concrete diaphragms of stemmed members. Typically,
the longitudinal spacing corresponds with diaphragm locations, at the ends and at
approximately 40 ft centers. Prestressing bars are most common, although strand sys-
tems can also be used. Lateral post-tensioning requires no field welding, and the pre-
stressing steel is fully protected in the completed structure.
One application of lateral post-tensioning for slab beams is shown in Figure 3.6.3.4-1.
Staggered prestressing bars are placed in ducts normal to the longitudinal axis of the
slabs, tying them together two at a time. The bars are placed as erection proceeds, and
are stressed using a torque wrench or jack. Enlarged pockets are provided in the shear
keys to provide clearance from the bar end to the adjacent slab. This procedure min-
imizes increase in the bridge width due to dimensional creep, and problems due to
misaligned ducts when post-tensioning the full deck width.
Welded and post-tensioned connections for members abutted on skewed bridges can
either follow the skew, or be normal to the longitudinal axis of the member. Connec-
tions that follow the skew are normally limited to skews of 20 degrees or less. For
skewed, post-tensioned connections, a wedge-shaped pocket is required in the shear
key to ensure uniform bearing of the prestressing force on the concrete surface, as
shown in Figure 3.6.3.4-1.
3.6.3.2.2 Grouting Procedures for Shear Keys/3.6.3.5 Skewed Bridges
OCT 97
Figure 3.6.3.4-1
Lateral Post-Tensioning
Connection of Skewed Voided
Slab Beams
a) For > 20
Dowel Sleeve
L Bearing
C
1/3 Slab Length
-
Sleeve for Tie Rod
Slab Width X Tan
b) For < 20
Void
3.6.3.3
Welded Connectors
3.6.3.4
3.6.3.5
Skewed Bridges
Diaphragms are stiffeners that are normal to the longitudinal axis of the bridge and
connect precast flexural members to one another. They are generally specified at the
bridge ends, and in most regions of the country, at a maximum of 40 ft intervals
along the length of the bridge. Rabbat, et al (1982) concludes that end diaphragms
ensure uniform reactions at the span ends and provide a smoother ride over the sup-
port. In other locations, however, studies by Lin and VanHorn (1969), McCarthy, et
al (1979), Sengupta, and Breen (1973), Sithichaikasem and Gamble (1972), and
Wong and Gamble (1973) conclude that intermediate diaphragms are not necessary
for load distribution and, are in fact, in most cases, detrimental. These studies were
performed on bridges with cast-in-place decks, and their conclusions may not be
applicable to fully-decked, abutted members. Intermediate diaphragms may also be
added above traffic lanes to provide additional strength in the event of impact from
overheight vehicles.
The most common type of diaphragm is cast-in-place, as shown in Figure 3.7.1-1.
Interior beams are fabricated with holes through the web to allow the top and bot-
tom diaphragm reinforcement to pass through. Exterior beams have threaded inserts
embedded in the interior face to accommodate threaded reinforcing steel, bolts or
other types of anchors. In lieu of threaded inserts, some exterior beams are cast with
holes through the web and a recessed pocket in the exterior face. Threaded rein-
forcement is passed through the hole, and secured with hand-tightened nut and
washer. After the diaphragm concrete has gained some strength, the nut is tightened
firmly, and the recess is coated with epoxy and patched with grout. Fully-decked,
abutted members, such as decked bulb-tees, are provided with pour slots, or holes,
in the deck to facilitate concrete placement.
Diaphragms can be fabricated as separate precast pieces and shipped loose to the job-
site for installation into the structure. Figure 3.7.2.1-1 shows a precast diaphragm
detail. These diaphragms must be cast to the shape of the webs and flanges of adja-
cent beams, and are sensitive to fabrication and erection tolerances. Connections to
adjacent beams are usually made by welding. In some cases, tie rods through sleeves
in the diaphragms have also been used. The geometry of the structure generally deter-
mines the feasibility of precast diaphragms. Among the available diaphragm types,
they are the most difficult to properly execute.
3.7 Diaphragms/3.7.2.1 Individual Precast Concrete Diaphragms
OCT 97
Figure 3.7.1-1
Diaphragm Details
Inserts and
Cast-in-Place
Sleeves at
Reinforcing Bars
Interior Girders
Concrete Diaphragm
Anchors at
Exterior Girder
3.7
DIAPHRAGMS
3.7.1
Cast-In-Place
Concrete Diaphragms
3.7.2
Precast Concrete
Diaphragms
3.7.2.1
Individual Precast
Concrete Diaphragms
Another option for providing precast diaphragms is to cast the diaphragm directly
onto the individual beams in the precast yard, as shown in Figure 3.7.2.2-1. The
diaphragm reinforcing and connections to the beams are similar to cast-in-place
diaphragms. The joint occurs at midpoint between beams, and the connection
between diaphragms is usually accomplished by welding or mechanical splicing of
exposed reinforcement. The most important aspect of this type of diaphragm is align-
ment in the field. Proper execution normally requires match-casting of the
diaphragms in the precast yard.
Steel braces have proven to be an efficient and cost-effective means of providing
diaphragms, particularly in remote locations where cast-in-place concrete is not read-
ily available. Figures 3.7.3-1 and 3.7.3-2 show two types of steel diaphragms used in
the industry. The first is normally referred to as a K brace. This configuration is not
as stiff as most other types of diaphragms, and consequently is used at shorter inter-
vals of approximately 25 ft maximum. The second type is often called a delta brace,
and has been successfully used at 40 ft intervals. Both types are normally hot-dip gal-
vanized, and connected to the beams by welding. The precautions discussed in
Section 3.2.5.6 should be observed when welding galvanized steel. The K brace has
also been detailed with bolted connections. Due to cumulative fabrication and erec-
tion tolerances, predrilled bolt holes are difficult to line-up, so the holes in one of the
connecting elements are normally field-drilled.
3.7.2.1 Individual Precast Concrete Diaphragms/3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms
OCT 97
3.7.2.2
Secondary-Cast Precast
Concrete Diaphragms
3.7.3
Steel Diaphragms
Figure 3.7.2.1-1
Individual, Separate,
Precast Concrete Diaphragms
Precast
Precast Stemmed
Grout or Dry-pack
Embedded
Connection
Angle
Typ.
Member Weld Plate
Diaphragm
A
A
SECTION A-A
Figure 3.7.2.2-1
Secondary-Cast,
Precast Concrete Diaphragms
Secondary-Cast
Reinforcing Bars
Welded Connectors
Precast Deck
Typ.
Embedded
Angle or
Channel
Connector
Plate
Access Hole
for Concrete
Placement
Grouted
Keyway
Threaded
Inserts
(See Detail)
Diaphragm @ Abutment
Bulb-Tee
Precast Diaphragm
CONNECTOR
DETAIL
WELDED
After the beams have been erected, and before they are permanently connected into
the structure, they can be subjected to forces of nature that could cause them to fall
off the supports. Forces include wind, earthquake or thermally-induced sweep. Tem-
porary braces consisting of steel or timber are used to stabilize the beams. Braces are
removed after the final connections are made.
Diaphragms in skewed bridges can either follow the skew angle or frame normal to
the longitudinal axis of the beams. In general, diaphragms perpendicular to the
beams are easier to detail and execute, particularly with precast or steel diaphragms.
Bridge designers should consult with local manufacturers for the most cost-effective
means of providing diaphragms on skewed bridges.
3.7.3 Steel Diaphragms/3.7.5 Diaphragms in Skewed Bridges
OCT 97
3.7.4
Temporary Diaphragms
for Construction
3.7.5
Diaphragms in
Skewed Bridges
Figure 3.7.3-1
Steel K Brace Diaphragms
Precast Deck
Bolt and
Sleeve and Through Bolt Angle Braces
Grouted
Keyway
Bulb-Tee
Sleeve Nut
Figure 3.7.3-2
Steel Delta Brace
Diaphragms
Reinforcing Bar Tie
Weld Plate
Grouted
Fully Grouted Tie Rod
Standard Pipe Struts
Grout Vent
Precast Deck
Bulb-Tee Welded to Plate
and Sleeve Assembly
Embedded Plate
Connection
Blockout
Precast, prestressed composite bridge deck panels, combined with a cast-in-place
overlay, provide an efficient and cost-effective method of constructing bridge decks.
The following sections describe key facets of the fabrication and installation of these
panels. Extensive coverage of this subject may be found in PCIs Recommended
Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels (1988).
Precast composite bridge deck panels are 3-4 in. thick concrete slabs which span
between the top flanges of concrete or steel beams. These panels provide a working
platform for deck reinforcement placement, and a stay-in-place form for the cast-in-
place concrete overlay. Figure 3.8.1-1 shows panels in place. The panels are fabricat-
ed using the materials and procedures discussed in Sections 3.2 and 3.3. Prestressing
strands in the panels are oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beams
and provide all of the positive reinforcement required for the span of the deck
between beams. The panels become composite with the cast-in-place overlay to resist
superimposed dead and live loads.
Both proprietary and generic panel systems are available to the construction indus-
try. Proprietary systems employ patented methods of erection, temporary support,
adjustments, and forming of the gap between the bottom of the panel and the top of
the beam. Generic systems use conventional methods to achieve the same results.
Precast composite bridge deck panels can be handled with the conventional tech-
niques described in Section 3.3.7, or with proprietary lifting equipment. Proprietary
lifting equipment is normally designed to lift the panels along the edge, eliminating
the need for embedded lifting devices. This equipment is also designed for quick
release to speed erection of the panels.
After the panels are erected, they must be temporarily supported until placement of
the cast-in-place overlay which also provides concrete under the panel for support.
Most systems incorporate a minimum of four screw-jack embedments near the panel
corners, which are provided for two purposes. The first is to frame a gap between the
bottom of the panel and the top of the beam flange large enough to allow grout or
concrete to fully fill the gap, providing uniform bearing for the panel. The minimum
gap is nominally 1 in. for grout and 1-1/2 in. for concrete. The screw jacks also allow
the panel elevations to be adjusted for the desired profile grade, drainage slope or
superelevation, while correcting for beam camber and dead load deflections, main-
taining a relatively constant overall deck thickness. Figure 3.8.3-1 shows a typical
detail at the top of the beam. Some proprietary systems offer cast-in baffles to retain
grout or concrete in the gap.
3.8 Precast Deck Panels/3.8.3 Installation of Deck Panels
3.8.3
Installation of Deck Panels
3.8
PRECAST DECK
PANELS
3.8.1
Deck Panel Systems
3.8.2
Handling Deck Panels
Figure 3.8.1-1
Installation of Precast Concrete
Deck Panels
Figure 3.8.3-1
Stay-In-Place Composite
Deck Panels Bearing Detail
(Proprietary System)
Leveling Screw
Flexible
Cast-in-Place Concrete Deck
Prestressed
Concrete
Deck Panel
Precast
Concrete
Beam
Seal Strip
OCT 97
AASHTO M31 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement
AASHTO M32 Standard Specification for Cold-Drawn Steel Wire for Concrete
Reinforcement
AASHTO M55 Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain, for
AASHTO M85 Standard Specification for Portland Cement
AASHTO M111 Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings
on Iron and Steel Products
AASHTO M203 Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire
Stress-Relieved for Prestressed Concrete
AASHTO M205 Standard Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Test
Cylinders Vertically
AASHTO M221 Standard Specification for Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric
for Concrete Reinforcement
AASHTO M225 Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete
Reinforcement
AASHTO M275 Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for
Prestressing Concrete
AASHTO M284 Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Reinforcing Bars
AASHTO T22 Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
AASHTO T23 Standard Method of Test for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Field
AASHTO T24 Standard Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and
Sawed Beams of Concrete
AASHTO T119 Standard Method of Test for Slump of Portland Cement Concrete
AASHTO T197 Standard Method of Test for Time of Setting of Concrete
Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
Abdel-Karim, A.M., Tadros, M.K., State-of-the-Art of Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Spliced-Girder Bridges, PCI Committee on Bridges Report,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, October 1992
ACI Committee 211, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal,
Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete, (ACI 211.1-91), American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1991
ACI Committee 212, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, (ACI 212.3R-91),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1991
ACI Committee 213, Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete,
(ACI 213R-87), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1987
ACI Committee 221, Guide to Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in Concrete,
3.9 References
OCT 97
3.9
REFERENCES
ACI Committee 224, Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures, (ACI 224R-
90), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1990
ACI Committee 225, Guide to the Selection and Use of Hydraulic Cements,
ACI Committee 226, Use of Fly Ash in Concrete (ACI 226.3R-87), American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1987
ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, (ACI
318-95), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1995
AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Construction, Implementation Manual for
Quality Assurance, (AASHTO IMQA), American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1996
AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Construction, Quality Assurance Guide
Specifications, (AASHTO QA), American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1996
ASTM A706 Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for
ASTM A767 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for
ASTM A882 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing
Steel Strand
ASTM A886 Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Indented, Seven-Wire Stress-
Relieved for Prestressed Concrete
ASTM A934 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel
Reinforcing Bars
ASTM C403 Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by
Penetration Resistance
ASTM C617 Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
Campbell, R.R., Tobin, R.E., Core and Cylinder Strengths of Natural and
Lightweight Concrete, ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 64, No. 4, April 1967, pp.
190-195
DArcy, T.J., Korkosz, W.J., Sennour, L., Durability of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Structures, R&D 10, PCI Research Report, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1996, 164 pp.
FHWA Memorandum, Action: Prestressing Strand for Pretension Applications
Revisited, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, May 8, 1996
Ficenec, J.A., Kneip, S.D., Tadros, M.K., Fischer, L.G., Prestressed Spliced I-
Girders: Tenth Street Viaduct Project, Lincoln, Nebraska, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38,
No. 5, September-October 1993, pp. 38-48
Gerwick, B.C., Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures, Second Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1993, 591 pp.
3.9 References
OCT 97
Hanson, J.A., Optimum Steam-Curing Procedures in Precasting Plants, Journal
of the American Concrete Institute, V. 60, No. 1, January 1963
Imper, R.R., Laszlo, G., Handling and Shipping of Long Span Bridge Beams,
PCI JOURNAL, V. 32, No. 6, November-December 1987, pp. 86-101
Klieger, P., Some Aspects of Durability and Volume Change of Concrete for
Prestressing, Journal, PCA Research and Development Laboratories, V. 2, No. 3,
September 1960, pp. 2-12
Lin, C., VanHorn, D.A., The Effect of Midspan Diaphragms on Load
Distribution in a Prestressed Concrete Box-Beam Bridge, Report No. 315.6, Fritz
Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University Institute of Research, Bethlehem, PA,
March 1969
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Precast and Prestressed
Concrete Products, MNL-116-85, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL,
1985
Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams - Part 1, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 34, No. 1, January-February 1989, pp. 34-53
Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams - Part 2, PCI
McCarthy, W., White, K.R., Minor, J., Interior Diaphragms Omitted on the
Gallup East Interchange Bridge - Interstate 40, Journal of Civil Engineering Design,
1979, pp. 95-112
Neville, A.M., A General Relation for Strength of Concrete Specimens of
Different Shapes and Sizes, ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 63, No. 10, October
1966, pp. 1095-1109
Neville, A.M., Properties of Concrete, Fourth and Final Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, NY, 1996, 844 pp.
PCI Design Handbook - Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Fourth Edition,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1992
PCI Bridge Producers Committee, Recommended Practice for Precast Prestressed
Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 33, No. 2, March-
April 1988, pp. 67-109
PCI Committee on Durability, Guide to Using Silica Fume in Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Products, PCI JOURNAL, V. 39, No. 5, September-October 1994, pp.
36-45
PCI Ad Hoc Committee on Epoxy-Coated Strand, Guidelines for the Use of
Epoxy-Coated Strand, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38, No. 4, July-August 1993, pp. 26-
32
PCI Erectors Committee, Recommended Practice for Erection of Precast
Concrete,,MNL-127-85, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1985
PCI Committee on Quality Control Performance Criteria, Fabrication and
Shipment Cracks in Precast or Prestressed Beams and Columns, PCI JOURNAL,
V. 30, No. 3, May-June 1985, pp. 24-49
3.9 References
OCT 97
PCI Technical Report No. 1 Energy-Efficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete,
TR-1, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1981
Pfeifer, D.W., Landgren, R.J., Energy-Efficient Accelerated Curing of Concrete for
Plant-Produced Prestressed Concrete, PCI JOURNAL V. 27, No. 2, March-April
1982, pp. 94-107
Pfeifer, D.W., Landgren, J.R., Zoob, A., Protective Systems for New Prestressed
and Substructure Concrete, FHWA Final Report No. FHWA/RD-86/193, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC, April 1987, 126 pp.
Pfeifer, D.W., Sherman, M.R., McDonald, D.B., Durability of Precast Concrete -
Part II - Chloride Permeability Study, PCI Research Program Report,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, January 1996
Phillips, W.R., Sheppard, D.A., Plant Cast Precast and Prestressed Concrete - A
Design Guide, Second Edition, Prestressed Concrete Manufacturers Association of
California, 1980
Post-Tensioning Manual, Fifth Edition, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1990
Preston, H. Kent, Handling Prestressed Concrete Strand, PCI JOURNAL, V. 35,
No. 6, November-December 1990, pp. 68-71
Quality Control Technician/Inspector Level I & II Training Manual, PCI TM-101,
Quality Control Personnel Certification Level III Training Manual, PCI TM-103,
Rabbat, B.G., Takayanagi, T., Russell, H.G., Optimized Sections for Major
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders, Report No. FHWA/RD-82/005, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC, February 1982, 178 pp.
Sason, Augusto S., Evaluation of Degree of Rusting on Prestressed Concrete
Strand, PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No. 3, May-June 1992, pp. 25-30
Sengupta, S., Breen, J.E., The Effect of Diaphragms in Prestressed Concrete
Girders and Slab Bridges, Research Report 158-1F, Center of Highway Research,
University of Texas at Austin, TX, 1973
Sithichaikasem, S., Gamble, W.L., Effects of Diaphragms in Bridges with
Prestressed Concrete I-Section Girders, Civil Engineering Studies, Structural
Research Series No. 383, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois,
Urbana, IL, February 1972
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th Edition, American Association of
Stanton, J.F., Mattock, A.H., Load Distribution and Connection Design for
Precast Stemmed Multibeam Bridge Superstructures, National Cooperative
Highway Research Program Report No. 287, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, DC, November 1986
Tadros, M. K., Ficenec, J.A., Einea, A., Holdsworth, S., A New Technique to
Create Continuity in Prestressed Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38, No.
5, September-October 1993, pp. 30-37
3.9 References
OCT 97
Wong, A.Y.C., Gamble, W.L., Effects of Diaphragms in Continuous Slab and
Girder Highway Bridges, Department of Civil Engineering, Structural Research
Series No. 391, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana,
IL, May 1973, 123 pp.
Zia, P., Caner, A., Cracking in Large-Sized Long-Span Prestressed Concrete
AASHTO Girders, Final Report, Research Project 23241-93-3, Center for
Transportation Engineering Studies, Department of Civil Engineering, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, October 1993, 98 pp. (FHWA/NC/94-003)
3.9 References
OCT 97
OCT 97
4.0 INTRODUCTION
4.1 GEOMETRY
4.1.1 Span Length vs. Structure Depth
4.1.1.1 Shallow Sections
4.1.1.2 Deeper Sections
4.1.1.3 Water Crossings
4.1.1.3.1 Vertical Profile at Water Crossings
4.1.1.4 Grade Crossings
4.1.1.5 Wearing Surface
4.1.2 Member Spacing
4.1.2.1 Wider Spacings
4.1.3 Maximizing Span Lengths
4.1.3.1 Advantages of Maximum Spans
4.1.3.2 Limitations of Maximum Spans
4.1.4 Splicing Beams to Increase Spans
4.1.5 Special Geometry Conditions
4.1.5.1 Horizontal Curves
4.1.5.2 Vertical Curves
4.1.5.3 Skews
4.1.5.4 Flared Structures
4.1.5.5 Varying Span Lengths
4.1.6 Product Availability
4.1.6.1 Economy of Scale
4.2 DESIGN
4.2.1 Advantages of Simple Spans
4.2.2 Limitations of Simple Spans
4.2.3 Continuity
4.2.3.1 Achieving Continuity
4.2.3.2 Limitations of Continuity
4.2.4 Integral Caps and Abutments
4.2.4.1 Advantages
4.2.4.2 Disadvantages
4.2.5 Intermediate Diaphragms
4.2.5.1 Need for Intermediate Diaphragms
4.2.5.2 Steel Diaphragms
4.2.5.3 Precast Concrete Diaphragms
4.2.5.4 Temporary Diaphragms
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STRATEGIES FOR ECONOMY
4429 Bridge Manual Ch4 6/30/03 11:31 AM Page 1
4.2.6 Prestressing
4.2.6.1 Strand Considerations
4.2.6.2 Harped Strands
4.2.6.2.1 Harped Profiles
4.2.6.2.2 Harping Methods
4.2.6.3 Straight Strands
4.2.6.3.1 Advantages of Straight Strands
4.2.6.3.2 Debonding Strands
4.2.6.3.3 Limitations of Straight Strands
4.2.6.4 Strand Spacing
4.2.7 Nonprestressed Reinforcement
4.2.7.1 Detailing for Ease of Fabrication
4.2.7.2 Excessive Reinforcement
4.2.7.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement
4.2.8 Durability
4.2.8.1 Benefits of the Fabrication Process
4.2.8.2 Additional Protection
4.2.9 Bearing Systems
4.2.9.1 Embedded Bearing Plates
4.2.9.2 Bearing Devices
4.2.9.3 Bearing Replacement
4.2.10 Concrete Compressive Strengths
4.2.11 Lightweight Concrete
4.2.11.1 Material Properties
4.2.11.2 Major Bridges with Lightweight Concrete
4.2.12 Touch Shoring
4.2.12.1 Example Project
4.2.12.2 Limitations
4.3 PRODUCTION
4.3.1 Beam Top Finish
4.3.2 Side and Bottom Finishes
4.3.3 Appurtenances
4.4 DELIVERY AND ERECTION
4.4.1 Transportation
4.4.1.1 Water Delivery
4.4.1.2 Truck Delivery
4.4.1.3 Rail Delivery
4.4.2 Handling and Erection
4.4.2.1 Lifting Devices
4.4.2.2 Support and Lift Locations
OCT 97
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OCT 97
4.5 OTHER PRODUCTS
4.5.1 Stay-in-Place Panels
4.5.2 Full Depth Precast Decks
4.5.3 Precast Substructures
4.5.3.1 Advantages of Precast Substructures
4.5.3.2 Components
4.5.3.3 Connections
4.5.4 Barriers
4.6 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.6.1 Wide Beams
4.6.2 Adjacent Members
4.6.3 High Strength Concrete
4.6.4 Contract Considerations
4.7 SUMMARY AND REFERENCES
4.7.1 Summary
4.7.2 Cited References
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The use of precast, prestressed concrete products for the construction of bridges
results in very economical, high quality structures. This is due to several factors:
Mass production of standardized, low maintenance sections
A factory environment that includes quality control
Speed of erection and construction
The use of high quality, inexpensive and locally available materials for production
This chapter discusses some considerations for the designer to further enhance the
cost effectiveness of precast, prestressed concrete bridge construction.
All bridges must meet the specific geometric constraints for each unique site. The
length of the bridge must be sufficient to cross the features below. This can be accom-
plished by providing fewer longer spans or a larger number of shorter spans.
Pier/bent placements may be restricted by roadway or railway systems and their nec-
essary horizontal clearances. Likewise, specific requirements for ships or barges may
dictate the placement of piers on either side of a main channel. Existing utilities may
limit the locations of foundations. At other locations, such as stream and creek cross-
ings, the designer may have more control over placement of the substructure. The
choice of span length can also be affected by the cost of substructure units. Where
the foundation conditions are poor or the piers are tall, it could be more economical
to use longer spans. The choice of span length should result from the lowest com-
bined cost of the superstructure and substructure. Each site must be evaluated to
determine the most appropriate span arrangement to accommodate the necessary
horizontal and vertical clearances of the system below the bridge.
The depth of the bridge superstructure increases with the span length. As a general
rule, this is also true for precast, prestressed concrete. However, the structural effi-
ciency of deeper sections may not always result in cost efficiency.
Raw bridge cost is not the only basis for selecting structure type. Hydraulics and/or
gradeline constraints may require very shallow superstructures. Structures that can be
constructed rapidly might be justified if detour time, and therefore user costs, can be
minimized. Environmental considerations could justify the extra cost of special aes-
thetic structural designs.
Superstructure depth is frequently controlled by minimum vertical clearance require-
ments. These are typically established by the functional classification of the highway
and the construction classification of the project. As discussed in Chapter 1, a com-
mon requirement is that the bridge superstructure be as shallow as possible to satisfy
both minimum vertical clearance requirements and to minimize approach grades.
Therefore, a high span-to-depth ratio is desired.
OCT 97
Strategies for Economy
4.0
INTRODUCTION
4.1
GEOMETRY
4.1.1
Span Length
vs. Structure Depth
Shallower systems may require more strands and a higher release strength, but, as a
rule, are less expensive, since less concrete is required. In addition to the reduced
direct material cost, reduced costs can be realized by lower shipping and handling
weights. Spans of up to 40 ft can be achieved using solid slabs, voided slab beams or
stemmed members placed side-by-side. For a given span length, voided slab beams or
stemmed members may use less material and be relatively lightweight. However, solid
slabs may be less expensive, since the forms are very inexpensive and the fabrication
of the solid slab is relatively uncomplicated.
As span length increases, there is the need to increase section properties of the super-
structure components, while reducing their weight. Deeper sections such as box
beams and deeper stemmed sections, placed side-by-side, become advantageous. The
greater depth contributes to an increased moment of inertia, while the reduction of
the concrete in the voided portion of the beam helps to keep the weight of the sec-
tion to a minimum. As span length continues to increase, the use of superstructure
components not placed side-by-side become the more cost-effective solution. These
types of systems, such as spread box beams and I-beams, require the use of a cast-in-
place concrete deck to span between beams.
For typical stream or creek crossings where the foundation conditions are good, it
may be more economical to use a larger number of shorter spans. The cost of addi-
tional substructure units must be weighed against savings associated with the use of
smaller cranes which can be used with shorter, lighter beams. Physical constraints on
the location of substructures generally are few and are probably restricted only to
hydraulic considerations. The balance between the number and costs of substructure
units and the size of the superstructure members becomes the primary factor in min-
imizing construction costs.
Superstructure depth is important when freeboard of the stream must be maintained,
while reducing the impact on the vertical profile of the bridge and approach road-
ways. Increased structure depth may increase the volume of fill for the approach road-
ways and have an effect on right-of-way requirements to accommodate roadway fill.
At grade crossings, span lengths are generally dictated by horizontal clearance require-
ments and other safety considerations. The span lengths usually are such that the use
of spread box beams or I-beams is effective. Depth of structure becomes a consider-
ation in establishing the bridge profile while maintaining the required vertical clear-
ance for the transportation system below. As with water crossings, the structure depth
will have a direct impact on the volume of approach roadway fill and the measures
necessary to accommodate that fill.
The use of a wearing surface may be desirable to improve durability and enhance the
quality of the ride. A cast-in-place concrete composite topping is a superior wearing
surface for high traffic volumes and can also increase the load carrying capacity of the
superstructure. On rural bridges with low traffic volumes, especially when deicing
salt is not used, the precast concrete surface provides outstanding durability and low-
est possible construction cost. In other cases, a waterproof membrane and asphalt
surface can be used effectively.
As span length increases, it becomes necessary to evaluate the use of various beam types,
plus evaluating the depth of beams against the number of beams required. For a given
span length, a 54 in. deep beam and a 63 in. deep beam may both be acceptable. The
number of 54 in. deep beams required in the cross-section will likely be more than 63
4.1.1.1 Shallow Sections/4.1.2 Member Spacing
OCT 97
4.1.1.2
Deeper Sections
4.1.1.3
Water Crossings
4.1.1.3.1
Vertical Profile at
Water Crossings
4.1.1.4
Grade Crossings
4.1.2
Member Spacing
4.1.1.1
Shallow Sections
4.1.1.5
Wearing Surface
in. deep beams. As with shorter span bridges, depth of structure versus the effect on
the roadway/bridge profile and the vertical clearance below must be evaluated.
Generally, the use of fewer beams at a greater spacing will prove to be more eco-
nomical than more beams at a lesser spacing. The use of fewer members means
reduced volume of beam concrete required to be cast and fewer beams to fabricate,
ship and erect. Other savings result from the reduction in the number of bearing
devices, fewer end diaphragms/edge beams to form and cast, fewer bays between the
beams in which to install and remove deck forms and fewer manhours to inspect.
Very wide beam spacings (in excess of 12 ft) must be carefully considered, since the
cost of the deck and its forming may override the savings of the reduced number of
beams. Future deck replacement and staged construction should also be considered
in selecting beam spacing.
For a given beam depth, it is often advantageous to use the beam at its maximum
span length, even if closer spacings are required.
By using a beam at its maximum span capability, the designer can achieve a longer
span without increasing the depth of the structure. This can provide for better hori-
zontal and vertical clearances for the roadway, railway or waterway below.
Additionally, for longer bridges, the use of extended spans means fewer substructures
must be constructed. Often, longer spans are necessary and consideration of super-
structure cost versus substructure cost must be evaluated. For example, when very
expensive substructures are required, such as those which must resist ship impact or
which require deep or massive foundations, the cost of the superstructure with longer
spans becomes more economical.
Designers must be cognizant of the limitations of production facilities, handling,
shipping and erection applicable to longer beams. The use of beam sections not avail-
able through local producers will usually be more expensive if the forms must be pur-
chased for a small number of beams. Local producers may not have prestressing beds
capable of withstanding larger prestressing forces. Longer beams are heavier and may
require larger cranes for handling and erection and special truck/trailer systems may
be required to transport the beams to the job site. Generally, increased weights are
not an issue for erection over water if the beams can be transported to the site by
barge.
To increase span capabilities of precast, prestressed concrete beams, designers should
consider the technique of splicing. Through the use of post-tensioning or other splic-
ing methods, continuity and its inherent benefits relative to moment reduction in the
superstructure and a reduction in the number of expansion joints can be achieved.
Splicing beams also reduces the size and weight of the segments, allowing easier han-
dling and erection, and lighter weights for shipping. Splicing does, however, have
additional costs associated with the time to splice the sections, possible need for tem-
porary supports and the splicing system itself. For more detailed information on the use
of spliced beams, see Chapter 11.
Overall bridge geometry is very often dictated by the roadway designers. The bridge
location within a roadway system frequently establishes the bridge within a horizon-
tal curve, a vertical curve, with skewed substructures, or with flared spans to accom-
modate ramps.
4.1.2 Member Spacing/4.1.5 Special Geometry Conditions
OCT 97
4.1.3
Maximizing Span Lengths
4.1.3.1
Advantages of
Maximum Spans
4.1.3.2
Limitations of
Maximum Spans
4.1.4
Splicing beams to Increase
Spans
4.1.5
Special Geometry
Conditions
4.1.2.1
Wider Spacings
Straight precast, prestressed concrete beams can usually be used for horizontally
curved bridges. The beam placement must take into account the degree of curvature
and the span length. The primary impact of the curve is on the location of the exte-
rior beams. The overhang of the deck must be evaluated at the beam ends and at
midspan to ensure that proper consideration is given to the loading of the beam
under both dead and live loads.
The profile of the deck may include crest or sag vertical curves. The designer must con-
sider the camber of the beam relative to the deck profile to establish the proper build-
up of concrete or haunch over the beam (Figure 4.1.5.2-1). The volume of concrete in
the build-up is larger in
wider beams such as bulb-
tees (Figure 4.1.5.2-2).
Horizontal curves also
affect the volume of con-
crete in the build-up due
to the superelevation of the
roadway. However, this
build-up concrete is inex-
pensive since costs are
almost exclusively a func-
tion of the concrete mater-
ial cost. No additional
forming, placement or cur-
ing costs result from the
build-up. In some loca-
tions, producers have suc-
cessfully fabricated beams
with a specified top profile
and cross slope (within rea-
sonable limits) to accom-
modate a certain vertical
profile and superelevation.
This is often done with deck bulb-tees, which are wide, erected with their top flanges
touching, and using no cast-in-place topping or asphalt wearing surface.
Substructures which are skewed to the beam require some consideration. If possible,
avoid skewed supports.
The LRFD Specifications
modify the live load distri-
bution factor for skewed
superstructures. Addition-
ally, beam ends are usually
skewed so that the ends of
the beams are parallel to
the substructure. Small
skews normally will not
affect the cost of precast,
prestressed concrete beams.
Extreme skews usually
require the producer to
take measures to reduce
spalling of the beam end
during the strand deten-
4.1.5.1 Horizontal Curves/4.1.5.3 Skews
OCT 97
4.1.5.2
Vertical Curves
Figure 4.1.5.2-1
Beam Camber/Deck Relationship
Figure 4.1.5.2-2
Build-up over Beam
Figure 4.1.5.3-1
Beam Ends at Support
with Large Skew
4.1.5.3
Skews
Beam
C.I.P. Deck
Build-up at C
L
Bearing
Build-up at Midspan
Beam
Build-up
Deck
Skewed Flange
Trimmed to
Avoid Spalling
Web & Bottom Flange
Pier Cap Below
Bearing Pad
Below
4.1.5.1
Horizontal Curves
sioning operation. Otherwise, the point on the beam end must support the dead
weight of the beam when in the prestressing bed. This, combined with elastic short-
ening, usually results in spalling. One method of reducing the spalling is to trim the
point of the skew from the beam as depicted in Figure 4.1.5.3-1. If a spall does occur,
it is generally minor and can be easily repaired without affecting the integrity of the
bearing area.
Flared spans are those structures which have one end wider than the other. By using
as many parallel beams within the span as possible, the designer can reduce the fabri-
cation and construction costs of the superstructure. This results from maintaining
more uniform beam lengths, typical beam end skews and reduced deck forming costs.
Figure 4.1.5.4-1 depicts two beam layouts which could be used for a flared span. Note
that with all beams flared, each of the beams is unique. The alternate with five paral-
lel beams has three unique beams and the deck forming will be more uniform.
When possible, design precast beams with the same cross section and strand pattern.
Economy in precasting results from the production of identical sections. If a bridge
consists of different span lengths, it may be better to design all of the precast units
with the same cross-section rather than to design each span for the minimum depth-
span ratio.
4.1.5.3 Skews/4.1.5.5 Varying Span Lengths
OCT 97
4.1.5.4
Flared Structures
4.1.5.5
Varying Span Lengths
Pier Pier
All Beams Flared
Pier
Two Beams Flared;
Pier
E
q
u
a
l

B
e
a
m
S
p
a
c
e
s
S
p
a
c
e
s
E
q
u
a
l

B
e
a
m
E
q
u
a
l

B
e
a
m
S
p
a
c
e
s
S
p
a
c
e
s
E
q
u
a
l

B
e
a
m
Five Beams Parallel
S
p
a
c
e
s

(
-
)
E
q
u
a
l

B
e
a
m
E
q
u
a
l

B
e
a
m
S
p
a
c
e
s

(
+
)
Figure 4.1.5.4-1
Span Configurations
For a Flared Structure
Designers must determine the availability of precast products in the local area. If the prod-
uct selected for the project is not available within 200 to 500 mi, depending on the geo-
graphic region, a premium for shipping from a distant precaster or for local form purchase
may be added to the project. Designs using local and readily available member types will
result in lower bid prices.
If a single project uses a large quantity of a specific product, or if a new product will be
used as a standard for future bridges, the considerable cost of new forms, when amor-
tized over a large volume, becomes far less significant. Designers should consult local
producers early in the study phase of a bridge project to determine the available precast
products or the costs associated with new products for a specific application. Many times
it is possible to create a new section by making small, inexpensive modifications to exist-
ing forms, such as casting a 3'-6" deep box beam in a 4'-0" deep form, or placing AASH-
TO Type II beam side forms on a wider Type IV bottom form.
Many decisions made during the design of precast, prestressed concrete bridges have a
direct economic impact on the bridge construction cost. Some of these decisions are:
Structural system (simple spans versus continuity)
Integral caps and/or abutments
Use of intermediate diaphragms
Prestressing systems
Durability systems
Bearing systems
Use of lightweight aggregate concrete
Special construction techniques
Simple span prestressed concrete superstructures can result in very economical
bridges. Many designers rely almost exclusively on simple spans for this very reason.
With simple spans, end diaphragms and end connections are greatly simplified.
There is a significant reduction in the volume of reinforcement required over interi-
or supports. There are also substantially reduced structural effects of short and long
term volume changes due to temperature variations and creep and shrinkage.
Use of simple spans may, however, limit the span length for a particular product or
require more beams for a particular span. The use of more prestressing strands may allow
for an increased span length, but may create a need for increased concrete strength at
release of the prestress force. This
may force the cycle time of the pre-
stressed bed to be increased, reducing
the efficiency of the plant. There may
also be more joints over substructures
which can affect deck ride quality.
Also, joints must be maintained to
reduce premature deterioration of
the substructure and bearing devices
caused by road salts and deicers.
Some designers have successfully
eliminated this problem by casting
the deck continuous over supports
and placing additional nominal rein-
forcing steel in the deck to reduce
deck cracking (Figure 4.2.2-1).
4.1.6 Product Availability/4.2.2 Limitations of Simple Spans
OCT 97
4.1.6
Product Availability
4.1.6.1
Economy of Scale
4.2 DESIGN
4.2.1
Advantages of
Simple Spans
4.2.2
Limitations of
Simple Spans
Figure 4.2.2-1
Detail to Eliminate Deck Joint
Beam
Diaphragm
Construction
Joint Permitted
Over Diaphragm
Nominal
Reinforcement
In designing continuous superstructures, designers can take advantage of increased
span lengths or reduce the number of beams required for a span. The smaller posi-
tive moments which occur in continuous systems will reduce the required number of
prestressing strands. Continuity will reduce the number of joints in the superstruc-
ture and enhance redundancy of the structure.
The continuous superstructure also increases the resistance of the structure to hori-
zontal forces, particularly seismic loads and ship impact forces.
Continuity is usually achieved through the use of enhanced, positive beam connec-
tions over supports and reinforcing the deck over the substructure to withstand the
negative moments due to composite dead and live loads. Longitudinal post-tension-
ing of the beams may be expensive, but can also be used to achieve continuity. Refer
to Chapter 11 for a full discussion of these issues.
Proper detailing of continuous superstructures over the supports should be provided
to avoid diaphragm cracking. Some end diaphragms with improper details have
resulted in cracks from volumetric changes in the concrete. Use of continuity with-
out post-tensioning requires a significant increase in the amount of mild steel rein-
forcement in the deck. Some states design beams as simple spans and use continuous
slabs over the supports to eliminate joints and reduce the negative effects of the vol-
umetric changes.
Integral caps and abutments have been used successfully in several areas. By creating
proper connections between the superstructure and substructure, moments from the
superstructure are distributed to the substructure components. More information on
integral bridges is found in Chapter 13 and PCI Bridges Committee Report on
Integral Bridges (1997).
In addition to the benefits of reduced positive moments in the span, there are also
significant increases in the resistance to horizontal forces and redundancy of the
structure. Transverse joints and bearing devices are virtually eliminated. Integral abut-
ments are flexible and tolerate a wide range of temperature movements. Integral abut-
ments can be used for precast concrete bridges with lengths up to 1,000 ft. There is
also strong potential to reduce the overall construction cost of the substructure.
Design for this type of system is somewhat more difficult than for a continuous
superstructure since substructure stiffness must be considered in the distribution of
forces. Very stiff substructures make the system sensitive to volumetric changes. Also,
connection design and construction requires more attention.
Intermediate diaphragms are a significant cost in the construction of prestressed con-
crete bridges. When used, intermediate diaphragms may be constructed of either
concrete or structural steel. If concrete is used for these diaphragms, it will probably
be permanent and its weight must be considered in the design of the beams.
Although AASHTO implies that intermediate diaphragms are necessary, several
research papers have concluded they are not required. References are cited in Chapter
3, Section 3.7. The cost to construct and install forms and reinforcement for
diaphragms is very high, as is the connection to the beams. Several states have elimi-
nated the use of intermediate diaphragms without negative impact on the performance
of their prestressed concrete bridges.
4.2.3 Continuity/4.2.5.1 Need for Intermediate Diaphragms
OCT 97
4.2.3.2
Limitations of Continuity
4.2.4
Integral Caps and
Abutments
4.2.4.2
Disadvantages
4.2.5
Intermediate Diaphragms
4.2.5.1
Need for Intermediate
Diaphragms
4.2.4.1
Advantages
4.2.3
Continuity
4.2.3.1
Achieving Continuity
Structural steel diaphragms are usually bolted to inserts in the beams, eliminating
field forming and casting expense. However, accurate detailing of the steel and place-
ment of the inserts are necessary to ensure proper fit in the field. Connections must
allow for fabrication and construction tolerances. Steel diaphragms may also be more
susceptible to corrosion, resulting in higher maintenance costs.
Precast concrete diaphragms have been successfully used. Precast diaphragms reduce
the field labor costs associated with forming and placing of cast-in-place concrete.
However, as with steel diaphragms, care must be taken in the detailing and fabrica-
tion of the precast diaphragms to accommodate fabrication and construction toler-
ances. Connection schemes for precast diaphragms must also be carefully considered.
Recent development and tests in Pennsylvania have resulted in Penn DOT accep-
tance of a standard for precast diaphragms (Penn DOT, 1996).
For some longer spans and deeper beams, temporary intermediate diaphragms may
be desirable to increase the stability of the beams prior to and during placement of
the concrete deck. Typically, these temporary diaphragms are steel.
Selection of either stress-relieved (normal-relaxation) or low-relaxation strands and
the size of prestressing strand has a direct impact on the cost of prestressed products.
Section 7 of Chapter 2 discusses the various types of prestressing strand materials
which are available. Currently, the most common strand used in beams is seven-wire,
low-relaxation, Grade 270 strand. The steel used in this strand can be pulled to a
higher initial stress and exhibits lower losses than normal relaxation strand.
The use of fewer strands with larger diameter is generally more cost effective than the
use of a larger number of smaller diameter strands. The cost of the strand is usually
not directly proportional to the area of the strand (larger strands are proportionately
slightly less expensive). But even if it were, the labor to install the larger number of
smaller diameter strands will almost always make the use of the larger size strands
more cost effective. As concrete design strength increases, the use of larger strands
and their associated larger forces becomes more desirable. The use of larger strand
enables the designer to place a larger prestressing force at the same eccentricity as the
same number of smaller strands. This will increase the capacity of the beam. Using a
lesser number of larger strands may also reduce congestion and facilitate concrete
placement.
Designers are urged to avoid using more strands or prestressing force than required
by design. Excessive strand is costly and can significantly increase camber.
Beams may be designed with strands having either a straight or harped trajectory.
Very often, some of the prestressing strands are placed in a harped (deflected or some-
times draped) profile along the length of the beam. By harping the strands, designers
are able to place the strands at the lowest position at midspan where the positive
moment is largest, but raise the center of gravity of the prestress force near the end
of the beam where the moments are reduced (see Figure 3.3.2.4-1). Raising the
strands reduces the eccentricity and therefore the negative moment associated with
the prestress force. The reduced negative moment results in lower compressive stress-
es in the bottom of the beam and lower tensile stresses in the top of the beam near
its ends. In Chapter 3, detailed information on harping strands is contained in
Section 3.3.2.
4.2.5.2 Steel Diaphragms/4.2.6.2 Harped Strands
OCT 97
4.2.5.2
Steel Diaphragms
4.2.5.3
Precast Concrete
Diaphragms
4.2.6.1
Strand Considerations
4.2.6.2
Harped Strands
4.2.5.4
Temporary Diaphragms
4.2.6
Prestressing
The method of achieving a harped strand profile requires the use of hold-down devices
and either hold-up or pick-up devices. The location of the hold-down should be near
a point that is approximately 0.4 to 0.45 of the beam length from the ends. Some
designers have located the hold-down points as close to the ends as 0.3L; others have
used a single point at midspan. Based on the shape of the typical positive moment
envelope, the use of the 0.4L to 0.45L location may be the most appropriate choice.
Use of a location closer to the end does not appear to provide increased capacity, and
increases the forces in the hold-up/hold-down devices. When using a single hold-
down at the center of the beam, the load transmitted to the anchorage for the hold-
down sometimes becomes excessive.
A hold-down device normally consists of rollers attached to a vertical rod, which pass-
es through the bottom form and is anchored to the form substructure or foundation
to resist the vertical component of the prestress force. The force which must be resist-
ed by the hold-down device, and therefore its size, depends on the number of harped
strands and the trajectory angle of the strands. There is a cost associated with the hold-
down devices since they remain in the beam and are not reused. Additionally, when
the hold-down locations along the length of the prestress bed are moved to accom-
modate different beam lengths, the bottom form must be patched.
Frequently, precast concrete producers use hold-up devices to raise the profile of the
strand at the ends of beams and then tension the strands in their already harped pro-
file. Others lift the harped strand to the proper elevation after tensioning the strands.
Again, the number of harped strands and their angle directly influence the size and
cost of the hold-up/pick-up device. Figure 4.2.6.2.2-1 shows a typical harped strand
profile in a prestressing bed. The designer can reduce the cost of the prestressed prod-
uct by minimizing both the number of harped strands and the heights of the hold-
up points.
The use of straight strand offers some advantages in the fabrication of prestressed con-
crete products. There are instances when the addition of a few straight strands can
eliminate the need for harped
strands. This option should be
seriously evaluated, since the
straight strand option, while using
more strands, results in easier fab-
rication. Figure 4.2.6.3-1 depicts
a harped strand pattern and an
alternate straight strand pattern.
The increase in stresses due to
more strands may be reduced by
debonding some of the strands in
the ends of the beams (see also
Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2.9).
4.2.6.2.1 Harped Profiles/4.2.6.3 Straight Strands
OCT 97
4.2.6.2.2
Harping Methods
4.2.6.3
Straight Strands
Figure 4.2.6.2.2-1
Harped Strand Profile
Hold-down Locations
Pick-up or Hold-up
Locations
4.2.6.2.1
Harped Profiles
Figure 4.2.6.3-1
Straight vs. Harped Strands
Alternate Straight Strand Pattern - 28 strands required
Harped Strand Pattern - 24 strands required
End Strand
Pattern
Mid-Span
Strand Pattern
Use of straight strands is generally less expensive than harped strands for several reasons:
Hold-down/hold-up devices are not required
Placement of beams within the bed is less restricted
The stressing operation is made simpler and safer
Detensioning operations are also simplified (hold-down/hold-up devices do not
have to be released)
Varying beam lengths will not require moving hold-down locations
The cost of repairing the bottom form is eliminated
The effect of harping on stresses can be approximated by using straight strands locat-
ed as required for the maximum positive moment and debonding some of the strands
near the ends of the beam. Debonding is achieved by sheathing the strand in plastic
tubing. By selectively debonding strands, the designer can effectively control the pre-
stress force and eccentricity, achieving results similar to harping strands.
When increasing the number of strands, it may become necessary to increase the
release strength and/or the final design strength of the concrete in order to resist the
larger compressive force. Disadvantages of using debonded strands include the elim-
ination of the vertical components of the prestressing force which may result in a
slight increase in shear reinforcement. Design effort may be increased to determine
proper debonding patterns, shear reinforcement and camber. Designers should con-
sult precast producers in the project area to determine strand harping capability and
debonding preference.
The Standard Specifications currently require that strands be spaced, center-to-center
equivalent, no closer than four strand diameters. Several research projects have demon-
strated that closer strand spacings do not adversely affect bond between concrete and
strand. In fact, some states have successfully used smaller strand spacings for many
years. Most plants have constructed stressing headers that provide for a strand grid spac-
ing of 2 inches. Before adjusting strand spacing, it should be determined whether the
change will require the producer to adjust plant equipment. Designers should consult
producers in the geographic area of the project to determine strand patterns and con-
figurations being used (see Chapter 3, Section 3.2.2.3).
Proper detailing of mild reinforcing steel offers the designer an important opportu-
nity to contribute to cost savings. As discussed in Chapter 3, the reinforcing steel is
generally placed within the beam after the strands have been tensioned.
If the reinforcement is detailed closed around the strands, it requires that the strands
be threaded through the closed bars. By using two-piece bars that can be placed after
the strand is tensioned, the fabrication process is simplified. Figure 4.2.7.1-1 illus-
trates two-piece stirrups and two-piece confinement reinforcement in an I-beam.
When specifying concrete cover and spacing of strands and bars, the designer must
consider reinforcing bar diameters and bend radii to avoid conflicts. In order to sup-
port reinforcing steel located in the tops of some beams and the stirrups in all beams,
some producers may prefer to locate one or two strands near the top of the beams
(see Figure 4.2.6.3-1). Some support could be provided by longitudinal reinforcing
bars, but strand is slightly less expensive than mild steel reinforcement and is readily
available at precast plants. This strand may be fully tensioned (if considered in the
4.2.6.3.1 Advantages of Straight Strands/4.2.7.1 Detailing for Ease of Fabrication
OCT 97
4.2.6.3.1
Advantages of
Straight Strands
4.2.6.3.2
Debonding Strands
4.2.6.3.3
Limitations of
Straight Strands
4.2.6.4
Strand Spacing
4.2.7
Nonprestressed
Reinforcement
4.2.7.1
Detailing for
Ease of Fabrication
design), or tensioned to a force of 5,000-10,000 lbs. The producer can then tie the
reinforcement to the strand which will provide firm support.
Minimize the amount of reinforcing steel in prestressed concrete members. There
appears to be a tendency to add more reinforcement than is needed just to be safe.
Often, the added reinforcement merely creates congestion making consolidation of
the concrete difficult without contributing significantly to the structural strength or
behavior.
Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) can be a very cost-effective way to place mild
reinforcing steel in precast, prestressed components. WWR is a prefabricated rein-
forcement consisting of parallel, cold-drawn wires welded together in square or rec-
tangular grids. Each wire intersection is electrically resistance-welded by a continu-
ous automatic welder. The use of WWR is particularly advantageous where large
areas have uniform reinforcing spacings, such as flanges of double tees and web shear
steel in beams. Although the material cost of the WWR is normally greater than that
of reinforcing bars, cost of installation will normally be substantially less. An example
of WWR details for a precast concrete I-beam is shown in Figure 4.2.7.3-1 for the
Nebraska University (NU) metric beam section.
Prestressed concrete products have an excellent durability record. Review of data in
the National Bridge Inventory compiled by the Federal Highway Administration has
confirmed the performance of precast, prestressed bridges in all regions of the coun-
try. There are several reasons for this excellent record.
Most prestressed concrete products are fabricated in certified manufacturing plants
where strict quality control is maintained. The quality of the concrete is exceptional,
and it generally has a higher density and strength than field-placed concrete. Curing
procedures, especially those during the first several hours after the concrete is cast,
contribute to higher concrete quality. The concrete is almost always maintained in
compression due to prestressing, and is therefore essentially crack free. These factors
reduce the penetration of water and chloride ions into the concrete, increasing its life.
In addition, many precast plants use heat to accelerate curing of the concrete. Recent
tests have shown that this further increases the concretes ability to resist chloride pen-
etration (Pfeifer et al, 1987 and Sherman et al, 1996).
4.2.7.1 Detailing for Ease of Fabrication/4.2.8.1 Benefits of the Fabrication Process
OCT 97
4.2.7.2
Excessive Reinforcement
Figure 4.2.7.1-1
Multi-Piece Reinforcement
4.2.7.3
Two-piece
stirrup
Two-piece
confinement
reinforcement
Partially tensioned
strands for
stirrup support

Three-piece
confinement
reinforcement
(bars or WWR)
Alternate
4.2.8
Durability
4.2.8.1
Benefits of the
Fabrication Process
Additional measures can be taken to further enhance the durability of prestressed
concrete. Chapter 2 discusses several measures that can be taken to enhance the mate-
rial properties of the concrete, e.g., using low water/cementitious materials ratios and
certain concrete additives. Providing the proper concrete cover over the reinforce-
ment is essential, but excessive cover does little to enhance durability of the product.
If the ends of the precast product are not encased in cast-in-place concrete it is impor-
tant to seal or coat exposed prestressing strand and mild reinforcing steel with an
appropriate coating.
Bearing systems for precast, prestressed concrete products can be very simple. The
bearings need to be designed to transfer the design vertical and horizontal forces to
the substructure.
4.2.8.1 Benefits of the Fabrication Process/4.2.9 Bearing Systems
OCT 97
4.2.8.2
Additional Protection
Figure 4.2.7.3-1
Details used by Nebraska
Department of Roads
4.2.9
Bearing Systems
WWF 6
150 150 150 150 510
W6 (Typ.)
D20 @150
1175
WWF 1
WWF 2
WWF 3
or
WWF 4
WWF 6
WWF 5
25 Clear
125
G301
Strand (Typ.)
20 Clear
2
0

W8
D18 @ s
WWF 1, WWF 2, WWF 3, & WWF 4
8
0

d=50
1
7
0

1
3
0

W8
1
2
0
0
8
0
0
1
3
0

G301 (# 3 bar)
3
5
0
(
T
y
p
.)
1
1
0
200
WWF 5
425
D4 @100
1000
175
170 50
3
6
0
d = 64
W2 (Typ.)
Fabric Designation WWF1 WWF2 WWF3 WWF4
Spacing, s (mm) 50 100 200 300
Notes:
Dimensions in mm
1 inch = 25.4 mm
D18 designates a deformed wire whose area is 0.18 in.
2
W designates a smooth wire

4.2.9.1 Embedded Bearing Plates/4.2.11.2 Major Bridges with Lightweight Concrete
OCT 97
In most cases, embedded bearing plates are not needed. If large horizontal forces, such
as seismic loads, must be transmitted from the superstructure to the substructure,
bearing plates may be necessary on some beams. Beams erected on a steep grade may
also need bearing plates. In lieu of costly tapered bearing plates, elastomeric bearing
pads placed directly between the precast product and the substructure are commonly
used.
Elastomeric bearing pads are very economical. The bearing pad must be properly
designed to accommodate the bearing pressure and the volumetric changes in the
superstructure. If necessary, laminated pads can be used, but they cost substantially
more than plain pads. Tapered bearing pads have been used in several places to accom-
modate roadway grades of up to 5%. These pads are more expensive to manufacture
than flat pads, but much less expensive than tapered plates. For shallow grades, many
states slope the concrete cap at the bearing to provide full contact between the bear-
ing pad and the cap/beam. Pot bearings have been used in conjunction with bearing
plates on precast products, but their expense must be carefully considered. They are
normally not recommended.
Provision for future replacement of bearing devices may be required in some locations.
This requires the designer to provide a suitable and practical means for raising the
superstructure for removal and replacement of the bearing device. End diaphragms,
when used on bridges, can often be designed and detailed to serve this purpose.
Concrete strength requirements can significantly affect costs. Strength required at
release of prestress force is likely to be a predominant concern to the producer. Precast
concrete plants rely on daily use of the prestressing beds. Therefore, the concrete
strength at release of prestress should be kept to the minimum required to stay with-
in allowable temporary stresses. Local fabricators are the best source of information on
details related to optimum concrete strength.
Lightweight concrete has been successfully used on many bridges in the United States
since the early 1950s. Its earliest applications were in lightweight concrete deck slabs.
Lighter weight beams can and could allow longer spans or greater beam spacings for
the same strand and concrete strength. Lightweight concrete use has become more
popular in seismic areas where reductions in weight will reduce seismic forces trans-
mitted to the substructure elements, resulting in substantial savings.
Concrete strengths of structural-grade ESCS (expanded shale, clay and slate produced
by the rotary kiln method) lightweight aggregate concrete are in the same range as
those for normal weight concrete with the same cementitious materials content.
Contact a local producer of ESCS aggregate for assistance with mix designs. The mod-
ulus of elasticity for a lightweight concrete will be significantly less than that of a nor-
mal weight concrete with same strength. For detailed material properties, refer to
ASTM STP 169C (1995). Obtaining concrete strengths in lightweight concrete com-
parable to the commonly used strengths of normal weight concrete is not difficult.
Creep, shrinkage and deflection must be appropriately evaluated and accounted for
when lightweight concrete is employed.
There are many notable bridges constructed with lightweight concrete. Some of these
include:
4.2.9.1
Embedded Bearing Plates
4.2.9.2
Bearing Devices
4.2.11
4.2.9.3
Bearing Replacement
4.2.10
Concrete Compressive
Strengths
4.2.11.1
Material Properties
4.2.11.2
Major Bridges with
Suwanee River Bridge on U.S. Route 19 at Fanning Springs, Fla. Built in 1964 with
Type IV AASHTO I-beams, it uses 5,000 psi lightweight concrete at 120 pcf to
achieve six, 121-ft spans. These were constructed in three, 2-span continuous units.
Chesapeake Bay Bridges near Annapolis, Md.
Napa River Bridge on State Route 29 near Napa, Calif. This is a segmental, pre-
stressed concrete bridge 2,230-ft long with 250 ft spans. It was constructed in 1978.
Sebastian Inlet Bridge over the Indian River, Fla. Approach spans are 73 ft long and
main spans are 100, 180, 100 ft long. A drop-in I-beam of lightweight concrete, 72
in. deep, is supported by 2 cantilevered pier beams. Built in 1964, the cast-in-place
deck, curbs and parapets are also lightweight concrete.
Full-depth deck panels of lightweight concrete were used on the Woodrow Wilson
Bridge in Washington, DC, and the Governor Nice Bridge on Maryland Route 301
over the Potomac River.
Touch shoring is a technique that has been used to further extend the capacity of pre-
cast, prestressed concrete beams. The process is to provide proper temporary supports
during construction to carry a predetermined portion of the weight of the cast-in-
place concrete deck when it is cast. After curing of the deck slab concrete, the tempo-
rary shoring is removed and the slab weight is transferred to the composite system
rather than the prestressed beam alone. This additional capacity of the beams provide
for wider beam spacing or longer span lengths compared to a similar unshored system.
In 1988, touch shoring was used for the main span carrying twin structures of the
Florida Turnpike over I-595 in Ft. Lauderdale. For this project, a Type V I-beam, which
normally is limited to simple spans of approximately 135 ft, was used for a 150 ft span.
This scheme was used in lieu of a spliced beam system and saved over $100,000.
The drawbacks of the touch shoring system are additional cost of the temporary sup-
port and the sensitivity of the system to possible shoring settlements during con-
struction. Touch shoring should be utilized cautiously, with proper attention given to
the temporary support design and construction. Subsequent deck replacement will
also require specific design and construction provisions; this may be a deterrent to the
use of touch shoring in some applications.
Several decisions made by designers can affect production costs adversely. Specific
topics include concrete finishes, aesthetic requirements and elements projecting from
beams. Refer to Chapter 3 for detailed discussion of precast, prestressed concrete
product manufacture.
If the precast product is to be covered with a concrete topping, the top surface of the
precast member should be intentionally roughened. This can be done by using a
rough float, heavy broom or raked finish to provide a proper bonding surface for the
cast-in-place concrete. If this concrete topping is to act compositely with the beam,
the designer should provide for the proper volume of mild steel reinforcement
extending from the top of the beam into the deck. However, the projection of this
steel should be kept to the minimum required since it interferes with the leveling and
finishing of the top of the beam. If stay-in-place (SIP) concrete panels are to be used
for a deck, a smooth edge of an appropriate width should be provided as a bearing
surface for the SIP panel supports.
4.2.11.2 Major Bridges with Lightweight Concrete/4.3.1 Beam Top Finish
OCT 97
4.3
PRODUCTION
4.3.1
Beam Top Finish
4.2.12.2
Limitations
4.2.12
Touch Shoring
4.2.12.1
Example Project
Precast, prestressed concrete products used as bridge components are normally cast in
steel forms. The resulting finish is typically excellent. However, as with all concrete
products, there can be minor blemishes or voids which are generally not considered
to be defects. Major flaws in the finish should be repaired. Since bridges are usually
viewed from some distance, minor surface flaws cannot easily be seen, especially on
interior beams. A requirement to eliminate all minor blemishes in these surfaces adds
unnecessary cost to the products. It may be desirable to provide special treatment
only to products on the exteriors of bridges. Although costly, the aesthetic qualities
of bridges have been enhanced through the use of exposed aggregate concrete and
special form liners to create distinctive designs or finishes.
It is sometimes necessary to connect appurtenances to the surfaces of precast units.
To reduce the cost, it is necessary to eliminate projections from the beams. Most pre-
cast, prestressed concrete members are cast in precision-made steel forms. Projections
can be accommodated only by modifying the forms. It is better practice to utilize
details that permit attachment through use of threaded inserts, weld plates, or
through bolts, as shown in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.4.
Transportation of precast, prestressed concrete bridge products to the bridge site can
represent a significant portion of the construction cost. The transportation system
from the plant to the site and the means for erecting the product at the bridge must
be considered in the design.
Construction of bridges over navigable waterways normally makes product delivery
by barge possible. Inland bridges will necessitate delivery of components by truck or
rail.
Manufacturing plants located on waterways which are also accessible to the project
site can load products directly on barges for delivery. When direct delivery by barge
from plant to jobsite is possible product weight is a relatively minor concern, since it
will be limited only by barge capacity and plant and erection crane sizes. Direct deliv-
ery by barge will usually be more economical than overland delivery.
When shipping overland, several issues will affect the cost. The most dominant con-
sideration is product weight. Smaller products (up to 45 tons) will normally not
require special equipment or permits for shipping. Larger components may require
special trailers with multiple axles, dual steering systems and load distribution sys-
tems to reduce and equalize the loads to the axles. These larger components may also
require the shipping agency to obtain special permits for hauling over highways and
bridges. Arrangements for lead and trail vehicles and coordination with local traffic
control agencies may be required. Evaluation of the highway between the bridge site
and precast plant should include horizontal and vertical geometry limitations and
capacity of bridges which must be crossed. Additionally, the contractor must provide
adequate access to the bridge site by furnishing a suitable haul road. The haul road
must be sufficient to support the loaded weight of the truck and be relatively smooth
so as not to induce excessive twisting in the precast members.
Another mode of transportation for finished products is by rail. Rail transport may be
especially advantageous for heavy products where rail access is available at both the
precast plant and jobsite. Placement limitations of loads on the rail cars, as well as load
capacities of the cars themselves may also determine the feasibility of rail shipment.
4.3.2 Side and Bottom Finishes/4.4.1.3 Rail Delivery
OCT 97
4.3.3
Appurtenances
4.4
DELIVERY AND
ERECTION
4.4.1
Transportation
4.4.1.1
Water Delivery
4.4.1.2
Truck Delivery
4.3.2
Side and Bottom Finishes
4.4.1.3
Rail Delivery
Short products may be accommodated on one car. Long products may require sever-
al cars to be attached into a set which will carry a single product. If more than one
car is used to carry a product, special attention must be given to the support bolsters
on the cars to provide for horizontal rotation. The products must be tied down well
in all directions to overcome significant transportation-induced loads. Rail shipment
should always be coordinated with precast producers and the railroad.
Generally, precast plants have cranes and other equipment for handling products in
the plant. At the bridge site, the contractor must have the necessary crane(s) to pro-
vide adequate lifting capability at the required working radius. Unstable soil condi-
tions may necessitate the use of mats for crane support. Longer beams may require
special handling or a supplemental bracing system to provide proper lateral stability
during lifting and shipping. Environmental constraints may require that special tech-
niques be used for erection of precast components. For long or heavy precast products,
the designer should discuss shipping and erection methods with both producers and
contractors during the design phase.
For most precast products, the producer will provide means for attaching the precast
component to the crane. Usually, the producer will use loops of prestressing strands
embedded in the concrete. This is often the most cost effective lifting device. Other
specialty lifting devices may be required, but the producer should be allowed to select
the means of handling the product.
When prestressed concrete products are resting on supports, it is usually desirable for
the supports to be located near the ends of the product. Long prestressed piles may
require several points of support and lifting. The location of the lifting points must
consider the stability of the product. It may be desirable to locate the lifting device
some distance from the ends of long slender members. The bending stresses associat-
ed with the resulting cantilevers must be considered when locating lifting points
more than 2 to 3 ft from the ends. Chapters 3 and 8 discuss this topic in detail.
Designers should consult local fabricators to determine the preferred method of pro-
viding stability while maintaining stresses within acceptable limits.
In addition to using precast, prestressed concrete beams, designers can further
increase the cost effectiveness of their designs by considering the use of other manu-
factured concrete components for bridges. Chapter 16 contains more detailed
descriptions of these products and their applications.
Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete bridge decks are used on a variety of bridge superstruc-
tures and usually require the use of forms. Stay-in-place (SIP) composite concrete
deck panels, schematically
shown in Figure 4.5.1-1,
offer several advantages over
the use of traditional remov-
able form systems or SIP
metal forms. Since the lower
portion of the deck (SIP
panel) is prestressed, all of the
advantages associated with
plant-cast concrete are made
available to the deck. The
deck durability is enhanced
4.4.1.3 Rail Delivery/4.5.1 Stay-in-Place Panels
OCT 97
4.4.2.2
Support and Lift Locations
4.5
OTHER PRODUCTS
4.5.1
Stay-in-Place Panels
4.4.2
Handling and Erection
4.4.2.1
Lifting Devices
Figure 4.5.1-1
Typical Deck Configuration
with SIP Concrete Panels
CIP Concrete Deck
SIP Prestressed
Concrete
Deck Panels
since the SIP panel is virtually crack free. The SIP concrete panel is not subject to the
corrosion susceptibility of the metal SIP form. Cost advantages result from the elim-
ination of the bottom mat of reinforcing in the deck and a reduction in the volume
of concrete which must be field cast. Field labor is not required to remove the forms
after the deck cures. For further information, refer to Precast Prestressed Concrete
Bridge Deck Panels (1988) published by PCI.
In addition to using precast concrete as deck forms, full depth precast bridge decks
have been used successfully on many projects. The main advantages associated with
this type of construction are the speed with which the deck is placed, and the previ-
ously enumerated benefits that are associated with plant-cast concrete. Connection of
this type of deck to the beams and connections between the individual deck units
must be properly designed to include bearing of the slab on the beams as well as prop-
er shear transfer if composite action is desired. A special report, Precast Bridge Deck
Design Systems by Biswas (1986), discusses the use of this product in detail.
Economic designs of bridge substructures can be achieved using precast components,
especially when there is the possibility of form reuse. The precast components are
generally simple to form and fabricate. Precast substructures have been successfully
used on both large and small bridges.
Increased speed of construction can decrease costs through reduced traffic mainte-
nance requirements, enhanced safety and reduced overhead for the contractor. For
construction over water, using smaller crews working less time not only reduces labor
costs, but can significantly decrease workmans compensation expenses. Plant-cast
concrete will normally be of high quality, and, hence, very durable.
Precast substructure components include prestressed concrete piles, abutment walls,
caps for pile bents, pier columns and caps. Piles are normally prestressed to resist the
stresses that result from driving. The other components listed are normally reinforced
with mild steel. Pile bents with prestressed piles and concrete caps have been used in
lieu of piers, especially for short span bridges. Precast bent caps are very simple to fab-
ricate and have been used widely. For grade crossings, precast pier caps eliminate the
need for erecting and removing expensive form work, installing the reinforcing cage
and curing the cap at an elevation above grade. Major bridges successfully built using
precast columns and caps include the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa Bay, Fla,
and the Edison Bridge in Ft. Myers, Fla, shown in Figure 4.5.3.2-1.
4.5.1 Stay-in-Place Panels/4.5.3.2 Components
OCT 97
4.5.3.2
Components
4.5.2
Full Depth Precast Decks
4.5.3
Precast Substructures
4.5.3.1
Advantages of
Precast Substructures
Figure 4.5.3.2-1
Edison BridgeFt. Meyers, Fla,
showing precast concrete
columns and caps
A primary concern for designers of economical precast substructures is to provide
effective and durable, yet reasonably simple means of connecting precast components
to other precast and CIP components. The connections between precast elements
must be designed and detailed for full transfer of all applicable forces. Bent caps nor-
mally provide a socket in the cap into which the piles are set and subsequently grout-
ed. Other connection schemes use reinforcing bar splices such as mechanical splices,
or grouted sleeves, and post-tensioning.
Precast concrete railings or barriers are frequently used as bridge components. Cast-
in-place railings are normally cast independent of the bridge deck requiring separate
delivery of concrete. Precasting the railing or barrier eliminates this requirement and
speeds the construction process. Barriers have been attached to bridges by bolted con-
nections or with the use of bar splicing devices and mechanical anchors.
When compared to other bridge systems, the direct cost of precast concrete compo-
nents alone can be significantly less. There are other benefits that can be achieved
with the use of specific products or materials.
Over the past several years, the use of precast, prestressed concrete beams with wide
top flanges has grown in use. The increased width provides a smaller area requiring
deck forming, probable reduction in the amount of deck reinforcing steel, improved
lateral stability for handling and shipping longer beams and a wider work surface for
construction crews prior to installation of deck forms. Excessive width may, howev-
er, increase the volume of haunch concrete over the beam and, for very thin flanges,
increase the difficulty of deck replacement.
By placing precast concrete beams side-by-side, the need for a CIP concrete deck may
be eliminated, further reducing the cost of construction. This is especially beneficial
at remote construction sites where transporting concrete to the site is difficult or too
time consuming. Cost savings related to the deck include forming, placing, finishing,
curing, form stripping, and the material and delivery expense. By eliminating the
deck, total construction can be completed in significantly less time.
The use of higher concrete strengths has been increasing. With the higher strength,
comes the ability to increase the span length for given beam depths and the associated
economy of longer spans. These longer spans are accompanied by increases in the
amount of prestressing force in the products. Designers must take into account the
potential increase in beam camber and also increased concrete release strengths that
could preclude casting on a daily cycle. The ability of prestressing beds to withstand the
larger prestress force should also be investigated. The stability of long, slender members
during handling and shipping must be considered as part of the member design. Precast
producers in most areas are familiar with these parameters and can provide assistance.
During the planning phase of projects, agencies should evaluate contract procedures
and use one that gives the best opportunity to save money. When a number of small
bridges are to be constructed or replaced in one area, significant savings can be real-
ized by grouping several bridges in one contract.
4.5.3.3 Connections/4.6.4 Contract Considerations
OCT 97
4.6.4
Contract Considerations
4.6
ADDITIONAL
CONSIDERATIONS
4.6.1
Wide Beams
4.6.2
Adjacent Members
4.6.3
High Strength Concrete
4.5.3.3
Connections
4.5.4
Barriers
There are several keys to the economical use of prestressed concrete for bridges. These
include proper design and detailing, local availability of products, repetitive use of
products and open communications between designers, contractors and manufactur-
ers starting with the concept of the design through final construction. As noted sev-
eral times in this chapter, designers should contact local precast, prestressed concrete
fabricators to obtain information vital to the design of a cost-effective structure.
ASTM, Standard Technical Publication STP 169C, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1995
Biswas, Mrinmay, Precast Bridge Deck Design Systems, PCI JOURNAL, V. 31,
No. 2, March-April 1986, pp. 40-94
April 1988, pp. 67-109
PCI Committee on Bridges, State-of-the-Art of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Integral
Bridges (to be published by Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL)
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Strike-Off Letter 431-96-51, Drawing
95-406-BQAD, for proprietary precast concrete diaphragms for use with I-beams,
December 9, 1996
Pfeifer, D.W., Landgren, J.R., and Zosb, A.B., Protective Systems for New
Prestressed and Substructure Concrete, FHWA Final Report No. FHWA/RD-
86/193, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, April 1987
Sherman, M.R., McDonald, D.B., and Pfeifer, D.W., Durability Aspects of Precast
Prestressed ConcretePart 1: Historical Review, and Part 2: Chloride Permeability
Study, PCI JOURNAL, V. 41, No. 4, July-August 1996, pp. 62-74 and 76-95
4.7 Summary and References/4.7.2 Cited References
OCT 97
4.7.1
Summary
4.7.2
Cited References
4.7
SUMMARY AND
REFERENCES
OCT 97
NOTATION
6.0 SCOPE
6.1 PRELIMINARY PLAN
6.1.1 General
6.1.2 Development
6.1.3 Factors for Consideration
6.1.3.1 General
6.1.3.2 Site
6.1.3.3 Structure
6.1.3.4 Hydraulics
6.1.3.5 Construction
6.1.3.6 Utilities
6.1.4 Required Details
6.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE
6.2.1 Beam Layout
6.2.2 Jointless Bridges
6.3 SUBSTRUCTURES
6.3.1 Piers
6.3.1.1 Open Pile Bents
6.3.1.2 Encased Pile Bents
6.3.1.3 Hammerhead Piers
6.3.1.4 Multi-Column Bents
6.3.1.5 Wall Piers
6.3.1.6 Segmental Precast Piers
6.3.2 Abutments
6.3.3 Hydraulics
6.3.4 Safety
6.3.5 Aesthetics
6.4 FOUNDATIONS
6.5 PRELIMINARY MEMBER SELECTION
6.5.1 Product Types
6.5.2 Design Criteria
6.5.2.1 Live Loads
6.5.2.2 Dead Loads
6.5.2.3 Composite Deck
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
4511 **Bridge Manual Ch6** 6/30/03 2:17 PM Page 1
OCT 97
6.5.2.4 Concrete Strength and Allowable Sresses
6.5.2.5 Strands and Spacing
6.5.2.6 Design Limits
6.5.3.1 Attainable Strengths
6.5.3.2 Limiting Stresses
6.5.3.3 Larger Strands
6.6 DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN CHARTS
6.6.1 Product Groups
6.6.2 Maximum Spans Versus Spacings
6.6.3 Number of Strands
6.6.4 Controls
6.7 PRELIMINARY DESIGN EXAMPLES
6.7.1 Preliminary Design Example No. 1
6.8 REFERENCES
6.9 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CHARTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
OCT 97
f
c
= compressive strength of concrete at service
f
ci
= compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress
NOTATION
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
OCT 97
Preliminary design is usually the first step in designing an economical precast, pre-
stressed concrete bridge. This chapter discusses the preliminary plan, superstructure
and substructure considerations, foundations, and member selection criteria with
design aids and examples. Additional information is given in Chapter 4, Strategies
for Economy.
The preliminary planning process consists of collecting and analyzing site informa-
tion, applying established policies and practices, and considering alternatives includ-
ing cost evaluations, for the purpose of providing the bridge that is the most cost-
effective and the most functionally, structurally and aesthetically appropriate. The
preliminary plan lays the groundwork for the final bridge design. It specifies the
structure type and is the basis for the design schedule estimate and construction cost
estimate.
The preliminary planning process begins with bridge site data. Preliminary studies
(such as type, size and location (TS&L) studies), geometric data, foundation data and
hydraulic data are reviewed. Preliminary geometric approval is received. Struc-ture
alternatives are evaluated considering such details as length, type, geometric con-
straints such as vertical and horizontal clearances, span arrangement, staging, false-
work, substructure requirements, environmental and community issues, and costs.
Plan, elevation and section views are developed and approved. Cost estimates are pre-
pared. The preliminary plan and cost estimate are approved prior to beginning final
design.
A number of factors should be addressed at the preliminary design stage.
Funding classification (for example, state funds, federal and state funds, local funds)
and available funding level should be determined. Environmental concerns include
site conditions (for example, wetlands or environmentally sensitive areas) and miti-
gating measures.
Site requirements that should be determined include topography, horizontal align-
ment (curves and skews), required clearances, vertical alignment and limits, superel-
evation, and existing and proposed utilities. Safety considerations include sight dis-
tances, horizontal clearance to piers, and hazards to pedestrians.
End slopes are controlled by soil conditions and stability, right-of-way availability, fill
height or depth of cut, roadway alignment and functional classification, and existing
site conditions.
Preliminary Design
6.0
SCOPE
6.1
PRELIMINARY PLAN
6.1.1
General
6.1.2
Development
6.1.3
Factors for Consideration
6.1.3.1
General
6.1.3.2
Site
Structural considerations include foundation and groundwater conditions, require-
ments for future widening, and anticipated settlement. Aesthetics, including general
appearance, level of visibility and compatibility with surroundings and adjacent
structures should be evaluated. Railroad separations may require negotiations with
the railroad company concerning clearances, geometry, utilities, drainage and provi-
sion for maintenance roads.
The total length of the bridge is based on horizontal and vertical clearances to road-
way(s) or rail(s) below or above, or hydraulic studies if over water, and/or environ-
mental concerns or other restrictions as set by the owner agency. The bridge width is
typically controlled by the geometry of the approaching roadway. The span arrange-
ment is controlled by such factors as:
Allowable girder depth due to clearance requirements
Placement of piers in waterways
Horizontal clearance between supports and rights-of-way below
Economic ratio of end span to interior span
Considering the ratios of spans, the following have been found to produce a balanced
design, where the reinforcement requirements for end spans are comparable to those
for interior spans:
End span/interior span Condition
0.95 Simple span for girder and deck weight,
continuous span for all other loads
0.80 Simple span for girder weight, continuous
span for all other loads
As previously discussed, bridge details are largely dictated by obstructions above and
below ground, maximum span limitations, and required abutment locations.
However, to the extent possible, large skews, steep profile grades, sharp horizontal
curves and differing span lengths should be avoided. Slightly lengthening the bridge
may be preferable to using an extreme skew angle that tightly fits the bridge site.
Hydraulic considerations include bridge deck drainage, stream flow conditions and
channel drift, passage of flood debris, scour and the effect of the pier as an obstruc-
tion (for example, the piers shape, width, skew, number of columns), banks and pier
protection, permit requirements for navigation, and stream work limitations. After
piers have been located, specific information on scour and backwater is obtained.
Vertical clearances for water crossings should satisfy floodway clearance requirements.
In accordance with the flood history, nature of the site, character of drift, and other
factors, the minimum vertical clearance (for the 100-year flood, for example) is deter-
mined. The roadway profile and the bridge superstructure depth should accommo-
date this clearance requirement. Bridges over navigable waters should also comply
with any clearance requirements of the U.S. Coast Guard.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.1 3.3 Structure/6.1.3.4 Hydraulics
OCT 97
6.1.3.3
Structure
6.1.3.4
Hydraulics
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.1.3.5 Construction/6.1.4 Required Details
OCT 97
Construction considerations include falsework and other construction clearances,
working space requirements, hauling and erection details, access to the site, con-
struction season, and construction scheduling limitations. Safety considerations such
as traffic flow, staging, detours and falsework requirements should be addressed.
Access routes should be checked and sites reviewed to ensure that the precast concrete
beams can be transported to the site. Possible routes to the site should be adequate to
handle the truck and trailer which are hauling the beams. Generally, the designer is
not responsible for construction of the bridge. However, prudent designers always
consider constructability issues. Therefore, it is recommended that both size and
weight of the beams be checked and hauling permit requirements determined. The
details related to erecting the beams once they reach the site also need to be assessed.
The site should be reviewed for adequate space for the contractor to set the cranes
and equipment necessary to lift and place the beams.
Often, electric, water, telephone and other utility conduits are required to be sup-
ported by the bridge. Most loads imposed by these utilities, except perhaps those of
large water pipes, do not have significant impact on structural design. However, aes-
thetics and accessibility to utility lines, as well as relocation of existing utilities, may
affect the selection of the superstructure system.
The preliminary plan should include, as a minimum, the following details (see Figure
6.1.4-1):
Location, including highway identification, name of city or county,
and major features crossed
Total length
Total width
Span arrangement with expansion joint locations
Abutment and pier type with dimensions
Foundation type with dimensions
End slopes, with type and rate
Profile grade and superelevation diagram
Horizontal alignment
Hydraulic data
Cross-section, including barrier type and wearing surface type
Beam type, number and spacing
Deck thickness and build-up dimensions, if applicable
Minimum vertical and horizontal clearances, with dimensions
Utilities
Borings
Superstructure bearing types (expansion, fixed, guided, ... etc.)
Design method (or specification)
Design loads
6.1.3.5
Construction
6.1.3.6
Utilities
6.1.4
Required Details
Redundant supporting elements minimize the risk of catastrophic collapse. A typical
guideline would recommend a minimum of four beams (webs). This number allows
the bridge to be repaired in phases under traffic. For roadways less than 30 ft wide, a
minimum of three beams (webs) may sometimes be justified.
When establishing beam layout, deck overhangs should be limited to 0.50 times the
beam spacing. In some cases, this ratio has been increased to 0.625. However, large
overhangs may require more costly form erection brackets and provisions to prevent
overturning of the exterior beams.
Design aids are provided at the end of this chapter to assist with superstructure sys-
tem selection for preliminary design.
By using integral abutments at bridge ends, long continuous jointless bridge con-
struction is possible with prestressed concrete beams. Some proponents believe that
lengths on the order of 1,000 ft are realistic with this construction method. The elim-
ination of joints minimizes beam end deterioration from inadequate protection from
leaking joints and deleterious materials, such as deicing chemicals applied to the
deck. Chapter 13 has more information on integral bridges.
In selecting the pier type, preliminary designs should be made for various configura-
tions to evaluate costs. The most economical pier may not be the one with the least
material, but instead, the one that is easiest to form and that maximizes repetitive use
of forms. This is especially true on large bridge projects.
The most commonly used pier types are illustrated in Figure 6.3.1-1 and discussed
below.
Open pile bents are used on low-volume roads and stream crossings where the possi-
bility of debris entrapment between piles is not likely. Open pile bents are extremely
economical. This type can be readily combined with precast concrete pile caps to per-
mit very rapid construction.
Encased pile bents are used in water crossings where the channel carries debris or
where protection against ice is desired. This pier type is usually preferred when scour
is a concern and spans are of medium length.
With increasing pier height, the hammerhead pier becomes more economical, since
this type offers a reduction in material and forming. Hammerhead piers are some-
times used as crash walls when constructed adjacent to railroad tracks. Other types of
piers may also be used next to railroads as long as sufficient crash wall requirements
are provided.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.2 Superstructure/6.3.1.3 Hammerhead Piers
OCT 97
6.2.1
Beam Layout
6.3.1
Piers
6.2.2
Jointless Bridges
6.3.1.2
Encased Pile Bents
6.3.1.3
Hammerhead Piers
6.3.1.1
Open Pile Bents
6.2
SUPERSTRUCTURE
6.3
SUBSTRUCTURES
CHAPTER 6
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.1 Preliminary Plan
OCT 97
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE MILLIMETERS (mm)
UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Profile shown are at Profile
Grade Line.
Top of slab elevations are at Profile Grade Line.
Pile size, type and capacity shall be provided in final design by the
Nebraska Department of Roads.
-3.692%
No Scale
VERTICAL PROFILE - N-15
+ 4.984%
No Scale
L N-15 and PGL C
Outside Edge of Outer Roadway
Outside Edge of Inner Roadway
F
u
ll S
u
p
e
re
le
v
a
tio
n
No Scale
SUPERELEVATION DIAGRAM
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
S.T. 141+51.077
C.S. 140+90.077
S.C. 139+86.347
T.S. 139+25.347
P.I. STA. 140+39. 866
A = 26 58'00"
T =
= c
c
c
16 58'51" LT.
R =
L =
O = 4 59'35" s
s
t
t
t
L =
L =
S =
E =
U
PR
R
1
3
9
+
4
6
. 9
4
7
0
. 0
2
: 1
1
3
9
+
0
3
. 7
4
7
0. 02: 1
0. 02: 1
0. 056: 1
0. 056: 1
S
. C
. 1
3
9
+
8
6
. 3
4
7
T
. S
. 1
3
9
+
2
5
. 3
4
7
52. 248 m
350 m
103. 730 m
61. 000 m
40. 683 m
20. 348 m
3. 878 m
L
N
-1
5
C
P.I. Sta. 139+85. 000
Elev. 413.998
V.C. 500 m
140+00
L Abut. N
o. 1
C
C C
PLAN
L N-15 C
Road
D
itch
M
in. Clearance
M
in. Clearance
4
0
0
4
0
0
Point of Min.
Vertical Clearance
Concrete Slope
Protection
L Abutment to L Abutment = 73,500
D
itch
S. C.
7830
Span No. 1 = 22,000 Span No. 3 = 24,500 Span No. 2 = 27,000
L Abut. N
o. 2
C
CL Pier N
o. 1
6
6
0
0
6
6
0
0
1
8
0
0
4570
5440
L Pier N
o. 2
C
Measured Along L Project C
Measured Along L Project C
Concrete Slope
Protection
7653
6096
Face of Pier
Future L
of South
Track
C
4570
Existing M
/W
Face of Pier
L Existing
UPRR
Tracks
C
CL Existing
UPRR
Tracks
Base Line
32 32
32
32
L Abut. No. 1 C
SECTIONAL ELEVATION
9
1
0
C C
7
3
2
4
(M
in
.)
7
3
0
3
(M
in
.)
(Typ.)
(T
y
p
.)
Measured Perpendicular to Track
CL Abut. No. 2 L Pier No. 1 C
Sta. 139+68.958
Gr. Elev. 408. 451
L Pier No. 2 C
Sta. 139+95.958
Gr. Elev. 408. 636
Sta. 140+20.458
Gr. Elev. 408. 696
1:2 1:2 2740
CL Grade Beam No. 2 L Grade Beam No. 1 C
Sta. 139+46.958
Gr. Elev. 408. 204
L Existing Track L Existing
Track
1
8
3
0
(M
in
.)
Sta. 140+26.804
Gr. Elev. 408. 694
Sta. 139+40.612
Gr. Elev. 408. 121
CL Bridge
Sta. 139+83.708
Varies
Concrete Slope
Protection
Concrete Slope
Protection
Varies
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
1
9
0
PGL
Varies
350
Shoulder Lane Shoulder Lane
13,200 350
Clear
Sidewalk
15,725
Varies Varies
L N-15 C
3. 0 m 3. 6 m 3. 6 m 3. 0 m
4 Spaces @ 3200 = 12,800
1825
Std. 2440
Chain Link
Fence
NU 1350 (Typ.)
No Scale
No Scale
1525
Pedestrian & Bicycle
Rail
Closed
Concrete
Rail
Open Concrete
Rail
Closed Concrete Rail
Over The Tracks
Cl os e d Concr e t e Ra i l
Figure 6.1.4-1 Example Preliminary Plan
4511 Ch6 (fold out) 6/30/03 2:23 PM Page 2
Multi-column bents are sometimes referred to as rigid frame piers. Basically, this pier
type is a concrete beam supported on at least two columns. It is used for wide super-
structures and longer spans. Generally, a round column is the simplest and the most
economical shape since forms are commercially available and require no form ties.
This reduces labor considerably. Forms for this type of pier are most likely found in
a typical contractors inventory. Columns may be extensions of piles or drilled shafts.
In situations where vertical clearance is a concern, a cap shaped like an inverted tee
may be used to reduce the depth of cap beneath the superstructure.
Used primarily for river crossings, a wall pier is typically constructed as a combina-
tion of a solid shaft and hammerhead pier.
Precast concrete segmental piers can be thin-walled hollow segments, match-cast or
mass-produced with a thin mortar bed between segments. Shims can be used to
maintain proper vertical alignment. The mortar bed should be designed to resist the
anticipated loads, provide a thorough closure of the joint, and be designed with per-
missible creep and shrinkage characteristics.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.3.1.4 Multi-Column Bents/6.3.1.6 Segmental Precast Piers
OCT 97
6.3.1.5
Wall Piers
6.3.1.6
Segmental Precast Piers
6.3.1.4
Multi-Column Bents
Figure 6.3.1-1
Types of Commonly Used Piers
Multi-Column Bent Wall Pier
Encased Pile Bent
Open (Trestle) Pile Bent
Hammerhead Pier Rectangle
Option
Inverted Tee
Option
Post-tensioned threaded bars
are generally inserted in ducts
cast in the segments and
stressed. Later, ducts are grout-
ed solid. Another alternative is
the use of splice sleeves that
couple reinforcing bars to pro-
vide full bar capacity. Figure
6.3.1.6-1 shows a column
designed and built with precast
segments.
Unlike piers, abutment types do not vary widely. The most common types of abut-
ments are the backwall type and the integral type. For more information on integral
abutments, see Chapter 13. Among the advantages of the integral type is the elimi-
nation of the deck joint, which often leaks and causes deterioration, and is therefore
a maintenance problem. Integral abutments are flexible and tolerate movement
caused by expansion and contraction of the superstructure due to temperature
changes. It may be necessary, however, to use a backwall abutment if bridge length or
skew dictate.
For precast abutment walls, full capacity may be accomplished by means of field
welding of connecting steel plates, followed by corrosion protection of exposed steel.
Location of the abutments is a function of the profile grade of the bridge, the mini-
mum vertical and horizontal clearances required, and the type and rate of end slope.
Pier shapes that streamline flow and reduce scour are recommended. Consideration
is based on the anticipated depth of scour at the bridge piers. Measures to protect the
piers from scour activity (for example, riprap and pier alignment to stream flow) are
recommended.
For bridges over navigable channels, piers adjacent to the channel may require pier
protection as determined by the U.S. Coast Guard. The requirement is based on the
horizontal clearance provided for the navigation channel and the type of navigation
traffic using the channel. In many cases, piers over navigable waterways should be
designed to resist vessel impact in accordance with AASHTO requirements.
Due to safety concerns, fixed objects should be placed as far from the edge of the
roadway as economically feasible, maintaining minimum horizontal clearances to
bridge piers and retaining walls.
Redundant supporting elements minimize the risk of catastrophic collapse. A typical
guideline would recommend two columns minimum for roadways from 30 to 40 ft
wide and three columns minimum for roadways over 40 to 60 ft wide. Also recom-
mended is collision protection or design for collision loads on piers with one or two
columns.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.3.1.6 Segmental Precast Piers/6.3.4 Safety
OCT 97
6.3.2
Abutments
6.3.3
Hydraulics
6.3.4
Safety
Figure 6.3.1.6-1
Segmental Concrete
Pier Column
Precast Segments
Post-Tensioning
Bars
Top of C.I.P.
Pier Base
Finished
Grade
C.I.P. Base
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.3.5 Aesthetics/6.5.2.1 Live Loads
OCT 97
The principal direction of view of the piers should be considered when determining
their size, shape and spacing. The piers should be correctly sized to handle the struc-
tural loads required by the design and shaped to enhance the aesthetics of the overall
structure. Column spacing should not be so small as to create the appearance of a
forest of columns. Chapter 5 discusses aesthetics in greater detail.
Typical foundation types include:
Spread footings Drilled shafts Steel pipe piles
Prestressed concrete piles Steel H-piles Timber piles
Round or square columns of multi-column bents, usually rest on single drilled shafts
or on footings that cap multiple piles. Single columns usually rest on footings that
cap multiple piles or drilled shafts.
Prestressed concrete piles are used extensively in the coastal regions, as well as other
locations. For short bents on stream crossings, a line of piles may be extended into
the cap, forming a trestle pile bent. These are economically competitive even when
the soil is suitable for drilled shafts.
Prestressed piles can double as foundations and piers, thus reducing the amount of
on-site forming and concreting. Precast, prestresseed concrete piles come in different
sizes and shapes, ranging from 10 x 10-in.-square piles to 66-in.-diameter hollow
cylinder piles.
The standard AASHTO-PCI sections given in Appendix B were used for develop-
ment of the charts. It should be noted that neither the deck bulb-tee nor the double
stemmed (double tee) sections are AASHTO standard products. However, they are
included due to common use of these products in several states and due to their cost-
effectiveness, particularly for bridges on secondary roads.
A number of states have their own standard products. Designers should check with
their local precast concrete producers on product availability before they begin
design. This manual may include similar design charts for local products which have
been supplied by local or regional organizations. Until these design aids are available,
the charts given here may be used as a convenient means of assessing the appropri-
ateness of various product shapes, depths and spacings for a given span arrangement.
This should, of course, be followed by detailed design incorporating locally available
products.
The design charts provided in this chapter were developed to satisfy flexure accord-
ing to AASHTO Standard Specifications. However, use for preliminary member selec-
tion according to AASHTO LRFD Specifications should still be valid.
The live load considered for the charts is the HS25 truck which is 1.25 times the
standard HS20 truck. This relatively heavy load is consistent with the practices of
6.5.2.1
Live Loads
6.3.5
Aesthetics
6.4
FOUNDATIONS
6.5
PRELIMINARY
MEMBER SELECTION
6.5.1
Product Types
6.5.2
Design Criteria
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.5.2.1 Live Loads/6.5.2.5 Strands and Spacing
OCT 97
several states and generally produces designs that are similar to those produced by the
AASHTO LRFD Specifications. The live load distribution factor is taken here as
(spacing/5.5), the factor used in AASHTO Standard Specifications for I-beam sys-
tems. This factor is generally reasonable for the purpose of establishing the prelimi-
nary charts for all products. This assumption was made to simplify development of
the charts for adjacent members such as box beams, deck bulb-tees, double-stemmed
beams and voided slab beams.
In many areas, adjacent members are constructed without a composite topping. In
developing the charts, these members are assumed to have an additional dead load of
50 psf representing an overlay plus barriers and railing. Members with a cast-in-place
composite topping are assumed to carry their own weight plus the topping weight as
non-composite members, and 40 psf superimposed dead load as composite members.
The 40 psf includes allowance for barriers, railing and 25 psf for a future wearing sur-
face.
In all cases of spread sections, an 8-in. thick composite topping (deck) is assumed to
be used. Also for these spread sections, a 1/2 in. haunch is assumed placed directly
over the top flange. It is accounted for in computing loads and section properties.
For adjacent sections which are recommended to have a composite topping, the top-
ping thickness is assumed equal to 6 in. The topping weight is based on the indicat-
ed thickness. However, composite section properties were determined with the
assumption that long-term wear reduces the thickness by 0.5 in. The 8-in. slab thick-
ness should be adequate except for beam spacings larger than about 12 ft. The charts
should still be valid for slightly wider spacings, say up to 14 ft, as the increased sec-
tion properties should offset the increased weight.
Except for the charts that include information on high strength concrete, concrete
strength was kept the same for all charts. The precast concrete products are assumed
to have f
ci
= 5,500 psi and f
c
= 7,000 psi, and the cast-in-place topping is assumed
to have f
c
= 4,000 psi.
The allowable concrete tensile stresses are taken as 7.5 at release and 6 at ser-
vice. The allowable compression is taken as 0.6f
ci
at release and 0.6f
c
at service.
One-half inch diameter, seven-wire, 270 ksi low-relaxation strands are used in all
applications except where high strength concrete is indicated. The center-to-center
strand spacing is assumed to be 2 in., although that spacing can be reduced to 1-3/4 in.,
according to Federal Highway Administration recommendations (1996).
All strands are assumed to have an initial tension of 202.5 ksi prior to release.
Member end stresses are assumed to be controlled through debonding (shielding)
and/or harping of some of the strands as needed. Prestress losses are calculated assum-
ing 75% relative humidity. When the relative humidity is less as in several regions,
prestress losses would be higher and member capacity reduced. Therefore, points on
the charts above the dashed line (f
ci
= 5,500 psi) must be used with caution as values
are highly sensitive to design assumptions.
f
c
f
ci
6.5.2.3
Composite Deck
6.5.2.4
Concrete Strength and
Allowable Stresses
6.5.2.5
Strands and Spacing
6.5.2.2
Dead Loads
Strand patterns used by producers vary. For the box beams in the charts in Section
6.9, two layers of strands are assumed in the bottom flanges.
The charts indicate whether tensile stress at service or strength controls the maximum
span limit. A third controlling criterion may be compressive stress at release. If this is
the case, the curves are continued until either tension at service or strength controls,
with the ending point labeled with the minimum value of f
ci
required to allow its
use. In no case was the end point allowed to have f
ci
greater than f
c
.
For the longer spans, camber and stability of the beams should also be evaluated.
According to recent surveys, little difficulty is encountered anywhere in the country
in obtaining 7,000 psi concrete on a consistent basis. Some owners and designers still
specify 5,000 psi concrete, a practice which unnecessarily penalizes precast concrete
bridge products.
In recent years, higher strength concretes have been commercially achieved. The
strength ranges from 10,000 to 15,000 psi. Use of such strengths is expected to
increase in the future. Therefore, design charts for the AASHTO I-beams and bulb-
tee beams include span capacities with concrete having f
ci
= 8,000 psi and f
c
=
12,000 psi. This limited coverage is intended to introduce the significant impact of
using higher strength concrete on two common products. The increased span capac-
ity should be weighed against the possible cost increase associated with producing
higher strength concrete. Chapter 4 discusses many of these considerations.
Where high strength concrete is used, the allowable tensile stress is increased to
10 at release and 8 at service. Both of these limits have been justified by sev-
eral recent studies. This 33 percent increase in allowable tensile stress, from 7.5 to 10
and from 6 to 8, has not been recognized by AASHTO specifications. Its impact on
design is much less significant than that of the allowable concrete compressive stress,
especially at release. The allowable compressive stresses are 0.6 f
ci
and 0.6 f
c
as
assumed for normal strength concrete.
In order to utilize the full potential of high strength concrete, it is sometimes neces-
sary to use 0.6 in. diameter strands. These larger strands provide about 40 percent
higher tensile capacity than for 1/2 in. diameter strands at only about 20 percent
increase in diameter. The curves for high strength concrete were developed with 0.6
in. strands at 2 in. spacing. This spacing is in accordance with the provisions of a
1996 FHWA memorandum.
The design charts provide preliminary design information for different products
grouped into several types. These include:
CHARTS PRODUCTS
Charts BB-1 through BB-10 AASHTO Box beams
BT-1 through BT-4 AASHTO-PCI Standard bulb-tees
f
c
f
ci

PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.5.2.5 Strands and Spacing/6.6.1 Product Groups
OCT 97
6.6.1
Product Groups
6.5.3
6.5.3.1
Attainable Strengths
6.6
DESCRIPTION OF
DESIGN CHARTS
6.5.3.2
Limiting Stresses
6.5.3.3
Larger Strands
6.5.2.6
Design Limits
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.6.1 Product Groups/
OCT 97
DBT-1 through DBT-5 Deck bulb-tees
IB-1 through IB-7 AASHTO Standard I-beams
DT-1 and DT-2 Double-stemmed beams (double tees)
SB-1 through SB-3 AASHTO Voided slab beams
(Geometric properties for all products are given in Appendix B.)
Within each group, the first chart, e.g. BB-1, BT-1, etc., depicts the maximum
attainable span versus member spacing for all member depths within the group. This
type of chart is convenient to use in the early stages of design to identify product
types, spacings and approximate depths for the span length being considered.
The remainder of the charts within each group give the number of strands needed for
specified span lengths and beam spacings. This type of information is needed to: (1)
develop an estimate of the final design requirements, and (2) to determine if the
number of strands needed is within the prestressing bed capacity of local producers.
Otherwise, the member depth, or spacing if applicable, must be adjusted.
In developing the charts, no attempt was made to judge whether or not the number
of strands given is feasible for local production. For example, in Chart IB-7 for
AASHTO Type VI I-beams, only a very limited number of precast producers in the
country are likely to have a prestressing bed capable of resisting 90 tensioned strands.
The number of strands was strictly based on flexural stress requirements. In some
cases, e.g. shallow I-beams at wide spacing, shear capacity may not meet maximum
limits of the Standard Specifications. A complete check should be made during final
design.
It should be noted that all charts were based on providing the lowest possible center
of gravity of strands in the midspan section. This is accomplished by filling the first
(bottom) row to capacity before any strands can be placed in the second row, and so
on.
In certain situations, compressive strength at release controls the maximum span
capacity. This is indicated in the charts by a crossing line labeled with the specified
value of f
ci
. However, the line representing number of strands versus span is contin-
ued as a thinner line until another design criterion (usually tension at service) con-
trols or until the required value of f
ci
reaches the assumed value of strength at ser-
vice, f
c
.
Because of the recent increase in use of higher strength concrete, the charts of I-
beams and bulb-tee beams include span capacities and number of strands required
when the precast product strength, f
c
equals 12,000 psi. As can be seen, significant
improvement in span capacity can be realized. Part of the improvement is due to the
use of 0.6 in. diameter strands.
Design a simple span for HS25 loading with a 95 ft design span. The total width of
the bridge is 28'-0". The conditions do not allow for field forming of the concrete
deck.
6.6.4
Controls
6.7.1
Preliminary Design
Example No. 1
6.7
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
EXAMPLES
6.6.3
Number of Strands
6.6.2
Maximum Spans
Versus Spacings
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.7.1 Preliminary Design Example No. 1/6.7.2 Preliminary Design Example No. 2
OCT 97
Referring to the preliminary design charts, the only applicable products would be
adjacent box beams or deck bulb-tees in order to avoid deck forming. Using the
charts, all possible solutions are summarized in Table 6.7.1-1.
From the table above, the deck bulb-tee generally requires more depth, but fewer
strands. Please note that the product may not be available in all regions.
While the 36-in.-wide box beam is an option, the bridge width is not divisible by 3
ft. Further, unless weight of a single beam is a factor, wider units allow casting, trans-
porting and installing fewer pieces. This usually results in lower cost.
Detailed Design Example 9.1, Chapter 9, has similar span, width and loading
requirements. In that example, an AASHTO BIII-48 box beam was used.
Considering Table 6.7.1-1, it is clear that a shallower section could be used, or, it
could be reasoned, a lower concrete strength.
Design a simple span for HS20 loading with 120 ft design span. The total width of
the bridge is 51'-0" with a cast-in-place deck slab 8-in. thick. Table 6.7.2-1 shows
the product options and the number of strands required for each product.
It is generally most beneficial to use the widest possible spacing to minimize the num-
ber of beam lines. Clearance requirements may dictate the structure depth. Assuming
no maximum depth limitations, the most economical products will be the deepest in
order to minimize the number of strands required. Accordingly, an AASHTO Type
VI I-beam or 72 in. deep bulb-tee (BT-72) at a 9 ft spacing are recommended.
However, since the bulb-tee is a lighter section and the number of strands required
(47 strands) is about the same, a BT-72 at a 9 ft spacing will be a more efficient solu-
tion.
Product Depth,
in.
Spacing, in. Topping
(Deck)
Number
of strands
Design
Chart
35 48 No 36 DBT-2
Deck Bulb-Tee 53 48 No 20 DBT-3
65 48 No 15 DBT-4
AASHTO BII-36 33 36 No 27 BB-8
Box 33 36 Yes 28 BB-8
Beam BIII-36 39 36 No 22 BB-9
39 36 Yes 22 BB-9
BIV-36 42 36 No 25 BB-10
42 36 Yes 27 BB-10
BI-48 27 48 Yes 50 BB-2
BII-48 33 48 No 34 BB-3
33 48 Yes 35 BB-3
BIII-48 39 48 No 28 BB-4
39 48 Yes 28 BB-4
BIV-48 42 48 No 26 BB-5
42 48 Yes 26 BB-5
Note 1. Refer to Section 6.5 for design assumptions.
6.7.2
Preliminary Design
Example No. 2
Table 6.7.1-1
Product Options for
Example No. 1
1
A deck bulb-tee can be utilized for this bridge if the product is locally available. An
AASHTO box beam is also suitable if the superstructure depth needs to be relatively
shallow.
Detailed Design Example 9.3, Chapter 9, has a 120 ft simple span, concrete strength
of 6,500 psi and HS20 loading conditions. Referring to the above table, the BT-72
was chosen with 9 ft spacing.
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, First Edition, Washington, DC, 1994
Bridge Design Guide, Texas State Department of Highways and Public Transportation,
Austin, Texas, 1990
Bridge Design Manual, Washington State Department of Transportation, Program
Development Division, Bridges and Structures, July 1996
Goodspeed, C.H., Vanikar, S., and Cook, R.A., High-Performance Concrete
Defined for Highway Structures, Concrete International, February 1996, pp. 62-67
Gordon, Stanley, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Memoranda dated October 26, 1988 and May 8, 1996
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Short Span Bridges Spans to 100 Feet, Second Edition,
Prestressed Concrete Manual and Bridge Manual, Illinois Department of
Transportation, Bureau of Bridges and Structures, Springfield, Illinois, January
1994
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
6.7.2 Preliminary Design Example No. 2/6.8 References
OCT 97
6.8
REFERENCES
Products Depth,
in.
Spacing,
ft
Topping
(Deck)
Concrete strength,
psi
Number
of strands
Design
Chart
AASHTO IV 54 6-8 Yes 12,000 34-45 IB-5
I-Beam 54 6 Yes 7,000 53 IB-5
V 63 6-12 Yes 12,000 22-52 IB-6
63 6-10 Yes 7,000 40-68 IB-6
VI 72 6-12 Yes 12,000 22-40 IB-7
72 6-12 Yes 7,000 32-65 IB-7
AASHTO BT-54 54 6-8 Yes 12,000 29-47 BT-2
Bulb-Tee BT-63 63 6-10 Yes 12,000 22-45 BT-3
63 6 Yes 7,000 38 BT-3
BT-72 72 6-12 Yes 12,000 20-45 BT-4
72 6-9.5 Yes 7,000 30-55 BT-4
Deck Bulb-Tee 53 4-6 Yes 7,000 29-48 DBT-3
65 4-8 Yes 7,000 24-46 DBT-4
AASHTO BIII-36 39 3 No 7,000 36 BB-9
Box 39 3 Yes 7,000 43 BB-9
Beam BIV-36 42 3 No 7,000 40 BB-10
BIII-48 39 4 No 7,000 45 BB-4
39 4 Yes 7,000 50 BB-4
BIV-48 42 4 No 7,000 41 BB-5
42 4 Yes 7,000 45 BB-5
Note 1: Refer to Section 6.5 for design assumptions.
Table 6.7.2-1
Product Options
for Example No. 2
1
BEAM SPACING (ft)
6 7 8
4 5
M
A
X
I
M
U
M

S
P
A
N

(
f
t
)
9 10 11 12
70
90
110
130
50
30
BIII - 48
BIV - 48
BII - 48
33"
39"
42"
Compression at release controls
Tension at service controls
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands @ 2 in. o.c.
f
c
= 7,000 psi
BI - 48
27"
48"
27"-42"
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
40 50 60
7,000
45
40
35
30
100 90 80 70
6,600
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
HS25 Truck load
f
= 7,000 psi
c
12'
8'
4'
4'
50
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
48"
27"
6.9
PRELIMINARY
DESIGN CHARTS
Chart BB-1
AASHTO Box Beams-
48 in. Wide
Chart BB-2
AASHTO Box Beams-BI-48
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
50 60
40
35
30
100 90 80 70 110 40
45
50
55
60
Without topping
With topping
Strength controls
6,900
HS25 Truck load
f
= 7,000 psi
c
6,300
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
12'
8'
4'
4'
48"
33"
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
50 60
40
35
30
100 90 80 70
5,700
110 130 120 40
50
45
5,700
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
12'
8'
4'
4'
55
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
48"
39"
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands
@ 2 in. o.c.
f
c
= 7,000 psi
Chart BB-3
AASHTO Box Beams-BII-48
Chart BB-4
AASHTO Box Beams-BIII-48
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
50 60
40
35
30
100 90 80 70 110 130 120 40
50
45
5,600
12'
8'
4'
6,200
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
48"
42"
4'
140
55
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands
@ 2 in. o.c.
f
= 7,000 psi
c
f

= 5,500 psi
ci
BEAM SPACING (ft)
6 7 8
4 5
70
90
110
130
M
A
X
I
M
U
M

S
P
A
N

(
f
t
)
50
30
9 10 11 12 3
Strength controls
BIV - 36
42"
BIII - 36
39"
BI - 36
27"
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands
@ 2 in. o.c.
f
=7,000 psi
c
BII - 36
33"
36"
27"-42"
Chart BB-5
AASHTO Box Beams-BIV-48
Chart BB-6
AASHTO Box Beams -
36 in. Wide
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
40 50 60
45
40
35
30
100 90 80 70
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
6,300
12'
6'
3'
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
HS25 Truck load
f
= 7,000 psi
c
3'
36"
27"
6,500
5,600
3'
3'
6'
12'
36"
33"
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands 2 in. o.c.
f
= 7,000 psi
c
f
= 5,500 psi
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
ci
SPAN (ft.)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
50 60
40
35
30
100 90 80 70 110
Chart BB-7
AASHTO Box Beams-BI-36
Chart BB-8
AASHTO Box Beams-BII-36
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
50 60
40
35
30
100 90 80 70 110 130 120 40
50
45
6,600
12'
3'
3'
6'
36"
39"
c
ci
HS25 Truck load
f
= 7,000 psi
f
= 5,500 psi
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
50 60
40
35
30
100 90 80 70 110 130 120
50
45
12'
6'
3'
3'
140
36"
42"
Strength controls
Without topping
With topping
5,600
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
6,600
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands
@ 2 in. o.c.
f
= 7,000 psi
c
Chart BB-10
AASHTO Box Beams-BIV-36
Chart BB-9
AASHTO Box Beams-BIII-36
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
BEAM SPACING (ft)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
70
90
110
130
150
M
A
X
I
M
U
M

S
P
A
N

(
f
t
)
54"-72"
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands
@ 2 in. o.c.
f
= 7,000 psi
c
BT-72
BT-54
BT-63
SPAN (ft)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
6,900
9,700
6,000
5,600
9,800 10,500
6,800
8,700
12'
10'
8'
6'
12'
10'
8' 6'
54"
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
0.5" strands for f
=7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
=12,000 psi
c
c
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
Chart BT-1
AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tees
Chart BT-2
AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee BT-54
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
15
25
35
45
55
65
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
12'
10'
8'
6'
12'
10'
8'
6'
0.5" strands for f
c
= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
c
= 12,000 psi
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
63"
9,500
6,300
9,600
6,900
7,000
8,100
9,000
5,800
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
20
30
40
50
60
70
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
12'
10'
12'
6'
8'
10'
8'
6'
0.5" strands for f
c
= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
c
= 12,000 psi
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
72"
6,700
8,300
6,300
9,700
6,600
5,800
Chart BT-3
Chart BT-4
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
BEAM SPACING (ft)
6 7 8
4 5
70
90
110
130
150
M
A
X
I
M
U
M

S
P
A
N

(
f
t
)
170
50
35", 53", 65"
4'-8'
Strength controls
65 DBT
53 DBT
35 DBT
HS25 Truck load
f
c
= 7,000 psi
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
ci
f
= 5,500 psi
0.5" strands for f
= 7,000 psi
HS25 Truck load
Strength controls
c
6,600
5,900
8'
6'
4'
6,900
35"
4' to 8'
Chart DBT-1
Deck Bulb-Tees
Chart DBT-2
35" Deck Bulb-Tees
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
ci
f
= 5,500 psi
0.5" strands for f
= 7,000 psi
Strength controls
c
HS25 Truck load
6,200
5,600
8'
6'
4'
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
53"
4' to 8'
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
SPAN (ft)
8'
6'
4'
65"
4' to 8'
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands for f
= 7,000 psi
c
Chart DBT-3
53" Deck Bulb-Tees
Chart DBT-4
65" Deck Bulb-Tees
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
55
70
M
E
M
B
E
R

D
E
P
T
H

(
i
n
.
)
40
25
35
30
50
45
65
60
MAXIMUM SPAN (ft)
100 120 90 110 170 160 150 140 130
BOX BEAMS
DECK BULB-TEES
35"-65"
4' to 8'
3' or 4'
27"-42"
f = 7,000 psi
f = 5,500 psi
HS25 Truck load
ci
c
BEAM SPACING (ft)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
M
A
X
I
M
U
M

S
P
A
N

(
f
t
)
Strength controls
TYPE VI
72"
TYPE III
45"
TYPE I
28"
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands
@ 2 in. o.c.
f
c
= 7,000 psi
TYPE IV
54"
28"-72"
TYPE II
36"
TYPE V
63"
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
Chart DBT-5
Depth vs. Maximum Span
Chart IB-1
AASHTO I-Beams
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
12' 10' 8' 6' 12' 10' 8' 6'
0
5
10
15
20
25
20 30 40 50 60
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
0.5" strands for f
c
= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
c
= 12,000 psi
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
28"
5,900
6,500 6,500
8,600
8,400
5,700
8,100
8,700
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
12'
10'
8'
6'
12'
10'
8' 6'
0.5" strands for f
c
= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
c
= 12,000 psi
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
36"
6,800
11,300
6,800
7,000 10,200
7,400
9,300
9,000
Chart IB-2
AASHTO I-Beams Type I
Chart IB-3
AASHTO I-Beams Type II
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
SPAN (ft)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0.6" strands for f

= 12,000 psi
0.5" strands for f

= 7,000 psi
c
c
Strength controls
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
45"
7,000
6,600
11,700
6,800
9,700
10,900
6,700
9,500
12' 10'
8'
6'
12'
10' 8'
6'
HS25 Truck load
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
SPAN (ft)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
54"
6,200
6,400
10,100
6,900
8,500
6,200
10,400
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
HS25 Truck load
Strength controls
c
0.5" strands for f

= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f

= 12,000 psi
c
12'
10'
8'
6'
12'
10'
8'
6'
Chart IB-4
AASHTO I-Beams Type III
Chart IB-5
AASHTO I-Beams Type IV
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
f
= 5,500 psi
ci
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
12'
10'
8'
6'
12'
10' 8' 6'
0.5" strands for f
c
= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
c
= 12,000 psi
Strength controls
HS25 Truck load
63"
7,000
6,300
10,600
7,000
9,300
5,800
9,700
10,000
SPAN (ft)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
HS25 Truck load
0.5" strands for f
= 7,000 psi
0.6" strands for f
= 7,000 psi
c
c
Strength controls
f = 5,500 psi
ci
f
= 8,000 psi
ci
6,500
5,700
8,700
9,400
6,200
9,700
8,400
12'
10'
8'
6'
12'
10'
8'
6'
72"
Chart IB-6
AASHTO I-Beams Type V
Chart IB-7
AASHTO I-Beams Type VI
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
40 35
25
35
M
E
M
B
E
R

D
E
P
T
H

(
i
n
.
)

20
45 55 30 50
30
25
MAXIMUM SPAN (ft)
HS25 Truck load
f = 5,500 psi
f = 7,000 psi
c
ci
5'
8'
5' or 8'
21"-36"
40 35
25
35
M
E
M
B
E
R

D
E
P
T
H

(
i
n
.
)
20
15
45 55 30 50
30
25 60
MAXIMUM SPAN (ft)
5' or 8'
21"-32"
5.5"
f = 7,000 psi
f = 5,500 psi
ci
c
HS25 Truck load
8'
5'
Chart DT-2
Topped Double-
Stemmed Beams
Chart DT-1
Untopped Double-
Stemmed Beams
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
MAXIMUM SPAN (ft)
24
M
E
M
B
E
R

D
E
P
T
H

(
i
n
.
)
15
9
12
18
21
55 40 35 45 30 50
36"-48"
12"-21"
60
Strength controls
Without topping
With 6.0 in. topping
HS25 Truck load
f
c
= 7,000 psi
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
5
0
25
SPAN (ft)
50 55 60 45 20 25 30 35 40
48"
12"-21"
Strength controls
Without topping
HS25 Truck load
f
= 5,500 psi
f
= 7,000 psi
ci
c
SI
12"
SI
12"
SII
15"
SII
15"
SIII
18"
SIV
21"
SIII
18"
SIV
21"
Chart SB-1
Voided Slab Beams
Chart SB-2
Voided Slab Beams 48 in. Wide
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPAN (ft)
50 55 60 45 20 25 30 35 40
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

S
T
R
A
N
D
S
10
15
20
5
0
Strength controls
Without topping
36"
12"-21"
SI
12"
SI
12"
SII
15"
SII
15"
SIII
18"
SIV
21"
SIII
18"
SIV
21"
HS25 Truck load
f
= 5,500 psi
f
= 7,000 psi
ci
c
Chart SB-3
Voided Slab Beams 36 in. Wide
JUL 03
NOTATION
7.1 SCOPE
7.2 LOAD TYPES
7.2.1 Permanent Loads
7.2.1.1 Dead Loads
7.2.1.2 Superimposed Dead Loads
7.2.1.3 Earth Pressures
7.2.2 Live Loads
7.2.2.1 Gravity Vehicular Live Load
7.2.2.1.1 Number of Design Lanes
7.2.2.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load
7.2.2.1.3 Highway Live Loading - Standard Specifications
7.2.2.1.4 Design Vehicular Live Load - LRFD Specifications
7.2.2.1.5 Impact or Dynamic Load Allowance
7.2.2.1.6 Fatigue Load
7.2.2.2 Other Vehicular Forces
7.2.2.2.1 Longitudinal (Braking) Forces
7.2.2.2.2 Centrifugal Forces
7.2.2.2.3 Vehicular Collision Forces
7.2.2.3 Pedestrian Loads
7.2.3 Water and Stream Loads
7.2.3.1 Stream Forces
7.2.3.2 Ice Forces
7.2.4 Wind Loads
7.2.4.1 Wind Forces - Standard Specifications
7.2.4.2 Wind Forces - LRFD Specifications
7.2.5 Earthquake Loads and Effects
7.2.5.1 Introduction
7.2.6 Forces Due to Imposed Deformations
7.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND DESIGN METHODS
7.3.1 Standard Specifications
7.3.2 LRFD Specifications
7.4 LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION - STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
7.4.1 Introduction and Background
7.4.2 Distribution Factors for I-Beams and Bulb-Tees
7.4.3 Distribution Factors for Spread Box Beams
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LOADS AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION
6996 Bridge manual Ch7_REVISED 8/14/03, 3:23 PM 1
JUL 03
7.4.4 Distribution Factors for Adjacent Box Beams and Multi-Beam Decks
7.5 SIMPLIFIED DISTRIBUTION METHODS - LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
7.5.1 Background
7.5.2 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Moments (Two Lanes Loaded)
7.5.2.1 I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse
Post-Tensioning
7.5.2.2 Open or Closed Precast Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck
7.5.2.3 Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-
Tensioning
7.5.2.4 Channel Sections, or Box or Tee Sections Connected by Hinges at
Interface
7.5.3 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Shear (Two Lanes Loaded)
7.5.3.1 I- Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-
Tensioning
7.5.3.2 Open or Closed Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place. Deck
7.5.3.3 Adjacent Box Beams in Multi-Beam Decks
7.5.3.4 Channel Sections or Tee Sections Connected by Hinges at Interface
7.5.4 Correction Factors for Skews
7.5.4.1 Multipliers for Moments in Longitudinal Beams
7.5.4.2 Corrections Factors for Support Shear at Obtuse Corners of Exterior Beams
7.5.5 Lateral Bolting or Post-Tensioning Requirements
7.5.5.1 Monolithic Behavior
7.5.5.2 Minimum Post-Tensioning Requirement
7.5.5.3 Concrete Overlay Alternative
7.6 REFINED ANALYSIS METHODS
7.6.1 Introduction and Background
7.6.2 The Economic Perspective
7.6.2.1 Moment Reductions
7.6.2.2 Stretching Span Capability
7.6.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant, J
7.6.4 Related Publications
7.6.5 Modeling Guidelines
7.6.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors
7.7 REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
NOTATION
A area of stringer or beam
A
o
area enclosed by centerlines of elements (walls)
B buoyancy
BR vehicular braking force
b width of beam
c
1
constant related to skew factor
C stiffness parameter
CE vehicular centrifugal force
CF centrifugal force
CR creep
CT vehicular collision force
CV vessel collision force
D a constant that varies with bridge type and geometry
D width of distribution per lane
D dead load
DC dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DD downdrag
DW dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
d depth of beam
d precast beam depth
d
e
distance between the center of exterior beam and interior edge of curb or traffic
barrier
E earth pressure
EH horizontal earth pressure load
EL accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process, includ-
ing the secondary forces from post-tensioning
EQ earthquake
ES earth surcharge load
EV vertical pressure from deal load of earth fill
e correction factor
e eccentricity of a lane from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams
e
g
distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and deck
FR friction
f
(L+I)
live load plus impact bending stress
f
D
the sum of dead load bending stresses
g a factor used to multiply the total longitudinal response of the bridge due to a single
longitudinal line of wheel loads in order to determine the maximum response of a
single beam
g distribution factor
I impact fraction
I live load impact
I moment of inertia
I moment of inertia of beam
JUL 03
IC ice load
ICE ice pressure
IM vehicular dynamic load allowance
J St. Venant torsional constant
K a non-dimensional constant
K
g
longitudinal stiffness parameter
L live load
L span of beam
L simple span length (except cantilevers) when computing truck load moments
L length of the loaded portion of span from section under consideration to the far
reaction when computing shear impact due to truck loads
LF longitudinal force from live load
LL vehicular live load
LS live load surcharge
m = multiple presence factor
N group number
N
b
number of beams
N
B
number of beams
N
L
number of design lanes
N
L
number of loaded lanes under consideration
N
L
number of traffic lanes
n modular ratio between beam and deck material
PL pedestrian live load
Q total factored load
Q
i
force effect
q
i
specified loads
R reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes
R rib shortening
R
n
nominal resistance
S beam spacing
S shrinkage
S center-to-center beam spacing
S width of precast member
s length of a side element
SE settlement
SF stream flow pressure
SH shrinkage
T temperature
TG temperature gradient
TU uniform temperature
t thickness of an element
t
s
depth of concrete slab
NOTATION
JUL 03
NOTATION
V distance between axles
W edge-to-edge width of bridge
W combined weight on first two truck axles
W roadway width between curbs
W overall (edge-to-edge) width of bridge measured perpendicular to the longitudinal
beams
W wind load on structure
WA water load and stream pressure
WL wind load on live load
WS wind load on structure
X
ext
horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams to the
exterior beam
x horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams to each beam
coefficient, Table 7.3.1-1
load factor, Table 7.3.1-1

i
load factors specified in Tables 7.3.2-1 and 7.3.2-2
variable load modifier which depends on ductility, redundancy and operational
importance
capacity reduction or resistance factor
Poissons ratio, usually assumed equal to 0.20
skew angle
JUL 03
One main task in bridge design is to collect information on the various permanent and
transient loads that may act on a bridge, as well as on how these forces are distributed to the
various structural components. This chapter will introduce engineers to the general types
of loads to which a bridge is subjected. It presents the load provisions of both the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (referred to as Standard Specifications in the
following) and AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (LRFD Specifications). The
in-depth discussions will be limited to live load and its distribution to precast, prestressed
concrete superstructure systems. Detailed discussion of other load effects, such as seismic
forces and soil pressures, are covered in other chapters of the manual. Although both speci-
fications form a consistent set of guidelines for bridge design, the engineer should be aware
that many state DOTs have additional requirements for loads, load distribution or load
combinations. Such requirements are not discussed in this chapter.
This chapter is based on the provisions of the Standard Specifications, 17th Edition,
2002, and the LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998, with all of the Interim
Revisions through and including the 2003 Interim Revisions.
In the design of bridge structure components, the engineer should consider all
loads which the component must resist. These forces may vary depending on dura-
tion (permanent or transient), direction (vertical, transverse, longitudinal, etc.) and
deformation (thermal, shrinkage and creep). Furthermore, the type of effect (bend-
ing, shear, axial, etc.) will sometimes influence the magnitude of such forces. A brief
description of these forces is detailed below.
These loads are sustained by the bridge throughout its life. In general, permanent
loads may be subdivided into the following categories.
One of the first tasks in superstructure design is to identify all elements contributing to
loads on the beams before composite deck concrete, if any, has cured (some concrete decks
are designed to remain noncomposite). These noncomposite dead loads include the beams,
weight of the deck slab, haunch, stay-in-place forms and diaphragms.
All permanent loads placed on the superstructure after deck curing is completed are usually des-
ignated superimposed dead loads. These include the wearing surface, parapets, railings, sidewalk,
utilities and signage. In the LRFD Specifications, the load factors for wearing surface and utilities
are higher than for other dead loads to recognize the increased variability of these loads.
These forces, which primarily affect substructure elements, are usually considered perma-
nent loads. However, they may occasionally affect the superstructure elements at locations
where substructure and superstructure interface (abutment backwall, etc.). Detailed equa-
tions are listed in both AASHTO specifications. Generally, these pressures do not affect
superstructure design.
Loads and Load Distribution
7.1
SCOPE
7.2
LOAD TYPES
7.2.1
Permanent Loads
7.2.1.1
Dead Loads
7.2.1.2
Superimposed Dead Loads
7.2.1.3
Earth Pressures
JUL 03
Unless otherwise specified, the number of design lanes should be determined by tak-
ing the integer part of: roadway width in ft between barriers or curbs divided by 12.0.
The loads are assumed to occupy 10.0 ft transversely within a design lane.
In view of the improbability of coincident maximum loading in all lanes, the follow-
ing percentages of live loads are allowed in the STD Article 3.12, when using refined
methods of analysis:
One or two loaded lanes 100%
Three lanes 90%
Four (or more) lanes 75%
LRFD Specifications Article 3.6.1.1.2 provides a multiple presence factor, m, which applies
when using the refined method [LRFD Articles 4.4 and 4.6.3] or the lever rule for distri-
bution of live load. When considering one loaded lane, the multiple presence factor must
be used. For three or more loaded lanes, the multiple presence factor is optional. The
extreme live load force effect is determined by considering each possible combination of
number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor given below. The multiple
presence factors are not to be used with the approximate load assignment methods of
LRFD Articles 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 because these factors are already incorporated in the
distribution factors for both single and multiple lanes loaded.
One loaded lane m 1.20
Two loaded lanes m 1.00
Three loaded lanes m 0.85
Four (or more) loaded lanes m 0.65
[STD Article 3.7]
There are four classes of notional truck or lane loadings to be used in the design of
medium- or long-span superstructures. The majority of bridges are designed for the
7.2.2
Live Loads
7.2.2.1
Gravity Vehicular Live Load
Figure 7.2.2.1.3-1
Standard HS Truck
0.1 W
0.1 W
0.4 W
0.4 W
0.4 W
0.4 W
HS20-44 8,000 lbs.
W = Combined weight on the first two axles which is the same
as for the corresponding H truck.
Variable spacing 14 feet to 30 feet inclusive. Spacing to
be used is that which produces maximum stresses.
V =
14' - 0" 0
.
2
W
0
.
8
W
0
.
8
W
V
32,000 lbs. 32,000 lbs.
10' - 0"
2' - 0" 6' - 0" 2' - 0"
Curb
Clearance and
Load Lane Width
7.2.2.1.1
Number of Design Lanes
7.2.2.1.2
Multiple Presence of Live Load
7.2.2.1.3
Highway Live Loading -
Standard Specifications
7.2.2 Live Loads/7.2.2.1.3 Highway Live Loading - Standard Specifications
JUL 03
HS20-44 loading shown in Figure 7.2.2.1.3-1 and Figure
7.2.2.1.3-2. The lane loading usually controls beam design
for spans longer than approximately 140 ft. For simple
spans, the variable distance between rear axles, V, should
be set at the 14 ft minimum. In continuous spans, the dis-
tance V is varied to create the maximum negative moment.
In checking for lane loading in continuous spans, two
concentrated loads are used to maximize negative moment
(STD Article 3.11.3).
A tandem load, known as the Alternate Military Loading, Figure 7.2.2.1.3-3, is
also required in the design of U.S. Interstate System bridges. This loading simulates
heavy military vehicles and may control beam design in the case of spans shorter than
approximately 40 ft.
Some states have begun using the HS25 design loading which represents a 25 percent
increase over the standard HS20 truck and lane loadings. Furthermore, in order to
provide for potential overweight trucks, some states have developed additional live
load configurations known as permit design loadings. These loadings may control the
design of prestressed beams and slab design.
[LRFD Art. 3.6]
The vehicular live loading on bridges, designated as HL-93, consists of a combina-
tion of the:
Design truck OR Design tandem
AND
Design lane load
The design truck is the HS20 vehicle used in the Standard Specifications, Figure
7.2.2.1.4-1. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0 kip axles spaced 4.0 ft apart.
In either case, the transverse spacing of wheels is taken as 6.0 ft. The design lane load
consists of a uniform load of 0.64 klf in the longitudinal direction. It is distributed
transversely over a 10.0 ft width.
The extreme force effect for the vehicular live load is the larger of the following:
The combined effect of the design tandem with the design lane load, or
The combined effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing with the
design lane load, and
For continuous members, for both negative moment between points of dead load
contraflexure and reaction at interior piers only: the combination of 90% of the
effect of two design trucks (spaced a minimum of 50.0 ft between the lead axle of
Figure 7.2.2.1.3-3
Tandem Loading
(Alternate Military)
4' - 0"
24,000 lbs. ea.
Figure 7.2.2.1.3-2
Standard HS Lane Load
Concentrated Load
Uniform Load 640 lbs. per linear foot of load lane
18,000 lbs for moment*
26,000 lbs for shear
HS20-44 Loading
* FOR CONTINUOUS span
bridges an additional concentrated
load should be used in determin-
ing maximum negative moment
only (AASHTO 3.11.3). The second
load should be placed in another
span of the series. For simple span
bridges and for the computation of
maximum positive moment in con-
tinuous span bridges, a single con-
centrated load is used as shown.
7.2.2.1.4
Design Vehicular Live Load -
LRFD Specifications
7.2.2.1.3 Highway Live Loading - Standard Specifications/7.2.2.1.4 Design Vehicular Live Load - LRFD Specifications
JUL 03
one and the rear axle of the other truck) with 90% of the effect of the design lane
load. The distance between the 32.0 kip axles of each truck shall be taken as 14.0 ft.
Axles which do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shall
be neglected. Both the design lanes and the position of the 10.0 ft loaded width in
each lane shall be positioned to produce extreme force effects. The design truck or
tandem shall be positioned transversely so that the center of any wheel load is not
closer than 2.0 ft from the edge of the design lane when designing beams.
Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof, which con-
tribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shall be loaded with the design
lane load. Only those portions of the span which contribute to maximizing the force
effect should be loaded. Influence lines can be used to determine those portions of
the span which should be loaded for maximum effect.
In STD Article 3.8, the amount of the impact allowance or increment is expressed as
a fraction of the live load and is determined using the formula:
I 50/(L 125) +

[STD Eq. 3-1]
where
I impact fraction (maximum 0.30)
Figure 7.2.2.1.4-1
LRFD Design Vehicular Live
Loads (HL-93) and Fatigue
Load
4' - 0"
8,000 lbs.
Variable spacing 14 feet to 30 feet inclusive.
Use spacing that produces maximum stresses.
V =
14' - 0" V
32,000 lbs. 32,000 lbs.
8,000 lbs.
14' - 0" 30' - 0"
32,000 lbs. 32,000 lbs.
25,000 lbs. ea.
Uniform Load 640 lbs. per linear foot of load lane
Design Truck Design Tandem
Fatigue Truck
Design Lane Load
7.2.2.1.5
Impact or Dynamic Load
Allowance
7.2.2.1.4 Design Vehicular Live Load - LRFD Specifications/7.2.2.1.5 Impact or Dynamic Load Allowance
JUL 03
L simple span length (except cantilevers) when computing truck load
moments
for shear due to truck loads: the length of the loaded portion of span from
section under consideration to the far reaction. Note: In practice, the use
of variable impact to calculate shear for simple and continuous spans is not
used, rather the span length of the section under investigation is used.
In LRFD Specifications Article 3.6.2, the static effects of the design truck or tandem are
multiplied by (1 + IM/100), where IM is the Dynamic Load Allowance as given for dif-
ferent bridge components below: [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
Deck joints: All limit states 75%
All other components:
Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
All Other Limit States 33%
This dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane load or to pedestrian loads.
In the Standard Specifications, there are no provisions for any special fatigue loading
in the case of prestressed beams. In the LRFD Specifications, there is a new provision
for a single fatigue truck, Figure 7.2.2.1-4, but with a constant spacing of 30.0 ft
between the 32.0-kip axles. The applicable dynamic load allowance is 15%. When
the bridge is analyzed using approximate methods, the distribution factor for one
traffic lane is to be used and the force effect is to be divided by 1.20 (except if the
lever rule is used).
These forces result from vehicles accelerating or braking while traveling over a bridge.
Forces are transferred from the wheels to the deck surface.
In the Standard Specifications, provision is to be made for a longitudinal force of 5%
of the live load (without impact) in all lanes carrying traffic headed in the same direc-
tion. The center of gravity of such force is assumed to be located 6 ft above the slab
and is transmitted to the substructure through the superstructure. Usually, the effect
of braking forces on superstructures is inconsequential.
In the LRFD Specifications, the braking forces are taken as the greater of:
25% of the axle weights of the truck or tandem
5% of the truck plus lane load
5% of the tandem plus lane load
This braking force is placed in all lanes carrying traffic headed in the same direction.
The multiple presence factor, m, is applicable here.
This effect must be considered for bridge structures on horizontal curves. The ratio
of this force to the truck (or tandem) axle loads is proportional to the square of the
design speed and inversely proportional to the curve radius. This force is applied
at 6.0 ft above the roadway surface. Usually, concrete decks resist centrifugal forces
within their own plane, and transmit them to the substructure through end dia-
phragms.
These forces need to be considered whenever piers or abutments are not adequately
protected to prevent vehicle or railway collisions.
7.2.2.2
Other Vehicular Forces
7.2.2.2.1
Longitudinal (Braking) Forces
7.2.2.1.6
Fatigue Load
7.2.2.2.2
Centrifugal Forces
7.2.2.2.3
Vehicular Collision Forces
7.2.2.1.5 Impact or Dynamic Load Allowance/7.2.2.2.3 Vehicular Collision Forces
JUL 03
In the Standard Specifications, the sidewalk area is loaded with a variable uniform load
which decreases with beam span. For spans larger than 25 ft, the maximum load is
60 psf.
In LRFD Article 3.6.1.6, a load of 0.075 ksf is applied to all sidewalks wider than
2.0 ft and must be considered with the vehicular live load. For bridges carrying only
pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic, the load is set at 0.085 ksf.
The above provisions may be excessive where a significant sidewalk loading is unlikely.
These forces primarily affect substructure elements and are due to water course-
related characteristics. Static water pressure is assumed perpendicular to the surface
which is retaining the water, while buoyancy is an uplift force acting on all sub-
merged components.
Stream flow pressure affects the design of piers or supports located in water courses.
The average pressure of flowing water on a pier is proportional to the square of water
velocity, to the drag coefficient for a specific pier geometry and to the projected pier
surface exposed to the design flood.
Floating ice sheets and ice floes on streams cause major dynamic (and static) forces
to act on piers in cold weather climates. If clearance is low, the superstructure may
also be affected, often with severe damage. Usually, the dynamic force on a pier is
a function of ice thickness, ice strength, pier width and inclination of the nose to
vertical. Both the Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications contain detailed
equations and factors for calculation of stream flow and floating ice loads on piers
and supports.
Wind is a dynamic load. However, it is generally approximated as a uniformly distrib-
uted static load on the exposed area of a bridge. This area is taken as the combined
surfaces of both superstructure and substructure as seen in elevation (orthogonal to
the assumed wind direction). AASHTO loads are based on an assumed base wind
velocity of 100 mph.
Wind forces are applied in a transverse and longitudinal direction at the center of
gravity of the exposed region of the superstructure. The specifications provide wind
loading values for beam bridges based on the angle of attack (skew angle) of wind
forces. Conventional slab-on-stringer bridges with span lengths less than or equal to
125 ft can utilize the following basic loading:
Wind Load on Structure
Transverse Loading 50 psf
Longitudinal Loading 12 psf
Wind Load on Live Load (Vehicle)
Transverse Loading 100 plf, based on a long row of passenger
cars exposed to a 55 mph wind
Longitudinal Loading 40 plf
The transverse and longitudinal loads are applied simultaneously to both the struc-
ture and live load. Also, an upward force acting on the deck must be considered.
7.2.3
Water and Stream Loads
7.2.3.1
Stream Forces
7.2.3.2
Ice Forces
7.2.4
Wind Loads
7.2.4.1
Wind Forces -
7.2.2.3
Pedestrian Loads
7.2.2.3 Pedestrian Loads/7.2.4.1 Wind Forces - Standard Specifications
JUL 03
A more refined analysis is required, although it follows the same general pattern of
wind pressure on structures and wind pressure on vehicles. The specifications also
require varying the wind load direction to determine extreme force effects, and the
consideration of a vertical upward force acting on the deck (especially when checking
overturning of the bridge).
These temporary natural forces are assumed to act in the horizontal direction and
are dependent on the geographic location of the bridge, the structure dead weight
(mass), the ground motion (duration and acceleration), the period of the structural
system and type of soil. In some cases, a vertical component of acceleration may have
to be considered. These factors enter into the seismic analysis which is a simplifica-
tion of the actual effects of an earthquake. The bridge response assumes the form
of an equivalent static load which is applied to the structure to calculate forces and
deformations of bridge elements.
For most pretensioned structures, where the superstructure is not integral with the
substructure, earthquake forces do not affect beam design, see Chapter 15 for addi-
tional information about seismic design of prestressed beam bridges.
These effects include temperature, creep, differential shrinkage and differential settle-
ment. Some general guidelines are offered in the LRFD Specifications. Normally, the
difference between the base construction temperature and the temperature range lim-
its in a region is used to calculate thermal deformation effects. Nearly all engineers
neglect the effect of temperature gradient in pretensioned multi-beam bridges. This
practice has been used for over 40 years with good performance. For other types of
bridges, judgment and experience should be used in deciding to consider the effects
of temperature gradient. Where appropriate, the effects of creep, differential shrink-
age and differential settlements should be considered.
Vehicle live loads may act on a bridge simultaneously with other live loads. The
design engineer is responsible to size and reinforce the structural components to
safely resist the possible combinations of loads which may act on a bridge. Therefore,
the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications contain load combinations, sub-
divided into various groups, which represent probable simultaneous loadings on the
structure. In theory, all structural elements should be designed to resist all groups of
loads. In practice, though, many of the groups do not control the design and may
be disregarded.
There are two principal methods of design:
1. Service Load Design (Allowable Stress Design)
In this method, the allowable stress is defined as the material strength (stress) re-
duced by a suitable factor of safety. The total stress caused by load effects must
not exceed this allowable stress. This is expressed in the following relationship:

f f
total allowable

(Eq. 7.3-1)
2. Strength Design (Load Factor Design)
In this method, the general relationship is defined as follows:
CHAPTER 7
7.2.4.2 Wind Forces - LRFD Specifications/7.3 Load Combinations and Design Methods
7.2.6
Forces Due to Imposed
Deformations
7.3
LOAD COMBINATIONS
AND DESIGN METHODS
7.2.4.2
Wind Forces -
LRFD Specifications
7.2.5
Earthquake Loads
and Effects
7.2.5.1
Introduction
JUL 03

Provided Strength Required Strength
OR
Factored Resistance Factored Moment, Shear or Axial Force
(Eq. 7.3-2)
The nominal resistance of a member, R
n
, is computed using procedures given in
the specifications. This value is then modified by a resistance factor, , appropri-
ate for the specific conditions of design to obtain the provided strength. The load
effects, Q
i
, are usually calculated using conventional elastic analysis procedures.
These are then modified by the specified load factors,
i
, to obtain the required
strength. In a concise form, Equation 7.3-2 can be expressed as follows:

R Q
n i i

(Eq. 7.3-3)
where Q
i
is the load effect.
Group loading combinations for Service Load Design and Load Factor Design are
given by: [STD Art 3.22.1]
Group(N) D L I) CF E
B SF W WL
LF R S T) EQ ICE]
D L C E
B S W WL
L R EQ ICE
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +

[ (
(

[STD Eq. 3-10]
where
N group number
load factor, see Table 7.3.1-1
coefficient, see Table 7.3.1-1
D dead load
L live load
I live load impact
E earth pressure
B buoyancy
W wind load on structure
LF longitudinal force from live load
CF centrifugal force
R rib shortening
S shrinkage
T temperature
EQ earthquake
SF stream flow pressure
ICE ice pressure
WL wind load on live load
7.3.1
7.3 Load Combinations and Design Methods/7.3.1 Standard Specifications
JUL 03
For Service Load Design, the percentage of the basic unit stress for the various groups
is given in Table 7.3.1-1. In the design of pretensioned flexural elements in the super-
structure, such as stringers or beams, the design is governed by the Group I loading
combination which may be stated as:
f f f
D (L+I) allowable
+

(Eq. 7.3.1-2)
where
f
D
the sum of dead load bending stresses
f
(L+I)
(L+I)
n
- Live load plus impact for AASHTO Highway H or HS loading
(L+I)
p
- Live load plus impact consistent with overload criteria of the operation agency
* and ** - Refer to Standard Specifications for explanation
Table 7.3.1-1
Table of Coefficients and Standard Specifications
Culvert
Culvert
Col. No. 1 2 3 3A 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
GROUP
FACTORS
%
D (L+I)
n
(L+I)
p
CF E B SF W WL LF R+S+T EQ ICE
S
E
R
V
I
C
E

L
O
A
D
I 1.0 1 1 0 1
E
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100
IA 1.0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 150
IB 1.0 1 0 1 1
E
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 **
II 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 125
III 1.0 1 1 0 1
E
1 1 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 125
IV 1.0 1 1 0 1
E
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 125
V 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 140
VI 1.0 1 1 0 1
E
1 1 0.3 1 1 1 0 0 140
VII 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 133
VIII 1.0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 140
IX 1.0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 150
X 1.0 1 1 0 0
E
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100
L
O
A
D

F
A
C
T
O
R

D
E
S
I
G
N
I 1.3
D
1.67* 0 1.0
E
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
N
o
t

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
b
l
e
IA 1.3
D
2.20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IB 1.3
D
0 1 1.0
E
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
II 1.3
D
0 0 0
E
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
III 1.3
D
1 0 1
E
1 1 0.3 1 1 0 0 0
IV 1.3
D
1 0 1
E
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
V 1.25
D
0 0 0
E
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
VI 1.25
D
1 0 1
E
1 1 0.3 1 1 1 0 0
VII 1.3
D
0 0 0
E
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
VIII 1.3
D
1 0 1
E
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
IX 1.20
D
0 0 0
E
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
JUL 03
For Load Factor Design of pretensioned stringers or beams, the section design is also
governed by Group I requirements:
Provided Strength 1.3[D + 1.67(L+I)] (Eq. 7.3.1-3)
One exception is the case of an outside roadway beam when the combination of
sidewalk live load and traffic live load (plus impact) may govern the design. Then
the load factor 1.67 may be replaced by 1.25, provided the section capacity is not less
than that required for traffic live load only using
L
1.67.
In many states, structures are required to be analyzed for an overload that is selected
by the particular transportation department. This load is then applied in Group IB
as defined in Table 7.3.1-1, which may or may not control the design.
The total factored load, Q, is given by:
Q q
i i
(Eq. 7.3.2-1)
where
variable load modifier which depends on ductility, redundancy and
operational importance. Its value is often set by state DOTs
q
i
specified loads

i
load factors specified in Tables 7.3.2-1 and 7.3.2-2
7.3.2
LRFD Specifications
[LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Table 7.3.2-1
Load Combinations and Load Factors, LRFD Specifications
Load Combination DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE
Use One of
These at a Time
DD IM CR
DW CE SH
EH BR EQ IC CT CV
EV PL
Limit State
ES LS
EL
STRENGTH-I
p
1.75 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20
TG

SE

STRENGTH-II
p
1.35 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20
TG

SE

STRENGTH-III
p
1.00 1.40 1.00 0.50/1.20
TG

SE

STRENGTH-IV
EH, EV, ES, DW

p
1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH-V
p
1.35 1.00 0.40 0.40 1.00 0.50/1.20
TG

SE

EXTREME
EVENT-I

p

EQ
1.00 1.00 1.00
EXTREME
EVENT-II

p
0.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
SERVICE-I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 0.30 1.00 1.00/1.20
TG

SE

SERVICE-II 1.00 1.30 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20
SERVICE-III 1.00 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20
TG

SE

SERVICE-IV 1.00 1.00 0.70 1.00 1.00 1.00
FATIGUE-LL, IM
& CE ONLY
0.75
For notes on
p
,
EQ
,
TG
and
SE
, refer to LRFD Specifications
7.3.1 Standard Specifications/7.3.2 LRFD Specifications
JUL 03
Components (and connections) of a bridge structure must satisfy the applicable com-
binations of factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the limit states. The
following load designations are used:
Permanent Loads
DD downdrag EH horizontal earth pressure load
DC dead load of structural components ES earth surcharge load
and nonstructural attachments
DW dead load of wearing surfaces EV vertical pressure from dead
and utilities load of earth fill
EL accumulated locked-in force effects
resulting from the construction
process, including the secondary
forces from post-tensioning
Transient Loads
BR vehicular braking force LS live load surcharge
CE vehicular centrifugal force PL pedestrian live load
CR creep SE settlement
CT vehicular collision force SH shrinkage
CV vessel collision force TG temperature gradient
EQ earthquake TU uniform temperature
FR friction WA water load and stream pressure
IC ice load WL wind on live load
IM vehicular dynamic load allowance WS wind load on structure
LL vehicular live load
Table 7.3.2-2
Load Factors for Permanent Loads,
p
, LRFD Specifications
Type of Load
Load Factor
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
Active 1.50 0.90
At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.00 1.00
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
Overall Stability 1.00 N/A
Retaining Walls and Abutments 1.35 1.00
Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
Flexible Buried Structures
other than Metal Box Culverts
1.95 0.90
Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
JUL 03
As has always been the case, the owner or designer may determine that not all of the
loads in a given load combination apply to the situation being investigated. The vari-
ous applicable load factors are in Tables 7.3.2-1 and 7.3.2-2. The minimum load fac-
tors are especially important in the negative moment regions of continuous beams.
The factors must be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For
each load combination, both positive and negative extremes must be investigated.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases the effect of another, the
minimum value is applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force
effects, the load factor (maximum or minimum) which produces the more critical
combination is selected from Table 7.3.2-2.
The design of pretensioned superstructure beams using the LRFD Specifications usually con-
sists of satisfying the requirements of Service I, Service III and Strength I load combinations.
Use of the new larger vehicular live load for working stress design of prestressed concrete
members would result in over-conservative designs. Also, since no significant cracking has
been observed in existing bridges that were designed for the relatively lower loads of the
Standard Specifications, the Service III load combination was introduced. Service III specifies
a load factor of 0.80 to reduce the effect of live load at the service limit state. This combina-
tion is only applicable when checking allowable tensile stresses in prestressed concrete super-
structure members. Service I is used when checking compressive stresses only. The load com-
bination Strength I is used for design at the strength limit state. Other load combinations for
the strength and extreme event limit states are not considered here, but may be required by
specific agencies or DOTssuch as Strength II combination for permit vehicles.
The various load combinations applicable to prestressed beams and substructures
(Service IV) and shown in Table 7.3.2-1 are described below.
STRENGTH I - Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use
of the bridge without wind.
STRENGTH II - Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by per-
mit vehicles without wind. If a permit vehicle is traveling
unescorted, or if control is not provided by the escorts, the
other lanes may be assumed to be occupied by the vehicu-
lar live load herein specified. For bridges longer than the
permit vehicle, addition of the lane load, preceding and fol-
lowing the permit load in its lane, should be considered.
SERVICE I - Load combination relating to the normal operational use of
the bridge with 55 mph wind. All loads are taken at their
nominal values and extreme load conditions are excluded.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is inves-
tigated using this load combination.
SERVICE III - Load combination relating only to prestressed concrete
superstructures with the primary objective of crack con-
trol. Tensile stress in prestressed concrete superstructure
members is investigated using this load combination.
SERVICE IV - Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed
concrete substructures with the primary objective of crack
control. Tensile stress in prestressed concrete substructure
members is investigated using this load combination.
FATIGUE - Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to gravi-
tational vehicular live load and dynamic response. Con-
sequently BR, LS and PL loads need not be considered.
The load factor is applied to a single design truck.
JUL 03
The following sections present several approximate formulas for live load distribu-
tion factors taken from the Standard Specifications. A wheel load is defined as one
half of a full lane (or truck) load. These procedures may be used in lieu of refined
methods, such as the finite element or grillage analysis (see Section 7.6). They utilize
the concept of a wheel load distribution factor, g, for bending moment and shear in
interior beams given by:
g = S/D
, or (Eq. 7.4.1-1)
g = function of: number of lanes and beams and S/L
(Eq. 7.4.1-2)
where
g a factor used to multiply the total longitudinal response of the bridge due
to a single longitudinal line of wheel loads in order to determine the maxi-
mum response of a single beam.
S center-to-center beam spacing, ft
D a constant that varies with bridge type and geometry, ft
L span length, ft
The live load bending moment for each interior beam, is determined by applying to
the beam, the fraction of a wheel load as determined from the applicable equation.
No longitudinal distribution of loads is assumed. Except for the case of multi-beam
decks, the live load moment for exterior beams is determined by applying to the
beam the reaction of the wheel load obtained by assuming the flooring to act as a
simple span between the beams.
The approximate equations described below are suitable for the design of normal (non-
skewed) bridge decks. There are no guidelines for adjustments in the case of skews.
Designers should be aware that a major shortcoming of the current specifications is
that the piecemeal changes that have taken place over the last four decades have led to
inconsistencies and general conservatism in the load distribution criteria.
[STD Arts. 3.23.2.2 and 3.23.2.3.1.2]
When a bridge is designed for two or more traffic lanes and the beam spacing, S 14
ft, the distribution factor for interior beams is determined by:
g S/5.5 (Eq. 7.4.2-1)
If a bridge is narrow and designed for only one traffic lane then:
g S/7.0 (Eq. 7.4.2-2)
Eq. (7.4.2-1) is credited to Newmark and has not changed until the introduction of
the LRFD Specifications. Although composite double tee decks are not specifically
listed in STD Table 3.23.1, it has been a common practice to use this equation with
S equal to the stem or web spacing.
7.4.2
Distribution Factors for
I-Beams and Bulb-Tees
7.4
LIVE LOAD
DISTRIBUTION -
STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS
7.4.1
Introduction and
Background
7.4 Live Load Distribution - Standard Specifications/7.4.2 Distribution Factors for I-Beams and Bulb-Tees
JUL 03
For exterior beams, the distribution factor is
determined using the requirements of STD
Article 3.23.2.3.1.2. These provisions, which
are often called the Lever Rule, are best
explained by an example, as shown in Figure
7.4.2-1. The bridge deck is modeled as a
simple span with an overhang. The fraction of
a wheel load carried by exterior beams is deter-
mined by summing moments about the center
of the first interior beam.
g {(S d (S d
1 1
+ )/ } { )/ } S S 6

(Eq. 7.4.2-3)
If the overhang is wide enough to accommodate a wheel position outside of the cen-
ter of the exterior beam, then d
1
is negative in Eq. (7.4.2-3).
[STD Art. 3.28]
The live load bending moment for each interior beam in a spread box beam super-
structure is computed by applying to the beam the fraction of a wheel load Figure
7.4.3-1 determined by the following equation:
g
2N
N
k
S
L
L
B
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

[STD Eq. 3-33]
where
k 0.07 W N (0.10N 0.26) 0.20N 0.12
L L

B

[STD Eq. 3-34]
N
L
number of design traffic lanes
N
B
number of beams (4 N
B
10)
S beam spacing, ft (6.57 S 11.00)
L span length, ft
W roadway width between curbs, ft (32 W 66)
These two equations are based on a statistical correlation with the results of finite ele-
ment analyses covering some 300 cases (Motarjemi, 1969). However, no multi-lane
reduction factor was considered. If a spread box beam bridge is designed for a two-
lane roadway, there is probably little advantage in using a refined analysis method.
For exterior beams, the lever rule discussed in the preceding section is used.
7.4.3
Distribution Factors
for Spread Box Beams
Figure 7.4.2-1
Distribution Factor
for Exterior Beam

Figure 7.4.3-1
Typical Cross-Section of a
Spread Box Beam Bridge Deck
7.4.2 Distribution Factors for I-Beams and Bulb-Tees/7.4.3 Distribution Factors for Spread Box Beams
JUL 03
[STD Art. 3.23.4]
A multi-beam bridge deck consists of precast or prestressed concrete beams that are
placed side-by-side on the supports. Adjacent box beams, channels, double tees, deck
bulb-tees and solid or hollow slabs (Figure 7.4.4-1) fall under this category. A struc-
tural concrete or asphalt overlay may be required by state or local practice.
In general, the interaction between beams is developed by continuous longitudinal
shear keys used in combination with metal tie plates or lateral bolting or prestress-
ing. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms for channel, single tee, or multi-stem beams are
required by the specifications. However, midspan diaphragms often are not required
by local practice. It has been traditional in some states to use steel cross frames or
K-braces in lieu of cast-in-place end diaphragms.
The live load distribution factor for interior or exterior beams is given by:
g S/D [STD Eq. 3-11]
where
S width of precast member, ft
D (5.75 0.5N
L
) + 0.7N
L
(1 0.2C)
2
[STD Eq. 3-12]
7.4.4
for Adjacent Box Beams
and Multi-Beam Decks
Figure 7.4.4-1
Adjacent Box Beam and Multi-
Beam Stemmed Sections with
Approximate Geometries and
Span Ranges
7.4.4 Distribution Factors for Adjacent Box Beams and Multi-Beam Decks
JUL 03
where
N
L
number of traffic lanes
C K(W/L) for W/L < 1
K for W/L 1 [STD Eq. 3-13]
where
W overall (edge-to-edge) width of bridge measured perpendicular to
the longitudinal beams, ft
L span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams, ft; for beams
with cast-in-place end diaphragms, use the length between
diaphragms
K [(1 + )I/J]
0.5
(Eq. 7.4.4-1)
where
I moment of inertia
J St. Venant torsional constant
Poissons ratio for beams
For preliminary design, approximate values of K are provided in the
LRFD Specification.
The following sections will focus on precast, prestressed concrete bridges using box, I-, bulb-
tee or multi-stem beam cross sections. The majority of the live load distribution formulas
in the LRFD Specifications are entirely new and are based on an NCHRP project (Zokaie,
1991). However, as with any new technology, revisions and clarifications are inevitable.
Advanced computer technology and refined procedures of analysissuch as the finite
element methodconstitute the basis for development of the approximate formulas
given in the LRFD Specifications. First, a large database of more than 800 actual bridges
was randomly compiled from various states to achieve national representation. Then
average bridges were obtained for each slab and beam category. Finally, refined analyses
were implemented on selected bridges from each group.
Approximate formulas were developed to capture the variation of load distribution
factors with each of the dominant geometric and material parameters. It was assumed
that the effect of each parameter could be modeled by an exponential function of
the form ax
b
, where x is the value of the given parameter (span, spacing, box depth,
etc.) and b is an exponent to be defined. The final distribution factor is given in the
following general format which is based on a multiple regression analysis:
D.F. A + B(x)
b
(y)
c
(z)
d
. . . . (Eq. 7.5.1-1)
Although the multiple exponential procedure worked well in many cases, it is inher-
ently conservative in general because of several assumptions made during its develop-
ment, such as:
midspan diaphragms were disregarded thereby increasing moments in interior
beams and reducing moments in exterior beams
multi-lane presence factors were higher than the final factors used in the LRFD
Specifications (See Sec. 7.2.2.1.2)
the width of the concrete parapet (1'-6" or 1'-9") was often neglected, thereby
increasing the load factors for the first two beams.
7.5
SIMPLIFIED
DISTRIBUTION
METHODS
LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
7.5.1
Background
7.4.4 Distribution Factors for Adjacent Box Beams and Multi-Beam Decks/7.5.1 Background
JUL 03
Furthermore, in order to assure conservative results, the constants in the formulas
were adjusted so that the ratio of the average value computed using the approximate
method to the accurate distribution factor was always larger than 1.0.
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 presents approximate live load distribution factors that may
be used when a refined method is not used. Different structure types are identified
descriptively and graphically in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 to assist the designer in
using the correct distribution factor for the structure being designed. There are 12
structure types included in the table, eight of which utilize precast concrete.
Longitudinal joints connecting adjacent members are shown for five of the types of
structures. If adjacent beams are sufficiently connected to act as a unit, they may be
considered to act monolithically. Those types without composite structural concrete
topping may require transverse post-tensioning. (See Section 7.5.5.)
The live load distribution factors for beam-slab bridges presented in the LRFD
Specifications are significantly different from those used in the Standard Specifications.
The differences between the two specifications include:
There are now eight types of distribution factors for different types of structures and
connections between beams, four of which apply to precast concrete sections.
Separate distribution factors are provided for moment and shear in interior
beams.
Distribution factors for moment and shear in exterior beams are computed either
by modifying the distribution factor for interior beams or by using the lever rule.
Where rigid intermediate diaphragms are provided, the load on the exterior beams
must also be checked assuming that the cross section remains straight, deflecting
and rotating as a rigid body.
The effect of multiple lane loading is included in the distribution factors. Therefore,
multiple presence factors should not be used unless a refined analysis method is
used or the lever arm procedure is required.
For skewed bridges, distribution factors for moment and shear are adjusted using
factors given for different structure types in appropriate tables.
The following general conditions must be satisfied for the approximate distribution
factor equations to be used:
the width of deck is constant
the number of beams is not less than three, four or five depending on the case
beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness
unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang, d
e
, does not exceed 3.0 ft
curvature in plan is less than the specified limit
the cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Figure 7.5.1-1
for beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
- deep, rigid end diaphragms are required
- if the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 4.0 ft or more than
10.0 ft, a refined analysis is to be used
All formulas in the tables in the LRFD Specifications provide the live load distribution
per lane. Where roadway width is larger than 20 ft, the formulas for Two or More
Design Lanes Loaded must be used for the following limit states: Strength I, Service I
and Service III. For the Strength II limit state, the same distribution factor may be used.
However, results can be overly conservative if the permit load is heavy. To circumvent this
7.5.1.1
Introduction
7.5.1 Background/7.5.1.1 Introduction
JUL 03
situation, where it controls the design, the engineer can use a refined method as discussed
in Section 7.6. Finally, when checking for fatigue, the formulas for One Design Lane
Loaded must be used. In the following sections, two loaded lanes will be assumed.
Specific limitations for each equation are given in the tables. These must also be satis-
fied before the equations can be used.
Figure 7.5.1-1
Common Deck Superstructures
[LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
JUL 03
Where bridges meet the specified conditions, permanent superimposed loads, such
as parapets and wearing surface, may be distributed equally between all beams in the
bridge.
The live load distribution factors specified herein may also be used for permit and
rating vehicles whose overall width is comparable to the width of the design truck.
[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]
[LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
[LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1]
The following notation is used in the distribution factor equations:
A area of stringer, or beam, in.
2
b width of beam, in.
C stiffness parameter K(W/L)
d depth of beam, in.
d
e
distance between the center of exterior beam and interior edge
of curb or traffic barrier, ft
D width of distribution per lane, ft
e correction factor
g distribution factor
J St. Venant torsional constant, in.
4
K
g
longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.
4
L span of beam, ft
N
b
number of beams
N
L
number of design lanes
S spacing of beams or webs, ft
t
s
depth of concrete slab, in.
W edge-to-edge width of bridge, ft
skew angle, deg
Poissons ratio, usually assumed equal to 0.20
The longitudinal stiffness parameter, K
g
, is taken as:
K
g
n(I + Ae
g
2
) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n modular ratio between beam and deck materials, generally 1
I moment of inertia of beam, in.
4
e
g
distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and deck, in.
7.5.2
Approximate Distribution
Formulas for Moments
(Two Lanes Loaded)
7.5.1.1 Introduction/7.5.2 Approximate Distribution Formulas for Moments (Two Lanes Loaded)
JUL 03
The applicable live load distribution factor equation for interior beams [Figure 7.5.1-1,
types (i), (j) and (k)] is:
g 0.075
S
9.5
S
L
K
12.0Lt
0.6 0.2
g
s
3
0.1
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(

(Eq. 7.5.2.1-1)
The only practical conditions affecting applicability of this equation are that N
b
must be equal
to or larger than 4 and 10,000 K
g
7,000,000. The latter limit may be exceeded in the case
of I-beams that are 96 in. deep or more. For preliminary design, the engineer may assume that
(K
g
/12.0Lt
s
3
)
0.1
1.10, which is an average value obtained from a large database.
The equation for exterior beams without midspan diaphragms is:
g eg
interior
(Eq. 7.5.2.1-2)
where e 0.77 + (d
e
/9.1) 1.0 (Eq. 7.5.2.1-2a)
If rigid midspan diaphragms are used in the cross-section, an additional check is
required using an interim, conservative procedure for I- and bulb-tee beam sections
and applying the related multiple presence factor, m:
g R
N
N
X e
x
L
b
ext
N
2
N
L
b
+

(Eq. 7.5.2.1-3)
[LRFD Eq. C4.6.2.2.2d-1]
where
N
L
number of loaded lanes under consideration
N
b
number of beams
e eccentricity of a lane from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams, ft
x horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams to
each beam, ft
X
ext
horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of beams to
the exterior beam, ft
The live load flexural moment for interior beams [Figure 7.5.1-1, types (b) and (c)]
may be determined by applying the following lane fraction:
g

S
6.3
Sd
12.0L
0.6
2
0.125
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(

(Eq. 7.5.2.2-1)
where d precast beam depth.
This formula is subject to two practical limitations: N
b
3 and 6.0 S 18.0 ft.
The other geometric conditions are usually met.
The corresponding formula for exterior beams is:
g eg
interior
(Eq. 7.5.2.2-2)
where e 0.97 + (d
e
/28.5) (Eq. 7.5.2.2-2a)
7.5.2.2
Open or Closed
Precast Spread Box Beams
with Cast-In-Place Deck
7.5.2.1
I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single
or Double Tee Beams with
Transverse Post-Tensioning
7.5.2.1 I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning/
7.5.2.2 Open or Closed Precast Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck
JUL 03
Equation (7.5.2.1-3) must also be checked in the case of rigid midspan diaphragms.
The applicable distribution factor equation for interior beams [Figure 7.5.1-1, types (f )
and (g)], is given by:
g
k
b
305
b
12.0L
I
J
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
0 6 0 2 0 06 . . .
(Eq. 7.5.2.3-1)
where k 2.5(N
b
)
-0.2
1.5 (Eq. 7.5.2.3-1a)
In a preliminary design situation one may assume (I/J)
0.06
1.0. These equations are
limited to box beam widths not exceeding 5.0 ft and to span lengths L 120 ft.
The bending moment for exterior beams is determined by applying the following
lane fraction:
g eg
interior

(Eq. 7.5.2.3-2)
where e 1.04 + (d
e
/25), d
e
2.0 (Eq. 7.5.2.3-2a)
For interior beams, [Figure 7.5.1-1, types (g), (h), (i) and (j)], the applicable formula
for the distribution factor, regardless of the number of loaded lanes, is:
g S/D (Eq. 7.5.2.4-1)
where
D 11.5 N
L
+ 1.4N
L
(1 0.2C)
2
when C 5 (Eq. 7.5.2.4-1a)
D 11.5 N
L
when C > 5 (Eq. 7.5.2.4-1b)
where
C K(W/L) K (Eq. 7.5.2.4-1c)
where K [(1 + )I/J]
0.5
(Eq. 7.5.2.4-1d)
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 suggests values of K for preliminary design.
The specified procedure for exterior beams is simply the Lever Rule in conjunction
with the multiple presence factor, m (see Section 7.2.2.1.2). However, this presents
some interpretation problems regarding how many lanes should be loaded (say 2, 3 or
4 lanes if roadway width is 48 ft or more). Until this question is resolved, it is prudent
to at least assign the same live load distribution factor for exterior beams as for interior
beams, which is the approach used in the Standard Specifications. Furthermore, LRFD
Article 2.5.2.7 requires that, in general, the load carrying capacity of an exterior beam
be not less than the one for an interior beam.
The live load shear for interior and exterior beams is determined by applying the
lane fractions specified for the categories below. The shear distribution factors are
normally higher than the moment factors for the same cross-section and span.
The applicable live load distribution factor equation for interior beams, [Figure 7.5.1-1,
types (i), (j) and (k)], is:
g 0.2
S
12
S
35
2.0
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 7.5.3.1-1)
7.5.3.1
I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single
or Double Tee Beams with
7.5.3
Approximate Distribution
Formulas for Shear
(Two Lanes Loaded)
7.5.2.3
Adjacent Box Beams with
Cast-In-Place Overlay or
7.5.2.4
Channel Sections, or Box
or Tee Sections Connected
by Hinges at Interface
7.5.2.2 Open or Closed Precast Spread Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck/
7.5.3.1 I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning
JUL 03
The only practical limitation on its applicability is N
b
4.
The corresponding equation for exterior beams without midspan diaphragm is:
g eg
interior
(Eq. 7.5.3.1-2)
where e 0.6 + (d
e
/10) (Eq. 7.5.3.1-2a)
If rigid midspan diaphragms are present, then the conservative approach in Eq.
(7.5.2.1-3) must be used.
The live load shear for interior beams [Figure 7.5.1-1, types (b) and (c)], may be
determined by applying the following lane fraction:
g
S
7.4
d
12.0L
0. 8 0.1
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 7.5.3.2-1)
The formula is subject to two practical limits: N
b
3 and 6.0 S 18.0 ft. The other
conditions are generally satisfied.
The related equation for exterior beams is:
g eg
interior
(Eq. 7.5.3.2-2)
where e 0.8 + (d
e
/10) (Eq. 7.5.3.2-2a)
Equation (7.5.2.1-3) must also be checked in case of rigid midspan diaphragms.
The applicable distribution factor equation for interior beams [Figure 7.5.1-1, types
(f ) and (g)], is:
g
b
156
b
12.0L
I
J
0.4 0.1 0.05
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 7.5.3.3-1)
These equations are limited to box widths not exceeding 5.0 ft, to span lengths L 120 ft
and to I or J 610,000 in
4
. The latter value may be exceeded if depth exceeds 66 in.
The shear for exterior beams is determined by applying the following lane fraction:
g eg
interior
(Eq. 7.5.3.3-2)
where e 1.02 + (d
e
/50), d
e
2.0 (Eq. 7.5.3.3-2a)
For interior or exterior beams [Figure 7.5.1-1, types (h), (i) and (j)], the Lever Rule
in conjunction with the multiple presence factor, m, is specified.
Skewed beam layout is generally dictated by complex highway intersections and/or
by the lack of space in urban areas. When the skew angle of a bridge is small, say, less
than 20, it is often considered safe to ignore the angle of skew and to analyze the
bridge as a zero-skew bridge whose span is equal to the skew span. This approach is
generally conservative for moments in the beams, and slightly unsafe (<5%) for slab-
on-beam decks for longitudinal shears.
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1, lists reduction multipliers for moments in longitudinal
beams. Also listed in LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1 are correction factors (> 1.0) appli-
7.5.3.4
Channel Sections or Tee
Sections Connected by
Hinges at Interface
7.5.4
Correction Factors
For Skews
7.5.3.2
Open or Closed Spread Box
Beams with Cast-In-Place Deck
7.5.3.3
Adjacent Box Beams
in Multi-Beam Decks
7.5.3.1 I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, or Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning/
7.5.4 Correction Factors For Skews
JUL 03
cable to the distribution factors for support shears at the obtuse corner of exterior
beams. The commentary reminds the designer to check the possibility of uplift at the
acute corners of large skews. Unfortunately, reliable multipliers and correction factors
are missing for some bridge cross-sections.
Bending moments in interior and exterior beams on skewed supports may be reduced
using the following multipliers: [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1]
a) I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning
[Figure 7.5.1-1, types (i), (j) and (k)]:
Use: 1 c
1
(tan )
1.5
(Eq. 7.5.4.1-1)
where c
1
0 25
12 0
3
0 25
.
.
.
K
Lt
S
L
g
0.5
s
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 7.5.4.1-1a)
Set c
1
0 when < 30
Set 60 when > 60
b) Spread Box Beams, Adjacent Box Beams with Concrete Overlays or Transverse
Post-Tensioning, and Double Tees in Multi-Beam Decks [Figure 7.5.1-1, types
(b), (c), (f) and (g)]:
Use: 1.05 0.25 tan 1.0 (Eq. 7.5.4.1-2)
Set 60 if > 60
Shears in exterior beams on the obtuse corner of the bridge may be reduced using
the following multipliers: [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1]
a) I-Beam, Bulb-Tee, Single or Double Tee Beams with Transverse Post-Tensioning
[Figure 7.5.1-1, types (i), (j) and (k)]:
Use: 1.0 0.20
12.0Lt
K
tan
s
3
g
0.3
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 7.5.4.2-1)
This formula is valid for < 60.
b) Spread Box Beams [Figure 7.5.1-1, types (b) and (c)]:
Use: 1.0
Ld
12.0 6S
0.5
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
tan
(Eq. 7.5.4.2-2)
Two practical limits apply, < 60 and N
b
3.
c) Adjacent Box Beams with Cast-In-Place Overlay or Transverse Post-Tensioning
[Figure 7.5.1-1, types (f) and (g)]:
Use: 1.0
12.0L
90 d
+

(tan )
.
0 5
(Eq. 7.5.4.2-3)
The following discussion concerns apparent inconsistencies in provisions of the LRFD
Specifications related to the transverse connection between adjacent members.
As noted earlier, the LRFD Specifications indicate that adjacent beams connected by
longitudinal joints may be considered to act monolithically if they are sufficiently
connected to act as a unit. The LRFD Specifications also note that transverse post-
tensioning provides the best connection between adjacent beams to achieve mono-
lithic behavior but that a reinforced structural concrete overlay may also be used.
7.5.4.1
Multipliers for Moments in
Longitudinal Beams
7.5.5
Lateral Bolting or
Post-Tensioning Requirements
7.5.5.1
Monolithic Behavior
7.5.4.2
Multipliers for Support Shear
at Obtuse Corners of
Exterior Beams
7.5.4 Correction Factors For Skews/7.5.5.1 Monolithic Behavior
JUL 03
LRFD Commentary Article C4.6.2.2.1 recommends a minimum transverse post-ten-
sioning stress of 0.250 ksi to make the beams act as a unit. However, in LRFD Article
5.14.1.2.8, this same level of effective stress is required for the connection between
adjacent members if transverse post-tensioning is used. Excessively large post-tension-
ing forces will be required to achieve this level of prestress across the depth of typical
shear keys. There is no support in the literature or current practice for requiring this
high level of prestress.
LRFD Article 5.14.4.3.3.f gives requirements for a structural concrete topping that
can also be used to achieve monolithic action, according to LRFD Commentary
Article C4.6.2.2.1.
LRFD Article 4.6.3 allows the use of refined methods of analysis for lateral load
distribution in lieu of the tabulated simplified equations. Although the simplified
equations are based on a statistical approach, they are often quite conservative.
The refined methods most often used to study the behavior of bridges are the grillage
analysis and the finite element methods. The finite element analysis (FEA) requires
the fewest simplifying assumptions in accounting for the greatest number of variables
which govern the structural response of the bridge deck. However, input prepara-
tion time, and derivation of overall forces for the composite beam are usually quite
tedious. On the other hand, data preparation for the grillage method is simpler and
integration of stresses is not needed.
Analyses by Aswad and Chen (1994) have shown that using the FEA may result in a
reduction of the lateral load distribution factor for moments by at least 18% for interior
I-beams when compared to the simplified LRFD approach. The analysis for exterior
I-beams and spread box beams showed a smaller but non-negligible reduction.
Detailed prestress designs by Aswad (1994) have shown that the percentage reduction in
strands and release strength for interior beams is roughly one-half of the reduction in the
distribution factor. For instance, a 22% reduction of midspan moment will result in about
11% less strands and less required release strength, or may allow a 4 to 5% increase in span
length without having to use a deeper section. Clearly, there is a significant incentive for
both the owner and the industry to use refined methods in many future projects. This is
especially significant for beams with higher span-to-depth ratios.
An important step in the FEA method is the computation of the torsional constant, J,
for the basic precast beam. The torsional constant of a thin-walled, hollow box section,
is given by the familiar formula from standard textbooks (Hambly, 1976):
J 4A
0
2
/(s/t) (Eq. 7.6.3-1)
where
A
0
the area enclosed by centerlines of elements (walls)
s the length of a side element
t the thickness of that element
7.6.3
St. Venant Torsional
Constant, J
7.5.5.2
Minimum Post-Tensioning
Requirement
7.5.5.3
Concrete Overlay Alternative
7.6.1
Introduction and
Background
7.6
REFINED ANALYSIS
METHODS
7.6.2
The Economic Perspective
7.6.2.1
Moment Reductions
7.6.2.2
Stretching Span Capability
7.5.5.2 Minimum Post-Tensioning Requirement/7.6.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant, J
JUL 03
For I-beams, the engineer should use rational meth-
ods such as those given in the report by Eby (1973).
The use of formulas for open, thin sections is not
appropriate. A list of St. Venant torsional constants for
AASHTO I-beams is shown in Table 7.6.3-1.
The following reports by Lehigh University are recommended:
For I-beams Reports by Wegmuller (1973) and Zellin (1976)
For spread box beams Reports by Lin (1968), Guilford (1968),
VanHorn (1969), Motarjemi (1969) and Chen (1970).
The following guidelines are suggested for refined analysis methods:
A minimum of 9 nodes per beam span is preferred
Aspect ratio of finite elements and grid panels should not exceed 5.0
(Note: this ratio should be reduced to 2.0 for better accuracy)
Nodal loads shall be statically equivalent to the actual point load being applied
For FEA, relative vertical distances should be maintained between various elements
For grillage analysis, composite properties should be used
St. Venant torsional constant, J, is to be determined rationally
For grillage analysis, only one-half of the effective flange width of the flexural
section, before transformation, should be used in computing J. In finite element
analysis, an element should have membrane capability with sufficient discretiza-
tion. Therefore, a shell element is ideal for modeling the cast-in-place slab.
A parametric study for distribution factors was conducted by Chen and Aswad (1996)
using FEA and the ADINA (1991) software. The number of beam elements per span
was 16. There were two 4-noded shell elements between adjacent beam lines.
The study covered 10 different I-beam superstructures with spans, L, varying between
90 and 140 ft, and spacings, S, between 8 and 10 ft. The number of beam lines was
5, 6 or 7 while the total slab width (out-to-out) was either 48 or 60 ft. The midspan
diaphragm is separated from the cast-in-place deck slab by a 6-in. gap.
The investigation also covered six various superstructures with a spacing, S, of either
8'-3" or 10'-6" and spans, L, varying between 60 and 100 ft. There were either 4 or
5 beam lines. The total slab width was either 39'-6" or 41'-0" which corresponds to
3 design lanes.
The following paragraphs summarize the findings of the study:
1. Refined methods of analysis may reduce the midspan moment by 18 to 23% in the
case of interior I-beams, and by 4% to 12% for exterior I-beams when compared
to the LRFD simplified method.
7.6.5
Modeling Guidelines
7.6.4
Related Publications
7.6.6
Finite Element
Study for Moment
Shape J value, in.
4
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Type V
Type VI
4,745
7,793
17,044
32,924
35,433
36,071
Table 7.6.3-1
Torsional Constant J for
AASHTO I-Beams
7.6.3 St. Venant Torsional Constant, J/7.6.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors
JUL 03
2. The same FEA may reduce the midspan moment by 6 to 12% for spread box
beams. However, the reduction may reach 30% for exterior beams when midspan
diaphragms are used. This is so because the LRFD Specifications have an interim
formula that may result in an exaggerated midspan moment due to the assumption
of infinitely rigid diaphragm.
3. The approximate equations for computing distribution factors are generally quite
conservative when the span-to-depth ratios approach the upper limits of the span
capability.
Based on this study, it is recommended that finite element or grillage analysis be
used for the design of bridges with high span-to-depth ratios because they allow a
significant reduction in the required release strength or, alternatively, a stretching of
the span capability.
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Second Edition and Interim Revisions,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
DC, 1998 and the Interim Revisions dated 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003
ADINA (version 6.0), A program and user manual, licensed by ADINA, Inc.,
Cambridge, MA, 1991
Aswad, A., and Chen, Y., Impact of LRFD Specification on Load Distribution of
Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI JOURNAL, V.39, No. 5, September-October
1994, pp. 78-89
Aswad, G., Comparison of Refined and Simplified Analysis Methods for P/S
Concrete I-Beam Bridge Decks, M.Sc. Thesis, University of Colorado at Denver,
Denver, CO, 1994
Chen, Y., and Aswad, A., Stretching Span Capability of Prestressed Concrete
Bridges under AASHTO-LRFD, ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering, 1(3), Aug.
1996, pp. 112-120
Chen, Y.L., and VanHorn, D.A., Structural Behavior of a Prestressed Concrete
Box-Beam BridgeHazleton Bridge, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Report
No. 315A.1, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1970
Eby, C.C., Kulicki, J.M., and Kostem, C.N., The Evaluation of St. Venant
Torsional Constants for Prestressed Concrete I-Beam, Fritz Engineering
Laboratory, Report No. 400.12, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1973
Guilford, A.A., and VanHorn, D.A., Lateral Distribution of Vehicular Loads in a
Prestressed Concrete Box-Beam BridgeWhite Haven Bridge, Fritz Engineering
Laboratory, Report No. 315.7, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1968
Hambly, E.C., Bridge Deck Behavior, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1976
Lin, C.S., and VanHorn, D.A., The Effect of Midspan Diaphragms on Load
Distribution in a Prestressed Concrete Box-Beam BridgePhiladelphia Bridge, Fritz
Engineering Laboratory, Report No. 315.6, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1968
Motarjemi, D., and VanHorn, D.A., Theoretical Analysis of Load Distribution in
Prestressed Concrete Box-Beam Bridges, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Report
No. 315.9, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1969
7.7
REFERENCES
7.6.6 Finite Element Study for Moment Distribution Factors/7.7 References
JUL 03
VanHorn, D.A., Structural Behavior Characteristics of Prestressed Concrete Box-
Beam Bridges, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Report 315.8, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, PA, 1969
Wegmuller, A.W., and Kostem, C.N., Finite Element Analysis of Plates and
Eccentrically Stiffened Plates, Fritz Engineering Laboratory, Report No. 378A.3,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1973
Zellin, M.A., Kostem, C.N., VanHorn, D.A., and Kulicki, J.M., Live Load
Distribution Factors for Prestressed Concrete I-Beam Bridges, Fritz Engineering
Laboratory, Report No. 387.2B, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1976
Zokaie, T., Osterkamp, T.A. and Imbsen, R.A., Distribution of Wheel Loads on
Highway Bridges, NCHRP Project Report 12-26, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC, 1991
7.7 References
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
NOTATION
8.0 AASHTO SPECIFICATION REFERENCES
8.1 PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING
8.1.1 History
8.1.2 High Strength Steel
8.1.3 Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcing
8.1.4 Concrete to Steel Bond
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.3 Tensile Stresses - LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.8 Design Example
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC 8/14/03, 10:58 AM 1
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design
8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.2.1 Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section
8.2.2.2.1.3 Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.2 Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.4 Flexural Strength Design Example
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach
8.2.2.6 Design Example - Strain Compatibility
8.2.2.6.1 Part l - Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 - Comparative Results
8.2.3 Design of Negative Moment Regions for Members Made Continuous for Live
Loads
8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3.2 Reinforcement Limits - Standard Specifications
8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.4 Serviceability
8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.3 STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS
8.3.1 Strand Transfer Length
8.3.1.1 Impact on Design
8.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Transfer Length
8.3.1.4 Research Results
8 3.1.5 Recommendations
8.3.1.6 End Zone Reinforcement
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.3.2 Strand Development Length
8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies
8.3.2.6 Recommendations
8.4 SHEAR
8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, V
ci
8.4.1.2 Web-Shear Strength, V
cw
8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, V
s
8.4.1.3.1 Minimum Spacing Requirements
8.4.1.3.2 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
8.4.2 1979 Interim Revisions
8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance
8.4.3.1.2 Concrete Contribution, V
c
8.4.3.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, V
s
8.4.3.1.4 Values of and
8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
8.4.4 Comparison of Shear Design Methods
8.5 HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR
8.5.1 Theory
8.5.4 Comparison of Design Specifications
8.6 LOSS OF PRESTRESS
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
8.6.3 Significance of Losses on Design
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4 Effect of Underestimating Losses
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties
8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.1 Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.2.1 Shrinkage Modification Factors
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.5.3 Prediction of Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses
8.6.7 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1 Computation of Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
8.6.8.1 Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.6.8.4 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5 Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
8.6.10.2 Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
8.7 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION
8.7.1 Multiplier Method
8.7.2 Improved Multiplier Method
8.7.3 Examples
8.7.3.1 Multiplier Method Example
8.7.3.2 Improved Multiplier Method Example
8.7.4 Camber and Deflection Estimates Using Numerical Integration
8.7.4.1 Numerical Integration Example
8.8 DECK SLAB DESIGN
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.3.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.3.4 Shear Design
8.8.2.3.5 Crack Control
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
8.8.2.4.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.4 Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7 Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
8.8.3 Other Precast Bridge Deck Systems
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
8.8.4 LRFD Specifications Empirical Design Method
8.9 TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES
8.9.1 Background
8.9.1.1 Current Practice
8.9.1.2 Ontario Bridge Design Code Procedure
8.9.2 Empirical Design
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.2.3 Installation
8.9.3 Suggested Design Procedure
8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms
8.9.3.2 Longitudinal Joints Between Beams
8.9.3.3 Tendons
8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis
8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Chart
8.9.3.6 Design Method
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges
8.10 LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams
8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath
8.10.2 Suggested Factors of Safety
8.10.2.1 Conditions Affecting FSc
8.10.2.2 Effects of Creep and Impact
8.10.2.3 Effects of Overhangs
8.10.2.4 Increasing the Factor of Safety
8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing
8.10.7 Lateral Stability Examples
8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example
8.10.7.2 Supported Beam Example
8.11 BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES DUE TO
VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS
8.11.1 HS20 Truck Loading
8.11.2 Lane Loading, 0.640 kip/ft
8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading
8.12 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING OF DISTURBED REGIONS
8.12.1 Introduction
8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout
8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions
8.12.2.3 Strengths of Members
8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.3.1 Compression Struts
8.12.3.1.1 Unreinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.2 Tension Ties
8.12.3.2.1 Tie Anchorage
8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions
8.12.3.4 Crack Control Reinforcement
8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.4.1 Design Criteria
8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.12.5 Pier Cap Example
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4 Reinforcement for Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
8.13 DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.13.1.1 Properties of Concrete
8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship
8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus
8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus
8.13.1.4 Properties of Prestressing Steel
8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain
8.13.2 Analysis of Composite Cross-Sections
8.13.2.1 Initial Strains
8.13.2.2 Methods for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis
8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis
8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations
8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members
8.13.3.1 Relaxation of Strands Prior to Transfer
8.13.3.2 Transfer of Prestress Force
8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)
8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation after Transfer
8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (after Transfer)
8.13.3.4 Placement of Cast-in-Place Deck
8.13.3.5 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation
8.13.3.6 Application of Superimposed Dead Load
8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior
8.13.4 Continuous Bridges
8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity
8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects
8.13.4.3 Methods of Analysis
8.13.4.3.1 General Method
8.13.4.3.2 Approximate Method
8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep
8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A = area of cross-section of the precast beam [STD], [LRFD]
A = distance to pickup points from each end of the beam
A
c
= area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member [LRFD]
A
c
= area of beam cross-section
A
cv
= area of concrete section resisting shear transfer [LRFD]
A
cs
= cross-sectional area of a concrete strut [LRFD]
A
g
= gross area of section [LRFD]
A
k
= area of cross-section of element k
A
o
= area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam [LRFD]
A
ps
= area of pretensioning steel [LRFD]
A
s
= area of non-pretensioning tension reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
A
s
= total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance
(h/5) from the end of the beam [LRFD]
A
sf
= area of steel required to develop the ultimate compressive
strength of the overhanging portions of the flange [STD]
A
sr
= area of steel required to develop the compressive strength of the
web of a flanged section [STD]
A
ss
= area of reinforcement in strut [LRFD]
A
st
= area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in tie [LRFD]
A
*
s
= area of pretensioning steel [STD]
A
s
= area of compression reinforcement [LRFD]
A
v
= area of web reinforcement [STD]
A
v
= area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s [LRFD]
A
vf
= area of shear-friction reinforcement [LRFD]
A
vh
= area of web reinforcement required for horizontal shear
A
v-min
= minimum area of web reinforcement
a = depth of the compression block [STD]
a = depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block [LRFD]
a = length of overhang
b = effective flange width
b = width of beam [STD]
b = width of top flange of beam
b = width of the compression face of a member [LRFD]
b = width of web of a flanged member [STD]
b
b
= width of bottom flange of beam
b
v
= width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated
for horizontal shear [STD]
b
v
= effective web width [LRFD]
b
v
= width of interface [LRFD]
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
= creep coefficient for deflection at time of erection due to loads
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
= loss of pretension due to creep of concrete [STD]
CR
s
= loss of pretension due to relaxation of pretensioning steel [STD]
C(t,t
0
) = creep coefficient of the concrete member at a certain age
C(t,t
j
) = creep coefficient at time t
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
) = creep at time t for beam concrete loaded at time t
3

C
d
(t,t
3
) = creep at time t for deck concrete loaded at time t
3

C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of release of
prestressing
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of application of
superimposed dead loads
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis [LRFD]
c = cohesion factor [LRFD]
D = dead load [STD]
D = nominal diameter of the strand [STD]
DC = dead load of structural components and non-structural
attachments [LRFD]
DW = load of wearing surfaces and utilities [LRFD]
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the
pretensioning force [STD]
d
b
= nominal strand diameter [STD], [LRFD]
d
e
= effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the
centroid of the tensile force in the tension reinforcement [LRFD]
d
ext
= depth of the extreme steel layer from extreme compression fiber
d
i
= depth of steel layer from extreme compression fiber
d
p
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
pretensioning tendons [LRFD]
d
s
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
nonprestressed tensile reinforcement [LRFD]
d
v
= effective shear depth [LRFD]
d

nonprestressed compression reinforcement [LRFD]
E = modulus of elasticity
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
E
cb
(t
3
) = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for beam concrete at time t
3

E
cd
(t
3
) = age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time t
3

E
c
(t
j
) = modulus of elasticity at time t
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
) = initial modulus of elasticity
E
c
(t,t
0
) = modulus of elasticity at a certain time
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer
E
p
= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning tendons [LRFD]
ES = loss of pretension due to elastic shortening [STD]
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete for a
gradually applied load at the time of transfer of prestressing
E
*
cb
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the beam
E
*
cd
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the deck
E
*
c
(t,t
0
) = effective modulus of elasticity at certain time
E
*
ck
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of element k
e = eccentricity of prestressing strands
e
c
= eccentricity of the strand at midspan
e
g
= distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and the slab [LRFD]
e
i
= initial lateral eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to
the roll axis
e
m
= average accentricity at midspan [LRFD]
e
p
= eccentricity of the prestressing strands with respect to the
centroid of the section
FS
c
= factor of safety against cracking
FS
f
= factor of safety against failure
F
b
= allowable tensile stress in the precompressed tension zone at
service loads
F
cj
= force in concrete for the j th component
F
pi
= total force in strands before release
f = stress
f
b
= concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam
f
c
= specified concrete strength at 28 days [STD]
f
c
= specified compressive strength at 28 days [LRFD]
f
cds
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel
due to all dead loads except the dead load present at the time the
pretensioning force is applied [STD]
f
cir
= average concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
pretensioning steel due to pretensioning force and dead load
of beam immediately after transfer [STD]
f
ci
= concrete strength at transfer [STD]
f
ci
= specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial
loading or pretensioning (transfer) [LRFD]
f
cgp
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning tendons,
due to pretensioning force at transfer and the self-weight of the
member at the section of maximum positive moment [LRFD]
f
cu
= the limiting concrete compressive stress for designing
by strut-and-tie model [LRFD]
f
f
= stress range [STD]
f
min
= algebraic minimum stress level [STD]
f
pbt
= stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer [LRFD]
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all pretensioning
losses) at centroid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads [STD]
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete after all prestress losses have occurred
either at the centroid of the cross-section resisting live load or at
the junction of the web and flange when the centroid lies in the
flange. In a composite section, f
pc
is the resultant compressive
stress at the centroid of the composite section, or at the junction
of the web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange,
due to both prestress and to the bending moments resisted by the
precast member acting alone. [LRFD]
f
pe
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension
forces only (after allowance for all pretension losses) at
extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads [STD]
f
pe
= effective stress in the pretensioning steel after losses [LRFD]
f
pi
= initial stress immediately before transfer
f
pj
= stress in the pretensioning steel at jacking [LRFD]
f
po
= stress in the pretensioning steel when the stress in the
surrounding concrete is zero [LRFD]
f
ps
= average stress in pretensioning steel at the time for which the
nominal resistance of member is required [LRFD]
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of pretensioning steel [LRFD]
f
py
= yield strength of pretensioning steel [LRFD]
f
r
= modulus of rupture of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
f
s
= allowable stress in steel under service loads
f
s
= ultimate stress of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
f
se
= effective final pretension stress
f
si
= effective initial pretension stress
f
*
su
= average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load [STD]
f(t
j
) = stress at time t
j

f
r
(t,t
0
) = relaxation stress at a certain time
f(t
0
) = tensile stress at the beginning of the interval
f
y
= yield strength of reinforcing bars [STD]
f
y
= specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars [LRFD]
f
y
= yield stress of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
f
y
= specified minimum yield strength of compression reinforcement [LRFD]
f
yh
= specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement [LRFD]
H = average annual ambient mean relative humidity [LRFD]
h = length of a single segment
h = overall depth of precast beam [STD]
h = overall depth of a member [LRFD]
h
cg
= height of center of gravity of beam above road
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
= compression flange depth [LRFD]
h
r
= height of roll center above road
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite
precast beam, major axis moment of inertia of beam [STD], [LRFD]
NOTATION
JUL 03
I = impact fraction [STD]
I
k
= moment of inertia of element k
IM = dynamic load allowance [LRFD]
I
eff
= effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
I
g
= gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
K = factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
K
r
= factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs prior
to transfer
K
= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

k = factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel
for strength limit state; factor related to type of strand
[LRFD]
k
c
= product of applicable correction factors for creep = k
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
= product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = k
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
= correction factor for concrete strength
L = live load [STD]
L = length in feet of the span under consideration for positive
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment [STD]
L = overall beam length or design span
L = span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams [STD]
L = span length [LRFD]
LL = vehicular live load [LRFD]
L
r
= intrinsic relaxation of the strand
L
x
= distance from end of prestressing strand to center of the panel [STD]
l = overall length of beam
l
d
= development length
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
= moment in concrete beam section
M
cr
= cracking moment [LRFD]
M
cr
(t) = restraint moment due to creep at time t
M
*
cr
= cracking moment [STD]
M
d/nc
= moment due to non-composite dead loads [STD]
M
el
= fictious elastic restraint moment at the supports
M
g
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
M
g
= self-weight bending moment of beam at harp point
M
gmsp
= self-weight bending moment at midspan
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
= lateral bending moment at cracking
M
LL
= unfactored bending moment due to lane load per beam
M
max
= maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads [STD]
M
n
= nominal moment strength of a section [STD]
M
n
= nominal flexural resistance [LRFD]
M
n/dc
= non-composite dead load moment at the section
M
r
= factored flexural resistance of a section in bending [LRFD]
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
(t) = restraint moment due to differential shrinkage at time t
M
sw
= moment at section of interest due to self-weight of the member
plus any permanent loads acting on the member at time of release
M
u
= factored bending moment at section [STD], [LRFD]
M
x
= bending moment at a distance x from the support
M
0
= theoretical total moment in sections
M
0k
= theoretical moment in section of element k
m = stress ratio
N = number of segments between nodes (must be even number)
N
k
= element normal force
N
c
= internal element force in concrete
N
s
= internal element force in steel
N
u
= applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile [LRFD]
N
0k
= theoretical normal force in section of element k, positive when tensile
N
0
= theoretical total normal force in sections
n = modular ratio between slab and beam materials [STD], [LRFD]
n
k
= modular ratio of element k
n
s
= modular ratio of steel element
PPR = partial prestress ratio [LRFD]
P
c
= permanent net compression force [LRFD]
P
n
= nominal axial resistance of strut or tie [LRFD]
P
r
= factored axial resistance of strut or tie [LRFD]
P
se
= effective pretension force after allowing for all losses
P
si
= effective pretension force after allowing for the initial losses
Q = first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered
R = radius of curvature
RH = relative humidity [STD]
R
n
= strength design factor
R
u
= flexural resistance factor
r = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section
r = radius of stability
S = width of precast beam [STD]
S = spacing of beams [STD], [LRFD]
NOTATION
JUL 03
S = slab span [LRFD]
S = span between the inside faces of the beam webs [LRFD]
S
b
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite precast beam
S
bc
= composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the
precast beam
SH = loss of pretension due to concrete shrinkage [STD]
S
N
= the value of the integral
S(t,t
0
) = shrinkage coefficient at a certain age
S
t
= section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite
precast beam
S
u
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete adjusted for
member size and relative humidity
s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement [STD]
s = length of a side element [LRFD]
s = spacing of rows of ties [LRFD]
t = time, days; age of concrete at the time of determination of creep
effects, days; age of concrete at time of determination of shrinkage
effects, days; time after loading, days
t = thickness of web
t = thickness of an element of the beam
t
f
= thickness of flange
t
0
= age of concrete when curing ends; age of concrete when load is
initially applied, days
t
s
= cast-in-place concrete slab thickness
t
s
= depth of concrete slab [LRFD]
V
c
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete [STD]
V
c
= nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal
cracking results from combined shear and moment [STD]
V
cw
cracking results from excessive principal tensile stress in web [STD]
V
d
= shear force at section due to unfactored dead load [STD]
V
i
= factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads
occurring simultaneously with M
max
[STD]
V
n
= nominal shear resistance of the section considered [LRFD]
V
nh
= nominal horizontal shear strength [STD]
V
p
= vertical component of effective pretension force at section [STD]
V
p
= component of the effective pretensioning force, in the
direction of the applied shear, positive if resisting the applied shear [LRFD]
V
s
= nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement [STD]
V
s
= shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement [LRFD]
V
u
= factored shear force at the section [STD], [LRFD]
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
= factored horizontal shear force per unit length of the beam [LRFD]
v
u
= average factored shear stress [LRFD]
W = total weight of beam
w = a uniformly distributed load [LRFD]
w = width of clear roadway [LRFD]
w = weight per unit length of beam
w
c
= unit weight of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
x = distance from the support to the section under question
y = height of center of gravity of beam above roll axis
(beam supported from below)
y
b
= distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite beam
y
bc
= distance from centroid to the bottom of beam of the composite section
y
bs
= distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom
fiber of the beam
y
k
= distance of the centroid of element k from edge
y
r
= height of roll axis above center of gravity of beam (hanging beam)
y
s
= height above soffit of centroid of prestressing force
y
t
= distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the
non-composite beam
y
tc
= distance from centroid to the top of deck of the composite section
z = lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam
z
max
= distance from centerline of vehicle to center of dual tires
z
o
= theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the
full dead weight applied laterally
z
o
full dead weight applied laterally, computed using I
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration
= super-elevation angle or tilt angle of support in radians
= factor used in calculating elastic shortening loss
= coefficient defined by (Eq. 8.6.2.5.1-3) to account for interaction
between steel and concrete in pretensioning loss calculations

s
= angle between compressive strut and adjoining tension tie [LRFD]
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to
transmit tension (a value indicating concrete contribution) [LRFD]

1
= factor for concrete strength [STD]

1
= ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression
zone assumed in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual
compression zone [LRFD]

c
= time-dependent multiplier
= deflection
= camber measured with respect to the beam-ends
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
= change in concrete stress at center of gravity of pretensioning
steel due to dead loads except the dead load acting at the time
the pretensioning force is applied [LRFD]
f
pCR
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to creep [LRFD]
f
pES
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to elastic shortening [LRFD]
f
pR
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel [LRFD]
f
pR1
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel at
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel after
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to shrinkage [LRFD]
f
pT
= total loss in pretensioning steel stress [LRFD]
f
s
= total loss of prestress
= strain

c
= strain in concrete beam

cr
= the time dependent creep strain

f
= the immediate strain due to the applied stress f

fc
= elastic strain in concrete

fk
= element strain

fs
= elastic strain in steel

k
= strain in element k

p
= strain in prestressing steel

s
= strain in mild steel

s
= tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tensile tie [LRFD]

sh
= free shrinkage strain
shb
(t,t
2
) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t
3
to time t

shu
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member
size and relative humidity

si
= strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension
stress

x
= longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member [LRFD]

0c
= initial strain in concrete

1
= principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to factored loads [LRFD]

*
= factor for type of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
= strength reduction factor [STD]
= resistance factor [LRFD]
= curvature

c
= curvature at midspan

cr
= curvature due to creep

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k
= curvature of element k

0
= curvature at support
= parameter used to determine friction coefficient [LRFD]
= Poissons ratio for beams [STD]
= coefficient of friction [LRFD]
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses [LRFD]
= roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical

L
= left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads

R
= right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads

i
= initial roll angle of a rigid beam

max
= tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner
equal to the modulus of rupture

max
= tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure

b
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain condition [STD]

*
= ratio of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
= a factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than
the intrinsic relaxation
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
) = aging coefficient at certain time
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The references to the AASHTO Specifications in this chapter are based on the
provisions of the Standard Specifications, 17th Edition, 2002, and the LRFD
Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998, with revisions through and including the 2003
Interim Revisions.
The principles of prestressing have been used for centuries. For example, wooden
barrels have always been made by tightening metal straps around barrel staves. In the
making of early wheels, the wooden spokes and rim were first held together by a hot
metal tire which, upon cooling, became tensioned. This induced radial compression
on the rim and spokes. Other forms of mechanical, chemical and thermal prestressing
have been attempted or used with varying degrees of success.
The use of prestressing for concrete bridge members has been employed with great
success for over five decades. Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in
tension. Therefore, prestressing is used to control tensile stresses and to precompress
the concrete. This is analogous to providing the concrete with a storage capacity to
resist loads which would otherwise produce tension and cracking in the concrete.
The prestressing of precast concrete bridge members is accomplished by stretching high
strength steel strands, then casting concrete around them. As the concrete hardens, it
bonds to the strands. When the clamps holding the tensioned strands are released, the
force in the strands is applied to (or resisted by) the concrete. This puts the concrete into
compression. This technique of prestressing, through the placing of concrete around
prestretched strands, is called pretensioning. The high strength steel strands used for
pretensioning typically have an ultimate strength, f
pu
, of 270 ksi and a yield strength,
f
py
, of 243 ksi.
High strength steel is necessary for achieving prestressed concrete. Strands are typi-
cally tensioned initially to 0.75f
pu
= 202.5 ksi. Although high, this stress is still safely
less than yield (f
py
= 243 ksi). Any loss of stress from this level will be elastic, related
to strains by the modulus of elasticity. With time, creep and shrinkage cause short-
ening of the member, and, since they are bonded, shortening of the strands. The
shortening of the strands relieves some of the prestrain in the strands, so the prestress
is also reduced.
To illustrate why high strength steel is necessary, consider a concrete member preten-
sioned with high strength strand versus mild steel reinforcement (see Figure 8.1.2-1).
Assume that the shortening of the member produces a corresponding loss of prestress
of 40 ksi. The stress remaining in the strand after losses, which is called the effec-
tive prestress, would therefore be 202.5 40 = 162.5 ksi. While the 40 ksi loss is
significant, over 80% of the initial prestress remains. Compare this with the same
member being prestressed using mild reinforcement (f
y
= 60 ksi). In this case, the
8.1.1
History
8.1
PRINCIPLES AND
ADVANTAGES
OF PRESTRESSING
8.1.2
High Strength Steel
Design Theory And Procedure
8.0
AASHTO
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCES
7017 Bridge Manual Ch 8.1 8/14/03, 10:37 AM 1
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
initial stress can only be about 50 ksi in order to remain safely below the yield stress
and within the elastic range. Since the member and the prestress force are the same,
the losses would also be the same, i.e., 40 ksi. However, in this case, the final con-
ditions are much different, with the effective prestress dropping to 10 ksi, which
leaves only 20% of the prestress remaining. So much of the prestress is lost using
mild reinforcement for prestressing that it becomes ineffective and unreliable. The
high level of prestrain in the strand due to the initial prestress is what makes high
strength strand an effective method of prestressing. The large prestrain reduces the
significance of losses.
Another outstanding benefit of high strength (Grade 270) strand is relative cost.
While strand may cost nearly twice as much as mild reinforcement per pound, it pro-
vides over four times the strength of mild reinforcement. Furthermore, prestressing
High Strength Prestressing Steel
Mild Prestressing Steel
Initial prestress - stress in strand
Effective prestress - stress
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
Stress
Initial prestress - stress in mild
f
j
Loss of pre-strain due to shortening
f
pj
Strain 0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
f
y
Effective prestress remaining
in bar after losses
f
e
f
pe
Strain
before any losses
remaining in strand after losses
steel bar before any losses
of concrete
0.025
Stress
Figure 8.1.2-1
Use of High Strength Versus
Mild Steel for Prestressing
Concrete
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
provides a significant enhancement in the behavior of reinforced concrete members.
Thus, the combination of high-quality, plant-cast concrete with prestressing using
high strength steel, results in the most economical bridge for most situations.
The behavior of flexural members is illustrated using Figures 8.1.3-1, 2 and 3.
Figure 8.1.3-1 shows the conditions in a reinforced concrete member that has
mild reinforcement and no prestressing. Under service load conditions, concrete on
the tension side of the neutral axis is assumed to be cracked. Only concrete on the
compression side is effective in resisting loads. In comparison, a prestressed concrete
member is normally designed to remain uncracked under service loads (see Figure
8.1.3-2). Since the full cross-section is effective, the prestressed member is much
stiffer than a conventionally reinforced concrete member resulting in reduced deflec-
tion (see Figure 8.1.3-3). No unsightly cracks are expected to be seen. Reinforcement
is better protected against corrosion. Fatigue of strand due to repeated truck load-
ing is generally not a design issue when the concrete surrounding the strands is not
allowed to crack.
= 0.003
c
s
>
y
Conditions at Service Load

Conditions at Ultimate
Initial
Service Load
(cracked)
Section
Section Strains Stresses Forces
f = f
s y
C
C
T
Member and Section
T
Figure 8.1.3-1
Behavior of Conventionally
Reinforced Concrete Members
8.1.2 High Strength Steel/8.1.3 Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcing
8.1.3
Prestressing Versus
Conventional Reinforcing
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
At ultimate load conditions, conventionally reinforced concrete and prestressed con-
crete behave similarly. However, due to the lower strength of mild bars, a larger steel
quantity is needed to achieve the same strength as a prestressed member. This increases
the member material costs for a conventionally reinforced member. It should be noted,
however, that strand has a lower ultimate elongation at rupture (about 4 to 6%) than
that of Grade 60 reinforcement (about 10 to 15%). This lower strain capacity or mate-
rial ductility may lead one to expect that prestressed concrete members may lack ductil-
ity or the capacity to deflect adequately prior to failure. However, prestressed concrete
members have been shown both analytically and experimentally to have more than
adequate deflection capability prior to failure. It is not unusual in laboratory experi-
ments to observe 10 to 15 in. deflection in a 40 ft-long prestressed concrete member
before it fails. This deflection easily exceeds minimum ductility requirements.
Member and Section
Conditions at Service Load
Conditions at Ultimate
T
C
T
C
Section
T
c
Initial
Service Load
(uncracked)
= 0.003
c
s
ps
f = f
py s
>
Figure 8.1.3-2
Behavior of Prestressed
Concrete Members
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Another major advantage of prestressing is the improvement in the members ability
to resist shear forces. As a result of the concrete being precompressed, prestressed
concrete members have a higher shear capacity, V
c
, than conventionally reinforced
concrete. This is why thin-webbed I-beam and box-beam bridges have been used very
successfully without shear problems. In addition, harped strand, when used, provides
a vertical force component that tends to balance part of the gravity load shear force.
Because of the high strength of prestressing strand and the absence of deformations
like those found on the surface of reinforcing bars, anchorage of strand in concrete
must be carefully assessed. For example, while a Grade 60 #4 bar has a typical
development length of 12 to 15 in, the development length of a 1/2-in. diameter
strand is about 72 to 100 in. Development length can be a limiting design factor in
short members such as precast stay-in-place deck panels. It may also be significant
for piles that are subjected to moment near the top end. However, the design and
performance of most precast bridge beams are not significantly affected by strand
development length.
8.1.3 Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcing/8.1.4 Concrete to Steel Bond
Figure 8.1.3-3
Typical Load-Deflection
Behavior of Conventional
Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete Beams
8.1.4
Concrete to Steel Bond
Deflection
Load
Deflection
Load
Prestressed
Conventionally reinforced
Ultimate load
Service load
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
8.10.2.1 Conditions Affecting FS
c
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.10.1.1
Hanging Beams
Prestressed concrete members are generally stiff enough to prevent lateral buckling.
However, during handling and transportation, support conditions may result in lat-
eral displacements of the beam, thus producing lateral bending about the weak axis.
There are two important cases: that of a beam hanging from lifting devices and that
of a beam supported on flexible supports. For hanging beams, the tendency to roll is
governed primarily by the properties of the beam. For supported beams, the tendency
to roll is significantly influenced by the conditions of the supports and the roadway
geometry (cross-slope). Detailed explanations of these two cases are given in Mast
(1989, 1993).
The equilibrium conditions for a hanging beam are shown in Figures 8.10.1.1-1
and 8.10.1.1-2a-2b. When a beam hangs from lifting points, it may roll about an
axis through the lifting points. The safety and stability of long beams subject to roll
are dependent upon:
e
i
= the initial lateral eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to the
roll axis
y
r
= the height of the roll axis above the center of gravity of the beam
z
o
= the theoretical lateral deflection of the center of gravity of the beam,
computed with the full weight applied as a lateral load, measured to the
center of gravity of the deflected arc of the beam

max
= tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top
corner equal to the modulus of rupture
Figure 8.10.1.1-1
Perspective of a Beam Free to
Roll and Deflect Laterally
Center of Gravity of the Curved
Beam Arc Lies Directly Beneath
the Roll Axis
R
o
l
l

A
x
i
s
Figure 8.10.1.1-2a-2b
Equilibrium of Beam
in Tilted Position
Deflection of Beam
due to Bending
About Weak Axis
Component of
Weight About
Weak Axis
Center of Mass
of Deflected
Shape
of the Beam
Center of Gravity
of Cross Section
at Lifting Point
a. End view
W
b. Equilibrium diagram
Lifting Loops
Roll Axis
W
W
y
r
y
r
+
e
i
e
i
W
s
in

W
s
in

z
z
8.10
LATERAL STABILITY OF
SLENDER MEMBERS
8.10.1
Introduction
8.10 Lateral Stability Of Slender Members/8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams
7017 Bridge Manual CH8.10 REV 8/14/03, 0:52 PM 1
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
For a beam with overall length, l , and equal overhangs of length, a, at each end:
z
o
=
w
12EI
0.1( ) a ( ) 3a ( ) 1.2(a )
g
1
5 2
1
3 4
1
5
l
l l l + +
[ ]

(Eq. 8.10.1.1-1)
where
l
1
= l 2a
I
g
= moment of inertia of beam about weak axis
For a beam with no overhangs, (a = 0, l
1
= l ), and:

z
o
=

w
120EI
4
g
( ) l
(Eq. 8.10.1.1-2)
The factor of safety against cracking, FS
c
, is given by:
FS
c
=

1
z
y
o
r
i
max
+
(Eq. 8.10.1.1-3)
where
i
= the initial roll angle of a rigid beam =
e
y
i
r
It is recommended that e
i
be based, as a minimum, on 1/4 in. plus one-half the PCI
tolerance for sweep. The PCI sweep tolerance is 1/8 in. per 10 ft of member length.
When cracking occurs, the lateral stiffness decreases andz
o
increases. Thus, failure
may occur shortly after cracking as the tilt angle increases rapidly due to the loss of
stiffness. Consequently, the factor of safety against failure, FS
f
, is conservatively taken
equal to FS
c
. See Section 8.10.2 for suggested factors of safety.
When a beam is supported on flexible supports such as bearing pads or truck and
trailer, there is a tendency for the beam to roll about the roll center below the beam
(Figure 8.10.1.2-1). Because the roll axis is beneath the center of gravity of the
beam, the support must be capable of providing resistance to rotation. This resistance
is expressed as an elastic rotational spring constant, K
.
The rotational spring constant of an elastic support is found by applying a moment
and measuring the rotation. The quantity, K
, is equal to the moment divided by the

rotation angle with units of moment per radian.
8.10.1.2
Beams Supported
from Beneath
Figure 8.10.1.2-1
Equilibrium of Beam on
Elastic Support

8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams/8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
It is convenient to define a quantity, r =

K
W
, where W is the weight of the beam,

as shown in Figure 8.10.1.2-2. The quantity, r, has a physical interpretation: it is the
height at which the beam weight would be placed in neutral equilibrium with the
spring for a given small angle.
The equilibrium tilt angle, , of the major axis of the beam is given by:
=
+

r e
r y
z
i
o

(Eq. 8.10.1.2-1)
where
= superelevation angle or tilt angle of supports in radians
y = height of center of gravity of beam above roll axis (beam supported from
beneath)
= h
cg
h
r
where
h
cg
h
r
When r is very large (i.e., the support is very stiff ), approaches .
The factor of safety against cracking, FS
c
, is:
FS
c
=
r
z e y
max
o
max i max
( )

+ +

(Eq. 8.10.1.2-2)
where
max
= the tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension in the top
corner equal to the modulus of rupture
Figure 8.10.1.2-2
Definition of radius of
stability, r
For Neutral
Equilibrium,
W(r) = M = (K
)
r = K
/W
r
M = (K
)
r
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
For shipping, sweep may be larger (due to creep) and tolerances on location of the
support may be larger. Therefore, it is recommended that, e
i
, for shipping, be based
on 1 in. plus the PCI tolerance for sweep.
Prestressed concrete I-beams possess significant post-cracking strength. After crack-
ing, the beams resist lateral bending by a lateral shift in the centroid of the internal
compressive force.
A simplified relationship for the strength and effective stiffness of long prestressed
concrete I-beams of ordinary proportions, such as the PCI BT-72, is given by Mast
(1993).
For tilt angles that produce top flange tensile stresses less than the modulus of
rupture, 7.5
f
c
, use the gross moment of inertia, I

g
about the weak axis
For tilt angles that produce top flange tensile stresses in excess of 7.5
f
c
, , use
an effective stiffness:
I
I
1 2.5
eff
g
=
+ ( )
(Eq. 8.10.1.2-3)
Assume the maximum at failure,
max
, to be 0.4 radians (or 23)
The maximum tilt angle at failure,
max
, may be limited by rollover of the transport
rig, not by the strength of the beam.
The resisting moment arm is limited by the geometry of the hauling rig. Assuming
a height of roll center, h
r
(normally about 24 in.), and a transverse distance from
centerline of the beam to the center of dual tires, z
max
(normally about 36 in.), the
maximum resisting moment arm may be found (see Figure 8.10.1.2-3):
Using the usual small angle approximations:
max
=
z h
r
max r
(Eq. 8.10.1.2-4)
Figure 8.10.1.2-3
Maximum Resisting Moment
Arm for a Beam on
Truck and Trailer
Roll Center
Roll Center
h
r
zmax
R
oadw
ay
c
max
= z
max
cos h
r
sin
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
To find the factor of safety, FS
f
, against rollover (overturning) failure, Eq. 8.10.1.2-2
may be modified by substituting the cracked section z
o
for z
o
and
max
for
max
.
FS
r
z e y
f
max
o
max i max
=
+ +

( )

(Eq. 8.10.1.2-5)
For the angle
max
, the quantity, z
oo
, is computed using I
eff
from Eq. 8.10.1.2-3 for
that angle. The calculation is:
z
o
= z
o
(1 + 2.5
max
) (Eq. 8.10.1.2-6)
The necessary factor of safety cannot be determined from scientific laws; it must be
determined from experience. It is suggested to use a factor of safety of 1.0 against
cracking, FS
c
, and 1.5 against failure, FS
f
. This applies to both hanging and sup-
ported beams.
For supported beams, the major unknowns are the roll stiffness of the supporting
vehicles and the transverse slope of the roadway. It should be noted that transverse
slopes occur for reasons other than superelevation. On soft ground (on a shoulder or
at the construction site) one side of the hauling rig may sink into the ground, creat-
ing a large transverse slope.
These unknowns primarily affect the factor of safety against cracking. It is believed
that many beams have been successfully shipped with a theoretical factor of safety
against cracking of less than unity. But until the factors of safety used in the past can
be better documented, a minimum factor of safety against cracking of 1.0 is recom-
mended. The factor of safety against failure is essentially the factor of safety against
overturning of the hauling rig. A factor of safety against overturning of 1.5 is believed
to be adequate.
The recommended minimum factors of safety apply to calculations that do not
account for creep and impact. Impact is normally of significance during hauling, but
stability is primarily a problem when traveling along sections of high superelevation
at low speeds. It is recommended that the effects of impact and superelevation be
accounted for separately. This was also recommended by Imper and Laszlo (1987).
Figure 8.10.2.3-1 shows the factors of safety for a supported beam on a 6% slope
and with supports having a K
of 40,500 in.-kip per radian. The factors of safety for

supported beams are much less sensitive to overhang distance. For supported beams,
the stability of the beam is more a function of the stiffness of the support than the
stiffness of the beam. However, the factor of safety against cracking is determined by
the top fiber stresses in the beam. Past practice has been to support the beam on the
truck at the lifting points. Figure 8.10.2.3-1 would indicate that some deviation in
location of support points on the truck and trailer is permissible.
Unequal overhangs are sometimes necessary during shipping. It is sufficiently accu-
rate to use the average overhang in stability calculations, but the stress at the support
should be checked using the actual overhang.
8.10.2
Suggested Factors
of Safety
8.10.2.1
Conditions Affecting FS
c
8.10.2.2
Effects of Creep and Impact
8.10.2.3
Effects of Overhangs
8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath/8.10.2.3 Effects of Overhangs
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
For safe handling of long members, resistance can be improved by several methods.
These are listed below in order of effectiveness and relative ease of accomplishment,
with the easiest and most effective first:
1. Move the lifting points inward (see Figure 8.10.2.4-1). Decreasing the dis-
tance between lifting points by just a small amount can significantly increase
the safety factor. Stresses must be checked; temporary post-tensioning can be
introduced to control stresses
2. Increase the distance between the center of mass and the lifting point, y
r
, by
use of a rigid lifting yoke
3. Provide temporary lateral bracing, in the form of a stiffening truss, composed
of structural steel shapes
4. Change the shape of the cross-section of the member
5. Increase the stiffness of the member by increasing the concrete modulus of
elasticity, E
c
, and tensile strength
8.10.2.4
Increasing the Factor
of Safety
Figure 8.10.2.4-1
Reduction of z
o
with
Overhangs
a/l = Ratio of Overhang to Overall Length
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
l
a
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

z
o

t
o

z
o

w
h
e
n

a

=

0
Figure 8.10.2.3-1
Effect of Overhangs for Beam
on Truck and Trailer
Overhang Distance a, ft.
F
a
c
t
o
r

o
f

S
a
f
e
t
y
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d

C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

p
s
i
1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
6500
A
g
a
in
st F
a
ilu
re
Against Cracking
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
PCI BT-72
l = 136 ft
6000
5500
5000
4500
1.5
2.0
2.5
a a
3.0
3.5
l
8.10.2.3 Effects of Overhangs/8.10.2.4 Increasing the Factor of Safety
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The roll stiffness (rotational spring stiffness) of transport vehicles is a very impor-
tant parameter in evaluating the safety of slender beams during transportation.
Information on the roll stiffness of transport vehicles is normally not available, how-
ever, roll stiffness may be determined by placing a weight on the vehicle at various
eccentricities to the vehicle longitudinal centerline. The weight should be of the same
order of magnitude as the beam, a convenient weight is the beam itself. One end of
the beam may be secured, and the other end placed on the vehicle at eccentricities
of, say, 10 and 20 in. either side of the centerline.
Rotations may be determined by measuring the vertical movement at either end
of the bolster or cross-member used for chaining the beam. The roll stiffness is the
average of the values obtained by dividing the eccentric moment by the rotation in
radians. Because the bolster tilts under eccentric loads, it is necessary to use a narrow
bearing strip of hard material between the beam and the cross-member, in order to
know the eccentricity of the load on the trailer.
A very limited number of measurements indicates that the rotational spring con-
stant, K
, may be expected to be in the range of 3,000 to 6,000 in.-kip per radian

per dual-tire axle. The higher values apply to rigs without leaf springs, in which the
spring is primarily in the tires. For instance, a steel trailer with four dual axles plus a
single axle might be expected to have a roll stiffness of 4.5 times (3,000 to 6,000) =
13,500 to 27,000 in.-kip per radian. The total, K
, is the sum of that for the tractor

and the trailer.
The above figures are based on very limited data and must be used with caution
until more data are available. Also, these values apply to axles for which the load
is balanced mechanically. Axles with air suspension may contribute little, if any, to
roll stiffness. For critical shipments, measuring the roll stiffness of the vehicles that
will be used is strongly recommended. Rigs with independent axle systems may give
inconsistent results.
Elastomeric bearing pads also provide a resilient support for prestressed concrete
beams. The rotational spring constant, K
, is determined by the dimensions and

properties of the pad. When the load is outside the kern of the bearing pad, the
rotational spring constant becomes highly nonlinear. Test results for this situation are
lacking since the objective is generally to keep the load within the kern. In addition,
there may be stability problems with thick plain (unreinforced) pads; laminated pads
provide more stability.
Wind forces on beams produce applied moments that must be added to other
moments. This causes an additional initial eccentricity due to the deflection caused
by the wind load. Additionally, the wind load itself causes an overturning moment
about the bottom of the bearing pads which, divided by the beam weight, produces
a moment arm. The total moment arm at zero tilt angle, , is the sum of assumed
initial eccentricity, e
i
, plus these two added quantities. This emphasizes the importance
of bracing the ends of bridge beams against rollover as soon as they are erected.
Long prestressed concrete I-beams are often braced during transportation using a
king-post truss system. This system uses external prestressing strands which are par-
8.10.3
Measuring Roll
Stiffness of Vehicles
8.10.4
Bearing Pads
8.10.5
Wind Loads
8.10.6
Temporary
King-Post Bracing
8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles/8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
tially tensioned against bearing plates at each end of the beam. One or two steel king
posts are mounted against each side of the beam at opposing points and harp (push)
the strands out to a large eccentricity at or near the mid-point of the beam. This
provides a truss-like frame around the beam.
Such bracing is of very little benefit, however. The steel area of the prestressing
strands is too small to make a significant contribution to the lateral stiffness of the
beam. Temporary prestressing of the top flange, as recommended by Imper and
Laszlo (1987), is a more effective way to improve the factor of safety against cracking.
Horizontal stiffening trusses fabricated with mild steel chords are also effective.
These calculations are based on the example given in Imper and Laszlo (1987). Refer
to Imper and Laszlo (1987) and Mast (1993) for additional details.
The following information is provided:
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 bridge beam
Depth, h = 72 in.
Top flange width, b = 42 in.
Bottom flange width, b
b
= 26 in.
Unit weight of concrete, w
c
= 155 pcf
Initial concrete strength, f
ci
= 4,500 psi
Beam cross-sectional area, A
c
= 767 in.
2
Strong axis, I = 545,894 in.
4
y
b
= 36.6 in.
Weak axis, I
g
= 37,634 in.
4
Overall length, l = 136 ft
Pickup (lift) points, a = 9 ft from each end
Harp points, 0.4l
Initial prestress force, P
i
= 1,232 kips (after initial losses)
Location of P
i
, y
bs
= 5 in. above soffit at harp points
Find the factors of safety against cracking and against failure when the beam hangs
from lifting loops.
1. Check stresses at harp points and required concrete strength:
w =
A w
x
c c
144 1 000 ,
= 0.8256 klf
W = wL = 0.8256(136) = 112.28 kips
M
g
at harp point at 0.4l = 15,926 in.-kip
The corresponding concrete stresses:
f
t
= 0.114 ksi and f
b
= 3.149 ksi
f
ci
required = f
b
/0.6 = 5,248 psi > 4,500 psi. Use f
ci
= 5.25 ksi
8.10.7
Lateral Stability Examples
8.10.7.1
Hanging Beam Example
8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing/8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
2. Find modulus of elasticity:
E
c
= 33 w
c
1.5
f
ci
/1000 = 4,613 ksi

3. Compute initial eccentricity, e
i
:
For beams hanging from lifting loops, use a sweep dimension of one-half the PCI
sweep tolerance and a lifting loop placement tolerance of 1/4 in. Or, calculate
e
i
based on observations of the tilt angles of actual beams. To evaluate e
i
due to
sweep, the distance between the roll axis and the center of gravity of the arc of the
curved beam must be found (see Figure 8.10.7.1-1). The curved shape is assumed
to be a parabola, and the formulas are derived from the properties of a parabola.
One-half of the PCI sweep tolerance is 1/16 in. per 10 ft, or 0.85 in. for the 136-ft
length. The offset factor (see Figure 8.10.7.1-1) is (l
1
/l)
2
0.333 = (118/136)
2

0.333 = 0.419. Thus, e
i
= 0.85(0.419) + 0.25 = 0.607 in.
4. Estimate camber and correct the value of y
r
for camber.
Camber may be estimated from the midspan radius of curvature, R:
R =
EI
M
(Eq. 8.10.7.1-1)
where
M = P
i
e M
gmsp
where
M
gmsp
=
W
a 16,842 in. - kip
2 4
112 28
2
136
4
9 12
l
=
.
( )
M = (1,232)(31.6) 16,842 = 22,089 in.-kip
R =
4,613(545,894)
22,089
= 114,000 in.
The camber, , measured with respect to the beam ends, is computed as follows:
=
l
2 2
8R
[136(12)]
8(114,000)
2.92 in. = = (Eq. 8.10.7.1-2)
Figure 8.10.7.1-1
Offset of Centroid
of a Curved Arc

l l

l l
l
l

CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The height of the center of gravity of the cambered arc above the roll axis is com-
puted:
y
r
= y
t
(0.419) = (72 36.6) 2.92(0.419) = 34.18 in.
Camber has only a small effect on y
r
. One may simply subtract an estimate (say
between one and two in.) from y
r
.
5. Compute z
o
from Eq. (8.10.1.1-1):
z
o
=
w
12EI
0.1 a 3a 1.2a 10.86 in.
g
1
5 2
1
3 4 5
l
l l l + +
( )
=
1
6. Compute
i
i
r
e
y
0.607
34.18
0.01775 = = =
7. Compute the tilt angle,
max
, at cracking:
f
r
= 7.5
f
ci
= 0.543 ksi (tension), f

t
= 0.114 ksi (compression) from Step 1.
M
lat
=
(f f )(I )
b
2
1,179 in. - kip
r t g
+
=
max
=
M
M
1,179
15,926
0.0740
lat
g
= =
8. Compute factor of safety against cracking, FS
c
:
FS
c
=
1
z
y
1
10.86
34.18
0.01775
0.0740
1.79
o
r
i
max
+
=
+
=
9. Find factor of safety against failure, FS

f
:
Assume FS
f
= FS
c
= 1.79. Minimum FS
c
= 1.5 O.K.
Find the factors of safety against cracking and rollover during transportation for the
same beam described in Section 8.10.7.
The following information is provided:
f
c
= concrete strength at 28-days = 5,500 psi
Add two strands in top flange, per Imper and Laszlo (1987)
P = prestress force = 1,251.5 kips
y
s
= the distance between the center of gravity of the strand to soffit = 7.91 in.
= superelevation angle = 0.06 radians (different from the 0.08 used in Imper and
Laszlo, 1987)
Tractor and steer trailer each with four dual axles and one single axle, stiff suspension
h
r
= height of roll center above road = 24 in.
h
cg
= height of center of gravity of beam above road = 108 in.
8.10.7.2
Supported Beam Example
8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example/8.10.7.2 Supported Beam Example
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
1. Estimate K
and find r:
Assume:
K
= 4,500 in.-kip per radian per dual axle

K
= 4.5(4,500) = 20,250 each for tractor and for trailer

Use two times this constant for total, K
, for hauling rig. K
= 40,500 in.-kip per

radian
r =
K
W
360.7 in.
= =
40 500
112 28
,
.
2. Find tilt angle, , from Eq. (8.10.1.2-1):
=
r e
r y z
i
o
+

y = h
cg
h
r
= 108 24 = 84 in.
Increase y by 2%, to allow for camber. Then, y = 85.68 in.
For shipping, assume PCI sweep tolerances plus 1 in. off-center of truck/trailer.
Use offset factor of 0.419 as computed in Step 3. e
i
= 1.70(0.419) + 1 = 1.71 in.
Adjust z
o
from Step 5, by the square root of ratio of concrete strengths to account
for the change in modulus of elasticity.
z
o
= 10.86 10.61 in.
5 248
5 500
,
,
=
=
0.06(360.7) 1.71
360.7 85.68 10.61
0.0883
+

=
3. Check stresses at harp points:
f
t
=
P
A
Pe
S
M
S
0.336 ksi
t
g
t
+ =
f
b
= 2.971 ksi
4. Add lateral bending stress to f
b
, and find required concrete strength:
M
lat
= (M
g
) = 0.0883 (15,926) = 1,406 in.-kip
f
b
= 2.971 + 1,406(13)/37,634 = 3.457 ksi
f
c
=
f
0.6
5,759 psi and E 4,833 ksi
b
c
= =
Adjust z
o
from Step 5 by the ratio of E
c
s :
z
o

= 10.86 10.37 in.
4 613
4 833
,
,
=
5. Estimate camber and correct y for camber:
The effect of camber on stability during hauling is small. Estimate that camber
increases y by 2 in. to 86 in.
7017 Bridge Manual CH8.10 REV 8/28/03, 9:56 AM 11
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
6. Find the tilt angle,
max
,at cracking:
f
r
= 7.5 5,759 0.569 ksi (tension) = (tension)
f
t
= 0.336 ksi (compression) from Step 3
M
lat
=
(f f )(I )
b
2
1,622 in. - kip
r t g
+
=
max
=
M
M
1,622
15,926
0.1018
lat
g
= =
7. Compute factor of safety against cracking, FS
c
, from Eq. (8.10.1.2-2):
FS
c
=
c
c
r
z e y
360.7(0.1018 0.06)
10.37(0.1018) 1.71 86(0.1018)
r
a
max
o
i
=
+ +
=
+ +
( )
max max

= 1.31 > 1.0 OK
8. Find tilt angle,
max
, at maximum resisting moment arm from Eq. (8.10.1.2-4):
max
=
z h
r
36 24(0.06)
360.7
0.06 0.1558
max r
+ =
+ =
9. Compute z
o
at
max
from Eq. (8.10.1.2-6):
z
o
=z
o
(1 + 2.5
max
) = 10.37 [1 + 2.5(0.1558)] = 14.41 in.
10. Compute factor of safety against rollover, FS
f
, from Eq. (8.10.1.2-5):
FS
f
=
c
c
r
z e y
360.7(0.1558 0.06)
14.41(0.1558) 1.71 86(0.1558)
r
a
max
o max i max
=
+ +
=
+ +

( )

= 1.99 > 1.5 OK
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.11 Bending Moments and Shear Forces Due to Vehicular Live Loads/8.11.2 Lane Loading, 0.640 kip/ft
Table 8.11.1-1
Maximum Bending Moment
per Lane for HS20 Truck
Load
Load x/L Formula for maximum
Minimum
type bending moment, ft-kips
x,
*
ft L, ft
HS20
Truck
0 - 0.333
72 9.33 ( )[( ) ] x L x
L

0 28
0.333 - 0.500
72 4.67
112
( )[( ) ] x L x
L

14 28
* x is the distance from left support to the section being considered, ft
Table 8.11.1-2
Maximum Shear Force per
Lane for HS20 Truck Load
Minimum Maximum
type shear force, kips
x,
*
ft L, ft L, ft
HS20
Truck
0 - 0.500
72 4.67
8
[( ) ] L x
L

14 28 42
0 - 0.500
72 9.33 [( ) ] L x
L

0 42 -
8.11
BENDING MOMENTS
AND SHEAR FORCES
DUE TO VEHICULAR
LIVE LOADS
8.11.1
HS20 Truck Loading
8.11.2
Lane Loading, 0.640 kip/ft
In designing longitudinal members of bridges, the maximum bending moment and
shear force at each section along the span, are computed for live loads. The load
position must be determined to give the maximum values of shears and moments.
The Standard Specifications use the HS20 design truck while the LRFD Specifications
use the HL-93 loading which is a combination of the HS20 design truck and a lane
loading of 0.640 kip/ft. Design for the fatigue limit state in the LRFD Specifications,
requires that a special design truck be used. This section gives formulas which may be
combined to get the maximum bending moments and shear forces due to the above
loading cases.
Readers are referred to the Standard Specifications for details about the effects of the
equivalent lane loading which must also be considered in design. It can be shown that
this equivalent lane loading may govern the design of spans longer than 144.5 ft for
bending moment and 120 ft for shear force.
The following formulas may be used to calculate the maximum bending moment
and maximum shear force per lane at any point on a span for the HS20 design
truck. Certain limitations apply, as noted in the tables. The computed values should
be multiplied by a factor of 1/2 to obtain forces per line of wheels. The formulas are
valid only for simple spans and impact is not included (see AASHTO Manual for
Condition Evaluation of Bridges, AASHTO, 1994).
The following formulas may be used to calculate the maximum bending moment
and the maximum shear force per lane at any point on a span for a lane load of 0.640
kip/ft. The formulas are valid only for simple spans and impact is not included.
Maximum bending moment =
0.64(x)(L x)
2
, ft-kips
7017 Bridge Manual Ch 8.11 8/14/03, 0:56 PM 1
JUL 03
8.11.2 Lane Loading, 0.640 kip/ft/8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading
8.11.3
Fatigue Truck Loading
Table 8.11.3-1
Maximum Bending Moment
per Lane for HL-93 Fatigue
Truck Loading
Minimum
type bending moment, ft-kips
x,
*
ft L, ft
Fatigue
Truck
0 - 0.241
72 18.22 ( )[( ) ] x L x
L

0 44
Loading
(LRFD) 0.241 - 0.500
72 11.78
112
( )[( ) ] x L x
L

14 28
Maximum shear force =
0.64
2L
(L x)
2
, kips
where
x = the distance from left support to the section being considered, ft
L = span, ft
When designing using the LRFD Specifications, consideration of the fatigue limit
state may be required (see LRFD Article 5.5.3.1). A special fatigue truck load is
defined in LRFD Article 3.6.1.4.1. This loading consists of a single design truck
which has the same axle weights used in all other limit states, but with a constant
spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. The following equations may be used
to calculate the maximum bending moment per lane at any point on the span for the
fatigue truck loading. These values should be multiplied by a factor of 1/2 to obtain
values per line of wheels. These formulas are valid only for simple spans and impact
is not included.
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.12.1
Introduction
8.12
STRUT-AND-TIE
MODELING OF
DISTURBED REGIONS
Traditionally, models used in the analysis and design of concrete structures have been
based on elastic theory and the basic assumption that plane sections remain plane,
regardless of the loading. However, it is well known that disturbances do occur in
regions near discontinuities, for example, at concentrated loads and abrupt changes
in member dimensions. Such regions are referred to as disturbed regions.
Methods used to analyze and design disturbed regions must include procedures that
reflect the actual flow of stresses in such regions. In considering stress distribution
before cracking, it is customary to apply elastic methods of analysis, especially when
predicting where significant cracking will occur. Since significant stress redistribution
takes place after concrete cracks, elastic methods cannot adequately predict stresses
subsequent to cracking.
A rational method for dealing with disturbed regions subsequent to cracking is the
use of strut-and-tie models. These models can give an excellent representation of the
flow of forces in disturbed regions of cracked concrete systems.
The theoretical basis of the method prescribed in the LRFD Specifications [Article
5.8.3.4.2] for the design of a section subjected to combined shear, axial load and flex-
ure, is the modified compression field theory. This method considers the equilibrium
of forces acting on the idealized, variable-angle truss, the compatibility of strains, and
the effects of cracking of concrete. Simplifications in the method include the use of
average values of stresses and strains over a length greater than the crack spacing.
In a typical calculation for shear reinforcement, the sectional dimensions, prestress-
ing and material strengths have been chosen and the shear design involves selection
of adequate shear reinforcement and, if necessary, additional longitudinal reinforce-
ment.
Figure 8.12.1-1 shows that there are three types of regions that need to be considered
in general shear design of a beam as follows:
1) Regions that can be appropriately treated as a system of struts and ties. This
approach is discussed in this section.
2) Disturbed regions of fanning compressive stresses characterized by radiating
compressive stresses near supports and regions where the shear changes sign.
In such regions the value of varies.
3) Regions of uniform compressive stress fields where the value of is constant.
The second and third types of regions are discussed in Section 8.4.3 using the gen-
eral modified compression field theory and the corresponding LRFD Specifications
procedure.
8.12 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Disturbed Regions/8.12.1 Introduction
7017 Bridge manual Ch 8.12 8/14/03, 0:59 PM 1
JUL 03
8.12.2
Strut-and-Tie Models
The LRFD Specifications encourage the use of strut-and-tie models in design where
appropriate. It has been determined through sophisticated analysis and laboratory
testing, that cracked reinforced concrete carries load mainly by development of a
truss system represented by compressive stresses in the concrete and tensile stresses
in the reinforcement. Furthermore, upon the occurrence of significant cracking, the
originally curved principal stress trajectories in concrete tend toward straight lines,
and it is appropriate to regard the resulting compressive forces as being carried by
straight compressive struts. Examples of strut-and-tie modeling of a simply supported
and a continuous deep beam are shown in Figures. 8.12.2-1a-1b and 8.12.2-2.
Figure 8.12.1-1
Disturbed Regions and
Regions of Uniform
Compression Fields
Uniform compression
field ( constant)
Fanning compression field
( varies)
Compression strut
Tension tie
Figure 8.12.2-1a-1b
Strut-and-Tie Model for a
Simple Deep Beam
Nodal zone
Tension tie
a) Flow of Forces
Anchor tension tie
beyond this point to
develop necessary force
P P
A
B C
D
P
P
0.85 max.
Effective
anchorage
area
0.75
1
f
cu
Truss node
Compression strut
Tension-tie
force
b) Truss Model
P P
P P
A
B C
D
s
f
c
f
c

8.12.1 Introduction/8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models
JUL 03
8.12.2.1
Truss Geometry Layout
Important considerations in strut-and-tie modeling include the geometry of the truss
system, the nodal zone and member dimensions, and the strengths of the compres-
sion and tension members.
The significance of using correct geometry in defining a truss should be obvious in
the necessity to have a triangularized system of struts and ties. At first glance, the
use of a strut-and-tie truss system to resist loads seems like an easy solution that
any engineer should be readily able to accomplish. Since the real structure is a con-
tinuum, however, there are an infinite variety of trusses that could be designed inside
a concrete member. The best or most efficient truss layout will be one that most
closely fits the applied load and reaction conditions while resisting forces through
the shortest load paths.
Identification of the existing boundary conditions is the first step in selecting a truss
layout for the strut-and-tie system. In the hammerhead pier cap of Figure 8.12.2.1-
1a-1b, two different sets of boundary conditions are shown depending on the loca-
tions of the design lanes and loading on the roadway above. In Figure 8.12.2.1-1a,
the two 12 ft. design lanes are placed symmetric about the pier centerline and the
girder reactions on the pier cap, representing the top boundary condition, are all
identical. In Figure 8.12.2.1-1b, the two design lanes are shifted to the left side of
the roadway and the reactions vary across the top of the pier cap, giving a second top
boundary condition.
Regardless of the truss layout that might be selected within the pier cap, the forces in
the pier column can be directly calculated: with pure axial compression in the first case
and compression plus bending in the second case as shown in Figure 8.12.2.1-1a-1b.
In the first case, the bottom boundary condition is simply an axial force acting at the
middle of the pier. The boundary condition in the second case, however, must be cal-
culated and includes a column compression block and tension component as shown in
Figure 8.12.2.1-1b. The forces shown in the pier of Figure 8.12.2.1-1b are assumed
to exist at a distance d from the bottom of the pier cap away from the disturbed
region and in the portion of the column assumed to have sectional model behavior.
Figure 8.12.2-2
Strut-and-Tie Model for a
Continuous Deep Beam
Tension tie
Compression strut
P P
8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models/8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout
JUL 03
In the first case of Figure 8.12.2.1-1a, the truss layout in the pier cap need only
meet the condition of developing a compression thrust at the bottom of the cap. In
the second case of Figure 8.12.2.1-1b, the truss must develop both the compression
and the tension force in the pier column. Clearly two different truss layouts could be
designed depending on which set of loads/boundary conditions was being considered
as shown in Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b. The truss in the Figure 8.12.2.1-2b would be
inverted if the trucks were at the other side of the roadway.
Figure 8.12.2.1-1a-1b
Pier Cap under Symmetric
and Unsymmetric Lane
Loading
uniform axia stress
axial force resultant
compression stress block
rebar tension
resultant
force couple
b) Unsymmetric Loads
a) Symmetric Loads
JUL 03
It is essential in the development of a truss layout for strut-and-tie design that:
(1) all of the possible load combinations be identified.
(2) boundary forces, including internal forces from portions of the structure having
sectional type behavior, be calculated for each controlling load condition.
(3) appropriate strut-and-tie models be laid out and designed for each set of boundary
conditions.
The nodal zones are regions where the struts and ties of the truss join. While the
truss diagrams of Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b idealize the truss members as connecting at
points, the actual structure has struts and ties with finite dimensions. The nodal zone
sizes are related to both the effective tie member sizes and the mechanism by which
exterior loads are transferred into the structure. As shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c
Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b
Truss Layouts for the
Different Load Cases
strut
tie
192k
672k
52k 84k 132k 212k
b) Unsymmetric Truss
strut
tie
480k
120k 120k 120k 120k
a) Symmetric Truss
8.12.2.2
Nodal Zone and
Member Dimensions
8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout/8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions
JUL 03
[LRFD Specifications Commentary Figure 5.6.3.3.2-1] the dimensions of the nodal
zone and adjoining struts are controlled by the anchorage conditions of reinforcing
tie bars or bearing areas of applied loads.
The strength of tension ties depends directly on the type and strength of reinforcing
used in the ties. Strengths of the individual truss strut members are normally con-
trolled by the limits on stresses within the nodal zones. The nodal zone compressive
stresses are defined by the relation between compressive stress capacity and perpen-
dicular tension strains invoked by compression stress field theory. Figure 8.12.2-1a
shows the principal tension strain,
1
, which may exist perpendicular to the compres-
sion strut, BP. The strain,
1
, is dependent on the truss geometry and the tensile strain
in adjoining truss members. The adverse effect of this tensile strain in the cracked
concrete must be considered in calculating the capacity of a strut. In such struts the
limiting compressive stress, f
cu
, is a function of f
c
and
1
. The value of
1
is, in turn, a
function of the tension strain,
s
, in the cracked concrete in the direction of the ten-
sion tie, and the angle between strut and tie.
8.12.2.3
Strength of Members
Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c
Effects of Anchorage
Conditions on Cross-Sectional
Area of Strut
a) Strut Anchored by Reinforcement
x
x
d
ba
s
s
l
a
Section x-x
d
ba
b) Strut Anchored by
Bearing and Reinforcement
h
a
l
b
s
l
b
s h
s
c) Strut Anchored by Bearing and Strut
l sin
b
s +h cos
s s
l sin
b
s
+ h cos
a s
6d
b
0.5ha
6d
ba 6d
ba
l sin
a s
6d
ba
6d
ba
8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions/8.12.2.3 Strength of Members
JUL 03
LRFD Article 5.6.3.1 states that strut-and-tie models may be used to determine
internal force effects near supports and the points of application of concentrated
loads at strength and extreme event limit states. The statement appearing in the sec-
ond paragraph of this article is stronger, and more specific, namely, the strut-and-tie
model should be considered for the design of deep footings and pile caps or other
situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and the support-
ing reactions is less than about twice the member thickness.
LRFD Article 5.6.3 provides the following specifications for strut-and-tie model-
ing.
The factored resistance of strut, P
r
, may be calculated as:
P
r
= P
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.2-1]
where
= 0.7 for bearing in concrete and for strut-and-tie models [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2-1]
P
n
= nominal resistance of a compressive strut
The nominal axial resistance of unreinforced struts is calculated as:
P
n
= f
cu
A
cs
[LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.1-1]
where
f
cu
= limiting compressive stress in strut and is calculated from:
f
cu
= f
c
/(0.8 + 170
1
) 0.85f
c
[LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-1]
where

1
is the principal tensile strain in cracked concrete, and is taken as:

1
= (
s
+ 0.002)cot
2
s
[LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2]
where

s
= smallest angle between the compressive strut and adjoining tension
ties, deg

s
= tensile strain in the concrete in the direction of the tension tie, in./in.
A
cs
= effective cross-sectional area of the strut determined from a consideration
of the available concrete area and the anchoring or bearing conditions at the
ends of the strut [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.2.]
For an individual strut, the more basic expression for
1
includes an additional term,
s
, outside the bracket of LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2.
For a value of principal tensile strain,
1
= 0.002, the concrete in the compression
strut can resist a compressive stress of 0.85f
c
, i.e., the limit for regions of the strut
not crossed by or joined to tension ties. It is thus conservatively assumed that the
principal compressive strain,
2
, in the direction of the strut is equal to 0.002.
In the presence of a tension tie at a node, if the reinforcing bars are to yield in
tension, there must exist significant tensile strains in the concrete. In LRFD Eq.
5.6.3.3.3-2, as
s
increases,
1
increases, and f
cu
in LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-1 decreases.
From LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2, it is seen that as
s
decreases, cot
2
s
and
1
increase,
and therefore f
cu
decreases. In the limit when
s
= 0, the compressive strut direction
coincides with that of the tension tie (i.e., incompatibility occurs, and f
cu
= 0 which
is an impractical case).
8.12.3
LRFD Specifications
Provisions for
8.12.3.1
Compression Struts
8.12.3.1.1
Unreinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models/
JUL 03
The value of A
cs
depends on conditions of anchoring of the strut at the node (as
shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c); e.g.
Strut anchored by reinforcement
Strut anchored by bearing and reinforcement
Strut anchored by bearing and strut
The following rules are prescribed for calculating the value of
s
for substitution in
LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2:
For a tension tie consisting of reinforcing bars:
s
= tensile strain in reinforcing bars due to factored loads
For tension tie consisting of prestressed reinforcement:
s
= 0.0, up to decompression of concrete (i.e., f
pe
)
s
= (f
ps
f
pe
)/E
p
, beyond decompression
If
s
varies over the width of the strut,
s
is taken as the strain at centerline of the strut.
For a strut containing longitudinal reinforcement which is detailed to develop its
yield stress, the nominal resistanc, e, is calculated as:
P
n
= f
cu
A
cs
+ f
y
A
ss
[LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.4-1]
where
A
ss
= area of reinforcement in strut
A
cs
= area of concrete strut, calculated as shown earlier
LRFD Article 5.6.3.4.1 states that the nominal strength of a tension tie should be
calculated as:
P
n
= f
y
A
st
+ A
ps
(f
pe
+ f
y
) [LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.4.1-1]
where
f
y
= yield strength of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement
f
pe
= stress in prestressing steel due to prestress (after losses)
A
st
= area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in tie
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel in tie
In the absence of mild steel, a value of f
y
60 ksi may be assumed in the equation,
in order to reflect the fact that the stress in the prestressing elements will be increased
due to the strain which will cause concrete to crack. [LRFD Art. C5.6.3.4.1]
The tension tie reinforcement must be anchored in accordance with LRFD Article
5.11 which deals with development of reinforcement. This ensures the satisfactory
transfer of the tension force to the node regions.
In the absence of effective confining reinforcement, it is specified in LRFD Article
5.6.3.5, that the concrete compressive stress in the node regions should not exceed
the following:
0.85 f
c
for node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas
8.12.3.1.2
Reinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.2
Tension Ties
8.12.3.2.1
Tie Anchorage
8.12.3.3
Proportioning Node Regions
8.12.3.1.1 Unreinforced Concrete Struts/8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions
JUL 03
0.75 f
c
for node regions anchoring only one tension tie
0.65 f
c
for node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction
where = resistance factor for bearing on concrete = 0.7 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
Stress limits at a nodal zone are controlled by the type of truss members meeting at the
node. At nodes B and C (Figure 8.12.2-1a) where compression members meet, and at
bearing areas at these locations, a higher compressive stress (0.85 f
c
) is allowed than at
A and D where it is necessary to anchor the tension tie, AD. In the latter case, the allow-
able maximum compressive stress is reduced to 0.75 f
c
. This limit is reduced even fur-
ther to 0.65 f
c
when tension ties converge from more than one direction at a node.
The above reductions in the presence of tension ties reflect the detrimental effect of
tensile strain in nodes in which tensile reinforcement is anchored. It can be seen that
stresses in nodal zones can be reduced by increasing the size of bearing plates, or by
increasing the dimensions of struts and tension ties.
LRFD Commentary Article C5.6.3.5 states that if ties consist of post-tensioned
tendons, and if the stress in the concrete does not exceed f
pc
(at centroid of the ties
cross-section), there is no tensile strain in the nodal zone and the limit for concrete
compressive stress may be taken as 0.85 f
c
.
In order to control crack widths in members designed with the strut-and-tie model
(except slabs and footings), and to ensure minimum ductility so that significant redis-
tribution of internal stresses is possible, LRFD Article 5.6.3.6 states that an orthogonal
reinforcing grid must be provided near each face. The spacing of bars in such a grid
should not exceed 12.0 in., and the ratio of reinforcement area to gross concrete area
should exceed 0.003 in each direction.
In general, these crack control requirements lead to a substantial amount of well-distrib-
uted reinforcement throughout the member. Accordingly, the LRFD Specifications allow
for crack control reinforcement located within the region of a tension tie to be included
in calculating the resistance of the tie.
The use of strut-and-tie models typically involves a trial-and-error procedure. The
following steps, if followed, should help reduce the effort required:
1) Use strut-and-tie modeling for disturbed regions of the structural member. Solve
for internal forces, and their resultants outside of the disturbed regions using sec-
tional analysis with all of the controlling load combinations. These forces from
sectional analysis may be considered as boundary forces for the disturbed region
model. Apply the resultant forces to the disturbed region along with any external
loads that fall on that part of the member.
2) Assume initial models for each of the appropriate controlling load cases and bound-
ary condition force sets. Estimate likely member widths. Elastic stress distribution
may be used as a guide. Static equilibrium is then used to determine forces in mem-
bers due to factored loads. These forces are used in checking member dimensions.
It may be necessary to modify the assumed model if the members are determined to
be inadequate. A number of appropriate models for different applications are avail-
able in the literature [Guyon, (1960); Gergely and Sozen, (1967); Schlaich, et. al.,
(1987); Collins and Mitchell, (1991); Breen, et. al. (1994)].
8.12.3.4
Crack Control Reinforcement
8.12.4
Steps for Developing
8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions/8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models
JUL 03
3) Draw the strut-and-tie model to a reasonably large scale. This will help avoid
errors and give a better appreciation of the proportions of the structure.
4) There is no single strut-and-tie model for a particular system. Generally, the forces
will flow in accordance with the pattern of reinforcement. Well-distributed rein-
forcement should be provided to ensure the redistribution of internal forces in the
cracked concrete.
5) Good detailing of the structure is essential to ensure that the assumed flow of
forces can be achieved in the cracked structure. Accordingly, reinforcement in
tension ties must be effectively anchored to develop the strength of the member.
Nodal zones must be checked to ensure satisfactory load transfer between struts
and ties.
6) Complicated stress fields such as fans, arches and bands can usually be replaced by
simple line struts. Unnecessary complication of the model is not warranted.
Regardless of the strut-and-tie model adopted, the following design criteria must be
met:
1. Limits on bearing stresses and on compressive stresses in struts
2. Satisfactory anchorage and careful detailing of tension tie reinforcement
3. Critical examination of nodal zones to determine their maximum capacities
4. Provision of adequate crack control reinforcement throughout, to ensure the
redistribution of internal stresses after cracking of concrete
Step 1 Determine bearing areas [LRFD Arts. 5.6.3.5 and 5.7.5]
Step 2 Assume appropriate truss geometry (draw a large-scale diagram)
Step 3 Select tension-tie reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.4]
Select reinforcement distribution [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.5]
Step 4 Check development of tension-tie reinforcement [LRFD Arts. 5.6.3.4.2 and 5.11]
Step 5 Check strength of compression struts [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.1]
Step 6 Select crack control reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.6]
Step 7 Detail structure carefully
8.12.4.1
Design Criteria
8.12.4.2
Summary of Steps
8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models/8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps
JUL 03
Design the pier cap shown in the figure below.
8.12.5
Pier Cap Example
Figure 8.12.5-1
Pier Cap Dimensions


JUL 03
Node C:
F
CD
=
500
tan (26.5 )
= 1,002.8 kips
F
AC
=
500
sin (26.5 )
= 1,120.6 kips
Node D:
F
AD
=
500
sin (62.8 )
= 562.1 kips
F
DE
= F
CD
+ F
AD
cos62.8 = 1,002.8 + 562.1cos62.8 = 1,259.7 kips
8.12.5.2
Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.1
Flow of Forces and
Truss Geometry
Figure 8.12.5.1-1a-1d
Assumed Truss Geometry
P
u
= 500 kips
a) Strut-and-Tie Model
P
u
1'-0"
3'-0" 8'-0" 8'-0"
Tension Tie
8'-0" 3'-0"
C D E F
4'-0"
2'-6"
1'-4"
A
2'-6" 2'-6"
B
P
u P
u
P
u
b) Nodal Zone A, B
1'-4"
5'-0"
27.4
c) Nodal Zones: C,D,E,F
l = 2'-0"
b
h = 1'-0"
a
26.5
500k 500k 500k 500k
8.0'
8.0'
4.0' 4.0'
A B
C D F E
5.35'
1000 k 1000 k
1.25' 1.25'
FB
F
BE
= 62.8
d) Member Force Calculation
26.5
F
CD
= 1,002.8 k
F
A
C
=

1
,
1
2
0
.
6

k
F
A
D

=

5
6
2
.
1

k
F
DE
= 1,259.7 k
F
EF
BF
= 26.5
F = 1,259.7 k
AB
tan
BF
= 5.35/10.75
BE
= 26.5
tan
BE
= 5.35/2.75
BE
= 62.8
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry/8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
JUL 03
Node A:
F
AB
= F
AD
cos62.8 + F
AC
cos26.5 = 562.1cos62.8 + 1,120.6cos26.5 = 1,259.7 kips
= F
DE
Bearing Stresses at C and D:
F < P
r
= P
n
= (0.85f
c
A
1
m), assume m = 1 [LRFD Eq.5.7.5-2]
Allowable F/A
1
= 0.7(0.85 x 5) = 2.98 ksi
Actual F/A
1
=
500 k
24 (10)
= 2.08 ksi < maximum allowable O.K.
Bearing Stresses at A and B:
F/A
1
=
2,000k
60 (48)
= 0.69 ksi < maximum allowable O.K.
Therefore, bearing stresses are acceptable.
F
DE
= 1,259.7 kips
f
y
A
st
1,259.7
A
st
1,259.7/0.9(60) = 23.3 in.
2
Because 3-9 is available for development at C (at inner edge), choose a bar that
can be developed in this distance, i.e., choose #10, l
db
= 43.1 in. < 45 in. available
[LRFD Art. 5.11.2.1].
No. of bars required = 23.3/1.27 = 18.34 bars
Use (20) #10 bars (25.4 in.
2
) in 2 layers
F
CD
= 1,002.8 kips
A
st
> 1,002.8/0.9(60) = 18.6 in.
2
If (20) #10 bars are used as in DE,
A required
A provided
18.6
25.4
s
s
= = 0.73
Top bars:
Required development length = 1.3(0.73)(43.1) = 40.9 in. < 45 in. available O.K.
Note that each strut is traversed by a tie at one end.
Strut AC:
Strut AC is critical due to the small angle it makes with the tension tie, CD.
F
AC
= 1,120.6 kips (compression)
End C: (Anchored by bearing and reinforcement)
Tensile strain in tie:
F
CD
/A
s
E
s
= 1,002.8/[(20)(1.27)(29,000)] = 1.36 x 10
-3
in./in.
The tension-tie reinforcing bars are developed in the nodal zone. Therefore, the
strain in these bars will increase from zero at the ends to 1.36 x 10
-3
.
Strain at center of strut,
s
= 1/2(1.36x10
-3
) = 0.68 x 10
-3
1
= (
s
+ 0.002)cot
2

s
8.12.5.5
Strut Capacities
8.12.5.3
Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4
Reinforcement for
Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss/8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
JUL 03
where

s
= 26.5 [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.3]

1
= (0.68 x 10
-3
+ 2.0 x 10
-3
)cot
2
26.5 = 10.8 x 10
-3
f
cu
= f
c
/(0.8 + 170
1
) 0.85f
c
[LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.3]
= 5.0/[0.8 + 170(10.8 x 10
-3
)] = 1.90 ksi < (0.85f
c
= 4.25 ksi)
Capacity of strut, AC at C = f
cu
A
cs
where
A
cs
= (l
b
sin
s
+ h
a
cos
s
)(48) (Figure 8.12.2.2-1c)
= (24sin26.5 + 12cos26.5) x 48 = (21.4 x 48) in.
2
Capacity of AC at C = (0.70)(1.90)(48 x 21.4)
= 1,366.2 kips > F
AC
(1,120.6 kips) O.K.
End A of AC is obviously not critical (not crossed by tension tie and wider dimensions
than at C).
Strut AD:
Strut AD is anchored by bearing and reinforcement at end A, and crossed by tie at
end D.
F
AD
= 562.1 kips
End D: Tensile strain in tie, DE = 1,259.7/[(20)(1.27)(29,000)] = 1.71 x 10
-3
Strain at center of strut,
s
= 1/2(1.71 x 10
-3
) = 0.86 x 10
-3
1
= (
s
+ 0.002)cot
2

s
where

s
= 62.8

1
= (0.86 + 2.0)10
-3
cot
2
62.8 = 0.755 x 10
-3
f
cu
= f
c
/(0.8 + 170
1
) 0.85f
c
f
cu
= 5.0/[0.8 + 170(0.755 x 10
-3
)] = 5.39 ksi > 0.85f
c
= 4.25 ksi
Capacity of strut AD at D: f
cu
A
cs
A
cs
= (l
b
sin
s
+ h
a
cos
s
)(48) = (24sin62.8 + 12cos62.8) x 48 = 1,288 in.
2
Capacity of Strut = (0.7)(4.25)(1,288) = 3,831 kips > F
AD
= 562.1 k O.K.
End A is obviously not critical (not crossed by tie).
Figure 8.12.5.6-1
Nodal Zone at Pier
1.3'
H = 1,259.7 k
5
6
2
.
1

k
1
,
1
2
0
.
6

k
V = 1,000 k
2.5'
26.5 b =
6
2
.
8
8.12.5.6
Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities/8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
JUL 03
Horizontal component, H = 562.1cos62.8 + 1,120.6cos26.5 = 1,259.7 kips = F
AB
O.K.
This nodal zone is bounded only by compressive struts and bearing areas:
Allowable compressive stress, f = 0.85f
c
= 2.98 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.5]
Due to H: F/A = 1,259.7/[(1.3)(12)(48)] = 1.68 ksi < 2.98 O.K.
Due to V: F/A = 1,000/[(2.5)(12)(48)] = 0.69 ksi O.K.
Check at throat and provide this reinforcement throughout (assuming 12 in. spacing).
Minimum A
s
required = 0.003(12)(48) = 1.73 in.
2
/ft [LRFD Art. 5.6.3.6]
Use (2) #9 = 2.00 in.
2
, #9 each face at 12 in. on center = 2.00 in.
2
/ft, or #6 bars each
face at 6 in. spacing, 4 x 0.44 = 1.76 in.
2
/ft
Use #6 bars @ 6 in. on center vertically and horizontally.
8.12.5.7
Minimum Reinforcement
for Crack Control
Figure 8.12.5.7-1
# 6 Horizontal bars
@ 6 in. on center
each face
# 6 Vertical bars @ 6 in. on center throughout each face
(20)
# 10 bars
A
A
3"
Orthogonal grid of # 6 bars
@ 6 in. on center on
each face
(20) # 10 bars
4'-0"
2'-6"
4'-0"
6"
View A-A
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier/8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.13.1
Introduction
8.13
DETAILED METHODS
OF TIME-DEPENDENT
ANALYSIS
Section 8.6 in this chapter presents a variety of practical and relatively simple meth-
ods to estimate time-dependent effects in prestressed concrete members. Those meth-
ods are suitable for a very wide range of bridge projects but may not be applicable to
certain special situations. More detailed methods are available when the designer feels
that a more rigorous estimate of time-dependent effects is warranted.
The following sections describe a method that can be used to perform time-depen-
dent analysis of a composite prestressed concrete bridge member of any cross-section.
This method is based on traditional composite section analysis, using transformed
elastic properties of steel elements and any cast-in-place concrete elements. Adjust-
ments are made to the elastic modulus of the concrete elements to reflect creep
characteristics. So-called initial strains are introduced in the analysis to account for
concrete shrinkage, steel relaxation and residual concrete creep. By analyzing discrete
cross-sections, and then performing the numerical integration described in Section
8.7.4, whole members may also be analyzed using the methods that follow.
The mechanical properties of concrete vary with time. As hydration progresses, com-
pressive strength and modulus of elasticity continually increase, but at a decreasing rate.
In addition, it has long been recognized that concrete exhibits creep, defined as the
time-dependent increase in strain that occurs while the material is subjected to constant
stress. Finally, concrete undergoes shrinkage caused by drying. Chapter 2 and Section
8.6.2.3 provide more detailed discussion of these time-dependent behaviors.
There exists a wide range of methods used to produce precast concrete bridge
components. Concrete mixes, aggregates, admixtures, and curing methods all have
significant effects on the time-dependent properties of concrete as a structural mate-
rial. Because of these variations, the recommendations in Chapter 2 and Section 8.6
should be used only as a starting point. For applications where it is critical to accu-
rately predict time-dependent behavior, the properties of the actual materials used
should be determined by testing.
In order to perform time-dependent analysis, it is necessary to establish the stress-
strain-time relationship for the concrete material. This relationship will predict the
total strain, , at a future time, t, that results from a stress increment applied at time,
t
o
. The total concrete strain at any time, t, can be separated into three components:

f
the immediate strain due to the applied stress, f

cr
the time-dependent creep strain

sh
free shrinkage strain
It is important to recognize that both the modulus of elasticity, E, and the creep coef-
ficient, C, are functions of time. In addition, because concrete is an aging material,
C depends on the loading age, t
o
, as well.
8.13.1.1
Properties of Concrete
8.13.1.1.1
Stress-Strain-Time
Relationship
8.13 Detailed Methods of Time-Dependent Analysis/
7017 Bridge Manual Ch. 8.13 8/14/03, 1:04 PM 1
JUL 03
a) Constant Stress
Total concrete strain is (
f
+
cr
+
sh
) which is usually expressed as follows:

+
[ ]
+
f (t )
E (t )
1 C(t,t )
0
c 0
0 sh

(Eq. 8.13.1.1.1-1)
where
E(t
0
) modulus of elasticity at time, t
o
, the beginning of the interval
C(t, t
0
) creep coeffcient over a time interval from t
0
to t
Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) applies as long as stress, f, is a constant, sustained stress. Figure
8.13.1.1.1-1 shows the gradual development of creep strains with time under the
effects of a constant stress.
b) Variable Stress
Where the applied stress, f, is variable, Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) cannot be used directly.
Figure 8.13.1.1.1-2 depicts the development of creep strains under the effects of an
increasing applied stress.
At most stress levels experienced due to service loads, the principle of superposition
applies. Using superposition, the effects of a series of applied stress increments can
be determined individually, using the above equation, and then combined to give the
total time-dependent concrete strain. For a series of stress increments, f
j
, applied at
times, t
j
, the total concrete strain can be expressed as:
Figure 8.13.1.1.1-1
Concrete Strain vs. Time
Under Constant Stress

JUL 03
8.13.1.2
Effective Modulus

+
[ ]
+
f(t )
E (t )
1 C(t,t )
j
c j
j sh
(Eq. 8.13.1.1.1-2)
Therefore, a method for predicting concrete strain, , under conditions where stress is
not constant, is to break the time interval over which f is applied into many discrete
steps and perform a summation using Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-2). While this approach is
general and can be easily implemented on a computer, it is not effective for hand cal-
culations. However, an accurate, but simplified method exists and will be discussed
further in Section 8.13.1.3.
The effective-modulus concept is used frequently to simplify creep analysis. The
effective modulus is defined as follows:
E
*
c
(t,t
0
)
E (t )
1 C(t,t )
c 0
0
+
(Eq 8.13.1.2-1)
Comparison with Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) shows that E
*
c
relates both the immediate strain,
f
, and the time-dependent creep strain,
cr
, to the applied stress, f. Figure 8.13.1.2-1
illustrates the effective-modulus concept. Notice that the effective modulus, or the
slope of the stress vs. strain curve, depends on both the time of application of the
load, t
0
, and the time at which strains are to be determined, t
1
or t
2
. The use of an
effective modulus allows a pseudo-elastic analysis to be performed within a given
time interval.
Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-1) can be rewritten to take advantage of the effective-modulus concept:

+
f(t)
E (t,t )
c
*
0
sh (Eq. 8.13.1.2-2)
Figure 8.13.1.1.1-2
Concrete Strain vs. Time
Under Variable Stress

8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship/8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus
JUL 03
Eqs. (8.13.1.1.1-1) and (8.13.1.2-2) are valid only when the stress, f, is constant. In
many situations, however, f will vary with time. Figure 8.13.1.1.1-2 graphically
depicts this condition.
For instance, consider a hollow precast concrete cylinder that is filled with fresh
concrete shortly after the cylinder has been subjected to a constant axial compressive
force. When hardened, the cast-in-place concrete fill will be subjected to a load that
increases with time as creep strains develop in the surrounding precast cylinder. A
similar condition exists in a reinforced concrete member under sustained loads as the
reinforcing steel resists creep strains. Solutions of time-dependent problems such as
these require the ability to predict creep strains under varying load.
As discussed in Section 8.13.1.1.1, one approach would be to divide the problem
into many small time intervals. The stress increment during each interval could be
treated as a new load and, since superposition is valid, Eq. (8.13.1.1.1-2) could be
used to calculate the total response of the member.
An alternative approach, Bazant (1972), uses the aging coefficient, , to adjust the
creep coefficient. The aging coefficient accounts for three separate effects:
When the applied stress, f(t), is increasing, the concrete experiences the maximum
force for only an instant at the end of the time interval (t
0
,t). At all other times, the
concrete experiences a load that is less than the maximum.
The concrete is gaining strength, and therefore its modulus is increasing with time.
Portions of the time-varying load that occur earlier are acting on concrete which is
less stiff. Later in the interval, when the loads are larger, the concrete is also stiffer.
As shown in Chapter 2, for a given concrete in a given environment, the total
creep potential for loads applied to young concrete is larger than for the same loads
applied to old concrete.
8.13.1.3
Age-Adjusted
Effective Modulus
Figure 8.13.1.2-1
Stress vs. Strain for Constant
Stress, F
0
, Applied at time, t
0
strain
stress
f(t
0
)
1
0
E
*
(t ,t )
1 c
c
1
0
E
*
(t ,t )
2
c
0
E
*
(t ,t )
2
t = t
1
t = t
2
0
(t )
1
(t )
2
(t ) = [1 + C(t ,t )]
0 2
(t ) = [1 + C(t ,t )]
0 1 1
=
[1 + C(t ,t )]
0 1
=
[1 + C(t ,t )]
0 2
2
0
E
*
(t ,t )
1 c
f(t
0
)
f(t
0
)
E
c
(t
0
)
E
c
(t
0
)
E
c
(t
0
)
E
c
(t
0
)
8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus/8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus
JUL 03
Eq. (8.13.1.3-1) should be used when the stress varies over the interval (t
0
, t):

+
[ ]
+
f(t)
E (t )
1 (t,t ) C(t,t )
c 0
0 0 sh (Eq. 8.13.1.3-1)
The corresponding age-adjusted effective modulus is given by:
E (t,t )
E (t )
1 (t,t ) C(t,t )
c
*
0
c 0
0 0
+
(Eq. 8.13.1.3-2)
From here on the effective-modulus will be referred to as defined by Eq. (8.13.1.3-2),
with the understanding that Eq. (8.13.1.2-1) represents the special case of an instan-
taneously applied load for which 1.
There are methods available (Bazant, 1972) by which the aging coefficient can be
computed precisely for different ages at loading and for different concrete properties.
In most practical problems, however, it is sufficiently accurate to use a value of 0.7
or 0.8 for , depending on the age of concrete at the beginning of the time interval.
For loads applied at a relatively young concrete age, 0.7 should be used. For all other
situations, 0.8 is generally sufficiently accurate given all of the other uncertainties
present in this type of analysis.
Most prestressing materials, including steel bars and strand, exhibit relaxation.
Relaxation is similar to creep but is defined as the loss of stress in a stressed material
held at constant length. The following equation may be used to estimate the relax-
ation, f
r
, occurring in steel prestressing materials during the interval (t,t
0
):
r 0
0
r
0
y
10
0
0
y
f
(t,t )
f(t )
K
f(t )
f
0.55 log
24t 1
24t 1
for
f(t )
f
0.55

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
+
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

(Eq. 8.13.1.4-1)
where
f(t
0
) tensile stress at the beginning of the interval
f
y
yield strength of the strand
K
r
constant for the material. Values of K
r
and f
y
for some prestressing strand
are provided in Table 8.13.1.4-1.
8.13.1.4
Properties of
Prestressing Steel
Table 8.13.1.4-1
Values of Material Constant,
K
r
and Yield Strength, f
y
Grade 270 Strand K
r
f
y
, ksi
Low-Relaxation 45
*
243.0
Stress-Relieved
(Normal-Relaxation)
10 229.5
* Also, see Note accompanying Eq. (8.6.5.3-1)
8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus/8.13.1.4 Properties of Prestressing Steel
JUL 03
The relaxation predicted by Eq. (8.13.1.4-1) is the intrinsic relaxation, i.e., the relaxation
that occurs under the theoretical condition of constant strain. In an actual prestressed
concrete member, strain in the prestressing materials is not constant, and is usually
decreasing due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. Under these circumstances, Eq.
(8.13.1.4-1) will somewhat over-predict relaxation. Various researchers, Ghali and
Travino (1985), Glodowski and Lorenzetti (1972), Hernandez and Gamble (1975),
and others have studied this problem and have proposed various methods of calculating
the reduced relaxation that occurs during intervals of decreasing strain.
With modern low-relaxation prestressing materials, however, relaxation effects are
very small compared to concrete creep and shrinkage. Therefore, it is sufficiently
accurate to adopt a single, standard reduction factor to adjust the intrinsic relaxation
during intervals in which the strain is decreasing. In most practical situations, a fac-
tor equal to 0.8 may be applied to that portion of the relaxation that occurs under
conditions of gradually reducing strain.
The method of analysis illustrated here is essentially no different than a conventional
elastic analysis of a prestressed concrete cross-section using transformed section proper-
ties. Instead of a conventional modulus of elasticity, however, the age-adjusted, effective
modulus is used for all concrete elements in the section. In addition, initial strains must
be considered. The following sections will illustrate the procedure.
An initial strain is defined as one that is not directly due to an applied stress. Other
than time-dependent analysis, temperature strain may be the most familiar example
of an initial strain.
In time-dependent analysis of concrete members, the initial strains normally considered
are:
free shrinkage of the concrete occurring during the interval in question
creep strains of the concrete, occurring during the interval in question, that are
due to previously applied loads
the apparent steel strain due to relaxation of prestressing steel during the time
interval in question
To incorporate initial strains into cross-section analysis, it is convenient to calculate
a fictitious restraining load which will restrain the initial strains described above. The
restraining load is then subtracted from any real loads applied to the section. Using
the net load, an analysis is performed in a manner similar to conventional transformed
section analysis. Finally, the internal forces are calculated using the two components.
The internal forces associated with the net load applied to the entire composite sec-
tion are calculated. These are then added to the individual element restraint forces to
give the total actual forces on an individual element of the cross-section. The follow-
ing section provides a detailed description of the procedure used.
Several researchers have published methods to perform the time-dependent analysis
of cross-sections of prestressed concrete members. Two approximate methods, suited
for manual calculations, and rigorous time-step methods suited only for computer-
ized solutions have been presented. References such as, Branson and Kripanarayanan
(1971), Tadros, et al (1975), Tadros, et al (1977A & B), Dilger (1982-both), Tadros,
et al (1985), and Collins and Mitchell (1991) can be consulted for additional infor-
mation.
8.13.1.5
Reduced Relaxation under
Variable Strain
8.13.2
Analysis of Composite
Cross-Sections
8.13.2.1
Initial Strains
8.13.2.2
Method for Time-Dependent
Cross-Section Analysis
8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain/
8.13.2.2 Method for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis
JUL 03
All of the methods in the cited references, as well as the method presented here, are
based on a pseudo-elastic analysis with the following assumptions and conditions:
the superposition of creep strains from different stress increments is valid
concrete members remain uncracked
stress levels are low compared to the compressive strength of the concrete
It is necessary to consider the entire history of a cross-section in determining its time-
dependent behavior. This history is usually composed of time intervals of varying
lengths. Discrete events (such as the release of prestressing or the application of the
weight of a cast-in-place topping) mark the beginning and end of each time interval.
During the time between these discrete events there is continual creep, shrinkage and
relaxation, as well as internal redistribution of stresses. It is convenient to consider
each discrete event (such as release of prestressing) as though it occurred during a
time interval whose length is zero.
Within a given time interval an elastic analysis with initial strains is performed for the
cross-section being analyzed. Transformed composite section properties are recalculated
for the analysis in each time interval since the properties of the concrete are time-depen-
dent. A unique set of initial strains, dependent upon all of the stress increments applied
during the history of the member, is calculated for each time interval to be analyzed.
The most rigorous methods of time-dependent analysis reduce the time history into
many small steps. As the size of the time-step decreases, the accuracy of the analysis
increases. One such method is described by Tadros et al (1977B). A slightly less accurate,
but greatly simplified method, is presented by Dilger (1982-both) and will be used as
the basis for the procedure described here. That method uses creep-transformed section
properties based on the age-adjusted, effective modulus for a given time interval.
The sign convention for strain, curvature, and section forces in the following proce-
dure are shown in Figure 8.13.2.2-1.
Figure 8.13.2.2-1
Sign Conventions for
Composite Section Analysis
Centroid of
composite
section
Strain Section Force
0
0
(-)
(+)
M
N
y
y
cg
x
8.13.2.2 Method for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis
JUL 03
The following steps are repeated for each time interval that is to be analyzed over the
entire time history of a single cross-section:
1. Calculate the age-adjusted, effective modulus, E
*
ck
, for the interval under consid-
eration for each element, k, comprising the composite section. (Take the effective
modulus, E
*
c
, of the composite section to be that of the concrete beam).
2. Calculate the modular ratio, n
k
, for each element in the section.

n
E
E
k
ck
*
c
*
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-1)
3. Calculate the transformed composite section area, A, center of gravity, y, and
moment of inertia, I.

A A n
k k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-2)

y
1
A
y A n
k k k

(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-3)

I I y y A n
k
2
k k k
+
( )
,
,
]
]
]
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-4)
4. Calculate the total initial strains,
0k
and
0k
, for each element in the composite
section. For concrete elements, the total initial strains will be those due to free
shrinkage plus those due to creep resulting from previously applied stresses. For
prestressed steel elements, the initial strain will be the apparent strain due to relax-
ation. Typically, non-prestressed steel will have no initial strain. Calculations of
initial strains will be presented in the examples that follow.
5. For each element, k, calculate N
0k
and M
0k
, the theoretical restraint forces. Sum
all of the N
0k
and M
0k
over the section to give N
0
and M
0
.
N
0k
E
*
0k
A
k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-5)
N
0
N
0k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-6)
M
0k
E
*
ck
I
k
0k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-7)
M
0
[M
0k
N
0k
(y
k
y)] (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-8)
6. Subtract the restraint forces, N
0
and M
0
, from the real applied forces, N and M,
and calculate the total strains, and , in the section.

N N
E A
0
c
*
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-9)

M M
E I
0
c
*
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-10)
7. Calculate the element strains for each element in the composite section.

k
(y
k
y) (Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-11)

k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-12)
8.13.2.2.1
Steps for Analysis
JUL 03
8. Calculate the element forces, N
k
and M
k
, and elastic strains,
fk
and
fk
, based on
the element strains and the effective modulus, E
*
ck
, for each section element.
N
k
E
*
ck
A
k
k
+ N
0k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-13)

fk

N
E A
k
ck
*
k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-14)
M
k

E I M
ck
*
k 0k
+
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-15)

fk

M
E I
k
ck
*
k
(Eq. 8.13.2.2.1-16)
Steps 1 through 8 are repeated for each time interval to be analyzed over the time
history of the cross-section.
A 12 in.x12 in. concrete prism, reinforced with (4) # 9 reinforcing bars, was loaded
with a 216-kip axial compressive force immediately after being wet-cured for seven
days. Find the concrete and steel stresses 90 days after loading.
The creep coefficient, C(97,7), is 1.65 and the total free shrinkage strain,
shu
, occur-
ring during this period is 400 x 10
-6
. The initial modulus of elasticity of the concrete,
E
ci
, is 3,500 ksi and the modulus of elasticity of the steel bars is 29,000 ksi. The strain
in the section immediately after initial loading was calculated to be 0.0003564. The
concrete and steel compressive stresses were 1.248 ksi and 10.34 ksi, respectively.
Step 1, Calculate the age-adjusted, effective modulus for the concrete:
E
*
c

3,500
1 (0.7)(1.65)
1,624 ksi
+

Step 2, Calculate the modular ratio for the steel elements:
n
s

29,000
1,624
17.86
Step 3, Calculate the transformed area of the composite section:
A (140)(1.0) + (4.00)(17.86) 211.4 in.
2
Step 4, Calculate the initial strain in the concrete (due to both creep and shrinkage):

0c
0.000400 + (1.65)(0.0003564) 0.0009881
Step 5, Calculate the restraint forces for the concrete element and the composite section:
N
0
N
0c
(1,624)(0.0009881)(140) 224.7 kips
Step 6, Calculate the composite section strain:

0 224.7
(1,624)(211.4)
0.0006544

8.13.2.2.2
Example Calculations
8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis/8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations
JUL 03
Step 7, Calculating the element strains is straightforward for this example. Both
the concrete and steel strains are equal to the composite section strain,
0.0006544.
Step 8, Calculate the internal element forces and elastic strains on the concrete and steel:
N
c
(0.0006544)(1,624)(140) + 224.7 75.9 kips (tension)
N
s
(0.0006544)(29,000)(4.00) 75.9 kips (compression)

fc

75.9
(140.0)(1,624)
0.000334
f
c

75.9
140
0.542 ksi (tension)

fs

75.9
(29,000)(4.00)
0.000654
f
s

75.9
4.00
19.0 ksi (compression)
Therefore, the total concrete and steel stresses at 90 days are 0.706 ksi and 29.3 ksi,
respectively. In this example, the initial strains at 90 days were the result of gradual
changes that had occurred during the preceding time interval. The aging coefficient
in this example was taken to be 0.7 since loading occurred when the concrete was
still relatively young.
Figure 8.13.3-1
Beam Used for Example
Calculations
66'-8"
26'-8" 13'-4" 26'-8"
4 harped strands
10"
65'-0"
10"
(2) #6 bars
24 straight strands
4 harped
strands
(2) #6 bars
24 straight strands
5"
2"
3"
3 @ 2"=6"
45"
JUL 03
A typical simple-span prestressed concrete bridge beam is shown in Figure 8.13.3-1.
Detailed information about this bridge is given in Section 8.13.3.2.1. During its his-
tory, this beam will experience several different discrete events. Creep, shrinkage and
relaxation will continue between these discrete events, accompanied by an internal
redistribution of stresses. Table 8.13.3-1 summarizes the significant time intervals
during the life of this typical beam.
The following sections will describe the analyses performed for each time interval dur-
ing the life of the beam. This is an incremental analysis and the state of stress or strain
in the system at any point in time is equal to the sum of the previous intervals.
Eq. (8.13.1.4-1) may be used without adjustment to calculate the intrinsic relaxation
of the strands prior to release or transfer. While the strands are anchored at the ends
of the casting bed, the strain is constant, so the intrinsic relaxation is the correct
quantity in this situation.
The method described in Section 8.13.2.2 is used to calculate the effects of transfer-
ring the prestressing force. Transformed section properties, including the strands,
the concrete, and any additional mild steel, are calculated as described. Because this
is considered to be an interval of zero duration, the creep coefficient is zero for the
concrete. The effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete, therefore, will be equal
to the modulus of elasticity at the time of transfer.
The total prestress force in the strands is treated as an external compressive load
applied to the transformed section at the centroid of the strands.
Analyze the midspan section of the beam shown in Figure 8.13.3-1 immediately
after the transfer of prestress (note that this is the same beam used in several examples
in Section 8.6). To simplify, assume that the strands were tensioned and the concrete
cast 18 hours prior to transfer. In practice, it is more likely that strands might be
tensioned 18 hours, and concrete cast 12 hours before release. The beam self-weight
moment at midspan is 3,694 in.-kips.
8.13.3
Analysis of Composite
Simple-Span Members
8.13.3.1
Relaxation of Strands
Prior to Transfer
8.13.3.2
Transfer of Prestress Force
8.13.3.2.1
Example Calculation
(at Transfer)
Table 8.13.3-1
Beam Lifetime Intervals
Interval Event Typical Duration
1 Strand relaxation before transfer 12 to 24 hours
2 Transfer of prestress 0
3 Creep, shrinkage and relaxation of beam after transfer 30 days to 1 year
4 Placement of cast-in-place deck 0
5 Creep, shrinkage and relaxation of composite deck
and beam
7 days to 6 months
6 Application of superimposed dead load on the
composite deck and beam
0
7 Creep, shrinkage and relaxation of composite
deck and beam
25 years or more
8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members/
JUL 03
Beam data:
Strands: 1/2-in.-diameter strand, Grade 270, low-
relaxation
Eccentricity at midspan 16.413 in.
Eccentricity at end of beam 11.556 in.
Reinforcing Bars: #6, Grade 60
Beam concrete: f
ci
4,950 psi at 18 hours, E
ci
4,054 ksi
f
c
6,750 psi at 28 days, E
c
4,734 ksi

shu
0.0004 in./in.
C
u
1.4
Beam section properties: AASHTO-PCI Type II
A 560 in.
2
I 125,390 in.
4
y
b
20.27 in.
Composite section properties: I
c
382,372 in.
4
y
bc
36.02 in.
Deck properties: Width 104 in.
Thickness 8 in.
f
c
4,500 psi at 28 days

shu
0.0004 in./in.
C
u
1.4
Dead loads: Self-weight 583 plf
Deck weight 867 plf
Haunch weight 40 plf
Diaphragm weight 100 plf
Superimposed dead load 360 plf
The total force in the strands, prior to release, is equal to the jacking force less relax-
ation losses occurring prior to release:
f
pj
(0.75)(270.0) 202.5 ksi
f
r

202.5
45
202.5
243.0
0.55 log
(24)(0.75) 1
(24)(0.0) 1
1.63
10
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
+
,
,
]
]
]
ksi
The force applied to the transformed section at release is:
P
i
(202.5 1.63)(28)(0.153) 860.5 kips N
Calculation of transformed composite section properties, i.e. steps 1 through 3 from
Section 8.13.2.2.1, is shown in Table 8.13.3.2.1-1. The modulus of elasticity of
the beam is based on the concrete strength at release. (The section properties of the
bare beam have been adjusted in this example to remove the concrete area occupied
by strands and mild steel bars. In practice, this refinement may be omitted with no
significant loss of accuracy).
JUL 03
Because this is a zero-length interval, there are no initial strains. Steps 4 and 5 may
be omitted for zero-length intervals.
Use Eqs. (8.13.2.2.1-9) and (8.13.2.2.1-10) to calculate the strain and curvature of
the composite section immediately after release:

8 0.5
(4,054)(591.2)
0.000359
6

3,694 (860.5)(19.752 3.857)
(4,054)(134,813)
1.83 x 10
5

in.
-1
Next, calculate the individual element strains. The strain due to transfer of prestress
at the centroid of the strands is:
p
0.000359 (1.83 x 10
-5
)(3.857 19.752) 0.000649
The strain at the centroid of the mild steel bars is:
s
0.000359 (1.83 x 10
-5
)(42.00 19.752) 0.0000474
The strain at the centroid of the concrete beam section is:
c
0.000359 (1.83 x 10
-5
)(20.362 19.752) 0.000348
Finally, calculate the element forces and elastic strains. For this example, since there
are no initial strains, the elastic strains are equal to the total strains that were calcu-
lated above. The force on the strands:
N
p
(28,500)(4.284)(0.000649) 79.3 kips
With this information, the remaining stress in the prestressing strands can be calculated:
f
p

860.5 79.3
4.284
182.4
ksi
The force in the mild steel bars:
N
s
(29,000)(0.88)(0.0000474) 1.2 kip
The axial force and moment on the concrete beam section:
N
c
(4,054)(554.8)(0.000348) 782.7 kips
M
c
(4,054)(123,805)(1.83 x 10
5
) 9,185 in.-kips
Item Area
in.
2
(1)
y
cg
in.
(2)
Moment
of Inertia
in.
4
(3)
Modulus
ksi
(4)
Modular
Ratio, n
(5)
(1)x(5)
in.
2
(6)
(1)x(5)x(2)
in.
3
(7)
(3)x(5)
in.
4
(8)
[y-(2)]
2
x(1)
in.
4
(9)
(8)+(9)
in.
4
(10)
Beam 554.836 20.362 123,805 4,054 1.000 554.8 11,298 123,805 207 124,011
Strands 4.284 3.857 10.93 28,500 7.030 30.1 116 77 7,609 7,686
Mild steel 0.880 42.000 0.0 29,000 7.154 6.3 264 3,116 3,116
Composite
Section
19.752 591.2 11,678 134,813
Table 8.13.3.2.1-1
Calculation of Transformed Composite Section Properties at Transfer
JUL 03
Following the transfer of prestress, but before casting the deck, the beam will undergo
gradual changes due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete and relaxation of the pre-
stressing steel. The procedure of Section 8.13.2.2 can be used to analyze these gradual
changes. Initial strains due to concrete creep and shrinkage, as well as the apparent
strain due to strand relaxation, are included in the analysis. Since the changes occur
gradually over this interval, the age-adjusted modulus is used.
Analyze the midspan section of the beam in Figure 8.13.3-1, using the results of
Example 8.13.3.2.1. Perform the analysis for a time 90 days after casting of the
beam.
First, calculate the age-adjusted, effective modulus for the concrete beam. The creep
coefficient is:
C(90,0.75)
(90 0.75)
10 (90 0.75)
(1.4) 0.836
0.6
0.6
+

Using an aging coefficient of 0.7, the age-adjusted, effective modulus for the concrete
is:
E
*
c

4,054
1 (0.7)(0.836)
2,558
+
ksi
Calculation of the transformed composite section properties is similar to the proce-
dure in Example 8.13.3.2.1 (see Table 8.13.3.3.1-1). The modulus of elasticity of
the beam concrete is based on the concrete strength at the beginning of the interval,
i.e., 4,950 psi.
Unlike the previous example, there are initial strains to consider in association with
the current time interval. First, calculate the initial strain due to shrinkage of the
beam concrete:
sh
S(90,0.75)
90 0.75
55 (90 0.75)
( 0.000400) 0.000247

+

Next, calculate the creep strain in the beam for this interval. The creep coefficient has
already been computed. The elastic strain and curvature from the previous example
will be used to compute the creep strains occurring during the current interval:
cr
(0.836)(0.000348) 0.000291
cr
(0.836)(1.83 x 10
-5
) 1.53 x 10
-5
in.
-1
8.13.3.3.1
Example Calculation
(after Transfer)
8.13.3.3
Creep, Shrinkage and
Relaxation after Transfer
Item Area
in.
2
(1)
y
cg
in.
(2)
Moment of
Inertia
in.
4
(3)
Modulus
ksi
(4)
Modular
Ratio, n
(5)
(1)x(5)
in.
2
(6)
(1)x(5)x(2)
in.
3
(7)
(3)x(5)
in.
4
(8)
[y-(2)]
2
x(1)
in.
4
(9)
(8)+(9)
in.
4
(10)
Beam 554.836 20.362 123,805 2,558 1.000 554.8 11,298 123,805 484 124,289
Strands 4.284 3.857 10.93 28,500 11.142 47.7 184 122 11,574 11,696
Mild Steel 0.880 42.000 0.0 29,000 11.338 10.0 419 5,083 5,083
Composite
Section
19.429 612.5 11,901 141,067
Table 8.13.3.3.1-1
Calculation of Transformed Composite Section Properties After Transfer
8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation after Transfer/
JUL 03
The theoretical restraint forces for the concrete are calculated next:
N
c
(2,558)(0.000247 0.000291)(554.8) 763.7 kips
M
0c
(2,558)(123,805)(1.53 x 10
5
) 4,845 in.-kips
The theoretical restraint force for the strands is due to the apparent strain due to
relaxation. Eq. (8.13.1.4-1) is used, along with a reduction factor of 0.8, to compute
the reduced relaxation occurring in the strands during the interval:
f
r
(90,0.75) (0.8)
182.4
45
182.4
243.0
0.55 log
(24)(90) 1
(24)(0.75) 1
1.34
10
,
]
]
]
+
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
ksi
The relaxation of stress in the strand is treated as an apparent positive initial strain in
the strand, i.e., an apparent increase in strain without a change in stress. Using Eq.
(8.13.2.2.1-5), with a positive value for
0p
gives the following value for N
0p
:
N
0p

j
(
,
\
,
(
(28,500)
1.34
28,500
(4.284) . 5 7 kips
Summing the individual restraint forces gives the theoretical restraint forces on the
composite transformed section [Eqs. (8.13.2.2.1-6) and (8.13.2.2.1-8)]:
N
0
763.7 + (5.7) 758.0 kips
M
0
4,845 (763.7)(20.362 19.429) (5.7)(3.857 19.429) 4,044 in.-kips
Eqs (8.13.2.2.1-9) and (8.13.2.2.1-10) are used to compute section strain and curvature:

(0) (758.0)
(2,558)(612.5)
0.000484

(0.0) (4,044)
(2,558)(141,067)
1.12 x10
5

in.
-1
The element strains in the concrete beam, strands, and mild steel (Eqs. 8.13.2.2.1-11
and 8.13.2.2.1-12) are:
c
0.000484 (1.12 x 10
-5
)(20.362 19.429) 0.000474
p
0.000484 (1.12 x 10
-5
)(3.857 19.429) 0.000658
s
0.000484 (1.12 x 10
-5
)(42.0 19.429) 0.000231
The element forces (Eqs 8.13.2.2.1-13 and 8.12.2.2.1-14) are:
N
c
(2,558)(554.8)(0.000474) + 763.7 91.0 kips
N
p
(28,500)(4.284)(0.000658) + (5.7) 86.0 kips
N
s
(29,000)(0.88)(0.000231) + 0.0 5.9 kips
M
c
(2,558)(123,805)(1.12 x 10
-5
) + 4,845 1,298 in.-kips
Finally, calculate the elastic strains, i.e. the strains due to stress, in the concrete that
occurred during this time interval. These strains will be used to compute creep strains
during future time intervals:
JUL 03
fc

91.0
(2,558)(554.8)
6.41x10
5
fc

1,298
(2,558)(123,805)
4.10 x10 in.
6 1

In a typical prestressed concrete beam bridge, the dead weight of a cast-in-place deck,
plus intermediate diaphragms (where required) will be carried by the bare precast
beam. The placement of these loads on the beam is assumed to occur during an
interval of zero length. Analysis of this interval is essentially an elastic analysis using
transformed composite section properties calculated on the basis of the modulus of
elasticity of the concrete at the time of deck placement.
Following casting and curing, shrinkage of the deck concrete becomes a significant
item affecting the state of stress and strain in the composite system. Since the beam
will typically have undergone 40% to 60% of its ultimate shrinkage by the time the
slab is cast, the ongoing shrinkage of the slab will usually be larger than the com-
bination of the ongoing shrinkage and creep of the beam. This produces positive
curvatures and moments, i.e. tending to cause tension in the bottom of the beam,
that gradually diminish with time.
Application of the superimposed dead load on the composite deck/beam system may
occur within 14 days of placement of deck concrete or may be delayed for several
months. Concrete barriers and wearing surfaces are the most common instances of
superimposed dead loads. Usually, it is assumed that these loads are applied during
an interval of zero length, resulting in the performance of an elastic analysis for this
interval. The appropriate values of concrete modulus of elasticity for both the deck
and the beam, based on their respective ages, are used in calculating the transformed
composite section properties.
Following the application of superimposed dead loads, the bridge will typically
remain in a constant configuration for several years. During this period, shrinkage
of both the deck and beam will continue, but at a steadily decreasing rate. Similarly,
creep strains in both the deck and beam will continue to develop. Total creep strains
during this interval will be the sum of the creep strains caused by each stress incre-
ment applied during the preceding intervals.
By the time the superimposed dead load is applied, 60% or more of the creep due to
transfer of prestress probably will have occurred. However, only a small percentage
of the creep due to the dead weight of the deck will have occurred at the start of this
final interval.
Usually the largest stress increments on the beam are associated with transfer of pre-
stress, application of deck dead weight, and application of superimposed dead loads.
It is these large, sudden stress increments which produce the majority of the creep
strains. In addition to these stresses, however, we must consider the gradually devel-
oping stresses that occur between the major events in the life of the member. These
gradually developing stresses are due to restrained or differential shrinkage, relaxation
of the strands, and restrained or differential creep. For the purpose of calculating
future creep strains, it is customary to assume that these gradually developing stresses
8.13.3.6
Application of
Superimposed Dead Load
8.13.3.7
Long-Term Behavior
8.13.3.4
Placement of
Cast-in-Place Deck
8.13.3.5
Creep, Shrinkage
and Relaxation
8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (after Transfer)/8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior
JUL 03
can be represented by a sudden stress increment applied at the midpoint of the inter-
val during which they occur. As long as these gradually developing stresses are small
compared to the stresses associated with discrete events, the error is small.
In simple-span bridges there will be little or no change in the distribution of forces
and moments within the structure as a result of time-dependent deformations.
However, multiple-span bridges which are made continuous for live loads and super-
imposed dead loads, become statically indeterminate after the deck has cured. As a
result, any time-dependent deformations that occur after the time that the deck is
cured will generally induce forces and moments in the beams (Freyermuth, 1969).
Creep of the beams under the net effects of prestressing, self-weight, deck weight,
and superimposed dead loads will tend to produce additional upward camber with
time. Shrinkage of the deck concrete will tend to produce downward camber of the
composite system with time. In addition, loss of prestress due to creep, shrinkage
and relaxation will result in downward camber. Depending on the properties of the
concrete materials and the age at which the beams are erected and subsequently made
continuous, either positive or negative moments may occur over continuous supports
(Oesterle, et al, 1989).
In the situation where beams are made continuous at a relatively young age it is more
likely that positive moments will develop with time at the supports. These positive
restraint moments are the result of the tendency of the beams to continue to camber
upwards as a result of ongoing creep strains associated with the transfer of prestress.
Shrinkage of the deck concrete, loss of prestress, and creep strains due to self-weight,
deck weight, and superimposed dead loads all have a tendency to reduce this positive
moment.
The alternate situation, i.e. where mature beams are erected and made continuous,
could result in negative moments at the supports. In this situation, the time-depen-
dent creep strains associated with the transfer of prestress have diminished to the
point where the effects that produce downward deflection are more significant. This
will induce negative moments as the end rotations that are associated with this sag-
ging at midspan are restrained over the supports.
For the more typical condition of positive moments developing at the piers it is
recommended that reinforcing steel be provided to minimize the detrimental effects
of cracking at the bottom of the concrete diaphragm. This reinforcement may be
accomplished by extending and bending strands from the bottom rows of the beam
into the pier diaphragms. Alternatively, mild steel reinforcing bars protruding from
the ends of the beams can be extended and bent into the diaphragms. If mild steel
bars are utilized, it is essential that these bars extend far enough into the beam to
adequately develop the bars. In addition, different length bars should be used to
avoid the situation where all the bars terminate at one location.
The effects of positive moments, and associated diaphragm cracking, on bridge
performance continues to be a hotly debated subject. An argument can be made
(Oesterle, et al, 1989) that continuity for live loads becomes unreliable after a small
crack has opened near the bottom of the diaphragm. It is pointed out that a finite end
rotation is required to close this crack, forcing the beam to carry live loads as a simple-
8.13.4.1
Effectiveness of Continuity
8.13.4
Continuous Bridges
8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior/8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity
JUL 03
span member. Theoretically, this simple-span action results in live load moments that
are significantly higher than those predicted by the design calculations that assumes
full continuity.
Countering this argument, however, is the successful experience of the many agencies
that routinely design precast, prestressed concrete bridges under the assumption of
full continuity for live loads. Distress in the midspan regions of these bridges, predict-
ed by the preceding discussion, has not been reported. In addition, only service load
behavior is significantly affected. Under ultimate loads, end rotations of the beams
will be large enough to close any crack that may have opened, restoring full continu-
ity. Ultimate capacity, therefore, is relatively unaffected by this phenomenon.
It is unlikely that this issue will be settled completely in the near future. In the
meantime, on the basis of the excellent performance of structures of this type, it is
recommended that designers continue to rely on continuous action for the design of
routine bridges and use details at the piers that have proven to be successful.
For unusual or special bridges, a time-dependent analysis to predict restraint
moments at the piers may be performed according to the procedure in the follow-
ing section. Construction sequence restrictions, special pier details, and beam design
modifications are alternatives the designer may consider should such an analysis pre-
dict excessive positive moments.
Specifically, the designer may wish to consider such an analysis when one or more of
the following conditions are present:
Spans 140 feet and longer in humid climates (shorter span lengths should be con-
sidered for analysis in arid climates due to increased creep and shrinkage)
Concrete materials whose creep properties are either unknown, i.e. the mix has not
been used previously, or whose creep behavior is known to be poor
Situations where thermal movements due to daily heating and cooling of the deck
are expected to be unusually high
For more information, the reader is advised to consult the references by Mattock
(1961), Freyermuth (1969), Oesterle et al, (1989), and Dilger (1982-both) regarding
analysis of the effects of creep movements in continuous bridges.
The following sections describe two methods to evaluate restraint moments in con-
tinuous bridges. The first is a general method and the second is a simplification of
the first.
The analysis of restraint moments in continuous bridges is a relatively straightfor-
ward extension of the methods described in previous sections. Specifically, the fol-
lowing procedure is used:
1. Calculate the time-dependent beam end rotations that would occur under the
effects of prestressing, self-weight, and deck weight acting on the simple-span
beam using the methods described in Section 8.13.3. Consider only the portions
of time-dependent end rotations that occur after the system is made continuous.
8.13.4.3
Methods of Analysis
8.13.4.3.1
General Method
8.13.4.2
Applying Time-
Dependent Effects
8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity/8.13.4.3.1 General Method
JUL 03
2. Using the age-adjusted, effective-modulus method, calculate the rotational stiffness
of the beams by conventional stiffness analysis methods. If the beam is prismatic,
use of the gross section properties including the deck, is sufficiently accurate. The
stiffness factors are given by Eqs. (8.13.4.3.1-1) and (8.13.4.3.1-2) for interior
spans and end spans, respectively.
M
L

4E I
L
2E I
L
c
*
L
c
*
R + (Eq. 8.13.4.3.1-1)
M
R

2E I
L
4E I
L
c
*
L
c
*
R
+ (Eq. 8.13.4.3.1-2)
where

L
left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads

R
right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
E
*
c
age-adjusted modulus of concrete
I moment of inertia of the gross concrete section
L span length measured center-to-center of the supports for the continuous
structure
3. Calculate restraint moments equal to the product of the time-dependent end rota-
tions calculated in step 1 and the rotational stiffness calculated in step 2. Any sign
convention may be used, as long as it is consistent.
4. Perform moment distribution analysis for the continuous structure, using the
restraint moments as the fixed end moments and the stiffness properties calcu-
lated in step 2.
The age-adjusted, effective modulus used in step 2 must be based on gradually varying
loads, i.e., use a value of that is appropriate for the age and creep coefficient of the
concrete. A value of 0.8 may be used with relatively little error.
The effects of permanent loads applied to the structure after continuity is achieved
may be computed using a similar analysis. Theoretically, the age-adjusted, effective
modulus for this second analysis, however, should be based on a value of equal to
unity since the application of the load is considered to be instantaneous. As a practi-
cal matter, however, this distinction will only affect the distribution of moments in
the structure when different creep coefficients are used in different spans. For almost
all situations, it would be sufficiently accurate to incorporate the effects of the super-
imposed dead loads directly into the continuity analysis described above.
The above general steps can be further simplified into the following approximate
procedures of calculating the restraint moment due to the time-dependent effects.
Only loads introduced before continuity can cause time-dependent restraint moment
due to creep. Typically, there are pretensioning forces, member self-weight and pos-
sibly deck weight. Each loading case is considered separately. The total effect is
obtained by simple superposition.
8.13.4.3.2
Approximate Method
8.13.4.3.2.1
Restraint Moment
Due to Creep
8.13.4.3.1 General Method/8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep
JUL 03
The following assumptions are made. The load is introduced at time, t
0
, and the
modulus of elasticity of concrete at this time is E(t
0
). The continuity is made at time,
t
1
, and the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at this time is E(t
1
). Specifically, the
following procedure is used for each load:
1. Calculate time-dependent material properties:
C(t,t
0
) is creep at time, t, for concrete loaded at time, t
0
C(t,t
1
) is creep at time, t, for concrete loaded at time, t
1
C(t
1
,t
0
) is creep at time, t
1
, for concrete loaded at time, t
0
Age-adjusted effective modulus for concrete subjected to gradual loading:
E
*
c
(t,t
1
)
E (t )
1 0.7C(t,t )
c 1
1
+
(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-1)
E
*
c
(t,t
0
)
E (t )
C(t,t ) C(t ,t )
c 0
0 1 0
(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-2)
2. Perform elastic analysis, assuming that the load was introduced to a continuous
member. Determine the fictitious elastic restraint moments at the supports, M
el
3. Determine the time-dependent multiplier,
c
, corresponding to the load:
c

E (t,t )
E (t,t )
c
*
1
c
*
0
(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-3)
4. Determine the restraining moment, M
cr
(t):
M
cr
(t)
c
M
el
(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.1-4)
The following assumptions are made: (1) The curing of the beam concludes at time,
t
2
. (2) The curing of the deck ends at time, t
3
. Specifically, the following procedure is
used for calculating the restraint moment due to differential shrinkage:
1. Calculate time-dependent material properties
Deck:
C
d
(t,t
3
) is the creep at time, t, for deck concrete loaded at time, t
3

shd
(t,t
3
) is the shrinkage strain of the deck from time t
3
to time, t
E
cd
(t
3
) is the modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time, t
3
Beam:
C
b
(t,t
3
) is the creep at time, t, for beam concrete loaded at time, t
3

shb
(t,t
2
) is the shrinkage strain of the beam from time t
2
to time, t

shb
(t
3
,t
2
) is the shrinkage strain of the beam from time t
2
to time, t
3
E
cb
(t
3
) is the modulus of elasticity for beam concrete at time, t
3
The age-adjusted, effective modulus for concrete subjected to gradual loading:
E
*
cd

E (t )
1 0.7C (t,t )
cd 3
d 3
+
(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.2-1)
E
*
cb

E (t )
1 0.7C (t,t )
cb 3
b 3
+
(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.2-2)
8.13.4.3.2.2
Restraint Moment Due to
Differential Shrinkage
8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep/
JUL 03
2. Calculate the shrinkage moment, M
sh
:
M
sh

Sh E (t,t ) y
h
2
AE [ (t,t ) (t ,t )](y y )
d cd
*
shd 3 tc
d
cb
*
shb 2 shb 3 2 bc b

j
(
,
\
,
(

(Eq. 8.13.4.3.2.2-3)
where
S beam spacing
h
d
deck thickness
y
tc
distance from centroidal axis of the composite section to the top of the
deck
A gross area of the non-composite beam
y
bc
distance from centroidal axis of composite section to the bottom of the
beam
y
b
distance from centroidal axis of non-composite section to the bottom of the
beam
3. Perform moment distribution analysis for the continuous structure, using the
shrinkage moments as the fixed end moments and the stiffness properties cal-
culated from the composite section. The moment at the supports after moment
distribution is the restraint moment, M
sr
(t), due to the differential shrinkage.
Should this analysis predict net positive moments at the piers, the results should
probably be treated as an upper bound to the actual moments in the structure. It
is likely that the non-prestressed section of the diaphragm between the ends of the
beams would experience some cracking at relatively low moments. This would have
the effect of introducing a slightly softer joint than the fully continuous joint that
is assumed by this analysis.
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
8.14 References
JUL 03
1975 AASHTO Interim Specifications for Highway Bridges, Section 1.6.7 (B) -
Prestress Losses, Commentary and Example Applications, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1975
Abdel-Karim, A.M., and Tadros, M.K., Computer Analysis of Spliced Girder
Bridges, ACI Structural Journal, V. 90, No. 1, January-February 1993, pp. 21-31
ACI Committee 209, Prediction of Creep Shrinkage and Temperature Effects
in Concrete Structures, ACI 209R92, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 1992
ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI
318-95, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1995
ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 323, Tentative Recommendations for Prestressed
Concrete, ACI Journal, V. 54, 1958, pp. 545-1299
Badie, S.S., Baishya, M.C, and Tadros, M.K., NUDECK An Efficient and
Economical Precast Prestressed Bridge Deck System, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 43,
Bakht, B., Jaeger, L.G., and Cheung, M.S., Transverse Shear in Multibeam Bridges,
Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, V. 109, No. 4,
April 1983, pp. 936-949
Bazant, Z.P., Prediction of Concrete Creep Effects Using Age-Adjusted Effective
Modulus Method, ACI Journal, V. 69, No. 2, 1972, pp. 212-217
Birkeland, P.W., and Birkeland, H.,W., Connections in Precast Concrete
Construction, ACI Journal, V. 63, No. 3, March 1996, pp. 345-367
Branson, D.E., and Kripanarayanan, K.M., Loss of Prestress, Camber and Deflection
of Non-Composite and Composite Concrete Structures, PCI JOURNAL, V. 16,
Breen, J.E., Burdet, O., Roberts, C., Sanders, D. and Wollmann, G., Anchorage
Zone Reinforcement for Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders, NCHRP Report No.
356, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC, 1994, 204 pp.
Buckner, C. D., An Analysis of Transfer and Development Lengths for
Pretensioned Concrete Structures, Publication No. FHWA-RD-94-049, Federal
Highway Administration, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, McLean, VA,
December 1994, 108 pp.
Buckner, C.D., A Review of Strand Development Length for Pretensioned
Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, V. 40, No. 2, March-April 1995, pp. 84-105
8.14
REFERENCES
8.14 References
JUL 03
Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings, CAN3-A23.3-M84, Canadian Standards
Association, Rexdale, ON, Canada, 1994
Collins, M.P., and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Structures, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991, 766 pp.
Collins, M.P., and Mitchell, D., Shear and Torsion-Design of Prestressed and
Non-Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI JOURNAL, V. 25, No. 5, September-
October 1980, pp. 32-100
Cousins, T., Johnston, D.W. and Zia, P., Bond of Epoxy Coated Prestressing
Strand, Publication No. FHWA/NC/87-005, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC, December 1986
Design Supplement to Short-Span Bridges, Publication No. SSB-Z, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1985, 80 pp.
Devalapura, R.K., and Tadros, M.K., Critical Assessment of ACI 318 Eq. (18-3)
for Prestressing Steel Stress at Ultimate Flexure, ACI Structural Journal, V. 89, No.
5, September-October 1992-A, pp. 538-546
Devalapura, R.K., and Tadros, M.K., Stress-Strain Modeling of 270 ksi Low-
Relaxation Prestressing Strands, PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No. 2, March-April 1992-B,
pp. 100-106
Dilger, W. H., Creep Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Structures using Creep-
Transformed Section Properties, PCI JOURNAL, V. 27, No. 1, January-February
1982, pp. 98-118
Dilger, W.H., Methods of Structural Creep Analysis, Z.P. Bazant and F.H.
Wittmann (Editors), Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete Structures, John Wiley and
Sons Ltd., 1982
El-Remaily, A., Tadros, M. K., Yamane, T., and Krause, G., Transverse Design of
Adjacent Precast Prestressed Concrete Box Girder Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 41,
No. 4, July-August 1996, pp. 96-113
Farrington, E.W., Creep and Shrinkage of High Performance Concrete, Master of
Science Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, May 1996
Freyermuth, C.L., Design of Continuous Highway Bridges with Precast, Prestressed
Concrete Girders, PCI JOURNAL, V. 14, No. 2, April 1969, pp. 14-39
Gallt, J.G., Computer Program TDA: Time Dependent Analysis of Prestressed
Beam, Version 2.02, 1996
Gamble, W.L., Proposed Amendment to the AASHTO Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges, Article 1.6.7(B), Prestressed Losses, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, April 1972
Copy GG Section 8.14 (p. 175)
Copy HH Section 8.14 (p. 178)
Copy MM Section 8.14 (p. 176)
Copy RR Section 8.14 (p. 174)
8.14 References
JUL 03
Gergely, P. and Sozen, M.A., Design of Anchorage Zone Reinforcement in
Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI JOURNAL, V. 12, No. 2, March-April 1967,
pp. 63-75
Ghali, A., and Trevino, J., Relaxation of Steel in Prestressed Concrete, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 30, No. 5, September-October 1985, pp. 82-94
Ghali, A., Tadros, M.K., and Dilger, W.H., Accurate Evaluation of Time-Dependent
Deflection of Prestressed Concrete Frames, Deflections of Concrete Structures, SP-43,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1974, pp. 357-375
Glodowski, R.J., and Lorenzetti, J.J., A Method for Predicting Prestress Losses in a
Prestressed Concrete Structure, PCI JOURNAL, V. 17, No. 2, March-April 1972,
pp. 17-31
Guyon, Y., Bton Prcontrainte etude Thorique et exprimentale, Editions Eyrolles,
Paris, 1951. Also available as Prestressed Concrete, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New
York, NY, 1960, two volumes, 1300 pp.
Hernandez, H.D., and Gamble, W.L., Time Dependent Prestress Losses in
Pretensioned Concrete Construction, Report No. 417, University of Illinois-Urbana,
IL, 1975
Hofbeck, J.A., Ibrahim, I.O., and Mattock, A.H., Shear Transfer in Reinforced
Concrete, ACI Journal, V. 66, No. 2, February 1969, pp. 119-128
Huo, X., Tadros, M.K. and Al-Omaishi, N., Creep Shrinkage and Modulus of
Elasticity of High Performance Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, V. 89, No. 6,
November-December 2001, pp. 429-439
Huo, X., and Tadros, M.K., Allowable Compressive Strength of Concrete at
Prestress Release, Problems & Solutions, PCI JOURNAL, V. 42, No. 1, January-
February 1997-A, pp. 95-99
Huo, X., and Tadros, M.K., Application of High Performance Concrete in Bridge
Design, Problems & Solutions, PCI JOURNAL, V. 42, No. 1, January-February
1997-B, pg. 94
Huo, X. Time Dependent Analysis and Applications of High Performance
Concrete Bridges, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Omaha, NE, 1997, 211 pp.
Imper, R.R., and Laszlo, G., Handling and Shipping of Long Span Bridge
Beams, PCI JOURNAL, V. 32, No. 6, November-December 1987, pp. 86-101
Kamel, M., Innovative Precast Concrete Composite Bridge Systems, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,
Omaha, NE, 1996
Kriz, L.B., and Raths, C.H., Connections in Precast Concrete Structures
Strength of Corbels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 10, No. 1, February 1965, pp. 16-61
8.14 References
JUL 03
Kumar, N. V., and Ramirez, J. A., Interface Horizontal Shear Strength in
Composite Decks with Precast Concrete Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 41, No. 2,
March-April 1996, pp. 42-55
Lane, S. N., A New Development Length Equation for Pretensioned Strands in
Bridge Beams and Piles, Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-116, Federal Highway
Administration, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, McLean, VA,
December 1998, 127 pp.
Loov, E.R., and Patnaik, A.K, Horizontal Shear Strength of Composite Concrete
Beams With a Rough Interface, PCI JOURNAL, V. 39, No. 1, January-February
1994, pp. 48-69, and also Reader Comments, PCI JOURNAL, V. 39, No. 5,
September-October 1994, pp. 106-109
Ma, Z. (John), Saleh, M., and Tadros, M.K., Shear Design of Stemmed Bridge
Members - How Complex Should It Be? Problems & Solutions, PCI JOURNAL, V.
42, No. 5, September-October 1997, pp. 88-93
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges, American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1994
Martin, L. D., A Rational Method for Estimating Camber and Deflection of
Precast Prestressed Members, PCI JOURNAL, V. 22, No. 1, January-February
1977, pp. 100-108
Mast, R.F., Auxiliary Reinforcement in Concrete Connections, ASCE Journal, V. 94,
No. ST6, June 1968, pp. 1485-1504
Mast, R.F., Unified Design Provisions for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
Flexural and Compression Members, ACI Structural Journal, V. 89, No. 2,
March-April 1992, pp. 185-199
Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams-Part 1, PCI
Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams-Part 2, PCI
Mattock, A.H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a Thin Cast-in-Place Topping, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 32, No. 6, November-December 1987, pp. 70-85
Mattock, A.H., Precast-Prestressed Concrete Bridges 5: Creep and Shrinkage
Studies, Bulletin D46, Development Department, Research and Development
Laboratories, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, May 1961, 36 pp.
Mattock, A. H., Shear Transfer in Concrete Having Reinforcement at an Angle to
the Shear Plane, Shear in Reinforced Concrete, ACI Special Publication SP-42, V. 1,
American Concrete Insititute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1974, pp. 17-42
Nilson, A.H., High-Strength Concrete An Overview of Cornell Research,
Proceedings of the Symposium Utilization of High Strength Concrete, Stavanger,
Norway, June 1987, Tapir, Trondheim, pp. 27-38
8.14 References
JUL 03
Oesterle, R.G., Glikin, J.D., and Larson, S.C., Design of Precast Prestressed
Bridge Girders Made Continuous, NCHRP Report No. 322, National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
DC, 1989
Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, Ministry of Transportation of Ontario,
Downsview, ON, Canada, 1992
Pang, J.P., Allowable Compressive Stresses for Prestressed Concrete, Master of
Science Thesis, The University of Oklahoma, May 1997, 178 pp.
April 1988, pp. 67-109
PCI Committee on Prestress Losses, Recommendations for Estimating Prestress
Losses, PCI JOURNAL, V. 20, No. 4, July-August 1975, pp. 43-75
PCI Design Handbook, Fourth Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL, 1992, 528 pp.
Prestressed Concrete Manual, Illinois Department of Transportation, Bureau of
Bridges and Structures, Springfield, IL
Proposed Amendment to the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges,
Article 1.6.7(B)-Prestress Losses, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Illinois-Urbana, Urbana, IL, Unpublished, 1972
Ralls, M.L., Proceedings of the High Performance Concrete Regional Showcase,
Omaha, NE, November 18-20, 1996
Russell, B.W., and Burns, N.H., Design Guidelines for Transfer, Development
and Debonding of Large Diameter Seven Wire Strands in Pretensioned
Concrete Girders, Research Report 1210-5F, Project 3-5-89/2-1210, Center for
Transportation Research, Bureau of Engineering Research, The University of Texas
at Austin, Austin, Texas, January 1993
Russell, B.W., and Burns, N.H., Fatigue Tests on Prestressed Concrete Beams
With Debonded Strands, PCI JOURNAL, V. 39, No. 6, November-December
1994-A, pp. 70-88
Russell, B.W., and Burns, N.H., Predicting the Bond Behavior of Prestressed
Concrete Beams Containing Debonded Strands, PCI JOURNAL, V. 39, No. 5,
September-October 1994-B, pp. 60-77
Schlaich, J., Schafer, K., and Jennewein, N., Towards a Consistent Design of
Reinforced Structural Concrete, PCI JOURNAL, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987,
pp. 74-150
Seguirant, S.J., New Deep WSDOT Standard Sections Extend Spans of
Prestressed Concrete Girders, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 4, July-August 1998,
pp. 92-119
8.14 References
JUL 03
Shahawy, M., A Critical Evaluation of the AASTHO Provisions for Strand
Development Length of Prestressed Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 46,
No. 4, July/August 2001, pp. 94-117
Skogman, B.C., Tadros, M.K., and Grasmick, R., Flexural Strength of Prestressed
Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, V. 33, No. 5, September-October 1988,
pp. 96-123
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1979 Interim Revisions, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1979
Tadros, M.K., Ghali, A., and Dilger, W.H., Effects of Non-Prestressed Steel on
Prestress Loss and Deflection, PCI JOURNAL, V. 22, No. 2, March-April 1977-A,
pp. 50-63
Tadros, M.K., Ghali, A., and Dilger, W.H., Time-Dependent Analysis of
Composite Frames, American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Structural
Division, V. 103, No. 4, April 1977-B, pp. 871-884
Tadros, M.K., Ghali, A., and Dilger, W.H., Time-Dependent Prestress Loss and
Deflection in Prestressed Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, V. 20, No. 3,
May-June 1975, pp. 86-98
Tadros, M.K., Ghali, A., and Meyer, A.W., Prestress Loss and Deflection of Precast
Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, V. 30, No. 1, January-February 1985, pp.
114-141
Tadros, M.K., Proceedings of the High Performance Concrete Regional
Showcase, Omaha, NE, November 18-20, 1996
Tadros, M.K., Rapid Replacement of Bridge Decks, NCHRP Report No. 407,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC, 1998
Vechio, F.J., and Collins, M.P., Modified Compression Field Theory for
Reinforced Concrete Elements Subjected to Shear, ACI Structural Journal, V. 83,
No. 2, March-April 1986, pp. 219-231
Yamane, T., Tadros, M.K., Badie, S.S. and Baishya, M.C., Full-Depth Precast
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck System, PCI Journal, Vol. 43, No. 3, May-June
1998, pp. 50-67
Yehia, S., Einea, A., and Tadros, M.K., Lap Splice in Confined Concrete, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 96, No. 6, November-December 1999, pp. 947-955
Zia, P., Preston, H. K., Scott, N. L., and Workman, E. B., Estimating Prestress
Losses, Concrete International, June 1979, pp. 32-38
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.2 Flexure/8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading
The design of prestressed concrete members in flexure normally starts with determi-
nation of the required prestressing level to satisfy service conditions, using allow-
able stress design (ASD). All load stages that may be critical during the life of the
structure from the time prestressing is first applied are considered. This is followed
by a strength check of the entire member under the influence of factored loads, using
load factor design (LFD). ASD controls the design of most prestressed concrete
bridges. Except for rare situations where strand development length is inadequate,
and for some adjacent box applications, LFD seldom requires the addition of rein-
forcement or other design changes. As a result, the flexural strength of prestressed
concrete bridges may be significantly larger than that required. This gives prestressed
concrete bridges greater reserve strength than either structural steel or reinforced
concrete and may be part of the reason that prestressed concrete beams in bridge
structures last longer. Another significant fact is that prestressed concrete members
are essentially proof tested during fabrication. When prestress strands are released
in the plant, the prestress level is the highest a member will ever experience while the
concrete strength is at its lowest.
Various load combinations are considered in design. A load factor of 1.0 is used to
reflect the actual unfactored loading on the structure. There are exceptions to this
unity factor as explained in Chapter 7 and later in Section 8.2.1.2. The basic assump-
tions for flexural design are:
a.) Plane sections remain plane and strains vary linearly over the entire member
depth regardless of load level. Therefore, composite members consisting of precast
concrete beams and cast-in-place decks must be adequately connected so that this
assumption is valid and all elements respond to superimposed loads as one unit.
b.) Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain; i.e. f = E where f is stress,
E is modulus of elasticity and is strain.
c.) After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.
d.) Spans made continuous for live load through placement of reinforcing bars in the
deck slab, or by other means not involving prestressing, are assumed to be treated
as prestressed members in the positive moment zone between supports and as
conventionally reinforced members in the negative moment zones over the sup-
ports. Therefore, no allowable tension limit is imposed on the top fiber stresses in
the negative moment zone. However, crack width, fatigue and ultimate strength
should be checked.
The various stages of loading for a prestressed concrete beam bridge are shown in
Figure 8.2.1.1-1 and Figure 8.2.1.1-2.
Stage 1 involves tensioning the strand in the prestressing bed. The tensile stress in the
strand is higher at this stage than at any other stage during the service life of the mem-
ber. Seating losses in the bed, relaxation losses, and any temperature rise reduce the
stress in the strand. However, if the temperature drops, or harped strand is deflected
after tensioning, the stress in the strand will rise. Producers take these factors into
account as part of manufacturing and quality control processes, so the designers do
not need to be concerned with controlling strand stresses before release.
Concrete is placed in the forms at Stage 2, and cured until it reaches the initial
strength required by design.
8.2
FLEXURE
8.2.1
Allowable Stress Design
(ASD)
8.2.1.1
Theory
8.2.1.1.1
Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.2
Stage 2 Loading
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The force is transfered to the concrete in Stage 3. This is accomplished by flame cut-
ting or by a gradual release of the jacking force at the stressing abutment (see Chapter
3, Sect. 3.3.2.8 for details). As the prestress is gradually released, the concrete member
begins to shorten and camber. When the prestress is fully released, the member resists
its own weight and the prestress force. The stress distribution is shown in Figure
8.2.1.1-2. Regions near the ends of the member do not receive the benefit of bending
stresses due to member weight. Therefore, they may be more critical at release than
the midspan section. It should be noted that the very end of the member has zero
stresses. A finite distance from the end, called the transfer length, is required for the
prestress to be fully transferred to the concrete through bond between the concrete
8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading/8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading
Figure 8.2.1.1-1
Loading Stages of a
Bridge Beam
Stage 2: Placement of concrete in forms and around tensioned strands
Stage 5: Full service load after all prestress losses
Stage 4: Member placed on piers and/or abutments and deck slab, if any, cast
Stage 3: Release of strands causing shortening of member
1
2
Stage 1: Tensioning of prestressing strands in stressing bed before casting concrete
1
2
Figure 8.2.1.1-2
Loading Stages, Stress
Diagrams and Corresponding
Allowable Stress Limits from
(at midspan)
Location 2
< 0.6 f
ci
< 0.6 f
c
< 6.0 f
c
4
Member installation Concrete placement
Tensioning of
prestressing
(at transfer
Location 1
Stage
length)
1
< 7.5 f
< 0.6 f
Release of
2 3
ci
ci
Full load
5
strands
strands
8.2.1.1.3
Stage 3 Loading
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
and steel. Thus, for straight strands that are bonded throughout member length, the
critical section for release stresses is Section 1-1 shown in Figure 8.2.1.1-1. In most
applications, this is not the most effective utilization of available prestress.
There are several methods to relieve excessive stresses at Section 1-1. They include
the following: 1) harping, where some of the strands are deflected upward from one
or two points in the member in order to decrease the end eccentricity, 2) debonding,
where the strands are kept straight but are wrapped in plastic over a predetermined
distance to eliminate concrete bond, or 3) a combination of harping and debonding.
The amount of harping or debonding is a design parameter intended to address the
maximum allowed concrete compressive or tensile stress near the ends of a member.
Recent studies, Pang (1997), Huo and Tadros (1997-A), reveal that concrete is
capable of resisting more compression than the 0.60f
ci
allowed by the Standard
Specifications. If the results of this research are adopted, designers should expect some
relief of the requirements of harping and/or debonding. Concrete tensile stresses in
the top fibers at Section 1-1 in Stage 3 are also a critical design parameter. Often these
stresses are controlled by providing straight top strands. It is advisable to use strand
whenever possible (as opposed to bars) due to availability and economy. Top strand
may be stressed to a nominal 10 to 15 ksi tension, unless higher prestress is needed
by design to control bottom concrete compression. The nominal amount of tension
in the strands provides taut straight lines which may be useful in providing firm and
accurate anchors for attachment of mild reinforcement.
Stage 4 represents conditions several weeks to several months after prestress release.
Camber growth and prestress losses are design factors at this stage. If a cast-in-place
composite deck is placed, its top surface must follow the required roadway profile.
Field adjustments to the haunch (fillet) thickness above the beam top flanges are
usually needed to provide the required grade. Reliable estimates of deflection and
camber are needed to prevent fillet thickness from being excessive, to avoid intrusion
of the beam flange into the deck, or to avoid adjustments of beam seats or roadway
approaches. Stresses at this stage are generally not critical.
Stage 5 is assumed to occur after an extended period of time during which all pre-
stress losses have occurred and loads are at their maximum. In contrast to Stage 3, this
is the condition described as service load after losses, or maximum service load,
minimum prestress. The tensile stress in the bottom fibers of the midspan section
generally controls the design.
The tensile stress limit varies from zero to 6 f
c
(psi) depending on the severity

of exposure and local practices. Generally, it is not advisable to exceed 6 f
c
(psi)
as cracking might occur under service loads. Some engineers have proposed that pre-
stressed concrete members be allowed to crack, similar to conventional reinforced
concrete design. However, until crack control, fatigue and deflection control issues
are well researched and design criteria established, the stress should be maintained
below cracking in the positive moment zone at service load levels.
8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading/8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.4
Stage 4 Loading
8.2.1.1.5
Stage 5 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1
Tensile Stresses -
Normal Strength Concrete
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
It should be noted that for high strength concrete in the 8,000 to 14,000 psi range,
the modulus of rupture of concrete has been observed to vary from 8 f
c
to 1 f
c
2

as
reported by Ralls (1996), Tadros (1996) and others. The major benefit of using high
strength concrete in bridge beams is the increase in compressive stress limits which
are linearly related to the concrete strength. Increasing the tensile stress limits accord-
ing to modified formulas would have little impact, (Huo and Tadros (1997)), and
is not permitted in the current Standard Specifications. Nevertheless, it is reassuring
to know that the margin of safety against flexural tension cracking increases with
increased compressive strength.
The LRFD Specifications require only 80% of the live load moments to be applied
to the bridge when checking the tensile stress at service conditions. This reduced
live load was determined by comparing a number of bridges designed by both the
Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications. It is an acknowledgment of the
satisfactory service performance of the very large number of bridges designed by the
Standard Specifications. Designs using the two Specifications give approximately the
same number of strands, except for long spans where the LRFD Specifications may
still be too conservative in requiring more.
The allowable stresses in a prestressed beam immediately after release due to the pre-
stressing force and the self-weight of the beam and after initial losses due to elastic
shortening and strand relaxation have occurred are given below: [STD Art. 9.15.2.1]
1. Compression in pretensioned members, 0.60f
ci
2. Tension:
a) In tension areas with no bonded reinforcement, 200 psi or
3 f
ci
, psi
b) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds the above value, bonded reinforce-
ment should be provided to resist the total tension force in the concrete
computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. The maximum tensile
tensile stress should not exceed, 7 5 . f
ci
, psi
The allowable stresses in a prestressed beam due to the combined effects of prestress-
ing, self-weight and externally applied loads after all losses have occurred, are given
below: [STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
1. Compression for pretensioned members:
a) The compressive stresses under all load combinations, except as stated in
(b) and (c), 0.60f
c
b) The compressive stresses due to effective prestress plus permanent (dead)
loads, 0.40f
c
c) The compressive stresses due to live loads plus one-half of the sum of com-
pressive stresses due to prestress and permanent (dead) loads, 0.40f
c
2. Tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
a) For members with bonded reinforcement (includes bonded prestressed
strands), 6 f
c
, psi
b) For severe corrosive exposure conditions, such as coastal areas, 3 f
c
, psi
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete/8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.1.5.2
Tensile Stresses -
8.2.1.1.5.3
Tensile Stresses-LRFD
Specifications
8.2.1.2
Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Stress limits for concrete at release: [LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
1. Compression for pretensioned or post-tensioned members, 0.60f
ci
2. Tension:
a) in areas without bonded reinforcement, 0.0948 f
ci
0.2 ksi
b) in areas with bonded reinforcement (reinforcing bars or prestressing steel) suffi-
cient to resist the tensile force in the concrete computed assuming an uncracked
section, where reinforcement is proportioned using a stress of 0.5f
y
, not
to exceed 30 ksi, 0.24 f
ci
, ksi
Stress limits for concrete at service limit state for fully prestressed components are
given in LRFD Article 5.9.4.2 (for more information about Load Combinations, see
Section 7.3.2).
1. Compression using the service limit state Load Combination I:
a) due to effective prestress and permanent (dead) load, (i.e. beam self-weight,
deck slab weight, diaphragm weight, wearing surface and barrier weights),
0.45f
c
b) due to effective prestress and permanent and transient loads (i.e., all dead
loads and live loads) and during shipping and handling, 0.60
w
f
c
c) due to live load and one-half the sum of effective prestress and permanent
loads, 0.40f
c
2. Tension using the service limit state Load Combination III, where only 80%
of the live load effects are considered:
a) for components with bonded prestressing tendons or reinforcement sub-
jected to not worse than moderate corrosion conditions, 0.19 f
c
, ksi
b) for components with bonded prestressing tendons or reinforcement subjected to
severe corrosive conditions, 0.0948 f
c
, ksi
c) for components with unbonded prestressing, no tension is allowed
The reduction factor,
w
, should be taken equal to 1.0 when the web and flange slen-
derness ratio, calculated according to LRFD Article 5.7.4.7.1 for hollow rectangular
cross-sections, is not greater than 15. For most beams,
w
= 1.
Generally, the tensile stresses at midspan due to full dead and live loads plus effective
prestress (after losses) controls the design.
1. Compute the tensile stress due to beam self-weight plus any other non-composite
loads such as the deck, deck forms, haunches, diaphragms, etc., if any, applied to
the beam section only.
2. Compute the tensile stress due to superimposed dead loads plus live load (Standard
Specifications) or 0.8 live load (LRFD Specifications) applied to the composite section.
3. The net stress, f
b
, due to loads in Steps 1 plus 2, minus the allowable tensile stress
is the stress that needs to be offset by prestressing:

P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
where P
se
is the effective prestress, e
c
is strand eccentricity at midspan, and A and
S
b
are beam area and bottom fiber modulus.
Solve for P
se
. The estimated number of strands = P
se
/(area of one strand)(f
pe
),
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications/8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.2.2
LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3
Design Procedure
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
where f
pe
is the effective prestress after all losses which may be approximated as
160 ksi for Grade 270 strand.
4. Perform a detailed calculation of prestress losses and repeat Step 3 if necessary.
5. Check stresses at the ends (transfer length) and midspan at transfer and at ser-
vice. Check stresses at the harp point at transfer. Under typical load conditions,
stresses at harp points do not govern at service loads and are therefore not checked.
Determine the amount of harping and/or debonding required to control stresses
at the end of the beam. This may be done by computing a required e for the
selected P
se
when harping is used, or by computing the required P
se
for a given e
when debonding is used.
6. Check strength.
7. If necessary, revise number of strands and repeat Steps 4 and 5.
Certain bridge superstructures, such as I-beams and spread box beams, require cast-
in-place (CIP) concrete deck slabs to provide a continuous riding surface. Sometimes,
a CIP topping is provided for adjacent precast concrete members, such as solid slabs,
voided slab beams and box beams. When the CIP topping is adequately bonded or
connected to the precast concrete member, it provides a composite section which is
capable of resisting superimposed loads introduced after the deck concrete has cured.
Satisfactory composite action is achieved through verification that the interface shear
is adequately resisted through bond between the precast and the CIP concrete, and
the addition of shear connectors where needed. Composite (horizontal) shear design
is considered in Section 8.5.
Once the composite deck has hardened, the member with deck is considered to act as a
unit. The assumption that plane sections remain plane after bending is assumed valid for
the entire depth of the composite member, at all loading stages through ultimate capacity.
All loads placed on the bridge after the deck has hardened are applied to the composite
member. Since the deck concrete usually has a lower strength than the precast concrete,
its modulus of elasticity is also lower. The analysis for service loads is simplified by
transforming the deck concrete into equivalent beam concrete to obtain a section with
uniform material properties. This is done by reducing the width of the CIP concrete
using the modular ratio, n, of the CIP to precast concrete. It is generally acceptable
to use the modular ratio for the 28-day strength. In reality, the two concretes begin to
interact with one another upon initial set of the deck concrete.
Designers are advised to specify sufficient field curing procedures for the deck concrete.
The concrete surface should be covered with wet blankets as soon as it is able to accept
them, and continued for a period of at least 7 days. This is important to avoid prema-
ture shrinkage cracks in the CIP deck, especially over the piers in multi-span bridges
with continuously cast decks. Time dependent analysis that accounts for differential
creep and shrinkage of the two concretes may alter the stresses obtained from the elastic
analysis given below. However, analysis which includes these time dependent effects is
complex and requires specialized computer programs, such as CREEP3 described in
work by Tadros (1977-B) and Abdel-Karim and Tadros (1993).
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure/8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4
Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1
Theory
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
1. Compute modular ratio (n) between slab and beam concrete:
n =
E slab
E beam
c
c
( )
( )
2. Compute effective flange width: [STD Art. 9.8]
For composite prestressed concrete where slab or flanges are assumed to act integrally
with the precast beam, the effective flange width may be calculated as follows:
The effective web width needed for computation of the effective flange width
should be the lesser of 6(maximum thickness of the flange) + web width + fillets or
total width of the top flange. [STD Art. 9.8.3.1]
The effective flange width of the composite section should be the lesser of 1/4 span
length, 1/2 the clear distance on each side of the effective web width plus the effective
web width, or 12(slab thickness) plus the effective web width. [STD Art. 9.8.3.2]
LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
For interior beams, effective flange width should be the least of 1/4 span length,
12(effective slab thickness) plus greater of web thickness or 0.5(beam top flange
width), or average spacing between beams
For exterior beams, effective flange width may be taken as one-half the effective
width of the adjacent interior beam, plus the least of one-eighth of the effective
span length or 6.0 times the average thickness of the slab, plus the greater of half
the web thickness or one-quarter of the width of the beam top flange, or width of
the overhang
For closed precast concrete boxes, the distance between the outside of webs at their
tops will be used in lieu of the web thickness, and the spacing will be taken as the
spacing between the centerline of boxes.
3. Compute transformed section properties:
Transformed flange width = (n)(effective flange width)
If the haunch is considered in the composite section properties, its width should
be transformed before it is used in calculations. Note that the haunch thickness
should not be included unless the design drawings show a minimum thickness
specified after adjustment for camber and deflection.
When concrete stresses exceed allowable limits, strand harping becomes an attractive
option to reduce prestress eccentricity. The designer should be familiar with the practice
and limitations of local producers when considering whether or not the calculated force
and harp angle can be tolerated. The following are some options to consider if the hold-
down force exceeds that which the fabricators can accommodate:
1. Split the strands into two groups with separate hold-downs.
2. Change slope of harp by moving harp points closer to centerline of the beam, or
by lowering harp elevation at beam ends, or both. Also, refer to Chapter 3 for
additional discussion on uplift force and harp angle.
3. Decrease the number of harped strands.
4. Use debonding instead of harping or combine debonding with harping to reduce
harping requirements. Refer to Chapter 3, Fabrication, Section 3.3.2.2 for addi-
tional details.
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure/8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.4.2
Procedure
8.2.1.5
Harped Strand Considerations
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
An alternative to strand harping is to reduce the total prestress force by debonding
some strands at the ends of members. After prestress is released to the concrete mem-
ber, the debonded length of the strand has zero stress. Strand debonding may be more
economical for some precast producers than harping. However, designers should take
into account the effects of the reduction of precompression, (P/A), as well as the loss
of the vertical component of prestress which contributes to shear resistance near the
member ends. In addition, the calculated strand development length at the end of a
debonded strand is required to be doubled by the Standard Specifications. Debonded
strands have been shown by recent studies, Russell and Burns (1993, 1994-A and
1994-B), to perform well and their use is encouraged whenever possible. The Standard
Specifications do not contain specific requirements regarding the maximum number
and distribution of debonded strands. However, LRFD Article 5.11.4.3 provides the
following rules if debonded prestressing strands are used:
1. The number of partially debonded strands should not exceed 25% of the total
number of strands.
2. The number of debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 40% of
the strands in that row.
3. Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the
member.
4. Exterior strands in each horizontal row should be fully bonded.
The 25% limitation of rule 1 appears to be too conservative according to current
practice in several states and the studies by Russell and Burns (1993, 1994-A and
1994-B).
It is good practice to limit the number of debonded strands that are terminated at
any section to 40% of the shielded strands, or 4, whichever is greater.
The Standard Specifications require a minimum concrete cover over strands of 1.50
in. The LRFD Specifications are unclear regarding concrete cover over prestressing
strand in precast concrete beams. For precast soffit form panels (stay-in-place deck
panels), the minimum cover is 0.80 in. and for members subject to exterior exposure,
the minimum is 2.0 in. regardless of whether the member is precast or cast-in-place.
It is recommended here to use the 1.50 in. minimum cover specified in the Standard
Specifications for bridge beams.
Figure 8.2.1.7-1 shows four possible strand patterns to accomplish various strand
spacing and cover requirements. Dimensions are to centerlines of strands. Pattern (d)
would require a thicker bottom flange with adjusted void depth if 1.5 in. clear cover
is required over the second row to the void.
The Federal Highway Administration has approved use of 1/2-in.-diameter strand at
a spacing of 1.75 in., and 0.6-in.-diameter strand at 2.00 in. on center. As a result,
box beams, for example, may have two layers of 1/2-in.-diameter strands in the bot-
tom flange using one of the alternative patterns shown in Figure 8.2.1.7-1. If the
vertical strand spacing is desired to be 2 in., the bottom flange thickness may have to
be increased to satisfy the minimum cover requirements.
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations/8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.7
Minimum Strand
Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.6
Debonded Strand
Considerations
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The following information is given for the box beam design example shown in Figure
8.2.1.8-1.
design span, L = 95.0 ft
self-weight of the beam = 0.847 kip/ft
superimposed live load = 1.840 kip/ft
concrete strength at release, f
ci
= 4,000 psi
28-day concrete strength, f
c
= 5,000 psi
prestressing strands: 1/2 diameter, low-relaxation, 270 ksi steel
stress in the strand just after release, f
si
= 192 ksi
strand stress after all losses, f
se
= 172 ksi
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing/8.2.1.8 Design Example
Figure 8.2.1.7-1
Alternative 1/2-in.-Diameter
Strand Patterns for Typical
AASHTO Box Beam
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
33"
Strand Pattern (c)
1.8"
1.5"
2" (TYP.)
2"
33"
Strand Pattern (a)
2" (TYP.)
1.75"
2" (TYP.)
2"
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
33"
2"
Strand Pattern (d)
*see text
1.5"*
2"
2" (TYP.)
33"
1.75"
Strand Pattern (b)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
1.75"
2"
2"
1.75"
8.2.1.8
Design Example
Figure 8.2.1.8-1
Elevation and Cross-Section
of the Box Beam
Type BIII-48
48"
Simple Span Box Beam
95'-0"
39"
23 @ 2.00"
23 @ 3.75"
5.5"
5.5"
5"
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
area of box beam cross-section, A = 813 in.
2
section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast section, S
b
= 8,728 in.
3
section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast section, S
t
= 8,542 in.
3
distance from the centroid of the cross section to extreme bottom fiber, y
b
= 19.29 in.
Note that the numbers of strand used in this example and in the examples of Sections
8.2.2.4 and 8.2.2.6 is unusually large. They have been selected to illustrate the capacity
of standard precast concrete beam shapes and to demonstrate how to resolve challenging
design issues.
Determine the amount of prestressing force required to produce a tensile stress in the
bottom fiber at the midspan section under all loads equal to 6 f
c
= 424 psi.
First calculate the moments due to self-weight and superimposed live load using the
following equation at different points along the span, L.
M
x
= 0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 8.2.1.8.1-1)
where
x = distance between the support and the point on the span under consideration
w = uniformly distributed load
Eq. (8.2.1.8.1-1) above, reduces to
wL
8
2
when x = L/2. The general formulation is
given here because it is needed to calculate subsequent requirements.
The equation for bottom fiber stress due to applied loads for non-composite sections is:
f
b
=
P
A
P e
S
M M
S
se
se
b
g LL
b
+
+
(Eq. 8.2.1.8.1-2)
where
P
se
= effective prestress force after all losses
e = strand eccentricity at the section being considered (assumed at 16.42 in.)
M
g
= bending moment due to self-weight
M
LL
= bending moment due to live load
The calculations for the required number of strands are computed here at the mid-
span section. Other design problems may have to be checked at other locations where
tensile stresses are higher, e.g. members with harped strands or exterior span members
made continuous with interior spans.
Next, the value of P
se
can be obtained using Eq. (8.2.1.8-2). Set the bottom stress equal
to 424 psi (T) and solve for P
se
. This will yield P
se
equal to 1,203 kips. Since the pre-
stressing force per strand is equal to 0.153 (172) = 26.32 kips, the required number of
strands is 45.7 (use 46 strands) as shown in Figure 8.2.1.8-1. Figure 8.2.1.8.1-1 shows
the bottom fiber stress distribution due to full service loads plus the effective prestress
force, assuming that the strands are fully-bonded straight strands for the entire length
of the member. Note that this figure and the following figures show the stress diagrams
due to prestress and due to gravity loads superimposed on each other to get an apprecia-
tion for the relative impact of the various components on the net stresses.
8.2.1.8 Design Example/8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.1
Design Requirement 1
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Find the compressive stress in the top fibers at midspan due to the full service loads
and the effective prestress force.
Using the formulas in Section 8.2.1.8.1 with the proper section modulus and stress
signs and P
se
= (46)(0.153)(172) = 1,211 kips, the top fiber stress distribution is given
in Figure 8.2.1.8.2-1. The net compressive stress is equal to 3.420 ksi. This exceeds the
allowable compressive stress which is equal to 0.60f
c
= 0.6(5.000) = 3.000 ksi
This problem may be solved by increasing the 28-day concrete strength to:
3, 420
0.6
= 5,700 psi.
Another option is to add bottom strands if space is available. Note that in this sec-
tion, all practical available strand locations are utilized for purposes of illustration.
Follow-up examples show that other design criteria are not met and indicate how to
address deficiencies.
Note that the Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications require additional
compressive stress checks due to other loading combinations.
Determine the compressive stress in the bottom fibers due to the member weight and
the initial prestress force and find solutions for excessive stresses.
Using Eq. (8.2.1.8.1-2), with (M
g
+ M
LL
) replaced by (M
g
) only and with P
se
replaced
by P
si
= 46(0.153)(192) = 1,351 kips, the net bottom fiber stress can be calculated to
be 2.890 ksi as shown in Figure 8.2.1.8.3-1. This exceeds the allowable compressive
stress which is equal to 0.60f
ci
= 0.6(4.000) = 2.400 ksi.
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1/8.2.1.8.3 Design Requirement 3
Figure (8.2.1.8.1-1)
Bottom Fiber Stress
Distribution Due to
Full Service Load Plus
Effective Prestress
(T) = tensile stress
(C) = compressive stress
= 0.400 ksi (T)
0
1
2
3
4
5
Stress (ksi)
Effective prestress
= 3.768 ksi (C)
= 2.08 ft
Transfer length
0.357
0
= 4.168 ksi (T)
Full service loads
L/2
Net stress
L
8.2.1.8.2
Figure 8.2.1.8.2-1
Top Fiber Stress Distribution
Due to Full Service Load
Plus Effective Prestress
Net stress =
3.420 ksi (C)
0.365
0
0
1
5
2
3
4
Stress (ksi)
Full service load
= 4.258 ksi (C)
L/2 L
= 0.838 (C)
A
P e
se
+
se
P
t
S
Transfer length
= 2.08 ft
8.2.1.8.3
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
This stress would be acceptable if the initial concrete strength at release (f
ci
), is
increased to:
2 890
0 6
,
.
= 4,817 psi.
Note that f
ci
= 4,817 psi would satisfy the stress limits only at the midspan section.
It must be increased somewhat to allow the 46 strands to be used for a reasonable
distance within the middle zone of the member as illustrated in Figure 8.2.1.8.3-1.
Assume f
ci
= 5,200 psi and proceed with strand debonding accordingly. Of course,
this would imply that f
c
at service would have to be specified to be at least equal to
5,200 psi. Please note that the stress diagram has been modified to reflect gradual
transfer of the prestress over a transfer length equal to 25 in. as shown in Figure
8.2.1.8.3-2. A strand debonding pattern is attempted for the left half of the beam
and a strand harping pattern for the right half. Obviously, only one solution would
be used for both halves of a beam in actual design.
Figure 8.2.1.8.3-1
Bottom Fiber Stress
Distribution Due to
Self-Weight Plus Initial
Prestress, Using Fully
Bonded Straight Strand
2
0
1
3
4
6
0
0.113
Stress (ksi)
Net stress
= 2.890 ksi (C)
Self weight
= 1.314 ksi (T)
4.204 ksi (C)
L/2 L
0.113
5
Figure 8.2.1.8.3-2
Bottom Fiber Stress
Distribution Due to
Self-Weight Plus Initial
Prestress, Using Debonded
or Harped Strands
46 strands
Debonded straight strands
30 ft Debond length
0
0
1
2
3
4
6
5
34 strands
0.113
0.113
Overstressed zone
0.6 (5.200) = 3.120 ksi (C)
Self weight
= 1.314 ksi (T)
Envelope of maximum allowable
compression due to prestress only
L/2
Harped strands
Harp point
38 ft
3.668 ksi (C)
L
Stress (ksi)
Transfer
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The diagram in Figure 8.2.1.8.3-2 should be utilized to determine the number and
length of strands to be debonded at the member end. The stress diagram due to
initial prestress should always be within the maximum compressive stress envelope
shown. The number of debonded strands and the arrangement within a section
should be carefully determined to avoid possible stress concentrations. The LRFD
Specifications give guidelines that should be followed. Figure 8.2.1.8.3-2 shows that
debonding 12 strands for a length equal to 30 ft from the end is sufficient. In actual
design, it would be advisable to debond the strands in three groups of 4 strands each
over lengths of about 10, 20 and 30 ft.
A similar analysis can be done for the right half of the beam, with harped strand.
Strand harping offers two advantages over strand debonding:
the average prestress, P/A is higher
the vertical prestress component due to harping produces a shear force that bal-
ances part of the shear due to gravity load
However, there are two disadvantages:
hold down devices and the labor involved in harping may make it a more expensive
solution
only a limited number of strands can be harped
The maximum number of strands to be harped is dictated by their location. Only
strands that can be raised into the webs may be harped. Therefore, using the strand
pattern shown in Figure 8.2.1.8-1, the maximum number of strands that can be
harped is four in each web. It is common practice to harp the strands at 0.30 to 0.45L
from the member end. Use 0.40L for this example. Also, harp using the maximum
possible slope, which corresponds to minimum cover required of the top layer of
harped strands, assumed here to be 3 in. Also note that prestressing bed capacity may
control the maximum hold-down force of harped strands. Based on this configura-
tion and using P
si
= 1,351 kips, e = 13.69 in., and M
g
= 81.85 ft-kips, the concrete
compressive stress at release = 3.668 ksi which exceeds the allowable limit. This solu-
tion is therefore unsatisfactory. To allow a harped-strand solution to work, a number
of options may be exercised. They include rearranging the pattern of the 46 strands
to allow more strands to be harped in the webs.
It is possible to combine harping strands with a minor amount of debonding, which
seems attractive for this example as there is only a small region where the stress limits
are exceeded. Finally, it is possible to control the release stresses by means of tempo-
rary pretensioned straight top strands. This option involves shielding the strands for
most of the member length, except perhaps 5 to 10 ft at each end of the member. The
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding/8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
Figure 8.2.1.8.4-1
Top Fiber Stress Distribution Due to Self-Weight Plus Initial Prestress, Using Debonded or Harped Strands
Harped strands
= 0.408 ksi (C)
= 0.934 ksi (T)
Debonded straight strands
0.115
Self weight
= 1.342 ksi (C)
0
P
0.691 (T)
Net stress
P e
si si
A
+
t S
L/2
0.503 (T)
0.115
L
8.2.1.8.3.1
Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2
Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3
Other Methods to Control
Stresses
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
shielding will allow this temporary prestress to be eliminated in most of the member
length after it is no longer needed. When enough gravity load is introduced, when
the concrete strength is increased, or when time dependent losses take effect, the ten-
sion in these strands can be released by cutting them through a pre-formed pocket.
Sometimes, it may be acceptable to avoid cutting top strands if the compression due
to effective prestress plus full loads is not critical.
Calculate the net stress in the top fibers due to the self-weight of the beam and the
initial prestress force. Consider both patterns of strand debonding and harping.
Using Eq. (8.2.1.8.1-2), modified with P
se
= P
si
= 1,351 kips and S
b
replaced with
S
t
= 8,542 in.
3
, the top fiber stress can be obtained, as shown in Figure 8.2.1.8.4-1.
The two solutions have been shown here for comparison purposes. At midspan, there is
a net compressive stress of 408 psi, while a net tension of 200 psi or 3 f 3 5, 200
ci
= 216 psi is allowed. There is tension, however, at other locations as shown in the dia-
gram. If the 200 psi limit is exceeded, the AASHTO Specifications allow the stress
to be as high as 7.5 f 7.5 5, 200
ci
= 541 psi if bonded reinforcement is provided

to resist the entire tension force at the section being considered.
The Standard Specifications do not require a fatigue check for prestressed concrete
members. The LRFD Specifications, however, require a fatigue check according to
Article 5.5.3.1. Current practice with precast, pretensioned concrete members does
not permit cracking of concrete due to service loads. Accordingly, the tensile stress
range in the strand due to live loads is only n times the corresponding concrete stress,
where n is modular ratio between steel and concrete. This is always lower than the 10
ksi fatigue limit stress range. Therefore, fatigue in strands should not be considered
in members designed to be uncracked under service load conditions. Fatigue of con-
crete in compression is very unlikely to occur in actual practice. However, this issue
is addressed in both the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications by setting a
maximum concrete compressive stress limit due to full live load combined with 1/2
of permanent loads plus effective prestress.
Approximate formulas for pretensioning steel stress at ultimate flexure are given
in the Standard Specifications (in this manual, Section 8.2.2.2, STD Eq. 9-17) and
LRFD Specifications (Section 8.2.2.3, LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1). Use of these formulas
simplifies the process of calculating the flexural strength, M
n
, by eliminating con-
sideration of nonlinear material properties of both concrete and prestressing steel at
ultimate conditions. However, due to their simplified nature, these formulas should
be used with caution especially beyond the limits for which they were developed. As
will be shown in Section 8.2.2.5, the general strain compatibility approach can be
used to avoid difficulties in applying the approximate formulas or inaccuracies associ-
ated with their use.
In addition to the standard assumptions used in flexural, strength analysis, e.g.,
equivalent rectangular stress block with ultimate concrete strain of 0.003, the approx-
imate formulas (STD Eq. 9-17 and LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1) for calculation of strand
stress at ultimate flexure are based on the following simplified assumptions:
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses/8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.1.9
Fatigue
8.2.2
Flexural Strength Design
8.2.2.1
Theory
8.2.1.8.4
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
1.) The compression zone is either rectangular (Standard Specifications) or T-shaped
(LRFD Specifications).
2.) The compression zone is within only one type of concrete; for composite mem-
bers, it is assumed to be within the deck concrete.
3.) Only fully-tensioned strands near the tension face of the member may be used.
No strands near the compression face of the member, or uniformly distributed in
the cross-section, can be accurately accounted for.
4.) Effective pretension is not less than 50% of the ultimate strength of the strands.
5.) Steel content must be below the amount that causes the steel stress being pre-
dicted to be lower than the yield strength. In other words, the formulas are only
intended as an interpolation function between the yield and ultimate strengths
of the steel.
Examples are given in Section 8.2.2.4 to illustrate how to apply the approximate
procedures, and in Section 8.2.2.6 to discuss their accuracy compared to the more
general strain compatibility procedure.
For bonded members with prestressing only, the average stress in prestressing rein-
forcement at ultimate load, f
*
su
, is: [STD Art. 9.17.4.1]
f
*
su
= f
s
1
f
f
1
s
c
j
(
,
\
,
(

*
*
[STD Eq. 9-17]
The depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, assuming a rectangular section, is
computed by:
a =
A f
0.85 f b
s
*
su
*
c
[STD Art. 9.17.2]

where
a = depth of stress block

*
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strand

1
= ratio of depth of equivalent compression zone to depth:[STD Art. 8.16.2.7]
for f
c

4 ksi,
1
=

0.85;
for 4 ksi < f
c

< 8 ksi, = 0.85 0.05(f
c
[ksi] 4);
for f
c

8 ksi,
1
= 0.65
f
c
= 28-day concrete strength of compression fiber (slab concrete for composite
members)

*
= ratio of prestressing strands = A
*
s
/(bd)
A
*
s
= area of prestressed reinforcement
d = distance from top of slab to centroid of prestressing force = beam depth (h)
+ slab thickness y
bs
y
bs
= distance from center of gravity of the strand to the bottom fiber of the
beam
Note that actual flange width, rather than the transformed width used in allow-
able strength design, must be used here. Transformation using modular ratio is only
related to linear elastic behavior and should never be used in strength analysis.
8.2.2.1 Theory/8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2
8.2.2.2.1
Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1
Required Parameters
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
For sections with prestressing strand only and the depth of the equivalent rectangu-
lar stress block less than the flange thickness, the design flexural strength should be
taken as:
M
n
= A
*
s
f
*
su
d 1 0.6
f
f
*
su
*
c
j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Eq. 9-13]

where
= strength reduction factor = 1.0
M
n
= nominal moment strength of a section
For sections with prestressing strand only and the depth of the equivalent rectangular
stress block greater than the flange thickness, the design flexural strength should be
taken as:
M
n
= A f d 1 0.6
A f
b df
0.85f (b b )(t)(d 0.5t)
sr su
* sr su
*
c
c
j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
+

[STD Eq. 9-14]
where
A
sr
= steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the web of a
flanged section
= A
*
s
A
sf
[STD Eq. 9-15]
A
sf
= the steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength of the
overhanging portions of the flange
= 0.85f
c
(b b
)t/f
*
su
[STD Eq. 9-16]
b
= width of web for a flanged section

t = thickness of flange of a flanged section
[STD Art. 9.18.1]
Prestressed concrete members should be designed so that the steel is yielding as ulti-
mate capacity is approached. For rectangular sections, the maximum reinforcement
index to ensure steel yielding is:

*
f
f
0.36
su
*
c
1

[STD Eq. 9-20]
For flanged sections, the maximum reinforcement is:
A
sr
f
b df
0.36
su
*
c
1

[STD Eq. 9-21]
If the reinforcement index is greater than 0.36
1
, the Standard Specifications still per-
mit this condition provided that the flexural strength is assumed to be controlled by
the capacity of the concrete compression part of the moment couple. For rectangular
sections, the design flexural strength may be estimated as:
M
n
= [(0.36
1
0.08
1
2
)f
c
bd
2
] [STD Eq. 9-22]
For flanged sections, the design flexural strength should be taken as
M
n
= [(0.36
1
0.08
1
2
)f
c
bd
2
+ 0.85f
c
(b b
)t(d 0.5t)] [STD Eq. 9-23]

8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section/8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.1.3
Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2
Maximum
Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.1.2
Rectangular Section
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
[STD Art. 9.18.2]
The total amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement should be ade-
quate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the
cracking moment, M
*
cr
:
M
n
1.2M
*
cr
The cracking moment, M
*
cr
, may be computed by:
M
*
cr
= (f f )S M
S
S
1
r pe bc d/nc
bc
b
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Art. 9.18.2]
where
M
*
cr
= cracking moment
f
r
= modulus of rupture [STD Art. 9.15.2.3]
f
pe
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after
allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied load
=
P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
S
bc
= section modulus of composite section
S
b
= section modulus of non-composite section
M
d/nc
Alternatively, the requirements of STD Article 9.18.2.1 may be waived if the area of
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement provided is at least one-third greater
than that required by analysis.
The average stress in bonded prestressing steel is:
f
ps
= f
pu
1 k
c
d
p
j
(
,
\
,
(
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
Assuming rectangular section behavior, the neutral axis depth, c, is computed as:
c =
A f A f A f
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s y
c 1 ps
pu
p
+
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]

where
c = distance between the neutral axis and the compressive face
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of prestressing steel
A
s
= area of mild steel tension reinforcement
f
y
= yield strength of tension reinforcement
A
s
= area of compression reinforcement
f
y
= yield strength of compression reinforcement
b = width of compression flange
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit/8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.3
Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3
LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1
Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.1
Required Parameters
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
k = factor related to type of strand:
= 2 1.04
f
f
py
pu
j
(
,
\
,
(
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strand
f
py
= yield strength of prestressing steel
d
p
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing
strand
The depth of the compression block may be computed by, a =
1
c. If the depth of
the compression flange is less than c, as computed by LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4, flanged
section behavior must be used with c calculated by:
c =
A f A f A f 0.85 f (b b )h
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s y 1 c w f
c 1 w ps
pu
p
+
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-3]

where
b
w
= width of web

1
= ratio of depth of equivalent compression zone to depth (see Sect. 8.2.2.2.1.1)
The nominal flexural capacity of a rectangular section is computed using the follow-
ing equation according to LRFD Article 5.7.3.2.3:
M
n
= A f d
a
2
A f d
a
2
A f d
a
2
ps ps p s y s s
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(

y
(Eq. 8.2.2.3.1.2-1)
The nominal flexural capacity of a flanged section is computed using the following
equation:
M
n
= A f d
a
2
A f d
a
2
A f d
a
2
0.85f b b h
a
2
h
2
ps ps p s y s s y c w 1 f
f
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
+
( )

j
(
,
\
,
(

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]

where
f
ps
= average stress in prestressing steel
a = depth of the equivalent stress block = (
1
c)
A
s
= area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement
d
s
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of nonprestressed
tensile reinforcement
A
s
= area of compression reinforcement
d

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of nonprestressed
compression reinforcement
Factored flexural resistance:
M
r
= M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where = resistance factor = 1.00 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters/8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.3.1.2
Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3
Flanged Sections
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The maximum amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement should be
such that:
c
d
e
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where d
e
=
A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]
The commentary to the LRFD Specifications allows use of the same flexural strength
equations as in the Standard Specifications, STD Eqs. 9-22 and 9-23, in cases where
the maximum reinforcement limit is exceeded.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement should
be adequate to developed a factored flexural resistance, M
r
, at least equal to the lesser
of 1.2 times the cracking moment determined on the basis of elastic stress distribu-
tion, or 1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load
combinations.
The LRFD Specifications formula for computing the cracking moment, M
cr
, is the
same as the equation given in the Standard Specifications.
M
cr
= (f f )S M
S
S
1
r pe bc d/nc
bc
b
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
where, f
r
= modulus of rupture = 0.24 f
c
[LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]

Contrary to the Standard Specifications, the LRFD Specifications require that this
criterion be met at all sections.
Consider the information given for the design example in Section 8.2.1.8. Use
f
c
= 5,800 psi, and 46 strands as shown in Figure 8.2.1.8-1.
Does the midspan section have adequate flexural strength to resist a factored moment,
M
u
= 4,900 kip-ft?
Assume the depth of the compression block, a, falls within the top flange.
Compute the average stress in the prestressing steel at ultimate load, f
*
su
, using STD
Eq. 9-17 with f
s
= 270 ksi,
*
= 0.28,
1
= 0.76, and:
*
=
A
bd
s
*
46 0 153
48 0 36 13
( . )
. ( . )
= 0.00406
Therefore, f
*
su
= 270 1
0.28(0.00406)(270)
0.76(5.8)
j
(
,
\
,
(
= 251 ksi.
The compression block depth, a =
A f
0.85f b
46(0.153)(251)
0.85(5.8)(48)
s
*
su
*
c
= 7.47 in.
This is larger than the top flange thickness (5.50 in.). Therefore, the section behaves
as a flanged section, with
b = 48.00 in.
b
= 2(5) = 10.00 in.

8.2.2.3.3
Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.4
Flexural Strength Design
Example
8.2.2.4.1
8.2.2.4.1.1
8.2.2.3.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit/8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.3.2
Maximum
Reinforcement Limit
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
t = 5.50 in.
A
sf
= 0.85f
c
(b b
)/f
*
su
= 4.110 in.
2
Thus A
sr
= A
*
s
A
sf
= 2.928 in.
2
The corresponding reinforcement index, A
sr
f
*
su
/(b
df
c
) = 0.35. This exceeds the
maximum steel index of 0.36
1
= 0.36(0.76) = 0.27. Thus, the section must be
designed as an over-reinforced section. Using STD Eq. 9-23, M
n
= 4,301 ft-kips.
Note that when reinforcement amounts greater than the maximum limit are used,
their effectiveness is significantly diminished. Such design is rare as it is generally
uneconomical.
The design capacity, M
n
= 4,301 ft-kips, is less than the required capacity of 4,900
ft-kips. The capacity may be improved by increasing the compressive strength of the
deck concrete, f
c
. Increasing f
c
would reduce the reinforcement index and improve
the lever arm distance between the center of the strand group and the center of
the compression block. Use value of f
c
= 8,500 psi. This significantly larger value
than 5,800 psi was chosen for the purpose of comparison of the results with LRFD
Specifications and strain compatibility solutions given later. The values of
1
and f
*
su

become 0.65 and 255 ksi, respectively. The corresponding a = 5.18 in. is less than
the top flange thickness of 5.5 in. Therefore, M
n
= 5,009 ft-kips is > 4,900 ft-kips,
which is acceptable. The reinforcement index,
*
f
*
su
/f
c
= 0.12, is much lower than
the limit, 0.36
1
= 0.23.
It should be noted that it is not unusual to have flexural strength rather than service
limit state stresses control the design of adjacent box beam bridges. This is an indica-
tion of the efficiency of this system as further illustrated by Examples 9.1 and 9.2.
Using LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-3, the neutral axis depth, c = 21.40 in.
where
A
ps
= 7.038 in.
2
f
pu
= 270 ksi

1
= 0.76
f
c
= 5.8 ksi
(b b
w
) = 38 in.
h
f
= 5.50 in.
b
w
= 10.00 in.
k = 2(1.04 0.9) = 0.28
d
p
= 36.13 in.
The maximum reinforcement limit, c/d
p
= 0.59, which is greater than the maximum
value of 0.42. The section is over-reinforced and LRFD Eq. C5.7.3.3.1-2, which is
identical to STD Eq. 9-23, must be used. The resulting M
n
would therefore be identi-
cal to that obtained earlier.
If f
c
is increased to 8.5 ksi, the neutral axis depth = 14.89 in., and c/d
p
= 0.41 which is
slightly less than the maximum value. Thus, the section is under-reinforced and LRFD
Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1 may be used.
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications/8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2
LRFD Specifications
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Using LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1 with a =
1
c = 9.68 in., f
ps
= 270[1 0.28(14.89)/36.13]
= 239 ksi with M
n
= 4,557 ft-kips. This value is less than the capacity needed. Note
that the values of a, f
ps
, and M
n
are considerably different from the correspond-
ing Standard Specifications results. These differences will be discussed further in the
example in Section 8.2.2.6.
Does the beam have adequate flexural capacity, M
u
, in the end regions?
Assume that the strand development length = 7 ft for bonded strands and 14 ft for
debonded strands. Determine the envelope of the flexural capacity along the span
length. Assume 12 of the 46 strands are debonded, six in each row, see Figures
8.2.1.8.3-2 and 8.2.1.8-1.
Calculate the capacity for the 34 bonded strands when fully developed at 7 ft from
the end of the beam. Assume the depth of the compression block, a, falls within the
top flange.
*
su
using STD Eq.
9-17, with f
s
= 270 ksi, f
c
= 8,500 psi,
*
= 0.28,
1
= 0.65, and
*
=
A
bd
34(0.153)
48.0(36.13)
s
*
= 0.00300.
Therefore, f
*
su
= 258 ksi.
The compression block depth, a =
A f
0.85 f b
34(0.153)(258)
0.85(8.5)(48)
s
*
su
*
c
= 3.87 in.
This is less than the flange thickness (5.50 in.). Therefore, the section is considered
a rectangular section, and the corresponding M
n
(STD Eq. 9-13) is 3,806 ft-kips.
The ultimate moment capacity diagram is shown in Figure 8.2.2.4.2-1. Note that
even though 14 ft is a very conservative estimate of development length for debonded
strands, it has little impact on the flexural strength of this member.
Calculations using the LRFD Specifications would give the same results.
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications/8.2.2.4.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.2.4.2
Figure 8.2.2.4.2-1
Ultimate Moment Capacity
for the Beam
Applied ultimate moment, M
u
= 4,900 kip-ft
0
0
2,000
1,000
419 kip-ft
419 kip-ft
L/2 L
Development length of
bonded strands = 7 ft
debonded strands = 14 ft
Development length of
Moment (kip-ft)
M
u
M
n
4,000
5,000
3,000
6,000
5,009 kip-ft
3,806 kip-ft
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The strain compatibility approach is based on three well accepted fundamental
assumptions:
plane sections remain plane after bending
compatibility of strains, i.e., full bond between steel and concrete at the section
being considered
equilibrium of forces within a section
In addition, the standard assumptions of concrete stresses at ultimate flexure being
represented by a rectangular stress block is adopted, with the intensity = 0.85f
c
and
depth a =
1
c where c is neutral axis depth and
1
is a coefficient defined in Section
8.2.2.2.1.1. The steel stress-strain relationship may be defined using any representa-
tive formula or graph. For 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands:
f
si
=
si
[887 + 27,613/{1 + (112.4
si
)
7.36
}
1/7.36
] 270 ksi (Eq. 8.2.2.5-1)
where f
si
is the stress in a given layer of reinforcement whose strain is
si
and
si
is the
strain in a given layer of reinforcement.
The above power formula is based on a lower bound curve fitting of actual stress-
strain relationships and on satisfaction of the minimum ASTM limits (Devalapura
and Tadros, 1992). Alternatively, the graph given in Fig. 2.11-1, which is taken from
the PCI Design Handbook may be used.
For mild reinforcement, an elastic-plastic stress-strain relationship is assumed:
f
si
= E
s
si
f
y
(Eq. 8.2.2.5-2)
In order to maintain equilibrium, the sum of the tension and compression forces
must equal zero. The sum of the moments of these forces about any horizontal axis is
equal to the moment acting on the section for the assumed conditions. The process
is iterative due to the non-linearity of the stress-strain relationship of the prestressing
steel. The following 6 steps, adapted from Skogman, et al (1988), demonstrate the
application of this approach:
Step 1: Assume a neutral axis depth c and substitute in Eq (8.2.2.5-3) to obtain the
corresponding strain in each steel layer i. A layer i is defined here as a group of bars
or tendons with the same stress-strain properties (prestressing strand or mild reinforce-
ment), the same effective prestress, and which can be assumed to have a combined
area with a single centroid. The strain in each layer of steel can be estimated using the
equation:

si
=
0.003
d
c
1
f
E
i se
s
i
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.2.2.5-3)
where
d
i
f
se
= effective prestress. For partially tensioned tendons or for non-tensioned rein-
forcing bars, f
se
may be assumed = f
pi
25,000 psi where f
pi
is initial tension
(assumed zero for non-tensioned reinforcing bars).
Step 2: Use Eq. (8.2.2.5-1) or Eq. (8.2.2.5-2) to estimate the stress in each steel layer.
Step 3: Use equilibrium of forces to check assumed neutral axis depth:
8.2.2.5
Strain Compatibility Approach
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
A
si
f
si
+ F
cj
= 0 (Eq. 8.2.2.5-4)
where i refers to steel layer and j refers to concrete components within the compres-
sion block.
Each concrete component would have a force:
F
cj
= 0.85f
cj
A
cj
(Eq. 8.2.2.5-5)
For example, the cross-section shown in Figure 8.2.2.5-1 has three steel layers:
bottom flange group of strands
top flange group of strands
group of deck reinforcing bars
It has three concrete components:
the cast-in-place deck
the overhanging portions of the top beam flange
the portion of the beam web within the compression block depth
The flange overhangs may also be subdivided into rectangular and triangular compo-
nents, although the additional calculations will not significantly affect the accuracy in
this case.
In composite construction, the stress block factor,
1
, may be different for different
components of the compression block. In this case an average
1
may be assumed as
follows:

1ave
= (f A / (f A )
c c j
j
c c j
j

1
) (Eq. 8.2.2.5-6)
Step 4: Revise c and repeat Steps 1-3, until Eq 8.2.2.5-4 is satisfied.
Step 5: Calculate the nominal flexural capacity by summing moments of all forces
about any horizontal axis. If the top fiber is used,
M
n
= A f d F d
si si i
i
cj j
j

+ (Eq. 8.2.2.5-7)
Zero
(a) Cross Section
Layer 3
3,dec
(b) Strains
(c) Forces
f
Cast-in-place concrete
Precast concrete
Strand
Strand
d
3
d
2
d 1
Bar
Layer 1
Layer 2
1
0.003
2,dec
c
1,dec
2
0.85 f
c2
f
f
Strain
s3
s2
s1
0.85 f
c1
a = c
1
Figure 8.2.2.5-1
Flexural Strength Relationships for Strain Compatibility Analysis
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Step 6: Calculate the design moment capacity M
n
. Both the Standard Specifications
and the LRFD Specifications state that may be taken equal to 1.0 for precast con-
crete flexural members. Both Specifications are silent relative to values when the
tension reinforcement exceeds the maximum reinforcement limit. However, the ACI
Code, 318-95 (1995) addresses this situation in the adoption of the Unified Design
Provisions which were developed by Mast (1992). Drawing from the ACI approach,
it is recommended that be reduced linearly from = 1.0 for net tensile strain of
0.005 to = 0.7 for net tensile strain of 0.002 in the extreme tension steel. The
extreme tension steel is the layer of strands or bars nearest the tension face of the
member at the cross-section being considered. The net tensile strain is the tensile
strain at nominal strength exclusive of strains due to effective prestress which may be
obtained using the first term in Eq. (8.2.2.5-3). Therefore, use the following expres-
sion to determine the value of :
0.7 = 0.50 + 0.30
d
c
1
ext
j
(
,
\
,
(
1.0 (Eq. 8.2.2.5-8)
where d
ext
is d
i
of the extreme layer of reinforcement.
Consider the precast concrete cross-section shown in Figure 8.2.1.8-1. In addition to
the 46 strands in the bottom of the section, two strands initially tensioned at 15,000
psi are provided near the top as shown in Figure 8.2.2.6-1. The section is made com-
posite with a 5.00-in.-thick cast-in-place slab whose f
c
is 3,000 psi and reinforced
with 4 #4 Grade 60 bars. The modulus of elasticity of the pretensioning strands is
28,500 ksi and of the reinforcing bars is 29,000 ksi.
Determine the flexural capacity and the corresponding steel stresses.
The steps given in Section 8.2.2.5 may be followed iteratively until a solution is
achieved. For brevity, only the last iteration will be shown here.
Step 1: Neutral axis depth = c = 12.31 in.
For layer 1: d
1
= 3 in., f
se1
= 25 ksi, E
s
= 29,000 ksi, and
s1
from Eq. (8.2.2.5-3),
s1
= 0.00313 (positive sign indicates tension). Similarly,
s2
= 0.00164 and
s3
= +0.0131.
Step 2: Steel stresses, Eq. (8.2.2.5-2) yields f
s1
= 60 ksi, and Eq. (8.2.2.5-1) yields
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach/8.2.2.6.1 Part 1 Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.1
Part 1 Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6
Design Example
Strain Compatibility
Figure 8.2.2.6-1
Cross-Section of the Box Beam
23 @ 2.00"
Type BIII-48
48"
39"
5"
4 #4 Bars @ 41.00" - Layer 1
2 @ 37.00" - Layer 2
23 @ 3.75"
5.5"
5.5"
5" (Typ.)
3"x 3"
- Layer 3
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
f
s2
= 46.9 ksi and f
s3
= +255.4 ksi.
Step 3: Check equilibrium of forces using Eq. (8.2.2.5-4).
A f
si si
i
= 4(0.2)(60) + 2(0.153)(46.9) + 46(0.153)(255.4) = 48 14 + 1,798

= 1,736 kips
This must be equal and opposite to F
cj
j
.
The coefficient
1
must first be averaged over the two concrete materials since the
depth of the compression block is greater than the depth of the cast-in-place top-
ping.
1
of the 5,800 psi precast concrete is 0.76 and of the 3,000 psi cast-in-place
concrete is 0.85. Using an initial
1ave
of 0.80, a =
1
c = 9.85 in. Substituting into
Eq. (8.2.2.5-6):
1ave
= [(3)(5)(48)(0.85) + (5.8)(4.85)(48)(0.76)]/[(3)(5)(48) + (5.8)(4.85)(48)] = 0.79
Thus, revised a = 9.72 in., c = 9.72/0.79 = 12.30 in. and
F
cj
j
= [0.85(3)(5)(48) + 0.85(5.8)(9.72 5)(48)] = [612 + 1,117] = 1,729 kips

A f F
si si
i
cj
j

+ = 1,736 1,729 = 7 kips 0.0 O.K.
Step 4: No revision of c or further iteration is needed.
Step 5: Taking moments about the top fiber:
M
n
= A f d F d
si si i
i
cj j
j

+
= [48(3) 14(7) + 1,798(41.13) 612(2.5) 1,117(7.36)]/12 = 5,333 ft-kips
The approximate formulas of the AASHTO Specifications are not suitable for a
flanged cross-section in which the compression zone extends below the flange. They
would only be valid if the cast-in-place topping and if the top two strands did not
exist, as explained in Section 8.2.2.1.
Table 8.2.2.6.2-1 compares results of the strain compatibility approach for f
c
= 5.8
ksi and 8.5 ksi with the results of flexural design of the example of Section 8.2.2.4
using both the Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications.
Note that the comparisons are for an untopped box beam and not the beam with
deck slab in the preceeding section.
8.2.2.6.1 Part 1 Flexural Capacity/8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 Comparative Results
8.2.2.6.2
Part 2 Comparative Results
Table 8.2.2.6.2-1
Flexural Capacity Prediction
by Various Methods
= 5.8 ksi f
c
f
c
= 8.5 ksi
STD
Spec.
LRFD
Spec.
Strain
Comp.
STD
Spec.
LRFD
Spec.
Strain
Comp.
Neutral axis depth, c, in. 9.83 21.40 16.39 7.97 14.89 8.12
Compression block
depth, a, in.
7.47 16.26 12.46 5.18 9.68 5.28
Steel stress at
ultimate flexure, ksi
251 225 240 255 239 260
M
n
, ft-kips 4,301 4,301 4,505 5,009 4,557 5,106
95% 95% 100% 98% 89% 100%
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The table clearly shows the advantage of using the accurate strain compatibility
approach. For f
c
= 5.8 ksi, the approximate approach utilizes an equation that is not
even a function of the steel provided. For f
c
= 8.5 ksi, the Standard Specifications give
results that are much closer to the strain compatibility approach than the results of
the LRFD Specifications. Part of the reason is the estimation of the neutral axis depth
which is excessive, resulting in a low steel stress and a correspondingly low M
n
.
Some designers compound the errors resulting from the approximate procedures by
lumping all pretensioning steel in a section into a single location for the purpose of
establishing the effective depth. This is incorrect. Only the reinforcement near the
tension face of the member should be considered in determining the steel stress using
STD Eq. 9-17 and LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1.
Where continuity at interior supports under live load and composite dead loads is
desired at interior support, negative moment reinforcement may be provided within
the cast-in-place deck slab. The negative moment section is designed as a reinforced
concrete section using the compressive strength of the beam concrete regardless of the
strength of the cast-in-place concrete. [STD Art. 9.7.2.3.2]
Use the width of the bottom flange as the width of the concrete compressive stress
block, b. Determine the required steel in the deck to resist the total factored negative
moment, assuming that the compression block is uniform:
R
n
=
M
bd
u
2
(Eq. 8.2.3.1-1)
where
R
n
M
u
= total factored negative moment
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the negative
moment reinforcing for precast beam bridges made continuous
= strength reduction factor = 0.9 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
This value is consistent with cast-in-place concrete construction, rather
than = 1.0 for precast members. This is reasonable as the main reinforce-
ment is placed in the field.
Estimate the required area of steel using the following equation:
=
1
m
1 1
2mR
f
n
y

j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
(Eq. 8.2.3.1-2)
where
m=
f
0.85 f
y
c

(Eq. 8.2.3.1-3)
f
y
= yield stress of nonprestressed conventional reinforcement
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 Comparative Results/8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3
Design of Negative
Moment Regions
for Members Made
Continuous for Live Loads
8.2.3.1
Strength Design
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
f
c
= concrete compressive strength at 28 days for the beam
The steel area, A
s
= bd. Alternatively, A
s
may be determined using one of several
approximate methods. For example,
A
s

M
0.9 f d
u
y

(Eq. 8.2.3.1-4)
The above equation implies that the lever arm between the tension and compression
stress resultants is approximately 0.9d.
The design moment strength, M
n
M
n
= A
s
f
y
d
a
2
j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Eq. 8-16]
where
a = depth of compression block =
A f
0.85 f b
s y
c
[STD Eq. 8-17]

A
s
If the depth of the compression block is larger than the thickness of the bottom
flange, flanged section analysis similar to that used for the positive moment section
would be required.
Maximum reinforcement [STD Art. 8.16.3.1]

b
=
0.85 f
f
87,000
87,000 f
1 c
y y

+
j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Eq. 8-18]

max
= 0.75
b
[STD Art. 8.16.3.1.1]
Minimum reinforcement [STD Art. 8.17.1]
The total amount of nonprestressed reinforcement must be adequate to develop an ulti-
mate moment (M
n
)

at the critical section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment. The
cracking moment may be calculated as for a prestressed concrete section except f
pe
= 0.
M
n
1.2M
cr
The specifications allow this requirement to be waived if the amount of reinforce-
ment is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis.
Maximum reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The maximum amount of prestressed (if any) and nonprestressed reinforcement
resisting negative moment should be such that:

c
d
e
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
This is the same requirement as that given in Section 8.2.2.3.2, as the LRFD
Specifications intend to provide for unified treatment of prestressed and conventionally
reinforced concrete.
Minimum reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2].
Requirements for minimum reinforcement in the negative moment region are the
same as in the positive moment region given in Section 8.2.2.3.3.
8.2.3.1 Strength Design/8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.2
Reinforcement Limits -
8.2.3.3
Reinforcement Limits - LRFD
Specifications
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The deck slab is not prestressed and therefore is not subject to the tensile stress
limits specified under service load conditions for prestressed concrete members.
Distribution of the flexural reinforcement in the deck slab should be checked in
order to control cracking. The best crack control is obtained when the steel reinforce-
ment is well distributed over the zone of maximum concrete tension [STD 8.17.2.1].
Several bars at moderate spacing are more effective in controlling cracking than one
or two larger bars of equivalent area. Crack width is controlled by:
steel stress
thickness of concrete cover
area of concrete surrounding each individual reinforcing bar
surface condition of the reinforcing bars
The Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications use the same approach for
crack control. The tensile stress in the mild reinforcement at service loads, f
s
or f
sa
,
should not exceed:
f
s
=
z
d A
c
1/3
( )
0.6 f
y
[STD Eq. 8.61]
f
sa
=
Z
d A
c
1/3
( )
0.6 f
y
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4-1]
where
d
c
= depth of concrete from extreme tension fiber to center of bar
A = area of concrete having the same centroid as the tensile reinforcement and
bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a straight line parallel to
the neutral axis, divided by the number of bars
Z = z = crack width parameter
In situations where the concrete surface is subject to severe exposure conditions, a
maximum value of Z = 130 kip/in. is used in design. For moderate exposure condi-
tions, a maximum value of Z = 170 kip/in. is used.
The longitudinal deck reinforcement in the negative moment zone over the piers
must be checked for fatigue. This portion of the deck is likely to crack due to service
loads and the steel stress range may be significant. The stress range in reinforcement
is limited by:
f
f
= 21 0.33f
min
+ 8
r
h
j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Eq. 8-60, LRFD Eq. 5.5.3.2-1]
where
f
f
= stress range
f
min
= algebraic minimum stress level, positive if tension, negative if compres-
sion
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; if the
actual value is not known, 0.3 may be used.
For stress calculation according to the LRFD Specifications, the special fatigue truck
loading must be introduced to the continuous structure.
8.2.3.4 Serviceability/8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.2.3.5
Fatigue in Deck
Reinforcement
8.2.3.4
Serviceability
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.3
STRAND TRANSFER
AND DEVELOPMENT
LENGTHS
8.3.1
Strand Transfer Length
8.3.1.1
Impact on Design
Figure 8.3-1
Strand Transfer and
Development Lengths
Transfer length, l
t
Development length, l
d
Stresses in the
prestressing strand
Ultimate stress in
prestressing strand, f
pu

Effective stress
after all losses, f
pe
The transfer length, l
t
, is the length of strand over which the prestress force in pre-
tensioned members is transferred to the concrete by bond and friction. The develop-
ment length, l
d
, is the length of strand required to develop the stress in the strand
corresponding to the full flexural strength of the member. The transfer length is
included as part of the development length. These two parameters are used differ-
ently in design as discussed below. Figure 8.3-1 illustrates the relationship between
the transfer and development lengths, and the strand stress.
Much research has been conducted in recent years on methods of predicting l
t
and
l
d
. Prediction formulas have been developed with no clear consensus among research-
ers. It should be emphasized, however, that the impact of variability of the transfer
length on design of bridge beams is very small, and is limited to the 2 to 3 ft at the
end of a member. The impact of variability of development length on bridge beams is
also small. An over-estimation of l
d
will not significantly increase the cost of beams.
However, l
d
may become a significant design parameter for some prestressed concrete
members, such as deck panels, which have very short spans, and piles, which may
have their largest bending moment at the pile/cap interface.
Transfer length is the bonded length of strand required to transfer the prestress force
in the strand to the surrounding concrete in a pretensioned member. At any section
which falls within the transfer length, the prestress force should be reduced in pro-
portion to its distance from the end of the member. Specifically, within the transfer
length, the stress in the strand is assumed to vary linearly from zero at the end of
member, or the point where the strand is bonded if debonding is used, to the full
effective prestress force at the end of the transfer length.
8.3 Strand Transfer And Development Lengths/8.3.1.1 Impact on Design
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.3.1.5
Recommendations
8.3.1.4
Research Results
8.3.1.2
Specifications
8.3.1.3
Factors Affecting
Transfer Length
Overestimation of transfer length is generally conservative for shear design but may be
unconservative in flexural design of the end regions. Shear strength is reduced within the
transfer length due to the reduced precompression in the concrete. On the other hand,
the reduced prestress force in the transfer length zone protects the end of the beam from
excessive tensile stresses. Such excessive stresses may require that the end of the beam be
reinforced with additional bonded steel reinforcement near the top fibers.
STD Article 9.20.2.4 states that the transfer length be equal to 50 times the diameter
of the strand while LRFD Article 5.8.2.3 requires a transfer length of 60 times the
diameter of the strand.
The transfer length for prestressing strand is affected by many parameters. Some of
the most important are:
type of prestressing strand
strand diameter
strand stress level
surface condition of strand (i.e., clean, oiled, rusted, epoxy-coated, etc.)
concrete strength
type of loading (i.e., static, repeated or impact)
method of strand detensioning (i.e., gradual or sudden)
confining reinforcement around strand
consolidation and consistency of concrete around strand
concrete cover around the strand
strand spacing
time-dependent effects
vertical location in concrete (top versus bottom locations)
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), in 1996, approved the use of 1/2-in.-
diameter strands at a center-to-center spacing of 1.75 in. and 0.6-in.-diameter strands
at a spacing of 2 in. These spacings are less than the 4 strand diameters previously
required in the Standard Specifications. This decision was based on studies, which
demonstrate that the transfer length for the more closely spaced strands remains con-
servatively estimated using the relationship found in the Standard Specifications. The
use of 0.6-in. strand in pretensioned bridge members, (which had earlier been pro-
hibited by FHWA), and especially its use at the reduced spacing of 2 in., is expected
to substantially increase the use of 0.6-in.-diameter strands. With only a 20% increase
in diameter from 0.5 to 0.6-in., the prestress force per strand is increased by 40%.
Using 0.6-in. strands at a 2 in. spacing, it is possible now to increase the amount of
pretensioning force by up to 40% and still preserve the same prestress eccentricity.
This will dramatically improve the load carrying capacity of a given cross-section. For
more information on this research, see Section 8.3.2.4.
The current recommendations of the Standard and the LRFD Specifications to use
50 or 60 strand diameters are adequate for design of typical structures. For unusu-
ally short span products or for strands with marginal surface conditions, this transfer
length may not be adequate. For high strength concrete, the provisions in both speci-
fications may overestimate the transfer length.
8.3.1 Strand Transfer Length/8.3.1.5 Recommendations
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.3.2.2
8.3.2
Strand Development
Length
8.3.2.1
Impact on Design
8.3.1.6
End Zone Reinforcement
The Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications have essentially the same
requirements for providing vertical reinforcement near the ends of pretensioned
members. Both require that an area of mild reinforcing steel be provided to resist 4%
of the prestressing force. The stress in the mild reinforcement resisting this force, is
limited to 20,000 psi. This reinforcement is usually provided as stirrups and must be
placed within a distance equal to h/4 from the beam end, where h is the overall depth
of the pretensioned element.
The origin of this requirement is not well known. It appears to be reasonable for
modest levels of prestressing. However, in recent years, larger prestressing forces are
being used with high performance concrete. This is especially true for sections such
as the NU Bulb-Tee beams
*
, where up to 58 strands can be placed in the bottom
flange. When this large number of strands is used with relatively shallow beams, such
as the 43.3 in. deep NU-1100, the specifications require that as much as 3.6 in.
2
of
reinforcement be placed within a distance of 9.0 in. from the end of the beam. It is
very difficult to satisfy this requirement and provide adequate clearance to place and
consolidate the concrete.
Until this issue is investigated further, designers should be aware that the most critical
time is the time of prestress release. Areas of end zone reinforcement that are less than
the required areas and that have been consistently used in actual production without
objectionable cracking at member end should be acceptable.
* a family of metric-dimensioned beams developed at the University of Nebraska
Strand development length is the length required for bond to develop the strand
tension at ultimate flexure. As shown in Section 8.2.2, this tension is generally lower
than the specified ultimate strength of the strand and may be as low as its yield point.
For bridge beams, the development length is insignificant unless the bridge beams
are less than about 24 ft in length, or unless the beams are subjected to large bending
moments near their ends. The development length becomes significant in deck panels
used as stay-in-place forms.
Equations for development length were based on tests performed on normal weight
concrete. The Standard Specifications require that the strand be embedded beyond
the critical section for a distance of at least the development length, which can be
computed by the equation:
l
d ps pe b
f
2
3
f d =
[STD Eq. 9-42]

where
f
ps
= average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load
f
pe
= effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses
d
b
= nominal strand diameter
The Standard Specifications require that debonded strands be designed for twice the
development length of bonded strands. This requirement appears to be unnecessarily
conservative. However, it should be followed until research justifies its modification.
8.3.1.6 End Zone Reinforcement/8.3.2.2 Standard Specifications
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.3.2.4
Factors Affecting
Development Length
When the critical section occurs at a location where the full development length is
not available because of proximity to the end of the member, the available stress in
the strand must be reduced. The Standard Specifications provide the following equa-
tion for computing the available stress for such a condition:
f
d
2
3
f
su
* x
b
pe
= +
l
[STD Eq. 9-19]
where l
x
is the distance from the critical section to the end of the prestressing strand
and f
pe
is in ksi.
The equation for development length in the LRFD Specifications is very similar to the
Standard Specifications. However, based on work by Cousins et al. (1986) indicating
that the existing equation was unconservative, the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) imposed a 1.6 multiplier on the AASHTO equation. As a result, the LRFD
Specifications include a K factor in the equation as follows:
l
d
K f
2
3
f d
ps pe b
[LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1]

where
K = 1.6 for bonded strands in precast, prestressed beams
In lieu of the first equation, an alternative equation may be used for pretensioned
beams as follows:
l
d
pbt
c
ps pe b
c
4f d
f
6.4 f f d
f
10 +

( )( )
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-2]
where
f
pbt
= stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer as specified in
LRFD Table 5.9.3-1
This equation was developed by the Federal Highway Administration (Lane, 1998)
and is intended to reflect the effect of higher strength concrete up to 10,000 psi. For
strands with 12 in. or more of concrete cast below the strands, a 1.3 multiplier must
be applied to LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-2 to compensate for the lower bond strengths that
can exist in top reinforcement.
When a portion of the strand is debonded or shielded and where tension exists in
the precompressed tensile zone under service loads, the development length must be
determined using LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1 with a value of K = 2.0.
The development length of the strand depends on a number of factors in addition to
the factors already stated for the transfer length. These factors include:
The difference between the stress in the prestressing steel at the ultimate member
strength and the effective prestress after all losses. As indicated earlier, the stress
at ultimate strength may range from the yield point to ultimate strength of the
strand.
Use of bonded or debonded prestressing steel.
Flexure-shear interaction.
8.3.2.3
LRFD Specifications
8.3.2.2 Standard Specifications/8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.3.2.6
Recommendations
8.3.2.5
Bond Studies
Numerous studies have been conducted on both 1/2 in. and 0.6-in.-diameter strand,
often with conflicting conclusions. A summary of research on 1/2-in. strand was
reported by Buckner (1994 and 1995). He proposed modification of the l
d
formula
which takes into account the effect of strand stress at ultimate flexure. He suggests
that a strand with a stress at ultimate flexure close to the ultimate strength of the steel
should have a development length almost twice as long as a strand with a stress at
ultimate flexure equal to the yield point of the steel.
Shahawy (2001) suggests that for members with depths greater than 24 in., the
STD Eq. 9-42 results in an unacceptably low development length while LRFD Eq.
5.11.4.2-1 (with K = 1.6) and LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-2 yield conservative results. For
members with depths less than 24 in., the K multiplier in LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1 is
not warranted and LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-2 is extremely conservative. Shahawy also con-
cludes that flexure-shear interaction has a significant effect on the development length
of prestressing strands and should be incorporated into the design equations. Research
findings remain under study by AASHTO, FHWA, PCI and others.
It is recommended that the formula given in the LRFD Specifications be used unless
an improved formula emerges. If the formula in the Standard Specifications is used, a
multiplier of 1.6 should be considered for member depths greater than 24 in. Even
though the factor of 2 applied to debonded strands may be too conservative, it is not
expected to have significant impact on bridge beam design.
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies/8.3.2.6 Recommendations
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.4
SHEAR
The design and analysis of precast, prestressed concrete bridge members for vertical
shear is presented in this section. Design and analysis for combined torsion and shear
are not included. The applicable sections in the Standard Specifications and the LRFD
Specifications are covered in detail. In addition, a simplified procedure given in the
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1979 Interim Revisions, is pre-
sented because it is permitted as an alternative to the procedure given in the Standard
Specifications.
Generally, the design of vertical web reinforcement is one of the last steps performed
in the design of a prestressed concrete bridge beam. The precast member cross-section,
beam spacing, span geometry and flexural reinforcement have already been established.
Unlike flexural design, for which conditions at both service and factored load are evalu-
ated, shear design is only evaluated for factored loads (strength limit state).
Shear design is essentially based on the truss analogy which has been used for con-
crete design since the early 1900s. In the truss analogy, a concrete member resists
loads by a truss composed of concrete compression struts and steel tension ties.
However, while this model is an effective tool for estimating the ultimate shear capac-
ity of concrete members, it may be overly conservative in calculating the cracking
shear capacity when compared to test results.
Therefore, both the Standard and LRFD Specifications provide three shear design
methods which attempt to provide more realistic estimates of shear capacity of a
concrete member by adding a concrete contribution to the basic truss analogy. And
thus, the nominal shear strength, V
n
, is considered to be a combination of the con-
crete contribution, V
c
, and web reinforcement contribution, V
s
. In members with
harped strand, the vertical component of the prestressing force, V
p
, is also considered
to resist the factored shear force. The nominal shear resistance can, therefore, be
expressed as:
V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
+ V
p
The factored shear force at the section under investigation must be less than or equal
to the nominal shear resistance reduced by a resistance factor, :
V
u
V
n
= (V
c
+ V
s
+ V
p
)
While both the Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications are based on the
truss analogy as discussed above, there is a significant difference in the way in which
it is used. The Standard Specifications shear design provisions may be interpreted to
use a truss model with the inclination of the diagonal compression struts fixed at 45
in all cases. This limitation is appropriate for reinforced concrete members but may
be too conservative in prestressed concrete applications. The LRFD Specifications use
variable inclination truss analogy.
To ensure ductile behavior, the designer must properly detail the web reinforcement
to provide adequate development and to satisfy maximum and minimum limits on
the quantity and spacing of the reinforcement. Each of the shear design procedures
is discussed in detail in the following sections.
8.4 SHEAR
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.4.1.1
Flexure-Shear Strength, V
ci
Procedures for shear design of precast, prestressed concrete members are given in
STD Article 9.20. Members must be designed so that:
V
u
(V
c
+ V
s
) [STD Eq. 9-26]
The concrete contribution, V
c
, is taken as the shear required to produce shear crack-
ing. Two types of shear cracks have been identified: flexure-shear and web-shear, as
illustrated in Figure 8.4.1-1.
Flexure-shear cracks dominate the behavior of the portion of the beam where high
bending stresses coincide with significant shear stresses. Web-shear cracks form in
regions of high shear and small bending stresses such as near the support of a simply-
supported beam. The shear that produces these two types of cracking are V
ci
and V
cw

respectively. Therefore, V
c
is taken as the lesser of V
ci
and V
cw
. This procedure was
developed from research conducted at the University of Illinois from the late 1950s
through the mid-1960s.
Procedures for computing the shear capacity associated with the two types of shear
cracking and the contribution of web reinforcement are presented below.
A flexure-shear crack is initiated by a flexure crack forming at a distance d/2 from
the section being considered. As the shear increases, the flexure crack inclines and
becomes a shear crack with a horizontal projection equal to the distance d.
Let M and V be the moment and the shear force at the section of investigation. Set
the moment at d/2 from this section equal to the cracking moment, M
cr
. The value
of M
cr
can be calculated using the expression:
M
cr
= M V
d
2
j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Eq. 9-27a]
Dividing both sides of the equation by V and solving for V, the shear required to pro-
duce the flexure crack at d/2 from the section of investigation can be expressed as:
V =
M
M
V
d
2
cr
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
[STD Eq. 9-27b]
8.4.1
Figure 8.4.1-1
Types of Cracking in
Concrete Beams
Applied Load
Continuous
Support
Simple
Support
Flexural and
Flexure-Shear
Web-
Shear
Web-
Shear
Flexural and
Flexure-Shear
8.4.1 Standard Specifications/8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, V
ci
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
It has been found that an additional increment of shear equal to 1.0 f b d
c

causes
shear failures of beams without web reinforcement. Therefore, it was recommended
that the nominal shear strength carried by the concrete where flexure-shear cracking
occurred can be computed using the equation:
V
n
= 1.0 f b d V
M
M
V
d
2
c d
cr
+ +
[STD Eq. 9-27c]

The dead load effects were kept separate for simplicity.
This equation has been modified to its current form, shown below, by conservatively
dropping the d/2 term in the denominator of the third term and using a constant of 0.6
in the first term to provide a lower bound of the test data, resulting in the equation:
V
ci
= 0.6 f b d V
VM
M
c d
i cr
max

+ + [STD Eq. 9-27]
where
V
d
= shear force at the section of investigation due to the unfactored dead load
M
max
= maximum factored moment at the section due to externally applied loads
V
i
= factored shear force at the section that occurs simultaneously with M
max
For convenience, some designers use the maximum shear force envelope
to determine V
i
in the (V
i
M
cr
/M
max
) term. This approximation should be
acceptable in most designs.
M
cr
= moment due to external load required to crack the concrete at the critical
section. Cracking is assumed to occur at a tensile stress of

6 f
c
in the extreme fiber.

Setting the stress in the extreme tension fiber equal to the cracking stress, 6 f
c
, the
following expression can be derived:
6 f f f
M y
I
c pe d
cr t
+ + (Eq. 8.4.1.1-1)
Solving for M
cr
,
M
cr
=
I
y
6 f f f
t
c pe d
+
j
(
\
,
[STD Eq. 9-28]
The term f
pe
and f
d
are the stresses at the extreme tension fiber due to the effective
prestress forces only, after all loses, and due to the total unfactored dead load, respec-
tively. The ratio I/y
t
is the section modulus at the extreme tension fiber of the section
resisting externally applied loads.
The AASHTO specifications state that V
ci
need not be taken less than 1.7 f b d
c

and that d need not be taken less than 0.8h, where h is the height of the section. It
can be seen that at locations where the maximum moment approaches zero, such as
at an inflection point, STD Eq. 9-27 approaches infinity. The code does not place
an upper limit on V
ci
. However, as V
ci
becomes large, V
c
will be controlled by V
cw
as
determined in Section 8.4.1.2.
ci
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Assuming the web is uncracked, elastic analysis principles can be applied to predict
web-shear cracking. Using Mohrs circle, the shear force required to cause a principal
tensile stress equal to the splitting, or tensile strength of the concrete at the centroid
of the section can be computed using the following expression:
V
cw
=
I b
Q
f 1
f
f
t
pc
t
0.5
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.4.1.2-1)
where
I = moment of inertia of the section
b
= web width
Q = area moment of the part of the cross-section above or below the centroid
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting externally applied loads
f
t
= strength of the concrete in diagonal tension

Typical values for f
t
range between 4 and 5 times the square root of the
compressive strength for field-cured concrete.
Based on this analysis, the orientation of the web-shear crack can be predicted using
the following expression:
=
1
2
tan
2Q
Ib
V
f
1 cw
pc
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.4.1.2-2)
If the value of f
pc
is zero, as is the case for reinforced concrete beams, the equation
predicts a 45 crack. The presence of a longitudinal prestress force flattens this angle.
Values of for typical prestressed beams range from 20 to 40.
Eq. (8.4.1.2-1) was derived for non-composite beams. The equation for composite
sections becomes slightly more complicated. Therefore, STD Eq. 9-29 was developed
to approximate the elastic solution for both non-composite and composite sections.
V
cw
= 3.5 f 0.3f b d V
c pc p

+
j
(
\
,
+ [STD Eq. 9-29]
In the cases where harped strand is used, the term V
p
is the vertical component of the
prestress force. Where strands are straight, V
p
is zero. The effective depth, d, is the
distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing strand
or 0.8 times the total depth, whichever is greater. The concrete strength, f
c
, is taken
as the concrete strength of the web of the precast beam. For composite sections, the
value of f
pc
is evaluated at the centroid of the composite section unless this point is
above the junction of web and flange. For this situation, the value of f
pc
is computed
at the junction. The term f
pc
includes the effect of the prestress force after losses and
the stresses due to any loads applied to the member as a non-composite section. If
the critical section is within the transfer length of the prestressing strand which is
defined to be 50 strand diameters, a reduced effective prestress force must be used to
compute f
pc
(see Sect. 8.3.1).
Web reinforcement in the form of vertical stirrups is typically required to increase
the strength of the beam to resist the factored shear force. The web reinforcement
contribution, V
s
, is computed using:
V
s
=
A f d
s
v sy
[STD Eq. 9-30]
8.4.1.3
Web Reinforcement
Contribution, V
s
8.4.1.2
Web-Shear Strength, V
cw
cw
/8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, V
s
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
where
A
v
= area of web reinforcement
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the pretensioning
force
f
sy
= yield strength of nonprestressed conventional web reinforcement in tension
s = longitudinal spacing of web reinforcement
This equation assumes a 45 crack with a horizontal projection equal to the effective
depth, d. Assuming a constant stirrup spacing, the number of stirrups crossing the
crack is d/s. Therefore, the vertical shear is resisted by d/s stirrups, each contributing
a force equal to A
v
f
sy
. The effective depth d need not be taken less than 0.8 times the
height of the section. Over-reinforcement of the web, which can lead to brittle web-
crushing shear failure, is prevented by requiring V
s
to be less than or equal to:
8 f b d
c

[STD Art. 9.20.3.1]
The design yield strength of web reinforcement is limited to 60,000 psi.
[STD Art. 9.20.3.4]
The spacing of web reinforcement shall not exceed 0.75h or 24 inches. If V
s
is
greater than:
4 f b d
c

then the maximum spacing is reduced by one-half to 0.375h or 12 in.
[STD Art. 9.20.3.2]
STD Article 9.20.3.3 requires that a minimum area of web reinforcement be pro-
vided to prevent sudden failure of the beam due to the formation of shear cracks.
This minimum area is computed by the expression:
A
v

50b s
f
sy
[STD Eq. 9-31]

This equation can also be expressed by combining STD Eqs. 9-30 and 9-31 and
limiting V
s
to:
V
s
= 50b
d (Eq. 8.4.1.3.2-1)
The constant 50 carries the units of psi.
For voided slab beams where V
u
V
c
/2, shear reinforcement may be omitted com-
pletely. [STD Art. 9.20.1.1]
A common application of precast concrete beam construction is to make the beams
continuous for loads applied to the composite structure. This is accomplished by con-
necting the ends of beams with a diaphragm and making the composite deck continu-
ous over the interior supports. Live loads and composite dead loads such as barrier rails,
sidewalks, and future wearing surface are applied to the continuous structure.
This method of construction eliminates unnecessary joints over the bents and takes
advantage of continuity. The continuity of the superstructure is especially important
for resisting and distributing forces due to extreme events, such as earthquakes or
vessel impact.
8.4.1.3.1
Minimum Spacing
Requirements
8.4.1.3.2
Minimum Shear
Reinforcement
8.4.1.4
Application of
Standard Specifications to
Continuous Spans
s
/8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The application of V
ci
and V
cw
is not recommended for this type of construction in
areas near interior supports. This is because those procedures were based on extrapo-
lation of empirically deduced equations using simple-span testing. The designer is
directed to use one of two approaches for such regions:
a) Provisions of the 1979 Interim Revisions (see Sect. 8.4.2).
b) Design the quarter-spans closest to interior supports as conventionally reinforced
members.
However, it is recognized that the V
ci
and V
cw
equations are commonly used in prac-
tice for continuous spans with no known problems.
In a footnote to STD Article 9.20, web reinforcement may be designed using the
method presented in the 1979 Interim Revisions to the Standard Specifications.
In the 1979 Interim Revisions, the following equation is given for computing the
concrete contribution to shear strength:
V
c
= 0.06f
c
b
jd 180b
jd (Eq. 8.4.2-1)
where j = ratio of the distance between the centroids of the compression force and
tension steel, and effective depth, d
Note that concrete strengths above 3,000 psi do not increase the value of V
c
due to
the maximum limit.
The required shear contribution of web reinforcement is computed using the expres-
sion:
V
s
= V
u
(V
c
+ V
p
) (Eq. 8.4.2-2)
where V
p
is the vertical component of the prestress force.
The area of web reinforcement is computed using the expression given in Article
1.16.13 of the 1979 Interim Revisions:
A
v
=
[V (V V )]s
2 f jd
u c p
sy
+
(Eq. 8.4.2-3)
where
V
u
= factored dead and live load shear
= resistance factor for shear = 0.9
Solving for V
u
, the following equation is obtained:
V
u
= V V 2
A f jd
s
c p
v sy
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.4.2-4)
The Tentative Recommendations for Prestressed Concrete published in 1958 by the
ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 323, serves as the basis for the shear design provision
of the 1979 Interim Revisions. The factor of 2 in the shear reinforcement term rep-
resents the assumed benefit of prestressed concrete. For typical sections, a value of
0.9 can be conservatively used to estimate j. The spacing of the web reinforcement
is limited to 3/4 the section height. For simply supported spans, it is recommended
that shear be designed in the middle half of the beam. The required stirrup spacing
computed at the quarter-point is used from the quarter-point to the support. For
continuous spans, web reinforcement must be evaluated for the full length of interior
8.4.2
1979 Interim Specifications
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans/8.4.2 1979 Interim Specifications
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
spans and 3/4 of the exterior span. This approach assumes that regions of high shear
and high flexural stresses are most critical for web reinforcement design.
A minimum amount of web reinforcement is required by these provision equal to:
A
v
=
100b s
f
sy
(Eq. 8.4.2-5)
The coefficient 100 in the equation above was further reduced to the traditional
50 psi in the 1980 Interim Revisions. PCI supported this change (see Design
Supplement to Short Span Bridges, 1985).
There are two methods of shear design presented in the LRFD Specifications. The
most general method is the strut-and-tie model. This model can be applied to any
design situation, including members with irregular cross-sections or discontinuities.
It is also used to design a member for all load effects, not just shear. This method is
discussed in Section 8.12.
The method used for typical shear design is the sectional design model, or modified
compression field theory developed by Collins, Mitchell and others. This method is
based on the variable angle truss model in which the inclination of the diagonal com-
pression field is allowed to vary. This differs from the approach used in the Standard
Specifications in which this angle is always assumed to be 45. This is especially sig-
nificant for prestressed concrete members where the inclination is typically 20 to 40
degrees due to the effect of the prestressing force.
This model also differs from the shear design method found in the Standard
Specifications because the concrete contribution, V
c
, is attributed to tension being
carried across the compression diagonals. This contribution has been determined
experimentally and has been related to the strain in the tension side of the member.
In general, the higher the strain in the tension side at ultimate, the wider the shear
cracks, and in turn the smaller the concrete contribution.
It is significant to note that the concrete contribution, V
c
, is what sets the sectional
design model apart from the strut-and-tie model which is discussed in Section 8.12.
Both models are based on the variable-angle truss analogy in which a concrete
member resists loads by a truss composed of concrete compression struts and steel
tension ties. While this model is an effective tool in estimating the shear capacity
of concrete members, it has been found to underestimate V
c
when compared to test
results. Therefore, the sectional design method can be expected to give higher capaci-
ties than the strut-and-tie model.
Chapter 5 of the LRFD Specifications is applicable to conventionally reinforced con-
crete, and fully-prestressed concrete, as well as partially-prestressed concrete design.
Flexural Regions as defined in LRFD Article 5.8.1.1 are discussed below. Design
of regions near discontinuities are covered in Section 8.12.
The LRFD Specifications, Article 5.8.3, introduces the sectional design model.
Subsections 1 and 2 describe the applicable geometry required to use this technique
to design web reinforcement.
8.4.3
LRFD Specifications
8.4.3.1
Shear Design Provisions
8.4.2 1979 Interim Specifications/8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The nominal resistance is taken the lesser of:
V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
+ V
p
, or, [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
V
n
= 0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
where
b
v
= effective web width
d
v
= effective shear depth
LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2 represents an upper limit of V
n
to assure that the concrete in the
web will not crush prior to yield of the transverse reinforcement.
The LRFD Specifications defines the concrete contribution as the nominal shear
resistance provided by the tensile stresses in the concrete. This resistance is computed
using the following equation:
V
c
= 0.0316 f b d
c v v

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
The units used in the LRFD Specifications are kips and inches. The factor 0.0316 is
equal to
1
1,000
which converts the expression from psi to ksi units for the concrete compressive
strength, f
c
.
The contribution of the web reinforcement is given by the general equation:
V
s
=
A f d (cot cot )sin
s
v y v
+
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
where the angles, and , represent the inclination of the diagonal compressive
stresses measured from the horizontal beam axis and the angle of the web reinforce-
ment relative to the horizontal beam axis, respectively.
For cases of vertical web reinforcement, the expression for V
s
simplifies to:
V
s
=
A f d cot
s
v y v

[LRFD Eq. C5.8.3.3-1]
Transverse shear reinforcement should be provided when:
V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
When the reaction introduces compression into the end of the member, LRFD
Article 5.8.3.2 specifies that the critical section for shear is the larger of 0.5d
v
cot ,
or d
v
, measured from the face of the support, where d
v
and are measured at the
critical section for shear.
To determine the nominal resistance, the design engineer must determine and from
LRFD Article 5.8.3.4. For mildly reinforced concrete sections, the values of and are
2 and 45 respectively. These will produce results similar to the Standard Specifications.
However, for prestressed concrete, the engineer can take advantage of the precompression
and use lower angles of , which optimizes the web reinforcement.
8.4.3.1.1
Nominal Shear
Resistance
8.4.3.1.2
Concrete
Contribution, V
c
8.4.3.1.3
Web Reinforcement
Contribution, V
s
8.4.3.1.4
Values of
and
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance/8.4.3.1.4 Values of and
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
To design the member for shear, the designer first determines the factored shear due
to applied loads at the section under investigation. The critical section is located at
the larger of d
v
or 0.5d
v
cot from the face of support. The effective shear depth, d
v
,
is taken as the distance between the resultants of the tensile and compressive forces
due to flexure. It need not be taken less than the greater of 0.9d
e
or 0.72h. When
strands are straight and compression stays in the top flange, d
v
is easily calculated as
d
e
a/2. When determining d
e
, only the steel on the tension side should be consid-
ered. However, determination of d
v
can get complicated with harped strands as d
v

depends on the location of the critical section, which in turn is a function of d
v
.
For T-beam analysis, the resultant of the compression force is not at a/2. Computer
programs may be used to perform these calculations, but some simplifications are
warranted for hand calculations. For example, the critical section can initially be
assumed to be at 0.72h, and the value of d
v
can be determined at that location. If
this value of d
v
is larger than 0.72h or 0.9d
e
, then the designer may elect to choose
a new location using the value d
v
just determined. When calculating d
v
, it is conve-
nient to use the depth of the compression block, a, at midspan without introducing
significant error.
The shear contribution from harped strand V
p
, is then computed.
Next, the average factored shear stress is calculated using:
v
u
=
V V
b d
u p
v v

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.9-1)

The quantity v
u
/f
c
is then computed, and a value of is assumed. For prestressed
members, a good initial estimate for is 25.
For sections containing at least the minimum transverse reinforcement specified in
LRFD Article 5.8.2.5, the longitudinal strain is calculated at middepth of the mem-
ber using:
x
=
M
d
0.5N 0.5 V V cot A f
E A E A
u
v
u u p ps po
s s p ps
+ +
( )

+
( )
2
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
The initial value of
x
should be taken not greater than 0.001.
The specifications indicate that the area of prestressing steel, A
ps
, must account for
lack of development near the ends of prestressed beams. Any mild reinforcement or
strand in the compression zone of the member, which is taken as one-half of the overall
depth (h/2), should be neglected when computing A
s
and A
ps
for use in this calculation.
This is very important when evaluating members with harped strand, since near the
end of typical beams, harped strands are near the top of the beam. Because of this,
it is recommended that the straight and harped strands be considered separately in
the analysis. It is the physical location of each strand that is important and not the
centroid of the group.
8.4.3.2
Design Procedure
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The variable, f
po
, represents the modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied by
the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding
concrete. For usual levels of prestressing, the LRFD Specifications suggests a value of 0.7f
pu

is appropriate for both pretensioned and post-tensioned members. However, for preten-
sioned members, LRFD Article C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that f
po
can be taken as the stress in
the strands when the concrete is cast around them, which is the jacking stress, f
pj
which
equals 0.75f
pu
. Therefore, it is recommended that for usual pretensioned beams with low-
relaxation strands, the value of f
po
should be taken as 0.75f
pu
. Within the transfer length,
f
po
should be increased linearly from zero to its full value along the transfer length.

If the longitudinal strain in the tensile reinforcement (
x
) calculated using LRFD Eq.
5.8.3.4.2-1 is negative,
x
should be recomputed using the following equation:
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]
where A
c
represents the area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as
shown in Figure 8.4.3.2-1. LRFD Table 5.8.3.4.2-1 is then entered with the values
of v
u
/f
c
and
x
. The table is set up so that interpolation is not necessary and is not
recommended for hand calculations. However, linear interpolation between values
given in the table is acceptable and is often performed by computer programs.
The value of determined using v
u
/f
c
and
x
is compared to the assumed value of .
If the values match, V
c
is calculated using Eq. (5.8.3.3-3) with the value of from
the table. If they do not match, the value of taken from the table is used for another
iteration. Of the quantities computed thus far, only
x
will change with a new value
for , so the effort required for additional iterations is minor.
The 2003 Interim Revisions introduced a simplification in the commentary to avoid
iteration in determining
x
and . In the numerator of the LRFD equations for
x
, the
term 0.5cot can be assumed equal to 1.0, which is the same as assuming = 26.6.
When
x
is determined using this simplification to the equations, the values of and
read from LRFD tables can be used directly without returning to the strain equa-
tions to calculate a revised value of
x
. The flow chart in LRFD Figure C5.8.3.4.2-5
that was revised with the 2003 Interim Revisions is based on this simplified assump-
tion, although the flow chart previously contained in Figure C5.8.3.4.2-5 still accu-
rately reflects the design procedure without the simplification.
Figure 8.4.3.2-1
Illustration of Shear
Parameters
h
/
2
h
/
2
d
v
/
2
A
c
Flexural tension
side

t
x
A
ps2
A
ps1
b
V
d
v
T
C
x
u
v
u u p ps po
c c s s p ps
M
d
N V V cot A f
E A E A E A
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(
+ +
( )
0 5 0 5
2
. . ( )
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
As noted above, LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1 is used to calculate
x
for sections containing
adequate transverse reinforcement, which is usually the case for prestressed mem-
bers. For these sections, the longitudinal strain is calculated near mid-depth of the
member where the strain is less than maximum to account for the redistribution of
shear stresses. Sections with less than the minimum transverse reinforcement have less
capacity for redistribution of shear stresses, and the longitudinal strain is calculated at
the location in the web that is subject to the highest longitudinal tensile strain. For
these sections LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-2 and LRFD Table 5.8.3.4.2-2 are used.
After V
c
has been computed, V
s
is calculated using LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4. The quantity
of shear reinforcement is then calculated using LRFD Eq. C5.8.3.3.-1 with the value of
from the table.
After determining the amount of shear reinforcement needed, the designer should check
the maximum spacing allowed by the specifications as given in LRFD Article 5.8.2.7.
Also, the amount of shear reinforcement should be checked to ensure that it is equal to
or larger than the minimum value required by the specifications, which is:
A
v
= 0.0316 f
b s
f
c
v
y
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]

The longitudinal (flexural) reinforcement must also be able to resist additional force
due to shear, i.e., the horizontal component of the diagonal compression field. The
tensile capacity of the reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member, tak-
ing into account any lack of full development of that reinforcement, must be greater
than or equal to the force T, calculated as:
T
M
d
0.5
N V
0.5V V cot
u
v
u u
s p
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
]
]
]

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-1]
The tensile capacity of the reinforcement can be determined by using the appropriate
values for A
s
f
y
+ A
ps
f
ps
. V
s
is given by LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4 except that V
s
may not be
greater than V
u
/.
Satisfying this equation is very important for prestressed concrete beams, especially
near non-continuous supports where a substantial portion of the prestressing strands
are harped. Harped strands are not effective in contributing to this longitudinal rein-
forcement requirement since they are above midheight of the member.
The LRFD Specifications require that this criterion also be checked at the face of the
bearing. At this section, which usually lies within the transfer length of the strands, the
effective prestressing force in the strands is not fully developed. Thus, the term f
ps
should
be calculated as a portion of the effective prestress force based on linear variation starting
from zero at the end of the beam to full effective prestress at the transfer length. The
designer should not be confused by the term f
ps
, which generally refers to the prestress
force at Strength Limit State, because the strands at this section do not have enough
development length to provide such level of prestress. If the strands are well anchored
at the end of the member, by embedment in a diaphragm or by use of a mechanical
device, the stress in the strands, f
ps
, can be considered to equal the stress in the strands
at Strength Limit State.
8.4.3.3
Longitudinal
Reinforcement
Requirement
8.4.3.2 Design Procedure/8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.4.4
Comparison of Shear
Design Methods
A recent study by Ma, et al (1997) compared the design of two example bridges
using various shear design methods. The purpose of the study was to determine the
significance of varying the method of shear design on the overall cost of precast con-
crete beams. Two cross-sections were considered in the comparison: the box beam of
Examples 9.1 and 9.2 in Chapter 9 and the I-beam shown in Figure 8.4.4-1. It con-
sists of two spans made continuous for superimposed loads using a rigid diaphragm
and conventional deck reinforcement over the pier. Note that the box beam used in
Examples 9.1 and 9.2 is a simple span with conventional concrete strength, while the
I-beam is a continuous span with higher concrete strength. The shear design meth-
ods of the Standard Specifications, LRFD Specifications, and 1979 AASHTO Interim
Revisions were used. As shown in the preceding sections, the methods give identical
values for V
p
. The basic formulation for computing V
s
is the same, but there are dif-
ferences in the assumption of the angle between the diagonal compression strut
and the horizontal axis of the member. Methods for computing V
c
, however, are very
different and the resulting values are also significantly different.
Figures 8.4.4-2 and 8.4.4-3 show the different values of V
c
and A
v
/s along the first span
of the two-span I-beam bridge. Although, V
c
varies significantly from one method to the
other, the overall cost of the beam caused by the variation of the total amount of shear
reinforcement is affected by a maximum of 1.1 percent for the I-beam and 0.4 percent
for the box beam, as shown in Figure 8.4.4-4. These cost estimates were based on an
average total fabricated beam cost of $600/yd
3
and reinforcing bar cost of $0.50/lb. Based
on this limited study, it would seem reasonable to conclude that complex shear design
may not be warranted for box or I-beam members.
Figure 8.4.4-1
Elevation and Cross-Section of an Example Bridge Beam
6-0.6 in. draped strands
Beam elevation and strand pattern
52'-0" 26'-0"
Abutment
Pier
C
L
36-0.6 in. straight strands
52'-0"
NU 1350 beam section
3'-3"
7

1
/
2
"
4
'
-
5
"
Beam spacing = 8'-0"
5.9"
f = 5,000 psi
c
f = 10,000 psi
c
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Relative Stirrup Cost
1.000
1.616
1.368
1.000
1.610
1.559
a) Single span box b) Two-span I-beam
Relative Total Cost
Stirrup
Other
1.000 1.011 1.007
b) Two-span I-beam a) Single span box
Stirrup
Other
1.000 1.004 1.003
LRFD Specifications
Figure 8.4.4.-4
Relative Costs for Different
Shear Design Methods
Figure 8.4.4.-2
Calculated V
c
Values for
Different Design Methods
Distance along the span from the left support (ft)
Pier Abutment
V
c
(kips)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 130
LRFD Specifications
Line of Symmetry
Figure 8.4.4.-3
Shear Reinforcement and
Costs for Different Design
Methods
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Distance along the span from the left support (ft)
Pier
Abutment
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
0
0.0
1.80
3.60
5.40
7.20
9.00
10.80
130
Stirrup cost
( $/ft)
LRFD Specifications
A
v
/s (in /ft )
2
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.5 Horizontal Interface Shear/8.5.1 Theory
8.5.1
Theory
8.5
HORIZONTAL
INTERFACE SHEAR
Cast-in-place concrete decks designed to act compositely with precast concrete beams
must be able to resist the horizontal shearing forces at the interface between the two
elements. The basic strength equation for the design of the interface between the
deck and beam is:
V
u
V
nh
where [STD Eq. 9-31a]
V
u
= factored shear force acting on the interface
= strength reduction factor
V
nh
= nominal shear capacity of the interface
Design is carried out at various locations along the span, similar to vertical shear
design.
Theoretical calculation of the shearing force acting on the interface at a given section
is not simple because the section does not behave as a linear elastic material near
ultimate capacity. If it did, the shear stress, horizontal or vertical, at any fiber in a
cross-section would be calculated from the familiar equation:
v
h
=
VQ
Ib

(Eq. 8.5.1-1)
where
V = vertical shear force at the section
I = moment of inertia
b = section width at the fiber being considered
Q = first moment of the area above (or below) the fiber being considered
However, at ultimate conditions, the material is no longer elastic and the concrete
may be cracked at the section being considered. Further, the composite cross-sec-
tion consists of two different types of concrete with different properties. Therefore,
application of the above equation to design at ultimate, without modification, would
yield questionable results.
Loov and Patnaik (1994) determined that the above equation may yield adequate
results if both the cracked section moment of inertia and area moment of a trans-
formed composite section are used. The section would be transformed using the
slab-to-beam modular ratio used in flexural design by the allowable stress method.
However, this approach is still too complicated. It confuses the calculations at two
limit states: service and ultimate.
Kamel (1996) used equilibrium of forces to show that:
v
h
= V/(jd)b
v
(Eq. 8.5.1-2)
where
V = factored vertical shear at the section in question
d = effective depth of the member
jd = distance between the tension and compression resultant stresses in the sec-
tion. This is the same distance as d
v
used in the LRFD Specifications.
b
v
= section width at the interface between the precast and the cast-in-place con-
crete. It is important to understand that b
v
is not the web width.
JUL 03
8.5.1 Theory/8.5.2 Standard Specifications
8.5.2
Another important issue is which loads should be used to calculate V
u
at a section.
Neither the Standard Specifications nor the LRFD Specifications give guidance in this
regard. While most designers would use all loads to compute V
u
, a strong case can be
made for excluding the self-weight of the precast concrete member, and the weight
of the deck since they are present prior to composite action taking effect. Some
designers and agencies, such as the Illinois Department of Transportation, use only
the composite loads, which include the superimposed dead loads (barriers, wearing
surface, etc.) and the live loads. Fortunately, the amount of reinforcement required,
even with consideration of all loads, is reasonable in practical applications.
To determine the shear capacity of the interface, the LRFD Specifications uses a form
of the well-established shear friction theory, while the Standard Specifications uses
an empirical approach based on several investigations, for example, Birkeland and
Birkeland (1966), Mast (1968), Kriz and Raths (1965) and Hofbeck, et al (1969).
The requirements of the Standard Specifications are stated in terms of vertical shear
while those in the LRFD Specifications are stated in terms of horizontal (interface)
shear. This difference in presentation, which has caused confusion among designers,
will be numerically illustrated in Section 8.5.4.
The Standard Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For
convenience, it may be assumed to be the same location as the critical section for ver-
tical shear. Other sections, generally at tenth-point intervals along the span, are also
designed for composite-action shear. This may be necessary to ensure that adequate
reinforcement is provided for horizontal shear because reinforcement for vertical
shear, which is extended into the deck and used for horizontal shear reinforcement,
may vary along the length of the member.
Composite sections are designed for horizontal shear at the interface between the
precast beam and deck using the equation:
V
u
V
nh
[STD Eq. 9-31a]
where
V
u
= factored vertical shear force acting at the section
V
nh
= nominal horizontal shear strength
= strength reduction factor = 0.90
Note that the horizontal shear strength is compared to the factored vertical shear
rather than a factored horizontal shear.
The nominal shear capacity is obtained from one of the following conditions given
in STD Article 9.20.4.3:
a) when the contact surface is intentionally roughened but minimum vertical ties are
not provided:
V
nh
= 80b
v
d (Eq. 8.5.2-1)
b) when minimum ties are provide but the contact surface is not intentionally rough-
ened:
V
nh
= 80b
v
d (Eq. 8.5.2-2)
c) when the contact surface is intentionally roughened to a minimum amplitude of
1 in. and minimum vertical ties are provided:
V
nh
= 350b
v
d (Eq. 8.5.2-3)
d) when required area of ties, A
vh
, exceeds the minimum area:
V
nh
= 330b
v
d + 0.40A
vh
f
y
d/s (Eq. 8.5.2-4)
JUL 03
8.5.2 Standard Specifications/8.5.3 LRFD Specifications
8.5.3
LRFD Specifications
The minimum area of ties is:
A
vh
= 50
b s
f
v
y
[STD Art. 9.20.4.5]
For the above equations,
b
v
= width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated for horizontal
shear
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the prestressing
force. As for vertical shear design, d need not be taken less than 0.80h.
s = maximum spacing not to exceed 4 times the least web width of support ele-
ment, nor 24 in. [STD Art. 9.20.4.5]
Note that Eq. (8.5.2-4) reduces to Eq. (8.5.2-3) when A
vh
is set equal to 50b
v
s/f
y
.
Eq. (8.5.2-4) is the mathematical representation of the provisions of STD Article
9.20.4.3 (d).
Editions of the Standard Specifications prior to 1996, required that all vertical shear
reinforcement in a beam extend into the cast-in-place slab. However, that require-
ment was removed beginning with the 16th Edition because large amounts of tie
reinforcement may hinder efficient deck removal when the cast-in-place deck requires
replacement. Therefore, only the minimum vertical shear reinforcement necessary to
satisfy the horizontal shear requirements must extend into the deck. In lieu of extend-
ing vertical shear reinforcement, independent reinforcement may be provided.
LRFD Article C5.8.4.1 provides guidance for computing horizontal shear due to fac-
tored loads. In the commentary, the horizontal shear is calculated per unit of girder
length and is also compared with the applied factored shear force on a per unit length
basis. The factored vertical shear force is V
u
. The factored shear force per unit length,
V
h
, is given by the following:
V
h
=
V
d
u
v

[LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.1-1]
where
V
h
= factored horizontal shear force per unit length of beam
V
u
= factored vertical shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads
d
v
= the distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces
(Note: Through the 2003 Interim Revisions, the LRFD Specifications uses the notation d
e
,
which is felt to be in error. It is expected that the specifications will be revised.)
Required strength nominal strength, or:
V
h
V
n
(Eq. 8.5.3-1)
where V
n
= nominal shear resistance of the interface surface
= cA
cv
+ [A
vf
f
y
+ P
c
] [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]
= cb
v
+ [A
vf
f
y
+ P
c
] per unit length [LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.1-9]
where
c = cohesion factor
= 0.100 ksi for this case [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
b
v
= interface width
JUL 03
= friction factor
= 1.0 for this case [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
A
cv
= interface area of concrete engaged in shear transfer
A
vf
= area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane where the shear plane
under consideration must be consistent with the units used
P
c
= permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane (may be con-
servatively neglected)
f
y
= yield strength of shear reinforcement
While the same notation is used for A
vf
and P
c
in the preceding equations, the
values differ because the second equation is expressed on a per unit length basis.
Units must be consistent for each term within the equations.
The values for c and apply when the top surface is intentionally roughened
to an amplitude of 1 in. Typically, any compressive force across the interface is
neglected (i.e., P
c
= 0).
Therefore, for normal weight concrete cast against hardened, roughened, normal
weight concrete, the above relationships may be reduced to the following formula:
V
h
(0.1b
v
+ A
vf
f
y
) per unit length (Eq. 8.5.3-2)
where the minimum A
vf
= (0.05b
v
)/f
y
per unit length [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]
Nominal shear resistance stated on a per unit length basis must also satisfy:
V
n
0.2f
c
b
v
, and, [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-2]
V
n
0.8b
v
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]
If the width of the contact surface exceeds 48 in., a minimum of four bars should
be used for each row and consideration should be given to locating one bar in each
outstanding portion of the flange.
The minimum reinforcement required of A
vf
may be waived where V
h
/b
v
is less than
0.100 ksi. This is consistent with the Standard Specifications, the ACI Code and other
references. It would seem to be impractical and an unnecessary expense to provide
connectors in a number of common applications, such as precast stay-in-place panels
if the interface stress is lower than 0.10 ksi.
As discussed in Section 8.5.1, the results of design for horizontal shear according to
the Standard and LRFD Specifications can be quite different. Part of the difference is
caused by the strength prediction formulas, as shown in Figure 8.5.4-1. Designers
must be careful to recognize that the factored vertical shear force used in the
Standard Specifications is not the same as the interface shear force used in the LRFD
Specifications. These differences are demonstrated in the following example.
Consider an I-beam with a 20-in.-wide top flange and an 8"-thick composite cast-
in-place concrete deck. The effective depth of the overall section is 48 in. These two
elements are connected using 2 #4, Grade 60 bars spaced at 24 in.
The maximum nominal shear capacity according to the Standard Specifications is:
V
nh
= (0.35)(b
v
)(d) = 0.85(0.35)(20)(48) = 286 kips (Eq. 8.5.2-1)
The maximum nominal shear capacity according to the LRFD Specifications is:
V
n
= (cb
v
+ A
vf
f
y
) [LRFD Eq. C.5.8.4.1-9]
= 0.9[0.1(20) + 1.0(0.4/24)(60)]
= 2.7 kips/in.
8.5.3 LRFD Specifications/8.5.4 Comparison of Design Specifications
8.5.4
Comparison of Design
Specifications
JUL 03
For comparison with the Standard Specifications, the results of V
n
from the LRFD
Specifications must be multiplied by d
v
. For simplicity, d
v
can be taken as the distance
between the resultant of the tensile force and the mid-thickness of the deck.
Therefore:
d
v
+ 48 8/2 = 44 in.
V
n
d
v
= 2.7(44) = 119 kips
Recent studies, summarized by Kamel (1996) indicate that the 350 psi stress allowed
by the Standard Specifications is higher than some of the experimental results, see
Figure 8.5.4-1.
It is the opinion of the Manual authors that the LRFD Specifications provisions are
more theoretically correct than the provisions in the Standard Specifications, especially
if the designer designs for the composite loads only, i.e. the loads introduced after the
deck slab has hardened.
Figure 8.5.4-1
Specifications Equations for
Horizontal Shear Strength
Versus Test Results
(Kamel, 1996)
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Hofbeck et al. (1969)
Mattock (1976)
Walraven et al.(1988)
Walraven et al. (1988)
Mattock et al. (1976)
Walraven et al. (1988)
Loov & Patniak (1994)
University of Nebraska Tests
LRFD Specifications
(A
vh
f
y
/b
v
s)/f
c
(
V
n
h
/
A
c
v
)
/
f
c
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.6 Loss of Prestress/8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.2
Definition
8.6.3
Significance of
Losses on Design
8.6.4
Effects of Estimation
of Losses
8.6.1
Introduction
8.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
Concrete is a material that exhibits time-dependent behavior. Under the effects of
sustained stress, creep causes concrete to experience ongoing strains. Even when no
loads are present, concrete specimens will undergo shrinkage strains. Prestressing
steel, when strained at levels normal in prestressed concrete bridge members, exhib-
its a gradual loss of stress under constant strain that is referred to as relaxation.
Chapter 2 and Section 8.13 provide equations, representative material constants and
more information related to predicting creep, shrinkage and relaxation.
Under the combined effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and the relaxation of
prestressing steel, prestressed concrete members gradually deform with time. These
time-dependent changes manifest themselves in the shortening of the member, in
some loss of prestress and, therefore, in a change in camber or deflection.
Several techniques are available to the designer to account for these effects.
Approximate methods suitable for conventional designs are given in this section.
More detailed methods suitable for unusual or complex designs are presented in
Section 8.13.
Loss of prestress is defined as the difference between the initial stress in the strands
(just after seating of strands in the anchorage), and the effective prestress in the
member (at a time when concrete stresses are to be calculated). This definition of
loss of prestress includes both instantaneous (elastic) losses and losses that are time
dependent.
In post-tensioning applications, friction between the tendon and the duct as well as
anchorage seating losses during the post-tensioning operation must be considered in
design. Post-tensioning applications are included in Chapter 11.
For design, there are two important stages in the life of a prestressed concrete bridge
beam when loss of prestress plays a significant role. First, a reasonable estimate of the
prestress level is needed immediately following transfer of prestress. This is to avoid
overstressing the concrete beam when the prestress force is the highest and concrete
strength is lowest. The second stage that requires an estimate of effective prestress is
under long-term service conditions. This is required to ensure that calculated stresses in
the concrete are below the limits prescribed by the specifications. Other design criteria,
including such critical matters as ultimate flexural strength and ultimate shear strength,
are relatively insensitive to the designers estimate of loss of prestress. It is primarily the
unfactored service load stresses in the bottom flange of a concrete beam that the designer
is attempting to control through estimates of loss of prestress.
It is important to recognize the variables which affect the loss of prestress in a beam.
Some of the important variables affecting time-dependent behavior, and therefore
loss of prestress, are the concretes modulus of elasticity, and creep and shrinkage
properties. These variables can be somewhat unpredictable for a given concrete mix-
ture and cannot be fully controlled by the designer. Therefore, the estimation of loss
of prestress should not be overemphasized at the expense of other more important
issues during the design process.
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 1
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
8.6.4.1
Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2
Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3
Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4
Effect of
Underestimating Losses
8.6.5
Prediction of Creep,
Shrinkage and Relaxation
Material Properties
An exception to the previous statement should be made with regard to estimation of
loss of prestress at the time of transfer. It is important that losses at release (transfer)
not be grossly overestimated. If this were to happen, sudden failure of the member
at prestress transfer, while not likely, could possibly occur. At least, significant crack-
ing could be expected. Fortunately, estimates of losses at this time are subject to
fewer unknown variables, allowing a more accurate estimate to be made in almost
all cases.
In the case of overestimation of loss of prestress, the beam is likely to be constructed
with more strands than necessary. The increase in strand cost is usually not signifi-
cant, but if additional strands are provided, the concrete release strength may have to
be increased to accommodate the larger prestress force. This could require a longer
curing time or a more expensive concrete mix. An increase in beam costs may result,
particularly if the increase in release strength requires an additional day to complete
the casting cycle.
Another issue associated with overestimation of loss of prestress, and the addition
of strands, is unexpected camber. Excessive camber of a bridge member can cause
problems for constructors and can result in the need to adjust bridge grades. Finally,
if a designer significantly overestimates loss of prestress for a member near the limits
of its span range, it may be necessary to specify a larger beam. Foundation and sub-
structure costs may also increase.
From the above discussion, it should be apparent that it is not beneficial to overesti-
mate loss of prestress. The designer, therefore, is cautioned against overestimation.
Conversely, underestimation of loss of prestress can theoretically result in excessive
tensile stresses in the concrete member under service conditions. No known instances
of problems resulting from this condition have been reported. The ultimate flexural
strength requirements of bridge design specifications serve to impose a lower limit
on the number of strands in a member, thereby indirectly preventing a low estimate
for loss of prestress from having a significant adverse impact on a member. Underesti-
mating losses may also result in lower than anticipated camber or even an unsightly
sag in the final structure, but again, this is unlikely to occur in practice.
Time-dependent analysis for prestress loss, deflection, and for restraint moments in
jointless bridges require knowledge of the material properties of concrete and steel.
These properties include modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage of concrete and
relaxation of prestressing steel. More detailed discussion of these properties is given
in Chapter 2. The following sections present prediction formulas for use in lieu of
actual test data. These formulas are used in the analysis of prestress losses and other
time-dependent effects in this section and in Section 8.13.
Several prediction formulas exist for creep and shrinkage. They are primarily based on
either ACI Committee 209 or CEB-FIP model code. The formulas recommended by
ACI 209 are given below. It is the designers option to use either the ACI Committee 209
or CEB-FIP formulas. It is important, however, to recognize that one should not combine
information from both sources in one design, as the ACI procedure tends to give higher
shrinkage and lower creep values than the CEB-FIP method. The LRFD Specifications
includes formulas for creep and shrinkage prediction that are primarily based on the ACI
method. For the reasons indicated below, it is recommended that the formulas given here
be used. They are based on recommendations by ACI Committee 209, modified by Huo
(1997) to account for high strength concrete. As Figures 8.6.5-1 and 8.6.5-2 show, the
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer/
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 2
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
formulas given here represent the best correlation with test results. Otherwise, the LRFD
Specifications shrinkage formulas should be modified to account for the higher concrete
strengths used in precast concrete products. The LRFD Specifications creep formulas
already include a strength modifier.
Figure 8.6.5-1
Comparison Between
Experimental Results
and Different Formulae
for Prediction of
Creep Coefficient
(Huo, et al, 2001)
Farrington (1996)
Huo (1997)
+
2
0
%
-
2
0
%
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
0.25
-
2
0
%
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
0.25
+
2
0
%
-
2
0
%
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
0.25
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
,

C
(
t
,
t

)
0
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
,

C
(
t
,
t

)
0
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
,

C
(
t
,
t

)
0
+
2
0
%
ACI 209, C(t,t )
0
LRFD, C(t,t )
0
ACI 209 Modified for High Strength, C(t,t )
0
Figure 8.6.5-2
Comparison Between
Experimental Results and
Different Formulae for
Prediction of
Shrinkage Coefficient
(Huo, et al, 2001)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
,

S
(
t
,
t

)
x
1
0
-
6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
100 200 300 400 500 600
LRFD, S(t,t )x10
-6
0
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
,

S
(
t
,
t

)
x
1
0
-
6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
100 200 300 400 500 600
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
,

S
(
t
,
t

)
x
1
0
-
6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
2
0
%
-
2
0
%
2
0
%
-
2
0
%
2
0
%
-
2
0
%
100 200 300 400 500 600
Farrington (1996)
Huo (1997)
ACI 209, S(t,t )x10
-6
0
ACI 209 Modified for High Strength, S(t,t )x10
-6
0
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 3
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Prediction of creep coefficient of concrete members is presented in detail in Chapter
2 for members whose specified compressive strength is in the range of 3 to 5 ksi. In
this strength range, the creep coefficient C(t,t
0
) for concrete loaded at an age of t
0
, in
days, for a loading duration of (t-t
0
) days, is:
C(t,t
0
) =
(t t )
10 (t t )
C
0
0.6
0
0.6
u
+
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-1)
where C
u
= 1.88k
c
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2)
where k
c
la
k
h
k
s
(Eq. 2.5.8.1-2a)
where
k
la
k
h
k
s
Eq. (2.5.8.1-1) is applicable to members moist-cured for 7 days or heat-cured for 1
to 3 days.
The relative humidity correction factor, k
h
, may be taken from Table 2.5.7.1-2 or
by using Eq. (2.5.7.1-3d). The size correction factor, k
s
, depends on the volume-to-
surface area of the member and may be taken from Table 2.5.7.1-3 or by using Eq.
(2.5.7.1-3f ). The correction factor for loading age, k
la
, can be calculated using Eq.
(2.5.8.1-2b) for steam-cured concrete or Eq. (2.5.8.1-2c) for moist-cured concrete or
may be taken from Table 2.5.8.1-1.
Experimental studies by Huo (1997) produced two additional modifiers to allow for
application to members with concrete strengths up to 12,000 psi. First, the term (12
0.5f
c
) is proposed to be used in place of the number 10 in Eq. 2.5.8.1-1 to reflect
the fact that the creep coefficient initially develops at a faster rate in higher strength
concrete. Second, an additional modifier, k
st
, is introduced to reflect the experimental
observation that higher strength concrete exhibits lower ultimate creep.
Correction factor for concrete strength: k
st
= (1.18 0.045f
c
) (Eq. 8.6.5.1.2-1)
where f
c
= concrete strength at 28 days, ksi
Therefore, Eq. 2.5.8.1-1 is modified to the following equation for use for members
with f
c
in the range of from 4 to 12 ksi:
C(t,t ) 1.88k k k k
(t t )
(12 0.5f ) (t t )
0 la h s st
0
0.6
c 0
0.6
(Eq. 8.6.5.1.2-2)
Determine creep at 2 years for 7.0 ksi concrete in an environment of 70% relative
humidity. The concrete was steam-cured and initially loaded at 2 days. The member
volume-to-surface area ratio is 1.5 in.
8.6.5.1.3
Creep Example
8.6.5.1.1
Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2
Modification Factors
for Strength
8.6.5.1
Prediction of Creep
Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete/
8.6.5.1.3 Creep Example
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 4
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Thus,
t = 2(365) = 730 days
t
0
= 2 days
H = 70%
f
c
= 7.0 ksi
Therefore,
k
la
= 1.13(2)
0.094
= 1.06
k
h
= 1.00
k
s
=
2
3
(1 1.13e )
0.54(1.5)
+

= 1.00
k
st
= 1.18 0.045(7.0) = 0.87
k
c
= (1.06)(1.00)(1.00)(0.87) = 0.92
C
u
= 1.88(0.92) = 1.73
C(730, 2)
(728)
12 0.5(7) (728)
(1.73)
0.6
0.6
[ ]
+
= 1.49
The LRFD Specifications provides a correction factor for concrete strength that has
a similar effect to that given by the correction factor, k
st
, of Huo (1997), i.e. reduc-
tion of the overall creep for increased concrete strength. It is based on Nilson (1987).
However, the LRFD Specifications creep prediction formula tends to somewhat
underestimate creep growth at early concrete ages.
Prediction of the shrinkage coefficient for concrete members is presented in detail
in Chapter 2 for members whose specified compressive strength is in the 3 to 5 ksi
range. For this strength range, the shrinkage coefficient, S(t,t
0
), can be calculated
using the following equations.
For concrete members subjected to steam curing for 1 to 3 days:
Shrinkage, S, in the period (t-t
0
):
S(t,t
0
) =
(t t )
55 (t t )
S
0
0
u
+
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-1)
For concrete members moist-cured for 7 days:
Shrinkage, S, in the period (t-t
0
):
S(t,t
0
) =
(t 7)
35 (t 7)
S
u
+
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-2)
where S
u
= ultimate shrinkage strain = 545k
sh
x 10
6
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3)
where k
sh
= product of applicable corrections factors = k
cp
k
h
k
s
(Eq. 2.5.7.1-3a)
8.6.5.2
Prediction of Shrinkage
Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.3 Creep Example/8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 5
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
where
k
cp
k
h
k
s
Correction factor, k
cp
, for a different curing period than 7 days of moist curing may
be taken from Table 2.5.7.1-1. This correction factor, k
cp
, may be taken equal to 1.0
for steam-cured members. The relative humidity correction factor, k
h
, may be taken
from Table 2.5.7.1-2 or calculated by using Eq. (2.5.7.1-3b) and Eq. (2.5.7.1-3c).
s
, depends on the volume-to-surface area of the member
and may be taken from Table 2.5.7.1-3 or calculated by using Eq. (2.5.7.1-3e).
Experimental studies by Huo (1997) have produced factors that permit using the
above shrinkage prediction procedure for concrete strengths up to 12.0 ksi. Two addi-
tional modifiers were introduced. The first was to add (102.5f
c
) to the denominator
of the time function to reflect more rapid shrinkage at an early age of high strength
concrete. The second modifier is a multiplier, k
st
, to reflect a reduced ultimate shrink-
age with higher strength concrete.
Ultimate shrinkage correction factor for concrete strength:
k
st
= (1.2 0.05f
c
) (Eq. 8.6.5.2.2-1)
where f
c
= concrete strength at 28 days, ksi
Therefore, the Eqs. 2.5.7.1-1 and 2.5.7.1-2 are modified to the following equations
for use with members with f
c
in the 4 to 12 ksi range:
For moist-cured concrete:
S(t,t ) 545x10 k k k k
(t 7)
(45 2.5f ) (t 7)
0
6
cp h s st
c
(Eq. 8.6.5.2.2-2)
For steam-cured concrete:
S(t,t ) 545x10 k k k k
(t t )
(65 2.5f ) (t t )
0
6
cp h s st
0
c 0
(Eq. 8.6.5.2.2-3)
Compute the shrinkage for 7,000 psi concrete, moist-cured for 1 day and subjected
to an environment of 70% relative humidity for 2 years. The volume-to-surface area
ratio is 1.5 in.
Thus,
t = 2(365) = 730 days
t
0
= 1 day
H= 70%
Therefore,
k
cp
= 1.0
8.6.5.2.3
Shrinkage Example
8.6.5.2.1
Shrinkage
8.6.5.2.2
for Strength
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete/
8.6.5.2.3 Shrinkage Example
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 6
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
k
h
= 1.00
k
s
= 1.20e
0.12(1.5)
= 1.00
k
st
= 1.2 0.05(7.0) = 0.85
k
sh
= (1.0)(1.00)(1.00)(0.85) = 0.85
S
u
= 545(0.85) x 10
6
= 463 x 10
6
S(730,1)
(730 1)
65 2.5(7) (730 1)
[ ]
+
(463 x 10
6
) = 435 x 10
6
The LRFD Specifications significantly overestimates long-term shrinkage in precast,
prestressed concrete members as no correction factors are given for concrete
strength.
The intrinsic relaxation of low-relaxation prestressing steel can be calculated using
the following equation, based on the prestressing force in the strand immediately
after anchoring:
L
r
=
log (24t)
K
f
f
0.55 (f )
10
r
i
py
i
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.6.5.3-1)
where
L
r
= intrinsic relaxation of the strand without accounting for member shortening
due to creep and shrinkage
f
i
= initial stress at the beginning of the relaxation loss period
f
py
= yield strength of the strand
t = time in days for which relaxation loss is calculated
K
r
= 45 for low-relaxation strand
= 10 for normal-relaxation (stress-relieved) strand
Note: The PCI Committee Report on Prestress Losses (1975) recommends a value for
K
r
of 45 for low-relaxation strand. However, the LRFD Specifications uses 40 (see Section
8.13, Table 8.13.1.4-1). A value of 45 is both commonly used and recommended.
A variety of methods are available to predict loss of prestress. They fall into three
main categories, listed in order of increasing complexity:
1. lump sum estimate methods
2. rational approximate methods
3. detailed time-dependent analyses
Both the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications provide methods in the
first two categories above. The time-dependent analysis procedure described in
Section 8.13 fits into the third category. Over the last several decades, a wide variety
of additional techniques and procedures have been suggested for estimating loss of
prestress.
The ACI-ASCE Committee 423 method (Zia, et al, 1979) is similar to both the
Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications methods, but uses slightly differ-
ent equations. The PCI method (PCI Committee on Prestress Losses, 1975) pro-
vides a detailed step-by-step analysis. Another method, developed by Branson and
8.6.5.3
Prediction of Relaxation of
Prestressing Steel
8.6.6
Methods for Estimating
Losses
8.6.5.2.3 Shrinkage Example/
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:21 AM 7
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Kripanaranayan (1971), appears in the ACI 209 Committee Report (1992). The
interested reader is referred to the cited references for additional details.
Elastic shortening is the immediate shortening of the member under the applica-
tion of prestressing force. Elastic shortening at the transfer of pretensioning occurs
instantaneously and is not a time-dependent effect. Elastic shortening losses differ
from time-dependent losses in that they are partially recoverable. A partial recovery
of elastic shortening losses may occur due to elastic gain when loads are superimposed
on the member.
The elastic shortening loss is computed using the same equation in both the Standard
and LRFD Specifications. That equation, however, provides an approximate value for
this loss, or requires iteration to obtain an exact value. Alternatively, Eqs. (8.6.7.1-1)
through (8.6.7.1-3) which follow, provide a method for determination of the elastic
shortening loss that yield an exact value without iteration.
ES = f
pi
f
po
(Eq. 8.6.7.1-1)
where
f
pi
f
po
= stress in prestressing steel immediately after release
f
po
=
pi
p
ci
sw
f

E
E
M
e
I
1
+
+
(Eq. 8.6.7.1-2)
where
E
ci
E
p
= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning tendons
M
sw
= moment at section of interest due to self-weight of the member plus
any permanent loads acting on the member at the time of transfer
e = eccentricity of prestressing steel with respect to centroid of section
=
p
ci
p
2
2
E
E
A
A
1
e
r
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.6.7.1-3)
and where r = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section =
I
A
Calculate elastic shortening loss at midspan for the beam shown in Figure 8.6.7.2-1.
Assume that the strands were tensioned 18 hours prior to release. For a span length of
65 ft, the self-weight moment at midspan is 3,694 in.-kips.
Some designers use the full length of the member to calculate effects at the time of
prestress release, since the member cambers and becomes supported at its ends. This
is not a universally accepted approach. For convenience of discussion in the follow-
ing sections, the span between centerlines of bearings will be used throughout this
section.
8.6.7
Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1
Computation of Elastic
Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2
Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses/8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 8
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Input data
Strands: 1/2-in.-diameter strand, Grade 270, low-relaxation
Eccentricity at midspan = 16.413 in.
Eccentricity at end of beam = 11.556 in.
A
p
= 28 strands x 0.153 = 4.284 in.
2
Bars: #6, Grade 60
Beam concrete: f
ci
= 4,950 psi at 18 hours, E
ci
= 4,054 ksi
f
c
= 6,750 psi at 28 days, E
c
= 4,734 ksi

shu
= 0.0004 in./in.
C
u
= 1.4
Beam section properties: Type III AASHTO-PCI
A = 560 in.
2
I = 125,390 in.
4
y
b
= 20.27 in.
Composite section properties: I
c
= 382,372 in.
4
y
bc
= 36.02 in.
Deck properties: Width = 104 in.
Thickness = 8 in.
f
c
= 4,500 psi at 28 days

shu
= 0.0004 in./in.
C
u
= 1.4
Figure 8.6.7.2-1
Beam Configuration Used in
Elastic Shortening Example
66'-8"
26'-8" 13'-4" 26'-8"
4 harped strands
10"
65'-0"
10"
(2) #6 bars
24 straight strands
4 harped
strands
(2) #6 bars
24 straight strands
5"
2"
3"
3 @ 2"=6"
45"
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 9
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
Dead loads: Self-weight = 583 plf
Deck weight = 867 plf
Haunch weight = 40 plf
Diaphragm weight = 100 plf
Superimposed dead load = 360 plf
The total force in the strands, at the time of transfer, is equal to the force immedi-
ately after the strands are anchored less the relaxation loss occurring prior to transfer.
Relaxation loss prior to transfer is computed using equation 8.6.5.3-1. Using an
anchoring stress of 0.75f
pu
= 202.5 ksi and assuming the strands are anchored 18
hours (0.75 days) prior to transfer, L
r
is calculated to be 1.60 ksi. Therefore, f
pi
, the
strand stress immediately before transfer, is taken as 202.5 1.6 = 200.9 ksi.
Next, is calculated using an eccentricity of the prestressing steel, e, of 16.413 in.
The modulus of elasticity of the concrete at transfer, E
ci
, is 4,054 ksi, and the modu-
lus of elasticity of the prestressing strand, E
p
, is 28,500 ksi.
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

28,500
4,054

4.284
560
1
(16.413)
223.91
0.1185
2
Calculate the strand stress immediately after transfer:
po f

200.9
28,500
4,054

(3,694)(16.413)
125,390
1 0.1185
182.7 ksi
+
+

Elastic shortening loss, ES, is calculated to be:
ES = 200.9 182.7 = 18.2 ksi
The Eighth Edition of the Standard Specifications, published in 1961, was the first
AASHO (now AASHTO) specifications to contain a reference to loss of prestress. In that
edition, loss of prestress due to all causes except friction was assumed to be 35,000 psi for
normal relaxation strand for pretensioned applications. The 1961 Standard Specifications
also recommended that the method presented in the ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 423
Report [1958] was recommended if a more exact estimate was required.
In the 1971 Interim Revisions, a method was introduced where the total losses were
estimated as the sum of individual components. These provisions marked the first use,
in the Standard Specifications, of a detailed method of estimating loss of prestress.
The following equation, which remains essentially unchanged since its introduction
in the 1971 Interim Revisions, is used for estimating total loss of prestress:
f
s
= SH + ES + CR
C
+ CR
S
[STD Eq. 9-3]
where
f
s
SH = loss of pretension due to concrete shrinkage
8.6.8
Losses from the
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example/8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 10
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
ES = loss of pretension due to elastic shortening
CR
C
= loss of pretension due to creep of concrete
CR
S
= loss of pretension due to relaxation of prestressing steel
All values are in psi.
The equation for estimating loss due to shrinkage of concrete, SH, is roughly based
on an ultimate concrete shrinkage strain of approximately 0.00042 and a modulus
of elasticity of approximately 28,000 ksi for prestressing strands. Correction fac-
tors for different average ambient relative humidities were applied resulting in three
values of SH, depending on regional average humidity. A straight line was drawn to
best fit the three discrete values, resulting in the following equation for pretensioned
members:
SH = 17,000 150RH [STD Eq. 9-4]
where RH = mean annual ambient relative humidity, percent.
The Standard Specifications provides the following equation for estimating elastic
shortening loss for pretensioned members:
ES
E
E
f
s
ci
cir
[STD Eq. 9-6]
where f
cir
= average concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning steel due
to pretensioning force and dead load of beam immediately after trans-
fer.
Since f
cir
depends on the as-yet-unknown ES, an approximation for f
cir
must be made
in [STD Eq. 9-6]. Representative starting values for f
cir
are provided in the Standard
Specifications for both low-relaxation and stress-relieved strand.
It is recommended, however, that the more exact method represented by Eqs.
(8.6.7.1-1) through (8.6.7.1-3) be used in lieu of the procedure in the Standard
Specifications for estimating ES, as shown in Example 8.6.7.2.
Loss due to creep of concrete is given by:
CR
C
= 12f
cir
7f
cds
[STD Eq. 9-9]
where f
cds
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due to
all dead loads except the dead load present at the time pretensioning force
is applied.
This equation was developed by Gamble (1972) and was based on field measure-
ments of a series of bridges in Illinois. The first term in [STD Eq. 9-9] is based on
a creep coefficient of approximately 1.7 and a modular ratio of 7. The second term
in the equation represents the instantaneous elastic stress increase in the bonded
tendons after application of additional dead loads. (It should be noted that creep due
to f
cds
would have a tendency to further increase the second term, resulting in lower
predictions for CR
C
. [STD Eq. 9-9] represents a conservative approach, i.e. assuming
a creep coefficient of zero for these later permanent loads.
8.6.8.1
Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2
8.6.8.3
Creep Loss
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications/8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 11
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
For stress-relieved strands, total loss due to relaxation of the prestressing steel is given
by:
CR
S
= 20,000 0.4ES 0.2(SH + CR
C
) [STD Eq. 9-10]
This equation was also developed by Gamble (1972). The 0.4 multiplier on the ES
term was based on analytical studies of total relaxation of stress-relieved strands with
varying values of elastic shortening loss. Gamble reasoned that shrinkage and creep
losses, occurring gradually and at a time when relaxation would occur at a reduced
rate, would produce only approximately one-half as much reduction in relaxation as
would elastic shortening loss that occurs very soon after the strand is stressed. Hence
the factor of 0.2 on SH and CR
C
.
For low-relaxation strand, total loss due to relaxation is given by:
CR
S
= 5,000 0.1ES 0.05(SH + CR
C
) [STD Eq. 9-10A]
This equation is based on the equation for stress relieved strand, but is adjusted for
intrinsic relaxation in low-relaxation strand of approximately 25% that of stress-
relieved strand.
As an alternative to the procedure described in the preceding paragraphs, the
Standard Specifications permits the use of a single value of lump sum total losses
equal to 45,000 psi for pretensioned beams of usual design and a concrete strength
of 5,000 psi. No corrections are provided for other concrete strengths.
Calculate the total loss of prestress at midspan for the beam shown in Figure 8.6.7.2-
1 in accordance with the Standard Specifications. The midspan moment due to deck,
haunch and diaphragms applied to the plain beam is 6,379 in.-kips. The midspan
moment due to dead loads applied to the composite section is 2,280 in.-kips. The
average relative humidity is 70%. The strands are initially tensioned to a stress equal
to 0.75(270) = 202.5 ksi.
Use the results of Example 8.6.7.2 for elastic shortening loss. This is a more accurate
method than the one given in the Standard Specifications. Therefore, ES = 18,200 psi.
Again, using Example 8.6.7.2 and STD Eq. 9-6 rearranged, the concrete stress at the
centroid of the prestressing steel at the time of prestress release is:
f
cir
= (E
ci
/E
p
)ES =
4,054
28,500
(18,200) = 2,589 psi
Loss due to shrinkage of concrete:
SH = 17,000 (150)(70) = 6,500 psi
The determination of loss due to creep of concrete requires the calculation of f
cds
, the
concrete stress due to permanent dead loads other than self-weight of the beam.
Calculation of f
cds
requires application of the standard equation
My
I
j
(
,
\
,
(
applied after
8.6.8.4
Strand Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5
Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9
Example
8.6.8.4 Strand Relaxation Loss/8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 12
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
the release of prestress, where y refers to the distance from the centroid of the section
to the centroid of the prestressing steel. The calculation must take into account all
loading stages. First, calculate the component of f
cds
due to loads on the plain beam.
These are the deck weight = 867 plf, the haunch weight = 40 plf and the diaphragm
weight = 100 plf and the resulting moment = 6,379 in.-kip.
f
cds1
=
1,000(6,379)(16.413)
125,390
= 835 psi
Next, calculate concrete stresses due to dead loads on the composite section. The
composite section moment of inertia is 382,372 in.
4
and the composite section cen-
troid is 36.02 in. from the bottom flange. Thus, the centroidal distance to the steel
is [36.02 (20.27 16.413)] = 32.163 in. Calculating the stress for the effect of a
superimposed load of 360 plf gives:
f
cds2
=
1,000(2, 280)(32.163)
382,372
= 192 psi
f
cds
= 835 + 192 = 1,027 psi
So, CR
C
= (12)(2,589) (7)(1,027) = 23,879 psi
Finally, the total relaxation of steel is calculated:
CR
S
= 5,000 (0.1)(18,200) (0.05)(6,500 + 23,879) = 1,661 psi
So, the total loss of prestress for this beam is:
f
s
= 6,500 + 18,200 + 23,879 + 1,661 = 50,240 psi
The effective prestress remaining in the beam after all losses is (202.50 50.24)
= 152.26 ksi, or a total loss equal to 24.8% of the initial prestress. Alternatively,
use of the lump sum total loss estimate of 45,000 psi is permitted by the Standard
Specifications. The detailed estimate results in a predicted prestress loss approximately
2.6% of the initial prestress force higher than the lump sum estimate.
The LRFD Specifications provides two methods for estimating time-dependent losses.
The first is the lump sum method with adjustments for PPR (partial prestressing ratio)
and concrete compressive strength, as shown in Table 8.6.10-1. The table values do not
include the loss due to elastic shortening, which must still be accounted for.
8.6.10
Losses from the LRFD
Specifications
Table 8.6.10-1
Time-Dependent Losses, ksi
[LRFD Table 5.9.5.3-1]
Type of Beam
Section
Level For wire and strands with f
pu
= 235,
250 or 270 ksi
For bars with f
pu
= 145 or 160 ksi
Rectangular Beam
and Solid Slab
Upper bound
Average
29.0 + 4.0 PPR
26.0 + 4.0 PPR
19.0 + 6.0 PPR
Box Beam Upper bound
Average
21.0 + 4.0 PPR
19.0 + 4.0 PPR
I-Beam Average 19.0 + 6.0 PPR
15.0
Single-Tee,
Double-Tee,
Hollow-Core and
Voided Slab
Upper bound
Average
33.0 1.0 0.15
f 6.0
6.0
6.0PPR
c
,
]
]
]
+
39.0 1.0 0.15

f 6.0
6.0
6.0PPR
c
,
]
]
]
+
33.0 1.0 0.15

f 6.0
6.0
6.0PPR
c
,
]
]
]
+
31.0 1.0 0.15

f 6.0
6.0
6.0PPR
c
,
]
]
]
+

8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example/8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 13
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The partial prestress ratio, PPR, is determined using the LRFD Specifications equa-
tion:
PPR =
A f
A f A f
ps py
ps py s y
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.5.4.2.1-2]
where
A
s
A
ps
= area of pretensioning steel
f
y
= yield strength of reinforcing bars
f
py
= yield strength of pretensioning steel
The second method is an approximate rational method, nearly identical to the
Standard Specifications equations. This refined method is described in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
The provisions in the LRFD Specifications for the estimation of loss of prestress are
patterned closely after the Standard Specifications. The only changes are minor differ-
ences in the computation of the loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel.
Using the notation of the LRFD Specifications, total loss of prestress is given by:
f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
f
pT
= total loss of pretensioning steel stress
f
pES
= loss of pretensioning steel stress due to elastic shortening
f
pSR
= loss of pretensioning steel stress due to shrinkage of concrete
f
pCR
= loss of pretensioning steel stress due to creep of concrete
f
pR2
= loss of pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of prestressing steel
All stresses are in ksi.
The elastic shortening loss is given by:
f
E
E
f
pES
p
ci
cgp
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
where f
cgp
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning tendons due
to pretensioning force at transfer and the self-weight of the member at
the section of maximum positive moment.
This is the same as the definition of f
cir
in the Standard Specifications. As in the
Standard Specifications, approximate values of f
cgp
are provided.
8.6.10.1
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications/8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 14
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
In the 2001 Interim Revisions, an alternative to LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1 was intro-
duced in the Commentary for pretensioned members as follows:
[LRFD Eq. C5.9.5.2.3a-1]
where
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel, in.
2
A
g
= gross area of section, in.
2
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer, ksi
E
p
= modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons, ksi
e
m
= average eccentricity at midspan, in.
f
pbt
= stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer as specified in
LRFD Table 5.9.3-1, ksi
I
g
= moment of inertia of the gross concrete section, in.
4
M
g
= midspan moment due to member self-weight, in.-kips
This closed form equation for prestress loss due to elastic shortening, eliminates trial
and error calculations.
It is recommended, however, that the exact method of Eqs. (8.6.7.1-1) through
(8.6.7.1-3) be used for estimating elastic shortening loss.
Losses due to shrinkage and creep of concrete are given by the following equations,
which are the same as in the Standard Specifications:
f
pSR
= 17.0 0.15H [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2-1]
f
pCR
= 12.0f
cgp
7.0f
cdp
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3-1]
where
H = average annual ambient relative humidity, %
f
cdp
= change in concrete stress at center of gravity of pretensioning steel due
to dead loads except the dead load present at the time the pretension-
ing force is applied. This quantity is identical to the f
cds
defined in the
Standard Specifications.
Prior to the LRFD Specifications, relaxation of the strands before transfer was not
specifically addressed in the bridge design codes.
Typical design practice, however, involves making an estimate of the intrinsic strand relax-
ation that is known to occur during the 12- to 18-hour period between anchoring of the
stressed strands and the transfer of prestress to the member. Many designers add this relax-
ation, f
pR1
, which is typically on the order of 1.5 ksi, to the computed elastic shortening
loss, f
pES
, to determine the initial prestress loss used to check beam stresses at transfer.
8.6.10.2
Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.3
Strand Relaxation Loss
f
A f I e A e M A
A I e A
A I E
E
pES
ps pbt g m
2
g m g g
ps g m
2
g
g g ci
p
+
( )

+
( )
+
8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss /8.6.10.3 Strand Relaxation Loss
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 15
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The equation for relaxation losses in the Standard Specifications is understood
to include both the intrinsic relaxation (prior to transfer) described above and the
long-term relaxation that occurs during the service life of the beam. Therefore, the
relaxation prior to transfer is not used to compute the total prestress losses for design
of the beam for service loads using the Standard Specifications.
The LRFD Specifications state that those relaxation losses prior to transfer are
accounted for during fabrication of a prestressed member. However, this is not stan-
dard practice in the industry. The only adjustments to the prestressing force that are
commonly made by producers are those required for temperature compensation, bed
or form deformation, and chuck seating (see Sect. 3.3.2.7).
It is expected that a future revision to the LRFD Specifications will remove the state-
ment that relaxation losses prior to transfer are accounted for in fabrication. In the
meantime, this statement in the LRFD Specifications should be disregarded.
Based on a long history of successful designs using the approach for computing
prestress losses in the Standard Specifications, the following are recommended when
using the LRFD Specifications:
Assume strands will be tensioned to 0.75f
pu
upon anchoring (unless it is known
that another value is to be used).
Compute f
pR1
and add to elastic shortening loss, f
pES
, to estimate prestress
losses at transfer, f
pi
, and use f
pi
to check beam stresses at transfer.
Use f
pR2
as the total relaxation loss in computing total prestress losses, f
pT
,
for the service load design of the member.
The term f
pR1
is the same as L
r
in Eq. (8.6.5.3-1).
The relaxation loss used for service load design of the member, is given by the fol-
lowing equations:
For normal-relaxation (stressed-relieved) strands,
f
pR2
= 20.0 0.4f
pES
0.2(f
pSR
+ f
pCR
) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.4c-1]
For low-relaxation strands, the relaxation loss is 30% of f
pR2
, or [LRFD Art.5.9.5.4.4c]
f
pR2
= 6.0 0.12f
pES
0.06(f
pSR
+ f
pCR
) (Eq. 8.6.10.3-1)
Note that the LRFD Specifications total loss due to relaxation, for low-relaxation
strand, is 30% of the loss for normal-relaxation strand rather than a factor of 25%
in the Standard Specifications.
A study performed by Seguirant (1998) for the Washington State Department of
Transportation has demonstrated the significant overestimation of pretension loss that
can result from using the LRFD Specifications refined method, as shown in Figure
8.6.10.4-1. A similar trend would be expected when the Standard Specifications equa-
tions are used, since both sets of equations were developed for concrete strengths and
prestress levels much lower than currently possible. This overestimation is more signifi-
8.6.10.4
Washington State Study
8.6.10.3 Strand Relaxation Loss/8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 16
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
cant with higher levels of pretension. It can result in loss of span capacity as shown in
Figure 8.6.10.4-2. Therefore, it is recommended that designers avoid using the refined
LRFD Specifications method, especially for members with high pretensioning forces.
Repeat Example 8.6.9, using the LRFD Specifications, with the above refinements:
Use the method described in Section 8.6.7 to estimate the elastic shortening loss with
the same assumption in Section 8.6.7.2.
Figure 8.6.10.4-1
Pretension Loss Comparison
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
N (0.6" Diameter Strands)
P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s

L
o
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
W21MG, LRFD Specification, Zero Tension, 10' Spacing
AASHTO Refined Method
AASHTO Approximate Lump Sum Method
PCI General Method
ACI-ASCE Committee 423
Figure 8.6.10.4-2 Span Capability vs. Pretension Loss Comparison
W21MG GIRDER
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Simple Span (ft)
N

(
0
.
6
"

D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

S
t
r
a
n
d
s
)
10' Girder Spacing (Typ.)
5' Girder Spacing (Typ.)
Maximum # Strands
Maximum Wt = 200 k
AASHTO Approximate Method
AASHTO Refined Method
ACI-ASCE Committee 423
8.6.11
LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study/8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 17
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
= 0.1185 (see Example 8.6.7.2)
f
pi
= 200.9 ksi
f
po
= 182.7 ksi
f
pES
= 200.9 182.7 = 18.20 ksi
f
cgp
=
4,054
28,500
(18.20) = 2.59 ksi
Loss due to shrinkage of concrete:
f
pSR
= 17.0 0.150(70) = 6.50 ksi
Loss due to creep of concrete:
f
cdp1
=
(6,379)(16.413)
125,390
= 0.835 ksi
f
cdp2
=
(2, 280)(32.163)
382,372
= 0.192 ksi
f
pCR
= (12.0)(2.59) (7.0)(0.835 + 0.192) = 23.89 ksi
Finally, calculate the relaxation loss that occurs after transfer of prestress:
f
pR2
= 6.0 (0.12)(18.20) (0.06)(6.50 + 23.89) = 1.99 ksi
The total loss of prestress, according to the LRFD Specifications, is:
f
pT
= 18.20 + 6.50 + 23.89 + 1.99 = 50.58 ksi
In addition to the methods defined above from the Standard Specifications and LRFD
Specifications, there are other rational methods to calculate losses that can be used
for a wide variety of structures. Once such method (Tadros, et al, 1985), is based on
the age-adjusted effective modulus that will be described in Section 8.13. While the
Tadros Method is capable of considering the presence of both prestressed and non-
prestressed steel, the following equations will be limited to the situation where only
prestressing steel is considered.
Step 1 in the Tadros Method is to calculate loss due to elastic shortening. It is recom-
mended that Eqs. (8.6.7.1-1) through (8.6.7.1-3) be used for this purpose.
The following steps in the method require the use of a coefficient, K, from Eq.
(8.6.12-1). The coefficient K is used to adjust the losses due to shrinkage, creep and
relaxation to reflect the small regain in steel stress that is due to the continuous inter-
action between the concrete and steel components of the member. The value of K to
be used for time-dependent losses is:
K
1
1
E
E
*

A
A
1
e
r
p
c
p
2
p
2
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(
(Eq. 8.6.12-1)
8.6.12
Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example/8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 18
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
where
E
*
c
= age-adjusted effective modulus of the concrete for a gradually applied load
at the time of transfer of prestress
e
p
= eccentricity of the prestressing strands with respect to the centroid of the
section
Refer to Section 8.13 for more information on the age-adjusted effective modulus.
Loss due to shrinkage of concrete is given by:
SH = K
shu
E
p
(Eq. 8.6.12-2)
where
shu
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member size
and relative humidity
Loss due to creep of concrete is given by:
CR
C
=

E KC
f
E
1 KC
f
E
p u
cir
ci
u
cds
c
+
( )
,
,
]
]
]
(Eq. 8.6.12-3)
where
f
cir
and f
cds
are as defined for the Standard Specifications method
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of application of the super-
imposed dead loads
Relaxation loss is given by:
CR
S
= KL
r
(Eq. 8.6.12-4)
The relaxation reduction factor, , reflects the fact that the actual relaxation will be
less than the intrinsic relaxation due to the steady decrease in strand stress due to
shrinkage and creep losses:

+
j
(
,
\
,
(
1 3
SH CR
f
C
po
(Eq. 8.6.12-5)
Use the Tadros Method to calculate loss of prestress for the beam in Examples
8.6.7.2, 8.6.9 and 8.6.11. The following information is given:
E
ci
= 4,054 ksi
E
c
= 4,734 ksi
C
u
= 1.4
H = 70%
C
u
= 1.0
shu
= 0.0004 in./in.
r
2
=
I
A
125,390
560
= 223.91 in.
2
8.6.12.1
Tadros Method Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method/8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 19
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
= aging coefficient = 0.7 which may be assumed constant for all precast, preten-
sioned concrete applications.
First, calculate the age-adjusted effective modulus for the beam concrete for loads
that are gradually applied beginning at the time of transfer of prestress:
E
*
E
1 C
4,054
1 (0.7)(1.4)
2,047 ksi
c
ci
u
+
( )

+

(Eq. 8.6.12.1-1)
Next, calculate K from Eq. (8.6.12-1):
K
1
1
28,500
2,047
4.284
560.0
1
16.413
223.91
0
2
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
( )
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
.8099
Loss due to shrinkage of concrete is calculated by Eq. (8.6.12-2):
SH = (0.8099)(0.0004)(28,500) = 9.23 ksi
Loss due to creep of concrete is calculated by Eq. (8.6.12-3):
f
cir
= 2.589 ksi (see Example in Sect. 8.6.9)
f
cds
= 1.027 ksi (see Example in Sect. 8.6.9)
CR
C
=

28,500 (0.8099)(1.4)
2.589
4,054
[1 (0.8099)(1.0)]
1.027
4,734
+
,
,
]
]
]
= 9.45 ksi
Finally, calculate the relaxation loss occurring after transfer. For the total intrinsic
relaxation loss, assume a structure life of 50 years.
The stress immediately after transfer is (see Example 8.6.7.2):
f
po
= 182.7 ksi
Using Equation (8.6.5.3-1):
L
r
=
182.7
45
182.7
243.0
0.55 log 24(50)(365)
10
,
]
]
]
[ ]
= 4.62 ksi
Since the prestressing steel is not isolated, but rather embedded in a creeping and
shrinking concrete, its intrinsic loss must be reduced by the factor calculated from
Eq. (8.6.12-5):
= 1 3
9.23 9.45
182.7
+ ,
,
]
]
]
= 0.693
Therefore the loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, given by Eq. (8.6.12-4) is:
CR
s
= (0.693)(0.8099)(4.62) = 2.60 ksi
Using the Tadros Method, the total loss of prestress that occurs after transfer is:
f
p2
= 9.23 + 9.45 + 2.60 = 21.28 ksi
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 20
CHAPTER 8
JUL 03
The net effective prestress, therefore, is:
f
pe
= 182.7 21.28 = 161.42 ksi
For comparison with the previous examples, the total loss of prestress is:
f
p
= 202.50 161.42 = 41.08 ksi
This value is lower than the values produced by both the Standard and LRFD
Specifications. It implies that the lump sum loss of 45 ksi allowed by the Standard
Specifications is more accurate for this example than the detailed methods of both
specifications. The result of this example compares almost exactly with the results
of a multiple time-step analysis performed by the program TDA (Gallt, 1996). The
computer analysis, using identical parameters, yields an estimated loss at midspan of
41.33 ksi, which includes relaxation loss before transfer.
7017 Bridge Man Ch 8.6 8/14/03, 11:22 AM 21
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.7
CAMBER AND
DEFLECTION
Generally, there are three sets of beam deformations of interest to the designer:
vertical deflections (typically at midspan)
end rotations
axial shortening
Of these, midspan deflection, or camber, is usually of greatest interest. Excessive,
unexpected camber at the time of erection may require adjustment of bridge grades
to prevent intrusion of the beam top flange into the deck. Additionally, estimates of
the final midspan deflections under the action of permanent dead load and live load
may be required to ensure serviceability of the bridge.
End rotations are of importance when continuity is introduced at the time of cast-
ing the deck. When these rotations are restrained or partially restrained by adjacent
spans, secondary time-dependent stresses are introduced in the structure. These
stresses must be considered in the design of connections and detailing of the end
regions of beams.
Finally, axial shortening of precast, prestressed bridge members must be considered
when designing bearings and expansion devices. This information is also helpful in
assessing the impact of superstructure restraint against shortening in jointless bridge
systems.
This section discusses the computations of camber and deflection including the
changes that occur in these quantities with time. The methods that are available to
estimate long-term cambers and other deflections of precast, prestressed members fall
into three categories, listed in order of increasing complexity and accuracy:
multiplier methods
improved multiplier methods, based on estimates of loss of prestress
detailed analytical methods
Camber in a prestressed beam occurs immediately upon the transfer of the prestressing
force. The magnitude of the initial camber is dependent on the length, weight and
moment of inertia of the member; the modulus of elasticity of the concrete; and the
arrangement and amount of prestressing. Values for several prestressing arrangements
are give in Table 8.7-1. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete usually cannot be
predicted with precision at the time of the design of the member. The standard predic-
tion formulas are based on values assumed by the designer for concrete unit weight
and strength at the time of prestress transfer. These assumed values do not include
actual material properties, nor account for such important factors as type of aggre-
gates and ratio of coarse-to-fine aggregate. For these reasons, initial camber predictions
using assumed material properties must be regarded as estimates and the designer is
cautioned against placing a high degree of confidence in calculated initial cambers.
After release, camber generally increases with time. Creep of the concrete is primarily
responsible for this camber growth. Simultaneously, the gradual loss of prestress due
to creep, shrinkage and strand relaxation has the effect of reducing the initial rate of
growth of camber. The magnitude and rates of both creep and shrinkage, and there-
fore changes in camber, are affected by environmental conditions such as ambient
relative humidity and temperature.
7017 Bridge Manual ch 8.7 8/14/03, 0:10 PM 1
JUL 03
C
a
m
b
e
r
E
n
d

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s

P
a
t
t
e
r
n
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
M
o
m
e
n
t

o
r
L
o
a
d
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

L
o
a
d
i
n
g
(
1
)

l

C
.
G
.

P

e

P
M

=

P
e

l
M
+

M
E
I
l
2
1
6
+

M
E
I l
3

M
E
I
l
6
(
2
)

l
C
.
G
.

e

P
M

=

P
e

l

M
+

M
E
I
l
2
1
6
+

M
E
I
l
6

M
E
I l
3
(
3
)

l

C
.
G
.

e

e

P

P
M

=

P
e

l
M

M
+

M
E
I
l
2
8
+

M
E
I
l
2

M
E
I
l
2
(
4
)

l
P

C
.
G
.

P

e
'

l
/
2

l
/
2
N

=

4
P
e
'
l

l

l
/
2

l
/
2

N
+

N
E
I
l
3
4
8
+

N
E
I
l
2
1
6

N
E
I
l
2
1
6
(
5
)

l
P

C
.
G
.

P

e
'

b
l

b
l
N

=

P
e
b
'

l

l

b
l

b
l

N

N
+

b
b
N
E
I
(
)
3
4
2
4
2
3
l
+

b
b
N
E
I
(
)
1
2
2

b
b
N
E
I
(
)
1
2
2
l
(
6
)

l
P

C
.
G
.

P

e
'

l
/
2

l
/
2
w

=

8
2
P
e
'
l

l

w
+

5
3
8
4
4
w
E
I
l
+

w
E
I
l
3
2
4

w
E
I
l
3
2
4
(
7
)

D
e
b
o
n
d

l
e
n
g
t
h

l

C
.
G
.

e

1

2
'

P

b
l

b
l

P
M

=

P
e

l

M

M
+
M
E
I
b
b
l
2
1 2
2 2
8
1
2
2
(
)
+
[
]
M
E
I
b
b
l
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
(
)
[
]
M
E
I
b
b
l
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
(
)
*
T
h
e

t
a
b
u
l
a
t
e
d

v
a
l
u
e
s

a
p
p
l
y

t
o

t
h
e

e
f
f
e
c
t
s

o
f

p
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
i
n
g
.

B
y

a
d
j
u
s
t
i
n
g

t
h
e

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

t
h
e
y

m
a
y

a
l
s
o

b
e

u
s
e
d

f
o
r

t
h
e

e
f
f
e
c
t
s

o
f

l
o
a
d
s
.

F
o
r
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
s

4

t
o

7
,

s
u
p
e
r
i
m
p
o
s
e

o
n

1
,

2

o
r

3

f
o
r

o
t
h
e
r

C
.
G
.

l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
P
'
T
a
b
l
e

8
.
7
-
1
C
a
m
b
e
r

(
d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
)

a
n
d

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s

f
o
r

p
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s

f
o
r
c
e

a
n
d

l
o
a
d
s
*
JUL 03
From the preceding discussion, it should be obvious that the task of predicting both
initial camber and the growth of camber with time is difficult because of the large
number of random variables that affect this behavior which are beyond the designers
control. Estimates of these effects should be recognized as being approximations
only.
Perhaps the most popular method for predicting time-dependent camber of precast,
prestressed members is the set of multipliers given in Table 8.7.1-1 (Martin, 1977).
The use of this method is fairly straightforward. First, elastic deflections caused by
the effects of prestressing, beam self-weight, and other dead loads are calculated using
conventional elastic analysis techniques. These are multiplied by the appropriate fac-
tors selected from Table 8.7.1-1 to determine the deflections that will occur as a
result of time-dependent behavior.
This method gives reasonable estimates for cambers at the time of erection. The
method does not, however, properly account for the significant effects of a large cast-
in-place deck. The presence of a deck, once cured, drastically changes the stiffness
of a typical bridge member. This has the effect of restraining the beam creep strains
that are the result of prestressing, member self-weight, and the dead load of the deck
itself. Also, differential creep and shrinkage between the precast and the cast-in-place
concretes can produce significant changes in member deformation. The multipliers
for long-term deflection suggested by this method, therefore, should not be used for
bridge beams with structurally composite cast-in-place decks.
In addition, it is not recommended that prestressing levels be increased in order to
reduce or eliminate long-term downward deflection that might be predicted if the
multipliers in Table 8.7.1-1 are used.
8.7.1
Multiplier Method
Table 8.7.1-1
Suggested Multipliers to
be Used as a Guide in
Estimating Long-Term
Cambers and Deflections for
Typical Members
Without Composite
Topping
With
Composite
Topping
At erection:
(1) Deflection () component apply to the elastic deflection due
to the member weight at release of prestress
1.85 1.85
(2) Camber (
) component apply to the elastic camber due to

prestress at the time of release of prestress
1.80 1.80
Final:
(3) Deflection () component apply to the elastic deflection due
to the member weight at release of prestress
2.70 2.40
(4) Camber (
) component apply to the elastic camber due to

prestress at the time of release of prestress
2.45 2.20
(5) Deflection () component apply to elastic deflection due to
superimposed dead load only
3.00 3.00
(6) Deflection () component apply to elastic deflection caused
by the composite topping
--- 2.30
8.7 Camber and Deflection/8.7.1 Multiplier Method
JUL 03
An improved multiplier method (Tadros, et al, 1985) is similar, in many respects, to
the method described in the preceding section. However, this method provides two
improvements:
1. If reliable estimates are available for the creep coefficient of the actual concrete
mix, or if high performance concrete with a significantly lower creep coefficient is
used, these more accurate coefficients may be substituted;
2. The component of deflection due to the loss of prestress can be based on the actual
calculated value for that loss.
The recommended multipliers for this method are given in Table 8.7.2-1.
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient for loads applied immediately after transfer. Average
value is 1.88.
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient for loads applied at time of erection. Average value
is 1.50.
C
a
= creep coefficient for loading applied immediately after transfer and strains mea-
sured at time of erection. Average value is 0.96.
a
= time-dependent prestress loss at erection divided by total time-dependent pre-
stress loss. Average value is 0.60.
= Bazants aging coefficient. Average value is 0.70.
Average values are based on 70 percent relative humidity, average member thick-
nesses, concrete age at release of 1 to 3 days and age at erection of 40 to 60 days.
Table 8.7.2-1 provides creep multipliers to be applied to the calculated deflections
due to initial prestress, loss of prestress and dead loads.
Once the time-dependent loss of prestress has been determined (using any one of the
available methods for estimating losses), an effective negative prestressing force, P
c
,
is calculated as the product of the losses and the area of the prestressing material. The
deflection due to this apparent negative prestressing force is calculated in the same way
that the initial deflection due to transfer of prestress is calculated (see Table 8.7-1).
Note that only the time-dependent portion of the loss of prestress is considered in the
calculation for P
c
. Losses that occur before or at release, such as elastic shortening
and the portion of relaxation that occurs prior to release, are not included.
8.7.2
Improved
Multiplier Method
Table 8.7.2-1
Time-Dependent Multipliers
for Deflections Using the
Improved Multiplier
Method
Erection Time Final Time
Load condition Formula Average Formula Average
Initial prestress 1+C
a
1.96 1+C
u
2.88
Prestress loss
1.00
(1+ C
a
)
2.32
Self-weight 1+ C
a
1.96 1+ C
u
2.88
Dead load on plain
beam
1.00 1.00
1+ C
u
2.50
Dead load on
composite beam
1.00 1.00
1+ C
u
2.50
(1+ C
a
)
JUL 03
Unfortunately, the multipliers given by Tadros, et al (1985) are limited to totally precast
concrete members. Therefore, for bridges with composite cast-in-place concrete decks, use
of these multipliers should be limited to estimating deflections before the cast-in-place
deck begins to act compositely with the precast concrete beam. A need still exists for a
simple multiplier procedure for use in estimating the final time-dependent deflection. If
necessary, the detailed computer analysis methods of Section 8.13 may be employed.
Note that the final time-dependent deflection is not required to be checked by the
Specifications. The only value of computing final deflection is to ensure that the
structure does not develop excessive sag. Of course, instantaneous deflection due to
live loads should be limited as a serviceability criterion. However, elastic live load
deflection can be determined by conventional structural analysis techniques, and
vibration of conventionally designed and constructed prestressed concrete bridges has
not been reported to be a problem.
Calculate initial and erection cambers, as well as the immediate camber after con-
struction of the deck for the beam shown in Figure 8.6.7.2-1. Use both the multi-
plier method and the improved multiplier method.
Use the following information to calculate initial camber:
Span = 65.00 ft
Self-weight = 583 plf
E
ci
= 4,054 ksi
P
o
= (182.7)(4.284) = 782.7 kips (Example 8.6.7.2)
Using Table 8.7-1, Case 5:
b = 26.67/66.67 = 0.4
e
= 16.413 11.556 = 4.857 in.

N =
(782.7)(4.857)
(12)(0.4)(65)
= 12.18 kips
camber =
(0.4)[3 4(0.4) ](12.18)[(65)(12)]
(24)(4,054)(125,390)
2 3
= 0.447 in.
Using Table 8.7-1, Case 3:
e = 11.556 in.
M = (782.7)(11.556) = 9,045 in.-kips
camber =
( , )[( )( )]
( )( , )( , )
9 045 65 12
8 4 054 125 390
2
= 1.353 in.
Total initial camber due to prestress:
camber = 0.447 + 1.353 = 1.800 in.
Deflection due to self-weight:
=
( )( . / )[( )( )]
( )( , )( , )
5 0 583 12 65 12
384 4 054 125 390
4
= 0.461 in.
8.7.3
Examples
8.7.3.1
Multiplier Method Example
8.7.2 Improved Multiplier Method/8.7.3.1 Multiplier Method Example
JUL 03
So, net camber at transfer = 1.800 0.461 = 1.339 in.
Applying the multipliers at erection from Table 8.7.1-1 to the initial values com-
puted above, erection camber = (1.80)(1.800) (1.85)(0.461) = 2.387 in.
Deflection due to deck, haunch, and diaphragm weights:
E
c
= 4,734 ksi
=
+ + ( )[( . . . ) / ][( )( )]
( )( , )( , )
5 0 867 0 040 0 100 12 65 12
384 4 734 125 390
4
= 0.681 in.
Net camber immediately after application of deck weight:
Camber = 2.387 0.681 = 1.706 in.
Use of this method allows refinement based on actual creep characteristics. For this
example, C
u
= 1.4 and C
u
= 1.0 (see the Example of Sect. 8.6.12.1). C
a
, the creep
coefficient for deflections at time of erection (90 days) due to loads applied at release,
is calculated using prediction equations to be 0.84.
Assumed values of the aging coefficient, = 0.7, and ratio of prestress loss at erection
to total prestress loss,
a
= 0.6 are good average values for most precast, pretensioned
concrete bridge applications.
At time of erection:
Net camber immediately after application of all permanent loads = 1.583 in.
Note that the deflection due to prestress loss is obtained using simple proportion-
ing of the initial prestress camber, (21.28/182.7)(1.800) = 0.210 in. See Example
8.6.12.1, f
p2
, for value of prestress loss.
For structures that are expected to be particularly sensitive to time-dependent deflec-
tion such as highly prestressed slender members, and when the designer has access to
reliable estimates for creep and shrinkage properties of the concrete, the methods of
cross-section analysis described in Section 8.13 can also be used to estimate deflec-
tions. In particular, if an estimate of long-term deflections is required, this method
should be considered. As discussed above, the multiplier methods, in general, do not
give good estimates of long-term deflections for systems where the cast-in-place deck
represents a significant increase in the stiffness of the beam.
To estimate beam deformations, several cross-sections along the length of the member are
analyzed using the methods of Section 8.13, or another method that can provide reliable
time-dependent curvatures. Numerical integration of curvatures and strains along the
member, using the principle of virtual work, is used to calculate rotations and deflections.
8.7.3.2
Improved Multiplier
Method Example
Load Deflection Multiplier Result
initial prestress 1.800 1 + 0.84 = 1.84 3.312
prestress loss 0.210 (0.6)[1 + 0.7(0.84)] = 0.95 0.200
self-weight 0.461 1 + 0.84 = 1.84 0.848
dead loads on plain beam 0.681 = 1.00 0.681
8.7.4
Camber and
Deflection Estimates Using
Numerical Integration
8.7.3.1 Multiplier Method Example/
JUL 03
A variety of techniques are available for performing the required numerical integra-
tion. Simpsons rule is recommended because it is reasonably accurate, it is familiar
to many designers, and it makes use of analyses of cross-sections that fall at regular
intervals along the length of the member.
The procedure for estimating deflection using numerical integration is as follows:
1. Select equally-spaced sections for analysis. Simpsons rule requires an odd number
of sections, resulting in an even number of segments. As the minimum, a section
at each support and a section at midspan could be analyzed. More sections will
usually result in improved accuracy. The designer should take full advantage of
symmetry.
2. Perform time-dependent analyses of each of the selected sections using the creep-
transformed section properties method described in Section 8.13 or another reli-
able method.
3. Use the principle of virtual work and Simpsons rule to determine the deflections
of interest. Figure 8.7.4-1 provides the virtual work expressions for calculating
midspan deflection, end rotations, and axial shortening deformations. The follow-
ing equation defines Simpsons rule:
N 0 1 2 N-1 N S

h
3

f
4
f
2
f
... 4
f

f
= + + + + +
( ) (Eq. 8.7.4-1)
where
S
N
f
i
= value of integrated function at node i = 0, 1, 2...N-1, or N
For the case of N = 2, i.e., using sections at the ends and midspan of the member
only, Simpsons rule should not be used for the calculation of midspan deflection. For
this special case, a better result for midspan deflection is obtained using:
= +
( )
0
5
L
48
c
2
(Eq. 8.7.4-2)
where
0
and
c
are the curvatures at the support and midspan, respectively.
For calculation of end rotations and axial shortening with N = 2, and for the calculation
of midspan deflection for N = 4 or more, however, Simpsons rule should be used.
JUL 03
Figure 8.7.4-1
Virtual Work Expressions for
Beam Deflections
0
L/2
= (x/2)(x)dx + (Lx)/2(x)dx
L/2
L
x
0
L
= (x)dx
x
L
Unit load = 1
L
L
0
L
= [1( )](x)dx
x
x
R
L
0
L
= ( )(x)dx
x
L
Unit load = 1
x
L
Unit load = 1
x
L
L/2 L/2
Unit load = 1
JUL 03
A computerized time-dependent analysis of the beam in Figure 8.6.7.2-1 has been
performed using TDA (Gallt, 1996). A total of nine sections were analyzed, resulting
in N = 8 for Simpsons rule integration. The following curvatures are predicted at a
girder age of 90 days, immediately after the slab is placed:
First calculate midspan deflections for the case of N = 2, immediatlely after applica-
tion of permanent loads:
= [ 2.968 (5)(1.942)]x10
(780)
48
5
2
+ +
= 1.607 in.
Similarly, for final deflection
= [ 2.862 (5)(1.281)]x10
(780)
48
5
2
+ +
= 1.175 in.
Now compare these results to a more refined case where N = 8. The length of each
section, h, is equal to 97.5 in.
Therefore, deflection after slab placement, =
97 5
3
0 04873
.
( . ) = 1.584 in.
N x f
N
x 10
-5
Wt Wt x f
N
0 0.0 1/2(0.0)(2.968) = 0.0 1 0.0
1 97.5 1/2(97.5)(2.405) = 0.0011724 4 0.004690
2 195.0 1/2(195.0)(2.087) = 0.0020348 2 0.004070
3 292.5 1/2(292.5)(2.020) = 0.0029543 4 0.011817
4 390.0 1/2(390.0)(1.942) = 0.0037869 2 0.007574
5 487.5 1/2(780.0 487.5)(2.020) = 0.0029543 4 0.011817
6 585.0 1/2(780.0 585.0)(2.087) = 0.0020348 2 0.004070
7 682.5 1/2(780.0 682.5)(2.405) = 0.0011724 4 0.004690
8 780.0 1/2(780.0 780.0)(2.968) = 0.0 1 0.0
0.04873
Location, in.
Curvature Immediately after
Slab Placement x 10
-5
in.
-1
Final Long-Term
Curvature x10
-5
in.
-1
10.00(bearing) 2.968 2.862
107.50 2.405 2.045
205.00 2.087 1.553
302.50 2.020 1.393
400.00 (midspan) 1.942 1.281
497.50 2.020 1.393
595.00 2.087 1.553
692.50 2.405 2.045
790.00(bearing) 2.968 2.862
8.7.4.1
Numerical Integration
Example
JUL 03
A similar procedure is followed to estimate long-term camber:
These results show that the N = 2 case provides results that are nearly as good as the
N = 8 case. For many designs the simpler N = 2 case is adequate. Camber by this meth-
od, immediately after slab placement, compares favorably with the values of 1.706 in.
and 1.583 in. obtained by the more approximate multiplier method and the improved
multiplier method, respectively.
The numerical integration method is attractive in that it can account for curvature
variations along the span, e.g. due to cracking if cracking is allowed to take place
under service loads when the member is designed to be partially prestressed. The
principal value of the method in common applications is in its ability to account for
differential creep and shrinkage due to composite action and to account for continu-
ity in continuous bridge superstructures. Curvature calculation using creep-trans-
formed section properties is covered in Section 8.13.
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.8.2
Design of Bridge Decks
Using Precast Panels
8.8.1
Introduction
8.8
DECK SLAB DESIGN
This section considers concrete slabs that act compositely with precast beams and
where the slab span and main reinforcement are transverse to traffic. Cast-in-place
(CIP) concrete is sometimes used as a topping on longitudinal, full-deck members
such as adjacent box beams, double tees and deck bulb-tees. However, this type of
deck slab generally does not require flexural design and is not covered in this section.
The majority of deck slabs in new bridge construction use CIP concrete with or with-
out precast stay-in-place (SIP) deck panels. The CIP topping provides flexibility to
adjust for roadway profile and for differences in beam elevations. The use of precast
SIP panels is gaining popularity due to their cost-effectiveness and improvement in
jobsite construction safety.
This section focuses on the design of CIP decks using precast SIP panels according
to both the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications. In addition, a subsection
summarizes the Empirical Design Method of full-depth CIP slabs. This method
is becoming more popular due to the relatively small amount of reinforcement it
requires. However, at this time, the LRFD Specifications do not permit this method
for design of precast SIP deck panel systems. Also in this section, two new precast
concrete deck systems will be introduced. The first system is an improved SIP panel
that allows for better construction speed and structural performance than for the
conventional SIP panel system. The second is a full-depth precast, prestressed con-
crete panel that is best suited for rapid replacement of high-traffic bridge decks.
A precast SIP deck panel system typically consists of thin precast, concentrically pre-
stressed, concrete panels which span between supporting beams, and a CIP concrete
topping which acts compositely with the SIP panels to form the fully composite
deck. Precast concrete panels as thin as 2.5 in. have successfully been used. Because
most panels are thin, strict quality control practices are recommended to avoid panel
cracking or camber (PCI Committee Report, 1988). The prestress force should be
released as gradually as possible. The strands should be maintained concentric with
the concrete cross-section. Research by Kumar (1996), has shown that prestressed
SIP deck panels with a 0.05 to 0.075-in. amplitude, broom-finished surface do not
require horizontal shear connectors to achieve full composite action with the CIP
topping providing the nominal horizontal shear stress is less than 116 psi.
Positive moment sections between the supporting beams are designed as prestressed
concrete composite sections with the prestressing strands as the main reinforcement.
Negative moment sections over beam lines are designed as conventionally reinforced
sections with the reinforcing bars in the topping slab as the main reinforcement as
shown in Figure 8.8.2-1.
Fig. 8.8.2-1
Cross-Section of CIP Deck
with Precast SIP Panel
CIP Concrete Topping
Precast SIP Deck Panel
Top
Reinforcement
8.8 Deck Slab Design/8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
JUL 03
8.8.2.1
Determining
Prestress Force
8.8.2.2
Service Load Stresses and
Flexural Strength
The first step in design is to estimate the required amount of prestress force. This
estimate is governed by the allowable tensile stress in the precast SIP panel due to
service loads at the maximum positive moment section. The weight of the precast SIP
deck panel and the CIP topping act on the non-composite section, i.e. the precast
SIP deck panel alone. The superimposed dead loads (wearing surface, barriers, etc.)
and live loads act on the precast SIP panel-CIP topping composite section. After the
required prestress force is determined, the unfactored load stresses and the ultimate
flexural capacity at various construction stages are checked.
Service load stresses should be checked in the panel and in the completed deck at a num-
ber of stages. The first stage is at the time of prestress transfer or release. The strands are
normally concentric within the precast SIP deck panel. Therefore, prestress introduces
uniformly distributed compressive stresses. However, accidental misplacement of the
strands may be conservatively assumed to produce 0.25 in. prestress eccentricity.
The second loading stage occurs at the time of topping placement. Loads at this stage act
only on the SIP panel. Service load stresses and ultimate capacity of the precast SIP panel
should be checked due to the weight of the precast panel and the CIP topping in addi-
tion to a construction load, estimated as 50 psf unless a more accurate figure is available.
The construction load represents people, material and equipment used to place, finish
and cure the topping but it does not include concentrated loads representing finishing
machine reactions. Special brackets directly supported on beam seats are used to resist
finishing machine loads. Other loads at this stage act only on the SIP panel.
The third loading stage occurs after the CIP topping cures and the superimposed loads
are introduced. At this stage, the stresses are calculated using a transformed section
analysis similar to that done in composite I-beam analysis. The ultimate strength of the
composite section at the maximum positive moment section, is checked against fac-
tored dead and live loads. One of the most important issues in determining the flexural
strength of the positive moment section is the strand development length. Since the
strands are terminated at panel ends over beam lines, the maximum positive moment
sections may be closer to the end of the panel than the development length of the
strands. Thus, only partial strand development can be expected. In this situation, the
stress in the pretensioning steel at factored load, f
*
su
, should be limited to:
f
*
su
=
L
D
2
3
f
x
se
+
[STD Art. 9.17.4.2]

where
f
*
su
= average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load
L
x
= distance from end to center of the panel, in.
D = nominal diameter of the strand, in.
f
se
= effective final pretension stress (after losses), ksi
Non-prestressing reinforcement provided in the CIP topping, is determined on the basis
of flexural strength. The critical sections over interior beams are designed for superim-
posed dead and live loads. In addition, the region near the exterior beams should be
designed for crash loading combined with dead and live loads. Design Examples 9.7
and 9.8 in Chapter 9, give complete details of the design of overhangs for this type of
loading. In negative moment zones, proper distribution of the flexural reinforcement is
required to control top fiber cracking.
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force/
JUL 03
8.8.2.3
8.8.2.3.1
Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2
Live Load
8.8.2.3.3
Reinforcement Requirements
Table 8.9.2 in the Standard Specifications gives the minimum recommended total
deck thickness that can be used without defection calculations. Thinner slabs may
be used if the defection due to service live load plus impact is limited to 1/800 of
the span for spans between supporting beams and 1/300 of the cantilever arm for
cantilevers (STD Art. 8.9.3).
Some agencies specify that 1/2 to 3/4 in. of the slab thickness be considered as an
integral layer of wearing surface. In this case, the full thickness should be used for
calculation of loads and the reduced thickness for determining section properties.
The Standard Specifications do not give any recommendations concerning the thick-
ness of SIP panels. Although thinner panels have been successfully used, common
practice indicates that 3.0 in. and 3.5 in., with 3/8 in. and 1/2 in. diameter strands
respectively, are acceptable minimum thicknesses.
STD Article 3.7 specifies the standard truck load that should be used as a live load
to compute the bending moments at any section. There are four standard classes of
highway loading: H15, H20, HS15 and HS20. Most state agencies use the HS20
standard truck, although some states use the non-standard HS25 truck, which is
125% of the HS20 standard truck. The bending moment due to
truck loading at various locations =
S 2
32
P
+
[STD Eqs. 3.15 and 3.16]

where
S = effective span length, ft
P = load on rear wheel of truck = 16,000 lb for H20 and HS20
The effective span length for continuous span slabs, as specified in STD Article
3.24.1.2, depends on the slenderness of the top flange of the support. For slender top
flanges, where the ratio of top flange width to minimum thickness of the flange is
greater than 4.0, S is taken as the distance between edges of top flange plus one-half
of the width of beam top flange. If the ratio of top flange width to minimum thick-
ness is less than 4.0, S is taken as the distance between edges of the top flange.
A continuity factor of 0.8 is applied to the live load bending moment for slabs that are
made continuous over three or more supports. The live load moments are increased to
allow for impact effects, as given in STD Article 3.8.2, which always results in an impact
fraction of 0.3. Each section of the deck should be designed so that the factored moment
due to applied loads is less than or equal to the capacity of the section.
At negative moment locations, minimum reinforcement should be provided so that
the design moment capacity is not less than 1.2 times the cracking moment (STD
Art. 8.17.1). Alternatively, according to STD Article 8.17.1.2, the minimum rein-
forcement requirement may be satisfied by providing at least one-third more rein-
forcement than required by analysis.
8.8.2.3 Standard Specifications/8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
JUL 03
At positive sections, a minimum reinforcement of 0.11 in.
2
/ft in the SIP panel is
specified (STD Art. 9.24.2). Also, STD Article 9.18.2.4 states that a minimum
amount of longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25 in.
2
/ft should be provided in the CIP
section for lateral distribution of concentrated loads and for crack control.
STD Article 8.22 specifies a minimum concrete clear cover of 2.0 in. to the top rein-
forcement for deck slabs in mild climates and 2.5 in. for deck slabs exposed to deicing
salts. For bottom reinforcement, the minimum specified clear cover is 1.0 in.
Article 3.24.4 in the Standard Specifications states that slabs designed for bending
moment in accordance with STD Article 3.24.3 need not be checked for shear or
bond. If elected by the designer, one-way and two-way shear capacities can be checked
as given in STD Articles 8.16.6.2.1 and 8.16.6.6.2 respectively. Two-way shear is cal-
culated assuming that the tire contact area is rectangular where the dimensions of the
contact area depend on the wheel load of the specified truck (STD Art. 3.30).
The negative moment areas over the beams, designed as conventionally reinforced
concrete, are expected to crack under service load conditions. Thus, crack control
criteria given in STD Article 8.16.8.4 must be satisfied. In areas where deicing salts
are used, a number of state agencies specify that slab reinforcement must be epoxy-
coated. The Standard Specifications allow the use of epoxy-coated reinforcement.
However, STD Article 8.25.2.3 requires that the basic development length should
be increased by a factor of 1.15 or 1.5 depending on the concrete cover and the clear
spacing between epoxy-coated bars.
An entire section in the LRFD Specifications, Section 9, is devoted to deck systems.
Three levels of analysis are permitted in the LRFD Specifications:
(1) refined analysis
(2) approximate analysis, generally known as the Strip Method
(3) the Empirical Method
As noted earlier, the specifications do not permit the empirical method to be used in
the design of SIP panel deck systems.
LRFD Articles 4.4 and 4.6.3.2 allow the use of refined methods of analysis. These
methods should satisfy the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and uti-
lize stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials. Refined analysis methods
include, but are not limited to:
(1) grillage analogy method
(2) finite strip method
(3) finite element method
However, some conditions should be considered which accurately model the behav-
ior of the deck slabs as observed in actual bridges. These conditions are:
(1) flexural and torsional deformation of the deck in skewed bridges
(2) in-plane shear deformation, which affects the effective width of composite
bridge decks
8.8.2.3.5
Crack Control
8.8.2.4
LRFD Specifications
8.8.2.4.1
LRFD Specifications
Refined Analysis
8.8.2.3.4
Shear Design
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements/8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
JUL 03
(3) locations of flexural discontinuity through which shear is transmitted, should
be modeled as hinges
(4) wheel loads should be modeled as patch loads over the tire contact area, given
by the specifications, extended by half of the deck depth on all four sides
A structurally continuous railing, barrier or median, acting compositely with the
supporting components, can be considered to be structurally active at service and
fatigue limit states.
In this method, the deck slab is divided into strips perpendicular to the supporting
beams. To calculate the bending moments and shear forces, the strips are treated as
a continuous member and the supporting beams are assumed to be infinitely rigid.
The width of the strip is determined so that the effects of flexure in the secondary
direction and of torsion are accounted for to obtain flexural force effects approximat-
ing those that would be provided by refined methods of analysis. However, the strip
method model was developed based on non-skewed bridges, thus, more accurate
analysis may be warranted for end zones of skewed bridges.
LRFD Article 9.7.1.1 states that the depth of the concrete deck, excluding any pro-
vision for grinding, grooving and sacrificial surface, should not be less than 7.0 in.
LRFD Article 2.5.2.4 states that concrete decks without an initial overlay should
have an additional thickness of 1/2 in. to allow for correction of the deck profile by
grinding and to compensate for thickness loss due to abrasion. For concrete deck
overhangs which support a deck-mounted post system or concrete parapets or barri-
ers, a minimum depth of 8.0 in. is required (LRFD Art. 13.7.3.1.2). LRFD Article
9.7.4.3.1 states that the thickness of the precast SIP deck panel should neither exceed
55% of the total slab depth nor be less than 3.5-in. thick. However, as noted earlier,
SIP panels 3.0 in. thick or even as thin as 2.5 in. have been used in recent years with
satisfactory performance.
LRFD Article 5.12.3 provides minimum concrete cover requirements similar to those
given in the Standard Specifications. The minimum cover values are stated for concrete
mixes with water-cement ratios from 0.40 to 0.50. For concrete mixes with different
water-cement ratios, a modification factor is provided. When epoxy-coated bars are
used, the LRFD Specifications allow the minimum cover requirement for uncoated bars
in interior exposure to be used. However, special provisions for development length and
lap splices for coated reinforcement must be satisfied as given in LRFD Article 5.11.
The standard live load used in the LRFD Specifications is the HL-93, which consists
of the combination of a design truck or tandem, and a design lane load (LRFD Art.
3.6.1.2). However, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3 states that for deck slabs where the strips
are in the transverse direction of the bridge and their span does not exceed 15 feet,
only the wheels of the 32.0-kip axle of the design truck, spaced at 6.0 ft, need be
considered. If the transverse strip span exceeds 15 feet, both the 32-kip axle and the
design lane load should be used. One or more design lanes may be assumed to be
loaded simultaneously. Within each design lane, the truck axle can be positioned so
that the center of a wheel is not closer than 2.0 ft to the edge of the lane nor closer
than 1.0 ft to the face of the curb or rail. The location of the design lanes can be
shifted laterally relative to the longitudinal axis of the deck, to produce the maximum
force effects. LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.3 gives the width of the strip in inches as:
8.8.2.4.2
LRFD Specifications
Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1
Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2
Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3
Live Load
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis/8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
JUL 03
Width = 26.0 + 6.6S (for positive moment calculations)
Width = 48.0 + 3.0S (for negative moment calculations)
where S = span of the slab between beam centerlines, ft
For overhangs, the negative moment strip width is:
Width = 45.0 + 10.0X
where X = distance from the wheel load to point of support, ft
These equations are based on three-dimensional finite element analyses of a large
number of one- and two-span bridges covering the practical range of number of
beams, beam stiffness, beam spacing, span length, and slab thickness. Because a
three-dimensional analysis was used to develop the strip width equations, the effects
of flexure in the secondary direction and torsion are already accounted for. The
maximum positive and negative bending moments calculated using the strip method
are considered to apply to all regions along the bridge length. Dynamic allowance
of 33% and a multiple presence factor as specified in LRFD Articles 3.6.2 and
3.6.1.1.2 should be included in design. Table A4.1-1 in Appendix A4 of the LRFD
Specifications gives the maximum design bending moment values for different beam
arrangements, where the multiple presence factors and the dynamic load allowance
are included in the tabulated values. Appendix A4 is applicable only to bridge decks
supported on at least three parallel beams and having a width measured between the
centerlines of the exterior beams not less than 14 ft.
For precast I-beam bridges, the location of the design section for negative moments
and shear forces may be taken as one-third of the flange width, but not more than
15 in. from the support centerline (LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.6).
LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that prestressed concrete stay-in-place panels should to
be elastic under construction loads. Construction loads include the weight of the SIP
panel, weight of the CIP topping, and an additional 0.050 ksf. Flexural stresses due
to unfactored construction loads should not exceed 75% of the steel yield strength or
65% of the 28-day compressive strength for concrete in compression, or the modu-
lus of rupture for concrete in tension. Also, LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that elastic
deflection caused by the weights of the panel, the plastic concrete and reinforcement
should not exceed:
(a) Span length/180 with an upper limit of 0.25 in. for span length of 10 ft or
less
(b) Span length/240 with an upper limit of 0.75 in. for span length greater than
10 ft.
At service loads, the stresses in the composite section have to checked under Service I
Limit State for prestressed concrete in compression. For Service III Limit State, which
is used to check tensile stresses in the precast SIP panel, the full live load moment
should be used, i.e. the 0.8 factor associated with live load should be replaced by
1.0. This is because the 0.8 factor was developed for application only to longitudinal
prestressed concrete beams.
Finally, Strength I Limit State is used to check the ultimate flexural capacity of the
composite section. Check stress in prestressing steel according to the available devel-
opment length, l
d
, as follows:
8.8.2.4.2.4
Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5
Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load/8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
JUL 03
l
d
=

K f
2
3
f d
ps pe b
[LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1]

or, f
ps
=
l
d
b
pe
Kd
2
3
f +
where
d
b
f
pe
= effective stress in prestressing steel after losses
l
d
= available development length at midspan of the SIP panel
K = 1.6 for precast, prestressed slabs
The provisions for minimum reinforcement in the LRFD Specifications are the same
as those in the Standard Specifications. The maximum amount of reinforcement,
according to LRFD Article 5.7.3.3, should be such that:
c
d
0.42
e
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
d
e
= effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
force in the tension reinforcement, in.
The LRFD Specifications do not give guidance for the required amount of distribu-
tion reinforcement for the concrete SIP panel system that provides for the lateral
distribution of concentrated live loads. However, LRFD Article 9.7.3.2 specifies the
minimum amount of reinforcement in the longitudinal direction, for slabs which
have four layers of reinforcement, as 220 / S 67% of the primary reinforcement,
where S = span between the inside faces of the beam webs, ft.
Applying this provision yields a higher amount of longitudinal reinforcement than
that required by the Empirical Design method or the Standard Specifications (see
Example 9.8 in Chapter 9).
Two-way shear should be checked assuming that the contact area of the tire is rectan-
gular. LRFD Article 3.6.1.2.5 gives the dimensions of the contact area for a tire pres-
sure of 0.125 ksi. The two-way shear capacity is given in LRFD Article 5.13.3.6.3.
One-way shear should be checked as specified in LRFD Article 5.13.3.6.2.
For crack control in the negative moment areas, provisions of LRFD Article 5.7.3.4
should be applied. Because positive moment regions for precast SIP deck panel
systems are prestressed, they are designed to be uncracked under service load condi-
tions.
In order to control possible cracking due to shrinkage and temperature changes, a
minimum amount of reinforcement, in each direction, should be provided:
A
s
0.11 A
g
/f
y
(LRFD Eq. 5.10.8.2-1)
8.8.2.4.2.6
Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7
Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8
Crack Control
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria/8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
JUL 03
where
A
g
= gross area of section, in.
2
f
y
= specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
This reinforcement should be equally distributed on both faces and should not be
spaced farther apart than three times the slab thickness or 18.0 in. It is reasonable
to waive this requirement in precast, prestressed concrete panels in the direction of
prestress.
Rapid replacement of bridge decks is becoming increasingly important in high traffic
areas due to public intolerance to extended bridge closures. This section covers two
new bridge deck systems developed at the University of Nebraska for rapid replace-
ment of bridge decks (Tadros, 1998). The first system is a continuous precast concrete
stay-in-place panel system, called NUDECK (Badie, 1998). It is intended for applica-
tions similar to the conventional SIP panel previously discussed. The second system
is a full-depth precast concrete panel system intended for very rapid construction
(Takashi, 1998). The following sections briefly introduce these two new systems.
Although conventional SIP precast panels have proven cost-effective and have been
widely used in Florida, Missouri, Tennessee, Texas and several other states, they do
have drawbacks. These include:
(1) the need for forming overhangs with wood forming
(2) the possible appearance of reflective cracking over joints between SIP panels
(3) the lack of development of the pretensioning strands in the SIP panel caused
by strand discontinuity at beam lines and relatively small beam spacing.
The continuous stay-in-place (CSIP) system NUDECK has the following advan-
tages:
(1) the CSIP panel covers the entire width of the bridge eliminating the necessity
of forming the overhang
(2) the CSIP panel is continuous longitudinally and transversely which results in
minimized reflective cracks, full development of the pretensioning reinforce-
ment, and better live load distribution
Cost studies conducted by contractors and consulting engineers (Tadros, 1998), estimat-
ed that the NUDECK system would be cost-competitive with CIP systems. The slight
increase in panel cost would be offset by the reduction in field costs due to installation of
fewer pieces and elimination of overhang forming. However, the novelty of the system,
panel forming challenges and panel weight are potential disadvantages of this system.
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-1 shows a cross-section of a bridge and a plan view of the precast
panel. The system consists of a 4.5-in.-thick precast panel and a 3.5 to 4.5-in.-thick
CIP reinforced topping. The length of the panel in the direction of traffic can vary
from 8 to 12 ft depending on the transportation and lifting equipment available in
the field. At each beam position there is a full-length gap to accommodate shear con-
nectors. The width of the gap, G, depends on the shear connector detail used in the
precast beam. As an example, for a beam spacing of 12 ft and overhang of 4 ft sub-
jected to HS-25 truck loading, an 8-ft-wide panel would require (12) 1/2-in.-diam-
8.8.3.1
Continuous Precast Concrete
SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1
Description of NUDECK
8.8.3
Other Precast Bridge
Deck Systems
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control/8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
JUL 03
eter strands and a 28-day concrete compressive strength of 8,000 psi. The strands are
located in two layers and uniformly spaced at 16 in. A minimum clear concrete cover
of 1 in. is used for both the top and bottom layers of strands.
In order to maintain the gap over the beam, and to transmit the pretensioning force
from one section to another across the gap, 24 short pieces of No. 7 reinforcing bars are
used in two layers. These bars transmit the prestress compression force across the gap. To
maintain continuity in the longitudinal direction between the adjacent precast panels,
shear keys and reinforced pockets are provided as shown in Figures 8.8.3.1.1-2 and
8.8.3.1.1-3. The panel is reinforced longitudinally with No. 4 bars spaced at 2 ft at the
location of the pockets. To provide for full tension development of the No. 4 bars, they
are spliced using an innovative confinement technique as shown in Figure 8.8.3.1.1-
4. A pocket, only 5-in. deep, is needed to fully develop the No. 4 bar. The panels are
erected using shims and leveling bolts. The longitudinal gaps are then filled with fine-
aggregate concrete. When the concrete attains a strength of 4,000 psi, the finishing
machine can then be installed and the CIP topping cast in one continuous operation.
Full-scale laboratory testing (Yehia, 1998) has shown this system has almost two-times
the load capacity of an equivalent conventional SIP panel system.
(b) Plan View of the NUDECK Panel
(a) Cross Section of the NUDECK System
#4 bar @ 2'- 0"
(2) 1/2 in. dia. strands
@ 1'- 4"
#7 bars
1
'
-
4
"
8
'
-
0
"
G
3-ft-long spiral
B
B
A
A
4 1/2-in.-thick precast prestressed
continuous panel
Cast-in-place topping
(varies from 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 in.)
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-1
The NUDECK System
JUL 03
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-3
Details of Reinforced Pockets
Blockout
Spiral and #4 splice bar,
see below
Section D-D
1/2-in.-dia.
strand @ 1'-4" on center
1
"
2

1
/
2
"
1
"
5/8"
3/4"
3

1
/
8
"
3/4"
1/4" 4 3/4"
4

1
/
2
"
2 1/4"
#4 bar @
2'- 0"
5"
Section B-B
D
D
Clear cover
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-4
Panel-to-Panel Connection
(At 2'- 0" Centers)
Backer-rod seal
4

1
/
2
"
Spiral, 3" O.D., 1" pitch,
Sim.
Sim.
0.25" dia. wire, 145 ksi
#4 bar
#4 bar
#4 splice bar
D
D
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-2
Cross-Section of the
NUDECK Panel
Detail C
1/2-in.-dia.
strand @ 1'- 4"
on center
3" O.D. Spiral
1
"
2

1
/
2
"
1
"
5/8"
3/4"
3 1/8"
1/4" roughened surface
(using formliners)
#7 bar Clear cover
#4 bar
4

1
/
2
"
3/4"
1/4"
4 1/2"
8'- 0"
8" 1'- 4" (Typ.)
Detail C
Section A-A
JUL 03
An overview of this system is shown in Figure 8.8.3.2-1. It consists mainly of pre-
cast, transversely pretensioned concrete panels, welded threaded studs, grout-filled
shear keys, leveling bolts, and longitudinal post-tensioning tendons.
The overall geometry is determined by the arrangement of pretensioning strands
for positive moments and to provide an adequate compressive zone for negative
moments. One layer of welded wire reinforcement is provided in the upper por-
tion of the slab. Pretensioning strands are arranged in two layers and eccentricity is
minimized because the panel is subjected to both negative and positive moments.
Two important functions of the transverse joints between panels are to transfer live
loads and to prevent water leakage. For these two requirements, a shear key with a
rapid-set, non-shrink grout is used. Longitudinal post-tensioning is applied after the
transverse shear keys are grouted but before the deck is made composite with the
underlying beams.
The full-depth precast pretensioned system has the following benefits:
It has an equivalent slab thickness of 5.9 in., which makes it significantly lighter
than other systems
The system is prestressed both directions, resulting in superior performance
compared to conventionally-reinforced decks
The system does not need a CIP topping, which reduces the time of construc-
tion
The panel includes 1/2 in. extra cover to be used for grinding the deck to a
smooth surface
The panels can be rapidly produced and constructed, or removed
The grouted, post-tensioned transverse joints between panels prevent cracking
and possible leakage throughout the service life of the deck
Deflection under service load is small in comparison to non-prestressed sys-
tems
Figure 8.8.3.2-1
Overview of Full-Depth
Panel System
Post-tensioning tendons
Non-shrink
grout
Welded threaded stud
with plate washer and nut
Non-shrink
grout
Leveling bolt
(removed
after grout cures)
Precast pretensioned
concrete panels
8.8.3.2
Full-Depth Precast
Concrete Panels
JUL 03
Full-scale fatigue and ultimate strength testing has demonstrated superior perfor-
mance of this system. No cracks or joint leakage were observed after two million
cycles of loading. The strength of the system was governed by punching shear of the
slab at about 5 times the maximum wheel load of an HS25 truck.
The disadvantages of this system include the following:
The deck surface is required to be ground in order to attain a smooth riding
surface
Longitudinal post-tensioning significantly increases the number of construction
steps required
Panel weight requires availability of cranes
The empirical procedure of the LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art. 9.7.2] is attractive in
that it provides less reinforcement than analytical methods, including finite element
and strip analysis. Less steel should result in less deck deterioration due to reinforce-
ment corrosion. The method is based on full-scale testing, conducted primarily in
Ontario, Canada. The empirical design method may be used only if certain specified
conditions are met. If the specified amount of reinforcement is provided, the deck
is considered to satisfy all design requirements without need for design calculations.
The conditions are:
the supporting components are steel and/or concrete beams
the deck is fully cast-in-place and water-cured
the deck is of uniform depth, except for haunches at beam flanges and other
local thickening
the ratio of effective length, between inside faces of beam webs, to the design
depth does not exceed 18.0 and is not less than 6.0
core depth of the slab, between the extreme faces of top and bottom reinforce-
ment, is not less than 4.0 in.
the effective length, between the inside faces of the beam webs, does not exceed
13.5 ft
the minimum depth of the slab is not less than 7.0 in. excluding a sacrificial
wearing surface where applicable
there is an overhang beyond the centerline of the outside beam of at least 5
times the depth of the slab. This condition is satisfied if the overhang is at least
3 times the depth of the slab, and a structurally continuous concrete barrier is
made composite with the overhang
the specified 28-day strength of the deck concrete is not less than 4.0 ksi
the deck is made composite with the supporting structural components
the reinforcement required consists of four layers
minimum amount of reinforcement is 0.27 in.
2
/ft for each bottom layer and
0.18 in.
2
/ft for each top layer
maximum spacing of bars is 18 in.
The provisions of the empirical design method are not applied to overhangs. The
overhang should be designed for all of the following cases:
wheel loads for decks with discontinuous railings and barriers using the equivalent
strip method
8.8.4
LRFD Specifications
Empirical Design Method
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels/
JUL 03
equivalent line loads for decks with continuous barriers (LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.4)
collision loads using a failure mechanism
Note that negative overhang moments require reinforcement that must be extended
into the adjacent span.
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOTATION
8.1.1 History
8.2 FLEXURE
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.2.1 Theory
Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 SHEAR
ci
cw
s
c
s
8.5.1 Theory
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.7.3 Examples
8.8.1 Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.9.1 Background
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.3.3 Tendons
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.12.1 Introduction
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.13.1 Introduction
8.14 REFERENCES
NOTATION
JUL 03
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
cs
A
g
A
k
A
o
A
ps
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
ss
A
st
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
b
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
C
a
applied at release
NOTATION
JUL 03
CR
c
CR
s
C(t,t
0
C(t,t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
C
b
(t,t
3
3

C
d
(t,t
3
3

C
u
prestressing
C
u
D = dead load [STD]
attachments [LRFD]
d
b
d
e
d
ext
d
i
d
p
d
s
d
v
d

E
c
E
cb
(t
3
3

E
cd
(t
3
3

E
c
(t
j
j
(j = 0,1,2,)
E
c
(t
0
E
c
(t,t
0
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
NOTATION
JUL 03
E
*
c
E
*
cb
E
*
cd
E
*
c
(t,t
0
E
*
ck
e
c
e
g
e
i
the roll axis
e
m
e
p
FS
c
FS
f
F
b
service loads
F
cj
F
pi
f = stress
f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
f
ci
f
cgp
f
cu
f
f
f
min
f
pbt
f
pc
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
pc
pc
f
pe
f
pe
f
pi
f
pj
f
po
f
ps
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f(t
j
j

f
r
(t,t
0
f(t
0
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
h
cg
h
d
= deck thickness
h
f
h
r
NOTATION
JUL 03
I
k
I
eff
I
g
K
r
to transfer
K

[LRFD]
k
c
la
k
h
k
s

k
cp
k
la
k
h
k
s
k
sh
cp
k
h
k
s

k
st
L = live load [STD]
L
r
L
x
l
d
l
t
= transfer length
M
c
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
d/nc
M
el
M
g
M
g
M
gmsp
M
k
= element moment
NOTATION
JUL 03
M
lat
M
LL
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
sh
= shrinkage moment
M
sr
M
sw
M
u
M
x
M
0
M
0k
m = stress ratio
N
k
N
c
N
s
N
u
N
0k
N
0
n
k
n
s
P
c
P
n
P
r
P
se
P
si
R
n
R
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
precast beam
S
N
S(t,t
0
S
t
precast beam
S
u
t
f
t
0
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
max
[STD]
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
JUL 03
V
uh
v
u
w
c
y
b
non-composite beam
y
bc
y
bs
fiber of the beam
y
k
y
r
y
s
y
t
non-composite beam
y
tc
z
max
z
o
z
o
eff
for tilt angle
under consideration

s

1

1

c
= deflection
NOTATION
JUL 03
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pR
f
pR1
transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
f
pT
f
s
= strain

c

cr

f

fc

fk
= element strain

fs

k

p

s

s

sh
shb
(t,t
2
2
to time t
shb
(t
3
,t
2
2
to time t
3

shd
(t,t
3
3
to time t

shu

si
stress

x

0c

1

*
= curvature

c

cr

fk
= element curvature
NOTATION
JUL 03

k

0

L

R

i

max

max

b

*
= aging coefficient
(t,t
0
JUL 03
8.9.1.1
Current Practice
8.9.1.2
Ontario Bridge Design
Code Procedure
8.9.1
Background
8.9
TRANSVERSE DESIGN
OF ADJACENT BOX
BEAM BRIDGES
Adjacent box beam bridges are constructed by placing precast, prestressed concrete
box beams next to each other so that a deck slab is not required to complete the struc-
ture. The small longitudinal joint between beams the shear key or keyway is
normally filled with grout. Often, a composite concrete topping or a non-structural
asphalt concrete overlay is used to provide the riding surface. Typically, longitudinal
keyways are dimensioned for standard products shown in Appendix B. Transverse con-
nections are made between beams to prevent differential deflection and to improve the
distribution of live loads.
The design of the transverse connections between adjacent box beams has been iden-
tified as an important issue by bridge owners and designers. Without an adequate
transverse connection, beams will not deflect equally under live loads. Differential
movement between beams may lead to longitudinal cracking of the grouted keyways
and reflective cracking in the overlay, if one is present. Recent surveys of adjacent
box beam bridges have revealed that cracks of these types are a recurring problem in
some areas. In rural locations where deicing chemicals are not used, such cracks may
be tolerated. However, in most locations, these cracks should be prevented because
water and deicing chemicals may penetrate the cracks and cause concrete staining and
eventually structural deterioration of the box beams from corrosion of reinforcement
and subsequent spalling of the concrete cover.
In addition, a transverse connection between box beams is necessary to provide effec-
tive load transfer between beams. Without adequate transverse connection, live load
cannot be distributed across the bridge. Each beam in that case would have to be
designed to resist the full effect of a set of wheel loads.
When a transverse connection is provided between adjacent box beams, it is typically
made using threaded rods, post-tensioning bars or strands, or welded connections.
A 5- or 6-in.-thick reinforced concrete composite slab may also be used to provide a
transverse connection between adjacent members. When a structural concrete top-
ping is not used, a non-structural overlay, such as a 2.0-in.-thick asphalt concrete
wearing surface, is often applied as a final riding surface. However, for some second-
ary roads, a topping is not used because the surface of the precast beam is more than
adequate to use for a riding surface.
The number and location of transverse ties, the erection details, and procedures for
installing transverse connections vary from state to state. Several different types of
connections have been found to provide good performance, although in other cases,
similar details and procedures may perform very differently. The selection of a system
for connecting adjacent box beam bridges depends on initial cost, long-term mainte-
nance costs, experience of the owner, capabilities of local contractors, and availability
of materials.
The Ontario, Canada, Bridge Design Code provides a procedure for the design of
adjacent box beam bridges. The Ontario Code assumes that the load is transferred
from one beam to another primarily through transverse shear; transverse flexural
rigidity is neglected, (Bakht, 1983). Charts are provided to determine the transverse
8.9 Transverse Design of Adjacent Box Beam Bridges/
7017 Bridge Manual CH 8.9 8/14/03, 0:22 PM 1
JUL 03
8.9.2
Empirical Design
8.9.2.1
Tie System
shear force to be resisted. A reinforced concrete structural slab with a minimum
thickness of 5.9 in. is required to be placed on the bridge to provide the shear transfer
between beams. Therefore, the grouted keyway is not relied upon to transfer shear
between boxes.
Several users of adjacent beams have developed empirical design guidelines for trans-
verse connection of adjacent slabs and box beams, with varying degree of success.
One procedure, developed by the State of Oregon and refined over many years of
practice, has demonstrated satisfactory field performance in controlling longitudinal
cracking and moisture leakage between beams. This method is described in detail in
the following sections.
Transverse ties should be capable of providing a total transverse force at least equal
to the weight of each beam. The ties are provided in the form of 1 or 2 rods at
mid-depth of the member at locations along the span according to Table 8.9.2.1-1.
This spacing and number of tie rods has been found to produce satisfactory field
performance.
A 7/8 in. diameter, 8'-2" long smooth rod with 2 1/2" threaded length is used for
each location. The rod material is ASTM A449 high strength steel. Each rod is ten-
sioned to 39.25 kips, using a torque wrench and a direct tension indicating (DTI)
washer, conforming to ASTM F959. A heavy hexagonal nut, conforming to ASTM
A194 and a 5"x5"x1" ASTM A36 bearing plate complete the tensioning-and-anchor-
age assembly, as shown in Figure 8.9.2.1-1. On the non-tensioning end of the rod,
the DTI washer is replaced with a hardened steel ASTM F436 flat circular washer.
All hardware is hot-dip galvanized after fabrication.
Table 8.9.2.1-1
Number and Spacing
of Tie Rods
Span, ft Number of rods and spacing
20 One at midspan
>20, but
40
One at third points
>40, but
70
Two at third points
>70, but
100
Two rods at
24 ft spacing, with first set at 8 ft from end
Figure 8.9.2.1-1
Hardware Used for Tie Rods
7/8" tie rod
1/2"
Thread 2 1/2" each end
1/2"
Mill one end of tie rod
(end with turned nut)
to prevent tie rod from turning
during tensioning by using a wrench
on milled end
8.9.1.2 Ontario Bridge Design Code Procedure/8.9.2.1 Tie System
JUL 03
8.9.2.2
Production
Each member is produced with shear keys as shown in Figure 8.9.2.2-1. The shear
key shown has a well-defined and bulbous shape with an adequate opening at the top
to provide access for installation of grout. The face of the key is sandblasted at the
precast plant to remove loose materials and to provide a good bonding surface.
It is advisable to provide a recess along the bottom edge of the beam, as shown in
Figure 8.9.2.2-2, to prevent spalling due to a stress concentration that could result
from possible formed surface bulges or protrusions. All beams must have diaphragms
at their ends and at tie rod locations. Diaphragm dimensions and locations are deter-
mined with consideration of the skew angle. A 3 in. diameter hole is formed at each
tie rod location.
Figure 8.9.2.2-1
Shear Key Detail
3/8" 3/8"
3"
4"
3/8"
3/4"
Figure 8.9.2.2-2
Joint Detail
5"
1/4" 1/4"
8.9.2.2 Production
JUL 03
Erection of precast units begins at either exterior beam or at the center of the bridge
depending upon the width of the bridge and the desired crane placement. After plac-
ing the first two adjacent units the tie rods are installed and the nuts are tightened
until the ridges on the load indicator washers collapse (see Figure 8.9.2.3-1). Prior
to installing the nuts on the tie rod, the threads are lubricated with a suitable wax or
tension control fluid to allow the required tension on the rods to be developed. The
sequence continues by placing a beam and installing the required number of tie rods
each time a beam is set. Handholes are provided in the concrete beams at each end
of the bolts to provide access to the non-turned nut located on the far side of the
previous unit set. After all the units in a span are set, the grout may be installed in
the shear keys. The grout should be non-shrink, non-ferrous, non-epoxy grout with
a minimum design strength of 5,000 psi. The surface of the keys should be kept
damp for twenty-four hours before and after installing the grout. If the space between
beams is wide enough to allow the grout to run through, a strip of foam rod stock is
installed at the bottom of the shear key to seal it. In order to provide a positive seal,
the grout is tooled-down from the top of the deck to provide a recess for the instal-
lation of caulking or a poured joint filler. This area must again be cleaned to remove
any loose grout before installing the sealant, as shown in Figure 8.9.2.3-2.
8.9.2.3
Installation
Figure 8.9.2.3-1
Tie Rod Recess Detail
5"
1'-3"
W tan
(5" min.)
6" 6"
3" dia. tie rod hole
Centerline
of bearing
Detail A
3" 3"
2 5/8"
3/8"
3"
3"
6"
1 3/4"
2 5/8"
3/8"
Detail A
3"dia. tie
rod hole
1"x 5"x 5"
plate
W
3"dia. tie rod hole
washer
Figure 8.9.2.3-2
Keyway Grout Detail Poured sealant
Backer rod
(if needed)
Non-shrink grout
1"1/4"
JUL 03
A design procedure has been developed (El-Remaily, 1996) which assumes that post-
tensioned transverse diaphragms serve as the primary mechanism for the distribution
of wheel loads across the bridge. Five diaphragms are provided in each span: one at
each end and one at each quarter-point. A typical detail at a diaphragm is shown in
Figure 8.9.3-1. The amount of post-tensioning required at each diaphragm depends
on the bridge geometry and loading. A chart, Figure 8.9.3-2, that has been devel-
oped for the determination of the required amount of transverse post-tensioning, will
be described in Section 8.9.3.5.
The transverse diaphragms are made continuous across the entire width of the bridge
by providing grout pockets in the faces of the joints at each diaphragm location.
These vertical pockets, which are filled with grout prior to post-tensioning, extend
nearly the full depth of the beam (see Figure 8.9.3-1). The grout must be installed
and cured prior to post-tensioning so that it will be compressed. This precompres-
sion of the grout is necessary to avoid cracking in the diaphragm. The 1-in.-deep
grout pocket is formed into the side of each box beam by attaching a blockout to the
8.9.3
Suggested Design
Procedure
8.9.3.1
Transverse Diaphragms
Figure 8.9.3-1
Arrangement
Standard section Diaphragm section
Grout
Transverse post-tensioning:
threaded bars through
ducts in girders
8"
7 1/2 "
7 1/2 "
2"
2"
A
A
Section A-A
Figure 8.9.3-2
Required Effective Post-
Tensioning Force
42
39
33
27
P
o
s
t
-
T
e
n
s
i
o
n
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e

(
k
/
f
t
)
Bridge Width (ft)
Beam Depth, in.
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
8.9.3 Suggested Design Procedure/8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms
JUL 03
interior of the steel side form. Installation of the blockout is a simple and inexpensive
modification to the box beam form.
It has been found that for spans of up to 100 ft, the use of five post-tensioned dia-
phragms limit differential deflection between adjacent box beams to 0.02 in., which
is an acceptable amount. The use of three diaphragms, one at each end and one
at midspan, was found to reduce the required quantity of post-tensioning, but the
differential deflection between beams increased to an unacceptable level, i.e. higher
than 0.02 in. As a guideline, for spans up to 60 ft, three diaphragms, at ends and at
midspan, may be used. For spans over 60 ft, five diaphragms, at ends, midspan, and
at quarter points, may be used.
Diaphragms are post-tensioned because of the difficulty of providing continuous,
conventionally reinforced diaphragms across the width of the bridge. Conventionally
reinforced diaphragms would also be subject to cracking, which would reduce their
effectiveness and possibly allow water penetration. Post-tensioned diaphragms are
precompressed and should not crack.
The transverse connection between adjacent box beams is made at the diaphragms, so
longitudinal shear keys are not required for the structural performance of the bridge.
However, the gap between beams should be sealed with grout or an appropriate non-
structural sealant to prevent water leakage between beams. Longitudinal shear keys
tend to seal the gap between girders much more effectively when grouted than those
without grout.
In most cases, a pair of post-tensioning tendons is placed in each diaphragm. Each
tendon may consist of a single post-tensioning bar or strand. The use of post-tension-
ing bars may be preferred because they are easier to install, achieve a higher force for a
single bar as compared to a single strand, provide greater stiffness across the joint, and
generally have a lower anchorage seating loss, which is especially significant for short
tendons. Strands may be used if power seating of the anchorage is used to minimize
the seating loss. The tendons are placed symmetrically about the mid-height of the
section in order to provide equal resistance to the positive and negative moments
that are caused by live load. The vertical distance between tendons should as large as
possible in order to maximize the flexural resistance of the diaphragm.
Tendons may be either bonded, by grouting after post-tensioning, or left unbonded.
Bonded tendons provide higher capacity at ultimate conditions and are protected
from corrosion by the grout, but grouting is an additional operation that must be
performed in the field. Unbonded tendons are easier to install and can be more eas-
ily removed if a damaged box beam must be replaced. However, the tendon must be
protected in some way from corrosion and the force in the tendon at ultimate is lower
than for bonded tendons. In either case, the tendon anchorages must be protected
from corrosion by encasing the anchorage in grout or by using galvanized hardware
and sealing anchorages with grease caps.
The bridge is modeled using grid analysis to determine member forces. A series of
beam elements is used to represent the beams. These elements are connected by a
series of crossing beam elements, representing the diaphragms. The joints between
elements allow the transmission of shear, bending moment and torsion.
8.9.3.2
Longitudinal Joints
Between Beams
8.9.3.3
Tendons
8.9.3.4
Modeling and Loads
for Analysis
8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms/8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis
JUL 03
Barrier rails and live loads are the main sources of transverse bending moments gener-
ated in the diaphragms. The live loads are positioned to produce the maximum positive
and negative moments in the diaphragms. To obtain the maximum transverse posi-
tive moment in the diaphragm at midspan, the live load is placed over the center of
the deck. For maximum transverse negative moment at the same location, the load is
placed as close to the barrier rail as possible or as required by the specifications.
A design chart developed by El-Remaily (1996) using the above procedure is shown
in Figure 8.9.3-2. This chart provides the required transverse post-tensioning force
for the standard box beam depths of 27, 33, 39 and 42 in. To prepare the chart,
bridges with widths of 28, 52 and 84 ft were considered. For each combination of
section depth and bridge width, three different spans appropriate for the beam size,
were considered. This chart may be used for both 3- and 4-ft-wide beams and for
bridges with mild skews, i.e. less than about 15. Use of the chart should satisfy both
service load and factored load design criteria. Similar charts can be generated for
other box beam depths and for bridges with sharp skews. Use of the chart is illus-
trated in the design example, which follows in Section 8.9.3.7.
The required transverse post-tensioning force was found to be almost linearly pro-
portional to the span length. The forces shown in the design chart were obtained
by dividing the required effective post-tensioning force for the midspan diaphragm
by the spacing between diaphragms, and then taking the average of the three span
lengths analyzed. The chart was developed assuming that bonded post-tensioning is
used. If unbonded post-tensioning is used, the required post-tensioning force would
increase about 30%.
The required post-tensioning force for the diaphragms at the quarter points was found
to be similar to the midspan diaphragm. It is therefore recommended that the same force
be used at all diaphragms within the span. The end diaphragms, however, are subjected
to very small bending moments because they are continually supported at the piers or
abutments. The same prestressing force may be provided for the end diaphragms or a
minimum prestress force of 250 psi on the area of the diaphragm may be provided.
Although the chart was developed for bridges with no skew, it can be used for bridges
with mild skews up to 15. For bridges with high skews, over 15, grid analysis
should be conducted. Grid analysis is relatively simple to conduct with commercially
available computer programs.
Because the transverse diaphragms are post-tensioned, working stress design is the
primary approach used to design them. Stresses in the diaphragms due to loads and
transverse prestress are computed and compared to allowable stress limits. To prevent
cracking of the grout or opening of the cracks along the interface between the grout
and box beams, tensile stresses are not permitted.
Flexural strength of the diaphragm must also be checked for factored loads. The avail-
able stress in the tendons at ultimate depends upon whether the tendon is bonded or
unbonded. When bonded post-tensioning is used, the stress in the tendon at ultimate
flexure may be obtained with procedures given in Section 8.2. The tendon on the
compression side of the diaphragm should be neglected when computing the stress
in the tendon at ultimate and the flexural strength of the diaphragm.
8.9.3.5
Post-Tensioning Design Chart
8.9.3.6
Design Method
8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis/8.9.3.6 Design Method
JUL 03
Shear in a vertical plane through the joint between beams may be checked using shear
friction theory, similar to horizontal shear design between precast beams and cast-
in-place composite decks see Section 8.5. However, due to the very large clamping
force caused by post-tensioning, shear generally does not govern the design.
The design of the diaphragms for the bridge in Design Example 9.1 is performed
here. The bridge is 28 ft wide, has a span of 95 ft and utilizes AASHTO BIII-48 box
beams. The strength of the grout used in the grout pocket between girders at each
diaphragm is 5,000 psi. Post-tensioning bars with a strength of 160 ksi are used for
transverse post-tensioning of the diaphragms.
Five transversely post-tensioned diaphragms are used, located at the ends and quarter
points of the span. The spacing between the diaphragms is therefore 95/4 = 23.75
ft. Using the design chart, Figure 8.9.3-2, for a section depth of 39 in. and a bridge
width of 28 ft, the required effective prestressing force is 4 kips/ft. The force required
for each diaphragm is computed by multiplying the distance between diaphragms by
the required force per foot of length. Therefore, the required post-tensioning force at
each diaphragm is 4 kips/ft (23.75 ft) = 95 kips.
Two tendons will be used at each diaphragm. The required area of post-tensioning for
each bar is computed by dividing the required force by the effective prestress, which
is assumed to be 55% of the strength of the bar. Therefore:
A
pt
= 95 kips/[0.55(160 ksi)] = 1.08 in.
2
Try (2) 7/8-in.-diameter, 160 ksi smooth bars (PCI Design Handbook, 1992). The
total area provided is 1.202 in.
2
> 1.08 in.
2
OK
The total effective prestress force for the two bars is:
F
pe
= 0.55(160)(1.202) = 105.8 kips
The grout pockets are 37 in. deep and 8-in. wide. Since the bar positions result in
eccentric prestressing of the diaphragm, the stress in the grout due to the effective
prestress force is:
f
c
= 105.8/8(37) =
105.8(1)
( / )( )( ) 1 6 8 37
2
0.415 and 0.299 ksi, top and bottom, respectively.
As discussed in Section 7.5.5, the LRFD Specifications requires a prestress of 0.250 ksi
for the beams to qualify as rigidly connected for live load distribution. However, the
0.250-ksi value appears to be somewhat arbitrary. The rigorous analysis developed
here should provide an acceptable design in compliance with the LRFD Specifications.
Even though shear keys are recommended to be grouted full length, this grouting is
not required for the successful structural performance of this recommended system.
Greater than 0.250 ksi is provided across each of the five continuous diaphragms.
8.9.3.7
Design Example
8.9.3.6 Design Method/8.9.3.7 Design Example
JUL 03
Diaphragms in skewed bridges can either be skewed or perpendicular to the longitudi-
nal axis of the beam. Diaphragms that are skewed are normally limited to skew angles
of 20 or less. Use of skewed diaphragms allows for placement of grout between beams
all at one time, then post-tensioning in one operation. For multistage or phased con-
struction, it is possible to use staggered post-tensioning with skewed or perpendicular
diaphragms. Refer to Sections 3.6.3.4 and 3.6.3.5 in Chapter 3 for illustrations and
Section 8.9.2 for details used in Oregon.
8.9.4
Detailing for
Skewed Bridges
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
9.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE - AASHTO BOX BEAM, BIII-48, SINGLE SPAN WITH
NON-COMPOSITE WEARING SURFACE. DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE
WITH AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS.
WITH AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATIONS.
9.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE - AASHTO-PCI BULB-TEE, BT-72, SINGLE SPAN
WITH COMPOSITE DECK. DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH AASHTO
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS.
LRFD SPECIFICATIONS.
9.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE - AASHTO-PCI BULB-TEE, BT-72, THREE-SPAN WITH
COMPOSITE DECK (MADE CONTINUOUS FOR LIVE LOAD). DESIGNED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS.
IN ACCORDANCE WITH AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATIONS.
9.7 DESIGN EXAMPLE - PRECAST CONCRETE STAY-IN-PLACE DECK
PANEL SYSTEM. DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH AASHTO
PANEL SYSTEM. DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH AASHTO LRFD
SPECIFICATIONS.
Note: Each design example contains a thorough table of contents.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
7065 Ch 9 Cont.UPDATED 8/18/03 12:07 PM Page 1
JUL 03
A = cross-sectional area of the precast beam or section [STD], [LRFD]
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexural tension reinforcement
and having the same centroid as the reinforcement divided by the number of bars [STD], [LRFD]
A
b
= area of an individual bar [LRFD]
A
c
= total area of the composite section
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
= transverse post-tensioning reinforcement
A
s
= area of non-pretensioning tension reinforcement [STD]
A
s
= area of non-pretensioning tension reinforcement [LRFD]
A
s
= total area of vertical reinforcement located within the distance (h/5) from the end of the beam [LRFD]
A
sf
= steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the flange [STD]
A
sr
= steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the web of a flanged section [STD]
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
= area of transverse reinforcement within a distance 's' [LRFD]
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
a = distance from the end of beam to drape point
b = width of bottom flange of the beam
b
e
= effective web width of the precast beam
b
v
= width of cross section at the contact surface being investigated for horizontal shear [STD]
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
D = strand diameter [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DC = dead load of structural components and non structural attachments [LRFD]
DFD = distribution factor for deflection
DFM = distribution factor for bending moment
DF
m
= live load distribution factor for moment
DFV = distribution factor for shear force
d = distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the pretensioning force [STD]
d
b
= nominal strand diameter [LRFD]
d
c
= thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center
of the closest bar [STD], [LRFD]
d
e
= distance from exterior web of exterior beam and the interior side of curb or traffic barrier [LRFD]
d
e
= effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile force in the
tensile reinforcement [LRFD]
d
p
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the pretensioning tendons [LRFD]
d
v
E = width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed [STD]
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete [STD]
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete [LRFD]
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e = eccentricity of the strands at h/2
e = eccentricity of strands at transfer length
e = difference between eccentricity of pretensioning steel at midspan and end span
e
c
= eccentricity of the strand at the midspan
e
e
= eccentricity of pretensioning force at end of beam
e
g
F
b
= allowable tensile stress in the precompressed tensile zone at service loads
F
pi
F
= reduction factor [LRFD]

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
= change of stresses at center of gravity of prestress due to permanent loads, except dead load acting
at the time the prestress force is applied (at transfer), calculated at the same section as f
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due to all dead loads except
the dead load present at the time the pretensioning force is applied [STD]
f
cir
= average concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due to pretensioning
force and dead load of beam immediately after transfer [STD]
f
ci
= concrete strength at release [STD]
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
= specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial loading or pretensioning [LRFD]
f
cgp
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning tendons, due to pretensioning force
at transfer and the self-weight of the member at the section of maximum positive moment [LRFD]
f
d
= stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused
by externally applied loads [STD]
f
pb
= compressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam due to prestress force
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all pretension losses) at centroid of cross
section resisting externally applied loads [STD]
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete after all prestress losses have occurred either at the centroid of
the cross section resisting live load or at the junction of the web and flange when the centroid
lies in the flange. In a composite section, f
pc
is the resultant compressive stress at the centroid
of the composite section, or at the junction of the web and flange when the centroid lies with
in the flange, due to both prestress and to the bending moments resisted by the precast member
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension forces only (after allowance for all
pretension losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
= stress in the pretensioning steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is zero [LRFD]
f
ps
= average stress in pretensioning steel at the time for which the nominal resistance of member is required [LRFD]
f
pt
= stress in pretensioning steel immediately after transfer [LRFD]
f
pu
f
py
f
r
= the modulus of rupture of concrete [STD]
f
r
= modulus of rupture of concrete [LRFD]
f
s
= allowable stress in steel
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
= concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the non-composite section
f
tc
= concrete stress at top fiber of the slab for the composite section
f
tg
= concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the composite section
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
H = average annual ambient mean relative humidity, percent [LRFD]
H = height of wall [LRFD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
= total height of composite section
h
f
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite precast beam [STD]
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite precast beam [LRFD]
I = impact fraction (maximum 30%) [STD]
I
c
= moment of inertia of composite section
J = St. Venant torsional constant
K = longitudinal stiffness parameter [STD]
K
g
= longitudinal stiffness parameter [LRFD]
k = factor used in calculation of distribution factor for multi-beam bridges [LRFD]
k = factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel for Strength Limit State
L = live load [STD]
L = length in feet of the span under consideration for positive moment and the average of two
adjacent loaded spans for negative moment [STD]
L
c
= critical length of yield line failure pattern [LRFD]
l
d
= development length [LRFD]
l
x
= length required to fully develop the strand measured from the end of the strand
M
a
= negative moment at the end of the span being considered
M
b
M
b
= unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight
M
c
= flexural resistance of cantilevered wall [LRFD]
M
CIP
= unfactored bending moment due to cast-in-place topping slab
M
const
= unfactored bending moment due to construction load
M
col
= bending moment due to horizontal collision force
M
cr
= moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads (after dead load) [STD]
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
= unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weight
M
d
= bending moment at section due to unfactored dead load
M
d/nc
M
f
= unfactored bending moment due to fatigue truck per beam
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
= unfactored bending moment due to live load + impact
M
LL+I
= unfactored bending moment due to design vehicular load
M
LT
= unfactored bending moment due to truck load with dynamic allowance per beam
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
= maximum positive moment
M
s
= unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights
M
SDL
= unfactored bending moment due to super-imposed dead loads
M
service
= total bending moment for service load combination
M
SIP
= unfactored bending moment due to stay-in-place panel
M
u
= factored bending moment at section [STD]
M
u
= factored moment at a section [LRFD]
M
ws
= unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface
M
x
= bending moment at a distance (x) from the support
m = material parameter
m = stress ratio = (f
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
= number of beams [LRFD]
N
L
= number of traffic lanes [STD]
N
u
n = modular ratio between deck slab and beam materials
P = diaphragm weight concentrated at quarter points
P = load on one rear wheel of design truck (P
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
= effective post-tensioning force
P
i
= total pretensioning force immediately after transfer
P
pe
= total pretensioning force after all losses
P
r
= factored bursting resistance of pretensioned anchorage zone provided by transverse reinforcement
P
s
= prestress force before initial losses
P
se
P
si
P
20
= load on one rear wheel of the H20 truck [STD]
Q = total factored load [LRFD]
Q
i
= specified loads [LRFD]
q = generalized load [LRFD]
R
n
= coefficient of resistance
R
u
R
w
= total transverse resistance of the railing or barrier [LRFD]
S = average spacing between beams in feet [STD]
S = spacing of beams [LRFD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S = span length of deck slab [STD]
S = effective span length of the deck slab; clear span plus distance from extreme flange tip
to face of web LRFD]
S
b
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast beam [STD]
S
bc
= composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam (equivalent to
S
c
in the Standard Specifications)
SR = fatigue stress range
S
t
= section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
S
tc
= composite section modulus for top fiber of the deck slab
S
tg
= composite section modulus for top fiber of the precast beam
T = collision force at deck slab level
t
f
t
s
= cast-in-place deck thickness
t
s
= depth of concrete deck [LRFD]
V
c
V
c
= nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the concrete [LRFD]
V
ci
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from combined
shear and moment [STD]
V
cw
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from excessive
principal tensile stress in web [STD]
V
d
V
i
= factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring simultaneously
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
= unfactored shear force due to lane load per beam
V
LL+I
= unfactored shear force due to live load plus impact
V
LL+I
= unfactored shear force due design vehicular live load
V
LT
= unfactored shear force due to truck load with dynamic allowance per beam
V
mu
= ultimate shear force occurring simultaneously with M
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
= component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective pretensioning force, positive
if resisting the applied shear [LRFD]
V
s
V
s
V
u
= factored shear force at the section [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
= factored shear force at section [LRFD]
V
uh
V
x
= shear force at a distance (x) from the support
v = factored shear stress [LRFD]
W = overall width of bridge measured perpendicular to the longitudinal beams [STD]
w
b
= weight of barriers
w
c
= unit weight of concrete [STD]
w
c
= unit weight of concrete [LRFD]
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
= slab and haunch weights
w
ws
= weight of future wearing surface
X = distance from load to point of support [STD]
x = the distance from the support to the section under question
y
b
= distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast beam
y
bc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
y
bs
= distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam
y
t
= distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
y
tc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the slab
y
tg
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the precast beam
Z (or z)= factor reflecting exposure conditions [LRFD], [STD]
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension (a value indicating
concrete contribution) [LRFD]
D
= load combination coefficient for dead loads [STD]
L
= load combination coefficient for live loads [STD]
1
1
= ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression zone assumed in the
strength limit state to the depth of the actual compression zone [LRFD]
beam
= deflection due to beam self-weight
b+ws
= deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights
f
cdp
= change in concrete stress at center of gravity of pretensioning steel due to dead loads except
the dead load acting at the time of the pretensioning force is applied [LRFD]
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
= total loss in pretensioning steel stress immediately after transfer
f
pR
f
pR1
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel at transfer [LRFD]
f
pR2
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel after transfer [LRFD]
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
= deflection due to diaphragm weight
L
= deflection due to specified live load
LL+I
= deflection due to live load and impact
LL
= deflection due to lane load
LT
= deflection due to design truck load and impact
max
= maximum allowable live load deflection
p
= camber due pretension force at transfer
SDL
slab
= deflection due to the weights of slab and haunch
x
= longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member [LRFD]
= load factor [STD]
*
= factor for type of pretensioning reinforcement, 0.28 for low relaxation strand [STD]
i
= load factor [LRFD]
= load modifier (a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance) [LRFD]
= strength reduction factor for moment = 1.0 [STD]
= strength reduction factor for shear = 0.90 [STD]
actual
= actual ratio of non-pretensioned reinforcement
b
*
= , ratio of pretensioning reinforcement [STD]
= angle of harped pretensioned reinforcement
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
Design examples included in this chapter illustrate the step-by-step procedure used
in the design of precast, prestressed concrete bridges. Some of the design examples are
for simply supported bridges for dead and live load and some examples are carried
out for bridges simply supported for dead load but made continuous for live load and
subsequent superimposed dead loads. The examples represent several types of
bridges. Each type of bridge in this chapter is designed twice. One design conforms
with the provisions of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th
Edition, 1996. The second design conforms with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, 1st Edition, 1994, and 1996 Interim.
Examples 9.5 and 9.6 are designed to be continuous for superimposed dead loads,
live loads and impact. Sections at the piers were designed as reinforced concrete
members to resist flexure at ultimate. No attempt was made to calculate the positive
moment that might develop at the piers, instead the readers are directed to Chapter
8, where forces due to creep and shrinkage and their effects on continuity are dis-
cussed in depth.
SIGN CONVENTION
For concrete:
Compression positive (+ ve)
Tension negative ( ve)
For steel:
Compression negative ( ve)
Tension positive (+ ve)
Distance from center of gravity:
Downward positive (+ ve)
Upward negative ( ve)
LEVEL OF ACCURACY:
Item Units Accuracy
Concrete Stress ksi 1/1000
Steel Stress ksi 1/10
Prestress Force kips 1/10
Moments ft-kips 1/10
Shears kips 1/10
For the beam:
Cross-Section in. 1/100
Section Properties in. 1 in.
Length ft 1/100
Area of Pretensioning Steel in.
2
1/1000
Area of Mild Reinforcement in.
2
1/100
DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.0 Introduction
OCT 97
9.0
INTRODUCTION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Some calculations were carried out to a higher number of significant figures than
common practice with hand calculation. Depending on available computation
resources and designer preference, other levels of accuracy may be used.
DESIGN EXAMPLES
9.0 Introduction
OCT 97
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
9.1.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.2 MATERIALS
9.1.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A
TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM
9.1.4 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS
9.1.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Loads
9.1.4.1.1 Dead Loads
9.1.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
9.1.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Load
9.1.4.2.1 Live Load
9.1.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam
9.1.4.2.3 Live Load Impact
9.1.4.3 Load Combinations
9.1.5 ESTIMATE REQUIRED PRESTRESS
9.1.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
9.1.5.2 Allowable Stress Limit
9.1.5.3 Required Number of Strands
9.1.5.4 Strand Pattern
9.1.6 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
9.1.7 PRESTRESS LOSSES
9.1.7.1 Shrinkage
9.1.7.2 Elastic Shortening
9.1.7.3 Creep of Concrete
9.1.7.4 Relaxation of Pretensioning Steel
9.1.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer
9.1.7.6 Total Losses at Service Loads
9.1.8 CONCRETE STRESSES AT TRANSFER
9.1.8.1 Allowable Stress Limits
9.1.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
9.1.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands
9.1.8.4 Stresses at Midspan
9.1.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 9, SECTION 9.1
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NON-COMPOSITE SURFACE, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
4613 Bridge Manual Ch_9.1_Rev 1 8/18/03 11:09 AM Page 1
JUL 03
9.1.9 CONCRETE STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS
9.1.9.3 Summary of Stresses at Service Loads
9.1.10 DUCTILITY LIMITS
9.1.10.1 Maximum Reinforcement
9.1.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement
9.1.11 SHEAR DESIGN
9.1.12 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.1.12.1 Minimum Vertical Reinforcement
9.1.12.2 Confinement Reinforcement
9.1.13 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER
9.1.13.1 Deflection Due to Pretensioning Force at Transfer
9.1.13.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self-Weight
9.1.13.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight
9.1.13.4 Total Initial Deflection
9.1.13.5 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights
9.1.13.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
9.1.14 TRANSVERSE POST-TENSIONING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This design example demonstrates the design of a 95-ft single-span AASHTO Type
BIII-48 box beam bridge with no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design
of a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive flexure, shear and deflec-
tion due to pretension, dead loads and live load. The superstructure consists of seven
beams abutted as shown in Figure 9.1.1-1. A 3 in. bituminous surfacing will be
placed on the beams as a wearing surface. Beams are transversely post-tensioned
through 8 in.-thick full-depth diaphragms located at quarter points. Design live load
is AASHTO HS25. The design is carried out in accordance with the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, 2002.
Precast beams: AASHTO Type BIII-48 Box Beams (as shown in Fig. 9.1.2-1)
Concrete strength at release, f
ci
4,000 psi
Concrete strength at 28 days, f
c
5,000 psi
Concrete unit weight, w
c
150 pcf
Overall beam length 96.0 ft
Design span 95.0 ft
JUL 03
9.1.1
INTRODUCTION
9.1.2
MATERIALS
Figure 9.1.1-1
Bridge Cross-Section
25'- 0"
1'- 6"
1'- 6"
3" Bituminous wearing surface
7 Beams @ 4'-0" = 28'-0"
(2) 7/8 in. dia. - 150 ksi bars through 2 in. dia.
hole in each diaphragm
Box Beam (BIII-48), Single
Span, Non-Composite Surface,
Pretensioning strands: 1/2 in. diameter, seven wire, low relaxation
Area of one strand, 0.153 in.
2
Ultimate strength, f
s
270,000 psi
Yield strength, f
y
*
0.9f
s

243,000 psi [STD Art. 9.1.2]
Initial pretension, f
si
0.75f
s

202,500 psi [STD Art. 9.15.1]
Modulus of elasticity, E
s
28,500 ksi
The Standard Specifications [STD Art. 9.16.2.1.2] indicate that the modulus of elas-
ticity for the strand, E
s
is 28,000 ksi. However, the value of 28,500 ksi is a more accu-
rate value, according to the PCI Design Handbook and LRFD Specifications.
Reinforcing bars: Yield strength, f
y
60,000 psi
Bituminous surfacing: Unit weight 150 pcf
New Jersey-type barrier: Unit weight 300 lb/ft/side
9.1.2 Materials
JUL 03
Figure 9.1.2-1
AASHTO Type BIII-48
Box Beam
39"
5 1/2"
28"
5 1/2"
5" 38" 5"
48"
3" (TYP)
3" (TYP)
6" (TYP)
6" (TYP)
Shear Key, omit at exterior beams
3/8" (TYP)
3/4" (TYP)
The standard precast concrete boxes shown in Appendix B have dimensions such that
the entire top flange is effective in resisting flexural loads. This is because 12 times the
top flange thickness of the box is greater than the entire width of the top flange.
A area of cross section of precast beam 813 in.
2
h overall depth of precast beam 39 in.
I moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite precast beam
168,367 in.
4
y
b
distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite pre-
cast beam 19.29 in.
y
t
distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast
beam 19.71 in.
S
b
section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast
beam I/y
b
8,728 in.
3
S
t
section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
I/y
t
8,542 in.
3
Wt. 0.847 kip/ft
E
c
(w
c
)
1.5
(33) [STD Art. 8.7.1]
where
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
w
c
unit weight of concrete = 150 pcf
Standard Specifications [STD Art. 8.7.1] indicates that the unit weight of
normal weight concrete is 145 pcf. However, precast concrete mixes typi-
cally have a relatively low water/cement ratio and high density. Therefore, a
unit weight of 150 pcf is used in this example. For high strength concrete,
this value may need to be increased based on test results.
f
c
specified strength of concrete, psi

Therefore, the modulus of elasticity of the beam at release, using f
c
f
ci
4,000 psi, is:

E
ci
(150)
1.5
(33) 3,834 ksi
Modulus of elasticity of the beam at service loads, using f
c
5,000 psi is:

E
c
(150)
1.5
(33) 4,287 ksi 5,000 /1000
4,000 /1000
f
c
9.1.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam
JUL 03
9.1.3
CROSS-SECTION
PROPERTIES FOR
A TYPICAL
INTERIOR BEAM
[STD Art. 3.3]
Beam self-weight 0.847 kip/ft
Diaphragm weight
0.73 kip/diaphragm
Generally, the unit weight of reinforced concrete should be slightly greater than the
unit weight of concrete alone because of the added weight of reinforcement. However,
in this example, the difference is negligible.
The weight of diaphragms is considered a concentrated load acting at quarter points,
as shown in Figure 9.1.4.1.1-1.
Barrier weight 2 0.086 kip/ft
3 in. bituminous surface weight 0.134 kip/ft
Note that barriers and wearing surface are placed after the transverse post-tensioning
has been applied. Therefore, superimposed dead loads are distributed equally to all
beams. [STD Art. 3.23.2.3.2.1]
For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distrib-
uted load (w), the shear force (V
x
) and the bending moment (M
x
) at a distance (x)
from the support are given by:
V
x
w(0.5L x) (Eq. 9.1.4.1.2-1)
M
x
0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 9.1.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical
interior beam under dead loads (weight of beam, diaphragms, barriers and wearing
surface) are computed and given in Table 9.1.4.2.4-1. For these calculations, the span
length is the design span (95 ft). However, for calculation of stresses and deformations
at the time of pretension release, the span length used is the overall length of the pre-
cast member (96 ft) as illustrated later in this example.
3
12
150
1,000
(25)
1
(7 beams)
_
,
_
,
300
1,000
1
(7 beams)
_
,
8
12
(48 10)
12
x
(39 11)
12
4
1
2
3
12
3
12
150
1000
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
_
,

9.1.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.1.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
JUL 03
23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft
0.73 kip 0.73 kip 0.73 kip
95.00 ft
0.73 kip 0.73 kip
C Bearing
L
C Bearing
L
Figure 9.1.4.1.1-1
Diaphragm Loads
per Beam
9.1.4.1.2
Unfactored Shear Forces
and Bending Moments
9.1.4
SHEAR FORCES
AND BENDING
MOMENTS
9.1.4.1
Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Due to Dead Loads
9.1.4.1.1
Dead Loads
[STD Art. 3.7]
Live load consists of either the standard truck or lane loading. In this example, an
HS25 loading is used. For the 95 ft span used in this example, the standard truck
loading governs design for both shear and flexure.
The live load bending moments and shear forces in multi-beam precast concrete
bridges are determined by applying to each beam the fraction of a wheel load using
the following equation: [STD Art. 3.23.4.3]
Distribution Factor:
DF [STD Eq. 3-11]
where
S width of precast beam in feet 4.00 ft
D (5.75 0.5N
L
) + 0.7N
L
(1 0.2 C)
2
[STD Eq. 3-12]
where
N
L
number of traffic lanes integer part of 2 lanes [STD Art. 3.6]
C K(W/L) for W/L < 1 [STD Eq. 3-13]
K for W/L 1
where
W overall width of bridge measured perpendicular to the longitudinal
beam in feet 28 ft
L span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams 95 ft
K {(1 + ) I/J}
1/2
[STD Art. 3.23.4.3]
where
Poissons ratio for beams = 0.20 [STD Art. 8.7.3]
J St. Venant torsion constant
For this box beam section:
J [STD Art. 3.23.4.3]
where
b width of beam 48.00 in.
h overall depth of beam 39.0 in.
t thickness of web 5.00 in.
t
f
thickness of flange 5.50 in.
2 t t (b t) (h t )
bt h t t t
f
2
f
2
f
2
f
2

+
25
12
S
D
9.1.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Load/9.1.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam
JUL 03
9.1.4.2
Shear Forces and Bending
Moments Due to Live Load
9.1.4.2.1
Live Load
9.1.4.2.2
Live Load Distribution Factor
for a Typical Interior Beam
J 285,854 in.
4
I/J 0.589
If , a more precise method of determining live load
distribution is required. [STD Art. 3.23.4.3]
O.K.
K
1/2
0.841
W/L 28/95 0.295 < 1
C 0.841 0.248
Therefore,
D [5.75 0.5(2)] + 0.7(2)[1 0.2(0.248)]
2
6.01 [STD Eq. (3-12)]
DF 0.666 wheel lines/beam 0.333 lanes/beam
However, using a K value of 1.0 as suggested in the Standard Specifications [STD Art.
3.23.4.3] for preliminary design, gives a distribution factor of 0.334 lanes/beam. This
is generally adequate for design and the detailed calculation is not necessary.
Therefore, a distribution factor of 0.334 lanes/beam will be used.
[STD Art. 3.8]
The live load impact is computed using Eq. (3-1) in the Standard Specifications.
I [STD Eq. 3-1]
where
I impact fraction (maximum 30%)
L the length in feet of the span under consideration95 ft [STD Art. 3.8.2.2]
I 0.23
Impact for shear varies along the span according to the location of the truck [STD
Art. 3.8.2.2 (d)]. For simplicity, the impact factor computed above is used for shear.
+
50
95 125
+
50
L 125
4 00
6 01
.
.
28
95
_
,
( . )( . ) 1 0 20 0 589 +

168 367
285 854
,
,
2 5 5 5 48 5 39 5 5
48 5 39 5 5 5 5 5
2 2
2 2
( )( . )( ) ( . )
( ) ( . ) ( ) ( . )

+
9.1.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam/9.1.4.2.3 Live Load Impact
JUL 03
9.1.4.2.3
Live Load Impact
I J > 5 0 .
I J < 0 589 0 767 5 0 . . .
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at tenth
points of the span using the equations given in Chapter 8. However, this generally can
be done by means of commercially available computer software that has the ability to
deal with moving loads.
Live load shear force and bending moment per beam are:
V
LL+I
(shear force per lane)(Distribution Factor)(1 + I)
(shear force per lane)(0.334)(1 + 0.23)
(shear force per lane)(0.411) kips
M
LL+I
(bending moment per lane)(Distribution Factor)(1 + I)
(bending moment per lane)(0.334)(1 + 0.23)
(bending moment per lane)(0.411) ft-kips
At any section along the span, the maximum bending moment and shear are
computed for the standard truck loading and for the lane loading separately. The larg-
er of the two loading types controls the design for the section in question. At each sec-
tion, the load position must be determined to give the maximum shears and
moments. This can be done by means of commercially available programs.
Values of V
LL+I
and M
LL+I
at different points are given in Table 9.1.4.2.4-1.
[STD Art. 3.22]
For service load design, Group I is 1.00 D + 1.00(L + I) [STD Table 3.22.1A]
where
D dead load
L live load
I impact fraction
For load factor design, Group I is 1.3(1.00D + 1.67(L + I)) [STD Table 3.22.1A]
9.1.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.1.4.3 Load Combinations
JUL 03
Table 9.1.4.2.4-1 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments for a Typical Interior Beam
Distance Section Beamweight Diaphragm weight Barrier weight Wearing surface weight Live load + Impact
x x/L Shear
V
g
V
D
Moment
M
g
Shear Moment
M
D
Shear
V
b
Moment
M
b
Shear
Vws
Moment
Mws
Shear
VLL+I
Moment
MLL+I
f t kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0.0 0.000 40.2 0.0 1.1 0.0 4.1 0.0 6.4 0.0 33.3 0.0
1.625
[ 1]
0.017 38.9 64.3 1.1 1.8 3.9 6.5 6.1 10.2 32.7 53.2
9.5 0.100 32.2 344.0 1.1 10.4 3.3 34.9 5.1 54.4 29.6 281.7
19.0 0.200 24.1 611.5 1.1 20.8 2.5 62.1 3.8 96.7 25.9 493.2
28.5 0.300 16.1 802.6 0.4 27.7 1.6 81.5 2.5 127.0 22.2 634.4
38.0 0.400 8.0 917.3 0.4 31.2 0.8 93.1 1.3 145.1 18.5 716.8
47.5 0.500 0.0 955.5 0.4 34.7 0.0 97.0 0.0 151.2 14.8 734.7
[1] Critical section for shear (see section 9.1.11)
9.1.4.2.4
and Bending Moments
9.1.4.3
Load Combinations
The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stresses at the
bottom fiber at the section of maximum moment, i.e., positive moment at midspan.
Bottom tensile stress due to applied loads is:
f
b

where
f
b
concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam
M
g
unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight, ft-kips
M
D
unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weight, ft-kips
M
b
unfactored bending moment due to weight of barriers, ft-kips
M
ws
unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface, ft-kips
M
LL+I
unfactored bending moment due to live load + impact, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Table 9.1.4.2.4-1, the bottom tensile stress at
midspan is:
f
b
2.713 ksi
At service loads, allowable tensile stress in the precompressed tensile zone:
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Required precompressive stress in the bottom fiber after losses:
Bottom tensile stress allowable tension stress at final
2.713 0.424 2.289 ksi
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan usually ranges from 5 to 15%
of the beam depth, measured from the bottom of the beam. Use a value of 5% for
newer, more efficient sections like bulb-tees, and 15% for the less efficient AASHTO-
PCI shapes of normal design. Assume the distance from the center of gravity of strands
to the bottom fiber of the beam is equal to y
bs
4.00 in. (Note: y
bs
/h 4/39 10.3%)
Strand eccentricity at midspan is equal to
e
c
y
b
y
bs
19.29 4.00 15.29 in.
Bottom fiber stress due to pretension after all losses: f
b

P
A
P e
S
se
c
se c
b
+
F f 6 0 424 ksi
b c
6

_
,
. 5 000
1
1 000
,
,
955.5 34.7 97.0 151.2 734.7
8,728
+ + + +
( ) 12
M M M M M
S
g D b ws LL+I
b
+ + + +
9.1.5 Estimate Required Prestress/9.1.5.3 Required Number of Strands
JUL 03
9.1.5.2
Allowable Stress Limit
9.1.5.3
Required Number
of Strands
9.1.5
ESTIMATE REQUIRED
PRESTRESS
9.1.5.1
Service Load Stresses
at Midspan
where P
se
effective prestress force after allowing for all losses
Set the required precompression (2.289 ksi) equal to the bottom fiber stress due to
pretension and solve for the required minimum, P
se
:
2.289
P
se
767.6 kips
Assume final losses = 20% of f
si
0.20(202.5) = 40.5 ksi
The available prestress force per strand after all losses
(cross-sectional area of one strand)(f
si
losses)
0.153(202.5 40.5) 24.8 kips
Number of strands required 30.95
Try (31) 1/2-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands
Figure 9.1.5.4-1 shows the assumed strand pattern for the 31 strands at midspan with
a straight strand pattern.
Calculate the distance from center of gravity of the strands to the bottom fiber of the
beam, (y
bs
):
y
bs
4.58 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan
e
c
y
b
y
bs
19.29 4.58 14.71 in.
23 2 6 4 2 36
31
( ) ( ) ( ) + +
767 6
24 8
.
.
P
813
P
8,728
se se
+
( . ) 15 29
9.1.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.1.5.4 Strand Pattern
JUL 03
23 @ 2"
6 @ 4"
2 @ 36"
9.1.5.4
Strand Pattern
Figure 9.1.5.4-1
Strand Pattern at Midspan
[STD Art. 9.17]
For box sections, it is common that flexural strength controls the flexural design of
the beams. It is therefore recommended that the strength calculation be conducted
prior to the stress check. As the applications of high strength concrete continue to
grow and emphasis continues to be made on the importance of member strength, it
is possible that designs of other precast shapes will be controlled by strength of the
members.
Using the Group I load factor design loading combination, as given in Section
9.1.4.3 of the Standard Specifications,
M
u
1.3[M
g
+ M
D
+ M
b
+ M
ws
+ 1.67(M
LL+I
)] [STD Table 3.22.1.A]
1.3[955.5 + 34.7 + 97.0 + 151.2 + 1.67(734.7)] 3,205.0 ft-kips
Compute average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load, f
su
*
:
f
su
*
f
s
[STD Eq. 9-17]

where
f
su
*
average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load.
*
0.28 for low relaxation strand [STD Art. 9.1.2]
1
0.85 0.05 0.65 when f
c
> 4,000 psi [STD Art. 8.16.2.7]

0.85 0.05 0.80
b effective flange width 48 in.
It should be noted that in computing the flexural strength of members with strands
placed near the compression face of the member, it is not correct to use the combined
centroid of the entire strand group for establishing the effective depth, d, and the area
of pretensioning steel, A
*
s
. This is because the top strands will have different strain
from that of the bottom strands. An accurate solution can be achieved using the
detailed strain compatibility approach which can account for the steel strain at vari-
ous distances from the neutral axis. However, a reasonable approximation is to ignore
all the strands placed on the compression side.
Therefore, area of pretensioning steel, A
s
*
29(0.153) 4.437 in.
2
For the 29 bottom strands, the distance between the center of gravity of the strands
and the bottom fiber of the beam, y
bs
, is 2.41 in.
Thus, d h y
bs
39 2.41 36.59 in.
*
0.00253
f
su
*
270.0 257.1 ksi
1
0.28
0.80
(0.00253)
270.0
5.0
_
,
_
,
_
,
4.437
( 6.59 48 3 )
A
bd
s
*
23 2 6 4
29
( ) ( ) +
( , , )
,
5 000 4 000
1 000
(f 4,000)
1,000
c
(1
f
f
)
1
* s
c

*
9.1.6 Flexural Strength
JUL 03
9.1.6
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Compute the depth of the compression block:
a 5.59 in. > 5.50 in. [STD Art. 9.17.2]
Therefore, the depth of the compression block is greater than the flange thickness and
the section must be considered as a flanged section.
Ultimate moment capacity of flanged section:
M
n
[STD Eq. 9-14]
where
strength reduction factor 1.0
M
n
nominal moment strength of a section.
b
width of web of the section 2(5) 10 in.

A
sr
steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the web of a
flanged section.
A
s
*
A
sf
[STD Eq. 9-15]
A
sf
steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength of the
overhanging portions of the flange.
[STD Eq. 9-16]
A
sr
4.437 3.455 0.982 in.
2
M
n

3,211.0 ft-kips > M
u
3,205.0 ft-kips O.K.
5 0 48 10 5 5 36 59 0 5 5 5
1
12
( . )( )( . )[ . . ( . )] 0.85 +

,
_
,
1 0 0 982 57 1 36 59
0 982 57 1
. . ( . )( . )
. . )
( (
2 1 0.6
(2
10 36.59) 5.0)
_
,
0.85(5.0)(48 10)
5.5
257.1
3.455 in.
2
_
,

0.85 f (b b )
t
f
c
su
*

A f d (1 0.6
A f
b df
) 0.85f (b b )(t)(d 0.5t)
sr su
* sr su
*
c
c
+

4 437 257 1
8
. ( . )
( ( ) 0.85 5) 4
A f
0.85 f b
s
*
su
*
c

JUL 03
[STD Art. 9.16.2]
Total losses SH + ES + CR
c
+ CR
s
[STD Eq. 9-3]
where
SH loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage, ksi
ES loss of prestress due to elastic shortening, ksi
CR
c
loss of prestress due to creep of concrete, ksi
CR
s
loss of prestress due to relaxation of pretensioning steel, ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.1]
Relative humidity varies significantly from one area of the country to another, see
U.S. map, Fig. 9.16.2.1.1 in the Standard Specifications.
Assume relative humidity, RH 70%
SH 17,000 150RH [17,000 150(70)] 6.5 ksi [STD Eq. 9-4]
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.2]
For pretensioned members:
ES [STD Eq. 9-6]
where
f
cir

f
cir
average concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due
to pretensioning force and dead load of beam immediately after transfer
where
P
si
pretension force after allowing for the initial losses. The Standard
Specifications allow that the reduction to initial tendon stress be esti-
mated as 0.69f
s
for low relaxation strands

(number of strands)(area of strands)(0.69f
s
)
31(0.153)(0.69)(270) 883.6 kips
M
g
M
D
P
A
P e
I
(M M e
I
si si c
2
g D c
+
+ )
E
E
f
s
ci
cir
1
1 000 ,
9.1.7 Prestress Losses/9.1.7.2 Elastic Shortening
JUL 03
9.1.7.2
Elastic Shortening
9.1.7.1
Shrinkage
9.1.7
PRESTRESS LOSSES
M
g
and M
D
should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 96 ft. However,
since the elastic shortening losses will be a part of the total losses, f
cir
is conservative-
ly computed based on M
g
using the design span length of 95 ft.
f
cir

1.087 + 1.136 1.038 1.185 ksi
ES 8.8 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.3]
CR
c
= 12f
cir
- 7f
cds
[STD Eq. 9-9]
where
f
cds
concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due to all dead
loads except the dead load present at the time the pretensioning force is applied.
where
M
SDL
super-imposed dead load moment M
b
+ M
ws
97.0 + 151.2 248.2 ft-kips
f
cds
0.260 ksi
CR
c
12(1.185) 7(0.260) 12.4 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.4]
For pretensioned members with 270 ksi low relaxation strand:
CR
s
5,000 0.10ES 0.05(SH + CR
c
) [STD Eq. 9-10A]
[5,000 0.10(8,809) 0.05(6,500 + 12,400)] 3.2 ksi
Losses due to elastic shortening, (ES) 8.8 ksi
Total initial losses 8.8 ksi
f
si
effective initial pretension stress 202.5 8.8 193.7 ksi
P
si
effective pretension force after allowing for the initial losses
31(0.153)(193.7) = 918.7 kips
1
1 000 ,
248 2 14 71 . ( ( . ) 12)
168,367
M e
I
SDL c
9.1.7.2 Elastic Shortening/9.1.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer
JUL 03
9.1.7.4
Relaxation of
Pretensioning Steel
9.1.7.5
Total Losses at Transfer
9.1.7.3
Creep of Concrete
E
E
f
s
ci
cir
28 500
3 834
1 185
,
,
( . )
883.6
813
883.6(14.71)
168,367
(955.5
168,367
2
+
+ 34 7 12 14 71 . )( )( . )
SH 6.5 ksi
ES 8.8 ksi
CR
c
12.4 ksi
CR
s
3.2 ksi
Total final losses 6.5 + 8.8 + 12.4 + 3.2 30.9 ksi
or,
f
se
= effective final pretension stress 0.75(270) 30.9 171.6 ksi
f
se
171.6 ksi < 0.80 f
y
*
0.80(0.9)(270) 194.4 ksi O.K. [STD Art. 9.15.1]
P
se
31(0.153)(171.6) 814.0 kips
[STD Art. 9.15.2.1]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
+2.400 ksi (compression)

Tension: the maximum tensile stress should not exceed
0.474 ksi (tension)
If the calculated tensile stress exceeds 200 psi or 0.190 ksi, bond-
ed reinforcement should be provided to resist the total tension force in the
concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section.
This section is located at a distance equal to the transfer length from the end of the
beam. Stresses at this location need only be checked at release, because it almost
always governs. Also, losses with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them
less critical.
Transfer length 50(strand diameter) [STD Art. 9.20.2.4]
50(0.5 in.) 25 in. 2.08 ft
The transfer length section is located at 2.08 ft from the end of the beam or at a point
1.58 ft from centerline of the bearing, since the beam extends 6 in. beyond the cen-
terline of bearing. Location on the design span 1.58/95 0.017 L.
Due to the camber of the beam at release, the weight of the beam and diaphragms act
on the overall beam length (96 ft). Therefore, the values of bending moment given in
Table 9.1.4.2.4-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span (95 ft).
The values of bending moments at the transfer length due to beam and diaphragm
weights, are:
M
g
0.5wx(L x) 0.5(.847)(2.08)(96 2.08) 82.7 ft-kips
M
D
2.3 ft-kips.
3 f
ci
7 5 . f
ci
30.9
0.75 270)
% losses
(
( ) . 100 15 26
9.1.7.6 Total Losses at Service Loads/9.1.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
JUL 03
9.1.8
CONCRETE STRESSES
AT TRANSFER
9.1.8.1
Allowable Stress Limits
9.1.8.2
Stresses at Transfer
Length Section
9.1.7.6
Total Losses at
Service Loads
JUL 03
Compute concrete stress at the top fiber of the beam, f
t
:
f
t

f
t

1.130 1.582 + 0.119 0.333 ksi
Allowable tension with no bonded reinforcement 0.190 ksi, thus debond some
strands or provide bonded reinforcement at the ends.
Compute concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam, f
b
:
f
b

1.130 + 1.548 + 0.117 +2.561 ksi
Allowable compression +2.400 ksi N.G.
Thus, initial pretension needs to be reduced or the initial concrete strength
(f
ci
) increased, or debond strands at the end. Try debonding 7 strands from strand
group at 2 in. from the bottom for a distance equal to 5'- 0" from the end of beam
or 4'- 6" from centerline of bearing.
Although debonding is not addressed in the Standard Specifications, Article 5.11.4.2
in the LRFD Specifications requires that the following conditions should be satisfied
if debonding is used:
% debonded of total 7/31 22.6% < 25% O.K.
% debonded of row 7/23 30.4% < 40% O.K.
All limit states should be satisfied O.K.
Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed O.K.
Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded O.K.
Even though the LRFD Specifications do not address staggering of the debonding
length, it is recommended that the maximum number of strands debonded for any
given length be kept at 25% and that debonding length can be done in increments of
5 ft. To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bot-
tom, assume the strand pattern shown in Figure 9.1.8.2-1.
918.7
813 8,728
12)
8,728
+
+ 918 7 14 71 82 7 2 3 . ( . ) ( . . )(
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
b
g D
b
+
+
918.7
813
(
8,542
12)
8,542
+
+ 918 7 14 71 82 7 2 3 . . ) ( . . )(
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
t
g D
t
+
+
Recompute the concrete stresses at transfer length section due to the debonded
strands.
Compute center of gravity of strand pattern at transfer length section to the bottom
fiber of the beam.
y
bs
5.33 in.
e
e
the eccentricity of the strands at the transfer length section
e
c
y
b
y
bs
19.29 5.33 13.96 in.
Pretension force at transfer:
P
si
24(0.153)(193.7) 711.3 kips
f
t
0.875 + 1.162 + 0.119
0.168 ksi
Allowable tension with no bonded reinforcement 0.190 ksi O.K.
Note: Since the top fiber stress is smaller than , there is no need for addition-
al bonded reinforcement.
f
b
0.875 + 1.138 + 0.117
+1.896 ksi
Allowable compression +2.400 ksi O.K.
Bending moments due to the self-weight of the beam and diaphragm, at (5.00 + 2.08
7.08 ft) from the end of the beam, based on overall length, are 266.6 ft-kips and 7.8 ft-
kips respectively. All strands are effective at this location, therefore use full value of P
i
.
711.3
813 8,728
12)
8,728
+
+ 711 3 13 96 82 7 2 3 . ( . ) ( . . )(
3 f
ci
711.3
813 8,542
12)
8,542
+
+ 711 3 13 96 82 7 2 3 . ( . ) ( . . )(
16 2 6 4 2 36
24
( ) ( ) ( ) + +
9.1.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.1.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands
JUL 03
9.1.8.3
Length Section of
Debonded Strands
Bonded
Debonded (5 ft from end)
23 @ 2"
6 @ 4"
2 @ 36"
Figure 9.1.8.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of Beam
f
t

f
t
1.130 1.582 + 0.385
0.067 ksi
Allowable tension with no bonded reinforcement 0.190 ksi O.K.
f
b

f
b
1.130 + 1.548 0.377
+2.301 ksi
Bending moments due to beam self-weight and diaphragm weight at midspan, based
on overall length, are 975.7 ft-kips and 35.2 ft-kips respectively.
f
t

f
t
1.130 1.582 + 1.420
+0.968 ksi
f
b

f
b
1.130 + 1.548 1.390
+1.288 ksi
Top of Beam Bottom of Beam
f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At transfer length section 0.168 +1.896
At end of debonded strands + transfer length 0.067 +2.301
At midspan +0.968 +1.288
918.7
813
(
8,728
12)
8,728
+
+ 918 7 14 71 975 7 35 2 . . ) ( . . )(
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
b
g D
b
+
+
918.7
813
(
8,542
12)
8,542
+
+ 918 7 14 71 975 7 35 2 . . ) ( . . )(
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
t
g D
t
+
+
918.7
813
(
8,728
12)
8,728
+
+ 918 7 14 71 266 6 7 8 . . ) ( . . )(
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
b
g D
b
+
+
918.7
813
918.7(14.71)
8,542
(266.6 7.8)(12)
8,542
+
+
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
t
g D
t
+
+
9.1.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands/9.1.8.5 Summary of Stresses at Transfer
JUL 03
9.1.8.4
Stresses at Midspan
9.1.8.5
Summary of Stresses
at Transfer
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Compression:
(Case I): for all load combinations
0.60f
c
0.6(5,000)/1,000 +3.000 ksi

(Case II): for effective pretension force plus permanent dead loads
0.40f
c
0.4(5,000)/1,000 +2.000 ksi

(Case III): for live loads plus 1/2 (pretension + permanent (dead) loads)
0.40f
c
0.4(5,000)/1,000 +2.000 ksi

Tension 6 /1,000 0.424 ksi
Bending moment values at this section are given in Table 9.1.4.2.4-1.
Compute concrete stress at top fiber of beam.
Case I:
f
t

f
t

1.001 1.402 + 1.740 + 1.032 +2.371 ksi
Case II:
f
t
1.001 1.402 + 1.740 +1.339
Case III:
f
t
1.032 + 0.5(+1.001 1.402 + 1.740) +1.702 ksi;
Compute concrete stress at bottom of beam:
f
b

P
A
P e
S
M M M M
S
M
S
se se c
b
g D b ws
b
LL I
b
+
+ + +
+
814 0
813
814 0 14 71
8 542
955 5 34 7 97 0 151 2 12
8 542
734 7 12
8 542
. . ( . )
,
( . . . . )( )
,
. ( )
,
+
+ + +
+
P
A
P e
S
M M M M
S
M
S
se se c
t
g D b ws
t
LL I
t
+
+ + +
+
+
5 000 , 6 f
c

9.1.9 Concrete Sresses at Service Loads/9.1.9.2 Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.1.9.2
Stresses at Midspan
9.1.9
CONCRETE STRESSES
AT SERVICE LOADS
9.1.9.1
f
b

1.001 + 1.372 1.703 1.010 0.340 ksi
Allowable tension 0.424 ksi O.K.
Top of Beam, f
t
, ksi Bottom of Beam, f
b
, ksi
Case I Case II Case III
At midspan: +2.371 +1.339 +1.702 0.340
[STD Art. 9.18.1]
Pretensioned concrete members are designed so that the steel is yielding as ultimate
capacity is approached.
Reinforcement index for flanged section:
0.138 < 0.36 (0.80) 0.288 O.K.
[STD Eq. 9-21]
[STD Art. 9.18.2]
The total amount of pretensioned and non-pretensioned reinforcement should be
adequate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the
cracking moment, M
*
cr
:
M
n
1.2M
*
cr
Compute cracking moment:
M
*
cr
[STD Art. 9.18.2.1]
where
M
d/nc
moment due to non-composite dead loads
Since there is no composite action, substitute S
b
for the section modulus
of a composite section, S
c
. Thus, the second term,
is equal to zero. M
S
S
1
d/nc
c
b
_
,
(f f )S M
S
S
1
r pe c d/nc
c
b
+
_
,
A f
bdf
sr su
*
c

0 36
1
.
814.0
813
814.0(14.71)
8,728
(955.5 34.7 97.0 151.2)(12)
8,728
734.7(12)
8,728
+
+ + +

9.1.9.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.1.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.1.9.3
Summary of Stresses at
Service Load
9.1.10.2
9.1.10.1
Maximum Reinforcement
9.1.10
DUCTILITY LIMITS
0.982(257.1)
10.0(36.59)(5.0)
f
r
modulus of rupture 7.5 0.530 ksi [STD Art. 9.15.2.3]
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension forces only (after
allowance for all pretension losses) at extreme fiber of section where ten-
sile stress is caused by externally applied loads.
2.373 ksi
M
*
cr
2,111.4 ft-kips
1.2M
*
cr
2,533.7 ft-kips < M
n
Contrary to the LRFD Specifications, the Standard Specifications do not specifically
require that this criteria be met at all sections along the member.
Pretensioned members subject to shear should be designed so that [Art. 9.20]
V
u
( V
c
+ V
s
) [STD Eq. 9-26]
where
V
u
the factored shear force at the section considered
V
c
the nominal shear strength provided by concrete
V
s
the nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement
strength reduction factor for shear 0.90 [STD Art. 9.14]
The critical section in pretensioned concrete beams is located at a distance h/2 from
the face of the support, according to the Standard Specifications, Article 9.20.1.4.
Since the width of the bearing has not yet been determined, it will be conservatively
assumed to be zero.
Therefore, detailed calculations are shown here for the section at h/2 (0.017 L 1.625 ft)
from the center line of support or 2.125 ft from the end of the member. The following
calculations demonstrate how to compute V
ci
and V
cw
at this location.
Shear forces at this section are given in Table 9.1.4.2.4-1
Compute V
ci
: [STD Art 9.20.2.3]
V
ci
[STD Eq. 9-27]
where
V
d
shear force at section due to unfactored dead load
38.9 + 1.1 + 3.9 + 6.1 50.0 kips
V
LL+I
unfactored shear force at section due to live load + impact
32.7 kips
0.6 f b d V
VM
M
c d
i cr
max

+ +
(0.530 ) +2 373
8 728
12
.
,
814.0
813
814.0
8,728
+
_
,
( . ) 14 71 P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
5 000
1 000
,
,
_
,

9.1.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.1.11 Shear Design
JUL 03
9.1.11
SHEAR DESIGN
M
d
bending moment at section due to unfactored dead load
64.3 + 1.8 + 6.5 + 10.2 82.8 ft-kips
M
LL+I
unfactored bending moment at section due to live load + impact
53.2 ft-kips
V
u
factored shear force at section
1.3(V
d
+ 1.67 V
LL+I
) 1.3[50.0 + 1.67(32.7)] 136.0 kips
M
u
factored bending moment at section
1.3(M
d
+ 1.67 M
LL+I
) 1.3[82.8 + 1.67(53.2)] 223.1 ft-kips
V
mu
factored shear force occurring simultaneously with M
u
. Conservatively use
the maximum shear load occurring at this section.
1.3[50.0 + 1.67(32.7)] 136.0 kips
M
max
maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads.
M
u
M
d
223.1 82.8 140.3 ft-kips
V
i
factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring
simultaneously with M
max
.
V
mu
V
d
136.0 50.0 86.0 kips
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension forces only
(after allowance for all pretension losses), at extreme fiber of section
where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads.
The beam at this section is under positive flexure. Thus, f
pe
should be
evaluated at the bottom of the beam. This section is also within the
debonded length, so only 24 strands are effective. Thus,
f
pe

where
e eccentricity of the strands at h/2 13.96 in.
P
se
24(0.153)(171.6) 630.1 kips
f
pe
f
d
stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where tensile
stress is caused by externally applied loads.
0.114 ksi
M
cr
moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads
(after dead load).
(6 + f
pe
f
d
)S
b
[STD Eq. 9-28] f
c
82.8(12)
8 728 ,
M
S
d
b
630.1
813
630.1(13.96)
8,728
1.783 ksi +
P
A
P e
S
se
se
b
+
9.1.11 Shear Design
JUL 03
JUL 03
1,522.5 ft-kips
d distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the pretensioning
force. However, d need not be taken less than 0.8 h 31.20 in. [STD Art.
9.20.2.2]. The centroid of the pretensioned reinforcement is located at 5.33
in. from the bottom of the beam.
39 5.33 33.67 in. > 31.20 in.
Therefore, d = 33.67 in.
V
ci
[STD Eq. 9-27]
997.5 kips
But this value should not be less than minimum V
ci
.
Minimum V
ci
[STD Art. 9.20.2.2]
40.5 kips < V
ci
997.5 kips O.K.
Therefore, V
ci
997.5 kips
Compute V
cw
: [STD Art 9.20.2.3]
V
cw
[STD Eq. 9-29]
where
f
pc
compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all pretension losses)
at centroid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads. For a non-
composite section
f
pc
0.775 ksi
V
p
vertical component of effective pretension force at section
0 for straight strands
V
cw
161.6 kips
The allowable nominal shear provided by concrete should be the lesser of V
ci
(997.5
kips) and V
cw
(161.6 kips). Therefore,
V
c
161.6 kips
V
u
136.0 < V
c
0.9(161.6) 145.4 kips O.K.
Since V
c
> V
u
, the concrete resists the total shear and shear steel is not required to
assist in resisting V
u
. Therefore, provide minimum reinforcement.
3 5 5 000
1 000
0 3 0 775 10 33 67 0
. ,
,
. ( . ) ( )( . ) +
_
,
+
P
A
se
630 1
813
.
(3.5 f 0.3f )b d V
c pc p

+ +
1 7 5 000
10 33 67
1 000
. ,
( . )
,
1.7 f b d
c

0 6 5 000 10 33 67
1 000
50 0
86 0
140 3
. , ( )( . )
,
.
. ( )
.
+ +
1,522.5
0.6 f b d V
VM
M
c d
i cr
max

+ +
6 5 000
1 000
1 783 0 114
8 728
12
,
,
. .
,
+
_
,

9.1.11 Shear Design
Minimum shear reinforcement [STD Art. 9.20.3.3]
A
v-min
= minimum area of web reinforcement [STD Eq. 9-31]
where
s longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement, in.
Set s 12 in.
A
v-min
0.10 in.
2
(per foot)
Maximum spacing 0.75h 0.75(39) 29.25 in. [STD Art. 9.20.3.2]
or 24.00 in.
Then, maximum s 24 in.
Use # 4 at 24 in. spacing in each web (A
v
0.20 in.
2
/ft)
Note that the above calculations need to be repeated along the entire length of the
beam at regular intervals to determine the area and spacing of shear reinforcement.
[STD Art. 9.22]
In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist
at least 4% of the total pretensioning force should be placed within the distance of
d/4 of the end of the beam. [STD Art. 9.22.1]
Note that the force in the bonded strands prior to release is used.
Minimum steel at the end of the beam:
P
si
24(0.153)(202.5) 743.6 kips
4% P
si
0.04(743.6) 29.7 kips
A
v
1.485 in.
2
8.61 in.
Use an orthogonal welded wire reinforcement of #4 bars @ 12 in. both vertically
and horizontally. Space layers of WWR @ 3 in. starting @ 2 in. from end of beam.
(area of steel provided 2.40 in.
2
)
d
4
34.42
4
29.7
20.0
50 10 12 ( )( )
60,000
50 b s
f
y

9.1.11 Shear Design/9.1.12.1 Minimum Vertical Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.1.12
PRETENSIONED
ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.1.12.1
Minimum Vertical
Reinforcement
Provide nominal reinforcement to enclose the pretensioning steel for a distance
equal to the depth of the beam from the end of the beam.
For straight strands,
p

where
p
camber due to pretension force at transfer
L overall span length 96 ft
p
3.47 in.
beam

where w
g
beam self-weight 0.847 kips/ft
Deflection due to beam self-weight at transfer (L 96 ft):
beam
2.51 in.
Deflection due to beam self-weight used to compute deflection at erection (L 95 ft):
beam
2.40 in.
D

where P 0.73 kips
Deflection due to diaphragm weight at transfer (L = 96 ft):
19 P L
384 E I
3
ci
5
0.847
12
384
_
,
[( )( )]
( , )( , )
95 12
3 834 168 367
4
5
0.847
12
384
4
_
,
[( )( )]
( , )( , )
96 12
3 834 168 367
5w L
384 E I
g
4
ci
918 7 14 71 96 12
8 3 834 168 367
2
. ( . )[( )( )]
( , )( , )
P e L
8 E I
si c
2
ci
9.1.12.2 Confinement Reinforcement/9.1.13.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight
JUL 03
9.1.13.3
Deflection Due to
Diaphragm Weight
9.1.13.2
Deflection Due to
Beam Self-Weight
9.1.13.1
Deflection Due
to Pretensioning Force
at Transfer
9.1.13
DEFLECTION AND
CAMBER
9.1.12.2
Confinement
Reinforcement
D
0.09 in.
Deflection due to diaphragm weight used to calculate deflection at erection (L 95 ft):
D
0.08 in.
Total deflection at transfer:
3.47 2.51 0.09 0.87 in.
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook):
1.80(3.47) 1.85(2.40 + 0.08) 1.66 in.
PCI multipliers used to calculate long term deflection have generally proven to be
inaccurate for bridge construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer
follow the guidelines of the owner agency for whom the bridge is being designed.
Frequently, no additional multipliers are used.
Since these loads are applied to the structure in its final location, L is the design span
95 ft
SDL
0.56 in.
Live load deflection limit (optional) L/800 1.43 in.
95 12
800
( )
5(w w )L
384E I
5
0.086 0.134
(95) 12)]
384
b ws
4
c
4
+
_
,
12
4 287 168 367
[ (
( , )( , )
19 0 73 95 12
384 3 834 168 367
3
( . )[( )( )]
( , )( , )
19 0 73 96 12
384 3 834 168 367
3
( . )[( )( )]
( , ) ( , )
9.1.13.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight/9.1.13.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
JUL 03
9.1.13.4
Total Initial Deflection
9.1.13.5
Deflection Due to
Barrier and Wearing
Surface Weights
9.1.13.6
Deflection Due to Live
Load and Impact
To get maximum moment and deflection at midspan section, arrange the wheel loads
for the truck as shown in the Figure 9.1.13.6-1.
Some state DOTs consider that all beams act together in resisting deflection due to
live load and impact. Using that assumption, the distribution factor for deflection is:
DF
For all design examples, deflection is conservatively computed based on the distribu-
tion factor used to calculate the bending stresses.
Using the elastic moment area method:
LL+I 2.77(I)(DF
m
)
LL+I
2.77(1.230)(0.334) 1.14 in. < 1.43 in. O.K.
The Standard Specifications do not have any provisions for transverse design of adja-
cent boxes. Therefore, the transverse design will be done according to LRFD
Specifications.
Article C4.6.2.2.1 in the LRFD Specifications, states that for this type of bridge, the
structure acts as a monolithic unit if sufficiently interconnected. To satisfy this
requirement, the LRFD Specifications recommend that a minimum average transverse
pretension of 0.250 ksi be used. However, definition of the contact area for that post-
tensioning is unclear as to whether it is the shear key, the diaphragm, or the entire
box-side surface. Instead of an empirical minimum, El-Remaily (1996) recommends
that the entire deck surface be modeled as a rigid assembly of gridwork with adequate
post-tensioning to provide for a continuous transverse member at the diaphragm loca-
tions. A design chart based on this theory is given in Chapter 8 for the required trans-
verse post-tensioning per unit length of the span.
number of lanes
number of beams
2
7
0 286 lanes beam . /
9.1.13.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact/9.1.14 Transverse Post-Tensioning
JUL 03
9.1.14
TRANSVERSE POST-
TENSIONING
Figure 9.1.13.6-1
Design Truck Axle Loads
Positions on the Span for
Maximum Moment
37.77 kips 34.23 kips
32 kips 8 kips
Resultant of axle loads
72 kips
2.333'
35.833'
11.667'
2.333'
14'
31.167'
95'
Midspan
32 kips
According to the chart, for a 28 ft-wide bridge with 39 in.-deep beams, an effective
post-tensioning force of 4.0 kips/ft is required. Since diaphragms are provided at
quarter-points of the span, the post-tensioning force required is:
4.0 (23.75) 95 kips/diaphragm
It is recommended that transverse post-tensioning consist of one tendon near the top
and another near the bottom in order to provide sufficient flexural strength.
Use 160 ksi pretensioning bars. Assume the effective pretension to be 55 percent of
the ultimate strength of the bar:
P
eff
0.55(160)A
PT
88.0A
PT
kips
Thus, total required A
PT
1.08 in.
2
Try (2) 7/8-in. dia, 160 ksi bars.
Total provided area, A
PT
2(0.601) 1.202 in.
2
Total provided post-tensioning force (1.202)(0.55)(160) 105.8 kips/diaphragm
> 95.0 kips/diaphragm O.K.
If the post-tensioning bars are positioned so that they are concentric with the
diaphragm cross-section, concrete stress due to effective pretensioning force is:
105.8/[(8)(39)] 0.339 ksi
95 0
88 0
.
.
9.1.14 Transverse Post-Tensioning
JUL 03
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
JUL 03
9.2.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2.2 MATERIALS
9.2.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM
9.2.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads
9.2.4.2.1 Live Loads
9.2.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factors for a Typical Interior Beam
9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments
9.2.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Forces
9.2.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance
9.2.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load, V
LT
and M
LT
9.2.4.2.4.2. Due to Design Lane Load, V
LL
and M
LL
9.2.5.2 Stress Limits for Concrete
9.2.6. STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
9.2.6.1 Flexural Resistance
9.2.7.2 Shrinkage
9.2.7.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Strand
9.2.7.4.1 Relaxation before Transfer
9.2.7.4.2 Relaxation after Transfer
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NON-COMPOMPOSITE SURFACE, LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 1
JUL 03
9.2.8 STRESSES AT TRANSFER
9.2.8.3 Stresses at Transfer Length Section of Debonded Strands
9.2.9 STRESSES AT SERVICE LOADS
9.2.9.3 Fatigue Limit State
9.2.10 LIMITS OF REINFORCEMENT
9.2.11 SHEAR DESIGN
9.2.11.1 Critical Section
9.2.11.1.1 Angle of Diagonal Compressive Stresses
9.2.11.1.2 Effective Shear Depth
9.2.11.1.3 Calculation of Critical Section
9.2.11.2 Contribution of Concrete to Nominal Shear Resistance
9.2.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement
9.2.11.2.1.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement when
x
is
Negative
9.2.11.2.1.2 Shear Stress
9.2.11.2.3 Concrete Contribution
9.2.11.3 Contribution of Reinforcement to Nominal Shear Resistance
9.2.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement
9.2.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement
9.2.11.3.3 Spacing of Reinforcement
9.2.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement
9.2.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
9.2.12 MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT
9.2.12.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 2
JUL 03
9.2.14.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer
9.2.14.3 Deflection Due to Diaphragm Weight
9.2.14.5 Deflection and Camber Summary
9.2.15 TRANSVERSE POST-TENSIONING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 3
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 4
JUL 03
This design example demonstrates the design of a 95-ft single-span AASHTO Type
BIII-48 box beam bridge with no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of a
typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive flexure, shear and deflection due to
prestress, dead loads and live loads. The superstructure consists of seven beams abutted as
shown in Figure 9.2.1-1. A 3-in. bituminous surfacing will be placed on the beams as a
wearing surface. Beams are transversely post-tensioned through 8-in.-thick full-depth dia-
phragms located at quarter-points. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished
in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998,
and including through the 2003 Interim Revisions.
Precast beams: AASHTO Box Beam, Type BIII-48, as shown in Figure 9.2.2-1
Concrete strength at transfer, f
ci
4.0 ksi
c
5.0 ksi
c
0.150 kcf
Design span 95.0 ft
Prestressing strands: 1/2 in. dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand 0.153 in.
2
Ultimate strength f
pu
270.0 ksi
Yield strength f
py
0.9f
pu
243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for prestressing strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
before transfer, f
pi
0.75f
pu
202.5 ksi
at service limit state (after all losses), f
pe
0.8f
py
194.4 ksi
p
28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
9.2.1
INTRODUCTION
Figure 9.2.1-1
9.2.2
MATERIALS
Box Beam (BIII-48),
Single Span, Non-Composite
Surface, LRFD Specifications
25'- 0"
1'- 6"
1'- 6"
3" Bituminous wearing surface
7 Beams @ 4'-0" = 28'-0"
(2) 7/8 in. dia. - 150 ksi bars through 2 in. dia.
hole in each diaphragm
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 5
JUL 03
Reinforcing bars: yield strength, f
y
60.0 ksi
modulus of elasticity, E
s
29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Bituminous surfacing: unit weight 0.140 kcf [LRFD Table 3.5.1-1]
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight 0.300 kip/ft/side
The standard precast concrete box beams shown in Appendix B have dimensions that
result in the entire top flange being effective in resisting flexural loads. This is because
12 times the top flange thickness of the box is greater than the entire width of the top
flange.
A area of cross-section of precast beam 813 in.
2
I moment of inertia about the centroid of the beam 168,367 in.
4
y
b
distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam 19.29 in.
y
t
distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the precast beam 19.71 in.
S
b
section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam I/y
b
8,728 in.
3
S
t
section modulus for extreme top fiber of the precast beam I/y
t
8,542 in.
3
Wt. 0.847 kip/ft
E
c
33,000 (w ) f
c
1.5
c
[LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]

where
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete (ksi)
w
c
unit weight of concrete (kcf ) = 0.150 kcf
The LRFD Specifications Commentary, C5.4.2.4, indicates that the unit weight
of normal weight concrete is 0.145 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typi-
cally have a relatively low water/cementitious materials ratio and high density.
Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high strength
concrete, this value may need to be increased based on test results.
f
c
specified strength of concrete (ksi)
BOX BEAM (BIII-48), SINGLE SPAN, NON-COMPOSITE SURFACE, LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
9.2.2 Materials/9.2.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam
39"
5 1/2"
28"
5 1/2"
5" 38"
48"
3" (TYP)
3" (TYP)
6" (TYP)
6" (TYP)
Shear key, omit at exterior beams
3/8" (TYP)
3/4" (TYP)
5"
Figure 9.2.2-1
AASHTO Box Beam
Type BIII-48
9.2.3
CROSS-SECTION
PROPERTIES
FOR A TYPICAL
INTERIOR BEAM
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 6
JUL 03
Modulus of elasticity at transfer:
E
ci
33,000(0.150)
1.5
4.0 3,834 ksi
Modulus of elasticity at service loads:
E
c
33,000(0.150)
1.5
5.0 4,287 ksi
[LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
DC dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
Beam self-weight 0.847 kip/ft
Diaphragm weight
8
12
(48 10)
12
x
(39 11)
12
4
1
2
3
12
3
12
(0.15)
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
]
]
]
0.73 kip/diaphragm
Generally, the unit weight of reinforced concrete should be slightly greater than
the unit weight of concrete alone because of the added weight of reinforcement.
However, in this example, the difference is considered negligible.
The weights of the diaphragms are considered concentrated loads acting at quar-
ter-points as shown in Figure 9.2.4.1.1-1.
Barrier Wt. (2)(0.300 kips)/(7 beams) 0.086 kip/ft
DW dead load of wearing surface and utilities (weight of 3 in. bituminous wearing
surface 0.140 kcf ) [LRFD Table 3.5.1-1]

3
12
ft
ft kcf
beams
j
(
,
\
,
(
( )( )
( )
25 0 140
7
.
0.125 kip/ft
DW load should be kept separately from DC because a higher load factor is applied
to it. LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (barrier and wearing surface
loads) may be distributed uniformly among the beams if the following conditions
are met:
Width of the slab is constant O.K.
Number of beams, N
b
, is not less than four (N
b
7) O.K.
The roadway part of the overhang, d
e
3.0 ft. (d
e
0.0) O.K.
Curvature in plan is less than 4 (curvature 0.0) O.K.
9.2.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam/9.2.4.1.1 Dead Loads
23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft 23.75 ft
0.73 kip 0.73 kip 0.73 kip
95.00 ft
0.73 kip 0.73 kip
C Bearing
L
C Bearing
L
Figure 9.2.4.1.1-1
Diaphragm Loads per Beam
9.2.4
SHEAR FORCES AND
BENDING MOMENTS
9.2.4.1.
Moments Due to Dead Loads
9.2.4.1.1
Dead Loads
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 7
JUL 03
Cross-section of the bridge is consistent with one of the cross-sections given in
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1. O.K.
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads have been
equally distributed among the seven beams.
For a simply supported beam with a span length (L) loaded with a uniformly distrib-
uted load (w), the shear force (V
x
x
) at a distance (x)
from the support are given by:
V
x
w(0.5L x) (Eq. 9.2.4.1.2-1)
M
x
0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 9.2.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typi-
cal interior beam under the self-weight of beam, diaphragms, barriers, and wearing
surface are computed and given in Table 9.2.4.1.2-1. Using statics, values of shear
forces and bending moments due to diaphragm weight are calculated and given in
Table 9.2.4.1.2-1. For these calculations, the span length is the design span (95 ft).
However, for calculation of stresses and deformations at the time of prestress release,
the span length should be the overall length of the precast member (96 ft) as illus-
trated later in this example.
9.2.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.2.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
9.2.4.1.2
and Bending Moments
Table 9.2.4.1.2-1
and Bending Moments for
a Typical Interior Beam
Distance Section
Beam weight Diaphragm weight Barrier weight Wearing surface
x x/L Shear Moment
M
g
Shear Moment
M
D
Shear Moment
M
b
Shear Moment
M
ws
ft kip ft-kip kip ft-kip kip ft-kip kip ft-kip
0.000 0.000 40.2 0.0 1.1 0.0 4.1 0.0 5.9 0.0
3.560
[1]
3.560
[1]
0.038 37.2 137.8 1.1 3.9 3.8 14.0 5.5 20.3
9.500 0.100 32.2 344.0 1.1 10.4 3.3 34.9 4.8 50.8
19.000 0.200 24.1 611.5 1.1 20.8 2.5 62.1 3.6 90.3
28.500 0.300 16.1 802.6 0.4 27.7 1.6 81.5 2.4 118.5
38.000 0.400 8.0 917.3 0.4 31.2 0.8 93.1 1.2 135.4
47.500 0.500
Distance Section
x x/L
ft
0.000 0.000
0.038
9.500 0.100
19.000 0.200
28.500 0.300
38.000 0.400
47.500 0.500
0.0 955.5 0.4 34.7 0.0 97.0 0.0 141.0
Design truck with
dynamic allowance
Design lane load Fatigue truck with
dynamic allowance
Shear
V
LT
Moment
M
LT
Shear
V
LL
Moment
M
LL
Moment
M
f
kip ft-kip kip ft-kip ft-kip
38.2 0.0 13.5 0.0 0.0
36.5 84.2 12.4 29.8 35.0
34.0 209.3 10.9 74.6 85.0
29.8 366.4 8.6 132.6 145.9
25.5 471.3 6.6 174.1 187.7
21.3 532.6 4.8 198.9 208.8
17.0 545.8 3.4 207.2 205.9
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 8
JUL 03
The LRFD Specifications state that vehicular live loading on the roadway of bridges,
HL-93, consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance. The design truck is
the same as the HS-20 design truck specified in the Standard Specifications,
[LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0 kip axles
spaced at 4.0 ft apart, [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3].
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kip/ft without dynamic allowance, [LRFD Art.
3.6.1.2.4].
The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the
simplified distribution factor formulas [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simpli-
fied live load distribution factor formulas, the following conditions must be met:
[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
Width of slab is constant O.K.
Number of beams, N
b
4 (N
b
7) O.K.
Beams are parallel and approximately of the same stiffness O.K.
e
3.0 ft. (d
e
0.0) O.K.
Curvature in plan is less than 5 [LRFD Table. 4.6.1.2.1-1] (Curvature 0.0) O.K.
For a precast cellular concrete box with shear keys and with or without transverse
post-tensioning, the bridge type is (g). [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
In order to use live load distribution factor formulas, it is necessary to determine the
number of lanes.
Number of design lanes The integer part of the ratio w/12, where w is the clear
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
From Figure 9.2.1-1, w 25 ft
Number of design lanes Integer part of (25/12) 2 lanes
For all limit states except Fatigue Limit State
For two or more lanes loaded, if members are sufficiently connected to act as a
unit:
DFM =
k
b
305
b
12.0L
I
J
0.6 0.2 0.06
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
Provided that: 35 b 60 b 48 in O.K.
20 L 120 L 95 ft O.K.
5 N
b
20 N
b
7 O.K.
9.2.4.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Loads/9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments
9.2.4.2
Shear Forces and
Bending Moments Due
to Live Loads
9.2.4.2.1
Live Loads
9.2.4.2.2
Live Load Distribution Factors
9.2.4.2.2.1
Distribution Factor for
Bending Moments
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 9
JUL 03
where
DFM Distribution factor for moment for interior girder
b Beam width, in.
L Beam span, ft
I moment of inertia of the beam, in.
4
k 2.5(N
b
)
-0.2
1.5 2.5(7)
-0.2
1.694 > 1.5 O.K.
N
b
Number of beams
J St. Venant torsional constant, in.
4
For closed, thin-walled shapes:
where
J
4A
s
t
0
2
[LRFD Eq. C4.6.2.2.1-3]

where
A
o
area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam
(48 5)(39 5.5) 1,440.5 in.
2
s length of an element of the beam
t thickness of an element of the beam
J
4(1, 440.5)
2
48 5
5.5
2
39 5.5
5
2
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
285,854 in.
4
Therefore:
DFM 1.694
48
305
48
12.0x95
168,367
285,854
0.6 0.2 0.06
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
0.287 lanes/beam
For one lane loaded, if sufficiently connected to act as a unit:

DFM
k
b
33.3L
I
J
0.5 0.25
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
( [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]

1.694
48
33.3x95
168,367
285,854
0.5 0.25
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
( 0.183 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls, DFM 0.287 lanes/beam.
For Fatigue Limit State:
LRFD Article 3.4.1 states that for fatigue limit state, a single design truck should be
used. Therefore, the distribution factor for one design lane loaded should be used as
previously calculated. However, live load distribution factors given in Article 4.6.2.2 in
the LRFD Specifications take into consideration the multiple presence factor, m. LRFD
Article 3.6.1.1.2 states that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded
is 1.2. Distribution factor for fatigue limit state is:
0.183/1.2 0.153 lanes/beam
9.2.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moments
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 10
JUL 03
For two or more lanes loaded:
DFV
b
156
b
12.0L
I
J
0.4 0.1 0.05
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
[LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
where DFV Distribution factor for shear for interior beam
Provided that: 35 b 60 b 48 in O.K.
20 L 120 L 95 ft O.K.
5 N
b
20 N
b
7 O.K.
25,000 J 610,000 J 285,854 in.
4
O.K.
40,000 I 610,000 I 168,367 in.
4
O.K.
DFV
48
156
48
12.0x95
168,367
285,854
0.4 0.1 0.05
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(

0.443 lanes/beam
For one design lane loaded:
DFV
b
130L
I
J
0.15 0.05
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(

48
130 x 95
168,367
285,854
0.15 0.05
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
0.424 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of two lanes loaded controls, DFV 0.443
[LRFD Art. 3.6.2]
IM 15% for fatigue limit state
33% for all other limit states [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck load only
For all limit states except for Fatigue Limit State:
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at
tenth-points of the span using the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
However, this is generally done with commercially available computer software that
has the ability to deal with moving loads.
Therefore, truck load shear forces and bending moments per beam are:
V
LT
(shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
(shear force per lane)(0.443)(1 + 0.33)
(shear force per lane)(0.589) kips
M
LT
(bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
Values of V
LT
and M
LT
9.2.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Forces/9.2.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load, V
LT
and M
LT
9.2.4.2.2.2
Distribution Factor
for Shear Forces
9.2.4.2.3
Dynamic Allowance
9.2.4.2.4
and Bending Moments
9.2.4.2.4.1
Due to Design Truck
Load, V
LT
and M
LT
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 11
JUL 03
LRFD Article 3.6.1.4.1 states that the fatigue load is a single design truck which has
the same axle weight used in all other limit states but with a constant spacing of 30.0
ft between the 32.0-kip axles.
The bending moment envelope on a per-lane-basis is calculated using the equation
given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Therefore, bending moment of fatigue truck load is:
M
f
(bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
Values of M
f
To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left
support under a uniformly distributed load of 0.64 kip/ft, load the member to the
right of the section under consideration as shown in Figure 9.2.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore,
the maximum shear force per lane is:
V
x

0.32(L x)
L
2

for x 0.5L (Eq. 9.2.4.2.4.2-1)
where V
x
is in kip/lane and L and x are in ft.
In order to get the maximum bending moment at any section, use Eq. (9.2.4.1.2-2).
Therefore, lane load shear forces and bending moments per beam are:
V
LL
(lane load shear force)(DFV)
(lane load shear force)(0.443) kips
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state:
M
LL
(lane load bending moment)(DFM)
(lane load bending moment)(0.287) ft-kips
Note that the dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, V
LL
and M
LL
, are given in Table
9.2.4.1.2-1.
[LRFD Art. 3.4]
9.2.4.2.4.1 Due to Design Truck Load, V
LT
and M
LT
/9.2.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load, V
LL
and M
LL
9.2.4.2.4.2
Due to Design Lane
Load, V
LL
and M
LL
Figure 9.2.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force
due to Design Lane Load
left reaction
0.64 kip/ft/lane
right reaction
95'
x
(95-x) > x
C Bearing
L
C Bearing
L
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 12
JUL 03
Total factored load, Q, is taken as:
Q
i
q
i
[LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
for this example, is considered to be 1.0
[LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1]

i
load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
q
i
specified loads
Investigating different limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following limit
states are applicable:
Service I : to check compressive stress in prestressed concrete components
Q 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress and
applies to all conditions other than Service III.
Service III: to check tensile stress in prestressed concrete components
Q 1.00(DC + DW) + 0.80(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress that
applies only to tension in prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: to check ultimate strength [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 2]
Q maximum 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Q minimum 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state
design.
Note: For simple span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum
effects. However, it is necessary to use minimum load factors for dead load
(DC), and wearing surface (DW) when dead load and wearing surface
stresses are opposite to those of the live load.
Fatigue: to check stress range in strands
Q 0.75(LL + IM)
This is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due
to live load and dynamic allowance.
Note: The LL used in the above equation results only from a single design truck
with a 30 ft constant spacing between the 32.0 kip axles with the special
dynamic allowance, (IM) for fatigue.
bottom fiber at the Service Limit State (Service III) and in some cases at the Strength
Limit State (Strength I). For simple span structures, the location which governs is
typically the section of maximum moment (midspan). In this example, the number
of required strands is estimated based on the Service Limit State using the Service III
load combination.
9.2.4.3 Load Combinations/9.2.5 Estimate Required Prestress
9.2.4.3
Load Combinations
9.2.5
ESTIMATE REQUIRED
PRESTRESS
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 13
JUL 03
Bottom tensile stresses, according to service load combination III, due to applied loads is:
f
b

M M M M (0.8)(M M )
S
g D b ws LT LL
b
+ + + + +
where
f
b
bottom tensile stresses, ksi
M
g
M
D
M
b
unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
M
ws
M
LT
unfactored bending moment due to truck load with dynamic allowance,
ft-kips
M
LL
unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Table 9.2.4.1.2-1, bottom tensile stress at
midspan is:
f
b

(955.5 34.7) (97.0 141.0) 0.8)(545.8 207.2)
8,728
+ + + + + (
( ) 12 2.517 ksi
Tensile stress limit at service limit state 0.19 f
c
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2.2b]

where

f
c
specified concrete strength (ksi)
Therefore, tensile concrete stress limit 0.19 5.0 0.425 ksi
Required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber after all losses is the difference
between the bottom tensile stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile
stress limit
f
pb
2.517 0.425 2.092 ksi
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of
the beam equals 4.5 in. at midspan.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, (e
c
) y
b
4.5 19.29 4.5 14.79 in.
If P
pe
is the total prestress force after all losses, the bottom fiber stress due to prestress is:
f
pb

P
A
P e
S
pe pe c
b
+ , or

2.092
P
813
P (14.79)
8,728
pe pe
+

Solving for P
pe
, the required P
pe
715.3 kips
Final prestress force per strand (area of strand)(f
pi
)(1 final losses, %)
where
f
pi
initial stress before transfer 202.5 ksi see (Sect. 9.2.2)
final losses assume 20% of f
pi
Therefore, final prestress force per strand after all losses:
( 0.153)(202.5)(1 0.20) 24.8 kips
Number of strands required 715.3/ 24.8 28.84 strands
9.2.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.2.5.3 Required Number of Strands
9.2.5.2
Stress Limits for Concrete
9.2.5.3
Required Number
of Strands
9.2.5.1
at Midspan
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 14
JUL 03
Figure 9.2.5.4-1 shows the assumed strand pattern for the 31 strands at midspan of
the beam. All strands are straight.
For 31 strands, calculate the distance between the center of gravity of the strands and
the bottom fiber of the beam at midspan:
y
bs

23(2) 6(4) 2(36)
31
+ +
4.58 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan:
e
c
y
b
y
bs
19.29 4.58 14.71 in.
For box sections, it is common that the flexural strength controls design. It is there-
fore recommended that the strength calculations be conducted prior to the stress
check. As the state-of-the-art continues to develop into the use of high strength con-
crete and emphasis continues to be placed on the importance of member strength,
it is possible that future designs using other cross-sections will be controlled by the
strength limit state.
Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I limit state, as given in section 9.2.4.3,
is:
M
u
1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Therefore, the ultimate bending moment at midspan is:
M
u
1.25(955.5 + 34.7 + 97) + 1.5(141.0) + 1.75(545.8 + 207.2 ) 2,888.3 ft-kips
Average stress in prestressing steel when f
pe
0.5 f
pu
:
f
ps
f 1 k
c
d
pu
p
j
(
,
\
,
(
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
where
f
ps
average stress in prestressing steel
k 2 1.04
f
f
py
pu
j
(
,
\
,
(
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
For low-relaxation strands, k 0.28 [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
d
p
distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
prestressing tendons
9.2.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.2.6.1 Flexural Resistance
23 @ 2"
6 @ 4"
2 @ 36"
Figure 9.2.5.4-1
9.2.6
STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
9.2.5.4
Strand Pattern
9.2.6.1
Flexural Resistance
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 15
JUL 03
c distance from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of
the equivalent stress block, a
1
c, is less than or equal to compression flange
depth, h
f
. [LRFD Art. C5.7.3.2.2]
c
A f A f A f
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s y
c 1 ps
pu
p
+
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]

where
A
ps
area of prestressing steel
A
s
area of mild steel tension reinforcement 0 in.
2
A
s
area of compression reinforcement 0 in.
2

1
stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
0.85 for f
c
4.0 ksi
0.85 0.05(f
c
4.0) 0.65 for f
c
> 4.0 ksi
0.85 0.05(5.0 4.0) 0.80
b width of compression flange 48 in.
a depth of the equivalent stress block
1
c
d
p
distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the pre-
stressing tendons
Note: In computing the flexural strength of members with strands placed near the
compression face of the member, it is not correct to use the combined centroid of the
entire strand group for establishing the effective depth, d
p
, and the area of prestress-
ing steel, A
ps
. This is because the top strands will have different strain from that of
the bottom strands. An accurate solution can be achieved using the detailed strain
compatibility approach which accounts for the steel strain at various distances from
the neutral axis. However, a reasonable approximation is to ignore all strands placed
on the compression side.
Therefore, the area of prestressing steel, A
ps
29(0.153) 4.437 in.
2
For the 29 bottom strands, the distance between the center of gravity of the
strands and the bottom fiber of the beam, y
bs
, is:

23 2 6 4
29
( ) ( ) +
2.41 in.
Thus, d
p
39 2.41 36.59 in.
c
4.437(270) 0 0
(0.85)(5.0)(0.80)(48) 0.28(4.437)
270
36.59
+
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
6.95 in.
a
1
c 0.80(6.95) 5.56 in. > h
f
5.5 in. N.G.
Therefore, compute c using T-section behavior.
c
A f A f A f f (b b )h
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s
'
y
'
c w f
c 1 w ps
pu
p
+
+
0 85
1
.
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-3]

9.2.6.1 Flexural Resistance
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:51 PM 16
JUL 03
where
h
f
depth of compression flange 5.5 in.
b
w
width of web 2(5) 10 in.
c
4.437(270) 0 0 0.85(0.80)(5.0)(48 10)(5.5)
0.85(5.0)(0.80)(10) 0.28(4.437)
270
36.59
+
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
11.29 in.
a
1
c 0.80(11.29) 9.03 in. > h
f
5.5 in. O.K.
Therefore, the average stress in the prestressing steel:
f
ps
270 1 0.28
11.29
36.59
j
(
,
\
,
(

246.7 ksi
Nominal flexural resistance, M
n
: [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.2]
M
n
A f d
a
2
0.85f (b b ) h
a
2
h
2
ps ps p c w 1 f
f
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]

M
n
(4.437)(246.7) 36.59
9.03
2
/12 0.85(5)(48 10)(0.80)(5.5)
9.03
2
5.5
2
/12
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
3,030.3 ft-kips
Factored flexural resistance, M
r
:
M
r
M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where resistance factor 1.00 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
M
r
3,030.3 ft-kips > Mu 2,888.3 ft-kips O.K.
Total prestress loss f
pT
f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
f
pES
loss due to elastic shortening
f
pCR
loss due to creep
f
pSR
loss due to shrinkage
f
pR2
loss due to relaxation of steel after transfer
For pretensioning members:
f
pES

E
E
f
p
ci
cgp

[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
where
E
p
modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel 28,500 ksi
E
ci
modulus of elasticity of the beam at transfer 3,834 ksi
f
cgp
sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due
to prestressing force at transfer and the self-weight of the member at the
sections of maximum positive moment
Force per strand at transfer (area of strand)(prestress stress at transfer)
LRFD Article 5.9.5.2.3a states that f
cgp
can be calculated on the basis of a prestress-
ing steel stress assumed to be 0.7f
pu
for low-relaxation strands. However, common
practice assumes the initial losses as a percentage of initial prestressing stress before
9.2.6.1 Flexural Resistance/9.2.7.1 Elastic Shortening
9.2.7
PRESTRESS LOSSES
9.2.7.1
Elastic Shortening
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 17
JUL 03
transfer, f
pi
. In both procedures, assumed initial losses should be checked and if
different from the assumed value, a second iteration should be carried out. In this
example, 5% f
pi
initial loss is assumed.
Therefore, prestress stress at transfer f
pi
(1 0.05) 202.5(1 0.05) 192.4 ksi
Force per strand at transfer (0.153)(192.4) 29.4 kips
Total prestressing force at transfer, P
i
(31 strands)(29.4) 911.4 kips
f
cgp

P
A
P e
I
(M M ) e
I
i i c
2
g D c
+
+
where
M
g
unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
M
D
unfactored bending moment due to diaphragm weight
M
g
and M
D
cgp
is conservatively
computed based on M
g
f
cgp

911.4
813
(911.4)(14.71)
168,367
(955.5+34.7)(12)(14.71)
168,367
2
+
1.121 + 1.171 1.038 1.254 ksi
f
pES

28,500
3,834
(1.254)
9.3 ksi
f
pSR
(17 0.15H) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2-1]
where H relative humidity
LRFD Figure 5.4.2.3.3-1.
Assume relative humidity, H 70%
f
pSR
[17 0.15(70)] 6.5 ksi
f
pCR
12f
cgp
7f
cdp
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3-1]
where
f
cdp
change in concrete stress at center of gravity of prestressing steel due to
permanent loads, except the load acting at the time the prestressing force
is applied, calculated at the same section as f
cgp

f
cdp

(M M )e
I
ws b c
+

(97 141.0)(12)(14.71)
168,367
+
0.250 ksi
f
pCR
12(1.254) 7(0.250) 13.3 ksi
Initial loss due to relaxation of the prestressing steel is accounted for in the beam fab-
rication process. Therefore, losses due to relaxation of the prestressing steel prior to
transfer are not computed, f
pR1
0.0. Recognizing this for pretensioned members,
9.2.7.1 Elastic Shortening/9.2.7.4.1 Relaxation before Transfer
9.2.7.2
Shrinkage
9.2.7.3
Creep of Concrete
9.2.7.4
Relaxation of
Prestressing Strand
9.2.7.4.1
Relaxation before Transfer
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 18
JUL 03
the LRFD Specifications, Art. 5.9.5.1, allows the portion of the relaxation loss that
occurs prior to transfer to be neglected in computing the final losses.
For low-relaxation strands, loss due to relaxation after transfer is:[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4c]
f
pR2
30%[20.0 0.4 f
pES
0.2(f
pSR
+ f
pCR
)] [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.4c-1]
0.3[20.0 0.4(9.3) 0.2(6.5 + 13.3)] 3.7 ksi
f
pi
f
pES
+ f
pR1
9.322 + 0 9.3 ksi
Stress in tendons after transfer, f
pt
f
pi
f
pi
202.5 9.3 193.2 ksi
Force per strand (Stress in tendons after transfer)(area of strand) 193.2 x 0.153
29.6 kips
Therefore total prestressing force after transfer, P
i
29.6 x 31 917.6 kips
Initial loss, % f
pi
/f
pi
9.3/202.5 4.6%
The first estimation of loss at transfer, i.e. 5%, is very close to the actual computed
initial loss of 4.6%. Thus, there is no need for a second iteration to refine the initial
assumption.
f
pT
f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
9.3 + 6.5 + 13.3 + 3.7 32.8 ksi
Stress in tendon after all losses:
f
pe
f
pi
f
pT
202.5 32.8 169.7 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at Service Limit State:
f
pe
0.8f
py
0.8(243) 194.4 ksi > 169.7 ksi O.K.
Force per strand (Stress in tendon after all losses)(strand area)
169.7 x 0.153 26.0 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after all losses, P
pe
31(26.0) 806.0 kips
Final losses, % f
pT
/f
pi
32.8/202.5 16.2 %
The initial estimate of final losses of 20%, which was used to determine the strand
pattern, is conservative. Since flexural strength controls design, there is no need to
perform a second iteration with the computed total losses.
Force per strand after initial losses 29.6 kips
Total prestressing force after transfer, P
i
917.6 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
0.6(4.0) 2.4 ksi
Tension:
- without bonded auxiliary reinforcement
0.0948 f
ci
0.200 ksi 0.0948 4.0

0.190 ksi 0.200 ksi O.K.
- with bonded auxiliary reinforcement which is sufficient to resist 120% of the ten-
sion force in the cracked concrete
0.22 f
ci
0.22 4.0 0.440 ksi

9.2.7.4.1 Relaxation before Transfer/9.2.8.1 Stress Limits for Concrete
9.2.7.4.2
9.2.7.5
Total Loss At Transfer
9.2.7.6
Total Loss At
Service Loads
9.2.8
STRESSES AT TRANSFER
9.2.8.1
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 19
JUL 03
beam. Stresses at this location need only be checked at release, because losses with
time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length 60(strand diameter) [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.3]
60(0.5) 30 in. 2.5 ft
The transfer length extends to approximately 2.5 ft from the end of the beam or 2.0
ft from centerline of the bearing. Due to the camber of the beam at release, the self-
weight of the beam and diaphragm act on the overall beam length, 96 ft. Therefore,
the values of bending moment given in Table 9.2.4.1.2-1 cannot be used at release
because they are based on the design span, 95 ft. Using statics, bending moments at
the end of the transfer zone due to beam and diaphragm weights, are
M
g
0.5wx(L x) 0.5(.847)(2.5)(96 2.5) 99.0 ft-kips, and
M
D
2.7 ft-kips.
t
:
f
t

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
t
g D
t
+
+

917.6
813
(917.6)(14.71)
8,542
(99.0 2.7)(12)
8,542
+
+
1.129 1.580 + 0.143 0.308 ksi
The tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: 0.190 ksi
N.G.
Tension stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: 0.440 ksi O.K.
Compute the concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam, f
b
:
f
b

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
b
g D
b
+
+

917.6
813
917.6(14.71)
8,728
(99.0 2.7)(12)
8,728
+
+
1.129 + 1.547 0.140 2.536 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: 2.400 ksi N.G.
Therefore, try debonding 7 strands from the strand group at 2 in. from bottom for a
distance of 5-0 from the end of the beam or 4'-6" from centerline of bearing.
To minimize the shock impact of detensioning and cracks at corners and bot-
tom, assume the strand pattern shown in Figure 9.2.8.2-1. LRFD Article 5.11.4.2
requires that the following conditions be satisfied if debonding is used:
% debonded of total 7/31 22.6% < 25% O.K.
% debonded of row 7/23 30.4% < 40% O.K.
All limit states should be satisfied O.K.
Debonded strands should be symmetrically distributed O.K.
Exterior strands in each horizontal line are fully bonded O.K.
Compute new strand pattern properties:
Distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is:
9.2.8.2
Length Section
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 20
JUL 03
y
bs
[16(2) + 6(4) + 2(36)]/(24) 5.33 in.
and the strand eccentricity at end of beam is:
e
e
19.29 5.33 13.96 in.
Total prestressing force at release at end section 24(29.6) 710.4 kips
f
t

710.4
813
710.4(13.96)
8,542
(99.0 2.7)(12)
8,542
+
+
0.874 1.161 + 0.143 0.144 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete with no bonded reinforcement: 0.190 ksi O.K.
Thus, there is no need for additional bonded reinforcement; and,
f
b

710.4
813
710.4(13.96)
8,728
(99.0 2.7)(12)
8,728
+
+
0.874 + 1.136 0.140 +1.870 ksi
Compression stress limit for concrete: +2.400 ksi O.K.
Bending moments due to the self-weight of the beam and diaphragm, at (5 + 2.5 7.5)
from the end of the beam, based on overall length, are 281.1 ft-kips and 8.2 ft-kips
respectively. All strands are effective at this location, therefore use the full value of
P
i
.
f
t

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
t
g D
t
+
+

917.6
813
917.6(14.71)
8,542
(281.1 8.2)(12)
8,542
+
+
1.129 1.547 + 0.406 0.045 ksi
and,
f
b

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
b
g D
b
+
+

917.6
813
917.6(14.71)
8,728
(281.1 8.2)(12)
8,728
+
+
1.129 + 1.547 0.398 +2.278 ksi
Bending moments due to beam self-weight and diaphragm weight at midspan, based
on overall length, are 975.7 ft-kips and 35.2 ft-kips respectively.
f
t

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
t
g D
t
+
+

917.6
813
917.6(14.71)
8,542
(975.7 35.2)(12)
8,542
+
+
1.129 1.547 + 1.420 +0.969 ksi
9.2.8.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.2.8.4 Stresses at Midspan
Bonded
Debonded (5'-0" from end)
23 @ 2"
6 @ 4"
2 @ 36"
Figure 9.2.8.2-1
Strand Pattern at End of
Beam
9.2.8.3
Length Section of
Debonded Strands
9.2.8.4
Stresses at Midspan
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 21
JUL 03
and,
f
b

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
i i c
b
g D
b
+
+

917.6
813
917.6(14.71)
8,728
(975.7 35.2)(12)
8,728
+
+
1.129 + 1.547 1.390 +1.286 ksi
Top Stress Bottom Stress
f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At transfer length section 0.144 +1.870
At end of debonded strands + transfer length 0.045 +2.278
At midspan +0.969 +1.286
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
Total prestressing force after all losses, P
pe
806.0 kips
Compression:
Due to permanent loads, i.e., girder self-weight, diaphragm weight, wearing surface,
and barrier load, for load combination Service I: 0.45f
c
0.45(5.0) 2.25 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads, i.e., all dead loads and live loads, for load
combination Service I: 0.60f
c
0.60(5.0) 3.00 ksi
Tension:
For components with bonded prestressing tendons:
for load combination Service III: 0.19 f
c
0.19
5.0
0.425 ksi
To review compressive stresses at the bottom of the beam, two cases are checked.
1. Under permanent load, load combination Service I, using values in Table 9.2.4.1.2-
1:
f
t

P
A
P e
S
(M M M M )
S
pe pe c
t
g D ws b
t
+
+ + +

806
813
806(14.71)
8,542
(955.5 34.7 97.0 141.0)(12)
8,542
+
+ + +
0.991 1.388 + 1.725 +1.328 ksi
2. Under permanent and transient loads, load combination Service I:
f
t
+ +
+
1.328
(M M )(12)
S
LT LL
t
+ +
+
1.328
(545.8 207.2)(12)
8542
+1.328 + 1.058 +2.386 ksi
9.2.8.4 Stresses at Midspan/9.2.9.2 Stresses at Midspan
9.2.8.5
Summary of Stresses
at Transfer
9.2.9
STRESSES AT
SERVICE LOADS
9.2.9.1
9.2.9.2
Stresses at Midspan
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 22
JUL 03
Check bottom tension stress, load combination Service III:
f
b

P
A
P e
S
(M M M M ) 0.8(M M )
S
pe pe c
b
g D ws b LT LL
b
+
+ + + + +

806
813
806 (14.71)
8,728
[(955.5 34.7 97.0 141.0) 0.8(545.8 207.2)](12)
8,728
+
+ + + + +
+0.991 + 1.358 2.517 0.168 ksi
Tension stress limit for concrete: 0.425 ksi O.K.
LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in regions of compressive stress due to permanent
loads and prestress, fatigue is considered only if this compressive stress is less than
twice the maximum tensile live load stress resulting from the fatigue load combina-
tion. However, the LRFD Specifications does not state where this stress is computed:
at the bottom fiber of concrete or at the lower strand level. In this example, for con-
venience, the calculations for this limit are done at the bottom fiber of concrete.
At midspan, the bottom compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:
f
b

P
A
P e
S
(M M M M )
S
pe pe c
b
g D ws b
b
+
+ + +

806
813
806(14.71)
8,728
[(955.5 34.7 97.0 141.0)](12)
8,728
+
+ + +
+0.991 + 1.358 1.689 +0.660 ksi
From Table 9.2.4.1.2-1, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, M
f
, is
205.9 ft-kips. Therefore, bottom stress due to the fatigue load combination:

0.75(M )
S
0.75(205.9)(12)
8,728
f
b
0.212 ksi
Since 2(0.212) 0.424 ksi < 0.660 ksi, the fatigue check is not necessary. However,
for illustration purposes, the fatigue check is completed below.
Since the precast section is not permitted to crack under service loads, the uncracked
section properties are used. The fatigue stress range, SR, caused by the fatigue load
combination at the bottom row of strands is calculated by transforming the concrete
stress to steel stress using the modular ratio.
SR
M (y 2)
I
E
E
f b
p
c
where SR fatigue Stress Range

SR
(0.75)(205.9)(12)(19.29 2)
168,367
28,500
4, 287
1.3 ksi
LRFD Article 5.5.3.3 states that the stress range in prestressing tendons should not
exceed 18.0 ksi for a radius of curvature in excess of 30.0 ft, which includes straight
strand. O.K.
9.2.9.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.2.9.3 Fatigue Limit State
9.2.9.3
Fatigue Limit State
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 23
JUL 03
Discussion:
1. Current practice with precast pretensioned concrete members does not permit
cracking of concrete due to service loads. Accordingly, the tensile stress range in the
strands due to live loads is only (n) times the corresponding concrete stress, which
is always lower than the limiting stress range of 10 or 18 ksi for fatigue. Thus, the
need to check for fatigue limit state under those conditions is questionable.
2. Bridges built with adjacent precast members with no cast-in-place concrete topping
generally have a large bottom compressive stress at midspan due to permanent loads
plus prestressing. This is because there is no tensile stress resulting from the cast-in-
place topping. Therefore, the exception in LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 results in a fatigue
check to be unnecessary for this type of bridge member.
Top Stresses (Service I) Bottom Stress
Permanent loads Total loads Service III
At midspan +1.328 ksi +2.386 ksi 0.168 ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The maximum amount of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement must be
such that
c
d
e
0 42 . [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where
d
e

A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]

4.743(241.8)34.42 0.0
4.743(241.8 ) 0.0
+
+
34.42 in
c
d
e

12.83
34.42
0.37 < 0.42 O.K.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and non-prestressed tensile reinforcement
should be adequate to developed a factored flexural resistance, M
r
, equal to the lesser
of:
1.2 times the cracking strength determined on the basis of elastic stress distribution
and the modulus of rupture, and
1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
Check at midspan:
The LRFD Specifications do not give any procedure for computing the cracking moment.
Therefore, the equation in the Standard Specifications, Art. 9.18.2.1, is used.
M
cr
(f
r
+ f
pb
)S
bc
M
d/nc
(S
bc
/S
b
1) (Eq. 9.2.10.2-1)
where
f
r
modulus of rupture [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
0.24
f
c
0.24 5.0 0.537 ksi

9.2.9.3 Fatigue Limit State/9.2.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement
9.2.9.4
Service Loads
9.2.10
LIMITS OF
REINFORCEMENT
9.2.10.1
9.2.10.2
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 24
JUL 03
f
pb
compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after
stress is caused by externally applied loads

P
A
P e
S
806.0
813
806.0(14.71)
8,728
2.350 ksi
pe pe c
b
+ +
M
d/nc
non-composite dead load moment at the section
S
bc
composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
S
b
non-composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads 8,728 in.
3
Since there is no cast-in-place topping, S
bc
S
b
, therefore, the second part of the
equation is zero.
M
cr
(0.537 + 2.350)8,728/12 2,099.8 ft-kips
1.2M
cr
1.2(2,099.8) 2,519.8 ft-kips
At midspan, the factored moment required by Strength I load combination is:
M
u
2,888.3 ft-kips (as calculated in Sect. 9.2.6)
Thus, 1.33M
u
1.33(2,888.3) 3,841.4 ft-kips
Since 1.2M
cr
< 1.33M
u
, the 1.2M
cr
requirement controls.
M
r
3,030.3 ft-kips > 1.2M
cr
O.K.
Note: Contrary to the Standard Specifications, the LRFD Specifications require that
this criterion be met at all sections.
The area and spacing of shear reinforcement must be determined at regular intervals
along the entire lenth of the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design
procedures are demonstrated below by determining these values at the critical section
near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement shall be provided when:
V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
V
u
total factored shear force, kips
V
c
shear strength provided by concrete, kips
V
p
component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied
shear, kips
resistance factor 0.9 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
Critical section near the supports is the greater of: [LRFD Art. 5.8.3.2]
0.5d
v
cot
or, d
v
from the face of the support
where
d
v
effective shear depth
distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (d
e
a/2 for a
rectangular section)
but not less than 0.9d
e
or 0.72h [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
9.2.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.2.11.1 Critical Section
9.2.11
SHEAR DESIGN
9.2.11.1
Critical Section
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 25
JUL 03
where
d
e
the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to
the centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
d
p
, since only prestressing steel is used
39 2.55 36.45 in.
Note: Only 22 strands (16 @ 2 in. and 6 @ 4 in.) are effective at the critical section
for shear, because 7 strands are debonded for a distance equal to 5 ft from the
end of the beam and the top level of strands is ignored.
a equivalent compressive block depth 9.03 in. (at midspan, conservative
estimate)
h total height of the section 39.00 in.
angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses, assume 21 (slope
of compression field)
The shear design at any section depends on the angle of diagonal compressive stresses
at the section. Shear design is an iterative process that begins with assuming a value
for . For this example, only the final cycle of calculations is shown. As a guide, for
areas which have high shear forces and low bending moments, the angle ranges
from 20 to 30. For areas of low shear forces and high bending moments, the angle
goes up to 45. Using these guidelines, two iterations are adequate in most cases.
Since the beam has been identified as a flanged section, the effective shear depth, d
v
,
should be determined using LRFD Eq. C5.8.2.9-1. However, d
v
can be conservatively
approximated as d
e
a/2 using a as determined in the midspan flexural analysis in
Section 9.2.6.1.
d
v
= d
e
a/2 = [36.45 0.5(9.03)] = 31.94 in.
0.9d
e
0.9(36.45) 32.81 in. (Controls)
0.72h 0.72(39) 28.08 in.
Therefore, d
v
32.81 in.
Critical section near the supports is the greater of:
0.5d
v
cot [0.5(32.81)]cot21 42.74 in. (Controls)
and, d
v
32.81 in.
Since the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it was conservatively assumed
to be equal to zero for determining the critical section for shear, as shown in Figure
9.2.11-1. Therefore the critical section for shear is at a distance of:
9.2.11.1 Critical Section/9.2.11.1.3 Calculation of Critical Section
9.2.11.1.1
Angle of Diagonal
Compressive Stresses
9.2.11.1.2
Effective Shear Depth
9.2.11.1.3
Calculation of Critical Section
6"
Critical section in shear
42.74"
Figure 9.2.11-1
Critical Section in Shear
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 26
JUL 03
42.74/12 ft 3.56 ft from centerline of support
x/L 3.56/95 0.038L
The contribution of the concrete to the nominal shear resistance is:
V
c
0.0316 0.0316 f
b s
f
c
v
y
b
v
d
v
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
Several quantities must be determined before this expression can be evaluated.
Calculate the strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side,
x
:
x

M
d
0.5N 0.5(V V )cot A f
2(E A E A E A
u
v
u u p ps po
c c s s p ps
+ +
+ +
)
0.001 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
where
M
u
applied factored bending moment at the specified section which occurs
simultaneously with V
u
, or, conservatively taken as the maximum M
u
.
Using load combination Strength I
1.25(137.8 + 3.9 + 14.0) + 1.50(20.3) + 1.75(84.2 + 29.8)
424.6 ft-kips
V
u
applied factored shear force at the specified section
1.25(37.2 + 1.1 + 3.8) + 1.50(5.5) + 1.75(36.5 + 12.4)
146.5 kips
V
p
component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force 0 (since strand pattern is straight)
N
u
applied factored normal force at the specified section 0
f
po
a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied
by the locked in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and
the surrounding concrete (ksi). For pretensioned members, LRFD Article
C5.8.3.4.2 indicates that f
po
can be taken as the stress in the strands
when the concrete is cast around them, which is the jacking stress, f
pj
, or
0.75f
pu
.
0.75(270.0) 202.5 ksi
angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses 21 (assumed)
A
ps
area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member
22(0.153) 3.366 in.
2
(Only 22 strands are effective of the 29 strands in
the flexural tension side because 7 strands are debonded.)
A
s
area of nonprestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member 0.0
x

424.6(12)
32.81
0 0.5(146.5)(cot21 ) 3.366(202.5)
2 0 28,500(3.366)
+ +
+
[ ]

335 5
191 862
1 749 10
3
.
,
.
9.2.11.1.3 Calculation of Critical Section/9.2.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement
9.2.11.2.1
Strain in Flexural Tension
Reinforcement
9.2.11.2
Contribution of Concrete to
Nominal Shear Resistance
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:52 PM 27
JUL 03
Since the value of
x
is negative, a different equation must be used:
x

M
d
0.5N 0.5(V V )cot A f
2(E A E A E A
u
v
u u p ps po
c c s s p ps
+ +
+ +
)
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]
where A
c
area of concrete (in.
2
) on the flexural tension side, as shown in Figure 9.2.11-2
(0.5)(813) 406.5 in.
2
( because the section is symmetrical about the
longitudinal axis)
+
[ ]

335.5
2 (4,287)(406.5) (28,500)(3.366)
0 0912 10
3
.
Note that the sign of
x
should be maintained.
v
u

V V
b d
u p
v v

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]

where
v
u
factored shear stress in concrete
V
p
component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the
applied shear
0 (because no harped strands are used)
resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
b
v
effective web width 2 x 5 10 in.
v
u

146.5 0
(0.9)(10)(32.81)
0.4961 ksi
(v
u
/f
c
) (0.4961/5.0) 0.0992
9.2.11.2.1.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement when
x
is Negative/9.2.11.2.1.2 Compute Shear Stress
9.2.11.2.1.2
Compute Shear Stress
h

=

3
9
"

h
/
2

=

1
9

1
/
2
"

A
c
x
Figure 9.2.11-2
Illustration of A
c

9.2.11.2.1.1
Reinforcement when
x
is Negative
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 28
JUL 03
Having computed
x
and v
u
/f
c
, find a better estimate of from LRFD Table 5.8.3.4.2-1.
Since the computed value of v
u
/f
c
is likely to fall between two rows in the table, a linear
interpolation may be performed. However, for hand calculations, interpolation is not
recommended (LRFD Art. C5.8.3.4.2). Values of in the lower row that bounds the
computed value may be used. Similarly, values of in the first column to the right of
the computed value may be used. For this example, the applicable row and column are
the ones labeled 0.100 and 0.05, respectively. The values of and contained
in the cell of intersection of that row and column are:
21.4 the assumed value O.K.
If the assumed value of differs greatly from the calculated value, repeat the
calculations using the new value of until the answer converges.
3.24
where is a factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit
tension (a value indicating concrete contribution).
The nominal shear resisted by the concrete is:
V
c
0.0316 f b d
c
'
v v
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
0.0316(3.24) 5.0 (10)(32.81) 75.1 kips
Check if V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
V
u
146.5 kips > 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [0.5(0.9)](75.1 + 0) 33.8 kips
Therefore, transverse shear reinforcement should be provided.
V
u
/ V
n
V
c
+ V
s
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
where
V
s
shear force carried by transverse reinforcement
(V
u
/) V
c
V
p
(146.5/0.9) 75.1 0 87.7 kips
V
s

A f d (cot + cot ) sin
s
v y v

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
where
A
v
area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.
2
s spacing of stirrups, in.
f
y
yield strength of shear reinforcement
angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis 90
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement (in.
2
) within a spacing (s), is:
reqd A
v
(s V
s
)/(f
y
d
v
cot )
s(87.7)/[(60)(32.81)cot21] 0.0171(s)
If s 12 in., then A
v
0.21 in.
2
/ft
9.2.11.2.2 Values of and /9.2.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement
9.2.11.3.2
Required Area of
Reinforcement
9.2.11.2.2
Values of and
9.2.11.2.3
Concrete Contribution
9.2.11.3.1
Requirement for
Reinforcement
9.2.11.3
Contribution of
Reinforcement to Nominal
Shear Resistance
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 29
JUL 03
9.2.12
MINIMUM
LONGITUDINAL
REINFORCEMENT
REQUIREMENT
Maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement may not exceed the following:
[LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
If v
u
0.496 ksi < 0.125f
c
0.125(5.0) 0.625 ksi (yes), then:
s and s
max
24 in. (Controls) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
0.8d
v
(0.8)(32.81) 26.25 in.
s provided 12 in. < 24 in. O.K.
Use # 3 single leg in each web at 12 in. spacing
A
v
provided 0.22 in.
2
/ft > A
v
required 0.21 in.
2
O.K.
V
s

0.22(60)(32.81)(cot21 cot90 )(sin 90 )
12
+
94.0 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.8.2.5]
The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
0.0316 f
b s
f
c
v
y
0.0316 5
(10)(12)
60
0.14 in.
2
/ft < 0.22 in.
2
/ft O.K.
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
In order to assure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to
yield of the transverse reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications give an upper limit for
V
n
as follows:
V
n
0.25 f
c
b
v
d
v
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2], it can be concluded that
V
c
+ V
s
0.25 f
c
b
v
d
v

75.1 + 94.0 169.1 kips 0.25(5.0)(10)(32.81) 410.1 kips O.K.
Using the outlined procedures above, shear design was carried out at tenth points
along the span. The results are shown below in Table 9.2.11.4-1. Note that two itera-
tions were done for each tenth-point beginning with assuming the angle .
[LRFD ART. 5.8.3.5]
Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the fol-
lowing equation is satisfied:
A f A f
M
d
0.5
N V
0.5V V cot
s y ps ps
u
v
u u
s p
+ + +
j
(
,
\
,
(

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-1]
where
A
s
area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement, in.
2
f
y
specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
A
ps
area of prestressing steel at the tension side of the section, in.
2
f
ps
average stress in prestressing steel, ksi
M
u
factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force,
ft-kips
N
u
applied factored axial force 0, kips
V
u
factored shear force at section, kips
9.2.11.3.3 Spacing of Reinforcement/9.2.12 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
9.2.11.3.4
Requirement
9.2.11.4
Maximum Nominal
Shear Resistance
9.2.11.3.3
Spacing of Reinforcement
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 30
JUL 03
9.2.12 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
T
a
b
l
e

9
.
2
.
1
1
.
4
-
1
D
e
s
i
g
n

o
f

V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

S
h
e
a
r
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
,

x
f
t
.
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
x
/
L
S
h
e
a
r
,

V
u
k
i
p
s
M
o
m
e
n
t
,

M
u
k
i
p
-
f
t
d
v
i
n
.
A
p
s
i
n
.
2
S
t
r
a
i
n
,

x
i
n
.
/
i
n
.

x

1
0
0
0
v
k
s
i
v
/
f
c
A
c
t
u
a
l

d
e
g
V
c
k
i
p
s
V
s
k
i
p
s
M
a
x
.

S
p
a
c
.

i
n
A
v
i
n
.
2
/
f
t
M
i
n

A
v
i
n
.
2
/
f
t
3
.
5
6
[
1
]
0
.
0
3
8
1
4
6
.
5

4
2
5
3
2
.
8
1
3
.
3
6
6
-
0
.
0
9
1
2
0
.
4
9
6
0
.
0
9
9
2
2
1
.
4
3
.
2
7
5
.
1
8
7
.
7
2
4
0
.
2
1
0
.
1
4
9
.
5
0
0
.
1
0
0
1
3
1
.
0
1
,
0
6
0
3
3
.
5
9
4
.
4
3
7
-
0
.
0
9
2
8
0
.
4
3
3
0
.
0
8
6
7
2
0
.
5
4
.
0
9
6
.
2
4
9
.
3
2
4
0
.
1
1
0
.
1
4
1
9
.
0
0
0
.
2
0
0
1
0
6
.
7
1
,
8
7
7
3
3
.
4
1
4
.
4
3
7
-
0
.
0
2
3
6
0
.
3
5
5
0
.
0
7
1
2
1
.
4
3
.
9
9
2
.
4
2
6
.
1
2
4
0
.
0
6
0
.
1
4
2
8
.
5
0
0
.
3
0
0

8
2
.
0
2
,
4
4
8
3
3
.
4
1
4
.
4
3
7

0
.
2
4
7
2
0
.
2
7
3
0
.
0
5
4
6
2
6
.
6
3
.
0
6
9
.
6
2
1
.
6
2
4
0
.
0
6
0
.
1
4
3
8
.
0
0
0
.
4
0
0

5
8
.
7
2
,
7
7
1
3
3
.
4
1
4
.
4
3
7

0
.
5
7
2
8
0
.
1
9
5
0
.
0
3
9
1
3
1
.
4
2
.
5
5
9
.
7
5
.
6
2
4
0
.
0
2
0
.
1
4
4
7
.
5
0
0
.
5
0
0

3
5
.
9
2
,
8
8
9
3
3
.
4
1
4
.
4
3
7

0
.
6
6
1
3
0
.
1
1
9
0
.
0
2
3
9
3
2
.
6
2
.
5
5
8
.
0
-
2
4
-
0
.
1
4
[
1
]

C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
o
r

s
h
e
a
r

(
s
e
e

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

9
.
2
.
1
1
)
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 31
JUL 03
9.2.12.1
Required Reinforcement
at Face of Bearing
V
s
shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
V
p
component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective, prestressing
force, kips
d
v
effective shear depth, in.
resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear and axial resistance.
Therefore, different factors will be used for the terms in Eq. 5.8.3.5-1,
depending on the type of action considered in that term, see the LRFD
Specifications, Art. 5.5.4.2
angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses.
[LRFD Art. 5.8.3.5]
Since the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it was assumed to be equal
to zero. This assumption is more conservative for these calculations. From Table
9.2.4.1.2-1, using load combination Strength I, the factored shear force and bending
moment at centerline of bearing:
V
u
1.25(40.2 + 1.1 + 4.1) + 1.5(5.9) + 1.75(38.2 + 13.5) 156.1 kips
M
u
0 ft-kips
M
d
0.5
N V
0.5V V cot
u
v
u u
s p

+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(

0 0
156.1
0.9
(0.5)(94.0) 0 cot21 + +
j
(
,
\
,
(
329.4 kips
The assumed failure crack for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the bear-
ing, which is 6 in. from the end of the beam, while the transfer length is 60 times
the strand diameter 30 in. This crack crosses the centroid of the bottom bonded
strands at (6 + y
bc
cot), which is still within the strand transfer length of 30 in. as
computed earlier and shown in Figure 9.2.12-1.
Note: This crack is quite unlikely because it would form in the end block, which is
a large solid section of concrete. However, the analysis does not account for the area
of concrete involved. It simply assumes a crack.
For the 22 bonded bottom strands, y
bc

2(16) 6(4)
22
+
2.55 in.
Therefore, 6 + y
bc
cot 6 + 2.55cot21 12.64 in. < 30 in.
9.2.12 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.2.12.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing
6"
y cot
bc
y
bc
c.g. of the 22 bonded bottom strands
C Bearing
L
Figure 9.2.12-1
Assumed Failure Crack
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 32
JUL 03
Since the location is within the transfer length, the available prestress is less than the
effective prestress. The prestressing force at the center line of bearing is:
A
ps
f
ps
(22)(0.153)
12.64
30
(169.7)
j
(
,
\
,
( 240.7 kips < 329.4 kips
The strands are not adequate to resist the required longitudinal force. Therefore,
provide additional mild reinforcement to carry the difference.
Force to be resisted by additional reinforcement 329.4 240.7 88.7 kips
Additional mild steel reinforcement required (88.7 kips)/(60 ksi) 1.48 in.
2
Use (5) #5. The area of steel provided 5 x 0.31 1.55 in.
2
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10]
Design of the anchorage zone reinforcement is computed using the force in the
strands just before transfer. Since 7 strands are debonded at the ends of the beam,
the force in the remaining strands before transfer is:
F
pi
24(0.153)(202.5) 743.6 kips
The bursting resistance, P
r
, should not be less than 4.0% of the prestress force at
transfer. [LRFD Arts. 5.10.10.1 and C3.4.3]
P
r
f
s
A
s
0.04F
pi
0.04(743.6) 29.4 kips
where
A
s
total area of vertical reinforcement located within the distance h/4 from the
end of the beam, in.
2
f
s
stress in steel, but not taken greater than 20 ksi
Solving for the required area of steel, A
s
29.4/(20) 1.47 in.
2
At least 1.47 in.
2
of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a
distance from the end of the beam equal to one-fourth of the precast beam depth,
(h/4 39/4 9.75 in.).
Use an orthogonal welded wire reinforcement of W20 or D20 wires @ 12 in. centers
vertically and horizontally. Space two layers of WWR @ 3 in. starting @ 2 in. from, and
parallel to the end of the beam in the diaphragm. The layers of WWR each provide 4
vertical and 3 horizontal wires. Area of steel provided is 2(4 + 3)(0.2) 2.80 in.
2
A rein-
forcing bar cage could be used as well. Provide adequate embeddment for bars.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]
Deflections are calculated at midspan based on the moment of inertia shown and
modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in Section 9.2.3.
p

P e L
8E I
i
2
ci
where
P
i
total prestressing force at transfer 917.6 kips
e eccentricity of prestressing force 14.71 in.
L overall span length 96.0 ft
E
ci
modulus of elasticity at transfer 3,834 ksi
9.2.12.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.2.14.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer
9.2.13
PRETENSIONED
ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.2.14
DEFLECTION
AND CAMBER
9.2.14.1
Deflection Due
to Prestressing Force
at Transfer
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 33
JUL 03
9.2.14.3
Deflection Due to
Diaphragm Weight
9.2.14.4
Deflection Due to
Barrier and Wearing
Surface Weights

p

(917.6)(14.71)(96x12)
(8)(3,834)(168,367)
2

3.47 in.
beam

5wL
384E I
4
ci
where w beam self-weight 0.847 kip/ft
Deflection due to beam self-weight at transfer:
L overall beam length 96.0 ft

beam

5
0.847
12
(96 x12)
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
4
j
(
,
\
,
(
2.51 in.
Deflection due to beam self-weight used to compute deflection at erection:
L span length 95.0 ft
beam

5
0.847
12
(95x12)
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
4
j
(
,
\
,
(

2.40 in.
D

19PL
384E I
3
ci
where P diaphragm weight concentrated at quarter points 0.73 kip
Deflection due to diaphragm weight at transfer:
D

19(0.73)(96x12)
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
3
0.09 in.
Deflection due to diaphragm weight used to compute deflection at erection:
D

19(0.73)(95x12)
(384)(3,834)(168,367)
3
0.08 in.
b+ws

5wL
384E I
4
c
where
w barrier and wearing surface weight (0.086 + 0.125) 0.211 kip/ft
E
c
modulus of elasticity of precast girder at 28 days 4,287 ksi
L span length 95.0 ft because these loads are applied to the structure in its
final location
b+ws

5
0.211
12
(95 x12)
(384)(4, 287)(168,367)
4
j
(
,
\
,
(
0.54 in.
9.2.14.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer/9.2.14.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights
9.2.14.2
Deflection Due to Beam
Self-Weight
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 34
JUL 03
At transfer: (
p
+
beam
+
D
) 3.47 2.51 0.09 0.87 in.
Total deflection at erection using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook):
1.8(3.47) 1.85(2.51 + 0.09) 1.44 in.
Long-Term Deflection:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. 5.7.3.6.2, states that the long-term deflection may be
taken as the instantaneous deflection multiplied by a factor, 4.0, if the instantaneous
deflection is based on gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0 is not
appropriate for this type of precast construction. It is recommended that the designer
follow the guidelines of the owner agency for whom the bridge is being designed, or
undertake a more rigorous time-dependent analysis.
Live load deflection limit (optional) [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
Span/800 (95)(12)/800 1.43 in.
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in Art.
2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the greater of [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.2]
that resulting from the design truck alone, or
that resulting from 25% of the design truck taken together with the design lane
load
The LRFD Specifications state that all the beams should be assumed to deflect equally
under the applied live load and impact (Art. 2.5.2.6.2). Therefore, the distribution
factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD (number of lanes/number of girders) [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
(2/7) 0.286 lanes/beam
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Therefore, design lane load, w 0.64DFM 0.64(0.287) 0.184 kips/ft
LL

5wL
384E I
4
c

5
0.184
12
(95 x12)
(384)(4, 287)(168,367)
4
j
(
,
\
,
(
0.46 in
Deflection due to design truck load with impact:
To derive maximum moment and deflection at midspan, let the centerline of the
beam coincide with the mid-point of the distance between the inner 32-kip axle and
the resultant of the truck load, as shown in Figure 9.2.14.6-1.
Using the elastic moment area, deflection at midspan is:

LT
2.90(IM)(DFM) 2.90(1.33)(0.287) 1.10 in.
Total live load deflection is the greater of:
LT
1.10 in. (Controls)
0.25
LT
+ D
LL
0.25(1.10) + 0.46 0.74 in.
Allowable live load deflection: 1.43 > 1.10 in. O.K.
9.2.14.5 Deflection and Camber Summary/9.2.14.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
9.2.14.6
Load and Impact
9.2.14.5
Deflection and
Camber Summary
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 35
JUL 03
9.2.15
TRANSVERSE
POST-TENSIONING
Article C4.6.2.2.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that for bridge type (g), the
structure acts as a monolithic unit if sufficiently interconnected. To satisfy this
requirement, the LRFD Specifications recommend that a minimum average transverse
prestress of 0.250 ksi be used. However, definition of the contact area for that post-
tensioning is unclear as to whether it is the shear key, the diaphragm, or the entire
box side surface. Instead of an empirical minimum, El-Remaily (1996) recommends
that the entire deck surface be modeled as a rigid assembly of gridwork with adequate
post-tensioning to provide for a continuous transverse member at the diaphragm
locations. A design chart based on this theory is given in Chapter 8 for the required
transverse post-tensioning per unit length of span.
According to the chart, for a 28 ft-wide bridge with 39 in. deep beams, an effective
post-tensioning force of 4.0 kips/ft is required. Since diaphragms are provided at
quarter-points of the span, the post-tensioning force required is:
4.0(23.75) 95 kips/diaphragm
It is recommended that transverse post-tensioning consist of one tendon near the top
and another near the bottom in order to provide sufficient flexural strength.
Use 160-ksi prestressing bars. Assume the effective prestress to be 55 percent of the
ultimate strength of the bar.
P
eff
0.55(160)A
PT
88.0A
PT
kips
Thus, total required A
PT

95.0
88.0
1.08 in.
2
/diaphragm
Try (2) 7/8 in. diameter, 160 ksi, bars.
The total area provided is A
PT
2(0.601) 1.202 in.
2
Total provided post-tensioning force (1.202)(0.55)(160) 105.8 kips/diaphragm
> 95.0 kips/diaphragm O.K.
If the post-tensioning bars are positioned so that they are concentric with the dia-
phragm cross section, concrete stress due to the effective prestressing force is:
105.8/(8)(39) 0.339 ksi
9.2.14.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact/9.2.15 Transverse Post-Tensioning
Figure 9.2.14.6-1
Design Truck Axle Load
Maximum Moment
37.77 kips
34.23 kips
32 kips 8 kips
72 kips
2.333'
35.833'
11.667'
2.333'
14'
31.167'
95'
Midspan
32 kips
7033 Bridge Book Ch_9.2 8/14/03, 1:53 PM 36
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
JUL 03
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION
9.3.2 MATERIALS
9.3.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL
INTERIOR BEAM
9.3.3.1 Non-Composite Section
9.3.3.2 Composite Section
9.3.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width
9.3.3.2.2 Modular Ratio Between Slab and Beam Materials
9.3.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
9.3.4.2.1 Live Load
9.3.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor
9.3.6.1 Shrinkage
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
6977 Bridge Manual Ch_9.3 rev1 8/18/03 11:36 AM Page 1
JUL 03
9.3.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points
9.3.7.5 Hold-Down Force
9.3.11 SHEAR DESIGN
9.3.12 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN
9.3.14.4 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This design example demonstrates the design of a 120-ft single-span AASHTO-PCI
bulb-tee beam bridge. This example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interi-
or beam at the critical sections in positive flexure, shear and deflection. The super-
structure consists of six beams spaced at 9 ft on-center. Beams are designed to act
compositely with the 8 in. thick cast-in-place concrete slab to resist all superimposed
dead loads, live loads and impact. The top 1/2 in. of the slab is considered to be a
wearing surface. Design live load is AASHTO HS20. The design is carried out in
accordance with the AASHTO Standard Specification for Highway Bridges, 17th
Edition, 2002.
Cast-in-place slab: Thickness, actual, t
s
8.0 in.
Structural 7.5 in.
Note that a 1/2 in. wearing surface is considered to be an integral
part of the 8 in. slab.
c
4,000 psi
Precast beams: AASHTO-PCI BT-72 Bulb-tee (as shown in Fig. 9.3.2-1)
ci
5,500 psi
c
6,500 psi
Concrete unit weight 150 pcf
Design span 120.0 ft
JUL 03
9.3.1
INTRODUCTION
9.3.2
MATERIALS
Figure 9.3.1-1
Bridge Cross-section 1'- 6"
48'- 0"
51'-0"
1'- 6"
8" Uniform Slab Thickness
5 spaces @ 9'- 0" = 45'-0"
3'-0" 3'-0"
Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Single Span,
Composite Deck, Standard
Specifications
Pretensioning strands: 1/2 in. diameter, seven wire, low relaxation
2
Ultimate stress, f
s
270,000 psi
Yield strength, f
y
*
0.9 f
s
243,000 psi [STD Art. 9.1.2]

Initial pretensioning, f
si
0.75 f
s
202,500 psi
[STD Art. 9.15.1]
s
28,500 ksi
Although the Standard Specifications, [Art. 9.16.2.1.2] indicates that the modulus of
elasticity, E
s
is 28,000 ksi, a value of 28,500 ksi is a more accurate value, according to
the PCI Design Handbook and the LRFD Specifications.
y
60,000 psi
Future wearing surface: additional 2 in. with unit weight 150 pcf
New Jersey-type barrier weight 300 lbs/ft/side
9.3.2 Materials
JUL 03
Figure 9.3.2-1
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 Bulb-Tee
2"
2"
3 1/2"
4'- 6"
4 1/2"
6"
2'- 2"
10" 6"
2"
6'- 0"
3'- 6"
2
545,894 in.
4
y
b
distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite
precast beam 36.60 in.
y
t
distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the non-composite pre-
cast beam 35.40 in.
S
b
beam I/y
b
14,915 in.
3
S
t
I/y
t
15,421 in.
3
Wt. 0.799 k/ft
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
where
E
c
(w
c
)
1.5
(33) [STD Art. 8.7.1]
w
c
unit weight of concrete = 150 pcf [STD Art. 3.3.6]
The Standard Specifications [STD Art. 8.7.1] indicates that the unit weight
of normal weight concrete is 145 pcf. However, precast concrete mixes typ-
ically have a relatively low water/cement ratio and high density. Therefore,
a unit weight of 150 pcf is used in this example. For high strength concrete,
this value may need to be increased based on test results.
f
c
specified strength of concrete, psi

Modulus of elasticity for the cast-in-place slab, using f
c

4,000 psi, is:
E
c
(150)
1.5
(33) 3,834 ksi
Modulus of elasticity for the beam at release, using f
c

f
ci

5,500 psi, is:
E
ci
(150)
1.5
(33) 4,496 ksi
Modulus of elasticity of the beam at service loads, using f
c

6,500 psi is:
E
c
(150)
1.5
(33) 4,888 ksi 6,500 /1000
5 500 1000 , /
4,000 /1000
f
c

9.3.3 Cross-Section Properties for a Typical Interior Beam/9.3.3.1 Non-Composite Section
JUL 03
9.3.3
CROSS-SECTION
PROPERTIES FOR A
TYPICAL INTERIOR
BEAM
9.3.3.1
Non-Composite Section
[STD Art. 9.8.3]
Effective web width of the precast beam is the lesser of: [STD Art. 9.8.3.1]
b
e
top flange width 42 in. (controls)
or, b
e
2(6)(5.5) + 6 + 2(2) 76 in.
Effective web width, b
e
42 in.
The effective flange width is the lesser of: [STD Art. 9.8.3.2]
1/4 span length: 360 in.
Distance center-to-center of beams: 9(12) 108 in. (controls)
12 (effective slab thickness) plus effective beam web width
12(7.5) + 42 132 in.
Effective flange width 108 in.
Modular ratio between slab and beam materials:
n 0.7845
Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck (7.5 in.) will be used in these com-
putations.
Transformed flange width n (effective flange width) 0.7845 (108) 84.73 in.
Transformed flange area n (effective flange width)(t
s
) 0.7845(108)(7.5) 635.45 in
2
Due to camber of the pretensioned precast beam, a minimum haunch thickness of
1/2 in. at midspan is considered in the structural properties of the composite section.
The haunch width must also be transformed.
Transformed haunch width (0.7845)(42) 32.95 in.
Transformed area of haunch (0.7845)(42)(0.5) 16.47 in.
2
Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if
it is required to be provided in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers
neglect its contribution to the section properties.
3,834
4,888
E slab)
E beam)
c
c
(
(
120 12)
4
(
9.3.3.2 Composite Section/9.3.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
JUL 03
9.3.3.2.3
Transformed Section
Properties
9.3.3.2
Composite Section
9.3.3.2.1
Effective Flange Width
9.3.3.2.2
Modular Ratio Between Slab
and Beam Materials
A
c
total area of composite section 1,419 in.
2
h
c
total height of composite section 80.00 in.
I
c
moment of inertia of composite section 1,100,320 in.
4
y
bc
distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of
the precast beam 77,715/1,419 54.77 in.
y
tg
distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the
precast beam 72 54.77 17.23 in.
y
tc
slab 80 54.77 25.23 in.
JUL 03
Transformed Area
in.
2
y
b
in.
A y
b
in.
3
A (y
bc
-y
b
)
2
I
in.
4
I+ A (y
bc
-y
b
)
2
in.
4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072.20 253,224.21 545,894.00 799,118.21
1/2
"
Haunch
16.47 72.25 1,189.96 5,032.42 0.34 5,032.76
Slab 635.45 76.25 48,453.06 293,190.53 2,978.79 296,169.32
1,418.92 77,715.22 1,100,320.20

Figure 9.3.3.2.3-1
Composite Section
84.73"
c.g. of composite
section
6'-8" 6'-0"
7.5"
108"
y
bc
0.5"
32.95"
Table 9.3.3.2.2-1
Properties of Composite Section
S
bc
composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
I
c
/y
bc
20,090 in.
3
S
tg
composite section modulus for top fiber of the precast beam
I
c
/y
tg
63,861 in.
3
S
tc
composite section modulus for top fiber of the slab
55,592 in.
3
The self-weight of the beam and the weight of the slab and haunch act on the non-
composite simple-span structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface,
and live load plus impact act on the composite simple-span structure.
[STD Art. 3.3]
Beam weight 0.799 kip/ft
8 in. slab weight 0.900 kip/ft
Haunch weight (3.5 ft)(0.150) 0.022 kip/ft
Note:
1. Actual slab thickness (8 in.) is used for computing slab dead load
2. A 1/2 in. minimum haunch is assumed in the computation of forces. If a deep-
er haunch will be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual
haunch should be used.
3. Diaphragms: Many state agencies are moving away from using cast-in-place
concrete diaphragms in favor of lighter weight steel diaphragms. Therefore, the
weight of diaphragms will be ignored.
4. Dead loads placed on the composite structure are distributed equally among all
beams. [STD Art. 3.23.2.3.1.1]
Barriers: (2 barriers) 0.100 kip/ft/beam
Weight of future wearing surface: (150) 25 psf which is applied over the
entire width of the bridge between curbs (48 ft)
Future wearing surface: /1,000 0.200 kip/ft/beam
25 48 0
6
( . )
2
12
300
6 beams
/ , 1 000
1/2
12
0 9 . ( 150
8
12
.0)
_
,
I
n y
1,100,320
0.7845 (25.23)
c
tc
1100 320
17 23
, ,
.
1100 320
54 77
, ,
.
9.3.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties/9.3.4.1.1 Dead Loads
JUL 03
9.3.4
SHEAR FORCES AND
BENDING MOMENTS
9.3.4.1
9.3.4.1.1
Dead Loads
For a simply supported beam, simple span (L), loaded with a uniformly distributed
load (w), the shear force (V
x
x
) at a distance (x) from
the support are given by:
V
x
w(0.5L x) (Eq. 9.3.4.1.2-1)
M
x
0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 9.3.4.1.2-2)
interior beam under dead loads (weight of beam, slab, haunch, barriers and future
wearing surface) are computed and given in Table 9.3.4.1.2-1. For these calculations,
the span length is the design span (120 ft). However, for calculations of stresses and
deformations at the time the prestress is released, the overall length of the precast
beam (121 ft) is used, as illustrated later in this example.
Live load is either the standard truck or lane loading corresponding to HS20. The
standard truck load will govern the design for this 120-ft simple-span example.
[STD Art. 3.7.1.1]
Using the live load distribution factor for moment for a precast pretensioned concrete
beam, the fraction of the wheel load carried by the interior beam:
DF
m
1.636 wheels/beam [STD Table 3.23.1]
where S average spacing between beams in feet
DF
m
/2 0.818 lanes/beam
[STD Art. 3.8]
The live load impact factor is computed using in the following equation:
[STD Eq. 3-1]
where
I impact fraction (maximum 30%)
L length in feet of the span under consideration 120 ft [STD Art. 3.8.2.2]
I 0.204
Impact for shear varies along the span according to the location of the truck [STD
Art. 3.8.2.2 (d)]. For simplicity, the impact factor computed above is used for shear.
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at tenth-
points of the span using the equations given in Chapter 8. However, this generally is
done by means of commercially available computer software that has the ability to
deal with moving loads.
+
50
120 125
I
50
L 125
+
S
5.5
9.0
5.5

9.3.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.3.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
JUL 03
9.3.4.2
9.3.4.2.1
Live Load
9.3.4.2.2
9.3.4.2.3
Live Load Impact
9.3.4.2.4
Unfactored Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
9.3.4.1.2
Bending Moments
Therefore, live load shear force and bending moment per beam are:
V
LL+I
(shear force per lane)(Distribution Factor)(1+I)
(shear force per lane)(0.818)(1+0.204)
(shear force per lane)(0.985), kips
M
LL+I
(bending moment per lane)(Distribution Factor)(1+I)
(bending moment per lane)(0.818)(1+0.204)
(bending moment per lane)(0.985), ft-kips
At any section along the span, the maximum bending moment and shear are comput-
ed for the standard truck loading and for the lane loading separately. The larger of the
two loading types controls the design for the section in question. At each section, the
load position must be determined to give the maximum shears and moments. This can
be done by means of commercially available software programs.
Values of V
LL+I
and M
LL+I
[STD Art. 3.22]
For service load design (Group I): 1.00 D + 1.00(L+I) [STD Table 3.22.1A]
where
D dead load
L live load
I impact fraction
For load factor design (Group I): 1.3[1.00 D + 1.67(L + I)] [STD Table 3.22.1A]
bottom fiber at the section of maximum moment or at the harp points. For estimat-
ing the number of strands, only the stresses at midspan need to be considered.
Bottom tensile stresses due to applied loads:
where
f
b
M
g
M
s
unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
M
b
unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
M
ws
M
LL+I
unfactored bending moment due to live load + impact, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Table 9.3.4.1.2-1, the bottom tensile stress at
midspan is:
3.921 ksi f
(1, 438.2+1,659.6)(12)
14,915
(180.0+360.0 1,851.6)(12)
20,090
b
+
+
f
M M
S
M M M
S
b
g s
b
b ws LL+I
bc
+
+
+ +
9.3.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.3.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.3.4.3
Load Combinations
9.3.5
ESTIMATE REQUIRED
PRESTRESS
9.3.5.1
at Midspan
F
b
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Bottom tensile stress - allowable tension stress at final f
b
F
b
3.921 0.484 3.437 ksi
The location of the center of gravity of strands at midspan usually ranges from 5 to
15% of the beam depth, measured from the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is
appropriate for newer efficient sections like bulb-tees and 15% for the less efficient
AASHTO shapes of normal design. Assume the distance from the center of gravity
of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is equal to y
bs
= 4.00 in.
(Note: y
bs
/h = 4/72 = 5.5%)
e
c
y
b
y
bs
36.60 4.00 32.60 in.
Bottom fiber stress due to prestress after all losses:
where P
se
effective pretension force after allowing for all losses
prestress, solve for the required minimum P
se
.
Then, 3.437
P
se
985.0 kips
Assume final losses 25% of f
si
Assumed final losses 0.25(202.5) 50.6 ksi
P
767
32.60 P
14,915
se se
+
f
P
A
P e
S
b
se se c
b
+
6 6 6 500
1
1 000
f 0 484ksi
c
_
,
. ,
,
JUL 03
Distance Section Beam weight Slab + Haunch
weights
Barrier weight Wearing Surface
weight
Live load +
x x/L Shear
V
g
V
s
V
b
V
ws
Moment
M
g
Shear Moment
M
s
Shear Moment
M
b
Shear Moment
M
ws
V
LL+I
M
LL+I
Shear Moment
f t kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips
0 0.000 47.9 0.0 55.3 0.0 6.0 0.0 12.0 0.0 65.4
3.333
[1]
0.028 45.3 155.4 52.2 179.3 5.7 19.4 11.3 38.9 63.6
12 0.100 38.4 517.8 44.3 597.5 4.8 64.8 9.6 129.6 58.3
24 0.200 28.8 920.4 33.2 1,062.1 3.6 115.2 7.2 230.4 51.2
36 0.300 19.2 1,208.1 22.1 1,394.1 2.4 151.2 4.8 302.4 44.1
48
[2]
0.400 9.6 1,380.7 11.1 1,593.2 1.2 172.8 2.4 345.6 37.0
60 0.500 0.0 1,438.2 0.0 1,659.6 0.0 180.0 0.0 360.0 29.9
ft-kips
0.0
211.5
699.7
1,229.1
1,588.4
1,799.6
1,851.6
[1] Critical section for shear (see section 9.3.11 of this example)
[2] Harp point
impact
9.3.5.2
9.3.5.3
Required Number of Strands
The available prestress force per strand after all losses
(cross-sectional area of one strand)[f
si
losses]
0.153(202.5 50.6) 23.24 kips
The assumed strand pattern for the 44 strands at the midspan section is shown in
Figure 9.3.5.4-1. Each available position was filled beginning with the bottom row.
Calculate the distance from center of gravity of the strand to the bottom fiber of the
beam, y
bs
.
y
bs
5.82 in.
e
c
y
b
y
bs
36.60 5.82 30.78 in.
12(2) 12(4) 8(6) 4(8) 2(10) 2(12) 2(14) 2(16)
44
+ + + + + + +
985.0
23.24
JUL 03
9.3.5.4
Strand Pattern
Figure 9.3.5.4-1
Assumed Strand Pattern
at Midspan
11 spaces
@ 2 in.
2 in. 2 in.
No.
of Strands
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
Distance from
bottom (in.)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
[STD Art. 9.16.2]
c
+ CR
s
[STD Eq. 9-3]
where
Cr
c
Cr
s
loss of prestress due to relaxation of pretensioning steel, ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.1]
Relative humidity varies significantly from one area of the country to another. Refer
to the U.S. map, Figure 9.16.7.1.1, in the Standard Specifications.
Assume relative humidity, RH = 70%
SH 17,000 150 RH [17,000 150(70)] 6.5 ksi [STD Eq. 9-4]
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.2]
For pretensioned members
ES [STD Eq. 9-6]
where
f
cir
f
cir
to pretensioning force and dead load of beam immediately after transfer
P
si
Specifications allow that the reduction to initial tendon stress be
estimated as 0.69 f
s
for low-relaxation strands

s
)
(44)(0.153)[(0.69)(270)] 1,254.2 kips
M
g
unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight 1,438.2 ft-kips
M
D
e
c
eccentricity of the strand at the midspan 30.78 in.
M
g
cir
is conserva-
tively computed based on using the design span length of 120 ft.
f
cir
1.635 + 2.177 0.973 2.839 ksi

ES 18.0 ksi
28,500
4,496
(2.839)
1, 254.2
767
1, 254.2(30.78)
545,894
1, 438.2(12)(30.78)
545,894
2
+
P
A
P e
I
(M M )e
I
si si c
2
g D c
+
+
E
E
f
s
ci
cir
1
1,000
9.3.6 Prestress Losses/9.3.6.2 Elastic Shortening
JUL 03
9.3.6
PRESTRESS LOSSES
9.3.6.1
Shrinkage
9.3.6.2
Elastic Shortening
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.3]
CR
c
12f
cir
7f
cds
[STD Eq. 9-9]
where
f
cds
concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due to all
dead loads except the dead load present at the time the pretensioning force
is applied.
where
M
s
slab and haunch moment 1,659.6 ft-kips
M
SDL
superimposed dead load moment M
b
+ M
ws
540.0 ft-kips
y
bc
54.77 in.
y
bs
the distance from center of gravity of the strand at midspan to the
bottom of the beam 5.82 in.
I moment of inertia for the non-composite section 545,894 in.
4
I
c
moment of inertia for the composite section 1,100,320 in.
4
f
cds
1.123 + 0.288 1.411 ksi

CR
c
12(2.839) 7(1.411) 24.2 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.4]
For pretensioned members with 270 ksi low-relaxation strand:
CR
s
5,000 0.10 ES 0.05(SH + CR
c
) [STD Eq. 9-10A]

f
si
effective initial pretension stress 202.5 18.0 184.5 ksi
P
si
44(0.153)(184.5) 1,242.1 kips
SH 6.5 ksi
ES 18.0 ksi
CR
c
24.2 ksi
CR
s
1.7 ksi
or (100) 24.9% losses
f
se
effective final prestress 0.75(270) 50.4 152.1 ksi
P
se
44 (0.153)(152.1) 1,023.9 kips
50.4
0.75(270)
[ . ( , ) . ( , + , )]
_
,
. 5,000 0 10 17 996 0 05 6 500 24 200

1
1,000
1 7 ksi
1,659.6(12)(30.78)
545,894
(540)(12)(54.77 5.82)
1,100,320
+
Me
I
M (y y )
I
s c SDL bc bs
c
+

9.3.6.3 Creep of Concrete/9.3.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads
JUL 03
9.3.6.3
Creep of Concrete
9.3.6.4
Relaxation of
Pretensioning Steel
9.3.6.5
9.3.6.6
Total Losses at
Service Loads
[STD Art. 9.15.2.1]
Compression: 0.6 f
ci

Tension: The maximum tensile stress shall not exceed:
0.556 ksi (tension)
If the calculated tensile stress exceeds 200 psi or
0.222 ksi, whichever is smaller, bonded reinforcement should be
provided to resist the total tension force in the concrete computed on the
assumption of an uncracked section.
beam. Stresses at this location need only be checked at release, because it almost
less critical.
Transfer length 50(strand diameter) [STD Art. 9.20.2.4]
50(0.50) 25 in. 2.08 ft
The transfer length section is located at 2.08 ft from the end of the beam or at a point
1.58 ft from centerline of the bearing. This is assuming the beam extends 6 in. beyond
the bearing centerline. This point on the design span 1.58/120.0 0.013.
Due to the camber of the beam at release, the beam self-weight is acting on the over-
all beam length (121.0 ft). Therefore, the values of bending moment given in Table
9.3.4.1.2-1 cannot be used because they are based on the design span (120.0 ft). The
value of bending moment at the transfer length due to beam self-weight is calculated
using Equation (9.3.4.1.2-2) based on overall length.
Therefore, M
g
0.5(0.799)(2.08)(121 2.08) 98.8 ft-kips.
t
:
f
t
f
t
+1.619 2.479 + 0.077 0.783 ksi

Allowable tension: 0.556 ksi N.G.
b
:
f
b
f
b
+1.619 + 2.563 0.079 +4.103 ksi

Allowable compression: +3.300 ksi N.G.
+ +
1, 242.1
767
1, 242.1(30.78)
14,915
98.8(12)
14,915
+ +
P
A
P e
S
M
S
si
si
b
g
b
+ +
1, 242.1
767
1, 242.1(30.78)
15, 421
98.8(12)
15, 421
+ +
P
A
P e
S
M
S
si
si
t
g
t
3 f
ci
7 5 . f
ci

9.3.7 Concrete Stresses at Transfer/9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
JUL 03
9.3.7
CONCRETE STRESSES
AT TRANSFER
9.3.7.1
9.3.7.2
Length Section
Since the top and bottom fiber stresses exceed those allowed, harped and/or debond-
ed strands must be used.
In this example, a harped strand pattern will be used with harp points at 0.40 L 48.0
ft from the centerline bearing or 48.5 ft from the end of the beam. Try harping 10
strands as shown in Figs. 9.3.7.2-1 and 9.3.7.2-2.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 10 harped strands and the top of the
beam at the end of the beam 6.00 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 10 harped strands and the bottom
of the beam at the harp points 12.00.
2(8) 2(10) 2(12) 2(14) 2(16)
10
+ + + +
2(2) 2(4) 2(6) 2(8) 2(10)
10
+ + + +
JUL 03
No. Distance from
of Strands bottom (in.)
2 8
8 6
12 4
12 2
No. Distance from
2 70
2 68
2 66
2 64
2 62
At ends
No. Distance from
2 16
2 14
2 12
2 10
4 8
8 6
12 4
12 2
2 in. 2 in.
Harped strands
At midspan
11 spaces
@ 2 in.
2 in. 2 in. 11 spaces
@ 2 in.
Figure 9.3.7.2-1 Strand Pattern
The distance between the center of gravity of the 10 harped strands and the top of
the beam at the transfer length section
8.32 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 34 straight strands and the bottom
of the beam at all locations 4.00 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of all strands and the bottom of the beam:
at end of beam 18.09 in.
at transfer length 17.56 in.
Eccentricity of strands at transfer length, e 36.60 17.56 19.04 in.
Recompute the concrete stresses at transfer length section with the harped strands:
f
t
+1.619 1.534 + 0.077 +0.162 ksi
Allowable compression: +3.300 ksi O.K.
Note: Since the top fiber stress is smaller than , there is no need for additional
bonded reinforcement.
f
b
+1.619 + 1.586 0.079 +3.126 ksi
Eccentricity of strands is the same as at midspan.
Bending moment at the harp point (0.4 L) due to beam self-weight is calculated using
Equation (9.3.4.1.2-2) based on overall length.
+ +
1, 242.1
767
1, 242.1(19.04)
14,915
98.8(12)
14,915
3 f
ci
+ +
1, 242.1
767 15, 421
12)
15, 421
1 242 1 19 04 98 8 , . ( . ) . (
34(4) 10(72 8.32)
44
+
34(4) 10(72 6)
44
+
12(2) 12(4) 8(6) 2(8)
34
+ + +
6in.
(72in. 12in. 6in.)
48.5ft
(2.083ft) +

9.3.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.3.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points
JUL 03
9.3.7.3
Stresses at Harp Points
6"
66"
2.083'
4"
48.5' 12'
12"
10 strands 34 strands
Beam Length = 121'
C Beam
L
Figure 9.3.7.2-2 Longitudinal Strand Profile
Therefore, M
g
0.5(0.799)(48.5)(121 48.5) 1,404.7 ft-kips
f
t
+1.619 2.479 + 1.093
+0.233 ksi
f
b
+1.619 + 2.563 1.130
+3.052 ksi
Bending moment at midspan due to beam self-weight is calculated using Equation
(9.3.4.1.2-2) based on overall length.
Therefore, M
g
0.5 (0.799)(60.5)(121 60.5) 1,462.3 ft-kips
f
t
+1.619 2.479 + 1.138
+0.278 ksi
f
b
+1.619 + 2.563 1.177
+3.005 ksi
Note: Stresses at harp points are more critical than stresses at midspan.
Assume the maximum initial pretensioning stress before allowing for any losses:
0.80f
pu
0.80(270) 216 ksi
Initial pretension force per strand before losses 0.153(216) 33.0 kips
Hold-down force per strand (33.0 kips/strand)(1.05) 3.21 kips/strand
Note: The factor, 1.05, is applied to account for friction.
Total force 10 strands (3.21) 32.1 kips
tan
-1
5.30
Where 54 in. is the vertical strand shift in a horizontal distance of 48.5 ft.
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits
for local practices. Refer to Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction, Section 3.3.2.2
and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.
54
48.5(12)
_
,
54
48.5(12)
+ +
1, 242.1
767
1, 242.1(30.78)
14,915
1, 462.3(12)
14,915
+ +
1 242 1
767
1 242 1 30 78
15 421
1 462 3 12
15 421
, . , . ( . )
,
, . ( )
,
+ +
1, 242.1
767 14,915
12)
14,915
1 242 1 30 78 1 404 7 , . ( . ) , . (
+ +
1, 242.1
767 15, 421
12)
15, 421
1 242 1 30 78 1 404 7 , . ( . ) , . (
9.3.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points/9.3.7.5 Hold-Down Force
JUL 03
9.3.7.4
Stresses at Midspan
9.3.7.5
Hold-Down Force
Top of beam Bottom of beam
f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At transfer length section +0.162 +3.126
At harp points +0.233 +3.052
At midspan +0.278 +3.005
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Compression:
Case (I): for all load combinations
0.60f
c
0.60(6,500)/1,000 +3.900 ksi (for precast beam)

0.60f
c
0.60(4,000)/1,000 +2.400 ksi (for slab)

Case (II): for effective pretension force + permanent dead loads
0.40f
c
0.40(6,500)/1,000 +2.600 ksi

0.40f
c
0.40(4,000)/1,000 +1.600 ksi (for slab)

Case (III): live load + 1/2 (pretensioning force + dead loads)
0.40f
c

0.40f
c
0.40(4,000)/1,000 +1.600 ksi (for slab)

Tension: 0.484 ksi
Compute concrete stress at top fiber of beam:
f
t
Case (I):
f
t

+1.335 2.044 + 2.411 + 0.101 + 0.348 +2.151 ksi
Case (II):
f
t
+1.335 2.044 + 2.411 + 0.101 +1.803 ksi
Case (III):
f
t
0.5(+1.335 2.044 + 2.411 + 0.101) + 0.348 +1.250 ksi
1,023.9
767
1,023.9(30.78)
15, 421
(1, 438.2 1,659.6)(12)
15, 421
(180 360)(12)
63,861
1,851.6(12)
63,861
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
P
A
P e
S
M M
S
M M
S
M
S
se se c
t
g s
t
b ws
tg
LL I
tg
6 f
c
_
,
6 6 500
1
1 000
,
,
9.3.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer/9.3.8.2 Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.3.7.6
Summary of Stresses
at Transfer
9.3.8
CONCRETE STRESSES
AT SERVICE LOADS
9.3.8.1
9.3.8.2
Stresses at Midspan
Compute concrete stresses at bottom of beam:
f
b
f
b
+1.335 + 2.113 2.492 0.323 1.106 0.473 ksi

Allowable tension: 0.484 ksi O.K.
Compute stresses at the top of the slab:
Case (I):
f
t
0.117 + 0.400
0.517 ksi
Case (II):
f
t
+0.117 ksi
Case (III):
f
t
0.5(+0.117) + 0.400 +0.459 ksi
Top of Slab Top of Beam Bottom of Beam
f
t
(ksi) f
t
(ksi) f
t
(ksi)
At midspan +0.517 +2.151 0.473
[STD Art. 9.17]
Using Group I load factor design loading combination, given earlier in Section 9.3.4.3
of the Standard Specifications:
M
u
1.3[M
g
+ M
s
+ M
b
+ M
ws
+ 1.67( M
LL+I
)] [STD Table 3.22.1.A]
1.3[1,438.2 + 1,659.6 + 180.0 + 360.0 + 1.67(1,851.6)] 8,749 ft-kips
Compute average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load, f
su
*
:
f
su
*
[STD Eq. 9-17] f 1
f
f
s
*
1
* s
c
_
,
(180 360)(12)
55,592
(1,851.6)(12)
55,592
+
+
M M
S
M
S
b ws
tc
LL I
tc
+
+
+
+ +
+
1,023.9
767
1,023.9(30.78)
14,915
(1, 438.2 1,659.6 )(12)
14,915
(180 360)(12)
20,090
1,851.6(12)
20,090
+ +
+
+
P
A
P e
S
M M
S
M M
S
M
S
se se c
b
g s
b
b ws
bc
LL I
bc
9.3.8.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.3.9 Flexural Strength
JUL 03
9.3.8.3
Service Loads
9.3.9
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
where
f
su
*
average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load.
*
0.28 for low-relaxation strand [STD Art. 9.1.2]
1
0.85 0.05 0.65 when f
c
> 4,000 psi[STD Art. 8.16.2.7]

0.85 0.05 0.85
where
A
s
*
area of pretensioned reinforcement 44(0.153) 6.732 in.
2
b effective flange width 108 in.
y
bs
distance from center of gravity of the strands to the bottom fiber
of the beam 5.82 in.
d distance from top of slab to centroid of pretensioning strands
beam depth (h) + haunch + slab thickness y
bs
72 + 0.5 + 7.5 5.82 74.18 in.
*
0.000840
f
su
*
270 265.0 ksi
a 4.86 in. < 7.5 in. [STD Art. 9.17.2]
Therefore, the depth of the compression block is less than flange thickness and the
section must be considered as a rectangular section.
Design flexural strength of a rectangular section:
M
n
[STD Eq. 9-13]
where
strength reduction factor 1.0 [STD Art. 9.14]
M
n
nominal moment strength of a section
M
n
10,660 ft-kips > M

u
8,749 ft-kips O.K.
1 0 6 732 265 0 74 18 0.6
0.00084(265.0)
4
/ 12 . ( . )( . )( . )
_
,
A f d 1 0.6
f
f
s
*
su
* su
*
c
_
,

*
6.732(265.0)
(0.85)(4.0)(108)
A f
0.85 f b
s
*
su
*
c
1
0.28
0.85
(0.000840)
270
4
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
6.732
108 (74.18)
A
bd
s
*
( , , )
,
4 000 4 000
1 000
(f 4,000)
1,000
c

JUL 03
[STD Art. 9.18.1]
Pretensioned concrete members are designed so that the steel is yielding as ultimate
capacity is approached.
Reinforcement index for rectangular section:
0.00084 0.0557 < 0.36(0.85) 0.306 O.K. [STD Eq. 9-20]
[STD Art. 9.18.2]
The total amount of pretensioned and non-pretensioned reinforcement should be
adequate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the
cracking moment, M
cr
*
:
M
n
1.2 M
cr
*
M
cr
*
[STD Art. 9.18.2.1]
where
f
r
modulus of rupture [STD Art. 9.15.2.3]
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after
stress is caused by externally applied loads.
where
P
se
effective prestress force after losses 1,023.9 kips
e
c
30.78 in.
f
pe
1.335 + 2.113 3.448 ksi
M
d/nc
non-composite dead load moment at midspan due to self-weight of beam
and weight of slab 1,438.2 + 1,659.6 3,097.8 ft-kips
M
cr
*
5,711 ft-kips
1.2M
cr
*
6,853 ft-kips < M
n
10,660 ft-kips O.K.
Contrary to LRFD Specifications, the Standard Specifications indicate that this require-
ment must be satisfied only at the critical sections.
(0.605 3.448)(20,090)
1
12
3,097.8
20,090
14,915
1 +
_
,
_
,
1,023.9
767
1,023.9(30.78)
14,915
+
P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
7.5 f 7.5 6,500
1
1,000
0 605 ksi
c
_
,
.
(f f )S M
S
S
1
r pe bc d/nc
bc
b
+
_
,
_
,
265 0
4
.

*
f
f
0.36
su
*
c
<
1
9.3.10 Ductility Limits/9.3.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.3.10
DUCTILITY LIMITS
9.3.10.1
9.3.10.2
[STD Art. 9.20]
Pretensioned members subject to shear should be designed so that:
V
u
(V
c
+ V
s
) [STD Eq. 9-26]
where
V
u
V
c
V
s
The critical section in pretensioned concrete beams is located at a distance h/2 from
the face of the support, according to the Standard Specifications, Article 9.20.1.4. In
this example, the critical section for shear will be conservatively calculated from the
centerline of support. The width of the bearing has not yet been determined, it will
be conservatively assumed to be zero. Therefore, the detailed calculations are shown
here for the section at (h
c
/2 80/2 40 in.) from the centerline of support. The fol-
lowing calculations demonstrate how to compute V
ci
and V
cw
at this location.
Compute V
ci
:
V
ci
[STD Eq. 9-27]
where
b
width of web of a flanged member 6.00 in.

f
c
compressive strength of beam concrete at 28 days 6,500 psi
V
d
total dead load at the section under consideration, (from Table 9.3.4.1.2-1)
V
g
+ V
S
+ V
b
+ V
ws
45.3 + 52.2 + 5.7 + 11.3 114.5 kips
V
LL+I
unfactored shear force at section due to live load + impact 63.6 kips
M
d
155.4 + 179.3 + 19.4 + 38.9 393.0 ft-kips
M
LL+I
live load bending moment plus impact 211.5 ft-kips
V
u
factored shear force at the section
1.3(V
d
+ 1.67V
LL+I
) 1.3[114.5 + 1.67 (63.6 )] 286.9 kips
M
u
factored bending moment at the section
1.3(M
d
+ 1.67M
LL+I
) 1.3[393.0 + 1.67(211.5)] 970.1 ft-kips
V
mu
factored shear force occurring simultaneously with M
u
.
Conservatively, use the maximum shear load occurring at this section.
1.3[114.5 + 1.67(63.6)] 286.9 kips
M
max
maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads
M
u
M
d
970.1 393.0 577.1 ft-kips
V
i
max
V
mu
V
d
286.9 114.5 172.4 kips
0.6 f b d V
VM
M
c d
i cr
max

+ +
9.3.11 Shear Design
JUL 03
9.3.11
SHEAR DESIGN
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension forces only
(after allowance for all pretension losses), at extreme fiber of section where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads.
The beam at this section is under positive flexure. Thus, f
pe
should be
evaluated at the bottom of the beam. Thus,
f
pe
Compute eccentricity of the strands at h

c
/2:
Center of gravity of 10 harped strands from the top of the beam:
10.26 in.
Center of gravity of the 34 straight strands from the bottom of the
beam 4.00 in.
Center of gravity of all strands from the bottom of the beam at h/2:
Therefore, the eccentricity of strand at h/2 36.60 17.12 19.48 in.
P
se
1,023.9 kips
f
pe
1.335 + 1.337 2.672 ksi
f
d
stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where
0.304 ksi
M
cr
moment causing flexural cracking of section due to externally applied loads
(after dead load)
(6 + f
pe
f
d
)S
bc
[STD Eq. 9-28]

d distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of pretensioned rein-
forcement. But d need not be taken less than 0.8 h
c
64.00 in. [STD
Art. 9.20.2.2]. The center of gravity of the pretensioned reinforcement is
located at 17.12 in. from the bottom of the beam.
80 17.12 62.88 in. < 64.00 in.
Therefore, use d = 64.00 in.
V
ci
[STD Eq. 9-27]
1,559.8 kips
0.6 6,500 (6.00)(64.00)
1,000
114.5
172.4(4,776)
577.1
+ +
0.6 f b d V
V M
M
c d
i cr
max

+ +
6 6,500
1,000
2.673 0.304
20,090
12
4 776 ft kips +
_
,
,
f
c
(155.4 179.3)(12)
14,915
(19.4 38.9)(12)
20,090
+
+
+
1
]
1
1,023.9
767 14,915
+
1 023 9 19 48 , . ( . )
10(72 10.26) 34(4)
44
17.12 in.
+
6 in.
(72 in. 12 in. 6 in.)
48.5 ft
(3.33 ft 0.5 ft) +

+
P
A
P e
S
se
se
b
+
9.3.11 Shear Design
JUL 03
This value should not be less than:
Minimum V
ci
[STD Art. 9.20.2.2]
52.6 kips < V
ci
1,559.8 kips O.K.
Compute V
cw
: [STD Art 9.20.2.3]
V
cw
[STD Eq. 9-29]
where
f
pc
compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all pretension losses)
at centroid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads. For a non
composite section
f
pc
1.335 0.664 + 0.134 0.805 ksi

V
p
vertical component of prestress force for harped strands
P
se
the effective prestress force for the harped strands
10(0.153)(152.1) = 232.7 kips
V
p
P
se
sin (see Section 9.3.7.5 for calculations of )
232.7sin(5.30) = 21.5 kips
V
cw
222.6 kips
The allowable nominal shear strength provided by concrete should be the lesser of V
ci
(1,559.8 kips) and V
cw
(222.6 kips). V
cw
governs, so:
V
c
222.6 kips
V
u
< (V
c
+ V
s
) (Eq. 9-26)
V
s
nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement
Required V
s
96.2 kips
Calculate the maximum shear force that may be carried by reinforcement:
Maximum V
s
[STD Art. 9.20.3.1]
247.7 kips > required V
s
96.2 kips O.K. 8 6,500
(6.00)(64.00)
1,000
8 f b d
c

V
V
286.9
0.90
222.6
u
c

3.5 6,500
1,000
0.3(0.805) (6.00)(64.00) 21.5 +
_
,
+
1,023.9
767
1,023.9(19.48)(54.77 36.60)
545,894
334.7(12)(54.77 36.60)
545,894
P
A
P e(y y )
I
(M + M )(y y )
I
se se bc b
g s bc b
3.5 f 0.3 f b d V
c pc p

+
_
,
+
1.7 6,500 (6.00)(64.00)
1,000
1.7 f b d
c

9.3.11 Shear Design
JUL 03
Compute area of shear steel required [STD Art. 9.20.3.1]
V
s
[STD Eq. 9-30]
Solving for A
v
:
A
v
where
A
v
area of web reinforcement, in.
2
Set s 12 in. to have units of in.
2
/ft for A
v
.
A
v
0.301 in.
2
/ft
Minimum shear reinforcement [STD Art. 9.20.3.3]
A
v-min
minimum area of web reinforcement
A
v-min
0.06 in.
2
/ft [STD Eq. 9-31]
The required shear reinforcement is the maximum of A
v
(0.301 in.
2
/ft) and A
v-min
(0.06 in.
2
/ft).
Maximum spacing of web reinforcement is 0.75 h
c
or 24 in., unless V
s
96.2 kips >
123.8 kips [STD Art. 9.20.3.2]
Since V
s
is less than the limit,
Maximum spacing 0.75 h 0.75 (72 + 7.5 + 0.5) 60 in.
or 24.00 in.
Therefore, maximum s 24 in.
Use # 4, two-legged stirrups at 12 in. spacing (A
v
0.40 in.
2
/ft)
Note that the above calculations need to be repeated at regular intervals along the
entire length of the beam to determine the area and spacing of shear reinforcement.
[STD Art. 9.20.4]
The computation will be carried out for the section at a distance of h
c
/2 from the cen-
terline of support.
V
u
286.9 kips
V
u
V
nh
[STD Eq. 9-31a]
where V
nh
nominal horizontal shear strength, kips
V
nh
318.8 kips
V 286.9
0.9
u
4 6,500(6.00)(64.00)
1,000
4 f b d
c

50(6)(12)
60,000
50b s
f
y
(96.2)(12)
(60)(64.00)
V s
f d
s
y
A f d
s
v y
9.3.11 Shear Design/9.3.12 Horizontal Shear Design
JUL 03
9.3.12
HORIZONTAL
SHEAR DESIGN
Case (a&b): Contact surface is roughened, or when minimum ties are used
[STD Art. 9.20.4.3]
Allowable shear force:
V
nh
80b
v
d
where
b
v
width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated for hori-
zontal shear 42.00 in.
d distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the pretensioning
force 62.88 in.
Note: The full d is used because the minimum value for d of 0.8 h
c
does
not apply to this calculation.
V
nh
211.3 kips < 318.8 kips N.G.
Case (c): Minimum ties provided, and contact surface roughened [STD Art. 9.20.4.3]
V
nh
350b
v
d
924.3 kips > 318.8 kips O.K.
Determine required stirrups for horizontal shear: [STD Art. 9.20.4.5]
minimum
The required minimum horizontal shear reinforcement, A
vh
0.42 in.
2
/ft is approxi-
mately equal to the vertical shear reinforcement provided, A
v
0.40 in.
2
/ft. O.K.
Maximum spacing 4b 4(6) 24.00 in [STD Art. 9.20.4.5.a]
or 24.00 in.
Therefore, maximum s 24.00 in. > the provided s 12 in.
[STD Art. 9.22]
In a pretensioned beam, vertical stirrups acting at a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist
at least 4% of the total pretensioning force, must be placed within the distance of d/4
of the beam end. [STD Art. 9.22.1]
Minimum stirrups at the each end of the beam:
P
s
prestress force before initial losses 44(0.153)[(0.75)(270)] 1,363.2 kips
4% P
s
0.04(1,363.2) 54.5 kips
Required A 2 73 in
v
. .
54 5
20
2
.
A
b s
f
50
42
60,000
0 42 in ft
vh
v
y
. . / 50
12
2
( )
350(42.00)(62.88)
1,000
80(42.00)(62.88)
1 000 ,
9.3.12 Horizontal Shear Design/9.3.13.1 Minimum Vertical Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.3.13
PRETENSIONED
ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.3.13.1
Minimum Vertical
Reinforcement
Use 5 pairs of #5 @ 3 in. spacing at each end of the beam (A
v
= 3.10 in.
2
)
[STD Art. 9.22.2]
Provide nominal reinforcement to enclose the pretensioning steel for a distance from
the end of the beam equal to the depth of the beam.
For harped strands:
where
p
camber due prestress force at transfer, in.
P
si
total pretensioning force 1,242.1 kips
I moment of inertia of non-composite section 545,894 in.
4
L overall beam length = 121.0 ft
E
ci
modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at release 4,496 ksi
e
c
eccentricity of pretensioning force at the midspan 30.78 in.
e difference between eccentricity of pretensioning steel at midspan and end
e
c
e
e
30.78 (36.60 18.09) 12.27 in.
a distance from the end of beam to harp point. = 48.50 ft
p
3.75 in.
beam
where w
g
beam weight 0.799 kips/ft
beam
1.57 in.
Deflection due to beam self-weight used to compute deflection at erection (L = 120 ft):
beam
1.52 in.
5(0.799/12)[(120)(12)]
(384) 4 496)
4
( , ( , ) 545 894
5(0.799/12)[(121)(12)]
(384)( 4, 496)(545,894)
4
5w L
384 E I
g
4
ci
1, 242.1
(4, 496)(545,894)
(30.78)[(121)(12)]
8
(12.27)[(48.5)(12)]
6
2 2
_
,
P
E I
e L
8
e a
6
si
ci
c
2 2
_
,
d
4
62.88
4
15.75 in.
9.3.13.1 Minimum Vertical Reinforcement/9.3.14.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self-Weight
JUL 03
9.3.13.2
Confinement
Reinforcement
9.3.14
DEFLECTION AND
CAMBER
9.3.14.1
Deflection Due to
Pretensioning Force
at Transfer
9.3.14.2
Deflection Due
to Beam Self-Weight
Total deflection at transfer: 3.75 1.57 2.18 in.
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook)
1.80(3.75) 1.85(1.520) 3.94 in.
PCI multipliers used to calculate long-term deflection in building products have not
proven to be accurate for bridge construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the
designer follow the guidelines of the owner agency for whom the bridge is being
designed. Frequently, no additional multipliers are used.
slab
where
w
s
slab weight + haunch weight 0.922 kips/ft
E
c
modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at service 4,888 ksi
slab
1.61 in.
Since these loads are applied to the structure in its final location, L is the design span
120 ft.
SDL
where
w
b
weight of barriers 0.100 kips/ft
w
ws
weight of future wearing surface 0.200 kips/ft
I
c
4
SDL
0.26 in.
Live load deflection limit (optional) = L/800
max
120(12)/800 1.80 in.
For all the design examples, live load deflection is conservatively computed based on
the distribution factor used to calculate bending stresses.
To derive maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to the truck load, let the
centerline of the beam coincide with the midpoint of the distance between the inner
32-kip axle and the resultant of the truck load (as shown in the Figure 9.3.14.6-1).
number of lanes
number of beams
0 667 lanes / beam .
4
6
5
0.100 + 0.200
12
[(120)(12)]
(384)(4,888)(1,100,320)
4
_
,
5(w w )L
384E I
b ws
4
c c
+
5(0.922/12)[(120) 12)]
(384) 4 888)
4
(
( , ( , ) 545 894
5w L
384 E I
s
4
c
9.3.14.3 Total Initial Deflection/9.3.14.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
JUL 03
9.3.14.3
9.3.14.4
Deflection Due to Slab and
Haunch Weights
9.3.14.5
Deflection Due to Barrier and
Wearing Surface Weights
9.3.14.6
Load and Impact
Beam analysis shows live load deflection at midspan is 0.80 in./lane.
LL+I
0.80(1 + I)(DF
m
)
LL+I
0.80(1.204)(0.818) 0.79 in. < 1.80 in. O.K.
JUL 03
Figure 9.3.14.6-1
Maximum Moment
37.40 kips
34.60 kips
32 kips 8 kips
72 kips
2.333'
48.333'
11.667'
2.333'
14'
43.667'
120'
Midspan
32 kips
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
JUL 03
9.4.1 INTRODUCTION
9.4.2 MATERIALS
9.4.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for Typical Interior Beam
9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment
9.4.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force
9.4.4.2.4.1 Due to Truck Load; V
LT
and M
LT
9.4.4.2.4.2 Due to Design Lane Load; V
LL
and M
LL
9.4.5.2 Stress Limit for Concrete
9.4.6.2 Shrinkage
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BULB-TEE (BT-72), SINGLE SPAN, COMPOSITE DECK, LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
7062 Bridge Manual CH_9.4 8/15/03, 9:40 AM 1
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.4.7.5 Hold-Down Forces
9.4.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit
9.4.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
9.4.11 SHEAR DESIGN
9.4.11.2.1.1 Calculation for Negative Strain
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.4.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER
9.4.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear
9.4.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
9.4.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement
9.4.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement
9.4.12.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Reinforcement
9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing
9.4.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
9.4.15.3 Deflection Due to Deck and Haunch Weights
9.4.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface
JUL 03
This design example demonstrates the design of a 120-ft single span AASHTO-PCI
bulb-tee beam bridge with no skew. This example illustrates in detail the design of
a typical interior beam at the critical sections in positive flexure, shear, and deflec-
tion due to prestress, dead loads and live load. The superstructure consists of six
beams spaced at 9- 0 centers, as shown in Figure 9.4.1-1. Beams are designed to
act compositely with the 8-in. cast-in-place concrete deck to resist all superimposed
dead loads, live loads and impact. A 1/2 in. wearing surface is considered to be an
integral part of the 8-in. deck. Design live load is HL-93. The design is accomplished
in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2nd Edition,
1998, and including through the 2003 Interim Revisions.
Cast-in-place slab: Actual thickness, t
s
= 8.0 in.
Structural thickness = 7.5 in.
part of the 8-in. deck.
c
= 4.0 ksi
Precast beams: AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee as shown in Figure 9.4.2-1
ci
= 5.8 ksi
c
= 6.5 ksi
c
= 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length = 121.0 ft
Design span = 120.0 ft
9.4.1
INTRODUCTION
9.4.2
MATERIALS
Figure 9.4.1-1
1'- 6"
48'- 0"
51'-0"
1'- 6"
8" Uniform Deck Thickness
3'-0"
5 spaces @ 9'- 0" = 45'-0"
3'-0"
Bulb-Tee (BT-72),
Single Span, Composite Deck,
LRFD Specifications
JUL 03
Prestressing strands: 1/2 in. dia., seven-wire, low-relaxation
Area of one strand = 0.153 in.
2

pu
= 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, f
py
= 0.9f
pu
= 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
before transfer, f
pi
0.75f
pu
= 202.5 ksi
at service limit state (after all losses) f
pe
0.80f
py
= 194.4 ksi
p
= 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
y
= 60 ksi
s
= 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barrier: Unit weight = 0.300 kip/ft/side
A = area of cross-section of beam = 767 in.
2
h = overall depth of beam = 72 in.
9.4.2 Materials/9.4.3.1 Non-Composite Section
9.4.3
CROSS-SECTION
PROPERTIES
FOR A TYPICAL
INTERIOR BEAM
9.4.3.1
Figure 9.4.2-1
AASHTO-PCI BT-72
Dimensions

JUL 03
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite precast beam
= 545,894 in.
4
y
b
= distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast beam
= 36.60 in.
y
t
= distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
= 35.40 in.
S
b
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast beam
= I/y
b
= 14,915 in.
3

S
t
= I/y
t
= 15,421 in.
3

Wt. = 0.799 kip/ft
[LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
E
c
= modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000(w
c
)
1.5
f
c
where
w
c
= unit weight of concrete, kcf = 0.150 kcf
LRFD Article C5.4.2.4 indicates that the unit weight of normal weight concrete
is 0.145 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low
water/cement ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used
in this example. For high strength concrete, this value may need to be increased
based on test results.
f
c
= specified strength of concrete, ksi

Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
cast-in-place slab, E
c
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
4.0 = 3,834 ksi
precast beam at transfer, E
ci
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
5.80

= 4,617 ksi
precast beam at service loads, E
c
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
6.50 = 4,888 ksi
[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
Effective flange width shall be the lesser of:
(1/4) span = (120)(12/4) = 360 in.;
12t
s
plus greater of web thickness or 1/2 beam top flange width
= (12 x 7.5) + (0.5 x 42) = 111 in.; or,
average spacing between beams = (9 x 12) = 108 in.
Therefore, the effective flange width is = 108 in.
Modular ratio between slab and beam materials, n =
E slab
E beam
3,834
4,888
c
c
( )
( )
=

= 0.7845
Transformed flange width = n(Effective flange width) = (0.7845)(108) = 84.73 in.
Transformed flange area = n(Effective flange width)(t
s
)
= (0.7845)(108)(7.5) = 635.45 in.
2

Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck, 7.5 in., is considered.
9.4.3.1 Non-Composite Section/9.4.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
9.4.3.2
Composite Section
9.4.3.2.1
9.4.3.2.2
Modular Ratio between
Slab and Beam Materials
9.4.3.2.3
Transformed
Section Properties
JUL 03
Due to camber of the precast, prestressed beam, a minimum haunch thickness of 1/2
in. at midspan is considered in the structural properties of the composite section.
Also, the width of haunch must be transformed.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.7845)(42) = 32.95 in.
Transformed area of haunch = (0.7845)(42)(0.5) = 16.47 in.
2
Note that the haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties
if it is required to be provided in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers
A
c
= total area of the composite section = 1,419 in.
2
h
c
= overall depth of the composite section = 80 in.
I
c
= moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,100,320 in.
4

y
bc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom fiber
of the precast beam = 77,715/1,419 = 54.77 in.
y
tg
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of
the precast beam = 72 54.77 = 17.23 in.
y
tc
the deck = 80 54.77 = 25.23 in.
84.73"
c.g. of composite
section
80"
7.5"
72"
108"
0.5"
32.95"
y
bc
Figure 9.4.3.2.3-1
Dimensions of the
Composite Section.
Table 9.4.3.2.3-1
Properties of Composite
Section
Area, in.
2
y
b
, in. Ay
b
, in.
3
, in.
4
A(y
bc
- y
b
)
2
I, in.
4
I + A(Y
b
-y
b
)
2
, in.
4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072.20 253,224.21 545,894.00 799,118.21
Haunch 16.47 72.25 1,189.96 5,032.42 0.34 5,032.76
Deck 634.45 76.25 448,453.06 293,190.53 2,978.79 296,169.32
1,418.92 77,715.22 1,100,320.29

JUL 03
S
bc
= composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
= (I
c
/y
bc
) =
1,100,320
54.77
= 20,090 in.
3
S
tg
= composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast beam
= (I
c
/y
tg
) =
1,100,320
17.23
= 63,861 in.
3
S
tc
= composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the deck slab
=
1
n
I / y
1
0.7845
1,100,320
25.23
c tc
( )
=
= 55,592 in.
3

The self-weight of the beam and the weight of the deck and haunch act on the
non-composite, simple-span structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing
surface, and live loads with impact act on the composite, simple-span structure. Refer
to Table 9.4.4-1 which follows Section 9.4.4 for a summary of unfactored values
calculated below.
[LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
DC = Dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments
Dead loads acting on the non-composite structure:
Beam self-weight = 0.799 kip/ft
8 in. deck weight = (8/12 ft)(9 ft)(0.150 kcf ) = 0.900 kip/ft
1/2 in. haunch weight = (0.5)(42/144)(0.150) = 0.022 kip/ft
Notes:
1. Actual deck thickness (8 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A 1/2 in. minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead
load. If a deeper haunch will be used because of final beam camber, the weight
of the actual haunch should be used.
3. The weight of cross-diaphragms is ignored since most agencies are changing
from cast-in-place concrete diaphragms to lightweight steel diaphragms.
Dead loads placed on the composite structure:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (curbs and future wearing
surface) may be distributed uniformly among all beams if the following condi-
tions are met:
Width of the deck is constant O.K.
Number of beams, N
b
b
= 4) O.K.
e
3.0 ft

d 3.0 1.5 1.5 ft
e
= =

O.K.
9.4.4
SHEAR FORCES AND
BENDING MOMENTS
9.4.4.1
9.4.4.1.1
Dead Loads
JUL 03
Curvature in plan is less than 4 (curvature = 0.0) O.K.
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 O.K.
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are equally
distributed among the 6 beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers )(0.300 kip/ft)/(6 beams) = 0.100 kip/ft
DW= Dead load of future wearing surface
= (2/12)(0.15) = 0.025 ksf
= (0.025 ksf )(48.0 ft)/(6 beams) = 0.200 kip/ft
For a simply supported beam with span (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed load
(w), the shear force (V
x
) and bending moment (M
x
) at any distance (x) from the
support are given by:
V
x
= w(0.5L x) (Eq. 9.4.4.1.2-1)
M
x
= 0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 9.4.4.1.2-2)
interior beam, under self-weight of beam, weight of slab and haunch, weight of bar-
riers and future wearing surface are computed and shown in Table 9.4.4-1. For these
calculations, the span length (L) is the design span, 120 ft. However, for calculations
of stresses and deformation at the time prestress is released, the overall length of the
precast member, 121 ft, is used as illustrated later in this example.
Design live load is HL-93 which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design truck is the same as the HS20 design truck specified by the Standard
Specifications, [STD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]. The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-
kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kip/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]
The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simpli-
fied distribution factor formulas, [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load
distribution factor formulas, the following conditions must be met: [LRFD Art.
4.6.2.2.1]
Width of slab is constant O.K.
Number of beams, N
b
4 (N
b
= 6) O.K.
Beams are parallel and of the same stiffness O.K.
e
3.0 ft (d 1.5 ft)
e
=

O.K.
Curvature is less than 4 [LRFD Table. 4.6.1.2.1-1] (Curvature = 0.0
) O.K.
9.4.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.4.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for Typical Interior Beam
9.4.4.1.2
Bending Moments
9.4.4.2
Moments Due to Live Loads
9.4.4.2.1
Live Loads
9.4.4.2.2
for Typical Interior Beam
JUL 03
For precast concrete I- or bulb-tee beams with cast-in-place concrete deck, the bridge
type is (k). [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio of (w/12), where (w) is the clear
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
From Figure 9.4.1-1, w = 48 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (48/12 ) = 4 lanes
For all limit states except fatigue limit state:
DFM = 0.075
S
9.5
S
L
K
12.0Lt
0.6 0.2
g
s
3
0.1
+

Provided that: 3.5 S 16; S = 9.0 ft O.K.
4.5 t
s
12; t
s
= 7.5 in. O.K.
20 L 240; L = 120 ft O.K.
N
b
4; N
b
= 6 O.K.
10,000 K
g
7,000,000 O.K. (see below)
where
DFM = distribution factor for moment for interior beam
S = beam spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
t
s
= depth of concrete slab, in.
K
g
= longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.
4
= n(I + Ae
g
2
) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n = modular ratio between beam and slab materials
=
E (beam)
E (beam)
c
c
=
4 888
3 834
,
,

= 1.2749
A = cross-sectional area of the beam (non-composite section), in.
2
I = moment of inertia of the beam (non-composite section), in.
4
e
g
= distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and slab, in.
= (7.5/2 + 0.5 + 35.4) = 39.65 in.
Therefore,
K
g
= 1.2749[545,894 + 767(39.65)2] = 2,233,257 in.
4
DFM =
0.075
9
9.5
9
120
2, 233, 257.6
12.0(120)(7.5)
0.6 0.2
3
0.1
+
= 0.075 + (0.968)(0.596)(1.139) = 0.732 lanes/beam

DFM = 0.06 +
S
14
S
L
K
12.0Lt
0.4 0.3
g
s
3
0.1

= 0.06 +
9
14
9
120
2 233 257
12 0 120 7 5
0 4 0 3
3
0 1
. . .
, ,
. ( )( . )

= 0.499 lanes/beam
9.4.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for Typical Interior Beam/9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment
9.4.4.2.2.1
Bending Moment
JUL 03
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFM = 0.732 lanes/beam.
For fatigue limit state:
The LRFD Specifications, Art. 3.4.1, states that for fatigue limit state, a single design truck
should be used. However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2
take into consideration the multiple presence factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states
that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is 1.2. Therefore, the
distribution factor for one design lane loaded with the multiple presence factor removed,
should be used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is: 0.499/1.2 = 0.416
lanes/beam.
DFV = 0.2
S
12
S
35
2
+

Provided that: 3.5 S 16; S = 9.0 ft O.K.
20 L 240; L = 120 ft O.K.
4.5 t
s
12; t
s
= 7.5 in. O.K.
N
b
4; N
b
= 6 O.K.
where
DFV = Distribution factor for shear for interior beam
S = Beam spacing, ft
Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force is:
DFV = 0.2
9
12
9
35
2
+

= 0.884 lanes/beam
DFV = 0.36
S
25.0
+

=

0.36
9
25.0
+

= 0.720 lanes/beam[LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls and DFV = 0.884 lanes/beam.
IM = 33% [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to truck load only
9.4.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment/9.4.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance
9.4.4.2.2.2
Distribution Factor
for Shear Force
9.4.4.2.3
Dynamic Allowance
JUL 03
Shear force and bending moment envelopes on a per-lane-basis are calculated at
tenth-points of the span using the equations given in Chapter 8 of this manual.
However, this is generally done by means of commercially available computer soft-
ware that has the ability to deal with moving loads. Therefore, truck load shear
force and bending moments per beam are:
V
LT
= (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(0.884)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.176) kips
M
LT
= (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.732)(1 + 0.33)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.974) ft-kips
Values of V
LT
and M
LT
at different points are given in Table 9.4.4-1.
For fatigue limit state:
Art. 3.6.1.4.1 in the LRFD Specifications states that the fatigue load is a single
design truck which has the same axle weight used in all other limit states but with
a constant spacing of 30.0 ft between the 32.0-kip axles. Bending moment enve-
lope on a per-lane-basis is calculated using the equation given in Chapter 8 of this
manual.
Therefore, bending moment of fatigue truck load is:
M
f
= (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.416)(1 + 0.15)
= (bending moment per lane)(0.478) ft-kips
Values of M
f
To obtain the maximum shear force at a section located at a distance (x) from the left
support under a uniformly distributed load of 0.64 kip/ft, load the member to the
right of section under consideration as shown in Figure 9.4.4.2.4.2-1. Therefore, the
maximum shear force per lane is:
V
x
=
0.32(L x)
L
2

for x 0.5L (Eq. 9.4.4.2.4.2-1)
where V
x
is in kip/lane and L and x are in ft.
9.4.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.4.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; V
LL
And M
LL
9.4.4.2.4.2
Due To Design
Lane Load; V
LL
And M
LL
left reaction
0.64 kip/ft/lane
right reaction
120'
x
(120 x) > x
Figure 9.4.4.2.4.2-1
Maximum Shear Force Due to
Design Lane Load
9.4.4.2.4
Bending Moments
9.4.4.2.4.1
Due To Truck Load;
V
LT
and M
LT
JUL 03
To calculate the maximum bending moment at any section, use Eq. (9.4.4.1.2-2).
Lane load shear force and bending moment per typical interior beam are as follows:
V
LL
= (lane load shear force)(DFV)
= (lane load shear force)(0.884) kips
M
LL
= (lane load bending moment)(DFM)
= (lane load bending moment)(0.732) ft-kips
Note that the dynamic allowance is not applied to the design lane loading.
Values of shear forces and bending moments, V
LL
and M
LL
, are given in Table 9.4.4-1.
[LRFD Art. 3.4]
Total factored load shall be taken as:
Q =
i
q
i
[LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
= a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
operational importance (Here, is considered to be 1.0)

i
= load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
q
i
= specified loads
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.00(DC + DW) + 1.00(LL + IM) [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress checks
and applies to all conditions other than Service III.
Service III: check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks
that applies only to tension in prestressed concrete structures to control cracks.
Strength I: check ultimate strength: [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 2]
Maximum Q = 1.25(DC) + 1.50(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90(DC) + 0.65(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum effects.
However, use minimum load factors for dead load (DC), and wearing surface (DW)
when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite to those of live load.
Fatigue: check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 0.75(LL + IM)
This load combination is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range
in the strands due to live load and dynamic allowance.
9.4.4.2.4.2 Due To Design Lane Load; V
LL
And M
LL
/9.4.4.3 Load Combinations
9.4.4.3
Load Combinations
JUL 03
bottom fiber for load combination at Service III at the section of maximum moment
or at the harp points. For estimating the number of strands, only the stresses at mid-
span are considered.
Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination
Service III is:
f
b
=
M M
S
M M (0.8)(M M )
S
g s
b
b ws LT LL
bc
+
+
+ + +

where
f
b
= bottom tensile stress, ksi
M
g
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight, ft-kips
M
s
= unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
M
b
= unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
M
ws
= unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface, ft-kips
M
LT
= unfactored bending moment due to truck load, ft-kips
M
LL
= unfactored bending moment due to lane load, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Table 9.4.4-1, bottom tensile stress at midspan
is:
9.4.4.3 Load Combinations/9.4.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
9.4.5.1
at Midspan
9.4.5
ESTIMATE REQUIRED
PRESTRESS
Distance Section
Beam weight (Slab+Haunch)
weight
Barrier weight Wearing surface
Truck load with
impact
Lane load Fatigue truck
with impact
x
ft
x/L Shear Moment
Mg
Shear Moment
M
s
Shear Moment
M
b
Shear Moment
M
ws
Shear
V
LT
Moment
M
LT
Shear
V
LL
Moment
M
LL
Moment
M
f
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
kips ft-kips kips ft-kips ft-kips
0 0.0 47.9 0.0 55.3 0.0 6.0 0.0 12.0 0.0
78.1 0.0 33.9 0.0 0.0
*7.18 0.06 42.2 323.6 48.7 373.3 5.3 40.5 10.6 81.0
72.9 433.9 30.0 189.7 165.0
12 0.1 38.4 517.8 44.3 597.5 4.8 64.8 9.6 129.6
69.6 691.6 27.5 303.6 309.2
24 0.2 28.8 920.4 33.2 1,062.1 3.6 115.2 7.2 230.4
61.1 1,215.0 21.7 539.7 535.8
36 0.3 19.2 1,208.1 22.1 1,394.1 2.4 151.2 4.8 302.4
52.7 1,570.2 16.6 708.3 692.7
48 0.4 9.6 1,380.7 11.1 1,593.2 1.2 172.8 2.4 345.6
44.2 1,778.9 12.2 809.5 776.2
60 0.5 0.0 1,438.2 0.0 1,659.6 0.0 180.0 0.0 360.0
35.7 1,830.2 8.5 843.3 776.9
* Critical section for shear (see Section 9.4.11)
Distance Section
x
ft
x/L
0 0.0
*7.18 0.06
12 0.1
24 0.2
36 0.3
48 0.4
60 0.5
* Critical section for shear (see Section 9.4.11)
Table 9.4.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments for a Typical Interior Beam
JUL 03
9.4.5.4
Strand Pattern
f
bc
=
(1, 438.2 1,659.6)
14,915
(12)
(180 360) (0.8)(1,830.3 843.3)
20,090
(12)
+
+
+ + +

= (2.492 + 1.600)
=
4.092 ksi
Tensile stress limit at service loads =
0.19 f
c

[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2b]
where f
c
= specified 28-day concrete strength of beam, ksi
Tensile concrete stress limit in concrete = 0.19 6.50

= 0.484 ksi
The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference
between bottom tensile stress due to the applied loads and the concrete tensile stress
limit:
f
pb
= (4.092 0.484) = 3.608 ksi
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan, ranges from 5 to 15% of the
beam depth, measured from the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is appropriate for
newer efficient sections like the bulb-tee beams and 15% for less efficient AASHTO
standard shapes.
Assume the distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom
fiber of the beam:
y
bs
= 0.05h = 0.05(72) = 3.60 in., use y
bs
= 4.0 in.
Therefore, strand eccentricity at midspan, e
c
= (y
b
y
bs
) = (36.6 4.0) = 32.6 in.
If P
pe
is the total prestressing force, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
f
pb
=
P
A
P e
S
pe pe c
b
+
,
or, 3.608 =
P
767
P (32.6)
14,915
pe pe
+
Solving for P
pe
, the required P
pe
= 1,034.4 kips.
Final prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(f
pi
)(1 losses, %)
where f
pi
= initial stress before transfer, ksi (see Section 9.4.2) = 202.5 ksi
Assuming final loss of 25% of f
pi
, the prestress force per strand after all losses
= (0.153)(202.5)(1 0.25) = 23.2 kips
Number of strands required = (1,034.4/23.2) = 44.6 strands
As an initial trial, (46) 1/2 in., 270 ksi strands were selected. The center of gravity of the 46
strands at midspan is 6.35 in. from the bottom of the concrete, which is higher than the
assumed value, 4.0 in. Thus, a second iteration using the new value of strand eccentricity
indicates that 48 strands are required. The strand pattern at midspan for the 48 strands
is shown in Figure 9.4.5.3-1. Each available position is filled beginning with the bottom
row.
The distance between the center of gravity of bottom strands and the bottom con-
crete fiber of the beam is:
y
bs
= [12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8) + 2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16) + 2(18) + 2(20)]/(48)
= 6.92 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, e
c
= y
b
y
bs
= 36.60 6.92 = 29.68 in.
9.4.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.4.5.4 Strand Pattern
9.4.5.3
Required Number
of Strands
9.4.5.2
JUL 03
Total prestress loss:
f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
f
pES
= loss due to elastic shortening
f
pSR
= loss due to shrinkage
f
pCR
= loss due to creep
f
pR2
= loss due to relaxation of steel after transfer
f
pES
=

E
E
f
p
ci
cgp

[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.2.3a]
where
E
p
= modulus of elasticity of prestressing reinforcement = 28,500 ksi
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of beam at release = 4,617 ksi
f
cgp
= sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due
to prestressing force at transfer and the self-weight of the member at sec-
tions of maximum moment.
Force per strand at transfer = (area of strand)(prestress stress at transfer)
9.4.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.4.6.1 Elastic Shortening
9.4.6
PRESTRESS LOSSES
9.4.6.1
Elastic Shortening
11 spaces
@ 2"
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
2" 2"
Distance from
bottom (in.)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Figure 9.4.5.3-1
at Midspan
JUL 03
LRFD Article 5.9.5.2.3a states that f
cgp
can be calculated on the basis of prestressing steel
stress assumed to be 0.7f
pu
for low-relaxation strands. However, common practice assumes
the initial losses as a percentage of initial prestressing stress before release, f
pi
. In both pro-
cedures, assumed initial losses should be checked and if different from the assumed value,
a second iteration should be carried out. In this example, 9% f
pi
initial loss is used.
Force per strand at transfer = (0.153)(202.5)(1 0.09) = 28.2 kips
f
cgp
=
P
A
Pe
I
M e
I
i i c
2
g c
+
where
e
c
= eccentricity of strands measured from the center of gravity of the precast
beam at midspan
P
i
= total prestressing force at release = (48 strands)(28.2) = 1,353.6 kips
M
g
should be calculated based on the overall beam length of 121 ft. Since
the elastic shortening loss is a part of the total loss, f
cgp
will be conservatively
computed based on M
g
f
cgp
=
1,353.6
767
(1,353.6)(29.68)
545,894
[(1, 438.2)(12)](29.68)
545,894
2
+
= 1.765 + 2.184 0.938 = 3.011 ksi
Therefore, loss due to elastic shortening:
f
pES
=
28,500
4,617
(3.011)

= 18.6 ksi
Percent actual loss due to elastic shortening =

18.6
202.5
(100) = 9.2%
Since the calculated loss of 9.2% is approximately equal to the initial loss assumption of
9%, a second iteration is not necessary. Note that this loss is equivalent to a stress after
initial losses of 0.68 f
pu
. This stress is lower than the estimate of 0.70 f
pu
, provided in Article
5.9.5.2.3a. If the elastic shortening loss was calculated using a stress of 0.70 f
pu
, a second
iteration would be required to arrive at a steel stress of 0.68 f
pu
.
f
pSR
= (17 0.15H) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2-1]
where H = relative humidity (assume 70%)
Figure 5.4.2.3.3-1 in the LRFD Specifications.
f
pSR
= 17 0.15(70) = 6.5 ksi
f
pCR
= 12f
cgp
7f
cdp
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3-1]
where f
cdp
= change of stresses at center of gravity of prestressing due to permanent
loads, except dead load acting at time the prestress force is applied
calculated at the same section as f
cgp
=
Me
I
(M M )(y y )
I
s c ws b bc bs
c
+
+

=
(1,659.6)(12)(29.68)
545,894
(180 360)(12)(54.77 6.92)
1,100,320
+
+

= 1.083 + 0.282 = 1.365 ksi
f
pCR
= 12(3.011) 7(1.365) = 26.6 ksi
9.4.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.4.6.3 Creep of Concrete
9.4.6.2
Shrinkage
9.4.6.3
Creep of Concrete
JUL 03
Initial loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel is accounted for in the beam fabrica-
tion process. Therefore, loss due to relaxation of the prestressing steel prior to trans-
fer is not be computed, i.e. f
pR1
= 0. Recognizing this for pretensioned members,
LRFD Article 5.9.5.1 allows the portion of the relaxation loss that occurs prior to
transfer to be neglected in computing the final loss.
For low-relaxation strands, loss due to relaxation after transfer: [LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4c]
f
pR2
= 30%[20.0 0.4f
pES
0.2(f
pSR
+ f
pCR
)] [LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4c-1]
= 0.3[20.0 0.4(18.6) 0.2(6.5 + 26.6)] = 1.8 ksi
f
pi
= f
pES
= 18.6 ksi
pt
= f
pi
f
pi
= (202.5 18.6) = 183.9 ksi
Force per strand = (f
pt
)(area of strand) = 183.9(0.153) = 28.1 kips
Initial loss, % = (Total losses at transfer)/(f
pi
) = 18.6/(202.5) = 9.2 %
The first estimation of loss at transfer, 9%, is very close to the actual computed ini-
tial loss of 9.2%. Thus, there is no need to perform a second iteration to refine the
initial losses.
Total loss of prestress at service loads is:
f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
= 18.6 + 6.5 + 26.6 + 1.8 = 53.5 ksi
Stress in tendons after all losses, f
pe
= f
pi
f
pt
= 202.5 53.5 = 149.0 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
f
pe
0.8f
py
= 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 149.0 ksi O.K.
pe
pe
= 22.8(48) = 1,094.4 kips
Final loss, % = (total losses at transfer)/(f
pi
) = 53.5/(202.5) = 26.4%
Force per strand after initial losses = 28.1 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer = 1,348.8 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
= 0.6(5.8) = +3.480 ksi
where f
ci
= concrete strength at release = 5.80 ksi
Tension:
without bonded reinforcement
0.0948 f
ci

0.200 ksi; 0.0948 5.8

= 0.228 ksi
Therefore, 0.200 ksi (Controls)
9.4.6.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Strands/9.4.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete
9.4.6.6
Total Losses at
Service Loads
9.4.7
STRESSES AT
TRANSFER
9.4.7.1
9.4.6.4
Relaxation of
Prestressing Strands
9.4.6.4.1
9.4.6.4.2
9.4.6.5
JUL 03
with bonded auxiliary reinforcement which is sufficient to resist 120% of the ten-
sion force in the cracked concrete
0.22 f
ci

= 0.22 5.8

= 0.530 ksi
Stresses at this location need only be checked at release since this stage almost always gov-
erns. Also, losses with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art.
5.8.2.3]
Due to camber of the beam at release, the beam self-weight acts on the overall beam
length, 121 ft. Therefore, values for bending moment given in Table 9.4.4-1 cannot
be used because they are based on the design span of 120 ft. Using statics, bending
moment at transfer length due to beam self-weight is:
0.5wx(L x) = (0.5)(0.799)(2.5)(121 2.5) = 118.4 ft-kips
Compute stress in the top of beam:
f
t
=
P
A
Pe
S
M
S
i i
t
g
t
+

=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(29.68)
15, 421
(118.4)(12)
15, 421
+

= 1.759 2.605 + 0.092 = 0.754 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: 0.530 ksi N.G.
Compute stress in the bottom of beam:
f
b
=

P
A
Pe
S
M
S
i i
b
g
b
+ =
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(29.68)
14,915
(118.4)(12)
14,915
+

= 1.759 + 2.684 0.095 = +4.348 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: + 3.480 ksi N.G.
Since stresses at the top and bottom exceed the stress limits, harp strands to satisfy the
specified limits. Harp 12 strands at the 0.4L points, as shown in Figures 9.4.7.2-1
and 9.4.7.2-2.
11 spac.
@ 2"
2" 2"
Harped
strands
At midspan
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
Distance from
bottom (in.)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
No.
Strands
4
8
12
12
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
2
2
Distance from
bottom (in.)
70
68
66
64
62
60
Distance from
bottom (in.)
8
6
4
2
11 spac.
@ 2"
2" 2"
At ends
Figure 9.4.7.2-1
Strand Pattern
9.4.7.1 Stress Limits for Concrete/9.4.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
9.4.7.2
Length Section
JUL 03
Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length section
using the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands at the end of the
beam and the top fiber of the precast beam is:
2(2) 2(4) 2(6) 2(8) 2(10) 2(12)
12
+ + + + +

= 7.0 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped stands at the harp point
and the bottom fiber of the beam is:
2(10) 2(12) 2(14) 2(16) 2(18) 2(20)
12
+ + + + +

= 15.0 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands and the top fiber
of the beam at the transfer length section:
7 in.
(72 15 7) in.
48.5 ft
(2.5 ft) +

= 9.58 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the bottom straight 36 strands and the
extreme bottom fiber of the beam is:
12(2) 12(4) 8(6) 4(8)
36
+ + +

= 4.22 in.
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of strands
measured to the bottom of the precast beam at transfer length:
36(4.22) 12(72 9.58)
48
+

= 18.77 in.
Eccentricity of the strand group at transfer length, e, is: 36.6 18.77 = 17.83 in.
The center of gravity of all prestressing strand with respect to the extreme bottom
fiber at the end of the beam, y
bs
, is:
(36)(4.22) 12(72 7)
48
+

= 19.42 in.
Recompute the stresses at the transfer length section with harped strands:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
f
t
=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(17.83)
15, 421
(118.4)(12)
15, 421
+

= 1.759 1.560 + 0.092 = +0.291 ksi
Compressive stress limit: +3.480 ksi O.K.
7"
65"
2'-6"
4.22"
48'-6" 12'-0"
15"
Beam Length = 121'-0"
C Beam
L
Figure 9.4.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile
JUL 03
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
f
b
=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(17.83)
14,915
(118.4)(12)
14,915
+

= 1.759 + 1.612 0.095 = +3.276 ksi
The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, e
c
= 29.68 in.
Bending moment at the harp points (0.4L) due to the self-weight of the beam is:
(0.5)(0.799)(48.5)(121 48.5) = 1,404.7 ft-kips.
Therefore, top and bottom stresses are:
Concrete stress in top of beam:
f
t
=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(29.68)
15, 421
(1, 404.7)(12)
15, 421
+

= 1.759 2.596 + 1.093 = +0.256 ksi
Concrete stress in bottom of beam:
f
b
=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(29.68)
14,915
(1, 404.7)(12)
14,915
+

= 1.759 + 2.684 1.130 = +3.313 ksi
Bending moment at midspan due to the beam self-weight is:
M
g
= 0.5(0.799)(60.5)(121 60.5) = 1,462.3 ft-kips.
f
t
=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(29.68)
15, 421
(1, 462.3)(12)
15, 421
+

= 1.759 2.596 + 1.138 = +0.301 ksi
f
b
=
1,348.8
767
(1,348.8)(29.68)
14,915
(1, 462.3)(12)
14,915
+

= 1.759 + 2.684 1.177 = +3.266 ksi
Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before seating losses, is:
0.80 f
pu
= 0.80(270) = 216 ksi
Thus, the prestress force per strand before seating losses is: 0.153(216) = 33.0 kips
From Figure 9.4.7.2-2, the harp angle,
= tan
-1
50
48.5(12)

= 4.91
9.4.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.4.7.5 Hold-Down Forces
9.4.7.4
Stresses at Midspan
9.4.7.5
Hold-Down Forces
9.4.7.3
JUL 03
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin )
= 1.05(33.0)sin 4.91 = 2.97 kips/strand
Note the factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 12 strands(2.97) = 35.6 kips
for local practices. Refer to Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction, Section 3.3.2.2
and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures for additional details.
Top Stresses Bottom Stresses
f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At midspan +0.301 +3.266
The total prestressing force after all losses, P
pe
= 1,094.4 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
Compression:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e. beam self-weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight of
future wearing surface, and weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for precast beam: 0.45f
c
= 0.45(6.5) = +2.925 ksi
for deck: 0.45f
c
= 0.45(4.0) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e. all dead loads and live loads), for load
combination Service I:
c
= 0.60(6.5) = +3.900 ksi
for deck: 0.60f
c
= 0.60(4.0) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
for load combination Service III: 0.19 f
c

for precast beam: 0.19 6.5

= 0.484 ksi
Concrete stress at top fiber of the beam:
To check top compressive stresses, two cases are checked:
1. Under permanent loads, Service I:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.4.4-1, compute the top fiber
stresses:
f
tg
=
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
(M M )
S
pe pe c
t
g s
t
ws b
tg
+
+
+
+

9.4.7.5 Hold-Down Forces/9.4.8.2 Stresses at Midspan
9.4.8
STRESSES AT
SERVICE LOADS
9.4.8.1
Stress Limits For Concrete
9.4.8.2
Stresses at Midspan
9.4.7.6
Summary of
JUL 03
=
1,094.4
767
(1,094.4)(29.68)
15, 421
(1, 438.2 1,659.6)(12)
15, 421
(360 180)(12)
63,861
+
+
+
+

= 1.427 2.106 + 2.411 + 0.101 = +1.833 ksi
2. Under permanent and transient loads, Service I:
f
tg
= +1.833 +
M M
S
LT LL
tc
+
( )

=
+ +
+
1.833
(1,830.3 843.3)(12)
63,861

= +1.833 + 0.502 = +2.335 ksi
Concrete stress at the top fiber of the deck:
Note: Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design
for typical applications. The calculations shown below are for illustration purposes
and may not be necessary in most practical applications.
f
tc
=
M M
S
ws b
tc
+

=
(360 180)(12)
55,592
+

= +0.117 ksi
f
tc
=
M M
S
M M
S
ws b
tc
LT LL
tc
+
+
+

= 0.117
(1,830.3 843.3)
55,592
+
+

= +0.694 ksi
Concrete stress in bottom of beam, Service III:
f
b
=
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
(M M ) 0.8(M M )
S
pe pe c
b
g s
b
ws b LT LL
bc
+
+
+ + +

=
1,094.4
767
(1,094.4)(29.68)
14,915
+

+ + + (1, 438.2 1,659.6)(12)

14,915
[(360 180) (0.8)(1,830.3 843.3)](12)
20,090

= 1.427 + 2.178 2.492 1.600 = 0.487 ksi
Tensile stress limit: 0.484 ksi
Stress is within 1% of stress limit. O.K..
LRFD Article 5.5.3.1 states that in regions of compressive stress due to permanent
loads and prestress, fatigue is considered only if the compressive stress is less than
twice the maximum tensile live load stress resulting from the fatigue load com-
bination. However, the LRFD Specifications do not state where this stress is com-
puted: at the bottom fiber of concrete or at the lower strand level. In this example,
9.4.8.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.4.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit
9.4.8.3
Fatigue Stress Limit
JUL 03
for convenience, the calculations are done at the bottom fiber of concrete.
At midspan, the bottom compressive stress due to permanent loads and prestress is:

P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
(M M )
S
pe pe c
b
g s
b
ws b
bc
+
+
+

=
1,094.4
767
(1,094.4)(29.68)
14,915
(1, 438.2 1,659.6)
14,915
(360.0 180.0)
20,090
+
+
+

= 1.427 + 2.178 2.492 0.323 = +0.790 ksi
From Table 9.4.4-1, the unfactored fatigue bending moment at midspan, M
f
, is
776.9 ft-kips. Thus, stress at the bottom fiber of the beam due to fatigue load com-
bination is:
=
0.75(M )
S
0.75(776.9)(12)
20,090
f
bc

= 0.348 ksi
Since 2 (0.348) = 0.696 ksi < 0.790 ksi, the fatigue check does not need to be per-
formed. See Discussion in Section 9.2.9.3 in Example 9.2.
Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
M
u
= 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
Using the values of unfactored bending moment given in Table 9.4.4-1, the ultimate
bending moment at midspan is:
M
u
= 1.25(1,438.2 + 1,659.6 + 180) + 1.5(360) + 1.75(1,830.3 + 843.3 ) = 9,316.1 ft-
kips
pe
0.5 f
pu
:
f
ps
= f
pu
1 k
c
d
p

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
where
f
ps
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of prestressing steel = 270 ksi
k = 2 1.04
f
f
py
pu
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]

= 0.28 for low-relaxation strand [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
d
p
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing
9.4.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit/9.4.9 Strength Limit State
9.4.9
9.4.8.4
Service Loads
Top of Deck (ksi)
Service I
Top of Beam (ksi)
Service I
Bottom of
Beam (ksi)
Permanent
Loads
Total Loads Permanent
Loads
Total Loads Service III
At midspan +0.117 +0.694 +1.833 +2.335 0.487
JUL 03
tendons = h y
bs
= 80.00 6.92 = 73.08 in.
c = distance between the neutral axis and the compressive face, in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior and check if the depth of
the equivalent compression stress block, c, is less than or equal to t
s
:
[LRFD C5.7.3.2.2]
where a =
1
c
c =
A f A f A f
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s y
c 1 ps
pu
p
+
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1.-4]

where
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel = 48(0.153) = 7.344 in.
2
A
s
= area of mild steel tension reinforcement = 0 in.
2
A
s
= area of compression reinforcement = 0 in.
2
f
c
= compressive stress of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
f
y
= yield strength of tension reinforcement, ksi
f
y
= yield strength of compression reinforcement, ksi

1
= stress factor of compression block [LRFD Art. 5.7.2.2]
= 0.85 for f
c
4.0 ksi
= 0.85 0.05 (f
c
4.0) 0.65 for f
c
> 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 108 in.
c =
7.344(270) 0 0
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(108) 0.28(7.344)
270
73.08
+
+
= 6.20 in. < t

s
= 7.5 in. O.K.
a =
1
c = 0.85(6.2) = 5.27 in.
Therefore, the rectangular section behavior assumption is valid.
The average stress in prestressing steel is:
f
ps
= 270 1 0.28
6.20
73.08

= 263.6 ksi
Nominal flexural resistance: [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.3]
M
n
= A
ps
f
ps
d
a
2
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]

The above equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no
compression reinforcement or mild tension reinforcement is considered and the sec-
tion behaves as a rectangular section.
M
n
= (7.344)(263.6) 73.08
5.27
2
/12 = 11,364.4 ft-kips

9.4.9 Strength Limit State
JUL 03
M
r
= M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
= resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete
M
r
= 11,364.4 ft-kips > M
u
= 9,316.1 ft-kips O.K.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The amount of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement should be such that
c
d
e

0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where d
e
=
A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]
Since A
s
= 0, d
e
= d
p
= 73.08 in.
c
d
6.20
73.08
e
=

= 0.085 0.42 O.K.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement
r
, equal to the lesser
of:
and the modulus of rupture, and,
1.33 times the factored moment required by the applicable strength load combina-
tion.
Check at midspan:
The LRFD Specifications do not give any procedure for computing the cracking
moment. Therefore, the following equation adapted from the Standard Specifications,
Art. 9.18.2.1, is used.
M
cr
= (f
r
+ f
pb
)S
bc
M
d/nc
(S
bc
/S
b
1)
where
f
r
= modulus of rupture [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= 0.24 f
c

= 0.24 6 5 .

= 0.612 ksi
f
pb
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after
=
P
A
P e
S
1,094.4
767
1,094.4(29.68)
14,915
pe pe c
b
+ = +

= 3.605 ksi
M
d/nc
= M
g
+ M
s
= 1,438.2 + 1,659.6 = 3,097.8 ft-kips
S
bc
= composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 20,090 in.
4
S
b
= non-composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where
9.4.9 Strength Limit State/9.4.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement
9.4.10.2
9.4.10
LIMITS OF
REINFORCEMENT
9.4.10.1
JUL 03
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 14,915 in.
4
M
cr
= (0.612 + 3.605)
20 090
12
3 097 8
20 090
14 915
1
,
( , . )
,
,

= 5,985.1 ft-kips
1.2 M
cr
= 1.2(5,985.1) = 7,182.1 ft-kips
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
M
u
= 9,316.1 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.4.9)
Thus, 1.33M
u
= 1.33(9,316.1) = 12,390.4 ft-kips
Since 1.2M
cr
< 1.33M
u
, the 1.2M
cr
requirement controls.
M
r
= 11,364.4 ft-kips > 1.2M
cr
= 7,182.1 ft-kips O.K.
Note: Contrary to the Standard Specifications, the LRFD Specifications requires that
this criterion be met at every section.
along the entire length of the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design
near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement is provided when:
V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
V
u
= total factored shear force, kips
V
c
= shear strength provided by concrete, kips
V
p
= component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the applied
shear, kips
= resistance factor = 0.9 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
0.5d
v
cot , or, d
v

where
d
v
= distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (d
e
a/2), but not
less than (0.9d
e
) or (0.72h) [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
where
d
e
= the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to
the centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
a = depth of compression block = 5.27 in. at midspan (assumed adequate)
h = total height of the section = 80 in.
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses, assume is 23 (slope
of compression field)
9.4.10.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.4.11.1 Critical Section
9.4.11
SHEAR DESIGN
9.4.11.1
Critical Section
JUL 03
The shear design at any section depends on the angle of diagonal compressive stresses
at the section. Shear design is an iterative process that begins with assuming a value
for . For this example, only the final cycle of calculations is shown. As a guide, for
areas which have high shear forces and low bending moments, the angle ranges
from 20 to 30. For areas of low shear forces and high bending moments, the angle
ranges to 45. Using the previously stated guidelines, two iterations are enough in
most cases.
Since some of the strands are harped, the effective depth, d
e
, varies from point-to-
point. However, d
e
must be calculated at the critical section in shear which is not yet
determined; therefore, for the first iteration, d
e
is calculated based on the center of
gravity of the strand group at the end of the beam, y
bs
.
d
e
= h
c
y
bs
= 80.0 4.22 = 75.78 in.
d
v
= 75.78 (0.5)(5.27) = 73.14 in.
0.9 d
e
= 0.9(75.78) = 68.20 in.
0.72 h = 0.72(80) = 57.60 in. O.K.
Therefore, d
v
= 73.14 in.
The critical section near the support is the greater of:
d
v
= 73.14 in.
and
0.5d
v
cot = (0.5)(73.14)cot23 = 86.15 in. (Controls)
Since the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it was conservatively assumed
to be zero. Therefore the critical section in shear is located at a distance of:
86.15 in. = 7.18 ft from centerline of support
(x/L) = 7.18/120 = 0.06L
The effective depth, d
e
, and the position of the critical section in shear may be refined
based on the position of the critical section calculated above. However, the difference
is small and on the conservative side. Thus, no more refinement is performed.
V
c
= 0.0316 f
c
b
v
d
v
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
Calculate the strain in the reinforcement,
x
:
x
=
M
d
0.5N 0.5(V V )cot A f
2(E A E A
u
v
u u p ps po
s s p ps
+ +
+
)
0.001 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-2]
where
M
u
= applied factored bending moment at the specified section, 0.05L
= 1.25(323.6 + 373.3 + 40.5) + 1.50(81.0) + 1.75(433.9 + 189.7)
= 2,134.0 ft-kips
V
u
= applied factored shear force at the specified section, 0.05L
9.4.11.1.1 Angle of Diagonal Compressive Stresses/9.4.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement
9.4.11.1.2
9.4.11.1.3
9.4.11.2.1
Reinforcement
9.4.11.2
9.4.11.1.1
Angle of Diagonal
JUL 03
= 1.25(42.2 + 48.7 + 5.3) + 1.50(10.6) + 1.75(72.9 + 30.0) = 316.2 kips
N
u
= applied factored normal force at the specified section, 0.06L = 0
fpo = a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied
by the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and
po
can be taken as the stress in the strands when
the concrete is cast around them, which is the jacking stress, f
pj
, or 0.75fpu.
= 0.75(270.0) = 202.5 ksi.
V
p
shear
= (Force per strand)(Number of harped strands)(sin )
V
p
= (22.8)(12)sin4.91 = 23.4 kips
x
=
2,134.0(12)
73.14
0 0.5(316.2 2 )(cot23 5 (202.5)
2[0 28,500(5.508)]
+ +
+
=
3 4 508
420 3
313 956
. ) .
.
,

= 1.339 x 10
- 3
Since the value of
x
is negative, a different equation for
x
must be used.
x
=

M
d
N V V A f
2(E A E A E A
u
v
u u p ps po
c c s s p ps
+ +
+ +
0 5 0 5 . . ( )cot
)
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-3]

where A
c
= area of concrete (in.
2
) on the flexural tension side, as shown in Figure
9.4.11-1 (area of concrete below h/2 = 80/2 = 40 in.)

A
c
= [26(6) + (2)(0.5)(10)(4.5) + 6(34)] = 405 in.
2
Therefore,
x
=
+ +
420 3 .
( 2[(4,888)(405) 0 28,500)(5.508)]
= 0.098 x 10
-3
Note that the sign of
x
should be maintained.
v
u
=
V V
b d
u p
v v

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
where
v
u
= shear stress in concrete
= resistance factor = 0.9 [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
h/2
h
8"
6'-0"
9'-0"
Figure 9.4.11-1
Illustration of A
c
9.4.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.4.11.2.1.2 Compute Shear Stress
9.4.11.2.1.1
Calculation for
Negative Strain
9.4.11.2.1.2
Compute Shear Stress
JUL 03
V
p
shear (calculated in Sect. 9.4.11.2.1)
v
u
=
316.2 (0.9)(23.4)
(0.9)(6)(73.14)
= 0.7473 ksi
(v
u
/f
c
) = (0.7473/6.5) = 0.115
Having computed
x
and v
u
/f
c
, find a better estimate of from LRFD Table
5.8.3.4.2-1. Since the computed value of v
u
/f
c
is likely to fall between two rows in
the table, a linear interpolation may be performed. However, for hand calculations,
interpolation is not recommended (LRFD Art. C5.8.3.4.2). The values of in the
lower row that bounds the computed value may be used. Similarly, the values of in
the first column to the right of the computed value may be used. For this example,
the applicable row and column are the ones labeled 0.125 and 0.05, respec-
tively. The values of and contained in the cell of intersection of that row and
column are:
= 22.8 assumed value of 23 O.K.
Therefore, no further iteration is needed. However, if the designer desires to go
through further iteration, it should be kept in mind that the position of the critical
section of shear, and consequently the values of V
u
and M
u
, will need to be based on
the new value of , 22.8.
= 2.94
where = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit
tension (a value indicating concrete contribution).
V
c
= 0.0316 f b d
c v v
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]

= 0.0316(2.94) 6.5(6)(73.14) = 103.9 kips
Check if V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) = 0.5(0.9)(103.9 + 23.4) = 57.3 kips < 316.2 kips
V
u
/ V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
where
V
s
= shear force carried by transverse reinforcement
= (V
u
/) V
c
V
p
= (316.2/0.9) 103.9 23.4 = 188.9 kips
V
s
=
A f d (cot cot )sin
s
v y v
+

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
9.4.11.2.1.2 Compute Shear Stress/9.4.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement
9.4.11.2.2
Determine Values of and
9.4.11.2.3
Compute Concrete
Contribution
9.4.11.3.1
Requirement for
Reinforcement
9.4.11.3
Contribution of
Shear Resistance
9.4.11.3.2
Required Area of
Reinforcement
JUL 03
where
A
v
= area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.
2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
f
y
= yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
= 90 for vertical stirrups
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, is:
A
v
= (sV
s
)/(f
y
d
v
cot )
= [(s)(188.9)]/[60(73.14)cot23] = 0.018(s)
If s = 12 in., required A
v
= 0.22 in.
2
/ft
Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement. [LRFD Art 5.8.2.7]
Check if v
u
< 0.125f
c
[LRFD Eqs. 5.8.2.7-1]
or if v
u
0.125f
c
[LRFD Eqs. 5.8.2.7-2]
0.125f
c
= (0.125)(6.5) = 0.813 ksi
v
u
= 0.7473 ksi
Since v
u
< 0.125f
c
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7.-2]
then, s 24 in.
s 0.8d
v
= 0.4(73.14) = 58.5 in.
Therefore, maximum s = 24 in. > s provided O.K..
Use # 4 bar double legs @ 12 in., A
v
= 0.40 in.
2
/ft > 0.22 in.
2
/ft.
V
s
=
0.4(60)73.14cot23
12
= 344.6 kips
The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than: [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
0.0316 f
b s
f
c
v
y

= 0.0316 6.5
(6)(12)
60

= 0.10 in.
2
/ft < A
v
provided O.K.
In order to ensure that the concrete in the web of the beam will not crush prior to
yielding of the transverse reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications give an upper limit
of V
n
as follows:
V
n
= 0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with Eq. 5.8.3.3-1, it can be concluded that
V
c
+ V
s
0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
103.9 + 344.6 = 448.5 kips 0.25(6.5)(6)(73.14) = 713.1 kips O.K.
Using the foregoing procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at
increments along the entire length of the beam.
9.4.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.4.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance
9.4.11.3.4
Requirement
9.4.11.3.3
Determine Spacing of
Reinforcement
9.4.11.4
Maximum Nominal Shear
Resistance
JUL 03
[LRFD Art. 5.8.4]
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be
taken as:
V
h
=
V
d
u
v
(LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.1-1)
where
V
h
= horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.
V
u
= factored shear force at specified section due to superimposed loads, kips
d
v
= the distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, (d
e
a/2)
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For
convenience, it will be assumed here to be the same location as the critical section
for vertical shear, at point 0.06L.
Using load combination Strength I:
V
u
= 1.25(5.3) + 1.5(10.6) + 1.75(72.9+30.0) = 202.6 kips
d
v
= 73.14 in.
Therefore, the applied factored horizontal shear is:
V
h
=
202.6
73.14
= 2.77 kips/in.
Required V
n
= V
h
/ = 2.77/0.9 = 3.08 kips/in.
The nominal shear resistance of the interface surface is:
V
n
= cA
cv
+ [A
vf
f
y
+ P
c
] [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]
where
c = cohesion factor, ksi [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
= friction factor [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
A
cv
= area of concrete engaged in shear transfer, in.
2
A
vf
= area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.
2
P
c
= permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
f
y
= shear reinforcement yield strength, ksi
For concrete placed against clean, hardened concrete but not an intentionally
roughened surface: [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
9.4.12 Interface Shear Transfer/9.4.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement
9.4.12.2
Required Nominal
Resistance
9.4.12.3
Required Interface Shear
Reinforcement
9.4.12
INTERFACE SHEAR
TRANSFER
9.4.12.1
Factored Horizontal Shear
JUL 03
c = 0.075 ksi
= 0.6, where =1.0 for normal weight concrete, and therefore,
= 0.6
The actual contact width, b
v
, between the slab and the beam is 42 in.
A
cv
= (42.0 in.)(1.0 in.) = 42.0 in.
2
LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1 can be solved for A
vf
as follows:
3.08 = (0.075 x 42.0) + 0.6[A
vf
(60) + 0]
solving for A
vf
,
A
vf
(reqd) < 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is higher than the applied force, provide the
minimum required interface reinforcement.

Minimum A
vf
(0.05b
v
)/f
y
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]
where b
v
= width of the interface
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a #4 double-leg bar at 12-in. spacing
is provided from the beam extending into the deck. Therefore, A
vf
= 0.40 in.
2
/ft.
A
vf
= (0.40 in.
2
/ft) < (0.05b
v
)/f
y
= 0.05(42)/60 = 0.035 in.
2
/in. = 0.42 in.
2
/ft N.G.
However, LRFD Article 5.8.4.1 states that the minimum reinforcement requirement
may be waived if V
n
/A
cv
< 0.100 ksi.
3.08 kips/in./42.0 in. = 0.073 ksi < 0.100 ksi
Therefore, the minimum reinforcement requirement is waived.
V
n
provided = (0.075)(42) + 0.6
0.40
12
(60) +
0

= 4.35 kips/in.
0.2f
c
A
cv
= (0.2)(4.0)(42) = 33.6 kips/in.
0.8A
cv
= 0.8(42) = 33.6 kips/in.
Since provided V
n
0.2f
c
A
cv
O.K. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-2]
0.8A
cv
O.K. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]
[LRFD Art. 5.8.3.5]
Longitudinal reinforcement should be proportioned so that at each section the follow-
ing equation is satisfied:
A f A f
M
d
0.5
N V
0.5V V cot
s y ps ps
u
v
u u
s p
+ + +
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.5-1]

where
A
s
= area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.
2
f
y
= specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel at the tension side of the section, in.
2
f
ps
= average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the nominal resistance
is required, ksi
9.4.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.4.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
9.4.13
MINIMUM LONGITUDINAL
REINFORCEMENT
REQUIREMENT
9.4.12.3.1
Minimum Interface Shear
Reinforcement
9.4.12.4
Resistance
JUL 03
M
u
= factored moment at the section corresponding to the factored shear force,
ft-kips
N
u
= applied factored axial force, kips
V
u
= factored shear force at section, kips
V
s
= shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement, kips
V
p
= component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, kips
d
v
= effective shear depth, in.
= resistance factor as appropriate for moment, shear and axial resistance.
Therefore, different factors will be used for the terms in Equation
(5.8.3.5-1), depending on the type of action being considered
[LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2]
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
[LRFD Art. 5.8.3.5]
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, it is assumed to be zero.
This assumption is more conservative for these calculations. Thus, the failure crack
assumed for this analysis radiates from the centerline of the bearing, 6 in. from the
end of the beam.
From Table 9.4.4-1, the factored shear force and bending moment at this section
are:
V
u
= 1.25(47.9 + 55.3 + 6.0) + 1.5(12.0) + 1.75(78.1 + 33.9) = 350.5 kips
M
u
= 0 ft-kips
M
d
0.5
N V
0.5V V cot
u
v
u u
s p

+ +

= 0 + 0 +
350.5
0.9
0.5(344.6) 23.4
cot23 = 456.4 kips

As shown in Figure 9.4.13.1-1, the assumed crack plane crosses the centroid of the
36-straight strands at a distance of (6 + 4.22cot 23 = 15.94 in.) from the end of
the beam. Since the transfer length is 30 in. from the end of the beam (60 times the
strand diameter), the available prestress from the 36-straight strands is a fraction of
the effective prestress, f
pe
, in these strands. The 12 harped strands do not contribute
to the tensile capacity since they are not on the flexural tension side of the member.
Therefore, the available prestress force is:
A
s
f
y
+ A
ps
f
ps
= 0 + [(36)(0.153) (149.0)
15.94
30
= 0 + 436.1 = 436.1 kips

Additional force required:
(456.4 436.1)/60.0 = 0.34 in.
2
Provide (2)#4 bars (0.40 in.
2
)
9.4.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing
9.4.13.1
Required Reinforcement at
Face of Bearing
JUL 03
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10]
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10.1]
strands just prior to transfer:
Force in the strands before transfer = F
pi
= 48(0.153)(202.5) = 1,487.2 kips
r
, should not be less than 4.0% of F
pi
.
[LRFD Arts. 5.10.10.1 and C3.4.3]
P
r
= f
s
A
s
0.04F
pi
= 0.04(1,487.2) = 59.5 kips
where
A
s
= total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance h/4 from the
end of the beam, in.
2
f
s
= stress in steel, but not taken greater than 20 ksi
s
= 59.5/20 = 2.98 in.
2
At least 2.98 in.
2
of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided within a
distance of (h/4 = 72/4 = 18.0 in.) from the end of the beam.
Use (5) #5 double leg bars at 4 in. spacing starting at 2 in. from the end of the beam.
The provided A
s
= 5(2)(0.31) = 3.10 in.
2
> 2.98 in.
2
. O.K.
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]
For a distance of 1.5d = 1.5(72) = 108 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement is
placed to confine the prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement may
not be less than #3 deformed bars with spacing not exceeding 6 in. The reinforce-
ment should be of a shape which will confine (enclose) the strands.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]
Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in
Section 9.4.3.1, and the moment of inertia of the non-composite precast beam.
Force per strand at transfer = 28.1 kips
p
=
P
E I
e L
8
e a
6
i
ci
c
2 2

9.4.13.1 Required Reinforcement at Face of Bearing/9.4.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer
9.4.14
PRETENSIONED
ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.4.14.1
Anchorage Zone
Reinforcement
Figure 9.4.13.1-1
Assumed Failure Crack
6"
y cot
bc
y
bc
c.g. of the 36 bonded bottom strands
C Bearing
L
9.4.14.2
Confinement
Reinforcement
9.4.15.1
Deflection Due
at Transfer
9.4.15
DEFLECTION AND
CAMBER
JUL 03
where
P
i
= total prestressing force after transfer = 48 x 28.1 = 1,348.8 kips
e
c
= eccentricity of prestressing force at midspan = 29.68 in.
e = difference between eccentricity of prestressing steel at midspan and at end
of the beam
= e
c
e
e
= 29.68 (36.6 19.42) = 12.50 in.
a = distance from end of the beam to the harp point = 48.5 ft
L = overall beam length = 121.0 ft
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity at transfer = 4,617 ksi
I = gross moment of inertia of the precast beam = 545,894 in.
4

p
=
1,348.8
(4,617)(545,894)
29.68(121 x12)
8
12.50(48.512)
6
2 2

= 3.81 in.
g
=
5wL
384E I
4
ci

where
w = beam self-weight = 0.799 kip/ft
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of precast beam at transfer = 4,617 ksi
4

L = beam length = 121.0 ft at transfer = 120.0 ft at erection
g
=
5
0.799
12
(121 x 12)
(384)(4,617)(545,894)
4

= 1.53 in.
Deflection due to beam self-weight used to compute deflection at erection:
g
=
5
0.799
12
(121 x 12)
(384)(4,617)(545,894)
4
= 1.48 in.
s
=
5wL
384E I
4
c

where
w = slab and haunch weight = 0.922 kip/ft
L = design span = 120.0 ft
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 4,888 ksi
4

s
=
5
0.922
12
(120 x12)
(384)(4,888)(545,894)
4

= 1.61 in.
9.4.15.1 Deflection Due to Prestressing Force at Transfer/9.4.15.3 Deflection Due to Slab and Haunch Weights
9.4.15.2
Deflection Due to
Beam Self-Weight
9.4.15.3
Deflection Due to Slab and
Haunch Weights
JUL 03
b+ws
=
5wL
384E I
4
c c

where
w = barrier and future wearing surface weight = 0.300 kip/ft
L = design span = 120.0 ft
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of precast beam at service loads = 4,888 ksi
I
c
= gross moment of inertia of the composite section = 1,073,931 in.
4

b+ws
=
(5)
0.300
12
(120 x12)
(384)(4,888)(1,100,320)
4

= 0.26 in.
At transfer, (
p
+
g
) = 3.81 1.53 = 2.28 in.
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(3.81) 1.85(1.48) = 4.12 in.
Long-Term Deflection:
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long time deflection may be taken as the
instantaneous deflection multiplied by a factor 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection
is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0 is not appropriate
for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer
undertake a more rigorous, time-dependent analysis.
Live load deflection limit (optional) = Span/800 [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
= 120 x
12
800

= 1.80 in.
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in Art.
2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the greater of:
that resulting from the design truck alone, or
that resulting from 25% of the design truck taken together with the design lane load.
The LRFD Specifications state that all the beams should be assumed to deflect equally
under the applied live load and impact. [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection, DFD, is calculated as follows:
DFD = (number of lanes/number of beams) [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
= 4/7 = 0.571 lanes/beam
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment, DFM.
Deflection due to lane load
Design lane load, w = 0.64DFM = 0.64(0.732) = 0.469 kips/ft/beam

LL
=
5wL
384E I
4
c
=
5
0.469
12
(120 x12)
(384)(4,888)(1,100,320)
4

= 0.41 in.
9.4.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface/9.4.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
9.4.15.4
Deflection Due to Barrier
and Future Wearing
Surface
9.4.15.5
Deflection and
Camber Summary
9.4.15.6
Deflection Due to
Live Load and Impact
JUL 03
Deflection due to Design Truck Load and Impact
To obtain maximum moment and deflection at midspan due to the truck load, let the
centerline of the beam coincide with the middle point of the distance between the inner
32 kip axle and the resultant of the truck load, as shown in Figure 9.4.15.6-1.
Using the elastic moment area or influence lines, deflection at midspan is:
LT
= (0.803)(IM)(DFM) = (0.803)(1.33)(0.732) = 0.78 in.
Therefore, live load deflection is the greater of:
LT
= 0.78 in. (Controls)
0.25
LT
+
LL
= 0.25(0.78) + 0.41 = 0.60 in.
Therefore, live load deflection = 0.78 in. < allowable deflection = 1.8 in. O.K.
37.40 kips
34.60 kips
32 kips 8 kips
72 kips
2.333'
48.333'
11.667'
2.333'
14'
43.667'
120'
Midspan
32 kips
Figure 9.4.15.6-1
Position for Maximum
Bending Moment
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
9.5.1 INTRODUCTION
9.5.2 MATERIALS
9.5.3 CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES FOR A TYPICAL INTERIOR BEAM IN THE
CENTER SPAN
9.5.4.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Load
9.5.4.2.1 Live Load
9.5.4.2.2 Live Load Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam
9.5.6.1 Shrinkage
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
JUL 03
JUL 03
9.5.8.3 Summary of Service Load Stresses
9.5.9.1 Positive Moment Section
9.5.9.2 Negative Moment Section
9.5.10.1.1 Maximum reinforcement
9.5.10.1.2 Minimum reinforcement
9.5.10.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement
9.5.10.2.2 Minimum Reinforcement
9.5.11 SHEAR DESIGN
9.5.12 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN
9.5.14.4 Deflection Due to Deck and Haunch Weights
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
JUL 03
This design example demonstrates the design of a three-span (110-120-110 ft)
AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with no skew, as shown in Figure 9.5.1-1. This
example illustrates in detail, the design of a typical interior beam of the center span
at the critical sections in positive flexure, negative flexure, shear, and deflection due
to prestress, dead loads and live load. The superstructure consists of four beams
spaced at 12-ft centers (Figure 9.5.1-2). Beams are designed to act compositely with
the 8 in. thick cast-in-place concrete deck slab to resist all superimposed dead loads,
live loads and impact under full continuity. A 1/2 in. wearing surface is considered
to be an integral part of the 8 in. deck slab. Design live load is AASHTO HS20. The
design is carried out in accordance with the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, 2002.
9.5.1
INTRODUCTION
110'-0" 120'-0" 110'-0"
6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6"
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C pier
L
C pier
L
1'-0" 1'-0" 1'-0" 1'-0"
C bearing
L
6" 6"
44'- 6"
1' - 3" 1' - 3"
8"
4'- 3" 4'- 3"
42'- 0"
3 spaces @ 12'- 0" = 36'-0"
3'- 0" 3'- 0"
2" future wearing surface
Bulb-Tee (BT-72), Three Spans,
Composite Deck, Standard
Specifications
Figure 9.5.1-1
Longitudinal Section
Figure 9.5.1-2
Cross-Section
BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
9.5.2 Materials
s
8.0 in.
Structural thickness 7.5 in.
part of the 8 in. deck.
c

4,000 psi
Precast beams: AASHTO-PCI Bulb-tee shown in Figure 9.5.2-1
ci

5,500 psi
c
7,000 psi
c
150 pcf
Overall beam length (Figure 9.5.1-1) 110.0 ft (end spans) and 119.0 ft
(center span)
Design spans (Figure 9.5.1-1):
For non-composite beam: 109.0 ft (end spans)
118.0 ft (center span)
For composite beam: 110.0 ft (end spans)
120.0 ft (center span)
9.5.2
MATERIALS
Figure 9.5.2-1
2"
2"
3 1/2"
4'- 6"
4 1/2"
6"
2'- 2"
10"
6"
2"
6'- 0"
3'- 6"
JUL 03
JUL 03
Pretensioning strands: 1/2 in. dia., seven wire, low-relaxation
2
Ultimate stress, f
s
270,000 psi
Yield strength, f
y
*
0.9f
s
243,000 psi [STD Art. 9.1.2]

si
0.75f
s
[STD Art. 9.15.1]

202,500 psi
s
28,500 ksi
Although the Standard Specifications, Article 9.16.2.1.2, indicates that the modulus of
elasticity, E
s
= 28,000 ksi, a value of 28,500 ksi is a more accurate value, according to
the PCI Design Handbook and the LRFD Specifications.
Reinforcing bars: yield strength, f
y
60,000 psi
Future wearing surface: additional 2 in. with unit weight equal to 150 pcf
New Jersey-type barrier: Unit weight equals 300 lbs/ft/side
2
545,894 in.
4
y
b
distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite pre-
cast beam 36.60 in.
y
t
distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast
beam 35.40 in.
S
b
beam I/y
b
14,915 in.
3
S
t
I/y
t
15,421 in.
3
Wt 0.799 k/ft
[STD Art. 8.7.1]
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete (w
c
)
1.5
(33) ksi f
c
/ , , 1 000
9.5.3
CROSS-SECTION
PROPERTIES FOR
A TYPICAL INTERIOR
BEAM IN THE CENTER
SPAN
9.5.3.1
9.5.3.1 Non-Composite Section/9.5.3.2.2 Modular Ratio Between Slab and Beam Materials
JUL 03
where
w
c
unit weight of concrete = 150 pcf [STD Art. 3.3.6]
The Standard Specifications, Article 8.7.1, indicates that the unit weight of
normal weight concrete is 145 pcf. However, precast concrete mixes typi-
cally have a relatively low water/cementitious materials ratio and high den-
sity. Therefore, a unit weight of 150 pcf is used in this example. For high
strength concrete, this value may need to be increased based on test results.
f
c
specified strength of concrete (psi)

Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for the:
cast-in-place slab, using f

c

4,000 psi, is:
E
c
(150)
1.5
(33) 3,834 ksi
beam at release, using f

c

f
ci
5,500 psi, is:

E
ci
(150)
1.5
(33) 4,496 ksi
beam at service loads, using f

c
7,000 psi is:

E
c
(150)
1.5
(33) 5,072 ksi
[STD Art. 9.8.3]
Effective web width of the precast beam is the lesser of: [STD Art. 9.8.3.1]
b
e
top flange width 42 in. (Controls)
or, 2(6)(5.5) + 6 + 2(2) 76 in.
Use b
e
42 in.
The effective flange width is the lesser of: [STD Art. 9.8.3.2]
1/4 span length: 360 in.
Distance center-to-center of beams 12 ft (12) 144 in.
12(effective slab thickness plus effective web width of the beam)
12(7.5) + 42 132 in. (Controls)
Use effective flange width 132 in.
Modular ratio between slab and beam materials:
n
E slab
E beam
3,834
5,072
0.7559
c
c
( )
( )

120(12)
4
7,000 /1000
5,500 /1000
4,000 /1000
9.5.3.2
Composite Section
9.5.3.2.1
9.5.3.2.2
Modular Ratio Between
Slab and Beam Materials
JUL 03
Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck (7.5 in.) will be used in these
computations.
Transformed flange width n(effective flange width) 0.7559(132) 99.78 in.
Transformed flange area n(effective flange width)(t
s
) 0.7559(132)(7.5) 748.34 in.
2
Due to camber of the pretensioned precast beam, a minimum haunch thickness of 1/2
in. at midspan is considered in the structural properties of the composite section. The
haunch width must also be transformed.
Transformed haunch width (0.7559)(42) 31.75 in.
Transformed area of haunch (0.7559)(42)(0.5) 15.87 in.
2
Note: The haunch should only be considered to contribute to section properties if it
is required to be provided in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers
Transformed
Area, in.
2
y
b,
in. Ay
b,
in.
3
A(y
bc
-y
b
)
2
I, in.
4
I + A(y
bc
- y
b
)
2
in.
4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072.20 299,177.94 545,894.00 845,071.94
Haunch 15.87 72.25 1,146.61 4,012.09 0.33 4,012.42
Deck 748.34 76.25 57,060.93 296,350.12 3,507.89 299,858.01
1,531.21 86,279.74 1,148,942.37
9.5.3.2.3
Transformed Section
Properties
Figure 9.5.3.2.3-1
Composite Section 99.78"
c.g. of composite
section
80"
7.5"
72"
132"
0.5"
31.75"
y
bc
Table 9.5.3.2.3-1
A
c
transformed area of composite section 1,531 in.
2
h
c
total height of composite section 80.00 in.
I
c
4
y
bc
distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of
the precast beam 56.35 in.
y
tg
precast beam 72 56.35 15.65 in.
y
tc
deck 80 56.35 23.65 in.
S
bc
composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
I
c
/y
bc
20,389 in.
3
S
tg
composite section modulus for top fiber of the precast beam
I
c
/y
tg
73,415 in.
3
S
tc
transformed composite section modulus for top fiber of the slab
I
c
/ny
tc
64,269 in.
3
The self-weight of the beam, the weight of deck and haunch act on the non-compos-
ite simple-span structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing surface, live load
plus impact act on the composite, three-span continuous structure.
[STD Art. 3.3]
Beam weight 0.799 kip/ft
8 in. deck slab weight 1.200 kip/ft
Haunch (3.5 ft)(0.150) 0.022 kip/ft
Notes:
1. Actual slab thickness (8 in.) is used for computing deck slab dead load
2. A 1/2 in. minimum haunch is assumed in the computation of forces. If a deeper
haunch will be used because of final beam camber, the weight of the actual haunch
should be used.
3. Diaphragms many state agencies are moving away from using cast-in-place con-
crete diaphragms and are using lighter weight steel diaphragms. Therefore, the
weight of diaphragms will be ignored.
4. Dead loads placed on the composite structure are distributed equally among all
beams. [STD Art. 3.23.2.3.1.1]
1/2
12
0.150
8.0
12
(12.0)
_
,
1,148,942
(0.7559)(23.65)
1,148,942
15.65
1,148,942
56.35
86,279.74
1,531.21
JUL 03
9.5.4
SHEAR FORCES AND
BENDING MOMENTS
9.5.4.1
9.5.4.1.1
Dead Loads
9.5.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.5.4.2.3 Live Load Impact
JUL 03
Barriers (2 barriers) 0.150 kip/ft/beam
Weight of future wearing surface (150) 25 psf which is applied over the entire
width of the bridge between curbs (42 ft)
Future wearing surface /1,000 0.263 kips/ft/beam
For a simply supported beam, simple span (L), loaded with a uniformly distributed
x
x
) at a distance (x) from
the support are given by:
V
x
w(0.5L x) (Eq. 9.5.4.1.2-1)
M
x
0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 9.5.4.1.2-2)
Using the above equations, values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical inte-
rior beam due to the weight of beam, slab and haunch are computed and given in Table
9.5.4.1.2-1. The span length for each span considered depends on the construction stage:
overall length immediately after prestress release
centerline-to-centerline distance between beam bearings at the time of deck placement
centerline-to-centerline distance between supports after beam is made continuous
The shear forces and bending moments due to barrier and future wearing surface
weights are calculated based on the continuous span lengths, i.e., 110, 120 and 110 ft.
The three-span structure was analyzed using a continuous beam computer program.
Shear forces and bending moments are given in Table 9.5.4.1.2-1.
[STD Art. 3.7.1.1]
Live load is either the standard truck or lane loading corresponding to HS20.
[STD Art. 3.7.1.1]
Using the live load distribution factor for moment for a precast, prestressed concrete
beam, the fraction of the wheel load carried by the interior beam is:
DF
m
2.182 wheels/beam [STD Table 3.23.1]
where S average spacing between beams in feet
DF
m
/2 1.091 lanes/beam
[STD Art. 3.8]
From the discussion in Section 9.5.4.1.2, the design spans for the composite contiu-
ous bridge are 110 and 120 ft.
S
5.5
12 0
5 5
.
.
25(42.0)
4 beams
2
12
300/1,000
4 beams
9.5.4.1.2
Bending Moments
9.5.4.2
9.5.4.2.1
Live Load
9.5.4.2.2
9.5.4.2.3
Live Load Impact
The live load impact factor is computed using the following equation:
[STD Eq. 3-1]
where I impact fraction (maximum 30%).
For continuous spans:
L the length in feet of the span under consideration for positive moment and
the average of two adjacent loaded spans for negative moment.
[STD Art. 3.8.2.2]
For positive moment: center span, I 0.204
For negative moment: I 0.208
The impact for shear is calculated according to the Standard Specifications, Article
3.8.2. The software used to calculate the live load shear computes the impact which
varies along the span length.
Live load shear force and bending moment per beam are:
V
LL+I
(shear force per lane)(distribution factor)(1 + I)
M
LL+I
(bending moment per lane)(distribution factor)(1 + I)
The results of the analysis using HS20 live load is shown in Table 9.5.4.1.2-1.
Tabulated values for shear and moment are maximum values per beam and include
impact.
[STD Art. 3.22]
For service load design (Group I):
1.00 D + 1.00(L + I) [STD Table 3.22.1A]
where
D dead load
L live load
I impact fraction
For load factor design (Group I):
1.3[1.00 D + 1.67(L + I)] [STD Table 3.22.1A]
+
_
,
+
50
110 120
2
125
+
50
1 125 20
50
L 125 +
9.5.4.2.3 Live Load Impact/9.5.4.3 Load Combinations
JUL 03
9.5.4.2.4
Bending Moments
9.5.4.3
Load Combinations
The estimation of the required number of strands is usually governed by concrete ten-
sile stresses at bottom fiber at the section of maximum moment, or at the harp points.
For estimating purposes, only the stresses at midspan need to be considered.
Bottom tensile stresses due to applied loads is:
f
b

where
f
b
bottom tensile stresses, ksi
M
g
unfactored bending moment due to weight of the beam, ft-kips
M
s
unfactored bending moment due to weights of deck and haunch, ft-kips
M
b
unfactored bending moment due to weight of barriers, ft-kips
M
ws
unfactored bending moment due to weight of future wearing surface, ft-kips
M
LL+I
unfactored bending moment due to live load plus impact, ft-kips
M M
S
M M M
S
g s
b
b ws LL+I
bc
+
+
+ +
9.5.4.3 Load Combinations/9.5.5.1 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
Location
Beam weight
[simple span]
Deck plus
Haunch weight
[simple span]
Barrier weight
[continuous span]
Future wearing
surface
[continuous span]
Live load envelope
plus impact
[continuous span]
Distance
ft
Section
x/L
Shear
kips
Moment
M
g
V
g
V
s
V
b
V
ws s
x
ft-kips
Shear
kips
Moment
M
ft-kips
Shear
kips
Moment
M
b
ft-kips
Shear
kips
Moment
M
ws
ft-kips
Shear
V
LL+I
kips
Moment
positive
ft-kips
Moment
negative
ft-kips
0.0
[1]
0.000 43.5 0.0 66.6 0.0 6.0 0.0 11.0 0.0 85.0 0.0 0.0
11.0 0.100 34.8 430.7 53.2 658.7 5.0 62.0 8.0 109.0 73.0 808.0 -92.0
22.0 0.200 26.0 764.6 39.7 1,169.5 3.0 106.0 6.0 186.0 62.0 1,362.0 -183.0
33.0 0.300 17.2 1,001.9 26.3 1,532.4 2.0 132.0 3.0 231.0 51.0 1,682.0 -275.0
44.0 0.400 8.4 1,142.6 12.8 1,747.5 0.0 139.0 0.0 244.0 40.0 1,818.0 -367.0
55.0 0.500 0.4 1,186.5 0.6 1,814.7 2.0 128.0 3.0 225.0 48.0 1,778.0 -458.0
66.0 0.600 9.2 1,133.8 14.1 1,734.0 3.0 100.0 6.0 175.0 58.0 1,592.0 -550.0
77.0 0.700 18.0 984.4 27.5 1,505.5 5.0 53.0 9.0 93.0 68.0 1,248.0 -642.0
88.0 0.800 26.8 738.3 40.9 1,129.1 7.0 -12.0 12.0 -21.0 76.0 783.0 -731.0
99.0 0.900 35.6 395.5 54.4 604.9 8.0 -95.0 15.0 -167.0 84.0 349.0 -1,060.0
109.0
[1]
0.991 43.5 0.0 66.6 0.0 9.8* -187.7* 17.7* -328.8* 92.2* 267.2* -1,711.8*
110.0 0.000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 -197.0 18.0 -345.0 93.0 259.0 -1,777.0
0.0
[2]
0.000 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.0 -197.0 16.0 -345.0 91.0 259.0 -1,777.0
1.0
[1]
0.008 47.1 0.0 72.1 0.0 9.3* -188.9* 15.8* -330.8* 90.1* 264.1* -1,714.7
4.3
[3]
0.036 44.5 152.7 68.0 233.5 8.3* -162.0* 14.9* -283.6* 87.0* 281.0* -1,506.9*
12.0 0.100 38.4 470.2 58.7 719.1 7.0 -100.0 13.0 -175.0 80.0 320.0 -1,029.0
24.0 0.200 28.8 872.9 44.0 1,335.0 5.0 -24.0 10.0 -42.0 71.0 866.0 -742.0
36.0 0.300 19.2 1,160.5 29.3 1,775.0 4.0 30.0 6.0 53.0 61.0 1,286.0 -667.0
[4]
48.0 0.400 9.6 1,333.1 14.7 2,038.9 2.0 62.0 3.0 109.0 50.0 1,546.0 -667.0
[4]
60.0 0.500 0.4 1,390.7 0.0 2,126.9 0.0 73.0 0.0 128.0 39.0 1,618.0 -667.0
[4]
[1] Centerline of bearing
[2] Centerline of pier
[3] Critical section for shear (see Section 9.5.11)
[4] Identical values caused by loading of a remote span
Note: Values shown for shear are absolute values.
* Values were calculated using linear interpolation.
9.5.5 ESTIMATE
REQUIRED PRESTRESS
9.5.5.1
Service Load Stresses at
Midspan
Using values of bending moments from Table 9.5.4.1.2-1, the bottom tensile stress
at midspan of the center span (point 0.5):
f
b

2.830 + 1.071 3.901 ksi
F
b
0.502 ksi [STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Bottom tensile stress allowable tension stress at final f
b
F
b
3.901 0.502
3.399 ksi
The location of the center of gravity of strands at midspan usually ranges from 5 to
15% of the beam depth, measured from the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is
appropriate for the newer efficient sections like bulb-tees and 15% for the less effi-
cient AASHTO shapes of normal design. Assume the distance from the center of
gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the beam is equal to y
bs
5.60 in. (Note:
y
bs
/h 5.6/72 7.8%)
Strand eccentricity at midspan is equal to:
e
c
y
b
y
bs
36.60 5.60 31.00 in.
Bottom fiber stress due to pretension after all losses: f
b
where P
se
prestress and solve for the required minimum P
se
:
, and P
se
1,005.0 kips
Assume final losses of 25% of f
si
0.25(202.5) 50.6 ksi
The available pretension force per strand after all losses:
(cross-sectional area of one strand)[f
si
losses]
0.153(202.5 50.6) 23.2 kips
Try (44) 1/2-in.-dia, 270 ksi strands
1,005.0
23.2
3.399
P
767
31.00 P
14,915
se se
+
P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
6 f 6 7,000
1
1,000
c
_
,
(1,390.7 2,126.9)(12)
14,915
(73.0 128.0 1,618.0)(12)
20,389
+
+
+ +
JUL 03
9.5.5.2
9.5.5.3
Required Number of Strands
The assumed strand pattern for 44 strands at the midspan section is shown in Figure
9.5.5.4-1. Each available position was filled beginning with the bottom row.
Calculate the distance from the center of gravity of the strands to the bottom fiber of
the beam, y
bs
:
y
bs
5.82 in.
e
c
36.60 5.82 30.78 in.
[STD Art. 9.16.2]
c
+ CR
s
[STD Eq. 9-3]
where
CR
c
CR
s
loss of prestress due to relaxation of prestressing steel, ksi
12(2) 12(4) 8(6) 4(8) 2(10) 2(12) 2(14) 2(16)
44
+ + + + + + +
9.5.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.5.6 Prestress Losses
JUL 03
9.5.5.4
Strand Pattern
Figure 9.5.5.4-1
9.5.6
PRESTRESS LOSSES
11 spaces @ 2" 2" 2"
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
Distance from
bottom (in.)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
9.5.6.1 Shrinkage/9.5.6.3 Creep of Concrete
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.1]
Relative humidity varies significantly from one area of the country to another. Refer
to the U.S. map, Figure 9.16.7.1.1 in the Standard Specifications.
Assume relative humidity, RH = 70%
SH 17,000 150RH [17,000 150(70)] 6.5 ksi [STD Eq. 9-4]
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.2]
For pretensioned members:
ES [STD Eq. 9-6]
where
f
cir
to pretensioning force and dead load of the beam immediately after transfer
f
cir
where
P
si
Specifications allow that the reduction to initial tendon stress be esti-
mated as 0.69f
s
for low-relaxation strands

s
)
(44)(0.153)[(0.69)(270)] 1,254.2 kips
M
g
unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight at midspan of the
center span 1,390.7 ft-kips
M
D
e
c
eccentricity of the strand at midspan 30.78 in.
M
g
cir
is con
servatively computed using the design span length of 118 ft.
f
cir

1.635 + 2.177 0.941 2.871 ksi
ES (2.871) 18.2 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.3]
CR
c
12f
cir
7f
cds
[STD Eq. 9-9]
where
f
cds
concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel due to all dead
loads except the dead load present at the time the pretensioning force is applied.
Me
I
M (y y )
I
s c SDL bc bs
c
+
28,500
4,496
1, 254.2
767
1, 254.2(30.78)
545,894
1,390.7(12)(30.78)
545,894
2
+
P
A
P e
I
(M M )e
I
si si c
2
g D c
+
+
E
E
f
s
ci
cir
1
1 000 ,
9.5.6.1
Shrinkage
9.5.6.2
Elastic Shortening
9.5.6.3
Creep of Concrete
JUL 03
9.5.6.3 Creep of Concrete/9.5.6.6 Total Losses at Service Loads
JUL 03
M
s
unfactored bending moment due to weight of slab and haunch
2,126.9 ft-kips
M
SDL
superimposed dead load moment M
b
+ M
ws
73 + 128 201.0 ft-kips
y
bc
56.35 in.
y
bs
the distance from center of gravity of the strand at midspan to the bot-
tom of the beam 5.82 in.
I moment of inertia for the non-composite section 545,894 in.
4
I
c
moment of inertia for the composite section 1,148,942 in.
4
f
cds
1.439 + 0.106 1.545 ksi

CR
c
12(2.871) 7(1.545) 23.6 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.4]
For pretensioned members with 270 ksi low-relaxation strand:
CR
s
5,000 0.10ES 0.05(SH + CR
c
) [STD Eq. 9-10A]
[5000 0.1(18,200) 0.05(6,500 + 23,600)] 1.7 ksi
Losses due to elastic shortening, ES 18.2 psi
f
si
effective initial prestress after allowing initial losses:
202.5 18.2 184.3 ksi
P
si
44(0.153)(184.3) 1,240.7 kips
SH 6.5 ksi
ES 18.2 ksi
CR
c
23.6 ksi
CR
s
1.7 ksi
or, (100) 24.7% losses
f
se
effective final prestress 202.5 50.0 152.5 ksi
P
se
44(0.153)(152.5) 1,026.6 kips
50.0
202.5
1
1 000 ,
_
,
2,126.9(12)(30.78)
545,894
(201.0)(12)(56.35 5.82)
1,148,942
+
9.5.6.4
Relaxation of
Pretensioning Steel
9.5.6.5
9.5.6.6
Total Losses at Service
Loads
9.5.7 Concrete Stresses at Transfer/9.5.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
[STD Art. 9.15.2.1]
Compression: 0.6f
ci

Tension: The maximum tensile stress shall not exceed:
0.556 ksi (tension)
If the calculated tensile stress exceeds 200 psi or 0.222 ksi, whichever is
smaller, provide bonded reinforcement to resist the total tension force in the con-
crete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section.
beam. Stresses at this location need only be checked at release, since this stage almost
less critical.
Transfer length equals 50(strand diameter) [STD Art. 9.20.2.4]
50(0.50) 25 in. 2.08 ft
The transfer length section is located at 2.08 ft. from the end of the beam or at 1.58 ft
from centerline of the pier. This is assuming that the distance between the centerline of
pier and beam end is 6 in., as shown in Figure 9.5.1-1.
Due to the camber of the beam at release, the beam self-weight acts on the overall
beam length (119 ft). Therefore, the values of bending moment given in Table
9.5.4.1.2-1 cannot be used because they are based on the beam span between center-
lines of bearings (118 ft). The value of bending moment at the transfer length due to
beam self-weight is calculated using Equation (9.5.4.1.2-2) based on overall length.
Therefore, M
g
0.5(0.799)(2.08)(119 2.08) 97.3 ft-kips.
t
:
f
t
f
t
+1.618 2.476 + 0.076 0.782 ksi
Allowable tension: 0.556 ksi N.G.
b
:
f
b

+1.618 + 2.560 0.078 +4.100 ksi
Allowable compression: +3.300 ksi N.G.
1, 240.7
767
1, 240.7(30.78)
14,915
97.3(12)
14,915
+
+ +
P
A
P e
S
M
S
si si
b
g
b
+ +
1,240.7
767
1,240.7 (30.78)
15,421
97.3 (12)
15,421
+ +
P
A
P e
S
M
S
si si
t
g
t
3 f
ci
7.5 f
ci
9.5.7
CONCRETE STRESSES AT
TRANSFER
9.5.7.1
9.5.7.2
Length Section
JUL 03
JUL 03
Since the top and bottom fiber stresses exceed the allowable, harped and/or debond-
ed strands must used.
In this example, a harped strand pattern will be used with harp points at 0.3L 35.5
ft from end of beam. Try harping 10 strands as shown in Figures 9.5.7.2-1 and
9.5.7.2-2.
The selection of this harp point is more appropriate for exterior spans of multispan
continuous bridges since the location of the maximum positive moment is closer to
the abutment than in the center span sections. For simple spans, it is desireable to use
a harp point at least 0.4L from the supports.
the beam at the end of the beam is: 6.00 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 10 harped strands and the bottom
of the beam at the harp points is: 12.00 in.
the beam at the transfer length section is: 6 + (2.08) 9.17 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 34 straight strands and the bottom
of the beam at all locations is: 4.00 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of all the strands and the bottom of the beam:
at end of beam, is: 18.09 in.
at transfer length section, is: 17.37 in.
34(4) 10(72 9.17)
44
+
34(4) 10(72 6)
44
+
12(2) 12(4) 8(6) 2(8)
34
+ + +
(72 12 6)
35.5

2(8) 2(10) 2(12) 2(14) 2(16)
10
+ + + +
2(2) 2(4) 2(6) 2(8) 2(10)
10
+ + + +
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
At midspan
At ends
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
2
No.
Strands
2
8
12
12
Harped strand
group
2"
2"
Distance from
bottom (in.)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Distance from
bottom (in.)
70
68
66
64
62
Distance from
bottom (in.)
8
6
4
2
Figure 9.5.7.2-1
Strand Pattern
Eccentricity at the transfer length section, e 36.60 17.37 19.23 in.
Recompute the concrete stresses at transfer length section with harped strands:
f
t
+1.618 1.547 + 0.076 +0.147 ksi

Note: Since the top fiber stress is smaller than , there is no need for additional
bonded reinforcement.
f
b
+1.618 + 1.600 0.078 +3.140 ksi

The eccentricity of strands at the harp points is the same as at midspan.
Bending moment at the harp point (0.3L) due to beam self-weight, is calculated using
Therefore, M
g
0.5(0.799)(35.5)(119 35.5) 1,184.2 ft-kips
f
t

+1.618 2.476 + 0.921 +0.063 ksi
f
b

+1.618 + 2.560 0.953 +3.225 ksi
+ +
1, 240.7
767 14,915
12)
14,915
1 240 7 30 78 1 184 2 , . ( . ) , . (
+ +
1, 240.7
767
1, 240.7(30.78)
15, 421
1,184.2(12)
15, 421
+ +
1,240.7
767
1,240.7(19.23)
14,915
97.3 (12)
14,915
3 f
ci
+ +
1, 240.7
767
1, 240.7(19.23)
15, 421
97.3(12)
15, 421
9.5.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.5.7.3 Stresses at Harp Points
JUL 03
9.5.7.3
6"
66"
2'-1"(2.08')
35'-6" 24'-0"
0.5 (119') = 59'-6"
C
L
Beam
4.0" 12.0"

Figure 9.5.7.2-2 Longitudinal Strand Pattern
The bending moment at midspan due to beam self-weight is calculated using
Therefore, M
g
0.5(0.799)(59.5)(119 59.5) 1,414.3 ft-kips
f
t
+1.618 2.476 + 1.101 +0.243 ksi

f
b
+1.618 + 2.560 1.138 +3.040 ksi

Note: Stresses at harp points are more critical than stresses at midspan.
Assume the maximum initial prestress before allowing for any losses:
0.80f
s
*
0.80(270) 216 ksi
Initial prestress force per strand before losses 0.153(216) 33.0 kips
Hold-down force/strand equals 4.39 kips/strand
Note: The factor 1.05 is applied to account for friction.
Total force 10 strands(4.39) 43.9 kips
where 54 in. is the vertical strand shift in a horizontal distance of 35.5 ft.
The hold-down force and the harp angle should be checked against maximum limits for
local practices. Refer to Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction, Section 3.3.2.2 and
Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures, for additional details.
Top of Beam Bottom of Beam
f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At midspan +0.243 +3.040

_
,
tan
54
35.5 (12)
7.22
1
54
35.5(12)
(33.0 kips/strand)(1.05)
+ +
1, 240.7
767
1, 240.7(30.78)
14,915
1, 414.3(12)
14,915
+ +
1, 240.7
767 15, 421
12)
15, 421
1 240 7 30 78 1 414 3 , . ( . ) , . (
9.5.7.4 Stresses at Midspan/9.5.7.6 Summary of Stresses at Transfer
JUL 03
9.5.7.4
Stresses at Midspan
9.5.7.5
Hold-Down Forces
9.5.7.6
Transfer
9.5.8 Concrete Stresses at Service Loads/9.5.8.2 Stresses at Midspan
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Compression:
Case (I): for all load combinations
0.60f
c

0.60f
c
0.60(4,000)/1,000 +2.400 ksi (for deck)

Case (II): for prestressing force + permanent dead loads
Case (III): live load plus 1/2 (prestressing force + dead loads)
0.40f
c
0.40(7,000)/1,000 +2.800 ksi

Tension:
Compute concrete stresses at the top of the beam:
f
t
Case (I):
f
t
+1.338 2.049 + 2.737 + 0.033 + 0.264 +2.323 ksi

Case (II):
f
t
+1.338 2.049 + 2.737 + 0.033 +2.059
Case (III):
f
t
+ 0.264 + 0.5(+1.338 2.049 + 2.737 + 0.033) +1.294 ksi
Compute concrete stresses at the bottom of the beam:
f
b

+1.338 + 2.119 2.830 0.118 0.952 0.443 ksi
Allowable tension: 0.502 ksi O.K.
1,618.0(12)
20,389
+ +
+
+ 1,026.6
767
1,026.6(30.78)
14,915
(1,390.7 2,126.9 )(12)
14,915
(73 128)(12)
20,389
+ +
+
+
P
A
P e
S
M M
S
M M
S
M
S
se se c
b
g s
b
b ws
bc
LL I
bc
+
1,618.0(12)
73, 415
+ +
+
+
+ 1,026.6
767
1,026.6(30.78)
15, 421
(1,390.7 2,126.9)(12)
15, 421
(73.0 128.0)(12)
73, 415
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
P
A
P e
S
M M
S
M M
S
M
S
se se c
t
g s
t
b ws
tg
LL I
tg
6 f 1,000 0 502 ksi
c
/ . 6 7 000 ,
9.5.8
CONCRETE STRESSES
AT SERVICE LOADS
9.5.8.1
9.5.8.2
Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.5.8.2 Stresses at Midspan/9.5.9.1 Positive Moment Section
JUL 03
Compute stresses at the top of the deck slab.
Compressive stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design for typ-
ical applications. The calculations shown below are for illustrative purposes and may
not be necessary in most practical applications.
Stresses in the deck slab result from the loads applied on the composite section, such
as wearing surface, barrier weight and live loads. Since section properties are calculat-
ed based on beam strength, calculated stresses are transformed using the modular ratio
between deck slab and beam materials, n, which is included in S
tc
.
f
t

0.038 + 0.217 + 0.255 ksi;
Allowable compression: + 2.400 ksi O.K.
Case (II):
f
t
+ 0.038 ksi
Case (III):
f
t
0.5(0.038) + 0.217 + 0.236 ksi
Top of Deck Top of Beam Bottom of Beam
f
t
(ksi) f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At midspan +0.255 +2.323 0.443
[STD Art. 9.17]
Using the Group I loading combination given in Section 9.5.4.3, the factored
moment at midspan of the center span is:
M
u
1.3[M
g
+ M
s
+ M
b
+ M
ws
+ 1.67(M
LL+I
)] [STD Table 3.22.1A]
1.3[1,390.7 + 2,126.9 + 73.0 + 128.0 + 1.67(1,618.0)] 8,346.9 ft-kips
su
*
:
f
su
*
[STD Eq. 9-17]
where
f
su
*
average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load
*
0.28 for low-relaxation strand [STD Art. 9.1.2]
1
0.85 0.05 0.65 when f
c
> 4,000 psi [STD Art. 8.16.2.7]

0.85 0.05 0.85
(4,000 4,000)
1,000
(f 4,000)
1,000
c
1
f
f
1
* s
c
_
,
*
(73.0 128.0)(12)
64,269
(1,168.0)(12)
64,629
+
+
M M
S
M
S
b ws
tc
LL I
tc
+
+
+
9.5.8.3
Service Loads
9.5.9
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
9.5.9.1
Positive Moment Section
where
A
*
area of prestressed reinforcement 44(0.153) 6.732 in.
2
b effective flange width 132.0 in.
d distance from top of deck to centroid of prestressing strands
beam depth (h) + haunch + deck slab thickness y
bs
72 + 0.5 + 7.5 5.82 74.18 in.
where y
bs
distance from center of gravity of the strands to the bottom
fiber of the beam 5.82 in.
*
0.000688
f
*
su
270 265.9 ksi
a 3.99 in. < 7.5 in. [STD Art. 9.17.2]
Since the depth of the compression block is within the deck thickness, this section is
considered a rectangular section.
Design flexural strength of a rectangular section:
M
n
A
*
s
f
*
su
d [STD Eq. 9-13]
where
strength reduction factor 1.0 [STD Art. 9.14]
M
n
nominal moment strength of a section
M
n
1.0(6.732)(265.9)(74.18)
10,761.8 ft-kips > M
u
8,346.9 ft-kips
[STD Art. 9.7.2.3]
For live load continuity at interior supports, provide negative moment reinforcement with-
in the cast-in-place deck. Use Grade 60 deformed reinforcing bars. The negative moment
section at the centerline of the pier is considered a non-pretensioned, reinforced concrete
section using the compressive strength of the beam concrete. [STD Art. 9.7.2.3.2]
Tensile stresses in the top fibers of the cast-in-place deck need not be limited because
the deck is being treated as a conventionally reinforced member which may be cracked
under full service load. However, crack control and fatigue criteria must be satisfied.
M
u
1.3[M
g
+ M
s
+ M
b
+ M
ws
+ 1.67(M
LL + I
)] [STD Table 3.22.1A]
1.3[0 + 0 197 345.0 + 1.67(1,777.0)] 4,562.5 ft-kips
Assume center of gravity of the negative moment tension steel occurs at mid-depth of
slab.
1 0.6
0.000688 (265.9)
4
/12
_
,
1 0.6
f
f
su
*
c
_
,

*
(6.732)(265.9)
0.85(4.0)132
A f
0.85f b
s
*
su
*
c
1
0.28
0.85
(0.000688)
270
4
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
6.732
132(74.18)
A
bd
s
*
9.5.9.1 Positive Moment Section/9.5.9.2 Negative Moment Section
JUL 03
9.5.9.2
Negative Moment Section
d 72 + 0.5(haunch) + 76.25 in.
Provide steel in the deck to resist the total factored negative moment.
R
u
402 psi
where
M
u
total factored negative moment 4,562.5 ft-kips
b width of bottom flange of the beam 26.00 in.
0.90 for reinforced concrete [STD Art 8.16.1.2.2]
d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the negative
moment reinforcing 76.25 in.
0.00694
where
f
sy
yield stress of nonprestressed conventional reinforcement in tension
60 ksi
f
c
compressive concrete strength at 28 days for the beam 7.0 ksi
m 10.08
Required A
s
area of nonpretensioned tension reinforcement bd
0.00694(26)(76.25) 13.76 in.
2
This is the total amount of mild reinforcement required in the slab to resist the neg-
ative moment. Assume that the typical slab reinforcement consists of a bottom mat
of #5 bars @ 12 in. on-center and a top mat of #4 bars @ 12 in. on-center for total
A
s
0.31 + 0.20 0.51 in.
2
/ft.
Since the Standard Specifications do not provide guidance on the width over which
this reinforcement is to be distributed, it is assumed here to be the same as the effec-
tive compression flange width which was determined earlier to be 132 in.
The typical reinforcement provided over this width is equal to (132)(0.51)/12 5.61
in.
2
. Therefore, the required additional reinforcement at the negative moment section
equals 13.78 5.61 8.17 in.
2
.
Add 2 # 6 bars between the top # 4 bars
A
s
2(0.44)(132)/12 9.68 in.
2
Therefore, total A
s
provided 9.68 + 5.61 15.29 in.
2
> required A
s
13.76 in.
2
Compute the capacity of the section in flexure at the pier: [STD Art. 8.16.3.2]
a [STD Eq. 8-17]
5.93 in. < thickness of bottom flange 6.0 in.
15.29(60)
0.85(7)(26)
A f
0.85f b
s sy
c
f
0.85f
60
0.85(7.0)
s
c
1
10.08
1 (1
2(10.08)(402)
60,000

1
]
1
1
1
m
1 (1
2mR
f
u
sy

1
]
1
1
4,562.5(12)(1,000)
0.90(26)(76.25)
2
M
bd
u
2
7.5
2
JUL 03
9.5.9.2 Negative Moment Section/9.5.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement
Since the depth of the compression block is within the bottom flange thickness, the
section is considered a rectangular section.
The design moment strength, M
n
M
n
A
s
f
s
[STD Eq. 8-16]
M
n
5,042.4 ft-kips > M

u
With time, concrete members that are heavily pretensioned will creep. This may cause
camber growth. Because this bridge is designed to have rigid connections between
beams at the piers, camber growth is restrained. As a result, time-dependent positive
moments will develop. Therefore, it is recommended that a nominal amount of pos-
itive moment continuity reinforcement be used over the piers to control potential
cracking in this region. A common way to provide this reinforcement is to extend
approximately 25 percent of the strands from the bottom flange and bend them up
into the diaphragm. Another common detail is the addition of a quantity of mild steel
reinforcement required to resist a moment equal to 1.2M
cr
. This reinforcement is also
extended from the ends of the beam and bent up into the diaphragm.
[STD Art. 9.18.1]
Pretensioned concrete members are designed so that the steel yields as ultimate capac-
ity is approached.
Reinforcement index for rectangular section:
*
< 0.36
1
[STD Eq. 9-20]
0.000688 0.0457 < 0.36(0.85) 0.306 O.K.
[STD Art. 9.18.2]
The total amount of pretensioned reinforcement should be adequate to develop an ulti-
mate moment at the critical section of at least 1.2 times the cracking moment, M
*
cr
:
M
n
1.2M
*
cr
Compute the cracking moment:
M
*
cr
[STD Art. 9.18.2.1] (f f )S M
S
S
1
r pe bc d/nc
bc
b
+
_
,
265 9
4
.
_
,
f
f
su
*
c
'
0 90 15 29 60 76 25
5 93
2
12 . ( . )( ) .
.
/
_
,
d
a
2
_
,
9.5.10
DUCTILITY LIMITS
9.5.10.1
9.5.10.1.1
9.5.10.1.2
JUL 03
Note: The variable S
bc
used here is equivalent to S
c
in the Standard Specifications.
9.5.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.5.10.2.2 Minimum Reinforcement
where
f
r
0.627 ksi
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension forces only (after
where
P
se
effective pretension forces after allowing all losses 1,026.6 kips
e
c
30.78 in.
f
pe
1.338 + 2.119 3.457 ksi
M
d/nc
non-composite dead load moment at midspan due to self-weight of beam
and weight of slab 1,390.7 + 2,126.9 3,517.6 ft-kips
M
*
cr
5,648 ft-kips
1.2M
*
cr
6,777.7 ft-kips < M
n
10,761.8 ft-kips O.K.
Contrary to the LRFD Specifications, the Standard Specifications indicate that this
requirement must be satisfied only at the critical sections.
[STD Art. 8.16.3.1]
actual
0.00771
b
[STD Eq. 8-18]
where
1
0.85 0.05 0.70 [STD Art. 8.16.2.7]
b
0.04108
max
0.75(0.04108) 0.03081 >
actual
0.00771 O.K.
The total amount of non-pretensioned reinforcement should be adequate to develop
an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment,
M
*
cr
:
M
n
1.2M
*
cr
Calculate M
*
cr
: [STD Art. 8.17.1.1]
0.85(0.70)(7)
60
87,000
87,000 60,000 +
_
,
(7,000 4,000)
1,000
0.85 f
f
87,000
87,000 f
c
s s
_
,
15.29
26(76.25)
(0.627 3.457)
20,389
12
3,517.6
20,389
14,915
1 +
_
,
_
,
1,026.6
767
1,026.6(30.78)
14,915
+
P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
7.5 f 7.5 7,000
1
1,000
c
_
,
9.5.10.2
9.5.10.2.1
9.5.10.2.2
JUL 03
9.5.10.2.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.5.11 Shear Design
Modulus of rupture: [STD Art. 8.15.2.1.1]
f
r
7.5 0.474 ksi
M
*
cr
S
tc
f
r
2,538.6 ft-kips
1.2M
*
cr
3,046.4 ft-kips < M
u
4,562.5 ft-kips
[STD Art. 9.20]
Pretensioned members subject to shear should be designed so that:
V
u
(V
c
+ V
s
) [STD Eq. 9-26]
where
V
u
V
c
V
s
The critical section in pretensioned concrete beams, according to the Standard
Specifications, Article 9.20.1.4, is located at a distance h/2 from the face of the sup-
port. In this example, the critical section for shear will be conservatively calculated
from the centerline of support, as shown in Figure 9.5.11-1. The width of the bear-
ing has not yet been determined and will be conservatively assumed to be zero.
Therefore, the detailed calculations shown here are for the section at h/2 at a point 12
+ 80/2 52 in. (4.33 ft.) from the centerline of the pier. The following calculations
demonstrate the procedures used in common practice to compute V
ci
and V
cw
at this
location.
Compute V
ci
at the critical section in the center span:
V
ci
[STD Eq. 9-27] 0 6 . f b' d V
VM
M
c d
i cr
max
+ +
64,269(0.474)
12
f 7.5 4,000
1
1,000
c
_
,
9.5.11
SHEAR DESIGN
JUL 03
6" Critical section
in shear
40.0" 6"
Center span, 120 ft Left end span, 110 ft
bearings
Centerline of
Centerline of the pier
Figure 9.5.11-1
Critical Section in Shear of the
Center Span
where
b width of the web of a flanged member 6.00 in.
f
c
compressive strength of beam concrete at service loads 7,000 psi
V
d
total dead load at the section under consideration (Table 9.5.4.1.2-1)
V
g
+ V
S
+ V
b
+ V
ws
44.5 + 68.0 + 8.3 + 14.9 135.7 kips
V
LL+I
unfactored shear force at section due to live load + impact 87.0 kips
M
d
bending moment at section under consideration due to unfactored dead
loads 152.7 + 233.5 162.0 283.6 59.4 ft-kips
M
LL+I
live load bending moment plus impact 1,506.9 ft-kips
V
u
factored shear force at the section 1.3(V
d
+ 1.67V
LL+I
)
1.3[135.7 + 1.67(87.0)] 365.3 kips
M
u
factored bending moment at the section 1.3(M
d
+ 1.67M
LL+I
)
1.3[59.4 + 1.67(1,506.9)] 3,348.7 ft-kips
V
mu
ultimate shear force occurring simultaneously with M
u
. Conservatively,
use the maximum shear load occurring at this section 365.3 kips
M
max
maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads
M
u
M
d
3,348.7 (59.4) 3,289.3 ft-kips
V
i
max
V
mu
V
d
365.3 135.7 229.6 kips
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after
allowance for all prestress losses) at the extreme fiber of the section where
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads.
The beam at this section is under net negative moment. Thus, f
pe
should
be evaluated at the top of the deck slab. Pretension has no effect on the
deck slab, therefore, f
pe
0
f
d
stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where ten-
sile stress is caused by externally applied loads
0.083 ksi
f
r
the modulus of rupture of concrete
0.379 ksi
M
cr
moment causing flexural cracking of section due to externally applied
loads (after dead load)
S
tc
[STD Eq 9-28]
(0.379 + 0 0.083) 1,585.3 ft-kips
d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of pretensioned
reinforcement. But d need not be taken less than 0.8h
c
64.00 in. [STD
Art. 9.20.2.2]. Negative moment reinforcement is assumed to be located
at the mid-height of the deck, so d 76.25 in.
64,269
12
6 f f f
c pe d
_
,
6 6 4 000
1
1 000
f
c
_
,
,
,
M M
S
( 162.0 283.6)(12)
64,269
b ws
tc
+
_
,

9.5.11 Shear Design
JUL 03
9.5.11 Shear Design
V
ci
[STD Eq. 9-27]
246.0 kips
This value should not be less than:
Minimum V
ci
[STD Art. 9.20.2.2]
65.1 kips < V
ci
246.0 kips O.K.
Compute V
cw
: [STD Art 9.20.2.3]
V
cw
[STD Eq. 9-29]
where
f
pc
compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at cen-
troid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads. This stress is due to
both pretensioning and moments resisted by precast member acting alone.
f
pc
Compute eccentricity of strands, e, at h/2:

h/2 from centerline of support: 4.33 + 0.5 4.83 ft from end of beam
Center of gravity of the 10 harped strands at 4.83 ft from end of beam:
6 in. + 13.35 in.
Center of gravity of strand group at 4.83 ft from end of beam:
16.42 in.
e 36.60 16.42 20.18 in.
f
pc
1.338 0.750 + 0.168 0.756 ksi

V
p
vertical component of prestress force for harped strands
P
se
sin (see Section 9.5.7.5 for calculations of )
233.3sin(7.22) 29.3 kips
where
P
se
the effective prestress force for the harped strands
10(0.153)(152.5) 233.3 kips
+
386.2(12)(56.35 36.60)
545,894
1,026.6
767
1,026.6(20.18)(56.35 36.60)
545,894
34(4) 10(72 13.35)

44
+
(72 in. 12 in. 6 in. )
35.5 ft
(4.83 ft)

P
A
P e(y y )
I
(M + M )(y y )
I
se se bc b
g s bc b
3.5 f 0.3f b d V
c pc p

+
_
,
+
1.7 7,000(6.00)(76.25)
1,000
1.7 f b d
c

0.6 7,000(6)(76.25)
1,000
135.7
181.3(1,585.3)
3,289.3
+ +
0.6 f b d V
VM
M
c d
i cr
max

+ +
JUL 03
9.5.11 Shear Design
V
cw
267.0 kips
The allowable nominal shear provided by concrete should be the lesser of V
ci
(246.0
kips) and V
cw
(267.0 kips), so V
ci
governs.
V
c
246.0 kips
V
u
< (V
c
+ V
s
) [STD Eq. 9-26]
where
V
s
nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement
V
s
159.9 kips
The maximum shear force that may be carried by reinforcement:
Maximum V
s
[STD Art. 9.20.3.1]
306.2 kips > required V
s
159.9 kips O.K.
Compute area of shear steel required: [STD Art. 9.20.3.1]
V
s
[STD Eq. 9-30]
A
v
where
A
v
area of web reinforcement, in.
2
Set s 12 in. to have units of in.
2
/ft for A
v
:
A
v
0.42 in.
2
/ft.
Minimum shear reinforcement: [STD Art. 9.20.3.3]
A
v-min
A
v-min
0.06 in.
2
/ft [STD Eq. 9-31]
The required shear reinforcement is the maximum of A
v
(0.42 in.
2
/ft) and A
v-min
(0.06
in.
2
/ft).
Since V
s
159.9 kips > 153.1 kips,
then the maximum spacing of stirrups must be reduced by one-half. [STD Art. 9.20.3.2]
Maximum spacing 0.75h 0.75(72 + 7.5 + 0.5) 60 in. or
24.00 in. (Controls)
4 f b d
c

4 7 000 6 00 76 25
1 000
, ( . )( . )
,
50b s
f
y
50 6 12
60 000
( )( )
,
159.9(12)
(60)(76.25)
V s
f d
s
y
A f d
s
v y
8 7,000
6.00(76.25)
1,000
8 f b d
c

V
V
365.3
0.90
246.0
u
c

3.5 0.3(0.756) 7 000
6 00 76 25
1 000
29 3 ,
. ( . )
,
. +
[ ]
+
3.5 f 0.3f b d V
c pc p

+
_
,
+
JUL 03
Therefore, maximum s 12 in.
Use #4, two-legged bar stirrups with 10 in. spacing (A
v
0.48 in.
2
/ft)
The calculations above must be repeated along the entire length of the beam at regu-
lar intervals to determine the area and spacing of shear reinforcement.
[STD Art. 9.20.4]
The Standard Specifications do not identify the location of the critical section. For
convenience, it will be assumed here to be at the same location as the critical section
for vertical shear.
V
u
365.3 kips
V
u
V
nh
[STD Eq. 9-31a]
V
nh
is nominal horizontal shear strength
V
nh
405.9 kips
Case (a&b): Contact surface is roughened or when minimum ties are used.
[STD Art. 9.20.4.3]
V
nh
80b
v
d
where
b
v
width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated for horizon-
tal shear 42.0 in.
d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the tension rein-
forcement 76.25 in.
V
nh
80(42)(76.25)/1,000 256.2 kips < 405.9 kips N.G.
Case (c): Minimum ties provided and contact surface roughened. [STD Art. 9.20.4.3]
V
nh
350b
v
d 350(42)(76.25)/1,000 1,120.9 kips > 405.9 kips O.K.
Determine required stirrups for horizontal shear: [STD Art. 9.20.4.5]
Minimum A
vh
0.42 in.
2
/ft
The required minimum horizontal shear reinforcement, A
vh
0.42 in.
2
/ft, is less than
the provided vertical shear reinforcement, A
v
0.48 in.
2
/ft. O.K.
Maximum spacing equals 4b
4(6) 24.00 in [STD Art. 9.20.4.5.a]

or 24.00 in.
Therefore, s 24.00 in.
50 50
12 b s
f
42
60,000
v
y
( )
V
u
365 3
0 9
.
.
24
2
9.5.11 Shear Design/9.5.12 Horizontal Shear Design
JUL 03
9.5.12
HORIZONTAL SHEAR
DESIGN
[STD Art. 9.22]
In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at a unit stress of 20,000 psi used to
resist at least 4% of the total prestressing force, are placed within the distance of d/4
of the end of the beam. [STD Art. 9.22.1]
Minimum stirrups at the each end of the beam:
P
s
prestress force before initial losses equals
44(0.153)(202.5) 1,363.2 kips
4% P
s
0.04(1,363.2) 54.5 kips
Required A
v
2.73 in.
2
Placed at a distance 76.25/4 19 in. from the end of beam.
The shear reinforcement was determined in Section 9.5.11 to be #4 @ 10 in.
However, the minimum vertical reinforcement criteria controls. Therefore, for a dis-
tance of 20 in. from the end of the member, use 5 #5 @ 4 in. The reinforcement pro-
vided is 5(2)(0.31) 3.10 in.
2
Use 5 pairs of #5 bars at 4 in. spacing (Av = 3.10 in.2)
[STD Art. 9.22.2]
For at least a distance d from the end of the beam, nominal reinforcement shall be
provided to enclose the prestressing steel in the bottom flange.
For the harped strands:
p
=
where
p
camber due to prestress force at transfer, in.
P
si
total prestress force after allowing initial losses 1,026.6 kips
I moment of inertia of non-composite section 545,894 in.
4
L overall beam length 119.0 ft
E
ci
modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at release 4,496 ksi
e
c
eccentricity of pretensioning force at the midspan 30.78 in.
e difference between eccentricity of pretensioning steel at midspan and
endspan e
c
e
e
30.78 (36.60 18.09) 12.27 in.
a distance from the end of beam to harp point 35.50 ft
(Note: see Figure 9.5.14.1-1 for strand eccentricity)
p
3.24 in.
1,026.6
(4,496)(545,894)
(30.78)[(121)(12)]
8
(12.27)[(35.5)(12)]
6
2 2
_
,
P
E I
e L
8
e a
6
si
ci
c
2 2
_
,
54 5
20
.
9.5.13 Pretensioned Anchorage Zone/9.5.14.1 Deflection Due to Pretensioning Force at Transfer
JUL 03
9.5.13.2
Confinement
Reinforcement
9.5.14
DEFLECTION
AND CAMBER
9.5.14.1
Deflection Due
to Pretensioning
Force at Transfer
9.5.13
PRETENSIONED
ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.5.13.1
Minimum Vertical
Reinforcement
beam
where w
g
beam weight 0.799 kips/ft
1.47 in.
Deflection due to beam self-weight, used to compute deflection at erection (L 118
ft):
1.42 in.
Total deflection at transfer is 3.24 1.47 1.77 in.
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see PCI Design Handbook):
1.80(3.24) 1.85(1.42) = 3.21 in.
PCI multipliers used for long-term deflection for commercial construction have
proven not to be accurate for bridge construction. Therefore, it is recommend that
the designer contact the owner agency of the bridge for further guidelines.
Frequently, no additional multipliers are used.
slab
where
w
s
slab weight + haunch weight 0.922 kips/ft
E
c
modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at service 5,072 ksi
5w L
384 E I
s
4
c
5(0.799/12)[(118)(12)]
(384)(4, 496)(545,894)
4
5(0.799/12)[(119)(12)]
(384)( 4, 496)(545,894)
4
5w L
384E I
g
4
ci
9.5.14.1 Deflection Due to Pretensioning Force at Transfer/9.5.14.4 Deflection Due to Deck and Haunch Weights
JUL 03
9.5.14.3
9.5.14.4
Deflection Due to Deck
and Haunch Weights
9.5.14.2
Deflection Due
to Beam Self-Weight
Figure 9.5.14.1-1
Strand Eccentricity
a = 35.5' 48' a = 35.5'
119'
e'
P
si
P
si
e
slab
1.45 in.
From continuous beam analysis:
SDL
0.04 in.
Live load deflection is not a required check according to the provisions of the
Standard Specifications. It is usually not a concern for pretensioned concrete I-beam
shapes especially when constructed to act as a continuous structure under super-
imposed loads.
Live load deflection limit (optional): Span/800
max
120(12)/800 1.80 in.
0.667 lanes
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment.
The live load deflection may be conservatively estimated using the following formula:
= (Eq. 9.5.14.6-1)
where
M
s
the maximum positive moment
M
a
& M
b
the corresponding negative moments at the ends of the span being
considered
In this example, a conservative approximation may be made by using the maximum
positive moment in the center span and by ignoring the effect of M
a
and M
b
.
L
0.72 in. < 1.80 in. O.K.
5[(120)(12)]
48(5,072)(1,148,942 )
[(1,618.0)(12)]
2
5L
48EI
[M 0.1(M M )]
2
c
s a b
+
number of lanes
number of beams
4
6
5(0.922/12)[(118)(12)]
(384)(5,072)(545,894)
4
9.5.14.5 Deflection Due to Barrier and Wearing Surface Weights/9.5.14.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
JUL 03
9.5.14.5
Deflection Due to
Barrier and Wearing
Surface Weights
9.5.14.6
Load and Impact
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
JUL 03
9.6.1 INTRODUCTION
9.6.2 MATERIALS
9.6.4.2.2 Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam
9.6.4.2.2.2 Distribution Factor for Shear Force
9.6.6.2 Shrinkage
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BULB-TEE (BT-72), THREE SPANS, COMPOSITE DECK, LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
JUL 03
9.6.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit
9.6.8.3.1 Positive Moment Section
9.6.8.3.2 Negative Moment Section
9.6.9 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
9.6.9.2.1 Design of the Section
9.6.9.2.2 Fatigue Stress Limit and Crack Control
9.6.11 SHEAR DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.6.12 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER
9.6.12.1 Factored Horizontal Shear
9.6.12.2 Required Nominal Resistance
9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement
9.6.12.3.1 Minimum Interface Shear Reinforcement
9.6.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
9.6.15.3 Deflection Due to Haunch and Deck
9.6.15.4 Deflection Due to Barrier and Future Wearing Surface
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This design example demonstrates the design of a three-span (110-120-110 ft)
AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam bridge with no skew, as shown in Figure 9.6.1-1. This
example illustrates in detail the design of a typical interior beam in the center span at
the critical sections in positive flexure, negative flexure, shear, and deflection due to
prestress, dead loads and live load. The superstructure consists of four beams spaced
at 12'-0" centers as shown in Figure 9.6.1-2. Beams are designed to act compositely
with the 8-in.-thick cast-in-place concrete deck slab to resist all superimposed dead
loads, live loads and impact. A 1/2 in. wearing surface is considered to be an integral
part of the 8-in. deck. Design live load is AASHTO LRFD HL-93. The design will
be carried out in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
2nd Edition, 1998, and including through the 2003 Interim Revisions.
JUL 03
9.6.1
INTRODUCTION
Figure 9.6.1-1
Bulb-Tee (BT-72),
Three Spans, Composite Deck,
LRFD Specifications
110'-0" 120'-0" 110'-0"
6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6"
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C bearing
L
C pier
L
C pier
L
1'-0" 1'-0" 1'-0" 1'-0"
C bearing
L
6" 6"
Figure 9.6.1-2
Cross-Section
44'- 6"
1' - 3" 1' - 3"
8"
4'- 3" 4'- 3"
42'- 0"
3 spaces @ 12'- 0" = 36'-0"
3'- 0" 3'- 0"
s
= 8.0 in.
c
= 4.0 ksi
c
= 0.150 kcf
Precast beams: AASHTO-PCI, BT-72 bulb-tee beam shown in Figure 9.6.2-1.
ci
= 5.5 ksi
c
= 7.0 ksi
c
= 0.150 kcf
Overall beam length (Figure 9.6.1-1) = 110.0 ft (end spans) and 119.0 ft (center
span)
Design spans (Figure 9.6.1-1):
For non-composite beam: 109.0 ft (end spans) and 118.0 ft (center span)
For composite beam: 110.0 ft (end spans) and 120.0 ft (center span)
9.6.2 Materials
JUL 03
9.6.2
MATERIALS
2"
2"
3 1/2"
4'- 6"
4 1/2"
6"
2'- 2"
10" 6"
2"
6'- 0"
3'- 6"
Figure 9.6.2-1
AASHTO-PCI Bulb-Tee, BT-72
Prestressing strands: 1/2 in. diameter, low-relaxation
2
pu
= 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, f
py
= 0.9f
pu
= 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
before transfer, f
pi
0.75f
pu
= 202.5 ksi
at service limit state (after all losses)
f
pe
0.80f
py
= 194.4 ksi
p
= 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, f
y
= 60 ksi
s
= 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: additional 2 in. with unit weight equal to 0.150 kcf
A = area of cross-section of beam = 767 in.
2
= 545,894 in.
4
y
b
= 36.60 in.
y
t
= 35.40 in.
S
b
= /y
b
= 14,915 in.
3
S
t
= /y
t
= 15,421 in.
3
Wt = 0.799 kip/ft
E
c
= 33,000(W
c
)
1.5
[LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi
w
c
= unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
The LRFD Specifications, commentary C5.4.2.4, indicates that the unit weight
of normal weight concrete is 0.145 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typ-
ically have a relatively low water/cementitious materials ratio and high densi-
ty. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high
strength concrete, this value may need to be increased further based on test
results.
f
c
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for the cast-in-place concrete deck is:
E
c
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 3,834 ksi 4.0
f
c

JUL 03
9.6.3
CROSS-SECTION PROP-
ERTIES FOR A TYPICAL
INTERIOR BEAM
9.6.3.1
for the precast beam at transfer, E
ci
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 4,496 ksi
for the precast beam at service loads, E
c
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 5,072 ksi
[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
The effective flange width is the lesser of:
(1/4) span length: (120 x 12/4) = 360 in.
12t
s
= (12 x 7.5 + 0.5 x 42) = 111 in.; or,
Therefore, the effective flange width is = 111 in.
Modular ratio between slab and beam concrete, n = = 0.7559
Transformed flange width = n (effective flange width) = (0.7559)(111) = 83.91 in.
Transformed flange area = n (effective flange width)(t
s
) = (0.7559)(111)(7.5) = 629.29 in.
2
Note that only the structural thickness of the deck, 7.5 in., is considered.
Due to camber of the precast, prestressed beam, a minimum haunch thickness of 1/2
in., at midspan, is considered in the structural properties of the composite section.
Also, the width of haunch must be transformed.
Transformed haunch width = (0.7559)(42) = 31.75 in.
2
Figure 9.6.3.2.3-1 shows the dimensions of the composite section.
E (slab)
E (beam)
3,834
5,072
c
c
=
7.0
5.5
Figure 9.6.3.2.3-1
Composite Section
83.90"
c.g. of composite
section
80"
7.5"
72"
111"
0.5"
31.75"
y
bc
9.6.3.1 Non-Composite Section/9.6.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
JUL 03
9.6.3.2.2
Modular Ratio Between Slab
And Beam Materials
9.6.3.2.3
Transformed Section
Properties
9.6.3.2
Composite Section
9.6.3.2.1
if it is required to be provided in the completed structure. Some designers neglect its
contribution to the section properties.
A
c
= total area of composite section = 1,412 in.
2
h
c
I
c
4
y
bc
of the precast beam = = 54.67 in.
y
tg
the precast beam = 72 54.67 = 17.33 in.
y
tc
the slab = 80 54.67 = 25.33 in.
S
bc
= (I
c
/y
bc
) = = 20,070 in.
3
S
tg
= composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast beam
= (I
c
/y
tg
) = = 63,315 in.
3
S
tc
= composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the deck slab
= (I
c
/y
tc
) = = 57,307 in.
3
The self-weight of the beam and the weight of the slab and haunch act on the non-
composite, simple-span structure, while the weight of barriers, future wearing sur-
face, and live loads with impact act on the composite, continuous structure. Refer to
Table 9.6.4-1 which follows for a summary of unfactored values, calculated below:
[LRFD Art. 3.3.2]
DC = Dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments
Dead loads acting on the simple-span structure, non-composite section:
Beam self-weight = 0.799 kip/ft
1
0.7559
1,097, 252
25.33
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
1
n
[
\
|

)
j
1,097, 252
17.33
[
\
|

)
j
1,097, 252
54.67
[
\
|

)
j
77 202
1 412
,
,
JUL 03
Table 9.6.3.2.3-1
9.6.4
SHEAR FORCES AND
BENDING MOMENTS
9.6.4.1
Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Due to Dead Loads
9.6.4.1.1
Dead Loads
Transformed
Area, in.
2
y
b
in.
Ay
b
in.
3
A(y
bc bc
- y
b
)
2
in.
4
I
in.
4
I + A(y - y
b
)
2
in.
4
Beam 767.00 36.60 28,072.20 250,444.60 545,894.00 796,338
Haunch 15.87 72.25 1,146.61 4,904.73 0.33 4,905
Deck 629.29 76.25 47,983.36 293,058.09 2,949.61 296,007

1,412.16 77,202.17 1,097,251
8-in. deck weight = (8/12 ft)(12 ft)(0.150 kcf ) = 1.200 kip/ft
1/2 in. haunch weight = (0.5)(42/144)(0.150) = 0.022 kip/ft
Notes:
1. Actual slab thickness (8 in.) is used for computing dead load.
2. A 1/2 in. minimum haunch thickness is assumed in the computations of dead
load. If a deeper haunch will be used because of final beam camber, the weight
of the actual haunch should be used.
3. The weight of cross-diaphragms is ignored since most agencies are moving
away from cast-in-place concrete diaphragms to lightweight steel diaphragms.
Dead loads placed on the continuous structure, composite section:
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1 states that permanent loads (curbs and future wearing
surface) may be distributed uniformly among all beams if the following condi-
tions are met:
Width of the deck is constant O.K.
Number of beams, N
b
b
= 4) O.K.
Roadway part of the overhang, d
e
3.0 ft
O.K.
Curvature in plan is less than 4 (curvature = 0.0) O.K.
LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 O.K.
Since these criteria are satisfied, the barrier and wearing surface loads are equally
distributed among the 4 beams.
Barrier weight = (2 barriers)(0.300 kip/ft)/(4 beams) = 0.150 kip/ft
DW = Dead load of future wearing surface = (2/12)(0.15) = 0.250 ksf = (0.025
ksf )(42.0 ft)/(4 beams) = 0.263 kip/ft
For a simply supported beam with a span (L) loaded with a uniformly distributed
x
) and bending moment (M
x
) at any distance (x) from the
support are given by:
V
x
= w(0.5L x) (Eq. 9.6.4.1.2-1)
M
x
= 0.5wx(L x) (Eq. 9.6.4.1.2-2)
interior beam, under self-weight of beam and weight of slab and haunch are com-
puted and given in Table 9.6.4-1 that is found at the end of Section 9.6.4. The span
length for each span to be considered depends on the construction stage:
overall length immediately after prestress release
centerline-to-centerline distance between beam bearings at the time of deck
placement
centerline-to-centerline distance between supports after beams are made con-
tinuous
d 3.0 1.25 0.5
6
12
1.5 ft
e
=
[
\
|

)
j
=
9.6.4.1.1 Dead Loads/9.6.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments
JUL 03
9.6.4.1.2
Bending Moments
Shear forces and bending moments due to barrier weight and future wearing surface
are calculated based on the continuous span lengths, 110, 120 and 110 ft. The three-
span structure was analyzed using a continuous beam program. The shear forces and
bending moments are given in Table 9.6.4-1.
Design live load is HL-93, which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
The design truck is the same as the HS20 design truck specified by the
Standard Specifications [STD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]. The design tandem consists of a
pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced 4.0 ft apart. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]. Spans in the
range used in this example are much larger than those controlled by the tan-
dem loading. For this reason, tandem loading effects are not included.
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kips/ft without dynamic allowance [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]
Art. 3.6.1.3.1 in the LRFD Specifications requires that for negative moment between
points of dead load contraflexure, and, for reactions at interior piers only, 90% of the
effect of two design trucks spaced at a minimum of 50.0 ft between the lead axle of
one truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect of
the design lane load be considered. The distance between the 32 kip axles of each
truck should be taken as 14 ft.
This three-span structure was analyzed using a continuous beam program that has
the ability to generate live load shear force, and bending moment envelopes in accor-
dance with the LRFD Specifications on a per-lane basis. The span lengths used are the
continuous span lengths, 110, 120 and 110 ft.
The live load bending moments and shear forces are determined by using the simplified
distribution factor formulas [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2]. To use the simplified live load distri-
bution factor formulas, the following conditions must be met. [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.2.1]
Width of deck is constant O.K.
Number of beams, N
b
4 (N
b
= 4) O.K.
Beams are parallel and approximately of the same stiffness O.K.
Roadway part of overhang, d
e
3.0 ft O.K.
Curvature is less than 4 [LRFD Table. 4.6.1.2.1-1] (Curvature = 0.0) O.K.
For precast concrete I- or bulb-tee beams with cast-in-place concrete deck slab, the
bridge type is (k) [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1]
The number of design lanes:
Number of design lanes = The integer part of the ratio of (w/12), where (w) is the clear
roadway width, in ft, between the curbs. [Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
From Figure 9.6.1-2, w = 42 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (42/12) = 3 lanes
d 3.0 1.25 0.5
6
12
1.50 ft
e
=
[
\
|

)
j
=
9.6.4.1.2 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.6.4.2.2 Distribution Factor for a Typical Interior Beam
JUL 03
9.6.4.2.2
Distribution Factor for a
Typical Interior Beam
9.6.4.2
Moments Due to Live
Loads
9.6.4.2.1
Live Loads
For all limit states except for fatigue limit state
DFM = [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
Provided that: 3.5 S 16 S = 12.0 ft O.K.
4.5 t
s
12 t
s
= 7.5 in. O.K.
20 L 240 L = 120 ft O.K.
N
b
4 N
b
= 4 O.K.
10,000 K
g
7,000,000 O.K. (see below)
where
DFM = distribution factor for moment for interior beam
S = beams spacing, ft
L = beam span, ft
t
s
= depth of concrete slab, in.
K
g
= longitudinal stiffness parameter, in.
4
, = n(I + Ae
g
2
) [LRFD Eq. 4.6.2.2.1-1]
where
n = modular ratio between beam and deck materials
= = 1.3229
A = cross-section area of the beam (non-composite section), in.
2
I = moment of inertia of the beam (non-composite section), in.
4
e
g
= distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and deck, in.
= (7.5/2 + 0.5 + 35.4) = 39.65 in.
Therefore,
K
g
= (1.3229)[545,894 + 767(39.65)
2
] = 2,317,339.75 in.
4
At center span:
DFM =
= 0.075 + (1.150)(0.631)(1.143) = 0.905 lanes/beam
DFM = [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1]
=
= 0.06 + (0.940)(0.501)(1.138) = 0.596 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of the two design lanes loaded controls, DFM = 0.905 lanes/beam.
0.06
12
14
12
120
2, 217,339.75
12.0(120)(7.5)
0.4 0.3
3
0.1
+
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
0.06
S
14
S
L
K
12.0Lt
0.4 0.3
g
s
3
0.1
+
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
0.075
12
9.5
12
120
2,317,339.75
(12.0)(120)(7.5)
0.6 0.2
3
0.1
+
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
E (beam)
E (slab)
5,072
3,834
c
c
=
0.075
S
9.5
S
L
K
12.0Lt
0.6 0.2
g
s
3
0.1
+
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
[
\
|

)
j
JUL 03
9.6.4.2.2.1
Bending Moment
LRFD Article 3.4.1 states that for fatigue limit state, the single design truck should
be used. However, live load distribution factors given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 take
into consideration the multiple presence factor, m. LRFD Article 3.6.1.1.2 states
that the multiple presence factor, m, for one design lane loaded is 1.2. Therefore,
the distribution factor for one design lane loaded, with the multiple presence fac-
tor removed, should be used. The distribution factor for fatigue limit state is:
0.596/1.2 = 0.497 lanes/beam.
Fatigue limit state is not checked in this example. However, the live load moment
that is used to compute the fatigue stress range is a moment due to a truck load
with a constant spacing of 30 ft between the 32.0 kip axles.
DFV = [LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]
Provided that: 3.5 S 16 S = 12.0 ft O.K.
20 L 240 L = 120 ft O.K.
4.5 t
s
12 t
s
= 7.5 in. O.K.
N
b
4 N
b
= 4 O.K.
where
DFV = Distribution factor for shear for interior beam
S = Beam spacing, ft
Therefore, the distribution factor for shear force for both end spans and center span
is:
DFV = = 1.082 lanes/beam
DFV = = 0.840 lanes/beam
Thus, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls, DFV = 1.082 lanes/beam.
IM = 33% [LRFD Table 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied only to truck load
0.36
S
25.0
0.36
12
25.0
+
[
\
|

)
j
= +
[
\
|

)
j
0.2
12
12
12
35
2
+
[
\
|

)
j

[
\
|

)
j
0.2
S
12
S
35
2
+
[
\
|

)
j

[
\
|

)
j
9.6.4.2.2.1 Distribution Factor for Bending Moment/9.6.4.2.3 Dynamic Allowance
JUL 03
9.6.4.2.2.2
Distribution Factor
for Shear Force
9.6.4.2.3
Dynamic Allowance
Unfactored shear forces and bending moments due to HL-93, per beam, are:
V
LT
= (shear force per lane)(DFV)(1 + IM) = (shear force per lane)(1.082)(1 + 0.33)
= (shear force per lane)(1.439) kips
M
LT
= (bending moment per lane)(DFM)(1 + IM) = (bending moment per lane)
(0.905)(1+0.33) = (bending moment per lane)(1.204) ft-kips
Values of V
LT
and M
LT
[LRFD Art. 3.4]
Q =
i
q
i
[LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
where
= a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
importance. Here, is considered to be 1.0
i
= load factors
q
i
= specified loads [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Service I: check compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components:
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress checks
and applies to all conditions other than Service III.
Service III: Check tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components:
This load combination is a special combination for the service limit state stress check
Strength I: Check ultimate strength: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 and 2]
This load combination is the general load combination for strength limit state design.
The minimum load factors for dead load (DC) and future wearing surface (DW) are
used when dead load and future wearing surface stresses are of an opposite sign to
that of the live load.
Fatigue: Check stress range in strands: [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q = 0.75(LL + IM)
This is a special load combination to check the tensile stress range in the strands due
to live load and dynamic allowance.
9.6.4.2.4 Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments/9.6.4.3 Load Combinations
JUL 03
9.6.4.2.4
Bending Moments
9.6.4.3
Load Combinations
JUL 03
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
B
e
a
m

w
e
i
g
h
t
L
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
[
s
i
m
p
l
e

s
p
a
n
]
D
e
c
k

p
l
u
s

H
a
u
n
c
h

w
e
i
g
h
t

[
s
i
m
p
l
e

s
p
a
n
]
B
a
r
r
i
e
r

w
e
i
g
h
t
[
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s

s
p
a
n
]
F
u
t
u
r
e

w
e
a
r
i
n
g

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
[
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s

s
p
a
n
]
H
L
-
9
3

l
i
v
e

l
o
a
d

e
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
[
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s

s
p
a
n
]
x f
t
x
/
L
S
h
e
a
r
M
o
m
e
n
t
M
g
M
s
M
b
M
w
s
V
L
L
+
1
M
L
L
+
1
S
h
e
a
r
M
o
m
e
n
t
S
h
e
a
r
M
o
m
e
n
t
S
h
e
a
r
M
o
m
e
n
t
S
h
e
a
r
M
o
m
e
n
t
k
i
p
s
f
t
-
k
i
p
s
k
i
p
s
f
t
-
k
i
p
s
k
i
p
s
f
t
-
k
i
p
s
k
i
p
s
f
t
-
k
i
p
s
k
i
p
s
f
t
-
k
i
p
s
0
.
0
[
1
]
0
.
0
0
0
4
3
.
5
0
.
0
6
6
.
6
0
.
0
6
.
0
0
.
0
1
1
.
0
0
.
0
1
2
8
.
4
0
.
0
1
1
.
0
0
.
1
0
0
3
4
.
8
4
3
0
.
7
5
3
.
2
6
5
8
.
7
5
.
0
6
2
.
0
8
.
0
1
0
9
.
0
1
1
1
.
6
1
,
0
2
6
.
3
2
2
.
0
0
.
2
0
0
2
6
.
0
7
6
4
.
6
3
9
.
7
1
,
1
6
9
.
5
3
.
0
1
0
6
.
0
6
.
0
1
8
6
.
0
9
1
.
9
1
,
7
4
9
.
4
3
3
.
0
0
.
3
0
0
1
7
.
2
1
,
0
0
1
.
9
2
6
.
3
1
,
5
3
2
.
4
2
.
0
1
3
2
.
0
3
.
0
2
3
1
.
0
7
2
.
0
2
,
1
8
6
.
5
4
4
.
0
0
.
4
0
0
8
.
4
1
,
1
4
2
.
6
1
2
.
8
1
,
7
4
7
.
5
0
.
0
1
3
9
.
0
0
.
0
2
4
4
.
0
5
7
.
1
2
,
3
8
2
.
9
5
5
.
0
0
.
5
0
0
0
.
4
1
,
1
8
6
.
5
0
.
6
1
,
8
1
4
.
7
2
.
0
1
2
8
.
0
3
.
0
2
2
5
.
0
6
8
.
9
2
,
3
4
8
.
5
6
6
.
0
0
.
6
0
0
9
.
2
1
,
1
3
3
.
8
1
4
.
1
1
,
7
3
4
.
0
3
.
0
1
0
0
.
0
6
.
0
1
7
5
.
0
8
5
.
2
2
,
1
0
8
.
7
7
7
.
0
0
.
7
0
0
1
8
.
0
9
8
4
.
4
2
7
.
5
1
,
5
0
5
.
5
5
.
0
5
3
.
0
9
.
0
9
3
.
0
1
0
1
.
4
1
,
6
5
4
.
3
8
8
.
0
0
.
8
0
0
2
6
.
8
7
3
8
.
3
4
0
.
9
1
,
1
2
9
.
1
7
.
0
-
1
2
.
0
1
2
.
0
-
2
1
.
0
1
1
4
.
7
1
,
0
2
1
.
7
9
9
.
0
0
.
9
0
0
3
5
.
6
3
9
5
.
5
5
4
.
4
6
0
4
.
9
8
.
0
-
9
5
.
0
1
5
.
0
-
1
6
7
.
0
1
2
0
.
3
-
1
,
3
1
6
.
8
1
0
9
.
0
[
1
]
0
.
9
9
1
4
3
.
5
0
.
0
6
6
.
6
0
.
0
9
.
8
*
-
1
8
7
.
7
*
1
7
.
7
*
-
3
2
8
.
8
*
1
4
4
.
6
*
-
2
,
2
3
5
.
8
*
1
1
0
.
0
1
.
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
-
1
9
7
.
0
1
8
.
0
-
3
4
5
.
0
1
4
7
.
0
-
2
,
3
2
7
.
7
0
.
0
[
2
]
0
.
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
9
.
0
-
1
9
7
.
0
1
6
.
0
-
3
4
5
.
0
1
4
4
.
6
-
2
,
3
2
7
.
7
1
.
0
[
1
]
0
.
0
0
8
4
7
.
1
0
.
0
7
2
.
1
0
.
0
8
.
8
*
-
1
8
8
.
9
*
1
5
.
8
*
-
3
3
6
.
6
*
1
4
3
.
6
*
-
2
,
2
7
6
.
9
*
7
.
1
[
3
]
0
.
0
5
9
4
2
.
3
2
7
2
.
7
6
4
.
6
4
1
7
.
1
7
.
8
*
-
1
3
9
.
6
*
1
4
.
2
-
2
4
4
.
4
*
1
3
7
.
3
*
-
1
,
7
1
7
.
8
*
1
2
.
0
0
.
1
0
0
3
8
.
4
4
7
0
.
2
5
8
.
7
7
1
9
.
1
7
.
0
-
1
0
0
.
0
1
3
.
0
-
1
7
5
.
0
1
3
2
.
3
-
1
,
2
9
6
.
9
2
4
.
0
0
.
2
0
0
2
8
.
8
8
7
2
.
9
4
4
.
0
1
,
3
3
5
.
0
5
.
0
-
2
4
.
0
1
0
.
0
-
4
2
.
0
1
1
3
.
8
1
,
0
4
4
.
4
3
6
.
0
0
.
3
0
0
1
9
.
2
1
,
1
6
0
.
5
2
9
.
3
1
,
7
7
5
.
0
4
.
0
3
0
.
0
6
.
0
5
3
.
0
9
2
.
6
1
,
6
4
1
.
7
4
8
.
0
0
.
4
0
0
9
.
6
1
,
3
3
3
.
1
1
4
.
7
2
,
0
3
8
.
9
2
.
0
6
2
.
0
3
.
0
1
0
9
.
0
7
6
.
7
2
,
0
0
6
.
4
6
0
.
0
0
.
5
0
0
0
.
0
1
,
3
9
0
.
7
0
.
0
2
,
1
2
6
.
9
0
.
0
7
3
.
0
0
.
0
1
2
8
.
0
5
8
.
2
2
,
1
1
5
.
0
[
1
]

C
e
n
t
e
r
l
i
n
e

o
f

b
e
a
r
i
n
g
[
2
]

C
e
n
t
e
r
l
i
n
e

o
f

p
i
e
r
[
3
]

C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

i
n

s
h
e
a
r
*

D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
d

u
s
i
n
g

l
i
n
e
a
r

i
n
t
e
r
p
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
N
o
t
e
:

S
h
e
a
r

v
a
l
u
e
s

s
h
o
w
n

a
r
e

a
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

v
a
l
u
e
s
.
T
a
b
l
e

9
.
6
.
4
-
1
U
n
f
a
c
t
o
r
e
d

S
h
e
a
r

F
o
r
c
e
s

a
n
d

B
e
n
d
i
n
g

M
o
m
e
n
t
s

f
o
r

a

T
y
p
i
c
a
l

I
n
t
e
r
i
o
r

B
e
a
m

Note: The live load used in the above equation results only from a single design truck
with a 30-ft constant spacing between the 32.0 kip axles with the special dynamic
allowance, (IM) for fatigue.
bottom fiber for the load combination at Service III at the section of maximum
moment or at the harp points. For estimating the number of strands, only the stress-
es at midspan are considered.
Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads using load combination
Service III, is:
f
b
=
where
f
b
= bottom tensile stresses, ksi
M
g
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight, ft-kips
M
s
= unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights, ft-kips
M
b
= unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight, ft-kips
M
ws
= unfactored bending moment due to weight of future wearing surface, ft-
kips
M
LL+I
= unfactored bending moment due to design vehicular live load including
impact, ft-kips
Using values of bending moments from Table 9.6.4-1, the bottom tensile stress at
midspan of the center span (point 0.5, centerspan), is:
f
b
=
= 2.830 + 1.132 = 3.962 ksi
The tensile stress limit at service loads = [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2.2b]
where f
c
= specified 28-day concrete strength, ksi
Therefore, the tensile stress limit in concrete = = 0.503 ksi
The required precompressive stress at the bottom fiber of the beam is the difference
limit:
f
pb
= (3.962 0.503) = 3.459 ksi.
The location of the strand center of gravity at midspan, ranges from 5 to 15% of the
beam depth, measured from the bottom of the beam. A value of 5% is appropriate
for newer efficient sections like the bulb-tee beams and 15% for less efficient AASHTO
standard shapes.
0.19 7.0
0.19 f
c
(1,390.7 2,126.9)(12)
14,915
(73 128 0.8 x 2,115)(12)
20,070
+
+
+ +
M M
S
M M (0.8)(M )
S
g s
b
b ws LL+I
bc
+
+
+ +
9.6.4.3 Load Combinations/9.6.5.3 Required Number of Strands
JUL 03
9.6.5
ESTIMATE REQUIRED
PRESTRESS
9.6.5.1
at Midspan
9.6.5.2
9.6.5.3
Required Number
of Strands
Assume the distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom fiber of the
beam, y
bs
, is equal to 7% of the beam depth.
y
bs
= 0.07h = 0.07(72) = 5.04 in.
Then, the strand eccentricity at midspan, e
c
, is = (y
b
- y
bs
) = (36.60 5.04) = 31.56 in.
If P
pe
is the total prestressing force, the stress at the bottom fiber due to prestress is:
f
pb
= , or, setting the required precompression (3.459 ksi) equal to the
bottom fiber stress due to prestress, solve for the minimum required P
pe
:
3.459 =
Solving for P
pe
, the required P
pe
= 1,011.5 kips
Final Prestress force per strand = (area of strand)(f
pi
)(1 losses, %)
where f
pi
= initial prestressing stress before transfer, ksi.
Assuming final loss of 25% of f
pi
, the prestress force per strand after all losses =
(0.153)(202.5)(1 0.25) = 23.2 kips
Number of strands required = (1,011.5/23.2) = 43.6 strands
Try (44) 1/2 in. diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands
The assumed strand pattern for the 44 strands at midspan is shown in Figure 9.6.5.4-1.
Each available position was filled beginning with the bottom row.
P
767
P (31.56)
14,915
pe pe
+
P
A
P e
S
pe pe c
b
+
Figure 9.6.5.4-1
at Midspan
11 spaces @ 2" 2" 2"
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
Distance from
bottom (in.)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
JUL 03
9.6.5.4
Strand Pattern
The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom concrete fiber
of the beam, y
bs
, is:
y
bs
= [(12(2) + 12(4) + 8(6) + 4(8) + 2(10) + 2(12) + 2(14) + 2(16)]/44 = 5.82 in.
Strand eccentricity at midspan, e
c
= y
b
y
bs
= 36.60 5.82 = 30.78 in.
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5]
Total prestress losses: [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
where
f
pES
= loss due to elastic shortening, ksi
f
pSR
= loss due to shrinkage, ksi
f
pCR
= loss due to creep, ksi
f
pR2
= loss due to relaxation of steel after transfer, ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.2.3a]
f
pES
= [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
where
E
p
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of beam at release = 4,496 ksi
f
cgp
tions of maximum moment
=
The LRFD Specifications, Art. 5.9.5.2.3a, states that f
cgp
can be calculated on the
basis of a prestressing steel stress assumed to be 0.7f
pu
for low-relaxation strands.
However, common practice assumes the initial losses as a percentage of initial
prestressing stress before release, f
pi
. In both procedures, assumed initial losses
should be checked and if different from the assumed value, a second iteration
should be carried out. In this example, a 9% f
pi
initial loss is used.
Force per strand at transfer = (area of strand) (prestress stress at release)
= 0.153(202.5)(1 0.09) = 28.2 kips
P
i
= total prestressing force at release = (44 strands)(28.2) = 1,240.8 kips
M
g
cgp
will be con-
servatively computed based on M
g
f
cgp
=
= 1.618 + 2.153 0.941 = 2.830 ksi
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(30.78)
545,894
(1,390.7)(12)(30.78)
545,894
2
+
P
A
Pe
I
M e
I
i i c
2
g c
+
E
E
f
p
ci
cgp
9.6.5.4 Strand Pattern/9.6.6.1 Elastic Shortening
JUL 03
9.6.6
PRESTRESS LOSSES
9.6.6.1
Elastic Shortening
Therefore, the loss due to elastic shortening is:
f
pES
= = 17.9 ksi
The percent of actual losses due to elastic shortening = (17.9/202.5)100 = 8.8%. Since
calculated loss of 8.8% is approximately equal to the initial assumption of 9% a second
iteration is not necessary. Note that this loss is equivalent to a stress after initial losses of
0.68 f
pu
. This stress is lower than the estimate of 0.70 f
pu
, provided in Article 5.9.5.2.3a.
If the elastic shortening loss was calculated using a stress of 0.70 f
pu
, a second itera-
tion would be required to arrive at a steel stress of 0.68 f
pu
.
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2]
f
pSR
= (17 0.15H) [LRFDEq. 5.9.5.4.2-1]
where H = relative humidity (assume 70%)
Relative humidity varies significantly throughout the country. See LRFD Figure
5.4.2.3.3-1.
f
pSR
= 17 0.15(70) = 6.5 ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.3]
f
pCR
= 12f
cgp
7f
cdp
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3-1]
where
f
cdp
= Change of stresses at center of gravity of prestressing due to permanent
loads except the loads acting at time of applying prestressing force, calcu-
lated at the same section as f
cgp
=
=
= 1.439 + 0.107 = 1.546 ksi
Therefore, the loss due to creep is:
f
pCR
= 12(2.830) 7(1.546) = 23.1 ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4]
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4b]
Initial loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel is accounted for in the beam fabri-
cation process. Therefore, loss due to relaxation of the prestressing steel prior to trans-
fer will not be computed, i.e. f
pR1
= 0. Recognizing this for pretensioned members,
LRFD Article 5.9.5.1 excludes the portion of the relaxation loss that occurs prior to
transfer from the final loss.
(2,126.9)(12)(30.78)
545,894
(73 128)(12)(54.67 5.82)
1,097, 252
+
+
M e
I
(M M )(y y )
I
s c ws b bc bs
c
+
+
28,500
4, 496
(2.830)
9.6.6.1 Elastic Shortening/9.6.6.4.1 Relaxation before Transfer
JUL 03
9.6.6.2
Shrinkage
9.6.6.3
Creep of Concrete
9.6.6.4
Relaxation of
Prestressing Strands
9.6.6.4.1
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4c]
For low-relaxation strands, loss due to strand relaxation after transfer is:
f
pR2
= 30%[20.0 0.4(f
pES
) 0.2(f
pSR
+ f
pCR
)] [LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4c]
= 0.30[20.0 0.4(17.9) 0.2(6.5 + 23.1)] = 2.1 ksi
f
pi
= f
pES
= 17.9 ksi
pt
= f
pi
f
pi
= (202.5 17.9) = 184.6 ksi
pt
)(strand area) = 184.6(0.153) = 28.2 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer, P
i
= 28.2 x 44 = 1,240.8 kips
Initial loss, % = (total losses at transfer)/(f
pi
) = 17.9/(202.5) = 8.9%
The first estimation of loss at transfer, 9%, is very close to the actual computed initial
loss of 8.9%. Thus, there is no need for a second iteration to refine the initial losses.
f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
= 17.9 + 6.5 + 23.1 + 2.1 = 49.6 ksi
Stress in tendon after all losses, f
pe
= f
pi
f
pT
= 202.5 49.6 = 152.9 ksi
Check prestressing stress limit at service limit state:
f
pe
0.8f
py
= 0.8(243) = 194.4 ksi > 152.9 ksi O.K.
pe
)(strand area) = (152.8)(0.153) = 23.4 kips
pe
= 23.4(44) = 1,029.6 kips
Final losses, % = (f
pT
)/(f
pi
) = = 24.5%
Force per strand after initial losses = 28.2 kips
Therefore, the total prestressing force after transfer is, P
i
= 1,240.8 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
= 0.6(5.5) = +3.300 ksi
Tension:
without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
0.0948 0.200 ksi; 0.0948 = 0.222 ksi < 0.200 ksi
with bonded auxiliary reinforcement which is sufficient to resist 120% of the ten-
sion force in the cracked concrete:
0.22 = 0.22 = 0.516 ksi
Stresses at this location need only be checked at release since this stage almost always gov-
erns. Also, losses with time will reduce the concrete stresses making them less critical.
Transfer length = 60(strand diameter) = 60(0.5) = 30 in. = 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.3]
5.5
f
ci
5.5
f
ci
'
49.6
202.5
(100)
9.6.6.4.2 Relaxation after Transfer/9.6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
JUL 03
9.6.6.4.2
9.6.6.5
9.6.6.6
Total Losses at
Service Loads
9.6.7
STRESSES AT
TRANSFER
9.6.7.1
9.6.7.2
Length Section
Due to the camber of the beam at release, the beam self-weight acts on the overall
beam length (119 ft). Therefore, values of bending moment given in Table 9.6.4-1
cannot be used since they are based on the span between centerlines of bearings (118
ft). Using Equation Eq. 9.6.4.1.2-2 given previously, the bending moment at a dis-
tance 2.5 ft from the end of the beam is calculated due to beam self-weight:
M
g
= (0.5)(0.799)(2.5)(119 2.5) = 116.4 ft-kips
Compute top stress at the top fiber of the beam:
f
t
=
= 1.618 2.477 + 0.091 = 0.768 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement: 0.516 ksi N.G.
Compute bottom stress at the bottom fiber of the beam:
f
b
=
= 1.618 + 2.561 0.094 = +4.085 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi N.G.
Since the top and bottom concrete stresses exceed the stress limits, harp strands to
make stresses fall within the specified limits. Harp 12 strands at the 0.3L points, as
shown in Figures 9.6.7.2-1 and 9.6.7.2-2. This harp location is more appropriate for
the end spans of multi-span continuous bridges because the maximum positive
moment is closer to the abutment than in the interior spans. For simple spans, it is
more common to use a harp point at least 0.4L from the ends.
P
A
Pe
S
M
S
1,240.8
767
(1,240.8)(30.78)
14,915
(116.4)(12)
14,915
i i
b
g
b
+ = +
P
A
Pe
S
M
S
1,240.8
767
(1,240.8)(30.78)
14,915
(116.4)(12)
14,915
i i
b
g
b
+ = +
JUL 03
Figure 9.6.7.2-1
Strand Pattern
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
4
8
12
12
At midspan
At ends
No.
Strands
2
2
2
2
2
2
No.
Strands
2
6
12
12
Harped strand
group
2"
2"
Distance from
bottom (in.)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Distance from
bottom (in.)
70
68
66
64
62
60
Distance from
bottom (in.)
8
6
4
2
Compute the center of gravity of the prestressing strands at the transfer length using
the harped pattern.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands at the end of the
beam and the top fiber of the precast beam is:
= 7.00 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped stands at the harp point
and the bottom fiber of the beam is:
= 11.0 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 12 harped strands and the top fiber
of the beam at the transfer length section is:
7 in. + (2.5) ft = 10.80 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the 32 straight bottom strands and the
extreme bottom fiber of the beam is:
= 3.88 in.
Therefore, the distance between the center of gravity of the total number of the
strands and the bottom fiber of the precast beam at transfer length is:
= 19.51 in.
Eccentricity of the strand group at transfer length, e, is: 36.60 19.51 = 17.09 in.
The distance between the center of gravity of the total number of the strands and the
bottom fiber of the precast beam at the end of the beam is:
= 20.55 in.
and the eccentricity at the end of the beam, e
e
, is: 36.60 20.55 = 16.05 in.
Recompute top and bottom stresses at the transfer length section using the harped
pattern:
12(72 7) 32(3.88)
44
+
12(72 10.80) 32(3.88)
44
+
12(2) 12(4) 6(6) 2(8)
32
+ + +
(72 11 7) in.
35.5 ft

2(6) 2(8) 2(10) 2(12) 2(14) 2(16)
12
+ + + + +
2(2) 2(4) 2(6) 2(8) 2(10) 2(12)
12
+ + + + +
JUL 03
Figure 9.6.7.2-2
Longitudinal Strand Profile
7"
65"
2'-6"
35'-6" 24'-0"
0.5(119') = 59'-6"
3.9" 11"

f
t
= = 1.618 1.375 + 0.091 = +0.334 ksi
Compressive stress limit for concrete: +3.300 ksi O.K.
Concrete stress at bottom fiber of the beam,
f
b
= = 1.618 + 1.422 0.094 = +2.946 ksi
The strand eccentricity at the harp points is the same as at midspan, e
c
= 30.78 in.
The bending moment due to beam self-weight at a distance 35.5 ft (0.3L) from the
end of the beam is:
M
g
= (0.5)(0.799)(35.5)(119 35.5) = 1,184.2 ft-kips
Concrete stress at top fiber of the beam,
f
t
= = 1.618 2.477 + 0.921 = +0.062 ksi
Concrete stress at bottom fiber of the beam:
f
b
= = 1.618 + 2.561 0.953 = +3.226 ksi
The bending moment due to beam self-weight at a distance 59.5 feet from the end
of the beam is:
M
g
= (0.5)(0.799)(59.5)(119 59.5) = 1,414.3 ft-kips
f
t
= = 1.618 2.477 + 1.101 = +0.242 ksi
Concrete stress at bottom fiber of the beam,
f
b
= = 1.618 + 2.561 1.138
= +3.041 ksi
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(30.78)
14,915
(1, 414.3)(12)
14,915
+
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(30.78)
15, 421
(1, 414.3)(12)
15, 421
+
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(30.78)
14,915
(1,184.2)(12)
14,915
+
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(30.78)
15, 421
(1,184.2)(12)
15, 421
+
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(17.09)
14,915
(116.4)(12)
14,915
+
1, 240.8
767
(1, 240.8)(17.09)
15, 421
(116.4)(12)
15, 421
+
9.6.7.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/9.6.7.4 Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.6.7.3
Stresses at the Harp Points
9.6.7.4
Stresses at Midspan
Assume that the stress in the strand at the time of prestressing, before any losses, is:
0.80f
pu
= 0.80(270) = 216 ksi
Then, the prestress force per strand before any losses is: 0.153(216) = 33.0 kips
From Figure 9.6.7.2-2, harp angle,
=
Therefore, hold-down force/strand = 1.05(force per strand)(sin )
= 1.05(33.0) sin 7.2 = 4.3 kips/strand
Note that the factor, 1.05, is applied to account for friction.
Total hold-down force = 12 strands(4.3) = 51.6 kips
for local practices. Refer to Chapter 3, Fabrication and Construction, Section
3.3.2.2, and Chapter 8, Design Theory and Procedures, for additional details.
Top stresses Bottom stresses
f
t
(ksi) f
b
(ksi)
At midspan +0.242 +3.041
Note that the bottom stresses at the harp points are more critical than the ones at
midspan.
The total prestressing force after all losses, P
pe
= 1,029.6 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
Compression:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e., beam self-weight, weight of slab and haunch, weight
of future wearing surface, and weight of barriers), for load combination Service I:
for the precast beam: 0.45f
c
= 0.45(7.0) = +3.150 ksi
for the deck: 0.45f
c
= 0.45(4.0) = +1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads (i.e., all dead loads and live loads), for load
combination Service I:
c
= 0.60(7.0) = +4.200 ksi
for deck: 0.60f
c
= 0.60(4.0) = +2.400 ksi
Tension:
for load combination Service III: 0.19
for precast beam: 0.19 = 0.503 ksi 7.0
f
c
tan
72 7 11
35.5(12)
7.2
1
[
\
|

)
j
=
9.6.7.5 Hold-Down Forces/9.6.8.1 Stress Limits For Concrete
JUL 03
9.6.7.6
Summary Of
9.6.8
STRESSES AT
SERVICE LOADS
9.6.8.1
9.6.7.5
Hold-Down Forces
Concrete stresses at the top fiber of the beam:
To check top compressive stress, two cases are checked:
Using bending moment values given in Table 9.6.4-1, concrete stress at top fiber
of the beam is:
f
tg
=
=
= 1.342 2.055 + 2.737 + 0.038 = +2.062 ksi
f
tg
= = +2.062 + 0.401 = +2.463 ksi
Concrete stress at the top fiber of the deck, Service I:
Note: Compression stress in the deck slab at service loads never controls the design
for typical applications. The calculations shown below are for illustration and may
not be necessary in most practical applications.
1. Under permanent loads:
f
tc
= = +0.042 ksi
2. Under permanent and transient loads:
f
tc
= = +0.485 ksi
Tension stress at the bottom fiber of the beam, Service III:
f
b
=
=
= 1.342 + 2.125 2.830 1.132 = 0.495 ksi
Tensile stress limit for concrete: 0.503 ksi O.K.
+ + (128 73)(12) (0.8)(2,115)(12)

20,070
1,029.6
767
(1,029.6)(30.78)
14,915
(1,390.7 2,126.9)(12)
14,915
+
+
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
(M M )+0.8(M )
S
pe pe c
b
g s
b
ws b LL+I
bc
+
+
+
(M M M )
S
(128 73 2,115)(12)
57,307
ws b LL+I
tc
+ +
=
+ +
(M M )
S
(128 73)(12)
57,307
ws b
tc
+
=
+
+ + = + + 2.062
(M )
S
2.062
(2,115)(12)
63,315
LL+I
tg
1,029.6
767
(1,029.6)(30.78)
15, 421
(1,390.7 2,126.9)(12)
15, 421
(128 73)(12)
63,315
+
+
+
+
P
A
P e
S
(M M )
S
(M M )
S
pe pe c
t
g s
t
ws b
tg
+
+
+
+
JUL 03
9.6.8.2
Stresses at Midspan
Fatigue limit state is not checked in this example. For an example of this calculation,
refer to Examples 9.2 and 9.4, Sections 9.2.9.3 and 9.4.8.3 respectively.
In order to perform the fatigue check, the reinforcement of the section should be
determined. Therefore, the fatigue check for the negative moment section is
addressed in Section 9.6.9.2.1.
M
u
= 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1&2]
At midspan of center span, (center span point 0.5):
M
u
= 1.25(1,390.7 + 2,126.9 + 73) + 1.5(128) + 1.75(2,115)
= 4,488.3 + 192.0 + 3,701.3 = 8,381.6 ft-kips
pe
0.5 f
pu
:
f
ps
= f
pu
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
where
f
ps
k = 2 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
= 0.28 for low-relaxation strands [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
d
p
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressing ten-
dons = h y
bs
= 80.00 5.82 = 74.18 in.
c = distance between the neutral axis and the compressive face, in.
To compute c, assume rectangular section behavior, and check if the depth of
the neutral axis, c is equal to or less than t
s
:
[LRFD 5.7.3.2.2]
c = [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1.-4]
A f A f A f
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s y
c 1 ps
pu
p
+
+

1.04
f
f
py
pu
[
\
|

)
j
1 k
c
d
p
[
\
|

)
j
9.6.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limit/9.6.9.1 Positive Moment Section
JUN 04
9.6.8.4
Service Loads
9.6.8.3
9.6.8.3.1
9.6.8.3.2
9.6.9
9.6.9.1
Top of Deck (ksi)
Service I
Top of Beam (ksi)
Service I
Bottom of
Beam (ksi)
Permanent
Loads
Total Loads Permanent
Loads
Total Loads Service III
At midspan +0.042 +0.485 +2.062 +2.463 -0.495
where
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel = 44 x 0.153 = 6.732 in.
2
f
pu
A
s
= area of mild steel tension reinforcement = 0.0 in.
2
f
y
= yield strength of tension reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
A
s
= area of compression reinforcement = 0.0 in.
2
f
y
= yield strength of compression reinforcement = 60.0 ksi
f
c
= compressive strength of deck concrete = 4.0 ksi
1
= 0.85 for f
c
4.0 ksi
= 0.85 0.05(f
c
4.0) 0.65 for f
c
> 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
b = effective width of compression flange = 111 in.
c = = 5.55 in. < t
s
= 7.5 in. O.K.
a = depth of the equivalent stress block =
1
c [LRFD Eq. 9.6.9.1-1]
= 0.85(5.55) = 4.72 in.
Therefore, the assumption of rectangular section behavior is valid and the average
stress in prestressing steel is:
f
ps
= 270 = 264.3 ksi
Nominal flexural resistance: [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.3]
M
n
= A
ps
f
ps
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]
This equation is a simplified form of LRFD Equation 5.7.3.2.2-1 because no com-
pression reinforcement or mild tension reinforcement is considered and the section
behaves as a rectangular section.
M
n
= (6.732)(264.3) /12 = 10,648.9 ft-kips
M
r
= M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where = resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00, for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete
M
r
= 10,648.9 ft-kips > M
u
= 8,381.6 ft-kips O.K.
M
u
= 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL+IM) [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1&2]
At the pier section:
M
u
= 1.25(197) + 1.5(345) + 1.75(2,327.7) = 4,837.2 ft-kips
74.18
4.72
2
[
\
|

)
j
d
a
2
p

[
\
|

)
j
1 0.28
5.55
74.18
[
\
|

)
j
(6.732)(270) 0.0 0.0
(0.85)(4.0)(0.85)(111) 0.28(6.732)
270
74.18
+
+
9.6.9.1 Positive Moment Section/9.6.9.2.1 Design of the Section
JUN 04
9.6.9.2
9.6.9.2.1
Design of the Section
Notes:
1. At the negative moment section, the compression face is the bottom flange of the
beam and is 26 in. wide.
2. This section is a nonprestressed reinforced concrete section, thus = 0.9 for flexure.
Assume the deck reinforcement is at mid-height of the deck. The effective depth:
d = 72 + 0.5 + 0.5(7.5) = 76.25 in.
R
u
= = 0.427 ksi
m = = 10.084
= = 0.00739
A
s
= (bd) = (0.00739)(26)(76.25) = 14.65 in.
2
This is the amount of mild steel reinforcement required in the slab to resist the negative
moment. Assume that the typical deck reinforcement consists of a bottom mat of #5 bars
@ 12 in. and a top mat of #4 @ 12 in. for a total A
s
= 0.20 + 0.31 = 0.51 in.
2
/ft.
Since the LRFD Specifications do not provide guidance on the width over which this
reinforcement is to be distributed, it is assumed here to be the same as the effective
compression flange width which was determined earlier to be 111 in.
The typical reinforcement provided over this width is equal to (111 x 0.51/12) =
4.72 in.
2
. Therefore, the required additional reinforcement at the negative moment
section = 14.65 4.72 = 9.93 in.
2
.
Provide 18 #7 bars additional reinforcement at 4 in. spacing (2 #7 bars in each space
between #4 bars).
A
s
= 18(0.60) = 10.80 in.
2
Therefore, the total A
s
provided = 10.80 + 4.72 = 15.52 in.
2
> 14.65 in.
2
O.K.
Compute the capacity of the section in flexure at the pier:
a = = 6.02 in.
Note that this value is slightly larger than the flange thickness of 6.0 in. However, the
adjustment in the moment capacity, M
n
, when using a more accurate non-rectan-
gular section analysis, is extremely small.
M
n
=
= 5,115.1 ft-kips > 4,837.2 ft-kips O.K.
With time, creep of concrete members heavily pretensioned, may cause camber
growth. Because this bridge is designed to have rigid connections between beams at
the piers, camber growth is restrained. As a result, time-dependent positive moments
will develop. Therefore, it is recommended that a nominal amount of positive
moment continuity reinforcement be used over the piers to control potential crack-
ing in this region. A common way to provide this reinforcement is to extend approx-
A f d
a
2
0.9(15.52)(60.0) 76.25
6.02
2
/12
s y

[
\
|

)
j
=
[
\
|

)
j
A f
0.85 b f
15.52(60)
(0.85)(26)(7.0)
s y
c
=
1
m
1 1
2R m
f
1
10.084
1 1
2(0.427)(10.084)
60
u
y

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
f
0.85f
60
(0.85)(7.0)
y
c
=
M
bd
4,837.2 (12)
(0.9)(26)(76.25)
u
2 2
=
9.6.9.2.1 Design of the Section
JUL 03
imately 25 percent of the strands from the bottom flange and bend them up into the
diaphragm. Another common detail is the addition of a quantity of mild steel rein-
forcement required to resist a moment equal to 1.2 M
cr
. This reinforcement is also
extended from the ends of the beam and bent up into the diaphragm.
The fatigue limit state and crack control for the negative moment zone over the piers
are important design criteria that must be checked. This zone is expected to be
cracked due to service loads and the steel stress range is expected to be significantly
high.
For moment calculations, the fatigue truck loading must be introduced to the three-
span continuous structure. The resulting moments are then used to determine
whether or not the stress range in the longitudinal reinforcement steel is within the
acceptable limits.
In order to control flexural cracking, the tensile stress in the mild steel reinforcement
at service limit state, should not exceed the value given by LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4.1.
This section is a prestressed section.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The maximum amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement should be
such that:
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where d
e
= [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]
Since A
s
= 0, then d
e
= d
p
= 74.18 in.
= 0.075 0.42 O.K.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and nonprestressed tensile reinforcement
r
, equal to the less-
er of:
and the modulus of rupture, and,
tion.
Check at midspan:
The LRFD Specifications do not give a procedure for computing the cracking
moment. Therefore, the following equation adapted from the Standard Specifications,
Art. 9.18.2.1 is used:
M
cr
= (f
r
+ f
pb
)S
bc
M
d/nc
(S
bc
/S
b
1)
c
d
5.55
74.18
e
=
A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
c
d
e
9.6.9.2.1 Design of the Section/9.6.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.6.9.2.2
and Crack Control
9.6.10
LIMITS OF
REINFORCEMENT
9.6.10.1
9.6.10.1.1
9.6.10.1.2
where
f
r
= modulus of rupture = = 0.635 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
f
pb
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only (after
= = 1.342 + 2.125 = 3.467 ksi
M
d/nc
= moment due to non-composite dead loads, ft-kips
= M
g
+ M
s
= 1,390.7 + 2,126.9 = 3,517.6 ft-kips
S
bc
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 20,070 in.
4
S
b
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 14,915 in.
4
M
cr
= (0.635 + 3.467)(20,070/12) (3,517.6) = 5,644.8 ft-kips
1.2M
cr
= 1.2(5,644.8) = 6,773.8 ft-kips
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination is:
M
u
= 8,381.6 ft-kips (as calculated in Section 9.6.9)
Therefore, 1.33M
u
= 1.33 x 8,381.6 = 11,147.5 ft-kips
Since 1.2M
cr
< 1.33M
u
, 1.2M
cr
(Controls)
M
r
= 10,648.9 ft-kips > 1.2M
cr
O.K.
Note: Contrary to the Standard Specifications, the LRFD Specifications state that this
requirement be met at every section.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The maximum amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement shall be such
that:
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where
d
e
= [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]
Since A
ps
= 0, then d
e
= d
s
= 76.25 in.
1
= 0.85 for f
c
4.0 ksi
= 0.85 0.05(f
c
4.0) 0.65 for f
c
4.0
= 0.85 0.05(7.0 4.0) = 0.70
A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
c
d
e
20,070
14,915
1
[
\
|

)
j
P
A
P e
S
1,029.6
767
(1,029.6)(30.78)
14,915
pe pe c
b
+ = +
0.24 f 0.24 7.0
c
=
9.6.10.1.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.6.10.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.6.10.2
9.6.10.2.1
c = = 8.60 in.
= 0.113 0.42 O.K.
Note that the value of a used here is not exact because the geometry of the bottom
flange must be accommodated. But since a is slightly larger than 6 in., the uniform
width portion of the bottom flange, and since (c/d
s
) is much lower than the maxi-
mum limit, further refinement is not warranted.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
For nonprestressed sections, the minimum reinforcement provision may be consid-
ered satisfied if:
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.2-1]
where = ratio of tension steel to gross area = A
s
/(bd) = = 0.008
O.K.
At the negative moment section, the bottom flange of the precast beam acts as the
compression block of the composite section. Therefore, the 28-day strength of the
beam concrete, 7.0 ksi, is used.
along the entire length of the beam. In this design example, transverse shear design
near the supports.
Transverse shear reinforcement must be provided when:
V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
where
V
u
= total factored shear force, kips
V
c
= shear strength provided by concrete, kips
V
p
shear, kips
= resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
0.5d
v
cot , or, d
v
where
d
v
e
a/2) but not
less than 0.9d
e
or 0.72h [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
0.008 0.03
7.0
60
0.0035 =
(15.52)
(26)(76.25)

0.03
f
f
c
y
c
d
8.60
76.25
s
=
a 6.02
0.70
1
=
9.6.10.2.1 Maximum Reinforcement/9.6.11.1 Critical Section
JUL 03
9.6.10.2.2
9.6.11
SHEAR DESIGN
9.6.11.1
Critical Section
where
d
e
= the corresponding effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement = 76.25 in.
(Note: d
e
is calculated considering the nonprestressed reinforcement in the
slab as the main reinforcement and neglecting the prestress reinforcement.
This is because this section lies in the negative moment zone.)
a = equivalent depth of the compression block = 6.02 in. (from negative moment
flexural design)
h = total height of the section = 80.0 in.
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses, assumed = 32 (slope of
compression field)
The design for shear depends on the angle of diagonal compressive stresses at the section
under consideration. The shear design is an iterative process that begins with assuming a
value for . For this example, only the results of the final cycle of calculations are shown.
d
v
= 76.25 0.5(6.02) = 73.24 in.
0.9d
e
= 0.9(76.25) = 68.63 in.
0.72h = 0.72(80.0) = 57.60 in.
Therefore, d
v
= 73.24 in.
The critical section near the support is the greater of:
d
v
= 73.24 in. (Controls)
0.5d
v
cot = 0.5(73.24)cot32 = 58.60 in.
Because the width of the bearing is not yet determined, the width of bearing was con-
servatively assumed to be equal to zero for the computation of the critical section of
shear, as shown in Figure 9.6.11-1. Therefore the critical section in shear is at a distance
of 0.5 + 0.5 + 73.19/12 = 7.10 ft from the centerline of the first interior support (pier).
x/L = 7.10/120 = 0.059L from the centerline of the first interior support (pier)
Figure 9.6.11-1
Critical Section in Shear
of the Center Span
6"
Critical section
in shear
73.24"
6"
Center span, 120 ft Left end span, 110 ft
bearings
Center line of
Center line of the pier
9.6.11.1 Critical Section/9.6.11.1.3 Calculation of Critical Section
JUL 03
9.6.11.1.1
Angle of Diagonal
9.6.11.1.2
9.6.11.1.3
Using values from Table 9.6.4-1, compute the factored shear force and bending
moment at the critical section for shear (center span point 0.059), according to
Strength I load combinations.
V
u
= 1.25(42.3 + 64.6 + 7.8) + 1.50(14.2) + 1.75(137.3) = 405.0 kips
M
u
= 1.25(272.7 + 417.1 139.6) + 1.50(244.4) + 1.75(1,717.8) = 2,685.0 ft-kips
or,
V
u
= 0.9(42.3 + 64.6 + 7.8) + 1.50(14.2) + 1.75(137.3) = 364.8 kips
M
u
= 0.9(272.7 + 417.1 139.6) + 1.50(244.4) + 1.75(1,717.8) = 2,877.6 ft-kips
When determining M
u
at a particular section, it is conservative to take M
u
as the
highest factored moment that will occur at that section, rather than the moment cor-
responding to maximum V
u
, (LRFD Art. C5.8.3.4.2). Therefore,
V
u
= 405.0 kips
M
u
= 2,877.6 ft-kips
V
c
= 0.0316 b
v
d
v
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
Calculate strain in the reinforcement,
x
:
x
= 0.001 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-2]
where
N
u
= applied factored normal force at the specified section = 0
V
p
shear = (force per strand)(number of draped strands)(sin )
Force per strand = 23.4 kips
From Section 9.6.7.5, = 7.2
V
p
= (23.4)(12)sin7.2 = 35.2 kips
f
po
= a parameter taken as modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons multiplied
by the locked-in difference in strain between the prestressing tendons and
po
can be taken as the stress in the strands when
the concrete is cast around them, which is the jacking stress, f
pj
, or 0.75f
pu
.
= 0.75(270.0) = 202.5 ksi
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member.
The flexural tension side of the member should be taken as the half-depth
containing the flexural tension zone as illustrated in LRFD Figure
5.8.3.4.2-3.
A
ps
= 12(0.153) = 1.836 in.
2
A
s
= area of nonprestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member
= 15.52 in.
2
M
d
0.5N 0.5(V V )cot A f
2(E A E A
u
v
u u p ps po
s s p ps
+ +
+
)
f
c

9.6.11.1.3 Calculation of Critical Section/9.6.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.6.11.2.1
Reinforcement
9.6.11.2
x
= = +0.394 x 10
-3
v
u
= [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.4.2-1]
where
v
u
= shear stress in concrete
b
v
= effective web width of the beam = 6 in.
V
p
shear (calculated in Sect. 9.6.11.2.1)
v
u
= = 0.944 ksi
(v
u
/f
c
) = (0.944/7.0) = 0.135
Having computed
x
and v
u
/f
c
, find a better estimate of from LRFD Table 5.8.3.4.2-1.
Since the computed value of v
u
/f
c
is likely to fall between two rows in the table, a lin-
ear interpolation may be performed. However, for hand calculations, interpolation is
not recommended (LRFD Art. C5.8.3.4.2). The values of in the lower row that
bounds the computed value may be used. Similarly, the values of in the first col-
umn to the right of the computed value may be used. For this example, the applica-
ble row and column are the ones labeled 0.150 and 0.50, respectively. The
values of and contained in the cell of intersection of that row and column are:
= 32.1 which is close to assumed of 32.0.
Thus, no further iteration is needed. However, if the designer desires to go through
further iteration, it should be kept in mind that the position of the critical section of
shear and consequently the values of V
u
and M
u
will need to be based on the new
value of , 32.1.
= 2.36
where = a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit
tension; a value indicating concrete contribution.
V
c
= 0.0316 [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3]
= 0.0316(2.36) (6)(73.24) = 86.7 kips
Check if V
u
> 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) [LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1]
V
u
= 405.0 kips > 0.5(V
c
+ V
p
) = 0.5(0.9)(86.7 + 35.2) = 54.9 kips
7.0
f b d
c v v
405.0 0.9(35.2)
(0.9)(6)(73.24)
V V
b d
u p
v v

2,877.6(12)
73.24
0 0.5(405.0 35.2)(cot 32 1.836(202.5)
2[29,000(15.52) 28,500(1.836)]
+ +
+
)
9.6.11.2.1 Strain in Flexural Tension Reinforcement/9.6.11.3.1 Requirement for Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.6.11.2.1.1
Shear Stress
9.6.11.2.2
Values of and
9.6.11.2.3
Concrete Contribution
9.6.11.3.1
Requirement for
Reinforcement
9.6.11.3
Contribution of
Shear Resistance
V
u
/ V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1]
where
V
s
= shear force carried by transverse reinforcement
= (V
u
/) V
c
V
p
= (405.0/0.9) 86.7 35.2 = 328.1 kips
V
s
= [LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4]
where
A
v
= area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.
2
s = spacing of stirrups, in.
f
y
= yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
= angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis = 90
Therefore, area of shear reinforcement (in.
2
) within a spacing, s, is:
reqd A
v
= (sV
s
)/(f
y
d
v
cot )
= s(328.1)/(60)(73.24cot 32) = 0.047(s) in.
2
if s = 12 in., the required A
v
= 0.56 in.
2
Try #5 double legs @ 12 in. spacing.
A
v
provided = = 0.62 in.
2
/ft > A
v
required = 0.56 in.
2
/ft O.K.
V
s
provided = = 363.2 kips
Check maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement: [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
Check if v
u
< 0.125f
c
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-1]
or if v
u
0.125f
c
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.7-2]
0.125f
c
= (0.125)(7.0) = 0.875 ksi
v
u
= 0.944 ksi
Since v
u
> 0.125f
c
Then s 12 in. 0.4d
v
= 0.4(73.24) = 29.3 in.
Therefore, s 12 in.
Actual spacing, s = 12 in. O.K.
The area of transverse reinforcement should not be less than:
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1]
= 0.100 in.
2
< A
v
provided O.K. 0.0316 7.0
6(12)
60
[
\
|

)
j
0.0316 f
b s
f
c
v
y
(0.62)(60)(73.24)cot 32
12
(2)(0.31)
12
12
[
\
|

)
j
A f d (cot + cot )sin
s
v y v

9.6.11.3.2 Required Area of Reinforcement/9.6.11.3.4 Minimum Reinforcement Requirement
JUL 03
9.6.11.3.2
Required Area of
Reinforcement
9.6.11.3.3
Spacing of Reinforcement
9.6.11.3.4
Requirement
yielding of the transverse reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications give an upper limit
of V
n
.
V
n
= 0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
+ V
p
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Comparing this equation with LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2, it can be concluded that,
V
c
+ V
s
0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
86.7 + 328.1 = 414.8 kips 0.25(7.0)(6)(73.24) = 769.0 kips O.K.
Using the foregoing procedures, the transverse reinforcement can be determined at
increments along the entire length of the beam.
[LRFD Art. 5.8.4]
At the strength limit state, the horizontal shear at a section on a per unit basis can be
taken as:
V
h
= (LRFD Eq. C5.8.4.1-1)
where
V
h
= horizontal factored shear force per unit length of the beam, kips/in.
V
u
= factored shear force due to superimposed loads, kips
d
v
e
a/2)
The LRFD Specifications does not identify the location of the critical section. For
convenience, it will be assumed here to be the same location as the critical section for
vertical shear, at point 0.059 of the center span.
Using load combination Strength I:
V
u
= 1.25(7.8) + 1.50(14.2) + 1.75(137.3) = 271.3 kips
d
v
= 73.24 in.
Required V
h
= = 3.70 kips/in.
Required V
n
= V
h
/0.9 = 3.70/0.9 = 4.11 kips/in.
The nominal shear resistance of the interface plane is:
V
n
= c A
cv
+ [A
vf
f
y
+ P
c
] [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1]
where
c = cohesion factor, ksi [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
= friction factor [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
A
cv
= area of concrete engaged in shear transfer, in.
2
A
vf
= area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane, in.
2
271 3
73 24
.
.
V
d
u
v
9.6.11.4 Maximum Nominal Shear Resistance/9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.6.11.4
Maximum Nominal
Shear Resistance
9.6.12
INTERFACE SHEAR
TRANSFER
9.6.12.1
Factored Horizontal Shear
9.6.12.2
Required Nominal
Resistance
9.6.12.3
Required Interface Shear
Reinforcement
P
c
= permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane, kips
f
y
= shear reinforcement yield strength, ksi
For concrete placed against clean, hardened concrete with the surface intention-
ally roughened: [LRFD Art. 5.8.4.2]
c = 0.1 ksi
= 1.0
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete
The actual contact width, b
v
, between the deck and the beam is 42 in. Therefore,
A
cv
= (42 in.)(1 in.) = 42 in.
2
/in.
LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-1 can be solved for A
vf
as follows:
4.12 = 0.1(42) + 1.0[A
vf
(60) + 0]
A
vf
< 0
Since the resistance provided by cohesion is higher than the applied force, pro-
vide the minimum required interface reinforcement.
Minimum shear reinforcement, A
vf
(0.05b
v
)/f
y
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-4]
where b
v
= width of the interface
From the design of vertical shear reinforcement, a #5 double-leg bar at 12-in. spacing
is provided from the beam extending into the deck. Therefore, A
vf
= 0.62 in.
2
/ft.
A
vf
= (0.62 in.
2
/ft) > (0.05b
v
)/f
y
= 0.05(42)/60 = 0.035 in.
2
/in. = 0.42 in.
2
/ft O.K.
Consider further that LRFD Article 5.8.4.1 states that the minimum reinforcement
requirement may be waived if V
n
/A
cv
< 0.100 ksi.
4.11 kips/in./42.0 in. = 0.098 ksi < 0.100 ksi
Therefore, the minimum reinforcement requirement could be waived had it governed.
Provided V
n
= (0.1)(42) + 1.0 = 7.3 kips/in.
0.2f
c
A
cv
= 0.2(4.0)(42) = 33.6 kips/in.
0.8A
cv
= 0.8(42) = 33.6 kips/in.
V
n
provided 0.2f
c
A
cv
O.K. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-2]
0.8A
cv
O.K. [LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3]
[LRFD Art. 5.8.3.5]
The LRFD Specifications state that if the reaction force or the load at the maximum
moment location introduces direct compression into the flexural compression face of
the member, the area of longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the
member need not exceed the area required to resist the maximum moment acting
alone.
0 62
12
60 0
.
( ) +
|
|
|
|
|
|
9.6.12.3 Required Interface Shear Reinforcement/9.6.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
JUL 03
9.6.12.3.1
Minimum Interface Shear
Reinforcement
9.6.12.4
Resistance
9.6.13
MINIMUM
LONGITUDINAL
REINFORCEMENT
REQUIREMENT
This reason that the longitudinal reinforcement requirement is relaxed for this con-
dition, is based on the following explanation. At maximum moment locations, the
shear force changes sign and, hence, the inclination of the diagonal compressive
stresses also changes. At direct supports and point loads, this change of inclination is
associated with a fan-shaped pattern of compressive stresses radiating from the point
load or the direct support. This fanning of the diagonal stresses reduces the tension
in the longitudinal reinforcement caused by the shear, i.e., angle becomes steeper.
The conditions mentioned above exist at the interior supports. Directly over the sup-
port, the angle becomes 90 and the contribution of shear to the longitudinal rein-
forcement requirement is zero. Therefore, at this location, the longitudinal reinforce-
ment is sized only for the moment applied to the section and there is no need to
check the minimum longitudinal reinforcement requirement.
However, for sections within a distance of (d
v
cot)/2 from the interior supports, the
shear will again affect the required longitudinal reinforcement and the requirement
must be checked. It should be noted that at locations near the interior supports of
continuous members, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement requirement is used
to check the quantity of reinforcement in the deck. The longitudinal reinforcement
requirement must also be checked for the prestressing strands at the simply-support-
ed ends of continuous span units. Refer to Design Example 9.4, Section 9.4.13.
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10]
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10.1]
strands just before transfer.
Force in the strands before transfer = F
pi
= 44(0.153)(202.5) = 1,363.2 kips
r
, should not be less than 4.0% of F
pi
.
[LRFD Arts. 5.10.10.1 and C3.4.3]
P
r
= f
s
A
s
0.04f
pi
= 0.04(1,363.2) = 54.5 kips
where
A
s
= total area of transverse reinforcement located within the distance h/4 from
the end of the beam, in.
2
f
s
= stress in steel, but not taken greater than 20 ksi
s
= 54.5/(20) = 2.73 in.
2
At least 2.73 in.
2
of vertical transverse reinforcement should be provided at the end of the
beam for a distance equal to one-fourth of the depth of the beam, h/4 = 72/4 = 18.0 in.
The shear reinforcement was determined in Section 9.6.11 to be #5 (double legs)@
10 in. However, the minimum vertical reinforcement criteria controls. Therefore, for
a distance of 18.0 in. from the end of the member, use 5 #5 @ 4 in. The reinforce-
ment provided is 5(2)(0.31) = 3.10 in.
2
> 2.73 in.
2
O.K.
9.6.13 Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement/9.6.14.1 Anchorage Zone Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.6.14
PRETENSIONED
ANCHORAGE ZONE
9.6.14.1
Anchorage Zone
Reinforcement
[LRFD Art. 5.10.10.2]
For a distance of 1.5d = 1.5(72) = 108 in., from the end of the beam, reinforcement
is placed to confine the prestressing steel in the bottom flange. The reinforcement
should not be less than #3 deformed bars, with spacing not exceeding 6.0 in., and
shaped to enclose the strands.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.6.2]
Deflections are calculated using the modulus of elasticity of concrete calculated in
Section 9.6.2 and the moment of inertia of the non-composite precast beam.
Force per strand at transfer = 28.2 kips
p
=
where
P
i
= total prestressing force at transfer = 44(28.2) = 1,240.8 kips
e
c
= eccentricity of prestressing force at midspan = 30.78 in.
e = difference between eccentricity of prestressing force at midspan and end, as
shown in Figure 9.6.15.1-1
= e
c
e
e
= 30.78 19.42 = 11.36 in.
a = distance from end of beam to harp point = 35.5 ft
L = beam length = 119.0 ft
p
= = 3.79 in.
g
=
where w = beam self-weight, kip/ft
L = overall beam length = 119 ft
5wL
384E I
4
ci
1, 240.8
4, 496(545,894)
30.78(119x12)
8
11.36 (35.5x12)
6
2 2
[
\
|

)
j
P
E I
e L
8
e a
6
i
ci
c
2 2
[
\
|

)
j

9.6.14.2 Confinement Reinforcement/9.6.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self-Weight
JUL 03
9.6.14.2
Confinement
Reinforcement
9.6.15
DEFLECTION
AND CAMBER
9.6.15.1
Deflection Due
at Transfer
a = 35.5' 48' a = 35.5'
119'
e'
P
si
P
si
e
Figure 9.6.15.1-1
Strand Eccentricity
9.6.15.2
Deflection Due
to Beam Self-Weight
g
= = 1.47 in.
Deflection due to beam self-weight at erection:
L = span length between centerlines of bearings = 118 ft
g
= = 1.42 in.
s
=
where
w = deck slab plus haunch weights, kip/ft
L = span length between centerlines of bearings, ft
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of precast beam at 28 days
s
= = 1.93 in.
b+ws
= 0.048 in.
(This value was calculated using a continuous beam program.)
For midspan:
At transfer, (
p
+
g
) = 3.79 1.47 = 2.32 in.
Total deflection at erection, using PCI multipliers (see the PCI Design Handbook)
= 1.8(3.79) 1.85(1.42) = 4.20 in.
Long-Term Deflection
LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.2 states that the long-term deflection may be taken as the
instantaneous deflection multiplied by a factor of 4.0, if the instantaneous deflection
is based on the gross moment of inertia. However, a factor of 4.0 is not appropriate
for this type of precast construction. Therefore, it is recommended that the designer
undertake a more rigorous time-dependent analysis.
Live load deflection is not a required check, according to the provisions of the LRFD
Specifications. Further, live load deflections are usually not a problem for prestressed
concrete I- and bulb-tee shapes especially when they are constructed to act as a con-
tinuous structure under superimposed loads. If the designer chooses to check deflec-
tion, the following recommendations are from the LRFD Specifications.
Live load deflection limit: Span/800 = (120)(12)/800 = 1.80 in. [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
5
1.222
12
(118 x12)
(384)(5,072)(545,894)
4
[
\
|

)
j
5wL
384E I
4
c
5
0.799
12
(118 x12)
(384)(4, 496)(545,894)
4
[
\
|

)
j
5
0.799
12
(119x12)
(384)(4, 496)(545,894)
4
[
\
|

)
j
9.6.15.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self-Weight/9.6.15.6 Deflection Due to Live Load and Impact
JUL 03
9.6.15.5
Deflection and
Camber Summary
9.6.15.3
Deflection Due to
Haunch and Deck
9.6.15.4
Deflection Due to Barrier
and Future Wearing Surface
9.6.15.6
Load and Impact
If the owner invokes the optional live load deflection criteria specified in LRFD
Article 2.5.2.6.2, the deflection is the greater of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.2]
that resulting from the design truck alone, or,
that resulting from 25% of the design truck taken together with the design lane
load
The LRFD Specifications state that all beams may be assumed to be deflecting equal-
ly under the applied live load and impact. [LRFD Art. 2.5.2.6.2]
Therefore, the distribution factor for deflection is calculated as follows:
(number of lanes/number of beams) = 3/4 = 0.75 [LRFD Art. C2.5.2.6.2]
However, it is more conservative to use the distribution factor for moment.
The live load deflection may be conservatively estimated using the following formula:
D = (Eq. 9.6.15.6-1)
where
M
s
= the maximum positive moment
M
a
and M
b
= the corresponding negative moments at the ends of the span being
considered.
The live load combination specified in LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.2 calls for the greater of
design truck alone or 0.25 design truck plus lane load.
In this example, a conservative approximation may be made by using the positive
moment for Service III load combination, 0.8 truck plus lane load, and by ignoring
the effect of M
a
and M
b
.
L
= = 0.79 in. < 1.80 in. O.K.
5(120 x12)
48(5,072)(1,097, 252)
0.8 x 2,115.0 x12
2
[ ]
5L
48EI
M 0.1(M M )
2
c
s a b
+
[ ]
JUL 03
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STAY-IN-PLACE PANEL DECK, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
JUL 03
9.7.1 INTRODUCTION
9.7.2 MATERIALS
9.7.3 LOADS
9.7.3.1 Effective Span Length
9.7.3.2 Dead Loads
9.7.3.3 Live Load
9.7.3.4 Load Combination
9.7.4 SECTION PROPERTIES
9.7.5 REQUIRED PRESTRESS
9.7.5.1 Service Load Stresses, Bottom Fiber, Composite Section
9.7.5.2 Allowable Tensile Stress for Concrete
9.7.6.1 Shrinkage
9.7.6.4 Relaxation of Pretensioning Strands
9.7.6.5 Total Loss at Transfer
9.7.6.6 Total Loss at Service Loads
9.7.7 STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT TRANSFER
9.7.8 STRESSES IN THE SIP PANEL AT TIME OF CASTING TOPPING SLAB
9.7.8.2 Stresses at Midspan after Non-Composite Loads
9.7.9 STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT SERVICE LOADS
7064 Bridge Manual Ch 9.7 8/18/03 11:57 AM Page 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
JUL 03
9.7.10 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF POSITIVE MOMENT SECTION
9.7.11 DUCTILITY LIMITS OF THE SIP PANEL
9.7.12 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT IN THE SIP PANEL
9.7.13 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER INTERIOR BEAMS
9.7.13.2 Bending Moment
9.7.13.3 Design of Section
9.7.13.6 Crack Control
9.7.14 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER EXTERIOR BEAMS
9.7.14.7 Development Length of Steel Reinforcement
9.7.15 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT IN THE CIP SLAB
JUL 03
This design example demonstrates the design of a 3-1/2-in.-thick precast, preten-
sioned stay-in-place (SIP) deck panel with a 4-1/2-in.-thick cast-in-place (CIP) con-
crete topping. A 1/2-in. wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 4-
1/2-in. topping slab. The bridge has 3-lanes and a total width of 44'-6". The deck
slab is supported over four AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beams spaced at 12 ft on center
and has overhangs of 4'-3", as shown in Figure 9.7.1-1. The CIP concrete requires a
concrete strength of 4,000 psi at the time of opening the bridge for traffic. The SIP
panel needs a strength of 6,500 psi at the time of transfer of the pretensioning force
to the panel and a design strength of 8,000 psi at the time of casting the slab. A New
Jersey-type barrier is included. The design is conducted in compliance with the
Standard Specifications, 17th edition, 2002.
Cast-in-place concrete:
Actual thickness 4-1/2 in.
Structural thickness 4 in. (a 1/2-in. wearing surface is con-
sidered to be an integral part of the
deck)
Specified concrete strength at 28 days, f
c
4,000 psi
c
150 pcf
Superstructure beams: AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam as shown in Figure 9.7.2-1
Beam spacing 12.0 ft
Deck overhang 4.25 ft
Top flange width 42 in.
Precast pretensioned SIP deck panels:
ci
6,500 psi
28-Day strength, f
c
8,000 psi
c
150 pcf
9.7.1
INTRODUCTION
9.7.2
MATERIALS
Figure 9.7.1-1
1'-3"
8"
concrete slab
4
1
/2" CIP
3'-0" 3'-0"
3 spaces @ 12'- 0" = 36'- 0"
42'- 0"
4'-3" 4'-3"
deck panel
3
1
/2" SIP
1'-3"
2'-8"
44'- 6"
Precast Concrete Stay-In-Place
Deck Panel System,
9.7.2 Materials/9.7.3.2 Dead Loads
JUL 03
Prestressing strands:
1/2-in. diameter, low-relaxation
2
Ultimate stress, f
s
270,000 psi
Yield strength, f
*
y
0.9f
s
243,000 psi
si
0.75f
s
202,500 psi [STD Art. 9.15]
s
28,000 ksi [STD Art. 9.16.2.1.2]
Panel dimensions: 8-ft wide x 9 ft-6 in. long x 3-1/2 in. deep
Reinforcement is welded wire reinforcement:
Yield strength, f
y
60,000 psi
s
29,000 ksi [STD Art. 8.7.2]
Top reinforcement clear cover 2.5 in. [STD Art. 8.22.1]
Bottom reinforcement clear cover 1.0 in.[STD Art. 8.22.1]
Future wearing surface: additional 2 in., unit weight 150 pcf
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight 300 lb/ft/side
[STD Art. 9.12]
Art. 9.12.1 states that precast SIP panels should be analyzed assuming that they sup-
port their own weight, any construction loads and the weight of the CIP concrete.
Under subsequent superimposed dead and live loads, the precast panels should be
analyzed assuming they act compositely with the CIP concrete.
In the design of the SIP panel, the effective span length is taken conservatively as the
panel length, 9'-6", as shown in Figure 9.7.2-1.
For the composite section, STD Art. 3.24.1.2 states that slabs continuous over more
than two supports and supported on the rigid top flange of pretensioned beams, with
top flange width-to-minimum-thickness ratio greater than 4.0, S is the distance
between edges of the top flange plus one-half of beam top flange width.
Therefore, S 8.5 + 0.5 10.25 ft.
Weight of 3.5-in.-thick SIP panel (0.150) 0.044 kip/ft
2
3 5
12
.
_
,
42
12
_
,
9.7.3
LOADS
Figure 9.7.2-1
Details of the SIP Deck
Panel on Supports
1
1
/2" min.
6"
2"
depth bearing strip
Continuous variable
4
1
/2" CIP slab
8'- 6" 3'- 6"
top flange clear top flange
3'- 6"
Bulb-Tee
AASHTO-PCI
3
1
/2" SIP
deck panel
3
1
/2"
2"
2"
2"
1'-4"
2"
2"
12'- 0"
9.7.3.1
Effective Span Length
9.7.3.2
Dead Loads
JUL 03
Weight of 4.5-in.-thick CIP slab (0.150) 0.056 kip/ft
2
Weight of 2 in. wearing surface (0.150) 0.025 kip/ft
2
Weight of New Jersey barrier 0.300 kip/ft/side
Construction load (applied to the SIP precast panel only) 0.050 kip/ft
2
[STD Art. 9.12.2.1]
Use HS20 loading with impact. For HS20, STD Article 3.24.3.1 states that for deck
slabs with main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic, with spans from 2 to 24 ft,the
live load bending moment without impact is , ft-lb/ft [STD Eq. 3-15]
where:
S effective span length 10.25 ft
P
20
load on one rear wheel of the HS20 truck 16,000 lb
Impact, I 0.3 [STD Eq. 3.1]
where:
L length in ft of the portion of the span that is loaded 10.25 ft
I 0.37 > 0.3, therefore, I 0.3 (Controls)
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a continuity factor of 0.8 is applied
to both positive and negative moment. [STD Art. 3.24.3.1]
Therefore, live load bending moment with impact:
/1,000 6.37 ft-kips/ft
[STD Art. 3.22]
For Group (N) [
D
(D) +
L
(L+I)] [STD Eq. 3-10]
For Service I 1.0[(1.0)D + (1.0)(L+I)] [STD Table 3.22.1A]
For Load Factor Design I 1.3[(1.0)D + (1.67)(L+I)] [STD Table 3.22.1A]
Fatigue: [STD Art. 8.16.8.3]
Fatigue need not be checked for concrete slabs with primary reinforcement perpen-
dicular to traffic and designed in accordance with the specifications.
0 8
10 25 2
32
16 000 1 0 3 .
.
( , )( . )
+
_
,
+
50
0 25 125 ( . ) 1 +
50
125 ( ) L +
S
P
+
_
,
2
32
2 0 .
2 0
12
.
_
,
4 5
12
.
_
,

9.7.3.2 Dead Loads/9.7.3.4 Load Combination
9.7.3.3
Live Load
9.7.3.4
Load Combination
JUL 03
Section properties are calculated for a 12-in.-wide strip.
A area of cross-section of the precast panel 3.5(12) 42 in.
2
/ft
S
b
panel
(12)(3.5)
2
/6 24.5 in.
3
/ft
S
t
section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast panel
(12)(3.5)
2
/6 24.5 in.
3
/ft
E
c
[STD Art. 8.7.1]
where
E
c
modulus of elasticity, psi
w
c
unit weight of concrete, pcf 150 pcf
STD Article 8.7.1, indicates that the unit weight of normal weight concrete is 145
pcf. However, precast concrete mixes exhibit a relatively low water/cementitious
material ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 150 pcf is used in this
example. For high strength concrete, even this value may need to be increased based
on test results.
f
c
specified strength of concrete, (psi)
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity:
at transfer, E
ci
33(150)
1.5
/1,000 4,888 ksi
at service loads, E
c
33(150)
1.5
/1,000 5,423 ksi
For simplicity, the pretensioning reinforcement is ignored in the calculations of the
composite section properties.
E
c
(for the SIP) 5,423 ksi
E
c
(for the CIP slab) 33(150)
1.5
/1,000 3,834 ksi
n modular ratio between CIP slab and SIP panel 3,834/5,423 0.707
The transformed width of the CIP slab (0.707)(12) 8.48 in.
Figure 9.7.4.2-1 shows the dimensions of the transformed composite section. Since
a 1/2-in. wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 4-1/2 in. CIP slab,
only the structural depth of the CIP slab, 4 in., is considered.
4 000 ,
8 000 ,
6 500 ,
(w ) f
c
1.5
c
( ) 33

9.7.4 Section Properties/9.7.4.2 Composite Section
9.7.4.2
Composite Section
9.7.4.1
9.7.4
SECTION PROPERTIES
A
c
total area of the composite section 12(3.5) + 8.48(4) 42 + 33.92 75.92
in.
2
/ft
y
bc
distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom
fiber of the precast panel [42(3.5/2) + 33.92(3.5 + 2)]/(75.92) 3.43 in.
y
tg
distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of
the precast panel 3.50 3.43 0.07 in.
y
tc
the CIP slab = 3.5 + 4.0 3.43 4.07 in.
I
c
moment of inertia of the composite section
(42)(3.5)
2
/12 + 42(3.43 3.5/2)
2
+ (33.92)(4)
2
/12 + (33.92)(3.5 + 2 3.43)
2
352 in.
4
/ft
S
bc
composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast panel
(I
c
/y
bc
) 352/3.43 102.6 in.
3
/ft
S
tg
composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast panel
(I
c
/y
tg
) 352/0.07 5,028.6 in.
3
/ft
S
tc
composite section modulus for extreme top fiber used to compute stresses at
top fiber of the slab
(I
c
/y
tc
) (1/0.707)(352/4.07) (1/0.707)(86.5) 122.4 in.
3
/ft
The number of strands required is usually governed by concrete tensile stress at ser-
vice loads. Tensile stress at the bottom fiber of the composite section due to the self-
weight of the SIP panel, the CIP concrete slab, wearing surface, barrier load and live
loads is:
f
b

M M
S
M M M
S
SIP CIP
b
ws b LL I
bc
+
+
+ +
+
1
n
_
,

JUL 03
9.7.4.2 Composite Section/
9.7.5.1 Service Load Stresses, Bottom Fiber, Composite Section
9.7.5.1
Service Load
Stresses, Bottom Fiber,
Composite Section
9.7.5
REQUIRED PRESTRESS
Figure 9.7.4.2-1
Transformed Composite
Section
panel
SIP deck
CIP slab
12"
8 .48"
4"
3
1
/2"
JUL 03
For bending moment due to SIP panel and CIP slab, the span length is taken con-
servatively as the panel length, 9'-6", while for the wearing surface and live load, the
span length is 10'-3".
M
SIP
(0.044)(9.5)
2
/8 0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
(0.056)(9.5)
2
/8 0.632 ft-kips/ft
The Standard Specifications does not give any guidance about how force actions of the
composite deck can be determined. Therefore, the guidelines provided by the LRFD
Specifications in Article 4.6.2.1.6 are used in this example, where the composite deck
is considered as a continuous beam supported by infinitely rigid supports. Figure
9.7.5.1-1 gives the bending moment due to the wearing surface and barrier load.
To obtain maximum effects, consider the interior span,
where:
M
ws
0.135 ft-kips/ft
M
b
0.255 ft-kips/ft
M
LL+I
6.370 ft-kips/ft (as calculated in Section 9.7.3.3)
f
b
0.552 + 0.791
1.343 ksi
Allowable concrete tensile stress at service loads [STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
The required precompression stress at the bottom fiber 1.343 0.537 0.806 ksi.
P
se
is the total effective prestress force after all losses. Since the center of gravity of
strands is concentric with the center of gravity of the SIP panel:
P
se
33.9 kips/ft (33.9)(8.0) 271.2 kips/panel
0.806
P
A
P
se se

42
6 6 8 000 1 000 0 537 f ksi
c
, / , .
( . . )
.
( . . . )
.
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 6 370 12
102 6
+
+
+ +
9.7.5.1 Service Load Stresses, Bottom Fiber, Composite Section/
9.7.5.2
Allowable Tensile Stress
for Concrete
9.7.5.3
Required Number of
Strands
Figure 9.7.5.1-1
Bending Moments in
ft-kips/ft
-0.148
1'-2"
4'- 3" 12'- 0" 12'- 0" 12'- 0" 4'- 3"
1'-3" 3'-10"
-1.150
+0.255 +0.135
-0.315
C
L
+0.180
-0.226
Moment due to Wearing Surface Moment due to Barrier
JUL 03
Using 1/2-in. diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strand and assuming 15% final losses,
the final prestress force per strand is f
si
(area of strand)(1-final losses)
(202.5)(0.153)(1 0.15) 26.3 kips
Required number of strands 271.2/26.3 10.3 strands/panel
Try (10) 1/2-in. diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands per panel. The strands are
placed in one layer at mid-height of the SIP panel.
[STD Art. 9.16]
c
+ CR
s
[STD Eq. 9-3]
where
SH loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage
ES loss of prestress due to elastic shortening
CR
c
loss of prestress due to creep of concrete
CR
s
loss of prestress due to relaxation of pretensioning steel
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.1]
Relative humidity varies significantly within the country, see the U.S. map [STD Figure
9.16.2.1.1].
Assume relative humidity, RH 70%
SH 17,000 150(RH) [STD Eq. 9-4]
[17,000 150(70)]/1,000 6.500 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.2]
ES [STD Eq. 9-6]
where
E
s
28,000 ksi
E
ci
4,888 ksi
f
cir
concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning steel due to preten-
sioning force and the self-weight of the panel, immediately after transfer
Assume an initial prestress loss of 5%.
Therefore, the total prestress force after transfer (0.153)(202.5)(1 0.05)(10
strands) 294.3 kips
f
cir
294.3/[(3.5)(8)(12)] 0.876 ksi
ES 5.018 ksi
28 000
4 888
0 876
,
,
.
E
E
f
s
ci
cir
9.7.5.3 Required Number of Strands/9.7.6.2 Elastic Shortening
9.7.6.2
Elastic Shortening
9.7.6.1
Shrinkage
9.7.6
PRESTRESS LOSSES
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.3]
CR
c
12f
cir
7f
cds
[STD Eq. 9-9]
where
f
cir
0.876 ksi
f
cds
concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning steel due to all dead
loads except the dead load present at the time of applying the pretensioning
force; i.e. due to the weight of the CIP slab, wearing surface and barriers.
Since the weight of the CIP slab acts on the non-composite section, i.e. the
SIP panel, it provides zero stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning
reinforcement. Therefore, only the stress due to the wearing surface and
barriers is considered.
M
ws
0.135 ft-kips/ft (as calculated in Section 9.7.5.1)
M
b
0.255 ft-kips/ft
Bottom fiber stress (0.135 + 0.255)(12)/102.6 0.046 ksi
Therefore, as shown in Figure 9.7.6.3-1,
f
cds
(0.046)(1.68)/3.43 0.023 ksi
CR
c
12(0.876) 7(0.023) 10.351 ksi
[STD Art. 9.16.2.1.4]
CR
s
5000 0.1(ES) 0.05(SH+CR
c
) [STD Eq. 9-10A]
5.0 0.1(5.018) 0.05(6.500 + 10.351) 3.656 ksi
Total initial losses, ES 5.018 ksi
Initial prestress loss ratio 5.018/202.5 2.5%
The 2.5% initial loss is close enough to the first estimation (5%) that there is no need
to perform a second iteration to refine initial loss.
Effective prestress after transfer, f
si
(202.5 5.018) 197.5 ksi
Total prestress force at transfer, P
si
(0.153)(197.5)(10 strands) 302.2 kips/panel
302.2/8 37.8 kips/ft
Final prestress losses 6.500 + 5.018 + 10.351 + 3.656 25.525 ksi
Final prestress loss ratio 25.525/202.5 12.6%
Effective prestress, f
se
202.5 25.525 176.975 ksi
Total prestress force at service loads, P
se
(0.153)(176.975)(10 strands)
270.8 kips/panel 270.8/8.0 33.9 kips/ft
JUL 03
9.7.6.3 Creep of Concrete/9.7.6.6 Total Loss at Service Loads
Figure 9.7.6.3-1
Concrete Stresses due
to Wearing Surface
and Barriers
1.68"
1.75"
3.43"
0.023 ksi
0.046 ksi
9.7.6.4
Relaxation of
Pretensioning Steel
9.7.6.5
Total Loss at Transfer
9.7.6.3
Creep of Concrete
9.7.6.6
Total Loss at
Service Loads
[STD Art. 9.15]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
0.6(6,500)/1,000 +3.900 ksi

Tension: the maximum tensile stress should not exceed:
200 ksi (with no bonded reinforcement)
/1,000 0.242 ksi > 0.200 ksi
/1,000 0.605 ksi (with bonded reinforcement)
Because the strand group is concentric with the precast concrete panel, the midspan
section is the critical section that should be checked.
Effective pretensioning stress at the end of pretensioning process 37.8 kips/ft
Bending moment due to self-weight of the panel, M
SIP
0.496 ft-kips/ft
Top concrete stress of the SIP panel, f
t

f
t
+0.900 + 0.243 +1.143 ksi
Allowable compressive concrete stress: +3.900 ksi OK
Bottom concrete stress in the SIP panel, f
b

f
b
+0.900 0.243 +0.657 ksi
Allowable compressive concrete stress: +3.900ksi OK
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Assume that at the time of casting the CIP concrete slab, the precast SIP concrete
panel reaches its 28-day concrete strength, 8,000 ksi.
Compression:
Case I: due to all load combinations:
0.6f
c
0.6(8,000)/1,000 +4.800 ksi
Case II: due to effective prestress and permanent (dead) loads:
0.4f
c
0.4(8,000)/1,000 +3.200 ksi
Case III: due to live loads plus 1/2 the sum of the prestressing force and
permanent (dead) loads:
0.4f
c
0.4(8,000)/1,000 +3.200 ksi
37 9
42
0 496 12
24 5
. . ( )
.
P
A
M
S
i SIP
b
37 8
42
0 496 12
24 5
. . ( )
.
+
P
A
M
S
i SIP
t
+

7 5 7 5 6 500 . . , f
ci
3 6 500 ,
3 f
ci

JUL 03
9.7.7 Stresses In SIP Panel At Transfer/9.7.8.1 Allowable Stress Limits
9.7.8.1
9.7.8
STRESSES IN SIP
PANEL AT TIME
OF CASTING
TOPPING SLAB
9.7.7.1
9.7.7.2
Stresses at Midspan
9.7.7
STRESSES IN SIP
PANEL AT TRANSFER
Tension:
For members with bonded reinforcement:
/1,000 0.537 ksi
Effective prestress after all losses 33.9 kips/ft
Bending moment due to the self-weight of the SIP panel, the CIP concrete and con-
struction load are:
M
SIP
0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
0.632 ft-kips/ft
M
const
(0.050)(9.5)
2
/8 0.564 ft-kips/ft
Since the construction load is a live load, Case I is the critical case.
Top compressive concrete stress in the SIP panel:
f
t

+0.807 + 0.829 +1.636 ksi
Bottom concrete stress of the SIP panel:
f
b

+0.807 0.829 0.022 ksi
Allowable tensile concrete stress: 0.537 ksi OK
[STD Art. 9.15.2.2]
Compression:
Case I: due to all load combinations:
for the SIP panel: 0.6f
c
0.6(8,000)/1,000 +4.800 ksi
for the CIP topping: 0.4f
c
0.4(4,000)/1,000 +1.600 ksi
[STD Art. 8.15.2.1]
Case II: due to effective prestress and permanent (dead) loads:
c
0.4(8,000)/1,000 +3.200 ksi
Case III: due to live loads plus 1/2 of the prestressing force and
permanent (dead) loads:
c
0.4(8,000)/1,000 +3.200 ksi
Tension:
for members with bonded reinforcement:
for the SIP panel: /1,000 0.537 ksi 6 6 8 000 f
c
,
P
A
M M M
S
se SIP CIP const
b
+ +

+ + 33 9
42
0 496 0 632 0 564 12
24 5
. ( . . . )( )
.
P
A
M M M
S
se SIP CIP const
t
+
+ +
+
+ + 33 9
42
0 496 0 632 0 564 12
24 5
. ( . . . )( )
.
6 6 8 000 f
c
,
9.7.8.1 Allowable Stress Limits/9.7.9.1 Allowable Stress Limits
9.7.9.1
9.7.9
STRESSES IN SIP
PANEL AT SERVICE
LOADS
9.7.8.2
Stresses at Midspan after
Non-Composite Loads
JUL 03
Effective prestress after all losses 33.9 kips/ft
The weights of SIP panel and CIP slab act on the non-composite section, while the
wearing surface, barrier load and live load act on the composite section.
M
SIP
0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
0.632 ft-kips/ft
M
ws
0.135 ft-kips/ft
M
b
0.255 ft-kips/ft
M
LL+I
6.370 ft-kips/ft
Concrete stress at top fiber of the CIP slab:
(Since the prestress force is acting only on the SIP, Case I controls)
f
tc
+0.663 ksi
Concrete stress at top fiber of the SIP panel:
Case I:
f
tg

+0.807 + 0.553 + 0.001 + 0.015 +1.376 ksi

Case II:
f
tg
+0.807 + 0.553 + 0.001 +1.361 ksi
Case III:
f
tg
0.5(+0.807 + 0.553 + 0.001) + 0.015 +0.696 ksi
Concrete stress at bottom fiber of the SIP panel:
f
b

+0.807 0.553 0.791 0.537 ksi

Allowable tensile concrete stress: 0.537ksi OK
+
+
+ + ( . ) ( . . )
.
( . . . )
.
33 9
42
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 6 370 12
102 6
P
A
M M
S
M M M
S
se SIP CIP
b
ws b LL I
bc
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
( . ) ( . . )
.
( . . )
,
( . )
,
33 9
42
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 12
5 028
6 370 12
5 028
P
A
M M
S
M M
S
M
S
se SIP CIP
t
ws b
tg
LL I
tg
+
+
+
+
+
+
M M M
S
ws b LL I
tc
+ +
+ +
+
( . . . )
.
0 135 0 255 6 370 12
122 4
9.7.9.2
Service Load Stresses at
Midspan
JUL 03
[STD Art. 9.17]
M
SIP
0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
0.632 ft-kips/ft
M
ws
0.135 ft-kips/ft
M
b
0.255 ft-kips/ft
M
LL+1
6.370 ft-kips/ft
M
u
1.3[M
D
+ 1.67M
LL+1
]
1.3[(0.496 + 0.632 + 0.135 + 0.255) + 1.67(6.370)] 15.803 ft-kips/ft
The design flexural strength, M
n
, for rectangular sections, is given by:
M
n
[STD Eq. 9-13]
where
strength reduction factor 1.0
A
*
s
area of pretensioning steel (10)(0.153)/(8.0) 0.191 in.
2
/ft
d distance from extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the prestressing
reinforcement 0.5(3.5) + 4 5.75 in.
p
*
ratio of pretensioning steel 0.00277
f
c
specified compressive strength at 28 days 4.0 ksi
f
*
su
average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load
f
s
[1 (
*
/
1
)(p
*
f
s
/f
c
)] [STD Eq. 9.17]
where
*
factor for type of pretensioning reinforcement 0.28 (for low-relax-
ation strand)
1
stress factor of compression block:
0.85 for f
c
4.0 ksi
0.85 0.05(f
c
4.0) 0.65 for f
c
> 4.0 ksi
0.85
f
s
ultimate strength of pretensioning reinforcement 270 ksi

f
*
su
253.4 ksi
Check limit on f
*
su
: [STD 9.17.4.2]
f
*
su
[STD Eq. 9-19]
where
l
x
distance from end of the prestressing strand to center of panel 9.5/2
4.75 ft
D nominal diameter of strand 0.5 in.
f
se
effective stress in prestressing strand after losses 176.975 ksi
l
x
se
D
f +
2
3
270 1
0 28
0 85
0 00277 270
4 0
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
.
.
. ( )
.
A
bd
s
*
0 191
12 5 75
.
( . )
A f d
p f
f
s
*
su
* su
c
1 0 6
_
,
1
]
1
1
.
* *
JUL 03
9.7.10 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section
9.7.10
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
OF POSITIVE MOMENT
SECTION
Thus, 231.983 ksi
Therefore, f
*
su
231.983 ksi (Controls)
Depth of the rectangular stress block:
a
1.09 in. < thickness of the CIP topping 4.00 in. OK
M
n
1.0 /12
19.185 ft-kips/ft > M
u
15.803 ft-kips/ft OK
Notes:
1. The effect of the compression reinforcement in the CIP topping is neglected.
2. The calculations here are conducted for flexure at the midspan section. It is possi-
ble that intermediate sections between midspan and the supports will exhibit
critical stresses due to partial development of the pretensioning strands. Because
the Standard Specifications does not provide guidance relative to live load bending
moment at intermediate sections, it is difficult to perform this check without mak-
ing certain assumptions. One way to estimate the live load moment is to assume
that it varies parabolically from 0.8M
LL+I
at midspan to 0.2M
LL+I
over the beam
centerline.
[STD Art. 9.18]
[STD Art. 9.18.1]
Pretensioned concrete members are designed so that the steel yields as ultimate capac-
ity is approached.
The reinforcement index for rectangular sections < 0.36
1
[STD Eq. 9.20]
0.16 < 0.36
1
0.36(0.85) 0.306 OK
Note that the compression strength of the topping should be used to determine
1
.
[STD Art. 9.18.2]
STD Article 9.18.2.1 states that the total amount of pretensioned reinforcement
should be adequate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical section of at least
1.2 times the cracking moment, M
*
cr
; i.e.:
M
n
1.2M
*
cr
M
*
cr
(f
r
+ f
pe
)S
bc
(M
d/nc
)(S
bc
/S
b
1) [STD Art. 9.18.2.1]
p
f
f
* su
*
c
_
,
0 00277
231 983
4 0
.
.
.
* su
*
c
f
f
( . )( . )( . ) .
( . )( . )
.
0 191 231 983 5 75 1 0 6
0 00277 231 983
4 0
_
,
1
]
1
A f
0.85f b
s
*
su
*
c

( . )( . )
( . )( . )( )
0 191 231 983
0 85 4 0 12
l
x
se
D
f + +
2
3
4 75 12
0 5
2
3
176 975
. ( )
.
( . )
JUL 03
9.7.10 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section/
9.7.11.1
9.7.11
DUCTILITY LIMITS OF
THE SIP PANEL
9.7.11.2
JUL 03
where
f
r
7.5 /1,000 0.671 ksi
f
pe
0.807 ksi
M
d/nc
M
SIP
+ M
CIP
0.496 + 0.632 1.128 ft-kips/ft
M
*
cr
(0.671 + 0.807)(102.6/12) (1.128)[(102.6/24.5) 1] 9.041 ft-kips/ft
1.2M
*
cr
10.849 ft-kips/ft < M
n
[STD Art. 9.24.2]
Minimum amount of distribution reinforcement 0.11 in.
2
/ft.
Use #3 reinforcing bars @ 12 in. centers. Area of steel provided 0.11 in.
2
/ft
or use 4x4 W4xW4. Reinforcement area provided 3(0.04) 0.12 in.
2
/ft.
STD Article 3.24.1.2 specifies the span length that can be used for calculating bend-
ing moments for slabs continuous over more than two supports. However, the
Standard Specifications does not specify the location of the critical section. Therefore,
as a conservative approach, the critical section is considered to be at the center of the
beam.
Negative moment occurs only from wearing surface and live load while barrier load
results in positive moment.
Due to wearing surface, M
ws
0.315 ft-kips/ft
Due to barrier load, M
b
+0.255 ft-kips/ft
Due to live load, M
LL+I
6.370 ft-kips/ft
Total service bending moment 0.315 + 0.255 6.370 6.430 ft-kips/ft
Total factored bending moment, M
u
1.3[0.315 + 0.255 1.67(6.370)]
13.907 ft-kips/ft
Assume welded wire reinforcement will be used with D26 wire. With 2.5-in. clear
cover, the effective depth is:
d 3.5 + 4.0 0.5(0.575) 2.5 4.712 in.
b 12.0 in.
R
n
(M
u
/bd
2
) 696.0 psi/ft, ( 0.9)
13 907 12 1 000
0 9 12 4 712
2
. ( )( , )
. ( )( . )
P
A
se
33 9
42
.
f
c
7 5 8 000 . ,
9.7.11.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.7.13.3 Design of Section
9.7.13.3
Design of Section
9.7.13
NEGATIVE MOMENT
SECTION OVER
INTERIOR BEAMS
9.7.12
LONGITUDINAL
REINFORCEMENT IN
THE SIP PANEL
9.7.13.1
Critical Section
9.7.13.2
Bending Moment
m (f
y
/0.85f
c
) 17.65
0.0131
A
s
(bd) 0.0131(12)(4.712) 0.74 in.
2
/ft
Use D26 @ 4-in. spacing, A
s
0.78 in.
2
/ft
a 1.15 in.
M
n
0.9(A
s
f
y
)(d 0.5a)/12 0.9(0.78)(60.0)[4.712 0.5(1.15)]/12
u
[STD Art. 8.16.3.1]
actual
0.0138
b
[STD Eq. 8.18]
0.0285
max
0.75
b
0.0214 >
actual
OK
[STD Art. 8.17.1]
ultimate moment at the critical section of at least 1.2 times the cracking moment, i.e.:
M
n
1.2M
cr
Compute cracking moment: M
cr
Sf
r
where
f
r
modulus of rupture [STD Art. 8.15.2.1.1]
/1,000 0.474 ksi
S section modulus 12(7.5)
2
/6 112.5 in.
3
M
cr
112.5(0.474)/12 4.444 ft-kips/ft
1.2M
cr
1.2(4.444) 5.333 ft-kips/ft < M
n
[STD Art. 8.16.8.4]
The calculated stress in the reinforcement at service loads, f
s
, should not exceed the
value computed by:
7 5 7 5 4 000 . . , f
c
0 85 0 85 4 0
60
87 000
87 000 60 000
. ( . )( . ) ,
, , +
_
,
0 85 87 000
87 000
1
. ,
,
f
f f
c
y y
_
,
0 78
12 4 712
.
( . )
A f
f b
s y
c
0 85
0 78 60 0
0 85 4 0 12 .
. ( . )
( . )( . )( )

1
1 1
2 1
17 65
1 1
2 17 65 696 0
60 000 m
mR
f
n
y

_
,
_
,
.
( . )( . )
,
60 000
0 85 4 000
,
. ( , )
JUL 03
9.7.13.3 Design of Section/9.7.13.6 Crack Control
9.7.13.4
9.7.13.5
9.7.13.6
Crack Control
f
s
0.6f
y
[STD Eq. 8-61]
where
d
c
thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of
the closest bar, in. For calculation purposes, the thickness of the concrete
clear cover used to compute d
c
should be taken not greater than 2.0 in.
2.0 + 0.5(0.575) 2.288 in.
A effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexural tension reinforce-
ment and having the same centroid as that reinforcement divided by the
number of bars, in.
2
2(2.288)(4) 18.30 in.
2
z 130 kip/in. (severe exposure conditions)
f
s
37.4 ksi > 0.6f
y
36 ksi
Therefore, f
s
36.0 ksi.
Actual stress in reinforcement:
E
c
3,834 ksi
n E
s
/E
c
29,000/3,834 7.564
0.01379
n (0.01379)(7.564) 0.1043
k n 0.36
j (1 k/3) 0.88
f
s
23.9 ksi < 36.0 ksi OK
As noted before, STD Article 3.24.1.2 specifies the span length that can be used in
calculating bending moments for slabs continuous over more than two supports.
However, the Standard Specifications does not specify the position for the critical sec-
tion.
In this example, the critical section is considered to be at a distance of one-fourth of
the top flange width measured from the centerline of the beam. This assumption is
made because the supporting beam has a top flange width-to-minimum thickness
ratio greater than 4.0. Critical section 42/4 10.5 in.
M
(jdA )
(6.430)(12)
(0.88)(4.712)(0.78)
service
s
( ) ( ) n n
2
2 +
0 78
12 4 712
.
( . )
130
2 288 18 30
1 3
. ( . )
/
[ ]
z
d A
c
1/ 3
( )
JUL 03
9.7.13.6 Crack Control/9.7.14.1 Critical Section
9.7.14.1
Critical Section
9.7.14
NEGATIVE MOMENT
SECTION OVER
EXTERIOR BEAMS
Two loading cases should be considered for the overhang design:
Case 1: under live load, HS20, combined with dead loads. STD Article 3.24.2.1
states that the wheel load is applied at 1.0 ft from face of barrier, as shown in Case 1,
Figure 9.7.14.2-1.
M
CIP
/2 0.570 ft-kips/ft
M
ws
(0.025) /2 0.056 ft-kips/ft
M
b
(0.300) 0.888 ft-kips/ft
Live load moment: [STD Art. 3.24.5.1.1]
Live load moment with impact, M
LL+I
(P/E)X(1 + I) (Eq. 9.7.14.2-1)
where
P P
20
load of the design truck wheel of the rear axle 16 kips
X the distance from load to point of support 13.5 in.
E width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed [STD Eq. 3-17]
0.8X + 3.75 0.8 + 3.75 4.65 ft
I impact fraction 0.3
M
LL+I
(16/4.65)(13.5/12)(1+0.3) 5.032 ft-kips/ft
Total service bending moment:
M
service
(0.570 + 0.056 + 0.888 + 5.032) 6.546 ft-kips/ft
u
1.3[(0.570 + 0.056 + 0.888) + 1.67(5.032)]
12.893 ft-kips/ft
Case 2: under collision force with the barrier combined with dead loads. STD Article
2.7.1.3 states that a 10-kip horizontal force should be applied at the top of the barrier,
as shown in Case 2, Figure 9.7.14.2-1.
M
CIP
0.570 ft-kips/ft
M
ws
0.056 ft-kips/ft
M
b
0.888 ft-kips/ft
Live load moment: [STD Art. 3.24.5.1.1]
Bending moment due to collision force, M
col
, is distributed over a distance E,
where
E 0.8X + 5.0 [STD Art. 3.24.5.2]
13 5
12
.
_
,
35 5
12
.
_
,
12 13 5
12
2
+
_
,
.
8
12
0 150
40 5
12
2
_
,
_
,
( . )
.
JUL 03
9.7.14.2
Bending Moment
where
X distance from center of the post to the point under investigation
15/2 + 25.5 33.0 in.
Therefore, E 0.8 + 5 7.20 ft
M
col
(10/7.20)(2.67) 3.708 ft-kips/ft
Total service bending moment, M
service
(0.570 + 0.056 + 0.888 +3.708) 5.222
ft-kips/ft
Since the Standard Specifications does not provide guidelines for the load factor that
should be used with the collision force, a conservative approach is considered by
using the load factor used with live loads; i.e., 1.3 and 5/3 1.67.
u
1.3[(0.570 + 0.056 + 0.888) + (1.67)(3.708)]
10.018 ft-kips/ft
Service axial tension force at critical section 10/7.2 1.389 kips/ft
Factored axial tension force 1.3[1.67(1.389)] 3.015 kips/ft
Case 1: M
u
12.893 ft-kips/ft
Assume welded wire reinforcement will be used with D26 wire. With 2.5-in.-clear
cover, the effective depth is:
d 7.5 0.5(0.575) 2.5 4.712 in.
b 12.0 in.
33 0
12
.
_
,

JUL 03
9.7.14.2 Bending Moment/9.7.14.3 Design of Section
Figure 9.7.14.2-1
Loading Cases for the
Overhang
10 kips
Critical
section
25.5"
40.5" 1
0
.
5
"
5" 35.5"
15"
0.300 kip/ft
8"
4'-3" = 51"
2'-8"
Case 2 Case 1
Critical
section
13.5"
40.5" 1
0
.
5
"
13.5" 27"
5" 35.5"
12" 15"
16 kips
0.300 kip/ft
8"
4'-3" = 51"
2'-8"
9.7.14.3
Design of Section
R
n
(M
u
/bd
2
) 645.2 lb/in.
2
, ( 0.9)
m (f
y
/0.85 f
c
) 17.65
0.0120
A
s
(bd) 0.0120(12)(4.712) 0.68 in.
2
/ft
Use D26 @ 4 in. spacing, A
s
0.78 in.
2
a 1.15 in.
M
n
0.9(A
s
f
y
)(d 0.5a)/12 0.9(0.78)(60.0)[4.712 0.5(1.15)]/12
u
Case 2: M
u
10.018 ft-kips/ft, T
u
3.015 kips/ft
Check D26 @ 4 in. spacing, A
s
0.78 in.
2
d 4.712 in.; b 12 in.
A
s
f
y
0.78(60) 46.800 kips
C A
s
f
y
T
u
46.800 3.015 43.785 kips
a C/(0.85bf
c
) (43.785)/(0.85)(12)(4.0) 1.07 in.
M
n
[A
s
f
y
(d a/2) T
u
(0.5d 0.5a)]
0.9[(0.78)(60)(4.712 1.07/2) (3.015)(4.712/2 1.07/2)]/12
u
[STD Art. 8.16.3.1]
actual
0.0138
b
[STD Eq. 8.18]
0.0285
max
0.75
b
0.0214 >
actual
OK
[STD Art. 8.17.1]
ultimate moment at the critical section of at least 1.2 times the cracking moment; i.e.:
M
n
1.2M
cr
0 85 0 85 4 0
60
87 000
87 000 60 000
. ( . )( . ) ,
, , +
_
,
0 85 87 000
87 000
1
. ,
,
f
f f
c
y y
_
,
0 78
12 4 712
.
( . )
A f
0.85f b
s y
c

( . )( . )
( . )( . )( )
0 78 60 0
0 85 4 0 12
1
1 1
2 1
17 65
1 1
2 17 65 645 2
60 000 m
mR
f
n
y

_
,
_
,
.
( . )( . )
,
60 000
0 85 4 000
,
. ( , )
12 893 12 1 000
0 9 12 4 712
2
. ( , )
. ( )( . )
x
9.7.14.3 Design of Section/9.7.14.5 Minimum Reinforcement
9.7.14.5
9.7.14.4
JUL 03
Compute cracking moment: M
cr
Sf
r
where
f
r
modulus of rupture [STD Art. 8.15.2.1.1]
/1,000 0.474 ksi
S section modulus 12(7.5)
2
/6 112.5 in.
3
M
cr
112.5(0.474)/12 4.444 ft-kips
1.2M
cr
1.2(4.444) 5.333 ft-kips/ft < M
n
[STD Art. 8.16.8.4]
The calculated stress in the reinforcement at service loads, f
s
, should not exceed the
value computed by:
f
s
0.6f
y
[STD Eq. 8-61]
where
d
c
thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of
the closest bar, in. For calculation purpose, the thickness of the concrete clear
cover used to compute d
c
should be taken not greater than 2.0 in.
2.0 + 0.5(0.575) 2.288 in.
A effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexure tension rein-
forcement and having the same centroid as that reinforcement divided by
the number of bars, in.
2
2(2.288)(4) 18.30 in.
2
z 130 kip/in. (severe exposure conditions)
f
s
37.4 ksi > 0.6f
y
36 ksi
Therefore, f
s
36.0 ksi
E
c
3,834 ksi
n E
s
/E
c
29,000/3,834 7.564
0.01379
n 0.01379(7.564) 0.1043
k n 0.36
j (1 k/3) 0.88
f
s
24.3 ksi < 36.0 ksi OK
M
(jdA )
(6.546)(12)
(0.88)(4.712)(0.78)
service
s
( ) ( ) n n
2
2 +
0 78
12 4 712
.
( . )
130
2.288 18.30
( )( )
[ ]
1 3 /
z
d A
c
1/ 3
( )
7 5 7 5 4 000 . . , f
c

JUL 03
9.7.14.5 Minimum Reinforcement/9.7.14.6 Crack Control
9.7.14.6
Crack Control
[STD Art. 8.30.1.2]
l
d
0.03d
b
(f
y
20,000)/
where
A
w
area of individual wire to be developed, in.
2
s
w
spacing of wire to be developed
l
d
0.03(0.575)(60,000 20,000)/
12.3 in.
Thus, l
d
12.3 in. (Controls)
Since this length is less than the width of the barrier, 15 in., development of the rein-
forcement at the face of the barrier should be satisfactory.
[STD Art. 9.18.2.2]
The minimum amount of non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement provided in
the CIP portion of the slab, should be 0.25 in.
2
/ft
Use D14@6 in. spacing; A
s
2(0.14) 0.28 in.
2
/ft OK
4 000 10 9 0 20
0 26
4
60 000
4 000
, . .
. ,
,

_
,
1
]
1
1
f
A
s
f
f
c
w
w
y
c
_
,
1
]
1
1
0 20 .
9.7.14.7 Development Length of Steel Reinforcement/
9.7.15 Longitudinal Reinforcement in the CIP Slab
JUL 03
9.7.15
LONGITUDINAL
REINFORCEMENT IN
THE CIP SLAB
9.7.14.7
Development Length of
Steel Reinforcement
JUL 03
NOTATION
9.0 INTRODUCTION
SPECIFICATIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
A
b
A
c
A
c
A
cv
A
o
A
ps
A
PT
A
s
A
s
A
s
A
sf
A
sr
A
*
s
A
s
A
v
A
v
A
vf
A
vh
A
v-min
b
e
b
v
b
v
b
v
b
w
= web width [LRFD]
CR
c
CR
s
D = dead load [STD]
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
DF
m
d
b
d
c
d
e
d
e
d
p
d
v
E
c
E
c
E
ci
E
p
E
s
E
s
e
c
e
e
e
g
F
b
F
pi
F

f
b
f
c
f
c
f
cdp
cgp
[LRFD]
f
cds
f
cir
f
ci
JUL 03
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
f
ci
f
cgp
f
d
f
pb
f
pc
f
pc
pc
acting alone [LRFD]
f
pe
applied loads [STD]
f
pe
f
pi
f
po
f
ps
f
pt
f
pu
f
py
f
r
f
r
f
s
f
s
f
se
f
si
f
*
su
f
t
f
tc
f
tg
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
y
f
yh
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
h
c
h
f
I
c
K
g
L = live load [STD]
L
c
l
d
l
x
M
a
M
b
M
b
M
c
M
CIP
M
const
M
col
M
cr
M
cr
M
*
cr
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
M
f
M
g
M
LL
M
LL+I
M
LL+I
M
LT
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
M
max
M
n
M
n
M
n/dc
M
r
M
s
M
s
M
SDL
M
service
M
SIP
M
u
M
u
M
ws
M
x
y
/0.85f
c
)
N
b
N
L
N
u
15
or P
20
) [STD]
P
c
P
eff
P
i
P
pe
P
r
P
s
P
se
P
si
P
20
Q
i
R
n
R
u
R
w
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
S
b
S
bc
S
c
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
t
f
t
s
t
s
V
c
V
c
V
ci
V
cw
V
d
V
i
with M
max
[STD]
V
LL
V
LL+I
V
LL+I
V
LT
V
mu
u
V
n
V
nh
V
p
V
p
V
s
V
s
V
u
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
V
u
V
uh
V
x
w
b
w
c
w
c
w
g
= beam self-weight
w
s
w
ws
y
b
y
bc
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
D
L
1
1
beam
b+ws
f
cdp
f
pCR
f
pES
f
pi
f
pR
f
pR1
f
pR2
f
pSR
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
f
pT
D
L
LL+I
LL
LT
max
p
SDL
slab
x
= load factor [STD]
*
i
actual
b
*
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
DESIGN EXAMPLES
JUL 03
9.8.1 INTRODUCTION
9.8.2 MATERIALS
9.8.3 MINIMUM SLAB THICKNESS
9.8.4 LOADS
9.8.4.1 Dead Loads
9.8.4.2 Wearing Surface and Construction Loads
9.8.4.3 Live Loads
9.8.4.4 Load Combination
9.8.5 SECTION PROPERTIES
9.8.6 REQUIRED PRESTRESS
9.8.7.2 Shrinkage
9.8.7.4 Relaxation of Pretensioning Strands
9.8.8 STRESSES IN THE SIP PANEL AT TRANSFER
9.8.9 STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT TIME OF CASTING TOPPING SLAB
9.8.9.2 Stresses at Midspan after all Non-Composite Loads
9.8.9.3 Elastic Deformation
9.8.10 STRESSES IN SIP PANEL AT SERVICE LOADS
JUL 03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STAY-IN-PLACE PANEL DECK, LRFD SPECIFICATIONS
7068 Bridge Manual Ch 9.8_Rev 9/17/03 10:11 AM Page 1
JUL 03
9.8.11 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF POSITIVE MOMENT SECTION
9.8.13 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER INTERIOR BEAMS
9.8.14 NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION OVER EXTERIOR BEAMS
9.8.15 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This example demonstrates the design of a 3-1/2-in.-thick precast pretensioned stay-
in-place (SIP) deck panel with a 4-1/2-in.-thick cast-in-place (CIP) concrete topping.
A 1/2-in. wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 4-1/2-in. topping
slab. The example bridge has 3-lanes with a total width of 44'-6". The deck slab is
supported over four AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beams spaced at 12 ft on center and
includes overhangs of 4'-3", as shown in Figure 9.8.1-1. The CIP concrete requires
a design strength of 4,000 psi. The SIP panel requires a strength of 6,500 psi at the
time of transfer of the prestress force to the panel and a design strength of 8,000 psi
at the time of casting the CIP slab. A New Jersey-type barrier is included. The design
is conducted in accordance with the LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998, and
including through the 2003 Interim Revisions. The strip design method is used.
Cast-in-place composite slab: Actual thickness = 4-1/2 in.
Structural thickness = 4 in. (a 1/2-in. wearing surface
is considered to be an integral
part of the deck)
Specified concrete strength at 28 days, f
c
= 4,000 psi
c
= 0.150 kcf
Superstructure beams: AASHTO-PCI bulb-tee beam shown in Figure 9.8.2-1
Beam spacing = 12.0 ft
Top flange width = 42 in.
Deck overhang = 4.25 ft
Precast pretensioned SIP deck panels: Concrete strength at transfer, f
ci
= 6,500 psi
28-day concrete strength, f
c
= 8,000 psi
c
= 0.150 kcf
JUL 03
9.8.1
INTRODUCTION
9.8.2
MATERIALS
Precast Concrete Stay-In-Place
Deck Panel System,
LRFD Specifications
Figure 9.8.1-1
1'-3"
8"
concrete slab
4
1
/2" CIP
3'-0" 3'-0"
3 spaces @ 12'- 0" = 36'-0"
42'- 0"
4'-3" 4'-3"
deck panel
3
1
/2" SIP
1'-3"
2'-8"
44'- 6"
Prestressing strands: 1/2-in. diameter, low-relaxation
2
pu
= 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, f
py
= 0.9f
pu
= 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Before transfer, f
pi
0.75f
pu
= 202.5 ksi
At service limit state (after all losses)
f
pe
0.80f
py
= 194.4 ksi
p
= 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Panel dimensions: 8-ft wide x 9 ft-6 in. long x 3-1/2 in. deep
Mild reinforcement: reinforcing bars
Yield strength, f
y
= 60,000 psi
s
= 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Top reinforcement clear cover = 2.5 in. [LRFD Table 5.12.3-1]
Bottom reinforcement clear cover = 1.0 in. [LRFD Table 5.12.3-1]
Future wearing surface: additional 2 in., unit weight = 0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barrier: unit weight = 0.300 kip/ft/side
[LRFD Art. 9.7.1.1]
For interior spans: 8 in. 0.5 in. sacrificial layer = 7.5 in.
For overhangs: 8 in. [LRFD Art. 13.7.3.1.2]
Depth of the SIP panel: [LRFD Art. 9.7.4.3.1]
SIP thickness should be 55%(total depth) = 0.55(8.0) = 4.4 in. > 3.5 in. OK
Select the 3.5-in.-thick precast SIP panel with 4.5-in.-thick CIP slab. A 1/2-in. wear-
ing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 4.5-in. topping slab.
9.8.2 Materials/9.8.3 Minimum Slab Thickness
JUL 03
Figure 9.8.2-1
Details of the SIP Deck Panel
on Supports
1
1
/2" min.
6"
2"
depth bearing strip
Continuous variable
4
1
/2" CIP slab
8'- 6" 3'- 6"
top flange clear top flange
3'- 6"
Bulb-Tee
AASHTO-PCI
3
1
/2" SIP
deck panel
3
1
/2"
2"
2"
2"
1'-4"
2"
2"
12'- 0"
9.8.3
MINIMUM SLAB
THICKNESS
The precast SIP panels support their own weight, any construction loads, and the
weight of the CIP slab. For superimposed dead and live loads, the precast panels are
analyzed assuming that they act compositely with the CIP concrete.
Weight of 3.5-in.-thick SIP panel = (3.5/12)(0.150) = 0.044 kip/ft
2
Weight of 4.5-in.-thick CIP slab = (4.5/12)(0.150) = 0.056 kip/ft
2
Weight of New Jersey barrier = 0.300 kip/ft/side
Weight of 2-in. wearing surface = (2/12)(0.150) = 0.025 kip/ft
2
Construction load (applied to the SIP precast panel only) = 0.050 kip/ft
2
[LRFD Art. 9.7.4.1]
Note that LRFD Article 3.4.2 requires a load factor of at least 1.5 be used with con-
struction loads.
LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3 states that for decks where the primary strips are transverse
and their span does not exceed 15 ft, the transverse strips are designed for the wheels
of the 32.0-kip axle of the design truck.
Multiple Presence Factor: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.2]
Single truck = 1.2
Two trucks = 1.0
Dynamic Load Allowance = 33% [LRFD Art. 3.6.2.1]
LRFD Table A4.1-1 gives the values of maximum positive and negative bending
moments for different spans. This table is valid for decks supported on at least three
girders and having a width measured between the centerlines of the exterior girders
of not less than 14 ft. Multiple presence factors and the dynamic load allowance are
included in the tabulated values. Values of negative bending moments provided by
this table do not apply to the deck overhang.
For the deck under consideration, where S = 12.0 ft, the maximum positive bending
moment, with dynamic allowance, M
LL+I
= 8.010 ft-kips/ft.
For the overhang, a minimum distance of 12 in. from center of wheel of the design
truck to the inside face of parapet should be considered [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3].
However, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.4 states that for overhangs less than 6.0 ft with con-
tinuous barrier, the outside row of wheels may be replaced with a uniformly distrib-
uted, 1.0-kip/ft line load, located 1.0 ft from railing face. In this example, the case of
concentrated wheel loads is considered.
[LRFD Art. 3.4]
Q =
i
Q
i
[LRFD Eq. 3.4.1-1]
9.8.4 Loads/9.8.4.4 Load Combination
JUL 03
9.8.4
LOADS
9.8.4.1
Dead Loads
9.8.4.2
Wearing Surface and
Construction Loads
9.8.4.3
Live Loads
9.8.4.4
Load Combination
where
= a factor relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance. For
this example, is considered to be 1.0. [LRFD Art. 1.3.2]
i
= load factors [LRFD Table 3.4.1-1]
Q
i
= specified loads
Evaluating the various limit states given in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the following are
applicable:
Service I: to investigate compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components
This load combination is the general combination for service limit state stress
checks and applies to all conditions other than Service III.
Service III: to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components
This load combination is a special combination for service limit state stress checks
Note that the 0.8 factor provided for the live load with dynamic allowance is
intended for application to longitudinal prestressed concrete beams only. Therefore,
it is replaced with a factor of 1.0 for use in this example.
Strength I: to check ultimate strength [LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 and 2]
design.
Note: For simple-span bridges, the maximum load factors produce maximum
effects. Use minimum load factors for dead load (DC) and wearing surface (DW)
when dead load and wearing surface stresses are opposite to those of the live load.
Fatigue: [LRFD Art. 9.5.3 and 5.5.3.1]
Fatigue need not be investigated for concrete slabs in multi-beam bridges.
A = area of cross-section of the precast panel = (3.5)(12) = 42 in.
2
/ft
S
b
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast
panel
= (12)(3.5)
2
/6 = 24.5 in.
3
/ft
S
t
= section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast panel
= (12)(3.5)
2
/6 = 24.5 in.
3
/ft
E
c
= [LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1] 33,000 (w ) f
c
1.5
c

9.8.4.4 Load Combination/9.8.5.1 Non-Composite Section
JUL 03
9.8.5
SECTION PROPERTIES
9.8.5.1
where
E
c
= modulus of elasticity, (ksi)
w
c
= unit weight of concrete, (kcf ) = 0.150 kcf
f
c
= specified strength of concrete, (ksi)
LRFD Article C5.4.2.4, indicates that the unit weight of normal weight concrete is
0.145 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typically have a relatively low
water/cementitious material ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit weight of 0.150
kcf is used in this example. For high strength concrete, even this value may need to
be increased based on test results.
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity is:
At release, E
ci
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 4,888 ksi
At service loads, E
c
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 5,423 ksi
The pretensioning reinforcement is ignored in the calculations of the composite sec-
tion properties for simplicity.
E
c
(for the SIP panel) = 5,423 ksi
E
c
(for the CIP slab) = 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 3,834 ksi
n = modular ratio between CIP Slab and SIP panel = 3,834/5,423 = 0.707
Transformed width of the CIP slab = (0.707)(12) = 8.48 in./ft
Figure 9.8.5.2-1 shows the dimensions of the composite section. Since a 1/2 in.
wearing surface is considered to be an integral part of the 4-1/2 in. CIP slab, only the
structural depth of the CIP slab, 4 in., is considered.
A
c
= 12(3.5) + 8.48(4) = 42 + 33.92 = 75.92 in.
2
/ft
y
bc
of the precast panel = [42(3.5/2) + 33.92(3.5 + 2)]/(75.92) = 3.43 in.
y
tg
the precast panel = 3.50 3.43 = 0.07 in.
y
tc
the CIP slab = 3.5 + 4.0 3.43 = 4.07 in.
I
c
= moment of inertia of the composite section
= (42)(3.5)
2
/12 + 42(3.43 3.5/2)
2
+ (33.92)(4)
2
/12 + (33.92)(3.5 + 2 3.43)
2
= 352 in.
4
/ft
S
bc
= composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast panel
= (I
c
/y
bc
) = 352/3.43 = 102.6 in.
3
/ft
S
tg
= composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast panel
= (I
c
/y
tg
) = 352/0.07 = 5,028.6 in.
3
/ft
S
tc
= composite section modulus for extreme top fiber used to compute stresses at top
fiber of the slab
= (I
c
/y
tc
) = (1/0.707)(352/4.07) = (1/0.707)(86.5) = 122.4 in.
3
/ft
1
n
4 0 .
8 0 .
6 5 .
9.8.5.1 Non-Composite Section/9.8.5.2 Composite Section
JUL 03
9.8.5.2
Composite Section
The required number of strands is usually governed by concrete tensile stress at ser-
vice loads. Bottom tensile stress due to applied dead and live loads, using the modi-
fied Service III load combination (see Section 9.8.4.4), is:
f
b
=
where
f
b
= bottom tensile stresses, ksi
M
SIP
= unfactored bending moment due to self-weight of SIP panel
M
CIP
= unfactored bending moment due to weight of CIP slab
M
ws
= unfactored bending moment due to future wearing surface
M
b
= unfactored bending moment due to weight of barriers
M
LL+I
= unfactored bending moment due to live load with impact
= 8.010 ft-kips/ft (as calculated in Section 9.8.4.3)
For bending moments due to the weight of the SIP panel and CIP slab, which are
acting on the non-composite section, the span length is taken conservatively as the
panel length, 9'-6".
M
SIP
= (0.044)(9.5)
2
/8 = 0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
= (0.056)(9.5)
2
/8 = 0.632 ft-kips/ft
For the superimposed dead and live loads, LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6 states that force
effects should be calculated based on analyzing the strip as a continuous beam sup-
ported by infinitely rigid supports. The maximum value of positive moment applies
to all positive moment sections [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.1]. Also, LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6
states that the effective span is the center-to-center distance between the supporting
beams, which is 12.0 ft. Using software for continuous beam analysis, bending
moments due to wearing surface and barrier weight are as shown in Figure 9.8.6-1.
To arrive at maximum effects, consider the interior span, where:
M
ws
= 0.135 ft-kips/ft
M
b
= 0.255 ft-kips/ft
M M
S
M M M
S
SIP CIP
b
ws b LL I
bc
+
+
+ +
+
9.8.5.2 Composite Section/9.8.6 Required Prestress
JUL 03
Figure 9.8.5.2-1
Transformed Composite
Section
panel
SIP deck
CIP slab
12"
8 .48"
4"
3
1
/2"
9.8.6
REQUIRED PRESTRESS
f
b
= = 0.553 + 0.983 = 1.536 ksi
Tensile stress limit at service loads = 0.19 [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2.2b]
0.19 = 0.537 ksi
Required precompression stress at bottom fiber = 1.536 0.537 = 0.999 ksi
If P
se
is the total effective prestress force after all losses, and the center of gravity of
strands is concentric with the center of gravity of the SIP panel:
0.999 =
P
se
= 42.0 kips/ft = (42)(8.0) = 336.0 kips/panel
Using 1/2-in. diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strand and assuming 15% final loss-
es, the final prestress force per strand = f
pi
(area of strand)(1final losses)
= (202.5)(0.153)(1 0.15) = 26.3 kips
The required number of strands = 336/26.3 = 12.8 strands/panel
Try (13) 1/2-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands per panel.
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5]
Total prestress losses, f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.1-1]
where
f
pES
= loss due to elastic shortening
f
pSR
= loss due to shrinkage
f
pCR
= loss due to creep
f
pR2
= loss due to relaxation of steel after transfer
P
A
P
se se
=
42
8 0 .
f
c
( . . )
.
( . . . )
.
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 8 010 12
102 6
+
+
+ +
9.8.6 Required Prestress/9.8.7 Prestress Losses
JUL 03
Figure 9.8.6-1
Bending Moments in ft-kips/ft
0.148
1'-2"
4'- 3" 12'- 0" 12'- 0" 12'- 0" 4'- 3"
1'-3"
1.150
+0.255 +0.135
0.315
+0.180
0.226
Moment due to Wearing Surface Moment due to Barrier
3'-10"
9.8.7
PRESTRESS LOSSES
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.2.3a]
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.3a-1]
where
E
p
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of the SIP panel at transfer = 4,888 ksi
f
cgp
tions of maximum positive moment
Total prestress force at transfer, P
i
= (area of strand)(prestress stress at transfer)(num-
ber of strands)
The LRFD Article 5.9.5.2.3a states that f
cgp
can be calculated on the basis of a pre-
stressing steel stress assumed to be 0.7f
pu
for low-relaxation strands. However, com-
mon practice assumes the initial losses as a percentage of initial prestressing stress
before transfer, f
pi
. In both procedures, assumed initial losses should be checked, and
if different from the assumed value, a second iteration should be conducted. In this
example, a 5% f
pi
initial loss is used. The total prestress force after transfer is:
P
i
= (0.153)(202.5)(10.05)(13 strands) = 382.6 kips/panel = 382.6/8 = 47.8 kips/ft
f
cgp
= = 1.138 ksi
f
pES
= = 6.635 ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.2]
f
pSR
= (17 0.15H) [LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.2-1]
where H = relative humidity (assume 70%). Relative humidity varies significantly
throughout the country. See LRFD Figure 5.4.2.3.3-1.
f
pSR
= 17 0.15(70) = 6.500 ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.3]
f
pCR
= 12f
cgp
7f
cdp
[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.4.3-1]
where
f
cdp
= change of stresses at center of gravity of prestress due to permanent loads
(weights of CIP slab, wearing surface and barrier), except dead load
acting at the time the prestress force is applied (at transfer), calculated at
the same section as f
cgp
,
M
CIP
= 0.632 ft-kips/ft (acts on the non-composite section)
M
ws
= 0.135 ft-kips/ft (acts on the composite section)
M
b
= 0.255 ft-kips/ft (acts on the composite section)
28 500
4 888
1 138
,
,
( . )
P
A
i
=
47 8
42
.
f
E
E
f
pES
p
ci
cgp
=
9.8.7.1 Elastic Shortening/9.8.7.3 Creep of Concrete
JUL 03
9.8.7.1
Elastic Shortening
9.8.7.2
Shrinkage
9.8.7.3
Creep of Concrete
However, the weight of the CIP slab provides zero stress at the center of gravity of
pretensioning force. So, stresses due only to wearing surface and barriers are consid-
ered as shown in Figure 9.8.7.3-1.
Stress at bottom fiber of the SIP panel:
= 0.046 ksi
Therefore, f
cdp
= 0.046(1.68)/3.43 = 0.023 ksi
f
pCR
= 12(1.138) 7(0.023) = 13.495 ksi
[LRFD Art. 5.9.5.4.4]
The relaxation loss between tensioning and transfer, f
pR1
, which will be used to
compute the initial prestress loss, f
pi
, is calculated by Eq. 8.6.5.3-1 [similar to
LRFD Eq.5.9.5.4.4b-2 (see discussion in Section 8.6.5.3)] with K
r
= 45 and t = 0.75
days (18 hrs):
f
pR1
= ( Eq. 8.6.5.3-1)
This initial loss due to relaxation is assumed to be included in the total relaxation
loss, f
pR2
. Therefore, f
pR1
is not used to compute the total prestress loss.
For low-relaxation strand, the total loss due to relaxation is:
f
pR2
= 6.0 0.12f
pES
0.06(f
pSR
+ f
pCR
) (Eq. 8.6.10.3-1)
= 6.0 0.12(6.635) 0.06(6.500 + 13.495) = 4.004 ksi
The total loss of prestress at transfer is equal to the sum of the elastic shortening loss
and the relaxation of the strand prior to transfer:
f
pi
= f
pES
+ f
pR1
= 6.635 + 1.600 = 8.235 ksi
Initial loss percentage: 8.235/202.5 x 100 = 4.1%
The first estimation of losses that occur prior to transfer, 5%, is relatively close to the
computed losses of 4.1%. Therefore, there is no need to perform a second iteration
to refine these losses.
log .
.
.
. . .
24 0 75
45
202 5
243 0
0 55 202 5 1 600
( ) ( )
= ksi
M M
S
ws b
bc
+
=
+ ( . . )( )
.
0 135 0 255 12
102 6
9.8.7.3 Creep of Concrete/9.8.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer
JUL 03
Figure 9.8.7.3-1
Concrete Stresses Due to
Wearing Surface and Barrier
1.68"
1.75"
3.43"
0.023 ksi
0.046 ksi
9.8.7.4
Relaxation of
Pretensioning Strands
9.8.7.4.1
9.8.7.4.2
9.8.7.5
Stress in tendons after transfer:
f
pt
= f
pi
f
pi
= (202.5 8.235) = 194.265 ksi
pt
)(area of strand) = (194.265)(0.153) = 29.72 kips
Therefore total prestress force after transfer:
P
i
= (29.72)(13) = 386.4 kips/panel = 386.4/8 = 48.3 kips/ft
f
pT
= f
pES
+ f
pSR
+ f
pCR
+ f
pR2
= 6.635 + 6.500 + 13.495 + 4.004 = 30.634 ksi
Final loss, % = (Total losses at service loads)/(f
pi
) = 30.634/(202.5) = 15.1 %
Stress in tendon after all losses, f
pe
= f
pi
f
pT
= 202.5 30.634 = 171.866 ksi
pe
Therefore, the total prestress force after all losses:
P
pe
= 26.3(13) = 341.9 kips/panel = 341.9/8 = 42.7 kips/ft
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
= 0.6(6.5) = 3.900 ksi
where f
ci
= concrete strength at release
Tension: without bonded reinforcement: 0.0948 0.2 ksi
0.0948 = 0.242 ksi > 0.2 ksi
therefore, use 0.200 ksi (Controls)
with bonded reinforcement sufficient to resist 120% of the tension force in
the cracked concrete:
0.22 = 0.561 ksi
Because the strand group is concentric with the precast concrete panel, the midspan
section is the critical section that should be checked.
Effective prestress after transfer = 48.3 kips/ft
Bending moment due to self-weight of the panel, M
SIP
= 0.496 ft-kips/ft
Top concrete stress in the SIP panel:
f
t
= = +1.150 + 0.243 = +1.393 ksi
Compressive stress limit: +3.900 ksi > +1.393 ksi OK
Bottom concrete stress of the SIP panel:
f
b
= = +1.150 0.243 = +0.907 ksi
P
A
M
S
i SIP
b
=
48 3
42
0 496 12
24 5
. . ( )
.
P
A
M
S
i SIP
t
+ = +
48 3
42
0 496 12
24 5
. . ( )
.
f 0.22 6.5
ci
=
6.5
f
ci

9.8.7.5 Total Losses at Transfer/9.8.8.2 Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.8.7.6
Total Losses at Service
Loads
9.8.8
STRESSES IN THE SIP
PANEL AT TRANSFER
9.8.8.1
9.8.8.2
Stresses at Midspan
The total prestress force after all losses, P
pe
= 42.7 kips/ft
[LRFD Art. 9.7.4.1]
LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that flexural stresses in the SIP formwork due to unfac-
tored construction loads should not exceed 65% of the 28-day compressive strength
for concrete in compression, or the modulus of rupture in tension for prestressed
concrete form panels.
Note that the definition of construction loads according to the LRFD Specifications
includes the weight of the SIP panel, CIP topping, and an additional 0.050 ksf.
Therefore, the stress limit for concrete in compression, for load combination Service I:
0.65f
c
= 0.65(8.0) = 5.200 ksi.
Stress limit for concrete in tension, for load combination Service I:
Modulus of rupture, f
r
= 0.24 = 0.679 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
Bending moment due to the self-weight of the SIP panel, the CIP topping and con-
struction load:
M
SIP
= 0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
= 0.632 ft-kips/ft
M
const
= (0.050)(9.5)
2
/8 = 0.564 ft-kips/ft
f
t
=
= = +1.017 + 0.829 = +1.846 ksi
f
b
=
= +1.017 0.829 = +0.188 ksi
P
A
M M M
S
pe
SIP CIP const
b
+ +
=
+ + 42 7
42
0 496 0 632 0 564 12
24 5
. ( . . . )( )
.
42 7
42
0 496 0 632 0 564 12
24 5
. ( . . . )( )
.
+
+ +
P
A
M M M
S
pe
SIP CIP const
t
+
+ +
f 0.24
c
= 8 0 .
9.8.9 Stresses in SIP Panel at Time of Casting Topping Slab/
9.8.9.2 Stresses at Midspan after all Non-Composite Loads
JUL 03
9.8.9
STRESSES IN SIP
PANEL AT TIME
OF CASTING
TOPPING SLAB
9.8.9.1
9.8.9.2
Stresses at Midspan after
all Non-Composite Loads
[Art. 9.7.4.1]
LRFD Article 9.7.4.1, states that for SIP panels spanning less than 10 ft, the elastic
deformation due to dead load of the panel plus the CIP topping should not exceed
either the panel span divided by 180 or 0.25 in.
Elastic deformation =
=
= 0.08 in. < 0.25 in. OK
The total prestress force after all losses, P
pe
= 42.7 kips
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
Compression: for load combination Service I:
Due to permanent loads, (i.e. self-weight of SIP panel, CIP slab, wearing surface
and barriers) = 0.45f
c
for the SIP panel = 0.45(8.0) = 3.600 ksi
for the CIP slab = 0.45(4.0) = 1.800 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads, (i.e. all dead and live loads) = 0.60f
c
Due to live load plus one-half sum of effective prestress and permanent loads = 0.40f
c
Tension: for load combination Service III: 0.19
for the SIP panel = 0.19 = 0.537 ksi
Effective prestress after all losses, P
se
= 42.7 kips
The weights of the SIP panel and the CIP concrete act on the non-composite section:
M
SIP
= 0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
= 0.632 ft-kips/ft
8.0
f
c
5
48
0 496 0 632 12 9 5 12
5 423 42 875
2
+
( )( ) ( )( )
[ ]
( )( )
. . .
, .
5
48
( ) M M L
E I
SIP CIP
2
c
+
9.8.9.3 Elastic Deformation/9.8.10.2 Service Load Stresses at Midspan
JUL 03
9.8.10
STRESSES IN
SIP PANEL AT
SERVICE LOADS
9.8.10.1
9.8.10.2
at Midspan
9.8.9.3
Elastic Deformation
At the time of opening the bridge to traffic, the wearing surface, barriers, and live
loads act on the composite section.
M
ws
= 0.135 ft-kips/ft
M
b
= 0.255 ft-kips/ft
M
LL+I
= 8.010 ft-kips/ft
Concrete stress at top surface of the CIP slab:
Due to permanent loads, Service I:
f
tc
= = +0.038 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads, Service I
f
tc
= = +0.824 ksi
Due to permanent loads, Service I:
f
tg
=
=
= +1.017 + 0.553 + 0.001 = +1.571 ksi
Due to permanent and transient loads, Service I:
f
tg
=
=
= +1.017 + 0.553 + 0.020 = +1.590 ksi
Due to live load plus one-half sum of effective prestress and permanent loads:
f
tg
=
= + +
+
+
+ +
0 5
42 7
42
0 5
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 5 0 135 0 255 8 010 12
5 028
.
.
.
( . . )( )
.
[ . ( . . ) ( . )]( )
,
0.5P
A
M M
S
M M M
S
pe SIP CIP
t
ws b LL I
tg
+
+
( )
+
+
( )
+
+
0 5 0 5 . .
+ +
+
+
+ + ( . ) ( . . )( )
.
( . . . )( )
,
42 7
42
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 8 010 12
5 028
P
A
M M
S
M M M
S
pe
SIP CIP
t
ws b LL I
tg
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+ ( . ) ( . . )( )
.
( . . )( )
,
42 7
42
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 12
5 028
P
A
M M
S
M M
S
pe
SIP CIP
t
ws b
tg
+
+
+
+
M M M
S
ws b LL I
tc
+ +
= +
+ +
+
( . . . )( )
.
0 135 0 255 8 010 12
122 4
M M
S
ws b
tc
+
= +
+ ( . . )( )
.
0 135 0 255 12
122 4
JUL 03
= +0.508 + 0.276 + 0.019 = +0.803 ksi
f
b
=
=
= +1.017 0.553 0.982 = 0.518 ksi
Tensile stress limit: 0.537 ksi > 0.518 ksi OK
Total ultimate bending moment for Strength I:
M
u
= 1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM)
M
SIP
= 0.496 ft-kips/ft
M
CIP
= 0.632 ft-kips/ft
M
ws
= 0.135 ft-kips/ft
M
b
= 0.255 ft-kips/ft
M
LL+I
= 8.010 ft-kips/ft
M
u
= 1.25(0.496 + 0.632 + 0.255) + 1.5(0.135) + 1.75(8.010) = 15.949 ft-kips/ft
M
r
= M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
= Resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
= 1.00 for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete
M
n
= Nominal flexural resistance [LRFD Art. 5.7.3.2.3]
M
n
= [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]
where
A
ps
= area of prestressing steel = 13(0.153) = 1.989 in.
2
d
p
= distance from extreme compression fiber of the composite section to the
centroid of the prestressing tendons = 7.5 0.5(3.5) = 5.75 in.
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block =
1
c
where
c = distance from neutral axis to extreme compression fiber
1
= 0.85 for f
c
4.0 ksi
0.85 0.05(f
c
4.0) 0.65 for f
c
> 4.0 ksi
= 0.85
A f d
a
2
ps ps p

+
+
+ + ( . ) ( . . )( )
.
( . . . )( )
.
42 7
42
0 496 0 632 12
24 5
0 135 0 255 8 010 12
102 6
P
A
M M
S
M M M
S
pe
SIP CIP
b
ws b LL I
bc
+ +
+
9.8.10.2 Service Load Stresses at Midspan/9.8.11 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section
JUL 03
9.8.11
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
OF POSITIVE MOMENT
SECTION
To compute c, use rectangular section behavior [LRFD Art. C5.7.3.2.2]
c = [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1.-4]
where
A
s
= area of mild steel tension reinforcement = 0
A
s
= area of compression reinforcement = 0
f
c
= compressive strength of slab concrete = 4.0 ksi
f
y
= yield strength of mild steel tension reinforcement, (ksi)
f
y
= yield strength of mild steel compression reinforcement, (ksi)
f
pu
b = effective width of compression flange = 8.0(12) = 96.0 in.
k = [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-2]
for low-relaxation strands, k = 0.28 [LRFD Table C5.7.3.1.1-1]
c = = 1.77 in.
a =
1
c = 0.85(1.77) = 1.51 in.
f
ps
When f
pe
0.5f
pu
, [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-1]
f
ps
= = 246.7 ksi
Check stress in prestressing steel according to available development length, l
d
:
l
d
= d
b
, or, rearranging, [LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.1-1]
f
ps
= (Eq. 9.8.11-1)
where
d
b
f
pe
= effective stress in prestressing steel after losses
= 171.9 ksi
Available development length at midspan of the SIP panel: 0.5(9.5) = 4.75 ft
f
ps
= = 228.6 ksi (Controls)
4 75 12
0 5
2
3
171 9
. ( )
.
( . ) +
l
d
b
pe
d
f +
2
3
f f
ps pe
2
3
270 1 0.28
1.77
5.75
f f 1 k
c
d
ps pu
p
=
1.989(270) 0 0
0.85(4.0)(0.85)(96) 0.28(1.989)
270
5.75
+
+

2 1.04
f
f
py
pu
A f A f A f
0.85f b kA
f
d
ps pu s y s y
c 1 ps
pu
p
+
+


9.8.11 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section
JUL 03
Therefore, the design flexural strength is:
M
n
=
= 189.2 ft-kips/panel = 189.2/8 = 23.7 ft-kips/ft > M
u
= 15.949 ft-kips/ft OK
The calculations here were conducted for flexure in the midspan section. It is possible
that intermediate sections between midspan and the supports will have critical stress-
es due to only partial development of the strands.
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
The amount of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement should be such that:
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where d
e
= [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]
Since A
s
= 0, d
e
= d
p
= 5.75 in.
0.42 OK
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
At any section, the amount of prestressed and non-prestressed tensile reinforcement
r
, at least equal to the
lesser of:
and the modulus of rupture, and
tion.
Check at midspan:
The LRFD Specifications do not give a procedure for computing the cracking moment.
Therefore, the following equation adapted from STD Article 9.18.2.1 is used.
M
cr
= (f
r
+ f
pb
)S
bc
(M
d/nc
)(S
bc
/S
b
1)
where
f
r
= modulus of rupture [LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
= = 0.679 ksi 0.24 f 0.24
c
= 8 0 .
c
d
0. 08
e
= =
1 77
5 75
3
.
.
A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
c
d
e
1 0 1 989
12
. ( . ) ( ) 228.6 5.75
1.51
2

9.8.11 Flexural Strength of Positive Moment Section/9.8.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.8.12.1
9.8.12.2
9.8.12
LIMITS OF
REINFORCEMENT
f
pb
= compressive strength in concrete due to effective prestress force only,
(after allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section where
= = 1.017 ksi
M
d/nc
= M
CIP
+ M
SIP
= 0.632 + 0.496 = 1.128 ft-kips/ft
S
bc
tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 102.6 in.
3
/ft
S
b
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads = 24.5 in.
3
/ft
M
cr
= (0.679 + 1.017) = 10.905 ft-kips/ft
1.2M
cr
= 1.2(10.905) = 13.086 ft-kips/ft
At midspan, the factored moment required by Strength I load combination,
M
u
= 15.949 ft-kips/ft. Therefore, 1.33M
u
= 1.33(15.949) = 21.212 ft-kips/ft.
Since 1.2M
cr
< 1.33M
u
, 1.2M
cr
controls.
M
n
= 23.7 ft-kips/ft > 1.2M
cr
Note: Contrary to the Standard Specifications, the LRFD Specifications requires that
this criterion be met at every section.
The design section for negative moments and shear forces, for precast I-shaped concrete
beams, is at a distance of 1/3 of the flange width from the centerline of the support but
not exceeding 15 in. [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.6]. Since 1/3 the beam flange width
= = 14 in. < 15 in.,
the design section for negative moment is at a distance of 14 in. (1.17 ft) from the cen-
terline of the beam.
[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.6]
LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6 states that force effects be calculated based on analyzing the
strip as a continuous beam supported by infinitely rigid supports. The maximum
value of moment shall apply at all sections. Using appropriate software for beam
analysis, the bending moment is:
1
3
42 ( )
102 6
12
102 6
24 5
1
. .
.
(1.128)
P
A
42.7
42
pe
=
9.8.12.2 Minimum Reinforcement/9.8.13.2 Bending Moment
JUL 03
9.8.13.1
Critical Section
9.8.13.2
Bending Moment
9.8.13
NEGATIVE MOMENT
SECTION OVER
INTERIOR BEAMS
DC: Because the weight of the barrier produces positive moment at the interior gird-
ers, as shown in Figure 9.8.6-1, bending moment due to this load is conservatively
ignored.
DW: Due to wearing surface, M
ws
= 0.148 ft-kips/ft
LL+IM: From LRFD Table A4.1-1, for S = 12.0 ft, maximum negative bending
moment at 14 in. from beam center line, with impact and multiple presence
factor, M
LL+I
= 6.347 ft-kips/ft
Therefore, the negative service bending moment is:
M
service
= 0.148 + 6.347 = 6.495 ft-kips/ft
Negative factored bending moment:
M
u
= 1.5(0.148) + 1.75(6.347) = 11.329 ft-kips/ft
Assume # 5 reinforcing bars, and 2.5-in. clear cover.
d = 7.5 0.5(0.625) 2.5 = 4.688 in.
R
n
= (M
u
/bd
2
) = (11.329)(12)/[(0.9)(12)(4.688)
2
] = 0.573 kip/in.
2
m = (f
y
/0.85f
c
) = (60)/[(0.85)(4.0)] = 17.65
= = 0.01053
A
s
= (bd) = (0.01053)(12)(4.688) = 0.59 in.
2
/ft
Use #5 bars @ 6-in. centers, A
s
= 0.31(12/6) = 0.62 in.
2
/ft
Check:
a = (A
s
f
y
)/(0.85bf
c
) = (0.62)(60)/[(0.85)(12)(4.0)] = 0.91 in.

M
n
= 0.9(A
s
f
y
)(d a/2) = 0.9(0.62)(60)[4.688 0.5(0.91)]/12
= 11.810 ft-kips/ft > M
u
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
d
e
= 4.688 in.
c = (a/
1
) = (0.91/0.85) = 1.07
c/d
e
= (1.07/4.688) = 0.23 < 0.42 OK
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
actual
= = 0.011
min
= 0.03(f
c
/f
y
) = 0.03(4.0)/(60) = 0.002 <
actual
OK
0 62
12 4 688
.
( . )
1
1 1
2 1
17 65
1 1
2 17 65 0 573
60 m
mR
f
n
y

.
( . )( . )
9.8.13.2 Bending Moment/9.8.13.5 Minimum Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.8.13.4
9.8.13.3
Design of Section
9.8.13.5
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.4]
Calculated stress in the reinforcement at service loads, f
s
, should not exceed the value
computed by: f
s
= 0.6f
y
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.4-1]
where
d
c
= thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of
the closest bar, (in.). For calculation purposes, the thickness used for clear
cover should be taken not greater than 2.0 in.
= 2.0 + 0.5(0.625) = 2.313 in.
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexure tension reinforce-
ment and having the same centroid as that reinforcement divided by the
number of bars, (in.
2
)
= 2(2.313)(6) = 27.756 in.
2
Z = 130 kip/in. (severe exposure condition)
f
s
= = 32.5 ksi < 0.6f
y
= 36 ksi
E
c
= 3,834 ksi
n = E
s
/E
c
= 29,000/3,834 = 7.56
actual
= 0.011
k = n = 0.33
j = (1 k/3) = 0.89
f
s
= M
service
/(jdA
s
) = (6.495)(12)/[(0.89)(4.688)(0.62)] = 30.1 ksi < 32.5 ksi OK
The critical section for negative moment over the beams is at a distance of 14 in.,
1.17 ft, from the centerline of the beam.
Therefore, cantilever span is = 4.25 1.17 = 3.08 ft
Article A13.4.1 states that three design cases need to be checked when designing the
overhang regions. These cases are:
Case 1: check overhang for horizontal vehicular collision load: [LRFD Art. A13.4.1]
( ) ( ) n n
2
2 +
130
2 313 27 756
1 3
. ( . )
/
[ ]
Z
d A
c
( )
1 3 /
9.8.13.6 Crack Control/9.8.14.2 Design of Section
JUL 03
9.8.13.6
Crack Control
9.8.14.1
Critical Section
9.8.14
NEGATIVE MOMENT
SECTION OVER
EXTERIOR BEAMS
9.8.14.2
Design of Section
The overhang is designed to resist an axial tension force from vehicular collision at
the extreme event limit state acting simultaneously with the moment (collision +
dead loads).
From design of the barrier under Performance Level PL-3: [LRFD Art. A13.3]
Flexural resistance of the barrier at its base, M
c
= 17.200 ft-kips/ft
Total transverse resistance of the barrier, i.e. collision horizontal force at top of barrier,
R
w
= 166.0 kips
The force, R
w
, is distributed over a width of L
c
at the top fiber of the barrier = 13.36 ft
Height of the barrier, H = 32 in.
Assume that this force is distributed at an angle of 45 from the top fiber of the barrier
to its base, thus:
Collision force at deck slab level:
T = [LRFD Eq. A13.4.2-1]
= = 0.74 kip/in. = 8.88 kips/ft
Note that the slab thickness is ignored.
Design the section at the inner face of barrier; i.e. Section 1-1 in Case 1 in Figure
9.8.14.2-1:
Factored bending moment, M
u
, at face of barrier due to collision force and dead loads:
17.200 + 1.25{(0.5)[8(0.150)/12](15/12)
2
+ 0.300(15 5)/12} = 17.610 ft-kips/ft
166 0
160 32 2 32
.
. ( ) +
R
L 2H
w
c
+
JUL 03
Figure 9.8.14.2-1
Loading Cases for the
Overhang
2
1
1 2
Critical
sections
22"
37" 14"
5"
32"
15"
0.300
kip/ft
8"
4'- 3" = 51"
2'-8"
2
5" 32"
10"
27"
37" 14"
2
12"
Critical
section
10" 15"
16 kips
0.300
kip/ft
8"
4'- 3" = 51"
2'-8"
Case 1 Case 2
Try #6 bars @ 5 in. centers, A
s
= 0.44(12)/5 = 1.056 in.
2
/ft
For # 6 bars and 2.5 in. clear cover, the effective depth,
d = 7.5 0.5(0.75) 2.5 = 4.625 in.
b = 12 in.
Check development length of steel reinforcement [LRFD Art. 5.11.2]
l
d
= = 16.5 in.
Since the width of the barrier, 15 in., is less than the length required to fully develop
the #6 bars, available stress of the #6 bar should be reduced as follows:
f
s
= 60(15/16.5) = 54.55 ksi.
A
s
f
s
= 1.056(54.55) = 57.61 kips
T = 8.88 kips/ft
C = A
s
f
s
T = 57.61 8.88 = 48.73 kips
a = C/(0.85bf
c
) = 48.73/[0.85(12)(4.0)] = 1.19 in.
= 1.0 (for extreme event, LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1)
M
n
= [A
s
f
s
(d a/2) T(0.5d 0.5a)]
= 1.0[57.61(4.625 1.19/2) 8.88(4.625/2 1.19/2)]/12
= 18.079 ft-kips/ft > M
u
For the critical section over the exterior beam, Section 2-2 in Case 1 in Figure
9.8.14.2-1:
At the inner face of the barrier, the flexural resistance of the barrier at its base, 17.200
ft-kips/ft, is distributed over a length L
c
, while the collision axial force T is distributed
over a length of (L
c
+2H) where H is the height of the barrier. Assume that the
moment at the face of the barrier and the axial force are distributed at an angle of 30
from the inner face of the barrier to the design section. The collision bending moment
at the critical section is:
= 14.847 ft-kips/ft
The factored bending moment at Section 2-2 due to collision force and dead loads is:
M
u
= 14.847 + 1.25[(8x0.150/12)(37/12)
2
/2 + 0.300(32/12)]
+ 1.5[(2x0.150/12)(22/12)
2
/2] = 16.504 ft-kips/ft
Collision axial force at Section 2-2 is:
T =
R
L 2H
w
c
+ +
( )
2 22 30 tan
M L
L 22
c c
c
+
( )
=
+
( )
2 30
17 200 160 32
160 32 2 22 30 tan
. ( . )
. tan
1 25
1 25 0 44 60
4 0
.
. ( . )( )
.
A f
f
b y
c
=
JUL 03
= = 0.665 kip/in. = 7.98 kips/ft
Check #6 bars @ 5-in. centers:
A
s
= 0.44(12)/5 = 1.056 in.
2
, d = 7.5 0.5(0.75) 2.5 = 4.625 in.
T = 7.98 kips/ft
C = A
s
f
y
T = 63.36 7.98 = 55.38 kips/ft
a = C/(0.85bf
c
) = 55.38/[0.85(12)(4.0)] = 1.36 in.

= 1.0 (for extreme event, LRFD Art. 1.3.2.1)
M
n
= [A
s
f
y
(d a/2) T(0.5d 0.5a)]
= 1.0[63.36(4.625 1.36/2) 7.98(4.625/2 1.36/2)]/12
= 19.744 ft-kips/ft > M
u
Case 2: check overhang for vertical collision force [LRFD Art. A13.4.1]
For concrete parapets, the case of vertical collision never controls.
Case 3: check overhang for dead and live loads: [LRFD Art. A13.4.1]
DC:
due to weight of slab, M
CIP
= (8x0.150/12)(37/12)
2
/2 = 0.475 ft-kips/ft
due to barrier load, M
b
= 0.300(32/12) = 0.800 ft-kips/ft
DW:
due to wearing surface, M
ws
= (2x0.150/12)(22/12)
2
/2 = 0.042 ft-kips/ft
LL+IM:
For maximum negative moment, the truck wheel should be at 12 in. from the face of
the barrier, LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.1, as shown in Case 2 in Figure 9.8.14.2-1.
The wheel load is distributed over a width of (45.0 + 10.0 X), inches.
[LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.3]
where X = distance from load to point of support (ft) = 10/12 = 0.833 ft
Therefore, the width is 45 + 10(0.833) = 53.33 in. = 4.44 ft
Dynamic allowance = 33% [LRFD Art. 3.6.2.1]
Multiple presence factor for single truck = 1.2 [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.2]
Maximum negative bending moment at Section 2-2, with impact and multiple
presence factor is:
M
LL+I
= (16/4.44)(0.833)(1+0.33)(1.2) = 4.791 ft-kips/ft
Therefore, the negative service bending moment at Section 2-2:
M
service
= 0.475 + 0.800 + 0.042 + 4.791 = 6.108 ft-kips/ft
166 0
160 32 2 32 2 22 30
.
. ( ) tan + +
( )
JUL 03
Negative factored bending moment at Section 2-2:
M
u
= 1.25(0.475+0.800) + 1.5(0.042) + 1.75(4.791) = 10.041 ft-kips/ft
Check # 6 bars @ 5 in. centers:
A
s
= 1.056 in.
2
, d = 7.5 0.5(0.75) 2.5 = 4.625 in.
a = (A
s
f
y
)/(0.85bf
c
) = (1.056)(60)/[(0.85)(12)(4.0)] = 1.55 in.

M
n
= 0.9(A
s
f
y
)(d a/2)
= (0.9)(1.056)(60)(4.625 1.55/2)/12 = 18.295 ft-kips/ft > M
u
OK
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.1]
d
e
= 4.625 in.
c = (a/
1
)= 1.55/0.85 = 1.83
c/d
e
= 1.83/4.625 = 0.40 < 0.42 OK
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.3.2]
actual
= 1.056/(12)(4.625) = 0.019
min.
= 0.03(f
c
/f
y
) = 0.03(4.0/60) = 0.002 <
actual
OK
[LRFD Art. 5.7.3.4]
d
c
= [2.0 + 0.5(0.75)]= 2.375 in.
A = 2(2.375)(5) = 23.75 in.
2
Z = 130 kips/in.
f
s
= = 33.9 ksi < 0.6f
y
= 36 ksi
E
c
= 3,834 ksi
n = E
s
/E
c
= 29,000/3,834 = 7.56
actual
= = 0.019
k = n = 0.41
j = (1 k/3) = 0.86
f
s
= M
service
/(jdA
s
) = (6.108)(12)/[(0.86)(4.625)(1.056)] = 17.450 ksi < 33.9 ksi OK
[LRFD Art. 9.7.3.2]
The LRFD Specifications do not provide guidelines for the distribution reinforcement
required for a SIP panel system. However, LRFD Article 9.7.3.2 gives guidance for
deck slabs, which have four layers of reinforcement, as follows:
(Distribution reinforcement/primary reinforcement), % = 67%
220
S
( ) ( ) n n
2
2 +
1 056
12 4 625
.
( . )
Z
d A x
c
( )
=
( )
1 3 1 3
130
23 75 2 375
/ /
. .
9.8.14.2 Design of Section/9.8.15 Distribution Reinforcement
JUL 03
9.8.14.3
9.8.14.4
9.8.14.5
Crack Control
9.8.15
DISTRIBUTION
REINFORCEMENT
where S = clear span + distance from extreme flange tip to the face of the web
= (12.0 42/12) + 2(18/12) = 11.5 ft [LRFD Art. 9.7.2.3]
Therefore, the percentage of distribution reinforcement = 220/
= 64.9 < 67%
Based on the area of the strands, which are the main positive reinforcement in the
SIP panel, the distribution reinforcement = (0.649)(13)(0.153)/8.0 = 0.16 in.
2
/ft.
If the strand area is converted to equivalent mild reinforcement area, the required dis-
tribution reinforcement = 0.16(243/60) = 0.65 in.
2
/ft. Note that the yield strength of
each material is used as the basis for equivalence.
This amount of reinforcement is 45% higher than that required by the Empirical
Design Method, LRFD Article 9.7.2.5, where a total amount of (0.27 + 0.18) = 0.45
in.
2
/ft is provided in two layers.
Therefore, the designer may opt to use #5 bars @ 5.5-in. centers to satisfy LRFD
Article 9.7.3.2 or #5 bars @ 8.0-in. centers to satisfy LRFD Article 9.7.2.5.
11 50 .
9.8.15 Distribution Reinforcement
JUL 03
JUN 04
NOTATION
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
11.2.1.1 Benefits
11.2.1.2 Costs
11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size
11.2.1.4 Compressive Strength at Transfer
11.2.1.5 Reduction of Pretension Force by Post-Tensioning
11.2.1.6 Tensile Stress Limit at Service Limit State
11.2.1.7 Prestress Losses
11.2.2 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
11.3 CONTINUITY
11.3.1 Introduction
11.3.2 Method 1 - Conventional Deck Reinforcement
11.3.3 Method 2 - Post-Tensioning
11.3.4 Method 3 - Coupled High-Strength Rods
11.3.5 Method 4 - Coupled Prestressing Strands
11.4 SPLICED-BEAM STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
11.4.1 Introduction and Discussion
11.4.1.1 Combined Pretensioning and Post-Tensioning
11.4.2 Types of Beams
11.4.3 Span Arrangements and Splice Location
11.4.4 Details at Beam Splices
11.4.4.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Splice
11.4.4.1.1 Stitched Splice
11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strong Back at Splice
11.4.4.1.3 Structural Steel Hanger at Splice
11.4.4.2 Match-Cast Splice
11.4.5 System Optimization
11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning
11.4.5.2 Haunched Pier Segments
11.4.6 Design and Fabrication Details
11.4.7 Construction Methods and Techniques
11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations
11.4.7.2 Construction Sequencing and Impact on Design
11.4.7.2.1 Single Spans
11.4.7.2.2 Multiple Spans
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXTENDING SPANS
7374 PCI Bridge Manual Ch 11.indd 1 6/21/04 4:16:14 PM
JUN 04
11.4.8 Grouting of Post-Tensioning Ducts
11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations
11.4.10 Post-Tensioning Anchorages
11.5 EXAMPLES OF SPLICED-BEAM BRIDGES
11.5.1 Eddyville-Cline Hill Section, Little Elk Creek Bridges 1 through10,
Corvallis-Newport Highway (US20), OR (2000)
11.5.2 Rock Cut Bridge, Stevens and Ferry Counties, WA (1997)
11.5.3 US 27-Moore Haven Bridge, FL (1999)
11.5.4 Bow River Bridge, Calgary, AB (2002)
11.6 POST-TENSIONING ANALYSIS
11.6.1 Introduction
11.6.2 Losses at Post-Tensioning
11.6.2.1 Friction Loss
11.6.2.2 Anchor Set Loss
11.6.2.3.1 Friction Loss
11.6.2.3.2 Anchor Set Loss
11.6.2.3.2.1 Length Affected by Seating is
Within L
ab
11.6.2.3.2.2 Length Affected by Seating is
Within L
ac
11.6.3 Time-Dependant Analysis
11.6.4 Equivalent Loads for Effects of Post-Tensioning
11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly
Distributed Loads
11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces
11.6.4.2.1 Example
11.6.4.3 Design Consideration
11.6.5 Shear Limits in Presence of Post-Tensioning Ducts
11.7 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES IN I-BEAMS
11.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE: TWO-SPAN BEAM SPLICED OVER PIER
11.8.1 Introduction
11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross-Section
11.8.3 Cross-Section Properties
11.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
11.8.5 Required Pretensioning
11.8.6 Modeling of Post-Tensioning
11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile
11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads
11.8.7 Required Post-Tensioning
11.8.8 Prestress Losses
11.8.8.1 Prediction Method
11.8.8.2 Time-Dependent Material Properties
11.8.8.3 Loss Increments
11.8.9 Service Limit State at Section 0.4L
11.8.9.2 Stage 1 Post-Tensioning
11.8.9.3 Stage 2 Post-Tensioning
11.8.9.4 Compression Due to Service I Loads
11.8.9.5 Tension Due to Service III Loads
11.8.10 Stresses at Transfer of Pretensioning Force
11.8.11 Strength Limit State
11.8.12 Limits of Reinforcement
11.8.13 Shear Design
11.8.14 Comments and Remaining Steps
11.9 DESIGN EXAMPLE: SINGLE SPAN, THREE-SEGMENT BEAM
11.9.1 Input Data and Design Criteria
11.9.2 Construction Stages
11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State
11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State
11.9.5 Discussion
11.10 REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
NOTATION
EXTENDING SPANS
a depth of equivalent rectangular stress block [STD], [LRFD]
A area of beam cross-section [STD]
A
c
total area of the composite section
A
ps
area of prestressing steel [LRFD]
A
*
s
area of prestressing steel [STD]
A
s
area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
A
s
area of compression reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
A
v
area of a transverse reinforcement within distance, s [STD], [LRFD]
b width of compression face of member [STD], [LRFD]
b
e
effective web width of the precast beam
b
v
effective web width of the precast beam [STD]
b
w
width of web of a flanged member [STD], [LRFD]
c distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis [STD], [LRFD]
d
e
effective depth from extreme compression fiber to
the centroid of tensile force in the tensile reinforcement [LRFD]
d
1
friction loss over a given length
d
p
distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid
of the prestressing tendons [LRFD]
d
v
effective shear depth [LRFD]
DC dead load of structural components and nonstructural
attachments [LRFD]
DFM distribution factor for bending moment
DFV distribution factor for shear force
DW dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
E
p
modulus of elasticity of pretensioning and post-ten-
sioning reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
E
s
modulus of elasticity of non-pretensioned reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
e base of natural logarithm
e eccentricity of strands at transfer length
e
c
eccentricity of strands at the midspan
f
b
f
c
specified compressive strength of concrete at 28
days, unless another age is specified [STD], [LRFD]
f
ci
compressive strength of concrete at time of initial
prestress [STD], [LRFD]
f
pb
compressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam due
to prestress force
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective pre-
stress forces only (after allowance for all prestress
losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress
is caused by externally applied loads [STD]
f
pj
initial stress immediately before transfer
f
pj
stress in the prestressing steel at jacking [LRFD]
JUN 04
f
ps
average stress in prestressing steel at the time for
which the nominal resistance of member is required [LRFD]
f
pt
stress in prestressing steel immediately after transfer [LRFD]
f
pu
ultimate strength of prestressing steel [LRFD]
f
s
ultimate strength of prestressing steel [STD]
f
py
yield point stress of prestressing steel [STD], [LRFD]
f
r
the modulus of rupture of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
f
s
allowable stress in steel, taken not greater than 20 ksi
f
t
concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the non-
composite section
f
tc
concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the composite
section
f
tg
concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the composite
section
f
sy
specified yield strength of nonprestressed conventional
reinforcement [STD]
f
y
reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
f
y
reinforcement [STD]
h overall thickness or depth of a member [STD], [LRFD]
h
c
total height of composite section
h
f
compression flange thickness [STD], [LRFD]
I moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-
composite precast beam [STD], [LRFD]
I
c
moment of inertia for the composite section
IM vehicular dynamic load allowance [STD], [LRFD]
k factor used in calculation of average stress in
pretensioning steel for Strength Limit State
K wobble friction coefficient [STD], [LRFD]
L overall beam length or design span
L live load [STD]
LL live load [LRFD]
M
b
unfactored bending moment due to barrier weight
M
cr
moment causing flexural cracking at section due to
externally applied loads [STD], [LRFD]
M
d
M
d/nc
non-composite dead load moment [STD]
M
g
M
LL+I
unfactored bending moment due to live load + impact
M
n
nominal flexural resistance [STD], [LRFD]
M
r
factored flexural resistance of a section in bending [LRFD]
M
S
unfactored bending moment due to deck slab and
haunch weights
NOTATION
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
M
secondary
secondary bending moment due to post-tensioning
M
Total
total unfactored bending moment due to post-tensioning
M
u
factored moment at section [STD], [LRFD]
M
ws
unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface
n modular ratio of elasticity [STD], [LRFD]
P prestress force
P
i
total pretensioning force immediately after transfer
P
pe
total pretensioning force after all losses
P
PT
total post-tensioning force after all losses
s spacing of shear reinforcement in direction parallel
to the longitudinal reinforcement, in. [STD], [LRFD]
S
b
non-composite section modulus for the extreme
bottom fiber of section where the tensile stress is
caused by externally applied loads [STD]
S
bc
composite section modulus for the extreme bottom
fiber of the precast beam
S
t
section modulus for extreme top fiber of the non-
composite precast beam
S
tc
composite section modulus for top fiber of the slab
S
tg
composite section modulus for the top fiber of the
precast beam
t
s
depth of concrete slab [LRFD]
V
c
nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses
in the concrete [STD], [LRFD]
V
d
shear force at section due to unfactored dead load [LRFD]
V
LL+I
unfactored shear force due to live load plus impact
V
s
shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement [STD], [LRFD]
V
secondary
secondary shear force due to post-tensioning
V
u
factored shear force at section [STD], [LRFD]
w
c
unit weight of concrete [STD], [LRFD]
W
eq
equivalent load for post-tensioning
x distance from the support to the section under question
x length influenced by anchor set
X distance from load to point of support [LRFD]
y
b
distance of the centroid to the extreme bottom fiber
of the non-composite precast beam
y
bc
distance of the centroid of the composite section to
the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
y
bs
distance from the center of gravity of strands to the
bottom fiber of the beam
y
t
distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of
the non-composite precast beam
y
tc
the top fiber of the slab
y
tg
the top fiber of the precast beam
NOTATION
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
NOTATION
EXTENDING SPANS
sum of the absolute values of angular change of
prestressing steel path from jacking end
factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the
shear capacity of concrete, as indicated by the ability
of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension [STD]
1
ratio of depth of equivalent compression zone to
depth of actual compression zone [STD], [LRFD]
f
pA
loss in prestressing steel stress due to anchor set [STD]
f
pa
prestress loss at point, a
f
pES
loss in prestressing steel stress due to elastic shortening [STD], [LRFD]
f
pF
loss in prestressing steel due to friction [STD]
f
pT
total loss in prestressing steel stress [STD]
L anchor set
angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses [STD]
coefficient of friction [STD], [LRFD]
resistance factor [STD], [LRFD]
JUN 04
EXTENDING SPANS
Precast, prestressed concrete beams have been used widely for highway bridges
throughout the United States and the world. The simplest and most economical
application for precast concrete beam bridges is where full-span beams are used in
the bridge. The full-span beams have most often been used as simple spans, although
continuity has also been established between spans using a continuity diaphragm at
interior piers and various methods to counter negative moments.
For simple span precast, prestressed concrete bridges using conventional materi-
als, the maximum spans for each standard section type are shown in Appendix B.
However, the excellent durability and structural performance, low maintenance, and
low cost of bridges using precast, prestressed concrete beams have encouraged design-
ers to find ways to use them for even longer spans.
A number of methods have been identified for extending the typical span ranges of
prestressed concrete beams. These include the use of:
high strength concrete
increased strand size or strength
modified section dimensions
widening the web
thickening or widening the top flange
thickening the bottom flange
increasing the section depth (haunch) at interior piers
casting the deck with the girder (deck bulb tee)
lightweight concrete
post-tensioning
continuity
use of pier tables
Of these methods, the use of high strength concrete, lightweight aggregate concrete
(both of which are considered to be high performance concrete) and continuity are
discussed in this chapter.
As designers attempt to use longer full-span beams, limitations on handling and
transportation are encountered. Some of the limitations are imposed by the states
regarding the size and weight of vehicles allowed on highways. Some states limit the
maximum transportable length of a beam to 120 ft and the weight to 70 tons. Other
states, including Pennsylvania, Washington, Nebraska and Florida, for example,
have allowed precast beams with lengths up to 185 ft and weights of 100 tons to be
shipped by truck. In other cases, the size of the erection equipment may be limited,
11.1
INTRODUCTION
EXTENDING SPANS
11.1 Introduction
JUN 04
either by availability to the contractor or by access to the site. There are sites where
access will not allow long beams to reach the bridge.
When any of these limitations preclude the use of full-span beams, shorter beam
segments can be produced and shipped. These beam segments are then spliced
together at or near the jobsite or in their final location. The splices are located in the
spans, away from the piers. The beam segments are typically post-tensioned for the
full length of the bridge unit, which can be either a simple span or a multiple span
continuous unit.
While the introduction of splices and post-tensioning increases the complexity of the
construction and adds cost, precast bridges of this type have been found to be very
cost competitive with other systems and materials. The longest span in a modern
spliced beam bridge in the United States is currently the 320 ft long channel span
in a three-span bridge near Moore Haven, Fla. This bridge was originally designed
using a steel plate girder, but was redesigned at the request of the contractor to reduce
project costs, which clearly demonstrates the comparative economy of the spliced
concrete beam system.
Since splicing is an important tool for extending span ranges, and since it also
incorporates some additional design issues not discussed elsewhere in this Manual, a
significant portion of this chapter is devoted to providing designers with information
on this type of bridge. Design theory, post-tensioning analysis and details, segment-
to-segment joint details and examples of recently constructed spliced-beam bridges
are given. The chapter includes examples intended to help designers understand the
various design criteria and to develop preliminary superstructure designs.
A significant additional resource for the design of precast prestressed concrete
beams for extended spans is the research project performed as part of the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) titled Extending Span Ranges
of Precast Prestressed Concrete Girders by Castrodale and White (2004). The final
report contains considerable information on methods for extending span ranges, as
well as an extended discussion of issues related to the design of spliced beam bridges,
including three design examples. The report also identifies nearly 250 spliced beam
bridges constructed in the United States and Canada.
JUN 04
High performance concrete (HPC) has been defined in a number of different ways,
but in general, it includes modifications to concrete that improve the efficiency,
durability or structural capability of members over that achieved using conventional
concrete. A number of HPC tools can be used to extend the spans of precast, pre-
stressed concrete beams. In this chapter, the discussion will be limited to the use of
high strength and lightweight concrete.
High strength concrete (HSC) has several advantages over conventional strength
concrete. These include increased:
compressive strength
modulus of elasticity
tensile strength
In addition, high strength concrete is nearly always enhanced by these other benefits:
a smaller creep coefficient
less shrinkage strain
lower permeability
improved durability
Specifically, beams made with high strength concrete exhibit the following structural
benefits:
1. Permit the use of high levels of prestress and therefore a greater capacity to carry
gravity loads. This, in turn, allows the use of:
fewer beam lines for the same width of bridge
longer spans for the same beam depth and spacing
shallower beams for a given span
2. For the same level of initial prestress, reduced axial shortening and short-term and
long-term deflections.
3. For the same level of initial prestress, reduced creep and shrinkage result in lower
prestress losses, which can be beneficial for reducing the required number of
strands.
4. Higher tensile strength results in a slight reduction in the required prestressing
force if the tensile stress limit controls the design.
5. Strand transfer and development lengths are reduced.
The benefits of high strength concrete are not attained without cost implications.
For example, when high concrete compressive strength is used to increase member
capacity, a higher prestress force is required. This in turn offsets the effect of a lower
creep coefficient and results in larger losses and deflections. Furthermore, very long
and shallow members require an investigation of live load deflections, as well as con-
structability and stability during design.
High strength concrete is more expensive per cubic yard than conventional concrete.
In some areas, increasing concrete strength from 7,000 psi to 14,000 psi could double
11.2
HIGH PERFORMANCE
CONCRETE
11.2.1
11.2.1.1
Benefits
11.2.1.2
Costs
EXTENDING SPANS
11.2 High Performance Concrete/11.2.1.2 Costs
JUN 04
the cost from $70 to $140 per cubic yard. However, a modest increase to 10,000 psi
might add only $10 to $20 per cubic yard. Concrete mixes with strengths higher than
10,000 psi may be difficult to attain with consistency and require large quantities of
admixtures. It is difficult to generalize about costs and capabilities. The materials,
experience and equipment may be more a regional issue for the industry. Generally,
the technology to produce high strength precast concrete is advancing very rapidly.
Other consequential costs that should be taken into consideration include:
Achieving high transfer strengths could extended the production cycle to more
than one day
High prestress forces may exceed available bed capacity for some plants
Larger capacity equipment to handle, transport and erect longer and heavier
beams may be required than is normally available
Costs associated with the production of high strength concrete should be weighed
against the reduction in volume and the net result may well be both initial savings as
well as long-term durability enhancements. Producers near the project (and their state
and regional associations) should be consulted about these issues.
High strength concrete increases the effectiveness of precast, prestressed concrete beams.
High concrete strength at prestress transfer permits the application of a larger preten-
sion force, which in turn increases the members capacity to resist design loads. The
number of strands that can be used is limited by the size of the bottom flange. The
primary reason that the NU I-Girders, the Washington Super Girders and the New
England Bulb-Tee beams have higher span capacities than the AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee
is that they all have significantly larger bottom flanges as shown in Figure 11.2.1.3-1.
11.2.1.3
Effects of Section Geometry
and Strand Size
EXTENDING SPANS
11.2.1.2 Costs/11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size

Figure 11.2.1.3-1
I-Beam Shapes with Large
Bottom Flanges to Accommodate
More Strand
JUN 04
Designers are rapidly implementing the use of 0.6-in.-dia strands. This will improve
the efficiency of all beam shapes because each 0.6-in.-dia strand provides 40 percent
more pretension force for only a 20 percent increase in diameter. The Standard and
LRFD Specifications allow the same center-to-center spacing for 0.6-in.-dia strand as
for -in.-dia strand.
Figure 11.2.1.3-2 shows the maximum span of a NU2000 (78.7 in.-deep) beam.
The maximum span varies with the beam spacing and number of strands. The
number of strands must increase to allow for a greater span length. Likewise, as the
beam spacing increases, the number of strands must also increase. An investigation
conducted by the Washington State Department of Transportation and the Pacific
Northwest PCI shows that the maximum span of the W21MG beam (now referred
to as the W83G beam), with 7,500-psi transfer strength, using 0.6-in.-dia strands, is
180 ft.(Seguirant, 1998).
At a small beam spacing of about 6 to 8 feet, however, the potential for increased span
length with high strength concrete may be limited by the number of strands that can
be placed in the bottom flange. For the NU beam with 6,000 psi concrete and beam
spacing of 6 ft, 58 strands are required to achieve the maximum span length of 161
ft. This is the maximum number of strands that can be placed in the bottom flange
of the NU beam. If the concrete strength is increased to 12,000 psi, the maximum
span will increase only 12 ft, about 7.5 percent greater than the original maximum
span. However, when the beam spacing is increased to 14 ft, the number of strands
can be increased from 46 for concrete with a design strength of 6,000 psi to 58 for
12,000-psi concrete with an increase in span from 105 ft to 124 ft.
If concrete strength and strand size are both increased, the span length can be
extended further. The 12,000-psi concrete is still adequate to fully utilize the bottom
EXTENDING SPANS
11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size
Figure 11.2.1.3-2
Maximum Span of
NU2000 Beam
JUN 04
flange by filling it with 58 strands. This confirms the work by Russell, et al (1997),
who found that concrete with a compressive strength lower than 12,000 psi would
be adequate when -in.-dia strands are used.
Based on these results, two conclusions can be made regarding effective utilization of
beams with high strength concrete:
1. The effectiveness of HSC is largely dependent on the number of strands that
the bottom flange can hold. The more strands contained in the bottom flange,
the farther the beam can span and the greater the capacity to resist positive
moment. It is recognized that designers do not always have a large number
of choices of available beam sections. Nonetheless, a beam that provides for
the greatest number of strands in the bottom flange is preferred when using
HSC.
2. Allowable stresses are increased when using HSC. If these limiting stresses
cannot be fully utilized with -in.-dia strands, then 0.6-in.-dia strands
should be used. The tensile strength of 0.6-in.-dia strands is nearly 40 percent
greater than the capacity of -in.-dia strands. Both the Standard and LRFD
Specifications permit the use of 0.6-in. strands at the common 2-in. spacing.
The use of 0.6-in.-dia strand is expected to increase in the future even with the
use of conventional strength concrete due to economy in production.
Higher concrete compressive strength at transfer allows a beam to contain more
strands and increases the capability of the beam to resist design loads. To achieve the
largest span for a given beam size, designers should use concrete with the compressive
strength needed to resist the effect of the maximum number of strands that can be
accommodated in the bottom flange. However, the availability of high compressive
strength at transfer varies throughout the country. Strength at transfer should not be
higher than required for the span being designed because strengths in excess of 5,500
to 6,500 psi may increase the required duration of the production cycle at the manu-
facturing plant. This would in turn increase the cost of the beams. Early compressive
strength is influenced by local materials and sometimes production facilities and
regional practices. Producers should be consulted about available concrete strengths
before beginning design.
When it is necessary to reduce compressive strength at transfer or when there are
limitations on the capacity of the pretensioning bed, the total amount of prestress
can be provided in two stages. The first is pretensioning during production followed
by post-tensioning after production. Compared to using only pretensioning during
production, combining pre- and post-tensioning generally increases the cost of the
beam but has been used very effectively to solve strength and plant constraints.
Numerous test results on HSC have shown a modulus of rupture as high as 12 f
c
compared to 7.5 f
c
indicated for conventional concrete (ACI Committee 363,

1992). Since the limiting tensile stress is directly proportional to the modulus of
rupture, some designers and researchers have suggested an increase in the tensile
stress limit. As shown in Figure 11.2.1.6-1, the use of higher tensile stress limits
has relatively small effect on the maximum achievable spans of prestressed concrete
I-beams.
11.2.1.4
Compressive Strength
at Transfer
11.2.1.5
Reduction of Pretension Force
by Post-Tensioning
11.2.1.6
Tensile Stress Limit at Service
Limit State
EXTENDING SPANS
11.2.1.3 Effects of Section Geometry and Strand Size/11.2.1.6 Tensile Stress Limit at Service Limit State
JUN 04
Depending on specific aggregates, the general characteristics of HSC are reduced
creep, reduced shrinkage strain, and increased modulus of elasticity. Consequently,
prestress losses are lower for HSC compared to conventional concrete at a constant
level of prestress. However, higher levels of prestress are generally used in HSC
members. Therefore, the absolute value of loss may be comparable, or even higher
compared to conventional strength concrete (Seguirant, 1998).
The LRFD Specifications provides two methods for estimating loss of prestress: the
refined method and the lump-sum method. The refined method accounts for level
of prestress but not for reduced creep and shrinkage characteristics. Thus, its applica-
tion could significantly overestimate prestress losses in HSC. The lump-sum method
does not account for either the prestress level or for variation in creep and shrinkage.
Therefore, it contains two counteracting incorrect assumptions but could result in
more reasonable values for losses than those of the refined method.
A study for the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) by Tadros, et
al (2002), resulted in recommendations for the determination of certain concrete proper-
ties in HSC (modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage), as well as a proposal for both a
new approximate and a new detailed method of prestress loss estimation. If these recom-
mendations are adopted by AASHTO, they would result in more realistic, reduced values
of prestress losses for HSC applications and comparable loss values resulting from the cur-
rent provisions for conventional concrete strength. Until the LRFD Specifications is revised,
it is recommended that the method described in Section 8.6 of this manual be used.
Structural lightweight aggregate concrete has been used extensively to reduce the
weight of precast members. The weight of a concrete beam accounts for about one-
third of its total load, and increases in proportion as the span increases. Reducing
member weight allows the beam to carry higher superimposed loads and to span
farther. Structural lightweight aggregate (LWA) concrete bridges have been reported
in the literature from the earliest days of the prestressed concrete industry and those
11.2.1.7
Prestress Losses
11.2.2
Lightweight Aggregate
Concrete
EXTENDING SPANS
11.2.1.6 Tensile Stress Limit at Service Limit State/11.2.2 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
Figure 11.2.1.6-1
Variation of Maximum Span of
NU1100 Beams with Spacing
and Allowable Tensile Stress
JUN 04
applications continue. Useful publications on LWA concrete applications are pro-
vided by the Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute (ESCSI) (website www.escsi.
org). LWA concrete with a specified strength of 10,000 psi has reportedly been used
in Norway and Canada (Meyer and Kahn, 2001). Research performed at Georgia
Institute of Technology (Meyer and Kahn, 2002) includes a study of the advantages
of lightweight, high strength concrete to 12,000 psi. The production and testing of
full-size beams has verified the important design and long-term properties of the
material. When lighter weight is combined with higher strength and improved dura-
bility, the benefits are compounded.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.2.2 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
JUN 04
Precast, prestressed concrete beams are most often placed on their supports as simple-
span beams. In this configuration, the beams support self-weight and the weight of
deck formwork. Generally, the weight of the deck slab is also supported by the simple
span. If the details used allow for rotation of beam-ends, further loads applied to the
bridge may also be applied to the simple span.
Simple span systems have sometimes not performed well. Whether the deck slab is
placed continuously over abutting ends at a pier or a joint is placed in the deck at
this location, rotation of beam ends can result in significant deck cracking. The use of
simple span systems can lead to leakage through the deck and deterioration of beam-
ends, bearings and the substructure. This is especially critical in cold weather regions
where deicing chemicals are used.
However, when beams are made continuous, structural efficiency and long-term
performance are significantly improved.
Two methods have been used to create continuity in precast, prestressed concrete
beam bridges:
Deck reinforcement
Post-tensioning
Two additional methods have been introduced recently for establishing continuity.
They are accomplished prior to placing the deck and have shown promising results:
Coupling beams with high strength rods
Coupling beams with prestressing strands
The use of post-tensioning and the latter two methods provide the structural benefit
of making the beam continuous to resist the deck weight a considerable portion of
the total load. This significantly improves the structural performance of the bridge.
Discussion of the features of each of the four methods follows.
Continuity can be established by casting abutting beam-ends on the pier into cast-in-
place concrete diaphragms. Reinforcement is placed in the cast-in-place deck to resist
the negative design moments that develop. Section 3.2.3.2.2 provides more details of
this method. Design considerations and calculations are shown in Design Examples
9.5 and 9.6.
The method has been used very successfully in a number of states beginning as early
as the 1950s. It is the simplest of the existing methods because it does not require
additional equipment or specialized labor to make the connections between beams
to establish continuity. The beam acts as a simple span under its own weight and the
weight of the deck slab but as a continuous beam for other dead loads and the live
load. Since the deck is mildly reinforced and not pretensioned, tensile stresses in the
deck are not usually checked.
11.3
CONTINUITY
11.3.1
Introduction
11.3.2
Method 1
Conventional Deck
Reinforcement
EXTENDING SPANS
11.3 Continuity/11.3.2 Method 1 Conventional Deck Reinforcement
JUN 04
This method is somewhat more expensive than the previous method per unit vol-
ume of beam concrete. It generally requires full-length post-tensioning of the bridge
beams. The beam web must be wider than 6 in. that is common in many preten-
sioned beams. It also requires enlargement of the webs at the ends of some beams
(end blocks) to accommodate post-tensioning anchorage hardware, or special anchor-
age details in the back wall of the abutment. A specialized contractor may be required
to perform the post-tensioning and grouting operations.
However, significant advantages of this method are the ability to:
splice segments into longer spans
create efficient, multiple-span continuous bridges
pre-compress the deck in the negative moment regions to virtually eliminate
transverse surface cracking in the deck at piers
improve structural efficiency by having a continuous beam for the deck weight
and all subsequent loads
have post-tensioning resist part of the self-weight of the beam
use plant pretensioning only to counteract the weight of the beam and for
handling stresses. This relatively small prestress results in small cambers and
minimizes the need for high strength concrete at transfer.
For these reasons, much of the remainder of this chapter is devoted to the use, the analysis
and design of post-tensioning for extending the spans of precast concrete beams.
In general, the construction of a post-tensioned beam bridge proceeds in the follow-
ing way: The beams or beam segments are erected first, the post-tensioning ducts are
spliced and then the beam splices or diaphragms are formed, cast and cured. Some
or all of the post-tensioning tendons may then be installed and tensioned. The cast-
in-place composite deck is cast. The remainder of the post-tensioning tendons are
installed and tensioned.
Post-tensioning may be applied in one or more stages. If an appropriate level of pre-
stressing is applied by first stage post-tensioning before the deck is cast, the beams
will be continuous for the deck weight and construction loads as shown in Figure
11.3.3-1.
First-stage post-tensioning must be large enough to control concrete stresses through-
out the continuous member for the loads applied before the next post-tensioning
stage. If a second post-tensioning stage is used, it is usually applied after the deck has
cured and before superimposed dead loads are applied. Issues associated with apply-
ing post-tensioning after the deck has been placed are discussed in Section 11.4.9.
11.3.3
Method 2
Post-Tensioning
EXTENDING SPANS
11.3.3 Method 2 Post-Tensioning
Figure 11.3.3-1
Full-Length Post-Tensioned
Beam Bridge
JUN 04
In cases where all post-tensioning is applied prior to placement of the deck, tensile
stresses in the deck are not usually checked.
In cases where the deck is pretensioned by the application of post-tensioning, tensile
stresses in the deck may be checked. If tensile stresses in the deck in negative moment
regions exceed design requirements, one of the following could be considered:
consider the deck partially prestressed at this section. This condition would be
superior to other continuous beam systems where the deck has no prestressing
and is expected to crack under service load.
increase post-tensioning to bring deck concrete stresses within limits
increase the specified concrete strength of the deck
In this method, nonprestressed, high strength threaded rods are extended from the
top of the beam and coupled over the piers to provide resistance to negative moments
from the weight of the deck slab. Conventional longitudinal reinforcement as
described in Section 11.3.2, Method 1, is placed in the deck in the negative moment
to resist the additional negative moments due to superimposed dead and live loads.
Therefore, this method provides continuity conditions for deck weight, superim-
posed dead load and live load.
An earlier version of the connection shown in Figure 11.3.4-1 has undergone full-
scale testing (Ma, et al, 1998). It was shown to be structurally effective and simple
to construct. The detail has been adopted by the Nebraska Department of Roads. A
similar detail has been used on a four-span, Florida Department of Transportation
double tee bridge on U.S. 41 over the Imperial River at Bonita Springs, Florida.
11.3.4
Method 3
Coupled High-Strength Rods
EXTENDING SPANS
11.3.3 Method 2 Post-Tensioning/11.3.4 Method 3 Coupled High-Strength Rods

Figure 11.3.4-1
Threaded-Rod Connection in
Top Flange of I-Beam
JUN 04
Another application of the method was a successful value-engineering change to a
project in Nebraska in 2002. The contractor redesigned the Clarks Bridge from a
haunched plate girder system that varied from 4- to 6-ft deep, to a modified, 50-in.-
deep bulb tee. The project is shown nearing completion in Figure 11.3.4-2.
The bridge has four spans, 100 ft, 148 ft, 151 ft, and 128 ft. It has a composite deck
thickness of 8 in. and a beam spacing of 10.75 ft to match the original steel beam
design. For a precast I-beam system at this relatively wide spacing, the bridge has an
impressive span-to-depth ratio of 31 151x12/(50+8). It also uses unique individual
cast-in-place pier tables to support the beams. These tables become composite with
cast-in-place extensions of the beams and later, with the bridge deck. Figure 11.3.4-3a
shows a typical beam with high strength rods extended from the top flange. Figure
11.3.4-3b shows the beams on their pier tables with extended rods spliced between
ends of the beams (Hennessey and Bexten, 2002).
The coupled-rod splice combines the simplicity of adding reinforcement in the deck
(Method 1) with some of the structural efficiency of post-tensioning (Method 2)
where the beam may be made continuous for certain dead loads. A cost comparison
of this method with Method 1 (Saleh, et al, 1995) indicates that savings in positive
moment strands offsets the added cost of the threaded rods and hardware. Moreover,
any need for positive moment reinforcement at the piers due to creep restraint is
totally eliminated because the compression introduced into the bottom of the splice
from the negative dead load moment is expected to counteract any possible positive
moment generated from time-dependant effects. This method also increases the span
capacity of a given beam size by about 10 percent.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.3.4 Method 3 Coupled High-Strength Rods
Figure 11.3.4-3
Clarks Bridge, Omaha,
Nebraska
a) Beam Showing High
Strength Rods
b) Spliced Negative Moment Reinforcement

Figure 11.3.4-2
Clarks Bridge, over
U.S. Highway 30 and the
Union Pacific Railroad,
Omaha, Nebraska
JUN 04
11.3.5
Method 4
Coupled Prestressing
Strands
There are no major disadvantages of this method compared to Method 1. There are
two disadvantages of this method compared to Method 2:
the deck in the negative moment region is not pre-compressed
the beam-to-beam connection can only be made over the piers
This method uses pretensioning strands, which are left extended at beam-ends.
Strands are positioned so that after production they project from the ends of the
beam near the top surface. After the pier diaphragm concrete is placed and hardened,
but before the cast-in-place deck slab is placed, the strands are spliced and tensioned.
This method has been utilized in the construction of a pedestrian/bicycle overpass in
Lincoln, Nebraska, and is described in detail in Ficenec, et al (1993). The prestressing
strand continuity method provides all the advantages of full-length post-tensioning
but may cost less because it does not require large jacks, end blocks or the grouting
associated with post-tensioning. This method is very efficient because it utilizes the
existing pretensioning strands. However, the hardware and procedures for strand
splicing and the procedures for the transfer of prestress in the plant are somewhat
complex.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.3.4 Method 3 Coupled High-Strength Rods/11.3.5 Method 4 Coupled Prestressing Strands
JUN 04
Spans greater than about 165 ft cannot usually be achieved economically with one-
piece, precast, pretensioned concrete beams because of transportation and lifting
restrictions. Owners tend to specify structural steel for these relatively large spans.
However, many are becoming familiar with the efficiency and economy of spliced
concrete beams. This system, which is described in detail in the remainder of this
chapter, has been demonstrated in the past several decades to be cost-competitive
with structural steel and has advantages with regard to durability and aesthetics
(Abdel-Karim, 1991; Abdel-Karim and Tadros, 1992).
To provide simple spans, precast, pretensioned beam segments are sometimes post-
tensioned together at or near the project site and lifted as one piece onto final sup-
ports. In most cases, however, the precast segments are erected on temporary towers
to span the full distance between supports. When the segments are post-tensioned
together, they lift off the temporary falsework and span between their permanent pier
and abutment supports.
As discussed in Section 11.3.3, these spliced, continuous, post-tensioned beam
bridges offer the advantage, over steel and pretensioned, precast concrete bridges, of
having pre-compressed concrete in the deck at the negative moment regions. While
competitive with steel, they require more design and construction steps, and are gen-
erally, but not always, more expensive than pretensioned-only concrete systems.
In situations that required these longer spans, precast concrete beams that are only
pretensioned are usually not viable. Today, it is becoming more common for designers
to think of segmental I-beam, post-tensioning solutions. Owner agencies should be
encouraged to develop designs using this system as an alternative to steel plate beams
for as many projects as possible. The experience in a number of states of offering a
spliced concrete beam and a steel plate beam alternative has resulted in healthy com-
petition and significant savings. Even when the steel alternate is the successful one,
its bid price has been shown to be dramatically lower than before facing a concrete
alternative. This has proven to more than justify the cost of preparing alternatives
for contractor bidding. In instances when structural steel suppliers sacrifice profits
or provide plate beams at a loss, continuing alternative designs have resulted in the
concrete solution eventually being selected for construction and further rewarding
the owner through lower long-term maintenance costs.
The combination of plant pretensioning and subsequent post-tensioning offers an
opportunity for structural optimization of simple spans made continuous, where the
prestressing is introduced in stages corresponding to the introduction of design loads.
The conventional system is to design a precast, pretensioned beam as simple span for
self-weight and deck weight, and to make spans continuous through longitudinal
deck reinforcement for superimposed dead loads and live loads. Alternatively, the
same beam can be pretensioned to resist self-weight as a simple span and then spliced
and post-tensioned to resist all other loads as a continuous beam. This optimization
can result in the reduction of one or two beam lines or a reduction in structural
depth while maintaining the same beam spacing. Several bridges have been built
in Nebraska using the combination of two types of prestressing. In nearly all cases,
combined prestressing was successfully bid against a structural steel alternate.
11.4
SPLICED-BEAM
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
11.4.1
Introduction and
Discussion
11.4.1.1
Combined Pretensioning
and Post-Tensioning
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4 Spliced-Beam Structural Systems/11.4.1.1 Combined Pretensioning and Post-Tensioning
JUN 04
This type of system offers a practical introduction for agencies that have little or no
experience with spliced-beam bridges or post-tensioning. Once the agency becomes
familiar with the design and construction process, and the techniques are introduced
in practice, applications can advance to longer span systems that require splices away
from the permanent pier supports.
When pretensioning and post-tensioning are combined, additional losses will occur
due to the interaction of different prestress forces.
Shapes typically used in spliced-beam bridge applications are shown in Figure
11.4.2-1. Prestressed I-beams are the most popular, mainly due to their moderate
self-weight, ease of fabrication and ready availability. For these reasons, much of the
discussion that follows will focus on I-beams.
As the trend continues toward continuous superstructures, the need becomes evident
for optimum I-beam sections. The I-beam geometry should perform well in both the
positive and negative moment regions. This is clearly a different goal from shapes that
were developed specifically for simple spans. Simple-span beams generally have inad-
equate sections for negative moment resistance and have webs too thin for post-ten-
sioning ducts. A minimum web width to accommodate the post-tensioning tendon
ducts and shear reinforcement is required, as discussed in Section 11.4.5.1.
11.4.2
Types of Beams
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.1.1 Combined Pretensioning and Post-Tensioning/11.4.2 Types of Beams
Figure 11.4.2-1
Shapes Used for Spliced-Beam
Bridges
JUN 04
Open-topped trapezoidal beams, or U-beams, are increasingly popular because of
their aesthetic appeal. They are not suitable for pier segments where the non-com-
posite beam is required to resist significant negative moments.
Figure 11.4.2-1d depicts a unique solution, which uses a hybrid combination of
precast and cast-in-place concrete. Precast I-beams achieve a slender, light-looking
mid-span element and are combined with cast-in-place concrete box beams at the
piers where compressive forces caused by negative moments require a large bottom
flange. While this solution has the benefit of improved section properties to resist
negative moments at the interior piers, construction is more complex and lengthy
than for more conventional precast construction. However, where structure depth
is severly restricted, a section like this has proven to be an economical solution for
several bridges.
By considering spliced beams, the designer has more flexibility to select the most
advantageous span lengths, beam depths, number and locations of piers, segment
lengths for handling, hauling and construction, and splice locations. As discussed
in Section 11.3.3, a commonly used splicing technique is to post-tension a series of
beams that are simply supported on piers or abutments. This achieves continuity for
deck weight and superimposed loads. In addition to the enhanced structural effi-
ciency of this system, post-tensioning can be used to assure that the deck is stressed
below its cracking limit, which improves durability considerably.
Another feature of spliced beams is the ability to adapt to horizontally-curved align-
ments. By casting the beam segments in appropriately short lengths and providing
the necessary transverse diaphragms, spliced beams may be chorded along a curved
alignment. This is shown clearly in Figure 11.4.3-1 that shows the Rosebank-Patiki
Interchange in New Zealand with a 492-ft radius.
11.4.3
Span Arrangements and
Splice Location
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.2 Types of Beams/11.4.3 Span Arrangements and Splice Location
Figure 11.4.3-1
The Rosebank-Patiki
Interchange, New Zealand
Pier segments
with strong backs
Splice at
Pier
Spliced
Beam Unite
JUN 04
The chorded solution results in an efficient framing system while enhancing aesthet-
ics. More details for chorded curved bridges are given in Chapter 12.
A wide variety of joint details have been used for splicing between beams. Figure
11.4.4-1 shows some of the beam splice configurations used for I-beams.
Most precast concrete beam splices are cast-in-place as shown in Figure 11.4.4-
1a,b and c. Cast-in-place splices give the designer more construction tolerances.
These details use a gap width of from 6 to 18 or even 24 in. The space is filled with
high-early-strength concrete. Detail a is not recommended, even when the end of
the beam is roughened by sandblasting or other means, because the high vertical
interface shear generally requires a more positive shear key system. Detail d is an
epoxy-coated, match-cast joint. This detail is discouraged because of the difficulty in
adequately matching two pretensioned beam-ends, especially when the beams are of
different lengths and with different pretensioning levels. Detail e is used with con-
tinuous post-tensioning but is sometimes used when the designer desires to have an
expansion joint in the bridge. For an expansion joint, the post-tensioning tendons are
terminated at the joint. While this detail has been used very successfully for a number
of bridges, it has not been used for most recent structures.
With proper mix designs and proportions, the required strength and quality of jobsite
concrete can be achieved. Three-day concrete strengths in the range of 5,000 psi can
be achieved. It should be noted that more jobsite labor is needed for cast-in-place
splices than for other splicing techniques, such as match-cast splicing.
11.4.4
Details at Beam Splices
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.3 Span Arrangements and Splice Location/11.4.4 Details at Beam Splices
Figure 11.4.4-1
I-Beam Splice Configurations
JUN 04
Cast-in-place, post-tensioned splices are most commonly used because of their sim-
plicity and their ability to accommodate fabrication and construction tolerances. The
segments are erected on falsework, the ducts are coupled and post-tensioning tendons
installed. Concrete for the deck slab may be placed at the same time as the concrete
for the splice, or the deck concrete may be placed after the splice and following the
first stage of post-tensioning. Figure 11.4.4.1-1 shows details of a cast-in-place, post-
tensioned splice.
Figure 11.4.4.1-2 shows a typical splice during construction.
11.4.4.1
Cast-In-Place
Post-Tensioned Splice
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.4.1 Cast-In-Place Post-Tensioned Splice
Figure 11.4.4.1-1
Cast-In-Place
Post-Tensioned Splice
Figure 11.4.4.1-2
Cast-In-Place Post-Tensioned
Splice
JUN 04
A schematic view of a stitched splice is shown in Figure 11.4.4.1.1-1.
A similar splice is shown during construction in Figure 11.4.4.1.1-2. The photo is
of the Shelby Creek Bridge in Kentucky. The workman is tensioning a stitch tendon
at the end of the widened end section. Grout ports are located near each tendon.
This project used precast diaphragms that can be seen in the left foreground (See
Caroland, et al, 1992).
In this type of cast-in-place splice, the precast, pretensioned segments are post-
tensioned across the splice using short tendons or threaded bars. It should be noted
that precise alignment of the post-tensioning ducts is essential for the effectiveness
of the post-tensioning. If proper alignment is not achieved, considerable frictional
11.4.4.1.1
Stitched Splice
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.4.1.1 Stitched Splice

Figure 11.4.4.1.1-1
Stitched Splice
Figure 11.4.4.1.1-2
Stitched Splice in the Shelby
Creek Bridge, Kentucky
JUN 04
losses can result. Oversized ducts are often used to provide additional tolerance. In
addition, because of the short length of the tendons, anchor seating losses could be
unacceptably large. To reduce anchor seating losses, the use of a power wrench to
tension threaded bars is recommended.
End blocks are required at the spliced ends of the beams in order to house the post-
tensioning hardware and provide the end zone reinforcement to resist concentrated
stresses due to the anchorages.
This type of splice may be suitable for long bridges where continuous tendon post-
tensioning over the full length produces excessive friction losses.
Some projects have used a removable structural steel strong back assembly in place
of dapped ends or temporary support towers or falsework. Figure 11.4.4.1.2-1 shows
a strong back in use.
Structural steel strong backs are rigidly connected to the top of the drop-in or end seg-
ments. They are used to hang these segments from the cantilevered pier segments until
the splice joint is cast and the beams are post-tensioned. The strong back is attached to
the drop-in beam with threaded-rod yokes. It bears on the top of the end of the cantile-
vered pier segment. Additional supports are used across the joint at the webs to maintain
alignment and to prevent the tendency of the cantilevered beam to roll under the weight
of the drop-in segment. As for all joint details, alignment of the ducts is important.
The strong back is removed after the joint is cast and the segments are post-tensioned
together. This device is especially recommended for situations where falsework is not
economical. It requires detailed structural design and careful erection due to the large
forces involved. A typical detail is shown in Figure 11.4.4.1.2-2.
11.4.4.1.2
Structural Steel Strong
Back at Splice
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.4.1.1 Stitched Splice/11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strong Back at Splice
Figure. 11.4.4.1.2-1
Strong Back Used to Support a
Drop-in Beam
JUN 04
Another device used to avoid falsework towers is a unique adaptation of the Cazaly
Hanger used for many years in the precast industry. It employs steel shapes that are
embedded in both ends of the beams at a joint. The embedments in the pier segment
support the hangers that have also been embedded in the drop-in segment. This solu-
tion requires even more control of fabrication and erection tolerances, alignment of
ducts and care in construction. The details include keepers to assist with alignment
and prevent dislodging the hangers from the seats. Additional alignment brackets
are required on the webs to provide for stability as in the strong back details previ-
ously described. The use of this device is described by Caroland, et al (1992). Figure
11.4.4.1.3-1a shows the large rectangular steel bars extending from pier beams in
storage. At the project site, a steel shoe will be fitted over and pinned to these bars
as shown in Figure 11.4.4.1.3-1b. The drop-in beams will sit on the shoe and will
in turn be pinned to it.
11.4.4.1.3
Structural Steel
Hanger at Splice
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.4.1.2 Structural Steel Strong Back at Splice/11.4.4.1.3 Structural Steel Hanger at Splice
Figure 11.4.4.1.2-2
Strong Back at Splice
Figure 11.4.4.1.3-1
Hanger Supports, Shelby Creek
Bridge, Kentucky
a) Beam Segment with Hanger Bars. b) Beam Segments with Hanger Support Bars
and Guide Shoes in Place.
JUN 04
Match-cast segments were used in early applications of spliced beam bridges to
eliminate the time and expense of cast-in-place joints. They are seldom used today.
Match-castinging of I- or other beam sections has significant challenges. Beams that
are pretensioned and cast on a long-line system, as most are, have continuous preten-
sioning strands that must be cut before these products are removed from the form.
That operation is usually facilitated by the use of headers that form the ends of
beams. The space between headers is used to cut the strands.
Emulated match-casting has been used where a machined steel header provides pre-
cisely formed concrete surfaces. The header is precision-made in a machine shop to
exacting tolerances. Installed in the casting bed, it has stubs to accurately position the
ends of the post-tensioning ducts and access ports to allow cutting the strands that
have been threaded through it.
Figure 11.4.4.2-1 shows the header in the form. Figure 11.4.4.2-2 shows the result-
ing match-cast joint on a temporary support tower being compressed through the use
of external threaded rods. The mating surfaces of the beams have been coated with
epoxy.
Other necessary details to consider include:
the coupling of post-tensioning ducts. This
requires the forming of small recesses around
the duct where it meets the header.
sealing of the coupling zone against leakage
of post-tensioning grout
camber in the pretensioned beams that
causes the ends to rotate. The rotation must
be accounted for during fit-up of the beams
at the joints as shown in Figure 11.4.4.2-2.
11.4.4.2
Match-Cast Splice
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.4.2 Match-Cast Splice
Figure. 11.4.4.2-2
Match-Cast Joint Being
Compressed During Installation
Figure. 11.4.4.2-1
Fabrication of a
Match-Cast Joint
b) Close-Up of Header

a) Machined Match-Cast
Header in Form
JUN 04
The main reason for segmenting and post-tensioning precast beams is to overcome
the size and weight limitations for handling, shipping and erection. For example,
in a bridge with two spans of 180 ft, the beams can be produced and shipped in 3,
120-ft segments. These pieces are one segment on the pier located between two end
segments.
For very long spans, the critical location is generally at the pier due to large negative
moments or large shear forces. The beams at the pier may need to be deepened to accom-
modate these forces. This will result in a considerably heavier pier segment and therefore,
special planning and attention for production and transportation. Haunched pier beams
are shown in storage in the manufacturing plant in Figure 11.4.5-1.
Deepening the pier beam is but one choice available to the designer. This option
should be carefully evaluated and compared to other options before a final decision
is made on its use. Other options include:
placement of a cast-in-place bottom slab
gradual widening of a member toward the support
using higher concrete strength
adding compression reinforcement in the bottom flange
the use of a hybrid system like that discussed in Section 11.4.2
the use of a composite steel plate in the bottom of the bottom flange. See discus-
sion in the design example, Section 11.8.11.2.
Web width should be as small as possible to optimize cross-section shape and mini-
mize weight. Yet it should be large enough to accommodate a post-tensioning duct,
auxiliary reinforcement and minimum cover for corrosion protection.
The requirements of the AASHTO Specifications changed with the introduction of
the LRFD Specifications. LRFD Article 5.4.6.2 states that the duct cannot be larger
than 40 percent of the web width. This requirement has been traditionally used
to size webs for internal ducts in segmental bridge construction. Historically, this
requirement has not existed and has not been observed for segmental I-beams.
When the NU I-Beam was developed in the early 1990s, a 6.9-in. (175-mm) web
was selected to provide approximately 1-in. (25-mm) cover on each side plus two #5
11.4.5
System Optimization
11.4.5.1
Minimum Web Width to
Accommodate Post-Tensioning
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.5 System Optimization/11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning
Figure 11.4.5-1
Haunched Pier Beams
JUN 04
(16-mm-dia) vertical bars plus a 3.75-in. (95-mm)-dia post-tensioning duct. The
dimensions are shown in Figure 11.4.5.1-1.
Another requirement of LRFD Article 5.4.6.2, and a requirement of the Post-
Tensioning Institutes Specifications for Grouting (2003) is that the inside duct area be
at least 2.5 times the tendon cross-sectional area for the pull through method
of tendon installation and 2.0 times the tendon cross-sectional area for the push
through method of tendon installation. The NU I-Beam duct diameter satisfied the
minimum requirement of 2.5 times the tendon cross-sectional area for the standard
(15) 0.6-in.-dia tendons used in Nebraska. The corresponding minimum inside
duct area is calculated as 2.5(15)(0.217) 8.14 in.
2
. This corresponds to a required
inside diameter of 3.22 in. These values have been the standard practice in Nebraska,
backed up by significant experimental research and actual bridge applications.
The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) chose a web width
of 200 mm (7.87 in.) for their new series of beams (Seguirant, 1998). This was
derived as shown in Figure 11.4.5.1-2. The 4.33-in. duct can accommodate com-
mercially available post-tensioning systems of up to (19) 0.6-in.-dia strands per ten-
don, or (29) -in.-dia trands per tendon. The corresponding distance between the
duct and the concrete surface of 1.77 in. is more than twice the maximum aggregate
size of -in. used in Washington. A number of other states and Canadian provinces
have adopted similar practices with no reported problems.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning

Figure 11.4.5.1-1
Web Configuration for
NU I-Beam
Figure 11.4.5.1-2
Web Configuration,
Washington State
I-Beam
JUN 04
Eleven bridges were described in the PCI report on spliced girder bridges (1992). Of
those bridges, two had web widths of 6 in., five had web widths of 7 in., two had
web widths of 7.5 in., and two had web widths of 8 in. None of the bridges had a
web width that was more than 8 in. Most of the segmental I-beam bridges built using
post-tensioning over the past four decades have not met the limit of duct diameter
and web width.
In situations where it is not possible to avoid a splice joint in the span, and prismatic
pier segments are not adequate, haunched pier segments can be used effectively. For
these haunched segments to be most efficient, Girgis (2002) has shown that the
haunch depth should be about 1.75 times the standard depth and the haunch length
20 percent of the span. Shallower depths or shorter lengths may have to be used, with
less efficiency, to satisfy clearance criteria.
To assure a satisfactory beam splice, proper design details must be used along with
good workmanship and fabrication techniques. Wet-cast splice joints are the standard
practice. The ends of the beams at splices should have formed shear keys, if required,
similar to those shown in Figure 11.4.4.1-1. Ducts for post-tensioning should be
made of semi-rigid galvanized metal, high density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypro-
pylene (PP). They must be adequately supported within the beam during casting to
maintain alignment and minimize friction losses.
In a conventionally reinforced or post-tensioned splice away from the piers, it is
usually necessary to support the ends of both beams on temporary supports. For
bridges over inaccessible terrain or for water crossings, structural steel strong backs
like those described in Section 11.4.4.1.2 are commonly used to support one beam
from another instead of using towers. A common solution for a three-span channel
crossing is to use towers for the side spans, where land is accessible during construc-
tion and strong backs in the center span over the water.
Important factors to consider when deciding whether to use falsework to support the
segments in place or to splice the segments on the ground include:
Space at the site is needed to position the segments, cast the joints and post-
tension the beam.
The assembled beam will be heavy and require larger cranes.
Access for trucks and cranes.
Towers may need to be excessively tall.
The principal advantage of splicing on the ground vs. in-place is the saving of the
cost of falsework. On the ground, the splice is readily accessible by the workers and
is close to material and equipment. The resulting improved labor productivity is an
additional advantage. Splicing on the ground requires a large level area and tempo-
rary supports such as concrete pads. Segments need to be accurately aligned during
splicing. Figure 11.4.7.1-1 shows segments aligned, ducts spliced and reinforcement
installed for splicing on the ground.
11.4.5.2
Haunched Pier Segments
11.4.6
Design and
Fabrication Details
11.4.7
Construction Methods
and Techniques
11.4.7.1
Splicing and Shoring
Considerations
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.5.1 Minimum Web Width to Accommodate Post-Tensioning/11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations
JUN 04
In-place splicing requires stiff falsework constructed with the capability to make
adjustments for final elevations. Figure 11.4.7.1-2 shows falsework supporting the
ends of a pier beam and drop-in beam.
Precise vertical alignment of the beam segments is usually accomplished by the use of shims
or screw jacks between the falsework and the segments. The major advantages of in-place
splicing over splicing on the ground is that the beam segments are handled only once and
require smaller lifting equipment. Additional assembly space at the site is not required.
Some or all of the falsework requirements can be eliminated through the use of strong
backs or hangers that were described in Sections 11.4.4.1.2 and 11.4.4.1.3.
Single-span beams can be made-up of two or more segments. Using three segments as
an example, as shown in Figure 11.4.7.2.1-1, the segments are installed on tempo-
rary towers and braced. Next, the splice joints are cast, tendons inserted in ducts and
post-tensioning introduced, completing the assembly of the beam. Before the splice
11.4.7.2
Construction Sequencing and
Impact on Design
11.4.7.2.1
Single Spans
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.7.1 Splicing and Shoring Considerations/11.4.7.2.1 Single Spans
Figure 11.4.7.1-1
Segments Aligned for Splicing
on the Ground
Figure 11.4.7.1-2
Segment Ends Supported on
Falsework for Splicing
JUN 04
joints are cast, the end elevations of the segments need to be carefully positioned to
allow for calculated long-term deflection. This also impacts the aesthetic appearance
of the profile due to camber in the beam. These elevations also determine the amount
of concrete needed for the haunches the space between the top of the top flange
and the bottom of the deck.
When the post-tensioning is applied, the full span, spliced beam cambers upwards
and lifts up away from the temporary towers. The beam reactions that were being
carried by the temporary towers are now carried by the spliced girder, so they must
be considered in the analysis.
The same issues apply to multispan spliced beams erected on temporary towers.
Figure 11.4.7.2.2-1 shows the erection sequencing of a two-span overpass where
traffic does not allow for temporary towers at the splice joint.
11.4.7.2.2
Multiple Spans
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.7.2.1 Single Spans/11.4.7.2.2 Multiple Spans
Figure 11.4.7.2.1-1
Three Segments Supported on
Falsework for Splicing
Figure 11.4.7.2.2-1
Two-Span Bridge
Construction Sequence
JUN 04
The pier segment is installed on the pier and adjacent towers and a connection is
made to the pier. Ideally, the pier connection should be one that allows for horizontal
displacement of the beam at the time of post-tensioning. However, a fully integral
joint can be utilized as long as the supports at the abutment allow for horizontal
movement during tensioning of the post-tensioning tendons.
Placement of the first end segment, as shown in Step 3, Figure 11.4.7.2.2-1, creates
moments in the pier segment and overturning effects on the tower and pier that must
be evaluated. When an end segment is erected on the second span, the temporary
overturning effect is eliminated. After the concrete in the splice has achieved the
specified compressive strength and the post-tensioning tendons are stressed, the tower
reactions must be applied as loads to the continuous two-span system as the beam
lifts from the towers. The balance of construction sequencing is as described earlier.
Grouting of the ducts after tensioning is a critical step in the construction process.
Good workmanship in grouting ensures proper performance of the structure and lon-
gevity. Inadequate attention to grouting can lead to problems that can compromise
the integrity of the bridge.
Grouting of ducts should be performed as soon as possible after completion of the
post-tensioning. Leaving the tendons ungrouted for an extended period of time could
cause accumulation of moisture and chlorides in coastal areas, and the onset of cor-
rosion. Moisture accumulation in the ducts may result in water lenses and ultimately
in air pockets that could compromise the durability of the system.
Specific grouts and grouting techniques must be strictly observed in order to achieve
high-quality construction. For example, the grout must be flowable and must be
pumped at a pressure high enough to displace the air in the ducts yet low enough to
avoid cracking or blow-outs of the concrete cover over the ducts. Air vent tubes must
be placed at strategic locations to prevent air encapsulation.
The grout mix generally contains a shrinkage compensating or an expansive admix-
ture. Current recommendations are that the grout be the commercially-packaged
type manufactured for this purpose. The current edition of the PTI Specifications for
Grouting (2003) should be followed.
Since proper grouting is such an important step in the construction process, it should
be performed by experienced and well-qualified personnel. The American Segmental
Bridge Institute (ASBI) has developed grouting training courses and a personnel cer-
tification program, which should be required. These will serve as important resources
for good grouting practices.
The removal of a bridge deck that has been in service has been a subject of concern
among bridge owners who are interested in using spliced-beam and segmental box-
beam bridges. In the snow belt areas of the United States, due to the large number
of freeze-thaw cycles and the liberal use of deicing chemicals, it has been common
to expect that a bridge deck will deteriorate to the point of needing replacement in
20 to 30 years.
11.4.8
Grouting of Post-Tensioning
Ducts
11.4.9
Deck Removal
Considerations
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.7.2.2 Multiple Spans/11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations
JUN 04
When the deck is in place when the beams are post-tensioned, it becomes an integral
part of the resistance system. Removal of the deck for replacement may temporarily
overstress the bare beam. This would require an elaborate analysis and possibly a com-
plicated temporary support scheme until the new deck is in place. However, if properly
analyzed and the economics are verified, there is no reason this approach should not be
considered. Computing power and available software make this a viable alternative.
Some states have avoided this issue by requiring designers to apply the post-tensioning
in its entirety before the deck is placed (Nebraska, 2001). An additional benefit of
this single-stage post-tensioning is simplified scheduling and coordination of con-
struction. It eliminates multiple mobilizations for specialized subcontractors.
However, there are significant benefits to multistage post-tensioning in terms of
structural efficiency, compared with single-stage post-tensioning. A convenient
option is to divide the post-tensioning into thirds: two-thirds applied to the bare
beam and one-third applied to the composite section. This is demonstrated in the
example of Section 11.8. There are a number of benefits to this division. The deck
is subject to compression that controls transverse cracking and extends its first life
before it might need replacement. The ratio of initial post-tensioning on the com-
posite system to total post-tensioning, 0.33, is partially offset by the gain in concrete
strength of beam and time-dependent prestress loss which is approximately 20 per-
cent. Therefore, the beams would not be appreciably more overstressed than when
initially post-tensioned.
It may be desirable to apply all of the post-tensioning after the deck becomes part of
the composite section. This case would be similar to the conditions of a segmental
box beam system where the top flange is an integral part of the cross-section when the
post-tensioning tendons are stressed. This solution in the United States and abroad
has proven to provide a deck surface of excellent durability, perhaps not requiring
any provisions for deck removal and replacement. The position of the American
Segmental Bridge Institute (ASBI) is to provide a small additional thickness of sac-
rificial concrete in the original deck that can be removed and replaced with a wear-
ing overlay if chloride diffusion measurements warrant such action. However, if the
designer wishes to do so, the analysis of deck removal and replacement as part of the
original design of the bridge is entirely possible.
Analysis for deck removal and replacement generally requires use of a continuous
beam computer program (Tadros, et al, 1977). First, concrete stresses in the deck
at time of anticipated deck removal are calculated with due consideration of time-
dependent effects. Then, analysis is performed on the continuous precast member
due to two sets of loads: the deck weight reversed, and the deck stress resultants
reversed. The resulting stress increments in the beam are then added to the stresses
just before deck removal and the net values checked against maximum stress limits.
Deck removal and replacement is a temporary loading case requiring temporary
measures. If the concrete tensile stress exceeds the stress limit, then one should check
if there is enough reinforcement to control cracking. If concrete compressive stress
exceeds the 0.6f
c
specification limit, then a temporary support may be required.
A more practical approach would be that the designer consider waiving that limit
temporarily if the resistance strength moment is greater than the factored load, i.e.,
required strength moment.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.4.9 Deck Removal Considerations
JUN 04
Post-tensioning anchorages require the use of end blocks, which are thickened webs
for a short length at the anchorages. End blocks can increase production costs of
beams considerably due to the need for special forms and forming changes during
production. I-beams with end blocks are also heavier to handle and transport, espe-
cially if the dimensions are selected according to the LRFD Article 5.10.9.1. It states
that the end block length should be at least equal to the beam depth and its width at
least equal to the smaller of the widths of the two flanges. End blocks are shown in
Figure 11.4.10-1. The beam in the center shows the typical cross-section.
It is possible to use the cast-in-place diaphragm at the abutment to house the anchor-
age located there. This practice is used in the Pacific Northwest because of the avail-
ability of contractors experienced with cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete. For
regions where post-tensioning is not prevalent, it is preferred to have the anchorage
hardware placed by the precast concrete producer in order to control quality, reduce
contractor risk and reduce construction time. Post-tensioning anchorage zones are
discussed further in Section 11.7.
11.4.10
Post-Tensioning
Anchorages
EXTENDING SPANS
Figure 11.4.10-1
Beam End Block
JUN 04
The PCI report on spliced-girder bridges (1992) contains information on some of
the bridges that had been constructed during the preceding three decades. The fol-
lowing is a brief description of some additional notable bridges not contained in that
report.
In 2000, the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) completed 6.4 miles
of US20 Highway realignment between Corvallis and Newport. This two-lane sec-
tion of highway is located 25 miles from the Pacific Ocean in the Coastal Mountain
Range. The new alignment crosses the Little Elk Creek at 10 locations. The creek is
environmentally sensitive and has a history of channel shifting during flood condi-
tions; therefore, simple spans ranging from 99 ft to 184 ft were required to minimize
stream impact and eliminate piers in the water.
ODOT selected a three-piece precast, post-tensioned, composite spliced-beam struc-
ture for four of the bridges that exceeded a span of 164 ft. Figure 11.5.1-1 shows
Bridge #7 upon completion.The roadway width is 46 ft and six lines of beams spaced
at 7'-10" support an 8-in. deck. The precast beam is the ODOT Bulb-I 2440 (BI96).
The top and bottom flanges are 24-in. wide and the web is 7.5-in. thick. End blocks
were incorporated at the abutment ends to receive the multiple post-tensioning
anchorages. Up to five tendons with 19, -in.-dia strands each were placed in the
beam segments. The beams were supported at the abutments and on two temporary
towers located at the third points. The post-tensioning tendons were spliced at the
interior, 24-in.-wide closure pours. End diaphragms were cast followed by the deck
placement. Post-tensioning was applied to complete the superstructure. Pretensioning
was provided to control shipping stresses and to carry the non-composite loads. This
method of construction allowed work to continue during critical in-water limitation
periods and the project was completed one year ahead of schedule.
11.5
EXAMPLES OF
SPLICED-BEAM
BRIDGES
11.5.1
Eddyville-Cline Hill
Section, Little Elk Creek
Bridges 1 through 10,
Corvallis-Newport Highway
(US20), OR (2000)
EXTENDING SPANS
11.5 Examples of Spliced-Beam Bridges/
11.5.1 Eddyville-Cline Hill Section, Little Elk Creek Bridges 1 through 10, Corvallis-Newport Highway (US20), OR (2000)
Figure 11.5.1-1
Bridge #7
over Little Elk Creek
JUN 04
The Rock Cut Bridge is a single span of 190'-6" spliced using three segments. It is
shown after completion in Figure 11.5.2-1.
The bridge consists of four, 7.5-ft-deep special beams and is 24.5-ft wide.
Transportation difficulties, elimination of a center pier and environmental restraints
presented major design-construction challenges in a mountainous region of northeast
Washington State. The restrictions imposed on constructing the new bridge were
unusually severe. First, because it is located in an environmentally sensitive area, the
surroundings were to be left as undisturbed as possible. Second, for environmental
and structural reasons, no center pier (permanent or temporary) was allowed. Third,
the route leading to the project site was along a highway with steep slopes and sharp
bends. Therefore, even though a one-piece, 200-ft-long prestressed concrete beam
was feasible, it was ruled out because such a long beam could not be transported
along the winding highway.
The key to solving the problem was to divide the long beam into three, 63-ft-long
beam segments with each segment weighing only 40 tons. The segments were fab-
ricated and transported 150 miles to a staging area near the bridge site. There, the
segments for each beam were precisely aligned, closure pours were made, post-ten-
sioning tendons threaded and jacked. The fully-assembled beams were then carefully
transported to the bridge site. At the site, the leading end of the beam was secured
on a rolling trolley on a launching truss. Next, the transport vehicle backed the beam
across the truss. When the leading end of the beam reached the opposite side of the
river, the beam was picked up and set in place by cranes at both ends. All four beams
were erected into final position using this method.
Using precast, prestressed concrete spliced beams for this bridge resulted in several
benefits including a shortened construction time (3 months), protection of the
river environment, and cost savings due to constructing the bridge in one restricted
construction season. This construction method resulted in a highly successful project.
There was no pier in the water, no environmental issues were challenged by agen-
cies, no construction delays occurred due to high water or weather, no stoppage
occurred due to fishery constraints, and no special equipment or non-standard con-
crete strengths were needed. The total cost of the bridge was $660,471 ($141.50/sf ).
The cost of the precast concrete portion of the project, which included production,
transportation, installation, and post-tensioning prior to launching, amounted to
$229,482 ($49.17/sf ). For more details, see Nicholls and Prussack, 1997.
11.5.2
Rock Cut Bridge, Stevens and
Ferry Counties, WA (1997)
EXTENDING SPANS
11.5.2 Rock Cut Bridge, Stevens and Ferry Counties, WA (1997)
Figure 11.5.2-1
Rock Cut Bridge
JUN 04
The Moore Haven Bridge crosses the Caloosahatchee River. The bridge has record
spans for precast, prestressed concrete at the time of its construction. The bridge
consists of 11 total spans with a three-span continuous unit over the water. The three
spans have a total length of 740 ft and a total width of 105 ft. The main span is 320
ft. The bridge is shown in Figure 11.5.3-1.
Each three-span continuous unit consists of five segments: two haunched beams, one
center drop-in beam and two end beams. The haunched beams are 138-ft long and
vary in depth from 6.75 ft to 15 ft. The drop-in beam is 182-ft long and 8-ft deep.
The end beams are 141-ft long and 6.75-ft deep. The beams were constructed in seg-
ments and made continuous using post-tensioning.
The Bow River Bridge is 774-ft-long. It is shown during construction in Figure 11.5.4-1.
The twin structures consist of four spans:
two at 174-ft long and two at 213-ft. The
project is described by Bexten, et al (2002).
The precast concrete alternative provided
a cost savings of about 10 percent over
the steel plate beam option. This bridge
marked the first time a single piece, 211-ft-
long beam weighing 268,000 lbs spanned
the entire distance between permanent pier
supports without use of segmental I-beams,
intermediate splice joints, or temporary
falsework towers. Another source of economy was the relatively wide beam spacing
of 11.65 ft. This spacing resulted in fewer beam lines despite the relatively long spans
and the uncommonly heavy live loading mandated in Alberta due to the heavy haul-
ing demands of its oil refinery industry. The maximum live load moment in Alberta
bridge design practice is significantly larger than the moment resulting from the
AASHTO Specifications.
11.5.3
US 27-Moore Haven
Bridge, FL (1999)
11.5.4
Bow River Bridge,
Calgary, AB (2002)
EXTENDING SPANS
11.5.3 US 27-Moore Haven Bridge, FL (1999)/11.5.4 Bow River Bridge, Calgary, AB (2002)
Figure 11.5.3-1
Moore Haven Bridge
Figure 11.5.4-1
Bow River Bridge during
Construction
JUN 04
An NU 2800 beam with a depth of 9.2 ft and a web width of 6.9 in. was used for the 213-
ft-long span. The thin web is one of the important reasons for the minimized beam weight
and increased span efficiency. The beam is shown in transit in Figure 11.5.4-2.
The largest NU 2800 bridge beam used prior to this project was part of the spliced
beam Oldman River Bridge, also in Alberta, which was completed a year earlier. It
had a length of 188.6 ft and weighed 240,000 lbs. The Oldman River Bridge, how-
ever, utilized pier segments and jobsite-cast joints to span the 230 ft interior spans of
the five-span bridge (180 ft, 230 ft, 230 ft, 230 ft, 180 ft).
The Bow River Bridge beams were pretensioned for lifting, shipping and erection.
They were checked for top flange buckling during each of these stages. The stability
analysis methods given in Section 8.10 were utilized. A steel stiffening truss was used
in the center 100 ft section of the beams and a special lifting device that allowed shift-
ing of the lifting point several feet above the top flange were some of the measures
taken to assure safety during beam handling. At the site, the first beam erected in each
span was braced to the top of the pier. After erection of the second beam, structural
steel diagonal bracing diaphragms were placed between the first and second beams,
which provided the necessary stability for both.
After erection, the beams were post-tensioned using four tendons, each with (12) 0.6-
in.-dia strands, placed in 3-in.-dia ducts. One tendon was stressed prior to placing
the deck making the beams continuous for deck weight. The remaining tendons were
post-tensioned following placement of the deck.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.5.4 Bow River Bridge, Calgary, AB (2002)
Figure 11.5.4-2
Transportation of the 211-Ft-
Long Bow River Beam
JUN 04
Several issues related to the analysis and design of post-tensioned beams differ signifi-
cantly from those for pretensioned beams. These include:
losses in post-tensioning tendons. Additional sources of prestress losses must be
considered such as friction and anchor losses.
the interaction of losses between pretensioned strands and post-tensioned
tendons
time-dependent analysis. The method of analysis should take into account the
effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and the relaxation of steel. It should
be applicable to statically indeterminate structures.
the effect of post-tensioning on continuous beams. The method of analysis
should properly account for post-tensioning, including secondary moments.
the effect of post-tensioning ducts on shear capacity
These issues are discussed in this section. Chapter 8 provides a detailed discussion of
prestress losses and deflections. In this chapter, only friction and anchorage set losses
are discussed, which are unique to post-tensioning.
Other issues that are significant in the design and analysis of post-tensioned beams
include:
the methods used to show post-tensioning on plans. For example, should each
tendon be shown or just the centroid of the group?
the analysis and design of anchorage zones. The design must include consider-
ation of potential conflicts between the anchorage hardware with its accompa-
nying reinforcement and other reinforcement in the anchorage zone.
estimation of deflection, camber and end rotation of beams with multiple con-
struction stages.
web thickness to accommodate ducts
the difference between the center of gravity of the duct and the tendon
flexural strength for post-tensioned tendons
Information on some of these subjects can be found elsewhere in this chapter, includ-
ing in the design examples. Additional information can be found in texts that discuss
design of post-tensioned structures. An additional resource regarding the use of post-
tensioning in precast, prestressed concrete beams is TRB Report 517 of NCHRP
Project 12-57, which is entitled Extending Span Ranges of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Girders (Castrodale and White, 2004). This document includes an extensive
discussion of issues and three design examples related to spliced beam construction.
11.6
POST-TENSIONING
ANALYSIS
11.6.1
Introduction
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6 Post-Tensioning Analysis/11.6.1 Introduction
JUN 04
In the design of post-tensioned structures, the designer ordinarily provides in the
contract plans, the geometry of a tendon path and the required design forces at one
or more locations along the path. This allows the contractor to select the post-ten-
sioning system and procedures that lead to the best economy for the project, without
neglecting safety.
The first step in analyzing a tendon is to plot a diagram of the stress or force along
the tendon path. When a tendon is jacked from one or both ends, the stress along the
tendon decreases away from the jack due to the effects of friction. The loss of stress
may be expressed by the following equation:
f
pF
f 1 e
pj
Kx
( )
+ ( )

[LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.2b-1]
where
f
pj
stress in the prestressing tendon at jacking
e base of natural logarithm
x length of a prestressing tendon from the jacking end to any point under
consideration, ft
K wobble friction coefficient, typically about 0.0002/ft for rigid and semi-
rigid galvanized metal ducts [LRFD Table 5.9.5.2.2b-1]
coefficient of friction due to local deviations from tendon path, typically
about 0.2/rad for rigid and semi-rigid galvanized metal sheathing and poly-
ethylene ducts [LRFD Table 5.9.5.2.2b-1]
sum of the absolute values of angular change of post-tensioning tendon
from jacking end, or from the nearest jacking end if tensioning is done
equally at both ends, to the point under investigation, rad
Anchor set loss of prestress occurs in the vicinity of the jacking end of post-tensioned
members as the post-tensioning force is transferred from the jack to the anchorage
block. During this process, the wedges move inward as they seat and grip the strand.
This results in a loss of elongation and therefore force in the tendon.
The value of the strand shortening, generally referred to as anchor set, L, varies
from about 0.125 in. to 0.375 in. It depends on the anchorage hardware and jack-
ing equipment. An average value of 0.25 in. may be assumed in design with the
stipulation on the plans that the post-tensioning contractor is to verify the accuracy
of this assumed value and appropriate adjustment be made to the expected force and
elongation.
The anchor set loss is highest at the anchorage. It diminishes gradually due to friction
effects as the distance from the anchorage increases. Anchor set loss is more significant
in shorter tendons. On very short tendons, the anchor set loss can be nearly as high as
the initial tendon elongation. Therefore, the initial prestress could be ineffective.
11.6.2
Losses at Post-Tensioning
11.6.2.1
Friction Loss
11.6.2.2
Anchor Set Loss
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.2 Losses at Post-Tensioning/11.6.2.2 Anchor Set Loss
JUN 04
Calculation of friction and anchor set losses is best demonstrated by an example.
Figure 11.6.2.3-1a shows the elevation of the end span of a multispan beam. Its
length is 155 ft. The tendon profile consists of three segments, L
ab
, L
bc
and L
cd
with
three different curvatures.
A jacking stress, f
pa
0.78f
pu
210.6 ksi is often used for design. A curvature coef-
ficient 0.20/rad, and a wobble coefficient, K 0.0007/ft are assumed. The value
of K in this part of the example is significantly overestimated for simpler presentation
of the anchor set loss. The typical value is 0.0002/ft as stated in Section 11.6.2.1.
The stress values before seating can be calculated by applying LRFD Eq. 5.9.5.2.2b-
1 for each of the three segments. The results are f
pb
198.4 ksi, f
pc
184.1 ksi, and
f
pd
178.6 ksi.
For this reason, the stress diagram before accounting for anchor set loss, shown in
Figure 11.6.2.3-1b, consists of three linear segments. The slope of each segment is
partly a function of the tendon curvature as discussed in Section 11.6.2.1.
11.6.2.3
Design Example
11.6.2.3.1
Friction Loss
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.2.3 Design Example/11.6.2.3.1 Friction Loss
Figure 11.6.2.3-1
Anchor Set Loss
JUN 04
The hatched area in Figure 11.6.2.3-1c and d represent the drop in tendon stress
over the affected beam length, x, after the post-tensioning tendon is anchored. This
total length may be shorter than L
ab
or as large as the beam length between anchor-
ages. After seating, the highest stress will be at the right end of the hatched area. The
stresses before seating and after seating are symmetrical about a horizontal line pass-
ing through f
px
, the tendon stress at distance, x. This symmetry results from the fact
that friction effects are equal in both directions, i.e., as the tendon is being pulled
out of the beam during stressing, or pulled back into the beam during seating of the
anchorage. Since the distance, x, is not yet known, it is best calculated by numerical
iteration until the following condition is satisfied:
L Hatched area/E
p
(Eq. 11.6.2.3.2-1)
First, assume that x, measured from point a, is equal to L
ab
62 ft. Dividing
the hatched area in Figure 11.6.2.3-1 by the steel modulus of elasticity, (210.6
198.4)(62)(12)/28,500 0.318 in. which is greater than the assumed L 0.25
in. Thus, the length affected by seating is within L
ab
, and therefore the hatched area
is bounded by straight lines.
In this case, a closed form solution is possible using the Eq. (11.6.2.3.2-1):
x
L(E )(L )
f f
p ab
pa pb
( )
(Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.1-1)
Substituting for L, f
pa
, f
pb
, E
p
, and L
ab
, the values 0.25 in., 210.6 ksi, 198.4 ksi,
28,500 ksi, and 62 ft respectively, x is found to be 54.93 ft, which is less than 62
ft as expected. The corresponding anchor set loss, f
pA
, is:
f
2(f f )(x)
L
pA
pa pb
ab
(Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.1-2)
Substituting the value of x 54.93 ft, f
pA
21.6 ksi, see Figure 11.6.2.3-1c.
Therefore
f
px
f
pa
0.5f
pA
210.6 0.5(21.6) 199.8 ksi 0.74f
pu
199.8 ksi
(LRFD Table 5.9.3-1)
and
f
pa
f
pa
f
pA
210.6 (21.6) 189.0 ksi 0.70f
pu
189.0 ksi
(LRFD Table 5.9.3-1)
To illustrate the case where the length affected by seating is greater than the distance
to the low point in the tendon profile L
ab
(hatched area longer than 62 ft), the
example will be reworked with 0.20/rad and K 0.0002/ft which are the typical
values according to LRFD Table 5.9.5.2.2-1. With these values, f
pb
, f
pc
, and f
pd
can
be found to be equal to 204.6 ksi, 197.4 ksi, and 192.9 ksi.
11.6.2.3.2
Anchor Set Loss
11.6.2.3.2.1
Length Affected by
Seating is Within L
ab
11.6.2.3.2.2
Length Affected by
Seating is Within L
ac
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.2.3.2 Anchor Set Loss/11.6.2.3.2.2 Length Affected by Seating is Within L
ac
JUN 04
In this case, two quantities are unknown: x and f
pa
. An iterative procedure will be
used to reach a solution.
The first condition is that the stress diagrams before and after seating are symmetrical
about a horizontal line passing through f
px
, therefore:
f
(2)(f f )(x L )
L
pb
pb pc ab
bc

(Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.2-1)
f 2(f f f
pa pa pb pb
+ ) (Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.2-2)
The second condition is that the hatched area divided by the steel modulus of elastic-
ity is equal to the anchor seating, L:
L
E
1
2
f f L
1
2
f x L
p
pa pb ab pb ab
+
( )( )
+
( )
( )
,
,
]
]
]
1

(Eq. 11.6.2.3.2.2-3)
With x assumed equal to L
ab
, the first estimate of f
pa
, using Eq. (11.6.2.3.2.2-2), is
12 ksi. Substituting this value in Eq. (11.6.2.3.2.2-3) gives a tendon shortening of
0.16 in., which is less than the assumed value of 0.25 in.
The next iteration would be to try x L
ab
+ L
bc
. The corresponding tendon shorten-
ing using this value is 0.76 in., which is greater than 0.25 in. Since the two computed
values bracket the assumed value, values of x between the above two limits are tried
until a solution is found. The use of spreadsheet software simplifies this iteration.
The results of the iteration are x 947.25 in. (78.94 ft) and f
pa
15.2 ksi. This
corresponds to stress at point a 210.6 15.2 195.4 ksi, stress at point b 204.6
(15.2 12.0) 204.6 3.2 201.4 ksi, and stress at distance x 204.6 3.2/2
203.0 ksi. Figure 11.6.2.3-1d shows the tendon stress diagram for this case.
As noted in the previous section, the LRFD Specifications limits tendon stresses, f
pa

and f
px
after seating. The stress f
pa
at point a exceeds the limit by 6.4 ksi, while the
stress, f
px
at point x exceeds the limit by 3.2 ksi. Therefore, tendon stress at point a
governs and the initial jacking stress must be reduced by approximately 6.4 ksi. The
required maximum jacking stress is therefore 210.6 6.4 204.2 ksi. The tendon
stress should be recomputed using this new jacking stress, resulting in the entire ten-
don stress diagram being lowered by approximately 6.4 ksi.
Post-tensioned beams are typically post-tensioned sequentially using one multi-
strand tendon jack. It is not generally economical to tension more than one tendon
at a time. When the first tendon is tensioned, it is anchored at the end of the beam.
Tensioning of subsequent tendons in the same beam, and to some extent moving
across the bridge width (if the deck has been cast before the tendons are stressed),
causes the concrete along with previously tensioned tendons to shorten. This sequen-
tial elastic shortening loss is highest in the first tendon tensioned. There are formulas
in the LRFD Specifications to estimate the average elastic shortening loss in this situa-
tion. A second round of tendon tensioning to restore the original tensile stress in the
tendons may substantially eliminate the losses due to sequential shortening, but it is
generally not required.
11.6.2.4
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.2.3.2.2 Length Affected by Seating is Within L
ac
/11.6.2.4 Elastic Shortening Loss
JUN 04
Some commercial computer programs that include time-dependent analysis are based
on European creep and shrinkage prediction formulas. There has been no evidence
that these formulas are more accurate than those on which the LRFD Specifications
are based. These spliced-beam programs tend to follow programs developed for seg-
mental box beam bridges in those regions. In most cases, it is unwarranted to spend
a considerable amount of time and resources to model spliced I-beam bridges with
sophisticated finite-element, time-dependent programs. Experience has shown no
advantage or superior performance in calculating, in detail, the effects of differential
creep and shrinkage and the effects of temperature gradients, compared to the prac-
tice used with conventional, non-post-tensioned I-beam systems.
In a pretensioned beam, when the prestress force is transferred from the strands to
the concrete, it causes the member to camber and become supported at its ends. The
beam acts as a simply-supported member. At any section, the effect of the prestress
is an axial force equal to the effective prestress force and a bending moment equal to
the product of the effective prestress force and its eccentricity. Because the member
is statically determinate, the support reactions due to prestressing are zero. The end
reactions are caused only by member weight. The same is true for a simple span,
post-tensioned beam.
For continuous members, post-tensioning is usually introduced at the construction
site.
Because the continuous member is statically indeterminate at the time of post-ten-
sioning, its support reactions are affected by the deformations of the beam. The
member cannot camber freely as the post-tensioning tendons are stressed.
Support reactions caused by the restrained deformations due to post-tensioning result
in additional moments called secondary moments. There are secondary shears as
well, but usually not additional axial forces, unless the member is restrained by the
supports against axial deformation. The term secondary is somewhat misleading.
The effects are called secondary only because they are caused as the result of another
effect the post-tensioning of the beam. The effect of the secondary moments may
not be minor as could be implied by the term, because it is conceivable that the sec-
ondary moment at the intermediate support of a two-span bridge could totally offset
the primary moment caused by post-tensioning. This would result in a uniform stress
at that location equal to P/A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the member.
A common approach to evaluate secondary moments due to post-tensioning, is to
model the effect of the post-tensioning tendon as a series of equivalent uniformly
distributed loads. Figure 11.6.4.1-1 shows the required equations for calculation of
the equivalent loads for a typical end span of a post-tensioned beam.
Figure 11.6.4.1-2 shows one span of a two-span continuous bridge beam.
11.6.3
Time-Dependant Analysis
11.6.4
Equivalent Loads for
Effects of Post-Tensioning
11.6.4.1
Conventional Analysis
Using Equivalent Uniformly
Distributed Loads
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.3 Time-Dependant Analysis/11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads
JUN 04
The two spans are equal, 155 ft. The beam depth is 72 in. and the centroidal distance
from the top fiber, 35.45 in.
The span is divided into 10 segments with 11 nodes. The eccentricities at Nodes 5,
10 and 11, at 0.4L, 0.9L and 1.0L, are given, based on available concrete cover at
the lowest and highest points, and on a common tangent of the curves connected
at Node 10. Note that although the 0.9L node is commonly used as the inflection
point for the tendon as it approaches the pier location (1.0L), it may not be the opti-
mal location in terms of overall effects of post-tensioning. The designer may wish to
investigate other locations. The geometric properties of the curves between Nodes
1 and 5, 5 and 10, and 10 and 11, are used to determine the tendon eccentricities
at the remainder of the nodes. If the curve is a parabola, as is usually assumed, the
relationship, y ax
2
, can be used. The distance, y, is the height above the lowest
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads
Figure 11.6.4.1-1
Post-Tensioning Equivalent
Loads for Two-Span
Continuous Bridge

Figure 11.6.4.1-2
One Span of a Two-Span
Continuous Bridge
JUN 04
point or below the highest point, and x is the horizontal distance from that point.
The eccentricities at all 11 nodes for the example have been calculated and are shown
in Table 11.6.4.1-1.
Table 11.6.4.1-1 shows the post-tensioning stresses at each node after accounting
for friction and anchor set losses. The average post-tensioning tendon stress along
the length of the span is 184.7 ksi. Assuming the area of post-tensioning tendons
is 4.34 in.
2
, which corresponds to a (20) 0.6 in.-dia strand tendon, the average
post-tensioning force is equal to 801.5 kips. Using this average force, equivalent
loads are calculated according to Figure 11.6.4.1-1. The loads are then input into
a continuous beam analysis computer program to obtain the total moments due to
post-tensioning. For the analysis of this particular example, only one span needs to
be modeled due to symmetry. The support at point a is assumed to be restrained
against vertical movement only, while the support at point d is fully restrained due
to symmetry. The secondary moments are the difference between the primary and
the total moments. The total, primary, and secondary moments using this method
are shown in Table 11.6.4.1-1.
This approach is appropriate only if the effective prestress force is relatively constant
along the entire beam length. However, friction and anchor set losses in large multi-
strand tendons, which are generally used in bridge applications, may cause the varia-
tion in post-tensioning force over the member length to be as high as 30 percent.
Thus, assuming constant P and uniform equivalent loads may be only appropriate in
preliminary design.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.1 Conventional Analysis Using Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Loads
Node # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Distance from
left end, in.
0 186 372 558 744 930 1,116 1,302 1,488 1,674 1,860
Tendon eccen-
tricity, in.
0.00 -13.26 -22.73 -28.41 -30.30 -28.43 -22.80 -13.43 -0.30 16.58 25.95
Post-tensioning
stress, ksi
181.4 182.9 184.4 185.9 187.4 188.3 187.7 186.3 184.8 183.4 178.9
Equivalent loads:
Vertical force,
kips/ft
1.050 1.050 1.050 1.050 1.050 0.310 0.310 0.310 0.310 -5.210 -5.210
Moment,
in.-kip
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -20,798.1
Total moment,
in.-kip
0 -9,456.1 -15,969.0 -19,538.0 -20,163.4 -17,859.0 -12,638.0 -4,501.1 6,551.5 20,520.2 28,659.6
Primary moment,
in.-kip
0 -10,625.0 -18,214.0 -22,767.0 -24,284.5 -22,782.0 -18,274.0 -10,760.0 -240.4 13,284.8 20,798.1
Secondary
moment, in.-kip
0 786.1 1,572.3 2,358.4 3,144.9 3,930.7 4,716.9 5,503.0 6,289.2 7,075.3 7,861.5
Table 11.6.4.1-1
Post-Tensioning Effect Approximate Method
JUN 04
A convenient way to determine the effects of post-tensioning is to use a spreadsheet
program. The post-tensioning effects at each of the nodes of an element are converted
to equivalent nodal forces: a vertical force, a horizontal force and a couple at each
node. In addition, a distributed horizontal force is applied to the element between
each pair of adjacent nodes to account for the change between horizontal nodal forces
due to friction and anchor set losses. The beam and post-tensioning modeling are
The only approximation used in this method is to assume the post-tensioning pro-
file as a series of straight lines between the nodes. A structural analysis program for
continuous beams is then used to determine the total bending moment diagram. For
clarity of presentation, an axial load diagram is not included. It can easily be obtained
from the axial nodal and element forces.
11.6.4.2
Refined Modeling Using a
Series of Nodal Forces
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces
Figure 11.6.4.2-1
Numerical Assumptions and
Sign Convention in Proposed
Method
JUN 04
The primary bending moment diagram can be obtained directly as Pe. It can also be
obtained through the same structural analysis program with the same loads, but with
enough supports removed to render the beam statically determinate. The example
used in Section 11.6.4.1 will be used below to illustrate the calculation steps.
Figure 11.6.4.2-1 shows three nodes in sequence and the sign convention used. The
equivalent load at each node is calculated using the post-tensioning force and its
eccentricity at that point. The global (structure) sign convention for this analysis is
that downward loads are positive, a couple acting clockwise is positive, tendon eccen-
tricity below the concrete centerline is positive, and prestress force is always positive.
The standard sign convention for internal forces, including axial force, shearing force
and bending moment is used.
Consistent units of measurement must be maintained throughout the analysis. All
supports except one are assumed to be free to move horizontally.
The vertical point load at a node, i, is computed as:
F
yi

P e Pe
L
Pe P e
L
i -1 i -1 i i
i -1
i i i i 1
i
+ + 1
(Eq. 11.6.4.2-1)
where
e
i
tendon eccentricity from concrete section centroid to tendon centroid at node i
L
i
distance between nodes i and i + 1, or length of segment i
P
i
post-tensioning force at node i.
The couples shown at element-ends, see Figure 11.6.4.2-1c, cancel each other when
the elements are combined into the full member. Two exceptions to this are the
first node, Node 1, and the last node, Node 11, in this example. Thus, the external
couples at Nodes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 0.0. The couples at Nodes 1 and 11
are computed using:
M
i
P
i
e
i
(Eq. 11.6.4.2-2)
M
1
P
1
e
1
and M
11
P
11
e
11
Using the sign convention for moments, M
1
will be negative and M
11
will be positive.
When using Eq. (11.6.4.2-1), the first term should be taken equal to 0.0 when i 1
and the second term equal to 0.0 when i n.
As an example, calculate the equivalent loads at Nodes 1 and 2 and on Segment 1.
The post-tensioning forces are 787.28 and 793.79 kips. The eccentricities are 0.00
and 13.26 in. The loads at Nodes 1 and 2 are:
F
y1

0
787 3 0 793 8 13 26
186
. ( ) . ( . )
56.59 kips
11.6.4.2.1
Example
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.2 Refined Modeling Using a Series of Nodal Forces/11.6.4.2.1 Example
JUN 04
M
1
(787.3)(0) 0.00
F
y2
787 3 0 793 8 13 26
186
793 8 13 26 800 3 22 73
186
. ( ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . )
15.38 kips
M
2
793.8 (13.26) 793.8 (13.26) 0.00
The post-tensioning force at each node is calculated as the product of the post-
tensioning stress, after accounting for friction and anchor set losses, and the area of
post-tensioning tendons. The forces at each node are given in Table 11.6.4.2.1-1 and
Figure 11.6.4.2.1-1a.
The equivalent vertical loads for this example are shown in Figure 11.6.4.2.1-1b. A
relatively large number of nodes in a span would result in greater accuracy. For most
applications, nodes at tenth or twentieth points provide sufficient accuracy.
After the equivalent loads due to post-tensioning are calculated, the member should
be checked for equilibrium; the sum of vertical forces and the sum of the moments
about a point should be equal to zero. When the supports are placed and a continuous
beam analysis is performed, the total reactions, shears and moments due to post-
tensioning are obtained. The reactions obtained in this step are due to secondary
effects that are intended to maintain the restraint conditions at the supports. Table
11.6.4.2.1-1 shows the total moment using the proposed method.
The total moments are shown in Figure 11.6.4.2.1-2b. Subtracting the primary
moments from the total moments results in the secondary moments.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.2.1 Example

Figure 11.6.4.2.1-1
Post-Tensioning Profile and
Equivalent Loads
JUN 04
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.2.1 Example
Node # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Distance from
left end, in.
0 186 372 558 744 930 1,116 1,302 1,488 1,674 1,860
Tendon eccen-
tricity, in.
0 -13.26 -22.73 -28.41 -30.30 -28.43 -22.80 -13.43 -0.30 16.58 25.95
Post-tensioning
stress, ksi
181.4 182.9 184.4 185.9 187.4 188.3 187.7 186.3 184.8 183.4 178.9
Post-tensioning
force, kips
787.3 793.8 800.3 806.8 813.3 817.2 814.6 808.5 802.0 796.0 -776.4
Equivalent loads:
Vertical force,
kips
56.59 -15.38 -15.78 -16.17 -16.84 -17.48 -16.42 -15.61 -15.12 34.79 74.83
Moment,
in.-kip
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20,148.3
Total Moment,
in.-kip
0 -9,620.6 -16,376.8 -20,194.2 -20,998.3 -18,677.8 -13,102.1 -4,476.1 7,051.4 21,387.7 29,251.1
Primary
Moment, in.-kip.
0 -10,525.6 -18,190.7 -22,921.4 -24,643.5 -23,233.6 -18,573.3 -10,858.7 -240.6 13,189.0 20,148.3
Secondary
Moment, in.-kip
0 905.0 1,814.0 2,727.2 3,645.2 4,555.9 5,471.2 6,382.6 7,292.0 8,198.7 9,102.8
Table 11.6.4.2.1-1
Post-Tensioning Effect Refined Method
Figure 11.6.4.2.1-2
Bending Moment Diagrams
JUN 04
The secondary reactions are the only external forces acting on the member due to
post-tensioning. They act at the supports. These reactions must be in equilibrium.
For the two span example, the reaction due to post-tensioning at the center pier is
9.79 kips downward (or pier uplift), and the reaction at each abutment is 9.79/2
4.89 kips upward (or downward load on abutment). Accordingly, secondary shears
must be constant between supports and secondary moments must be linear between
supports. If these characteristics are not observed, the calculations must be reviewed
for errors. These characteristics must hold true regardless of the tendon profile and
whether or not the members cross-section properties vary along its length.
The total (primary plus secondary) effects must be used when checking service limit
states, e.g., tension at bottom fibers at final loading conditions, etc. However, the
primary and secondary effects must be separated before performing calculations for
the strength limit state. Because post-tensioning continuous members creates a set of
external loads, i.e. support reactions, these external loads must be considered in the
factored load combinations in strength design. The accepted practice is to combine
the factored secondary moment using a load factor of 1.0 with the moments due to
factored dead and live loads, and to compare the total factored load moment at a
section against the design flexural strength at that section.
The accuracy of using elastic analysis to calculate the secondary moments and of
using a load factor of 1.0 at the strength limit state has occasionally been the subject
of debate. However, no better approach has been adopted for standard practice.
yielding of the transverse reinforcement, the LRFD Specifications gives an upper limit
of V
n
:
V f b d V
n c v v p
+
0 25 .

[LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2]
Where b
v
is taken as the minimum web width within the depth d
v
, modified for the
presence of ducts where applicable. In determining b
v
at a particular level, the diam-
eters of the ungrouted ducts or one-half the diameters of the grouted ducts at that
level must be subtracted from the web width. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
11.6.4.3
Design Consideration
11.6.5
Shear Limits in Presence of
Post-Tensioning Ducts
EXTENDING SPANS
11.6.4.3 Design Consideration/11.6.5 Shear Limits in Presence of Post-Tensioning Ducts
JUN 04
Anchorage zones are designed to accommodate anchorage hardware with its associated
special reinforcement and to provide adequate space for the reinforcement needed to dis-
tribute the highly concentrated post-tensioning force. Detailed guidance for the design of
anchorage zones is given in the PTI publication, Anchorage Zone Design (2000). A design
example in NCHRP Report 517 (Castrodale and White, 2004) also discusses the design of
anchorage zone reinforcement. Figure 11.7-1 shows reinforcement and anchorages in the
end of a beam that has been designed with a top recess. The dapped area provides access
for post-tensioning after both abutting beams are erected in place.
The anchorage zone is typically detailed using an end block that is the same width
as the bottom flange and extends for a distance from the end of the beam of at least
one beam height before a tapered section returns the cross-section to the width of the
web. Typical dimensions are illustrated in Figure 11.7-2. The extent of the anchorage
zone is based on the principle of St. Venant which proposes that the disturbed stress
field introduced at the end of the beam by the concentrated forces at post-tension-
ing tendon anchorages extends approximately a beam height into the beam (see the
discussion in Section 11.4.10 and LRFD Fig. C5.10.9.1-1).
Based on this principle, the cross-section in the anchorage zone (end block) has generally
been held constant until the stress distribution from the anchorage forces becomes more
uniform. If the cross-section were also decreased within the disturbed region, it is believed
that this could compound the stress disturbance and lead to increased cracking.
Some research has indicated that a much smaller anchorage zone may be adequate. It
has been proposed that the concrete should be the minimum size necessary to house the
anchorage hardware and to provide for cover over reinforcement. It is suggested that large
concrete dimensions in the anchorage zone are unnecessary and possibly counterproduc-
tive, as they may require large amounts of reinforcement to control cracks. A research
project by Tadros and Khalifa (1998) for the Federal Highway Administration and the
Nebraska Department of Roads tested full-size beams with two concepts for anchorage
zones with significally reduced cross-sections. The new details have been adopted and used
11.7
POST-TENSIONING
ANCHORAGES IN
I-BEAMS
EXTENDING SPANS
11.7 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-beams
Figure 11.7-1
Reinforcement and Anchorages
in an I-Beam End Block
JUN 04
on several projects in Nebraska and other areas such as project shown in Figure 11.7-3. A
paper by Ma, et al (1999), discusses the design of this post-tensioned anchorage zone in
accordance with the LRFD Specifications using strut-and-tie modeling. The paper includes
a design example. Experimental testing of post-tensioning anchor zones has been
reported by Breen, et al (1994) and Ma, et al (1999).
In Washington State, alternative details were used on the Rock Cut Bridge for Stevens
and Ferry Counties (Nicholls and Prussack, 1997). This project included casting the
end blocks in a secondary cast after the prismatic beams were stripped from the form.
This can result in cost savings by not having to use special beam forms to accom-
modate the widened end block section. Figure 11.7-3a shows a workman tying bars
and forming the short end block. Figure 11.7-3b shows the finished secondary cast.
Additional details of the project are discussed in Section 11.5.2.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.7 Post-Tensioning Anchorages in I-beams
Figure 11.7-2
Typical I-Beam End Block
Dimensions
Figure 11.7-3
Rock Cut Bridge
End Block
a) Forming and Tying Steel for End Block b) Completed End Blocks
JUN 04
This example is similar to Examples 9.5 and 9.6. It will provide a comparison in
design calculations when post-tensioning is employed for a very common superstruc-
ture system. It will also illustrate the increased span length when post-tensioning is
used to establish continuity over a pier.
Many of the fundamental calculations in this example are not shown or are not
explained in detail. Frequently, the applicable AASHTO Specifications references
are not given. These details are provided in Chapter 8 and in the design examples in
Chapter 9.
This example selects the same 72-in.-deep bulb tee (BT-72) used in Examples 9.5 and
9.6. However, for this example, two, 155-ft spans will be used instead of the 110-
ft end spans and the 120-ft center span of the three-span bridge designed in those
examples. The full span beam segments are spliced over the pier with post-tensioning
and are made composite with the deck. The design uses the LRFD Specifications, the
same as used for Example 9.6. Some of the details already discussed in Example 9.6
are not repeated here. Analysis for post-tensioning effects is emphasized.
Figures 11.8.1-1 and 11.8.1-2 show the longitudinal section and cross-section of the
bridge. The cross-section has four beams spaced at 12'-0". AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tees
are modified by widening the section 1-in. to accommodate post-tensioning ducts.
The beams are designed to act compositely with the cast-in-place concrete deck slab.
The 8-in.-thick slab includes a -in. integral wearing course. Therefore, the full 8-
in. thickness is used in load calculations but 7.5-in. is used for the deck to compute
composite section properties. A haunch over the top flange averaging -in. thick is
considered in the load and stress analysis. Design live loading is HL-93.
11.8
DESIGN EXAMPLE:
TWO-SPAN BEAM
SPLICED OVER PIER
11.8.1
Introduction
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8 Design Example: Two-span Beam Spliced Over Pier/11.8.1 Introduction

Figure 11.8.1-1
JUN 04
The cross-section of the modified AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee (BT-72) is shown in
Figure 11.8.2-1. The width of the beam was increased 1 in. to provide a 7-in.-wide
web to accommodate post-tensioning ducts.
Cast-in-place slab: Total thickness, t
s
8.0 in.
Structural thickness 7.5 in.
c
4.0 ksi
c
0.150 kcf
E
c
33 000 0 15 4
1 5
, ( . )
.
3,834 ksi
Precast beams: Concrete strength at transfer, f
ci
5.5 ksi
c
7.0 ksi
c
0.150 kcf
E
c
33 000 0 15 7
1 5
, ( . )
.
5,072 ksi
From Figure 11.8.1-1, the design span is assumed to be 154.0 ft when the beam is
supported on its bearing pads before it is made continuous, and 155.0 ft after the pier
diaphragm concrete is cured and the beam becomes continuous.
11.8.2
Materials and Beam
Cross-Section
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.1 Introduction/11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross-Section
Figure 11.8.1-2
Cross-Section
Figure 11.8.2-1
Modified 72-in.
AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee
JUN 04
Pretensioning strands:
-in.-dia, low-relaxation
2
pu
270.0 ksi
Yield strength, f
py
0.9f
pu
243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
p
28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Stress limits for pretensioning strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
before transfer, f
pi
0.75f
pu
202.5 ksi
Post-tensioning strands:
0.6-in.-dia, low-relaxation
2
pu
270.0 ksi
Yield strength, f
py
0.9f
pu
243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
p
28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
Stress limits for post-tensioning strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
prior to seating, f
s
0.9f
py
218.7 ksi
immediately after anchor set,
(f
pt
+ f
pES
+ f
pA
) 0.7f
pu
189 ksi
at end of the seating loss zone immediately after anchor set,
(f
pt
+ f
pES
+ f
pA
) 0.74f
pu
199.8 ksi
A maximum of three tendons, each with up to 15 strands, for
a total of 45 strands, will be assumed.
P-T Tendon Duct:
Rigid galvanized steel duct with outside diameter 3.75-in.
Reinforcing bars:
Yield strength, f
y
60 ksi
s
29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface:
An additional weight of 0.025 ksf for a future 2-in. concrete
wearing surface is included. Unit weight, w
c
0.150 kcf
New Jersey-type barriers:
Two weighing 0.300 kip/ft per barrier are assumed to be
distributed equally to all beams
Standard section properties for PCI BT-72 are modified to reflect the 1-in. increase
in width.
A cross-sectional area of beam 767 + 72 839 in.
2
h overall depth of beam 72 in.
11.8.3
Cross-Section Properties
11.8.3.1
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.2 Materials and Beam Cross-Section/11.8.3.1 Non-Composite Section
JUN 04
I moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite precast
beam 577,022 in.
4
y
b
distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast
beam 36.55 in.
y
t
distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
35.45 in.
S
b
beam 15,789 in.
3
S
t
16,276 in.
3
Beam weight 0.874 kip/ft.
The composite section properties are calculated according to the LRFD Specifications.
Figure 11.8.3.2-1 shows the cross-section of the composite section.
n modular ratio of deck and girder concretes 3,834/5,072 0.7559
A
c
total area of composite section 1,487 in.
2
h
c
overall depth of the composite section 72 + 7.5 + 0.5 80 in.
I
c
moment of inertia of the composite section 1,153,760 in.
4
y
bc
distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom
fiber of the precast beam
( )
Ay / A 80,038/1, 487
b c
53.81 in.
y
tg
the precast beam 72 53.81 18.19 in.
y
tc
the slab 80 53.81 26.19 in.
11.8.3.2
Composite Section
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.3.1 Non-Composite Section/11.8.3.2 Composite Section
Figure 11.8.3.2-1
Composite Transformed Section
JUN 04
S
bc
composite section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
1,153,760/53.81 21,441 in.
3
S
tg
composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast beam
1,153,760/18.19 63,428 in.
3
S
tc
composite section modulus of extreme top fiber of the slab

1
n
I
y
c
tc
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
1
0 7559
1 153 760
26 19 .
, ,
.
58,279 in.
3
The weight of the beam acts on the non-composite, simple-span beam. The staging
of post-tensioning (see Sect. 11.8.6.1) allows the weight of the slab and haunch to
act on the non-composite, continuous span beam. The weight of the barriers and
the future wearing surface, and the live load act on the composite, continuous-span
beam.
The values of shear forces and bending moments for a typical interior beam, under
self-weight of beam, weight of slab and haunch are computed, similar to Example
9.6. These are listed in Table 11.8.4-1. The two-span structure was analyzed using
a continuous beam program that has the capability to generate live load shear force
and bending moment envelopes for a lane of HL-93 live loading according to the
LRFD Specifications. The span lengths used are the continuous bridge with span
lengths of 155 ft.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.3.2 Composite Section/11.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments
11.8.4
Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
Distance
X
Section
Girder Weight
(Simple Span)
Slab+Haunch Weight
(Continuous Span)
Barrier Weight
(Continuous Span)
Wearing Surface
(Continuous Span)
HL-93 Live Load
Envelope
(Continuous Span)
Shear
Moment
M
g
Shear
Moment
M
s
Shear
Moment
M
b
Shear
Moment
M
ws
Shear
V
LL+I
Moment
M
LL+I
ft X/L kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips kips ft-kips
0.0 0.000 67.7 0.0 72.0 0.0 8.7 0.0 15.3 0.0 146.2 1,981.7
15.5 0.100 54.2 944.9 53.0 969.6 6.4 117.1 11.2 205.3 122.1 3,398.6
31.0 0.200 40.6 1,679.8 33.9 1,641.1 4.1 198.2 6.7 347.5 99.7 4,274.2
46.5 0.300 27.1 2,204.8 14.1 2,014.5 1.7 243.3 3.1 426.5 79.4 4,663.8
62.0 0.400 13.5 2,519.7 5.0 2,089.0 0.6 252.3 1.1 442.3 61.1 4,585.9
77.5 0.500 0.0 2,624.7 24.0 1,864.7 2.9 225.2 5.1 394.9 78.8 4,079.0
93.0 0.600 13.5 2,519.7 43.1 1,343.0 5.2 162.2 9.2 284.3 97.6 3,146.6
108.5 0.700 27.1 2,204.8 62.9 522.5 7.6 63.1 13.3 110.6 116.8 2,541.8
124.0 0.800 40.6 1,679.8 82.0 597.0 9.9 72.1 17.3 126.3 136.3 3,209.6
139.5 0.900 54.2 944.9 101.0 2,014.5 12.2 243.3 21.4 426.5 155.8 3,209.6
[1]
147.9 0.954 61.5 458.0 111.8 3,558.7 13.5 429.8 23.6 753.6 166.1 4,279.9
155.0 1.000 67.7 0.0 120.1 3,730.1 14.5 450.5 25.4 789.9 174.8 4,455.4
Note: Shear is given in absolute values
[1]
Section designed in shear
Table 11.8.4-1
Unfactored Shear Forces and Bending Moments for a Typical Interior Beam
JUN 04
For all limit states except the Fatigue Limit State, for two or more lanes loaded, the
distribution factor for moment (DFM) 0.849 lanes/beam. For one design lane
loaded, DFM 0.550 lanes/beam. Therefore, the case of the two design lanes loaded
controls.
For two or more lanes loaded, distribution factor for shear (DFV) 1.082 lanes/beam
[LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1]. For one design lane loaded, DFV 0.840 lanes/beam.
Therefore, the case of two design lanes loaded controls. Values of V
LL+I
and M
LL+I
at
various points along the span are given in Table 11.8.4-1.
The number of pretensioning strands is selected to resist at least 120 percent of
the beam weight. This would allow for a slight camber at prestress transfer and for
additional safety during handling and shipping.
Using the value of bending moment from Table 11.8.4-1, the bottom tensile stress
at midspan (0.5L), due to 1.2 times beam weight is:
f
1.2(2,624.7)(12)
15,789
ksi
b
2 394 .
Tensile stress limit at service loads
0.19 f
c
0.503 ksi [LRFD Table 5.9.4.2.2-1]
The required precompressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam is the difference
limit:
f
pb
2.394 0.503 1.891 ksi.
Similar to Example 9.6, assume the distance from the center of gravity of strands
to the bottom fiber of the beam, y
bs
, is equal to 7 percent of the beam depth, or,
y
bs
0.07h 0.07(72) 5.04 in. Then, strand eccentricity at midspan, e
c
, equals
y
b
y
bs
36.55 5.04 31.51 in.
The minimum required effective prestress force, P
pe
:
1
P
839
P (31.51)
15,789
pe pe
.891 +
Therefore, P
pe
593.2 kips. Assuming a total prestress loss of 25 percent, the pre-
stress force per strand after all losses (0.153)(202.5)(1 0.25) 23.2 kips. The
number of strands required is (593.2/23.2) 25.6 strands. Use 26, -in.-dia, 270
ksi, low-relaxation strands. The assumed strand pattern for the 26 strands at midspan
is shown in Figure 11.8.5-1. Each available location, with allowance for post-ten-
sioning ducts, was filled beginning with the bottom row.
11.8.5
Required Pretensioning
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.4 Shear Forces and Bending Moments/11.8.5 Required Pretensioning
JUN 04
The distance between the center of gravity of strands and the bottom fiber of the
beam,
y
bs
[10(2) + 10(4) + 6(6)]/(26) 3.69 in. Strand eccentricity at midspan, e
c
y
b
y
bs

36.55 3.69 32.86 in.
Before continuing with post-tensioning calculations, the designer should investigate
if analysis is warranted for slender member stability (see Section 8.10) or for stresses
at prestress transfer. In most cases, these two design considerations do not control.
In continuous structures, the moments due to post-tensioning may not be propor-
tional to the tendon eccentricity. The difference occurs because the deformations
imposed by the post-tensioning are resisted by the continuity of the members at the
piers. The moments resulting from the restraint to the post-tensioning deformations
are called secondary moments. Also, see Section 11.6.4.
The post-tensioning is applied in two stages. In the first stage, two of three equal
tendons are post-tensioned before the beams are made composite with the deck. The
second stage post-tensioning is applied through one tendon to the composite section.
This two-thirds, one-third division of post-tensioning allows for the deck to be pre-
compressed for crack control, yet not compressed enough to require extensive analysis
for effects of future deck removal and replacement.
11.8.6.1
Post-Tensioning Profile
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.5 Required Pretensioning/11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile
11.8.6
Modeling of
Post-Tensioning

Figure 11.8.5-1
Pretensioning Strand Pattern
at Midspan
JUN 04
Stage 1:
Place two tendons with two-thirds of the total number of post-tensioning strands
in the precast continuous member. Assume an initial post-tensioning force equal to
1,000 kips.
Stage 2:
Place one tendon with one-third of the total number of the post-tensioning strands in
the composite member. Assume an initial post-tensioning force equal to 500 kips.
Once the total required post-tensioning force is determined based on various design
criteria, the effects of the 1,500 kips (1,000 + 500) are linearly factored to correspond
to the calculated force and analysis continues.
Figure 11.8.6.1-1 shows the positions of the tendons in a cross-section of the beam. Note
that the clear spacing between ducts is taken as 1 in. This is a good practice as long as maxi-
mum aggregate size is not larger than 3/4 in. The LRFD Specifications, Article 5.10.3.3.2,
states that up to three ducts may be bundled as long as they are splayed out in the anchor-
age area for 3 ft, at a spacing of 1.5 in. or 1.33 times the maximum aggregate size.
Figure 11.8.6.1-2 shows the post-tensioning tendon profile for both stages. Tables
11.8.6.2-1 and 11.8.6.2-2, found in the next section, show tendon eccentricities at
various locations. In a detailed analysis, the difference between the centroid of the
tendon and the center of the ducts may be accounted for in accordance with LRFD
Article C5.9.1.6. The difference between the two centers is due to the fact that the
strands cluster near the top of the duct in the low segments of the duct profile and
cluster near the bottom in the high, negative moment areas of the duct profile. This
minor effect is ignored in the calculations of this example.
Figure 11.8.6.1-3 illustrates the equation used to calculate the eccentricity of the post-ten-
sion profile at any point of the span. For a tendon geometry to be fully defined, two condi-
tions are required for a straight-line tendon and three conditions for a second-degree curve.
EXTENDING SPANS
Figure 11.8.6.1-1
Duct Locations
JUN 04
It is common practice is to assume a parabolic profile, defined by three parabolas in the end
span of a continuous beam. The first has zero eccentricity at beam-end and has the maxi-
mum allowed bottom position at 0.4L with zero slope (or horizontal tangent) at that point.
The second parabola has the same eccentricity and tangential slope at 0.4L and a common
tangent and eccentricity as it joins the third parabola. The third parabola is a small curve
dictated by the specification limits of tendon curvature. Generally, it has common eccen-
tricity and is tangent with the second parabola. It has zero slope (horizontal tangent) over
the pier centerline and the maximum possible eccentricity. The point of common tangent
between the second and third parabolas has traditionally been taken as 0.1L from center-
line of support. However, other locations should be examined in an optimization of the
tendon profile. The assumptions made for the three parabolas allow the tendon geometry
to be fully defined when the eccentricities at the abutment (i.e., 0.0L), 0.4L, 0.9L, and pier
(i.e., 1.0L) are given.
EXTENDING SPANS
Figure 11.8.6.1-2
Post-Tensioning Tendon Profiles
Figure 11.8.6.1-3
Eccentricity of the Tendon
Profile
JUN 04
For bridges with interior spans, similar assumptions may be made, namely, horizontal
tangents at the ends and at 0.5L, and common tangents at 0.1L and 0.9L.
When equivalent loads are placed on the continuous beam, and structural analysis
is performed, the resulting moments, shears and reactions are the total effects. The
secondary moments are the total moments minus the primary moments, which are
defined as the products of the prestress force and the eccentricity at any given sec-
tion. Figure 11.8.6.2-1 shows the equivalent loads for the tendon profiles shown in
Figure 11.8.6.1-2.
Table 11.8.6.2-1 shows the total moments, primary moments and secondary
moments at tenth-span points due to Stage 1 post-tensioning. Table 11.8.6.2-2
shows the same quantities for Stage 2 post-tensioning.
11.8.6.2
Equivalent Loads
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.6.1 Post-Tensioning Profile/11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads

Figure 11.8.6.2-1
Post-Tensioning Equivalent
Vertical Loads and Moments
(Refined Method)
Point along Span 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Distance from
Top of Girder, in.
35.45 48.71 58.18 63.86 65.75 63.88 58.25 48.88 35.75 18.88 9.50
Tendon
Eccentricity, in.
0.00 13.26 22.73 28.41 30.30 28.43 22.80 13.43 0.30 16.58 25.95
Equivalent Loads:
Vertical Force,
kips
71.29 20.38 20.38 20.38 20.22 20.22 20.22 20.22 20.16 40.38 50.38
Moment,
ft-kips
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2,162.5
Total Moment,
ft-kips
0 1,013.6 1,711.3 2,093.2 2,159.3 1,912.0 1,351.4 479.2 706.4 2,204.5 3,076.8
Primary Moment,
ft-kips
0 1,105.0 1,894.2 2,367.5 2,525.0 2,369.2 1,900.0 1,119.2 25.0 1,381.7 2,162.5
Secondary
Moment, ft-kips
0 91.4 182.9 274.3 365.7 457.2 548.6 640.0 731.4 822.8 914.3
Table 11.8.6.2-1
Loads Applied by Post-Tensioning in Stage 1 (P 1,000 kips)
JUN 04
At this stage of analysis, the post-tensioning forces are not yet known and prestress
losses must be initially assumed. Table 11.8.7-1 shows the assumed prestressing levels
at each of the construction stages.
Elastic pretension loss, the total loss at time of post-tensioning and the total loss at
final service time are assumed to be 8, 13 and 18 percent, respectively, of initial pre-
stress which is assumed to be 75 percent of the specified ultimate strength. Once the
prestress forces are determined, primarily based on concrete tension limits at service
load conditions, then a detailed analysis of prestress loss should be conducted and the
prestress force revised if needed. The process of calculating prestress losses is covered
in detail in Chapters 8 and 9.
11.8.7
Required Post-Tensioning
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.6.2 Equivalent Loads/11.8.7 Required Post-Tensioning
Point along Span 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Distance from
Top of Girder, in.
18.19 35.88 48.52 56.10 58.63 56.75 51.13 41.75 28.63 11.75 2.38
Tendon
Eccentricity, in.
0.00 17.69 30.33 37.91 40.44 38.56 32.94 23.56 10.44 6.44 15.82
Equivalent Loads:
Vertical Force,
kips
47.55 13.58 13.60 13.58 11.86 10.05 10.11 10.05 10.11 20.16 25.22
Moment,
ft-kips
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 659.0
Total Moment,
ft-kips
0 629.8 1,049.2 1,257.8 1,256.0 1,071.4 728.9 230.8 423.1 1,233.7 1,731.8
Primary Moment,
ft-kips
0 737.1 1,263.8 1,579.6 1,685.0 1,606.7 1,372.5 981.7 435.0 268.3 659.2
Secondary
Moment, ft-kips
0 107.3 214.6 321.8 429.0 536.3 643.6 750.9 858.1 965.4 1,072.6
Table 11.8.6.2-2
Loads Applied by Post-Tensioning in Stage 2 (P 500 kips)
Construction Stage
Stress in
Pretensioning
Strand
Stress in Post-
Tensioning Strand,
Stage 1
Stress in Post-
Tensioning Strand,
Stage 2
Pretensioning
0.92(0.75)f
pu

186.3 ksi

Post-Tensioning Stage 1
0.87(0.75)f
pu

176.2 ksi
0.92(0.78)f
pu

193.8 ksi
Post-Tensioning Stage 2
0.87(0.75)f
pu

176.2 ksi
0.87(0.78)f
pu

183.2 ksi
0.92(0.78)f
pu

193.8 ksi
Service Loads
0.82(0.75)f
pu

166.1 ksi
0.82(0.78)f
pu

172.7 ksi
0.82(0.78)f
pu

172.7 ksi
Table 11.8.7-1
Assumed Effective Prestress at
Various Construction Stages
JUN 04
The pretensioning forces are:
Immediately following transfer,
26(0.153)(186.3) 741.1 kips
At Stage 1 (assumed to be the same as at Stage 2 post-tensioning),
26(0.153)(176.2) 700.8 kips
At service,
26(0.153)(166.1) 660.5 kips
Several factors affect post-tensioning losses. In addition to friction and anchor set
described in Section 11.6.2, post-tensioning at any stage affects the prestressing ten-
dons stressed in preceding stages. At this stage of analysis, post-tensioning losses are
estimated, as given in Table 11.8.7-1, to be verified later with a detailed analysis after
the post-tensioning forces are finalized.
Using 0.6-in.-dia strand (area per strand 0.217 in.
2
), the post-tensioning force per
strand is: For Stage 1 strands, following jacking, 193.8(0.217) 42.04 kips, and at
the time of Stage 2 post-tensioning, 39.76 kips, and at service 37.47 kips. For Stage
2 strands, immediately following jacking, 42.04 kips, and at service, 37.47 kips.
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
The concrete compressive stress limit for the Service I load combination due to
weight of beam, slab, future wearing surface and barriers, is 0.45f
c
. For the precast
beam alone, the limit is 0.45(7.0) +3.15 ksi, and for the slab, 0.45(4.0) +1.80
ksi. Due to dead loads plus live loads, for Service I load combination, the limit is
0.60f
c
, or +4.200 ksi for the precast beam and +2.400 ksi for the slab. For the Service
III load combination, the tension limit is 0.19 f
c
0.19 7.0 0.503 ksi.

The post-tensioning is calculated to satisfy tensile stresses at final service conditions
due to full loads. The maximum negative section at the pier and the maximum posi-
tive moment section at 0.4L from the abutment are the two sections used for this
analysis. Once the amount of post-tensioning is estimated, a detailed prestress loss
calculation is made and all other design criteria are verified, the post-tensioning is
adjusted as needed.
The values of the bending moments due to various cases of loading are given in
Table 11.8.4-1. The critical positive moment section is assumed to be at 0.4L. The
moments shown are:
M
g
, due to beam weight 2,519.7 ft-kips
M
s
, due to deck weight 2,089.0 ft-kips
M
b
, due to barrier weight 252.3 ft-kips
M
ws
, due to wearing surface weight 442.3 ft-kips
M
LL+I
, due to live load and impact 4,585.9 ft-kips
11.8.7.1
11.8.7.2
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.7 Required Post-Tensioning/11.8.7.2 Positive Moment Section
JUN 04
The pretensioning force at 0.4L, P
pe
660.5 kips, and its eccentricity is 32.86 in.
The total moments due to post-tensioning are shown in Tables 11.8.6.2-1 and
11.8.6.2-2, for assumed values of Stage 1 and Stage 2 post-tensioning. Allowing for
prestress losses:
Stage 1 total moment
2 37 47
1 000
2 159 3
( ) .
,
( , . )
n j
(
,
\
,
(

(0.075)(n) (2,159.3) 161.95(n) ft-kips
Stage 2 total moment
(n)37 47
500
1 256 0
.
( , . )
94.20(n) ft-kips
Where (n) is the number of 0.6-in.-dia strands per tendon. Stage 1 has two post-ten-
sioned tendons, i.e., 2(n) strands, and stage 2 has one tendon, i.e., (n) strands.
The bottom fiber stress due to each of the effects is given as:
+ +
(M M )
S
(M M ) 0.8M
S
g s
b
ws b LL+I
bc

+ + ( , . , . )( )
,
( . . )( ) . ( , . )( )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
15 789
442 3 252 3 12 0 8 4 585 9 12
21 441
5.945 ksi
(P )
A
(P )e
S
pe pe
b
+ +
660 5
839
660 5 32 86
15 789
. . ( . )
,
+0.787 + 1.375 +2.162 ksi
(P )
A
(M )
S
2(n)(37.47)
839
161.95(n)(12)
15,789
PT Stage1 Total Stage1
b
+ + +0.212(n) ksi
(P )
A
(M )
S
(n)(37.47)
1, 487
(n)(94.20)(12)
21, 441
PT Stage 2
c
Total Stage 2
bc
+ + +0.078(n) ksi
Therefore, the total stress is 5.945 + 2.162 + 0.212(n) + 0.078(n) ksi
By setting this value equal to the stress limit, 0.503 ksi, a value of n 12 strands per
tendon, or a total of 36 strands total, is found to be required.
The section at the centerline of the pier will be used for analysis of negative moment
stresses. For the refined analysis, the critical section should be selected at the face of
the diaphragm. It is interesting to note here that the requirement for checking tensile
stresses in the negative moment zone is not enforced by designers of bridges made
continuous without post-tensioning (using conventional reinforcement in the deck
slab). This added check has good value in that it controls top cracking in the pier area
and therefore increases the performance of the bridge. The claim can be made that
the owner is receiving higher value by using a post-tensioning system compared to a
conventionally-reinforced one.
11.8.7.3
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
From Table 11.8.4-1, the values of the bending moments are:
M
g
0.0 ft-kips; M
s
3,730.1 ft-kips; M
b
450.5 ft-kips;
M
ws
789.9 ft-kips; M
LL+I
4,455.4 ft-kips
The post-tensioning force at this section is:
Stage 1, P
PT
74.94(n) kips. The total moment per 1,000 kips of post-tensioning
force 3,076.8 ft-kips. This corresponds to (0.075)(n)(3,076.8)
230.76(n) ft-kips, where (n) is the number of strands per tendon in
the two-tendon Stage 1 post-tensioning.
Stage 2, P
PT
37.47(n) kips. The total moment per 500 kips of Stage 2 post-
tensioning 1,731.8ft-kips. This corresponds to (0.075)(n)(1,731.8)
129.89(n) ft-kips.
Solving for the total stress at the top fibers of the beam:
+ +
+ +
(M M )
S
(M M ) 0.8M
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
g s
t
ws b LL+I
tc
t
+ +
(P )
A
(M )
S
PT Stage 2
c
Total Stage 2
tc
2.750 0.909 +
74.94(n)
839
230.76(n)(12)
16, 276
37.47(n)
1, 487
129.89(n)(12)
63, 428
+ + +
3.659 + (0.089 + 0.170 + 0.025 + 0.025)(n) 0.503 ksi
Solving for (n), the minimum number of 0.6-in.-dia strands per post-tensioning ten-
don is 10.21, or, rounding, a total of 33 strands for the three tendons.
The positive moment section requires three more post-tensioning strands than the
negative moment section. In order to optimize, the P/T required for the negative
moment region will be used for the entire beam. An attempt will be made to increase
the positive moment capacity by adding pretensioning. However, due to the limita-
tions of the AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee, the maximum number of strands that can be
placed in the bottom flange, outside of the web area (which is reserved for post-ten-
sioning), is 28. So, the design will be attempted using 28, -in.-dia pretensioning
strands and 3 post-tensioning tendons of 11, 0.6-in.-dia strands.
The pretensioning force at this section, P
pe
711.2 kips. Strand eccentricity at mid-
span, e
c
y
b
y
bs
36.55 [(10(2) + 10(4) + 6(6) + 2(8)]/(28) 32.55 in.
Positive moment stress 5.945 +
711 2
839
711 2 32 55
15 789
. . ( . )
,
+ + 0.212(11) + 0.078(11)
5.945 + 0.848 + 1.466 + 3.190 0.441 ksi
Negative moment stress 3.659 + (0.089+0.170 + 0.025 + 0.025)(11) 0.260 ksi
Both values are within 0.503 ksi allowable tension for load combination, Service III.
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
As previously stated, the recommended method for calculation of prestress losses is
the one given in this manual in Section 8.6. It more accurately accounts for level of
prestress, concrete strength and environmental conditions than the Detailed Method
of the LRFD Specifications. It also allows for the long-term losses to be broken into
increments representing the significant construction stages present in this type of
superstructure. All calculations are made for the maximum positive moment section
and the resulting elastic shortening and long-term losses are assumed to be constant
along the entire length of the member.
For the calculation of prestress losses, the bridge is assumed to be located where the
average ambient relative humidity is 70 percent. The following construction schedule
has been assumed:
Pretensioning is transferred one day after beam concrete placement
Stage 1 post-tensioning occurs at 30 days
Deck slab concrete is placed at 60 days
Stage 2 post-tensioning and superimposed dead loads are applied shortly after
the deck is placed
To simplify the time-dependent calculations, it is reasonable to calculate the creep
and shrinkage coefficients for three time periods: 1 to 30 days, 30 to 60 days and 60
to 20,000 days. The selection of 20,000 days is arbitrary and represents a bridge life
of 55 years. Creep and shrinkage essentially cease after several years so this assump-
tion is inconsequential. It is further assumed that no time-dependent effects take
place between deck placement, Stage 2 post-tensioning, and application of superim-
posed dead load.
Using the procedures of Section 8.6.5, the beam creep coefficient for a loading
age of one day and a loading duration of 29 days is 0.691. Assuming a loading age
of 30 applied to all concrete stress components introduced between 1 and 30 days,
and a loading duration of 30 days (60 30), the creep coefficient is 0.507. For
concrete loaded at 60 days and for a loading duration of 20,000 days
( 20,000 60), the creep coefficient is 1.00. The corresponding shrinkage strains
of the beam are 143 x 10
-6
, 65 x 10
-6
, and 167 x 10
-6
in./in. The strand relaxation is
a minor contributor to the prestress losses and it is assumed equal to 1.2 ksi between
1 and 30 days, 1.2 ksi between 30 and 60 days, and zero thereafter. The modulus of
elasticity was calculated earlier. These are E
c
(deck) 3,834 ksi; E
c
(beam) at one day
4,496 ksi and at 30 days (assumed the same as at 28 days) 5,072 ksi.
At day one, elastic shortening loss is calculated for pretensioning and beam self-
weight. The initial prestress, just before transfer is assumed equal to 0.75f
pu
202.5
ksi. When the corresponding force and the self-weight moment are introduced to a
transformed precast concrete section, with the steel area transformed by the factor,
n
i
E
p
/E
ci
, the resulting concrete stress is the true stress in the section. The concrete
stress at the centroid of the steel, multiplied by the modular ratio results in an elastic
shortening loss 5.458 ksi.
11.8.8
Prestress Losses
11.8.8.1
Prediction Method
11.8.8.2
Time-Dependent Material
Properties
11.8.8.3
Loss Increments
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.8 Prestress Losses/11.8.8.3 Loss Increments
JUN 04
The concrete stress at the centroid of the pretensioning steel is used to calculate the
creep loss between 1 and 30 days. With the relaxation loss added, the total long-term
loss between 1 and 30 days is 7.987 ksi.
The concrete stress at the centroid of the pretensioning steel due to Stage 1 post-
tensioning allows determination of elastic loss due to that stage of post-tensioning.
The post-tensioning force is the applied load. The stress in the post-tensioning steel
is calculated with due consideration of friction losses as given in Section 11.6.2 to be
187.18 ksi. The corresponding force is introduced to a transformed precast section
with the pretensioning steel area transformed by the factor n E
p
/E
c
. The resulting
elastic shortening loss is 13.744 ksi. The net concrete stress at the pretensioning steel
level immediately after application of Stage 1 post-tensioning is then used to calculate
creep loss between 30 and 60 days. The corresponding long-term loss in the preten-
sioning steel is 8.922 ksi.
The elastic gain due to deck weight is calculated using the same section properties as
for the Stage 1 post-tensioning. It is found to be 7.102 ksi.
Transformed composite section properties are used for all effects that follow deck
placement. The deck slab is transformed to beam concrete using E
c
(deck)/E
c
(beam).
The pretensioning steel and the post-tensioning steel are transformed using
E
p
/E
c
(beam). The elastic loss due to Stage 2 post-tensioning, and the elastic gain due to
superimposed dead load are calculated and the net concrete stress at centroid of preten-
sioning steel is determined. Combined with the creep and shrinkage properties between
60 days and 20,000 days, the long-term loss is calculated. It is found to be 17.682 ksi.
Similar calculations are carried out for post-tensioning Stage 1, except that concrete
stresses are calculated at the centroid of the post-tensioning steel at that stage. Also, note
that the transformed section should not include the area of the post-tensioning steel until
after that steel is anchored to the concrete and grouted. For purposes of loss calculations,
grouting is assumed to be completed immediately after a tendon is post-tensioned.
Stresses in the prestressed reinforcement are summarized in Table 11.8.8.3-1 and are
plotted in Figure 11.8.8.3-1.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.8.3 Loss Increments
Figure 11.8.8.3-1
Stresses in the Prestressed
Reinforcement
JUN 04
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2]
Compression:
Due to Service I, permanent load combination:
c
0.45(7.0) +3.15 ksi
for the deck slab: 0.45f
c
0.45(4.0) +1.80 ksi
Due to Service I, full load combination:
c
0.60(7.0) +4.200 ksi
for the deck slab: 0.60f
c
0.60(4.0) +2.400 ksi
Tension:
For Service III, full load combination:
for the precast beam: 0.19 f
c
0.19 7.0 0.503 ksi

The conditions at the time of Stage 1 and Stage 2 post-tensioning are considered
temporary and tension and compression limits should be the same as for the condi-
tions of Service III.
11.8.9
Service Limit State at
Section 0.4L
11.8.9.1
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.8.3 Loss Increments/11.8.9.1 Stress Limits for Concrete
Loading
Construction
Schedule,
days
Stress, ksi
Pretensioning
Stage 1
Post-
Tensioning
Stage 2
Post-
Tensioning
Pretensioning plus
Girder Weight
1 197.042
Long-Term 1-30 189.055
Stage 1 Post-
Tensioning
30 175.311 187.18
Long-Term 30-60 166.389 178.276
Deck Weight 60 173.490 184.861
Stage 2 Post-
Tensioning
60 168.041 179.59 187.18
Superimposed
Dead Load
60 169.822 181.287 188.618
Long-Term 60-20,000 152.140 163.646 171.245
Live Load 20,000 163.911 174.867 180.724
80% Live Load
(Service III)
20,000 161.557 172.623 178.828
Table 11.8.8.3-1
Prestress Levels at Loading
Stages using PCI Loss Methods
JUN 04
The maximum positive moment section, located at 0.4L, is checked.
The pretensioning force, P
pe
28(0.153)(175.311) 751.032 kips
Post-tensioning, Stage 1, P
PT
22(0.217)(187.18) 893.597 kips
f
tg

(M M )
S
P
A
P (e)
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
g s
t
pe pe
t
t
+
+ +
+
+
+
( , . , . )
,
. . ( . )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
16 276
751 032
839
751 032 32 55
16 276
+
893 597
839
893 597 2 159 3
1 000
12
16 276
. . ( , . )
,
( )
,
+3.398 + 0.895 1.502 + 1.065 1.424 +2.432 ksi < +3.15 ksi OK
f
b

+
+ + +
(M M )
S
P
A
P (e)
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
g s
b
pe pe
b
b

+
+
( , . , . )( )
,
. . ( . )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
15 789
751 032
839
751 032 32 55
15 789

+ +
893 597
839
893 597 2 159 3
1 000
12
15 789
. . ( , . )
,
( )
,
3.503 + 0.895 + 1.548 + 1.065 + 1.466 +1.471 ksi < +3.15 ksi OK
The maximum positive moment section, located at 0.4L, is checked.
Immediately after Stage 2 post-tensioning, the following prestressing forces act on
the cross-section:
Pretensioning force, P
pe
28(0.153)(168.04) 719.883 kips
PT
22(0.217)(179.59) 857.363 kips
PT
11(0.217)(187.18) 446.8 kips
f
tg

(M M )
S
P
A
P (e)
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
g s
t
pe pe
t
t
+
+ + +
+ +
(P )
A
(M )
S
PT
Stage 2
c
Total Stage 2
tg

( , . , . )( )
,
. . ( . )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
16 276
719 883
839
719 883 32 55
16 276
+
+
+ + +
857 363
839
857 363 2 159 3
1 000
12
16 276
446 8
1 487
446 8 1 256 0
500
12
63 428
. . ( , . )
,
( )
,
.
,
. ( , . ) ( )
,
+3.398 + 0.858 1.440 + 1.022 1.365 + 0.300 0.212
+2.561 ksi < +3.15 ksi OK
11.8.9.2
Stage 1
Post-Tensioning
11.8.9.3
Stage 2
Post-Tensioning
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.9.2 Stage 1 Post-Tensioning/11.8.9.3 Stage 2 Post-Tensioning
JUN 04
f
b

+
+ +
(M M )
S
P
A
P (e)
S
g s
b
pe pe
b
+ + + +
(P )
A
(M )
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
b
PT
Stage 2
c
Total Stage 2
bc

+
+ +
( , . , . )( )
,
. . ( . )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
15 789
719 883
839
719 883 32 55
15 789
+ + + +
857 363
839
857 363 2 159 3
1 000
12
15 789
446 8
1 487
446 8 1 256 0
500
12
21 441
. . ( , . )
,
( )
,
.
,
. ( , . ) ( )
,
3.503 + 0.858 + 1.484 + 1.022 + 1.407 + 0.300 + 0.628
+2.196 ksi < +3.15 ksi OK
To check compressive stress at the top fiber of the beam, two cases are checked:
1. Under permanent load, Service I:
At long term without the live load effect, the following prestressing forces act on the
cross-section:
pe
28(0.153)(152.14) 651.768 kips
PT
22(0.217)(163.646) 781.246 kips
PT
11(0.217)(171.245) 408.762 kips
Using bending moment values given in Table 11.8.4-1, concrete stress at the top
fiber of the beam is:
f
tg
+
+
+
+
+ +
(M M )
S
(M M )
S
P
A
P (e)
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
g s
t
ws b
tg
pe pe
t
t
+
(P )
A
(M )
S
PT Stage 2
c
Total Stage 2
tg
+
( , . , . )( )
,
( . . )( )
,
. . ( . )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
16 276
442 3 252 3 12
63 428
651 768
839
651 768 32 55
16 276
+
+
+
+
+ +
781 246
839
781 246 2 159 3
1 000
12
16 276
408 762
1 487
408 762 1 256 0
500
12
63 428
. . ( , . )
,
( )
,
.
,
. ( , . ) ( )
,
3.398 + 0.131 + 0.777 1.303 + 0.931 1.244 + 0.275 0.194
+2.771 ksi < +3.15 ksi OK
At long term with 80 percent live load effect, the following prestressing forces act on
the cross-section:
pe
28(0.153)(161.557) 692.110 kips
PT
22(0.217)(172.623) 824.102 kips
PT
11(0.217)(178.828) 426.862 kips
11.8.9.4
Compression Due to
Service I Loads
11.8.9.5
Tension Due to
Service III Loads
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.9.3 Stage 2 Post-Tensioning/11.8.9.5 Tension Due to Service III Loads
JUN 04
f
b

+
+ +
(M M )
S
(M M ) 0.8(M )
S
g s
b
ws b LL+I
bc
+ + + + +
P
A
P (e)
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
(P )
A
(M )
S
pe pe
b
b
PT Stage2
c
Total Stage2
bc

+
+ + ( , . , . )( )
,
( . . . ( , . ))( )
,
2 519 7 2 089 0 12
15 789
442 3 252 3 0 8 4 585 9 12
21 441
+ + + +
692 110
839
692 110 32 55
15 789
824 102
839
824 102 2 159 3
1 000
12
15 789
. . ( . )
,
. . ( , . )
,
( )
,
+ +
426 862
1 487
426 862 1 256 0
500
12
21 441
.
,
. ( , . ) ( )
,
3.503 2.442 + 0.825 + 1.427 + 0.982 + 1.352 + 0.287 + 0.600
0.472 ksi > 0.503 ksi OK
The above process should be repeated for several sections along the span, usually
1/10
th
span points.
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.1]
Compression: 0.6f
ci
0.6(5.5) 3.300 ksi
Tension without bonded auxiliary reinforcement:
0.0948 f
ci
0.0948 5.5 0.222 ksi 0.200 ksi

Therefore, 0.200 ksi controls.
Tension with bonded auxiliary reinforcement which is sufficient to resist the tension
force in the concrete: 0.24 f
ci
0.24 5.5 0.563 ksi

Stresses at the end of the transfer length must be checked at time of transfer. This
stage usually governs design. However, the magnitude of losses will lessen with time,
rendering the concrete stresses less critical.
P
i
(28)(0.153)(189.055) 809.911 kips
Transfer length 60(Strand diameters) 60(0.5) 30 in. 2.5 ft [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.3]
11.8.10
Stresses at Transfer of
Pretensioning Force
11.8.10.1
11.8.10.2
Length Section
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.9.5 Tension Due to Service III Loads/11.8.10.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section
JUN 04
Bending moment at a distance 2.5 ft from the end of the beam due to beam self-
weight: M
g
(0.5)(0.874)(2.5)(155 2.5) 166.6 ft-kips.
Stress at the top fiber of the beam:
f
t

P
A
Pe
S
M
S
809.911
839
(809.911)(32.55)
16, 276
(166.6)(12)
16, 276
i i c
t
g
t
+ +
0.965 1.620 + 0.123 0.532 ksi > 0.563 ksi OK
Stress at the bottom fiber of the beam:
f
b

P
A
Pe
S
M
S
i i
b
g
b
+ +
809 911
839
809 911 32 55
15 789
166 6 12
15 789
. . ( . )
,
( . )( )
,

0.965 + 1.670 0.127 +2.508 ksi < 3.300 ksi OK
Tensile stress does not satisfy the limit for concrete with bonded reinforcement
(0.516 ksi). If four strands are debonded at the end of the member for six feet, the
limit can be shown to be satisfied. Adding crack control conventional reinforcement
at the top of the precast beam is required to satisfy the LRFD Specifications. Refer to
Chapters 8 and 9 of this manual for additional details. Compressive stress is within
the limit of +3.300 ksi.
Bending moment due to the weight of the beam at midspan:
M
g
(0.5)(0.874)(77.5)(155 77.5) 2,624.7 ft-kips
Concrete stress at the top fiber of the beam:
f
t

809 911
839
809 911 32 55
16 276
2 624 7 12
16 276
. . ( . )
,
( , . )( )
,
+
0.965 1.620 + 1.935 +1.280 ksi OK
Concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam:
f
b

809 911
839
809 911 32 55
15 789
2 624 7 12
15 789
. . ( . )
,
( , . )( )
,
+
0.965 + 1.670 1.995 +0.640 ksi OK
Using the values of bending moments from Tables 11.8.4-1, 11.8.6.2-1 and
11.8.6.2-2, total ultimate bending moment for Strength I is:
For Stage 1 post-tensioning, M
secondary

822 08
1 000
.
,
j
(
,
\
,
(
(365.7) 300.6 ft-kips
secondary

411 04
500
. j
(
,
\
,
(
(429.0) 352.7 ft-kips
11.8.10.3
Stresses at Midspan
11.8.11
Strength Limit State
11.8.11.1
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.10.2 Stresses at Transfer Length Section/11.8.11.1 Positive Moment Section
JUN 04
M
u
1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL+IM) + 1.0(M
secondary
)
[LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1&2]
M
u
1.25(2,519.7 + 2,089.0 + 252.3) + 1.5(442.3) + 1.75(4,585.9) + 1.0(300.6 + 352.7)
15,418.3ft-kips
At this section, there are three layers of prestressing steel, as shown in Table 11.8.11.1-1.
This example used the strain compatibility approach to calculate the capacity of
the section. For detailed information on the method, please refer to Chapter 8. The
LRFD Specifications approximate formulas are not recommended in this type of
application.
Using the strain compatibility method, the following results were found:
The distance from top of the composite section to the neutral axis, c 9.966 in.
The depth of the rectangular stress block, a 8.3634 in.
The nominal moment capacity, M
n
17,504.87 ft-kips
Average stress in the pretensioning steel, f
ps
267.98 ksi
Average stress in the post-tensioning steel, Stage 1, f
ps
267.88 ksi
Average stress in the post-tensioning steel, Stage 2, f
ps
265.96 ksi
r
M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
resistance factor 1.00, [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete
M
r
17,504.87 ft-kips > M
u
15,418.3 ft-kips OK
Ignoring the width of the pier diaphragm and using the values of bending moments
from Table 11.8.4-1, Table 11.8.6.2-1 and Table 11.8.6.2-2, the total factored
bending moment for Strength I is:
11.8.11.2
EXTENDING SPANS
Layer
A
ps
,
in.
2
Distance from
Bottom of
Section, in.
Pretensioned
Strands
4.284 4.0
Post-Tensioning
Stage 1
4.774 6.25
Post-Tensioning
Stage 2
2.387 13.375
Total 11.445
Table 11.8.11.1-1
Prestressing Steel at 0.4L
JUN 04
secondary

822 08
1 000
.
,
j
(
,
\
,
(
(914.3) 751.6 ft-kips
secondary

411 04
500
. j
(
,
\
,
(
(1,072.6) 881.8 ft-kips
The ultimate moment is computed using load factors found in LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1
& 2. The load factor for secondary moments is determined by the factor for EL
defined in LRFD Article 3.3.2.
M
u
1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL+IM) + 1.0(M
secondary
)
[LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 & 2]
M
u
1.25(3,730.1 450.5) + 1.5(789.9) + 1.75(4,455.4) + 1.0(751.6 + 881.8)
12,574.2 ft-kips
The compression face is the bottom flange of the beam which is 27-in. wide. The
deck reinforcement in the longitudinal direction is assumed to be #6 @ 6-in. top
and bottom. At this section there are three layers of reinforcement as shown in Table
11.8.11.2-1.
Using the strain compatibility method, the depth of the compression block is large
and the stress in the prestressing steel is low, causing the steel to be used inefficiently.
This is due to the relatively small bottom flange of the AASHTO-PCI Bulb Tee,
which was not originally developed for continuous post-tensioned applications. If
this section is the only one available locally, the compression capacity of the bottom
flange can be enhanced in several ways:
increase the strength of the concrete in the precast beam.
add compression reinforcement in the bottom flange of the precast beam if it
does not interfere with the pretensioning strands already there.
add a structural steel plate embedded in the bottom of the precast section. Make
the plate composite through the use of studs, similar to the connection of plate
girders to deck slabs.
EXTENDING SPANS
Layer
Area of
Steel,
in.
2
Distance from Top
of the Composite
Section, in.
Reinforcement
in the Deck
16.720 3.750
Post-Tensioning
Stage 1
4.774 17.500
Post-Tensioning
Stage 2
2.387 10.375
Total 23.881
Table 11.8.11.2-1
Reinforcing Steel at the Pier
JUN 04
In this example, if a 1-in.-thick steel plate is used, strain compatibility analysis pro-
duces the following results:
Neutral axis depth, c 11.895 in.
Rectangular stress block depth, a 8.327 in.
Stress in mild reinforcement, f
ps
60.0 ksi
Average stress in Stage 1 post-tensioning steel, f
ps
262.55 ksi
Stress in Stage 2 post-tensioning , f
ps
264.19 ksi
Nominal capacity, M
n
16,393.65 ft-kips
r
M
n
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.1-1]
where
resistance factor [LRFD Art. 5.5.4.2.1]
1.00, for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete
M
r
16,393.65 ft-kips > M
u
12,574.2 ft-kips OK
Further design refinement may prove that a thinner plate is adequate. It will also
determine the location where the plate may be terminated.
This section is a prestressed reinforced concrete section. The maximum amount of
reinforcement, according to LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1, should be such that:
c
d
e
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
where d
e

A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]
Since A
s
0, d
e
d
p
73.11 in.

c
d
e
9 966
73 11
.
.
0.136 < 0.42 OK
According to LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.2, the minimum amount of prestressed and non-
prestressed tensile reinforcement should be adequate to develop a factored flexural
resistance, M
r
, equal to the lesser of 1.2 times the cracking strength determined on
the basis of elastic stress distribution and the modulus of rupture, and 1.33 times the
factored moment required by the applicable strength load combination.
At midspan:
The following equation, adapted from the Standard Specifications, Article 9.18.2.1, is
used for computing the cracking moment:
M
cr
(f
r
+ f
pb
)S
b
M
d/nc
(S
bc
/S
b
1)
11.8.12
Limits of Reinforcement
11.8.12.1
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.11.2 Negative Moment Section/11.8.12.1 Positive Moment Section
JUN 04
where
f
r
modulus of rupture 0.24 f
c
0.24 7 0 . 0.635 ksi

[LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]
f
pb
allowance for all prestress losses) at extreme fiber of the section where

P
A
P e
S
P
A
M
S
pe pe c
b
Pretensioning
pe
Total
b
P/ TStage 1
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(
+

P
A
M
S
pe
Total
bc
PT Stage 2
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

651.768
839
(32.55)
15,789
781.246
839
1,686.94(12)
15,789
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
(
651 768 .
+

408.762
1, 487
1,026.81(12)
21, 441
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
2.211 + 2.213 + 0.850 5.274 ksi
M
d/nc
moment due to non-composite dead loads
M
g
+ M
s
2,519.7 + 2,089.0 4,608.7 ft-kips
S
bc
composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of the section where
the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads 21,441 in.
3
S
b
non-composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of the section
where the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads 15,789 in.
3
M
cr
( . . )
,
( , . )
,
,
0 635 5 274
15 789
12
4 608 7
21 441
15 789
1 +
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
6,125.0 ft-kips
1.2M
cr
1.2(6,125.0) 7,350.0 ft-kips
At midspan, the factored moment required by the Strength I load combination,
M
u
15,418.3ft-kips
1.33M
u
1.33(15,433.4) 20,506.3 ft-kips
Since 1.2M
cr
< 1.33M
u
, 1.2M
cr
controls, and, M
r
17,504.87 ft-kips > 1.2M
cr
OK
The maximum amount of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement, according
to LRFD Article 5.7.3.3.1, should be such that:
c
d
e
0.42 [LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
11.8.12.2
EXTENDING SPANS
JUN 04
where
d
e

A f d A f d
A f A f
ps ps p s y s
ps ps s y
+
+
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-2]

4 774 262 55 62 5 2 387 264 19 69 62 16 72 60 76 25
4 774 262 55 2 387 264 19 16 72 60
. ( . )( . ) ( . )( . )( . ) ( . )( )( . )
. ( . ) ( . )( . ) ( . )( )
+
[ ]
+
+
[ ]
+
68.83 in.
c
d
0.173
e

11 895
68 83
.
.
0.42 OK
For an example of detailed calculations of shear design, refer to Example 9.2 of
Chapter 9. The following calculation is intended to demonstrate the feasibility of this
beam size in shear and the order of magnitude of the shear reinforcement required.
A section at 7.1 ft away from the pier centerline is considered. The factored shear,
V
u
482.7 kips, and the factored moment, M
u
12,056.23 ft-kips.
Based on the LRFD Specifications, the effective web width for shear after the duct is
grouted, is the gross web width minus 50 percent of the duct diameter:
b
v
7.00 3.75/2 5.13 in. [LRFD Art. 5.8.2.7]
The effective depth for shear, d
v
61.32 in. By conservatively assuming that 2 and
45, the calculated V
c
and V
p
are 52.6 kips and 56.90 kips respectively, and the
required V
s
426.83 kips. Therefore, the required A
v
/s is calculated to be 1.39 in.
2
/ft.
Use WWR D20 with 3" spacing. The sum of V
c
and V
s
is 479.43 kips, which is less
than maximum limit of 0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
528.42 kips.
The calculations presented in Section 11.8 cover the preliminary design steps needed to:
check adequacy of the precast member for the selected span and spacing
determine concrete strength
determine the amount of pretensioning required
determine the amount of post-tensioning required
After a solution is established, a thorough and detailed design should be performed.
As a minimum, a commercially available continuous beam analysis program is needed
for the detailed analysis for post-tensioning and live load effects. Specialized programs
for computing moments and shears from LRFD live loads may also be used.
The following items should be considered in completing the design:
1. Calculate the prestress losses at various stages of loading and construction, spe-
cifically at pretension transfer, Stage 1 post-tensioning, Stage 2 post-tensioning
and final time. The method in Section 8.6 has been used in the calculations in
this example. TRB Report 496 (Tadros, et al, 2002) provides a refined method
11.8.13
Shear Design
11.8.14
Comments and
Remaining Steps
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.12.2 Negative Moment Section/11.8.14 Comments and Remaining Steps
JUN 04
for calculations of prestress losses. It includes creep and shrinkage parameters for
high strength concrete and effects of differential creep and shrinkage between the
beam and the deck. A study by Girgis, et al (2002) using the TRB Report 496
approach shows that the new method produces more realistic prestress losses than
the current LRFD methods. The method in Section 8.6 provides reasonable inter-
mediate results. It is acceptable to calculate the long-term prestress losses and the
maximum positive moment cross-section in an interior beam line, and use these
values throughout the member.
2. Determine the bending moments and shear forces due to pretensioning, dead
loads and live loads. A spreadsheet table could be used to organize the calculations
at equal span increments, say tenth points of each span.
3. Conduct service load analysis and check concrete stresses at various sections and
various loading and construction stages. Modify prestressing if necessary and
recycle the analysis.
4. Conduct strength analysis. Avoid the unnecessary penalties imposed by the LRFD
Specifications described earlier in this example, by using the strain compatibility
approach in Section 8.2.2.5 of this manual, including Masts unified method vari-
able reduction factor (see discussion by Girgis, et al, 2002). If there is strength
deficiency in a positive moment area, attempt to correct it by providing additional
pretensioning. If there is a deficiency in a negative moment area, attempt to cor-
rect it by providing additional deck reinforcement.
5. Calculate cambers and deflections. Use this information to determine require-
ments for setting the build-up over the beam top flange, and for setting the beam
seat elevations to match the roadway profile. Also, check to see that live load
deflection is within the optimal limits.
6. Conduct a thorough shear design. Systems of this type have a reduced equivalent
web width due to the presence of post-tensioning ducts. The LRFD Specifications
limit of 0.25f
c
b
v
d
v
on the maximum shear force controls the design in many cases.
This provides a better solution compared to the previous Standard Specifications
limit.
7. Design and detail the post-tensioning anchorage zone, as suggested in Section 11.7.
EXTENDING SPANS
11.8.14 Comments and Remaining Steps
JUN 04
This example provides a summary of the calculations for a bridge constructed in 2003 and
2004 in Omaha, Nebraska, at Dodge Street (US Highway 6) and 204th Street (Nebraska
Highway 31). Some of the significant considerations are presented in summary.
The length of this single-span bridge is 206.7 ft. The project used the NU2000PT
(Nebraska) I-beam. The beam depth is 78.74 in. (2,000 mm) and web width is 6.9
in. The bridge section consists of 7 beams spaced at 8'-4.3". The bridge is 58-ft wide.
Details of the bridge are shown in Figure 11.9.1-1.
A composite, 8-in.-thick concrete slab (7.5-in. structural depth) is cast-in-place. Each beam
line uses three beam segments. The end segments are approximately 28-ft long each and
the center segment is nearly 149-ft long. These lengths are in addition to two, 12-in.-wide
spaces for the splices. The compressive strength of the precast beam concrete is 10 ksi and
4.3 ksi for the CIP slab. The bridge is designed in accordance with LRFD Specifications, 2
nd

Edition and the 1999 and 2000 Interim Revisions. Design live load is HL-93.
11.9
DESIGN EXAMPLE:
SINGLE SPAN, THREE-
SEGMENT BEAM
11.9.1
Input Data and
Design Criteria
EXTENDING SPANS
11.9 Design Example: Single Span, Three-Segment Beam/11.9.1 Input Data and Design Criteria
Figure 11.9.1-1
Details of the
Dodge Street Bridge
JUN 04
The construction stages are as follows:
Stage 1: Fabricate precast beam segments
Stage 2: Erect precast beam segments on temporary towers and abutments
Stage 3: Splice post-tensioning ducts and cast splice
Stage 5: Stress post-tension tendons and remove temporary towers
Stage 6: Place deck slab
Stage 7: Construct barriers
The construction stages are summarized in Figure 11.9.2-1. This construction
schedule does not provide compression in the deck, since all post-tensioning is
applied before the deck is cast. This solution is also less efficient, since only the beam
is post-tensioned. However, this does permit removal of the deck for replacement.
11.9.2
Construction Stages
EXTENDING SPANS
11.9.2 Construction Stages
Figure 11.9.2-1
Construction Sequence of the
Dodge Street Bridge
JUN 04
The critical section in flexure, after all losses, due to full loads plus effective prestress,
is at midspan. For pretensioning and post-tensioning details, see Figures 11.9.3-1
and 11.9.3-2 respectively.
Table 11.9.3-1 provides the bending moments for an interior beam line. Table
11.9.3-2 gives a summary of the concrete stresses at midspan. The table shows that
the most critical stress is concrete compression at the top fibers of the beam due to
effective prestress plus permanent loads. The stress limit in the LRFD Specifications is
0.45f
c
. It required the beam concrete strength to be specified at 10 ksi.
11.9.3
Flexure at Service
Limit State
EXTENDING SPANS
11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State
Figure 11.9.3-1
Pretensioning Details
Figure 11.9.3-2
Post-Tensioning Details
JUN 04
The required factored bending moment is:
M
u
1.25(DC) + 1.5(DW) + 1.75(LL + IM) + 1.0(M
secondary
)
[LRFD Tables 3.4.1-1 & 2]
Since this is a statically determinate beam, there are no secondary effects from post-
tensioning.
M
u
1.25(2,774.54 + 2,499.20 + 4,464.75 + 560.76) + 1.5(1,116.19) + 1.75(5,031.5)
23,353.47 ft-kips
At this section, there are seven layers of prestressing steel as shown in Table 11.9.4-1.
Using the strain compatibility method, the following results were found:
Neutral axis depth, c 32.3 in.
Stress block depth, a 24.5 in.
Stress in the pretensioning steel varied from 243.99 ksi to 247.85 ksi
Stress in the post-tensioning steel varied from 241.90 ksi to 246.47 ksi
M
r
27,317.73 ft-kips > M
u
23,353.47 ft-kips OK
11.9.4
Flexure at Strength
Limit State
EXTENDING SPANS
11.9.3 Flexure at Service Limit State/11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State
Loading
Bending Moment at
Midspan Section,
ft-kips
Girder Weight 2,774.54
Support Removal 2,499.20
Deck Slab 4,464.75
Wearing Surface 1,116.19
Barriers 560.76
Live Loads 5,031.50
Table 11.9.3-1
Bending Moments at Midspan
Table 11.9.3-2
at Midspan Location/
Load Stage
Top of Slab (ksi)
Service I
Top of Beam (ksi)
Service I
Bottom of
Beam (ksi)
Service III
Permanent
Loads
Total
Loads
Permanent
Loads
Total
Loads
Total
Loads
At Midspan 0.279 1.117 4.492 5.491 1.054
Allowable
Stresses
1.935 2.580 4.500 6.000 0.600
JUN 04
This is a simple, yet important application of spliced beams. Single-point urban
interchanges such as the Dodge Street Bridge are becoming increasingly important.
They require a single long, wide span.
Production and handling of 200-ft-long beams would be challenging in most areas, although
it has been achieved, for example, on the Bow River (Sect. 11.5.4). Temporary towers were
used to support the segments during construction of the Dodge Street Bridge. However,
post-tensioning segments together on the ground, then lifting the full-length beam into place
is also challenging and requires careful slenderness calculations and the use of larger erection
equipment. Before a decision is made, all of these options should be investigated for each
project. Contractors can be an excellent resource to designers in this situation and are usually
willing to contribute. Many precasters have had experience furnishing these products and
are also good resources. It is practically impossible to achieve the span demonstrated by this
example without carefully combining pretensioning with post-tensioning.
The 10 ksi specified concrete strength for the Dodge Street Bridge beams helped keep
the compressive stress due to effective prestress plus permanent loads below the LRFD
Specifications limit of 0.45f
c
. This strength is now achievable in most parts of the
country. In addition, the strength of the deck could be increased to improve behavior
at both service and strength limit states.
On bridges of this type, it is important to carefully calculate instantaneous and long-
term deflections at various stages of loading and at final conditions. Net long-term
deflection may be downward. To compensate for a possible sag in the span, which
may be psychologically unacceptable, the elevations of the temporary tower supports
can be raised to create a cambered beam.
More useful design and construction details can be found in an article by Van Lund, et al
(2002) on the Twisp River Bridge in Washington State, which is similar to the bridge in
this example.
11.9.5
Discussion
EXTENDING SPANS
11.9.4 Flexure at Strength Limit State/11.9.5 Discussion
Layer A
ps
, in.
2
Distance from Bottom
of Section, in.
Layer 1
3.472 2.000
Layer 2
3.472 4.000
Layer 3
2.170 6.000
Layer 4
0.868 8.000
First Post-Tensioning
Tendon
3.255 3.875
Second Post-Tensioning
Tendon
3.255 8.625
Third Post-Tensioning
Tendon
3.255 13.375
Table 11.9.4-1
Prestressing Steel at Midspan
JUN 04
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Second Edition, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1998
Abdel-Karim, A.M., Analysis and Design of Precast/Prestressed Spliced-Girder Bridges,
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Omaha, NE, 1991, 178pp.
Abdel-Karim, A.M. and Tadros, M.K., Design and Construction of Spliced I-Girder
Bridges, PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No. 4, July-August 1992, pp. 114-122
ACI Committee 363, State-of-the-Art Report on High-Strength Concrete, (ACI
363R-92), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1992
Bexten, K.A., Hennessey, S. and LeBlanc, B., The Bow River Bridge A Precast
Record, HPC Bridge Views, Issue No. 22, July/August 2002, Federal Highway
Administration /National Concrete Bridge Council, c/o Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL
Breen, J.E., Burdet, O., Roberts, C., Sanders, D. and Wollman, G., Anchorage
Zone Reinforcement for Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders, NCHRP Report 356,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 1994
Caroland, W.B., Depp, D., Janssen, H.H. and Spaans, L., Spliced Segmental
Prestressed Concrete I-Beams for Shelby Creek Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No.
5, September-October 1992, pp. 22-33
Castrodale, R. W. and White, C. D., Extending Span Ranges of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Girders, NCHRP Report 517, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
DC, 2004, 552 pp.
Ficenec, J.A., Kneip, S.D., Tadros, M.K. and Fischer, L., Prestressed Spliced I-
Girders: Tenth Street Viaduct Project, Lincoln, Nebraska, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38,
Girgis, A., Sun, C. and Tadros, M.K., Flexural Strength of Continuous Bridge
Girders Avoiding the Penalty in the AASHTO-LRFD Specifications, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 47, No. 4, July-August 2002, pp. 138-141
Girgis, A.M., Optimization of Spliced Precast Concrete I-Girder Superstructures,
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Omaha, NE, 2002, 150 pp.
Hennessey, S. A. and Bexten, K. A., Value Engineering Results in Successful Precast
Bridge Solution, Proceedings of the Concrete Bridge Conference, Nashville, TN,
National Concrete Bridge Council (NCBC) and Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), conducted and published by Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
CD-ROM, Chicago, IL, October 2002, 6 pp.
11.10
REFERENCES
EXTENDING SPANS
11.10 References
JUN 04
Ma, Z., Huo, X., Tadros, M.K. and Baishya, M. Restraint Moments in Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Continuous Bridges, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 6, November-
December 1998, pp. 40-57
Ma, Z., Saleh, M.A. and Tadros, M.K., Optimized Post-Tensioning Anchorage in
Prestressed Concrete I-Beams, PCI JOURNAL, V. 44, No. 2, March-April 1999,
pp. 56-73
Meyer, Karl F. and Kahn, Lawrence F., Annotated Bibliography for High Strength
Lightweight Prestressed Concrete, Report to the Office of Materials and Research,
Georgia Department of Transportation, Atlanta, GA, January 2001, 12 pp.
Meyer, Karl F. and Kahn, Lawrence F., Lightweight Concrete Reduces Weight and
Increases Span Length of Pretensioned Concrete Bridge Girders, PCI JOURNAL,
V. 47, No. 1, January-February 2002, pp. 68-75
Nebraska Bridge Office Policies and Procedures (BOPP) Manual, Nebraska
Department of Roads (NDOR), Lincoln, NE, 2001
Nicholls, J.J. and Prussack, C., Innovative Design and Erection Methods Solve
Construction of Rock Cut Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 42, No. 4, July-August 1997,
pp. 42-55
PCI Committee on Bridges, Abdel-Karim, A.M. and Tadros, M.K., State-of-the-Art
of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Spliced Girder Bridges, Publication SG-92, Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1992, 134 pp.
Post-Tensioning Manual, 6
th
Edition, Chapter VIII, Anchorage Zone Design (Stand-
Alone Publication), Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 2000, 46 pp.
Russell, H. G., Volz, J. S. and Bruce, R. N., Optimized Sections for High-Strength
Concrete Bridge Girders, Federal Highway Administration, U. S. Department of
Transportation, Report No. FHWA-RD-95-180, August 1997, 156 pp.
Saleh, M.A., Einea, A. and Tadros, M.K., Creating Continuity in Precast Girder
Bridges, Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Vol. 17, No. 8, 1995,
pp. 431-595
Seguirant, Stephen J., New Deep WSDOT Standard Sections Extend Spans
of Prestressed Concrete Girders, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 4, July-August 1998,
pp. 92-119
Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned Structures, Second Edition, Post-Tensioning
Institute, Phoenix, AZ, April 2003, 60 pp.
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17
th
Edition, American Association of
EXTENDING SPANS
11.10 References
JUN 04
Tadros, M.K., Ghali, A. and Dilger, W.H., Time-Dependent Analysis of Composite
Frames, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, V. 103, No. 4, April 1977,
pp. 871-884
Tadros, M. K. and Khalifa, M. A., Post-Tensioning Anchorages in Concrete I-Girder
Bridges, Research Report No. FHWA-NE-98-P486, Research Project SPR-PL-
1(31) P486, Nebraska Department of Roads, Federal Highway Administration and
University of Nebraska Center for Infrastructure Research, Lincoln, NE, October
1998, 198 pp.
Tadros, M.K., Al-Omaishi, N., Seguirant, S.J. and Gallt, J.G., Prestress Losses
in Pretensioned High-Strength Concrete Bridge Girders, NCHRP Report 496,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, August 2002, 120 pp.
Van Lund, J.A., Kinderman, P.D. and Seguirant, S.J., New Deep WSDOT Girders
used for the Twisp River Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 47, No. 2, March-April 2002,
pp. 20-31
EXTENDING SPANS
11.10 References
NOTATION
12.1 SCOPE
12.2 SKEW AND GRADE EFFECTS
12.2.1 General
12.2.2 Superstructure Behavior
12.2.3 Substructure Behavior
12.2.4 Temperature and Volume Change Effects
12.2.5 Response to Lateral Loads
12.2.6 Detailing
12.2.6.1 Effects of Grade
12.2.6.2 Skewed Beam Ends
12.2.6.3 Diaphragms
12.2.6.4 Deck Reinforcement
12.2.6.5 Plans
12.3 CURVED BRIDGE CONFIGURATIONS
12.3.1 Use of Chords
12.3.2 Beam Cross-Section
12.3.2.1 Box Beams Versus I-Beams
12.3.2.2 Box Section Configuration
12.3.2.3 I-Beam Configuration
12.3.2.4 Continuity
12.3.2.5 Crossbeams
12.3.2.6 Superelevation
12.4 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
12.4.1 Useful Geometric Approximations
12.4.1.1 Arc Offset from Chord
12.4.1.2 Excess of Slant Length over Plan Length
12.4.1.3 Excess of Arc Length over Chord Length
12.4.1.4 Twist Resulting from Grade
12.4.1.5 Center of Gravity of an Arc
12.4.1.6 Curved Surfaces
12.4.2 Useful Structural Approximations
12.4.2.1 Analysis as a Straight Beam
12.4.2.2 Torsion
12.4.2.3 End Moments and Torque
12.4.3 Design Charts
SEPT 01
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CURVED AND SKEWED BRIDGES
5925 Bridge Manual Ch 12 9/24/01 10:53 AM Page 1
SEPT 01
12.5 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF CURVED-BEAM BRIDGES
12.5.1 Longitudinal Flexure
12.5.1.1 Analysis as a Straight Beam
12.5.1.2 Loads on Outside Beam
12.5.2 Torsion
12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple-Span Beams
12.5.2.2 Torsion in Continuous Beams
12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks
12.5.3 Crossbeams
12.6 DETAILED DESIGN
12.6.1 Validity of Approximations
12.6.2 Loading Stages Box Beams
12.6.2.1 Bare Beam
12.6.2.2 Non-Composite Gridwork
12.6.2.3 Composite Gridwork
12.6.3 Loading Stages I-Beams
12.6.3.1 Individual Segments
12.6.3.2 Shoring Loads
12.6.3.3 Non-Composite Gridwork
12.6.3.4 Composite Gridwork
12.6.4 Other Design Checks
12.7 FABRICATION
12.7.1 Box Beams
12.7.1.1 Chord Lengths
12.7.1.2 Bridge Layout
12.7.1.3 Forms
12.7.1.4 Casting
12.7.2 I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams
12.7.2.1 Chord Lengths
12.7.2.2 Bridge Layout
12.7.2.3 Forms
12.7.2.4 Casting
12.8 HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION AND ERECTION
12.8.1 Box Beams
12.8.1.1 Handling
12.8.1.2 Transportation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEPT 01
12.8.1.3 Erection
12.8.2 I-Beams
12.8.2 1 Handling and Transportation
12.8.2.2 Erection and Post-Tensioning
12.9 DESIGN EXAMPLE
12.9.1 Introduction
12.9.1.1 Plan Geometry
12.9.2 Materials
12.9.3 Cross-Section Properties
12.9.3.1 Non-Composite Sections
12.9.3.2 Composite Sections
12.9.3.2.2 Modular Ratio
12.9.3.2.3 Total Live Load
12.9.4 Loads
12.9.4.1 Dead Loads
12.9.4.1.1 Dead Loads Acting on the Non-Composite Structure
12.9.4.1.2 Dead Loads Acting on the Composite Structure
12.9.4.1.3 Total Dead Load
12.9.4.2 Live Loads
12.9.4 2.1 Lane Loading
12.9.4.2.2. Truck Loading
12.9.4.2.3. Total Live Load
12.9.4.2.4 Centrifugal Force
12.9.5 Correction Factors
12.9.5.1 Additional Span Length Factor
12.9.5.2 Shift in Center of Gravity
12.9.6 Bending Moments Outside Exterior Beam
12.9.7 Stresses Outside Exterior Beam
12.9.8 Beam Gridwork Computer Models
12.9.8.1 Model 1 Beam Segments on Shores
12.9.8.2 Model 2 Shore Loads
12.9.8.3 Model 3 Weight of Deck and Haunches
12.9.8.4 Model 4 Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface
12.9.8.5 Model 5 Lane Loading
12.9.8.6 Model 6 Truck Loading
12.9.8.7 Summary of Bending Moments
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEPT 01
12.9.9 Selection of Prestress Force
12.9.9.3 Model 7 Post-Tensioning
12.9.10 Results
12.9.10.1 Stresses in Outside Exterior Beam
12.9.10.2 Strength Limit State
12.9.10.3 Crossbeams
12.9.10.4 Behavior
12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion
12.9.11 Comparison to Straight Bridge
12.10 DETAILED DESIGN
12.10.1 Loss of Prestress
12.10.2 Computer Models
12.10.3 Crossbeam Details
12.11 REFERENCES
NOTATION
A = area
A = area of cross-section of the precast beam
A
c
A
cp
= total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section
a = a length defined in Figure 12.4.1.1-1
B = width
b
v
= effective web width
C = coefficient to compute centrifugal force
DC = dead load structural components and nonstructural attachments
DW= dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer or at post-tensioning
E
cs
= modulus of elasticity of concrete slab
E
p
= modulus of elasticity of prestressing tendons
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars
e = eccentricity
f
b
f
c
= specified compressive strength at 28 days
f
ci
= concrete strength at transfer or at post-tensioning
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete at the centroid after prestress losses have occurred
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the centroid
of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the web and flange
where the centroid lies in the flange
f
pe
= effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses
f
pj
= jacking stress (maximum)
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of prestressing steel
f
py
= yield strength of prestressing steel
f
y
= specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars
g = gravitational acceleration
H = elevation difference between ends of a beam
h = overall depth of a member
h
c
I = moment of inertia
I
c
I
clat
= moment of inertia of composite section for lateral bending
I
lat
= moment of inertia for lateral (weak axis) bending
I
p
= polar moment of inertia
I
pc
= polar moment of inertia of composite section
IM = dynamic load allowance (impact factor)
J = torsional constant
J
c
= torsional constant for composite section
SEPT 01
L = live load
L
a
= arc length
L
c
= chord length
M = bending moment
M
c
= moment applied to cross beam
M
i
= moment in inside beam
M
o
= moment in outside beam
M
t
= torsional moment
M
u
= factored bending moment
M(-) = negative moment
m = multiple presence factor
P = effective prestressing force
p
c
= the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section
R
i
= reaction of inside beam
R
o
= reaction of outside beam
S = section modulus
S
b
S
bc
= composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
S
t
S
tc
S
tg
= composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the precast beam
s = sagitta, arc-to-chord offset
T = unfactored torsional moment
T
u
= factored torsional moment
T
cr
= torsional cracking moment
t
s
V = shear
v = highway design speed
W = weight
w = clear width of roadway
w
c
w
g
= beam self weight per unit length
x = a length
y = distance
y
b
y
bc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of the pre-
cast beam
y
max
= maximum distance, used in computing section modulus
SEPT 01
NOTATION
SEPT 01
NOTATION
y
t
y
tc
y
tg
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the precast
beam
g = grade angle expressed as a decimal
f = resistance factor
q = skew angle
y = an angle
This chapter deals with the geometric and structural challenges for bridges with cur-
vature in plan, or with skewed supports, and on a grade. The effects of skew and
grade are primarily geometric, with some effect on shears and moments. Larger skew
angles also have some effect on live load distribution. The effects of curvature are
both structural and geometric. This chapter primarily describes the design of curved
bridges. Structures with very sharp curvature (say 300-ft radius) such as freeway on
or off ramps, may require the use of specially made box beams that are also described
in ABAM (1988). Straight AASHTO I-beams and box beams are normally used on
curved bridges with shorter spans, or on longer spans with larger radii, because the
offset between arc and chord is small.
Curve and skew effects are described in more detail in the LRFD Specifications than
in the Standard Specifications. Even if one is designing using the Standard
Specifications, it would be prudent to consult the LRFD Specifications for guidance on
curve and skew effects. This chapter is based on the LRFD Specifications.
A skewed bridge is one in which the major axis of the substructure is not perpendic-
ular to the longitudinal axis of the superstructure. For the work at most agencies, the
skew angle (usually given in degrees) is the angle between the major axis of the sub-
structure and a perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the superstructure. Some
agencies use a different convention. Usually, different substructure units have approx-
imately the same skew angle.
The presence of skew affects the geometry of many bridge details. Skew angles greater
than 20 degrees also have an effect on bending moment, and on shear in the exteri-
or beams. The structural response of a skewed bridge to seismic loads can be signifi-
cantly altered by the skew angle of the substructure.
The effects of grade are geometric.
In stringer bridges (bridges supported by longitudinal I- or bulb-tee beams), the load
tends to flow along the length of the supporting beams, and the effect of skew on the
bending moments is minimized. In solid slab bridges and other bridges with high tor-
sional rigidity, the load tends to take a short cut between the obtuse corners of the
span, as shown in Figure 12.2.2-1. This reduces the longitudinal bending moments,
but it increases the shear in the obtuse corners. The same effect occurs in stringer
bridges, but is less pronounced. The modification factors due to skew for shear and
moment are given in Section 7.5.4.
SEPT 01
Curved and Skewed Bridges
12.1
SCOPE
12.2.1
General
12.2.2
Superstructure Behavior
12.2
SKEW AND GRADE
EFFECTS
The relative stiffness of the substructure about its major and minor axis is important. A
substructure consisting of round columns and a cap beam is about four times as stiff
when acting as a frame resisting loads along its major axis, compared to its stiffness act-
ing as a cantilever for loads along its minor axis. For rectangular cantilever piers, the ratio
of major-to-minor-axis stiffness is proportional to the dimension ratio squared. For wall
piers, the major axis stiffness is almost infinite compared to the minor axis stiffness.
When a substructure unit deflects due to horizontal loads or superstructure deformations,
the deflection is primarily along the minor axis, and the rotation vector at the top is along
the major axis. When the superstructure deflects due to vertical loads, the rotation vector at
the support is perpendicular to the axis of the beams, as shown in Figure 12.2.3-1.
12.2.2 Superstructure Behavior/12.2.3 Substructure Behavior
SEPT 01
Figure 12.2.2-1
Load Distribution
in Skewed Spans
In Slab Bridges,
Load Tries to Take
the Shortest Path
In Stringer Bridges,
Load Mostly Follows
the Stringers (Beams)
Skew
Angle
S
u
p
p
o
r
t
S
u
p
p
o
r
t
Figure 12.2.3-1
Rotation Vector for
Vertical Loads
Skew Angle
Rotation Vector
for Vertical Loads
Beam
C
L
"Pin"
Shear Block
Plan View
12.2.3
Substructure Behavior
This raises a question of how to orient the pin between superstructure and sub-
structure. Concrete bridges are seldom supported by real pins. Bearings consisting of
elastomeric pads can provide rotation capacity about all axes; this solves the problem
of how to orient the pin. Continuous bridges are sometimes constructed using a con-
crete hinge between superstructure and substructure, as shown in Figure 12.2.3-2
(also, see Section 3.2.3.2.2). This forces the rotation vector to lie along the major axis
of the substructure, which is inconsistent with the end rotation of the superstructure
beam. However, live load rotations at an interior support of a continuous bridge are
small, and structures so constructed seem to perform satisfactorily.
A sidelight to this discussion concerns computer modeling. Orienting the rotational
release vector with respect to the superstructure axes may force a component of rota-
tion about the major axis of the substructure. This will create a fictitious moment at
the top of the substructure in the computer model, as shown in Figure 12.2.3-3. In
general, a rotational release between superstructure and substructure should be ori-
ented with respect to the substructure axes.
12.2.3 Substructure Behavior
SEPT 01
Figure 12.2.3-2
Typical Hinge Section
Shear
Key
Premolded
Joint Filler
Hinge
C
L
Pier
C
L
Hinge Dowels
NOTE: Reinforcement from beams extending into diaphram
and other details not shown for clarity.
The shortening of a skewed span due to shrinkage and temperature will cause the
supporting substructure units to deflect, if they are connected longitudinally to the
superstructure. The substructure units will tend to deflect about their minor axes,
causing a rotation of the superstructure, as shown in Figure 12.2.4-1. If transverse
shear blocks are provided at the abutments, transverse forces at the abutments can
develop, as well as forces along the major axis of the piers.
12.2.3 Substructure Behavior/12.2.4 Temperature and Volume Change Effects
SEPT 01
Figure 12.2.3-3
Orientation of Pins in
Computer Model
Top of Pier
Superstructure
Elements
Rotational Release
for Pin Bearings
Use Rotational Release About Weak Axis of Pier,
Not Perpendicular to Superstructure Beams
Looking Along Weak
Axis of Pier
All Bearings
Weak
Restraint
C
L
Elevation from
Side of Bridge
Significant
Restraint
Eccentricity
Due to Skew
2
2
1
1
12.2.4
Temperature and Volume
Change Effects
Figure 12.2.4-1
Bridge Rotation Caused by
Shrinkage Deflection
Undeflected Shape
W
a
l
l

P
i
e
r
W
a
l
l

P
i
e
r
Deflected Shape
Deflection of
Wall Pier Due
to Contraction of
Superstructure
Wind and seismic loads transverse to the major axis of the bridge cause both trans-
verse and longitudinal deflection of the superstructure, as the substructure elements
deflect about their weak axes. Similarly, longitudinal loads also cause both longitudi-
nal and transverse deflections of the superstructure. This can lead to a coupling of
transverse and longitudinal modes in a dynamic seismic analysis. This subject is more
fully discussed in FHWA (1996 A and B).
Grade affects the geometry of the precast beams. The slant length is increased over
the plan length by an amount g
2
L/2, where g is the grade, expressed as a decimal. The
precast beam is normally made in the shape of a rectangle, as seen in elevation. That
is to say, the ends of the beam are usually square with the long axis of the beam, rather
than being vertical in the final position of the beam. Similarly, the diaphragms are
normally square with the axis of the beam.
Cast-in-place substructures are normally cast with vertical surfaces. This needs to be
considered in the abutment detail (see Figure 12.2.6.1-1) in which the beam end is
not vertical. The bearing pad is set on a level, horizontal surface. Recesses, shims,
sloped risers or grout pads are used to compensate for the difference in planes
between the beam soffit and the top of the cap beam. Sometimes, on moderate
grades, the bearing pads and bearing surfaces on the abutment and on the underside
of the beam are set parallel to the grade.
12.2.5 Response to Lateral Loads/12.2.6.1 Effects of Grade
SEPT 01
12.2.5
Response to Lateral Loads
12.2.6
Detailing
12.2.6.1
Effects of Grade
Figure 12.2.6.1-1
Section at Abutment
Showing Effects of Grade
Joint
C
L
C
L
Bearing
Normal to Grade
* This detail not
typical in many
areas of the
country
End of
Precast
Beam
Vertical
Face of
Backwall
Level
Longitudinally
and Transversely*
Bearing Pad
Recess*
Grout Pad
Skewed beam ends (in plan) are sometimes provided at expansion joints. Skew angles
should be grouped into standard increments because each skew angle will require a spe-
cial end bulkhead to form it. At interior ends in continuous beams, the beam-ends are
normally made square in plan. Some end diaphragm details may require that the ends
of continuous beams be skewed. In the latter case, when using precast, prestressed box
beams, a maximum skew angle of 30 degrees avoids warping or racking of the beams.
Intermediate diaphragms, if used, may be perpendicular to the beam axes, or parallel
to the skew. Making them parallel to the skew can have the advantage of making inte-
rior beams identical. Making them perpendicular to the beams simplifies their con-
struction in the field.
For skew angles of 10 degrees or less, deck reinforcement is normally placed parallel
to the skew. This simplifies detailing and the placement of reinforcement. For skew
angles exceeding 20 degrees, transverse deck reinforcement should be placed normal
to the axis of the beams, and shorter bars should be used in the acute corners of the
deck. For skew angles between 10 and 20 degrees, practice varies concerning orien-
tation of the deck reinforcement.
The detailing recommendations made in Section 12.2.6 are by no means universal.
The plans must show the geometric effects of skew and grade. It is important to indi-
cate which surfaces are parallel or normal to the skew, and which surfaces are paral-
lel or normal to the beam axis. Similarly, the plans should indicate which surfaces are
truly vertical and horizontal, and which surfaces are parallel or normal to the inclined
beam axis for beams on a grade.
Curved bridge beams are usually made as a series of short straight segments, or chords,
to approximate the theoretical arc. Forms for the beams are made in straight segments,
with a small angle at the form joints. The exception is monorail beams in which the con-
crete beam surface is the running surface for the wheels of the monorail vehicle. Such
monorail beams are made in an adjustable form that can be bent to form a smooth arc.
The maximum offset between an arc and its chord is equal to L
c
2
/8R, where L
c
is the
chord length and R is the radius of curvature. Although this is an approximation, it
is a good one. Because it is an approximation, the length may be either the arc length,
L
a
, or the chord length, L
c
, whichever is known. The formula shows that the offset
varies as the square of the chord length. For practical curve radii encountered in
bridges, a curve approximated by 20-ft chords will appear to the eye as a smooth con-
tinuous curve.
The simplest way to support a curved roadway is to use straight beams beneath a curved
deck. If the offset between chord and arc is too large, the appearance will be poor, and the
exterior beam on the outside of the curve will be required to support too much addition-
al load. It is desirable that the arc-to-chord offset be limited to 1.5 ft, and that the edge of
the top flange of the beam be no closer than 0.5 ft to the slab edge. Table 12.3.1-1 shows
the minimum curve radii that satisfy the 1.5 ft maximum offset criterion. This limit is
often exceeded, but each case should be examined for acceptability.
12.2.6.2 Skewed Beam Ends/12.3.1 Use of Chords
SEPT 01
12.2.6.2
Skewed Beam Ends
12.2.6.3
Diaphragms
12.2.6.4
Deck Reinforcement
12.2.6.5
Plans
12.3.1
Use of Chords
12.3
CURVED BRIDGE
CONFIGURATIONS
Straight beams are by far the simplest and most cost-effective way to use precast, prestressed
beams in a curved bridge; they should be used whenever appropriate. This solution is not
discussed further in this chapter because the analysis is almost identical to that for a straight
bridge. The only difference is in the computation of loads on the exterior beams. The lever
rule [LRFD Art. C4.6.2.2.1] may be used in the same manner as for a straight bridge, as
long as the variable overhang is accounted for. In addition, the extra span length on the out-
side of the curve must, of course, be used in the design of these beams.
For situations in which the offset exceeds 1.5 ft, the number of chords may need to
be increased. One method is to splice I- and bulb-tee-beam segments together in the
field using methods described later in this chapter and in Chapter 11. With two
chords, the offset will decrease by a factor of 4; and with three chords, the offset will
decrease by a factor of 9.
Full-span-length, chorded, curved beams may be made in the plant, using post-ten-
sioning. Torsional stresses and handling considerations will usually cause a closed box
section to be preferred for full-length curved beams.
Segmental construction may be used with conventional I-beams. Two or three straight
segments may be supported on temporary shores, and post-tensioned in the field after
constructing diaphragms at the segment joints. Refer to details in Chapter 11, as well.
Box sections will often require a new form, as standard box sections of the size need-
ed do not exist in many localities. The precast box beam needs to be closed at the top,
in order to have sufficient torsional resistance.
The sides of box beams may be vertical or sloped. Vertical sides are somewhat easier
to form. Sloping sides are generally thought to have a better appearance.
The maximum span of box beams is often limited by shipping weight. Field-splicing
of shorter segments may be used to minimize weight of individual segments. In order
to minimize the thickness of webs and flanges, consideration should be given to the
use of external post-tensioned tendons inside the box section.
12.3.1 Use of Chords/12.3.2.2 Box Section Configuration
SEPT 01
Table 12.3.1-1
Radii that Provide Offsets
Shown for Various Straight
Beam Lengths
Radius, ft
Offsets, ft
Beam
Length,
ft
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
70 1,225 613 408 306
80 1,600 800 533 400
90 2,025 1,013 675 506
100 2,500 1,250 833 625
110 3,025 1,513 1,008 756
120 3,600 1,800 1,200 900
130 4,225 2,113 1,408 1,056
140 4,900 2,450 1,633 1,225
150 5,625 2,813 1,875 1,406
160 6,400 3,200 2,133 1,600
12.3.2
Beam Cross-Section
12.3.2.1
Box Beams Versus I-Beams
12.3.2.2
Box Section Configuration
The use of post-tensioning requires webs thicker than the 6-in. webs of AASHTO-PCI
Bulb-tees and other standard I-beams. To accommodate post-tensioning ducts and
reinforcement, the minimum web thickness should be 7 to 8 inches. Thicker webs can
often be obtained by spreading the side forms of standard shapes by 1 or 2 in.
Continuity is very desirable in curved bridges. In addition to the benefits that conti-
nuity provides for straight bridges, there are two additional benefits for curved
bridges. Continuity greatly reduces torsion resulting from applied loads, and it
reduces the excess load on the exterior beam on the outside of the curve.
Transverse members spanning between beams within a span (intermediate diaphragms) are
often omitted on straight bridges (see Section 3.7). However, in curved bridges, the trans-
verse members, which will be referred to as crossbeams in this chapter due to their unique
role, are required to counteract both the effects of torsion and the lateral forces resulting
from curvature. The crossbeams should also be deep enough to brace the bottom flange.
Standard practice is to keep the beam cross-section vertical, and provide a haunch
or pad of cast-in-place deck concrete to fill the space between the sloping deck and
the horizontal top flange.
Despite the immense computing power now available, simple approximations remain
very useful for preliminary design. They are quick to use, and they give the designer
a feel for how a change in one parameter affects other parameters.
The maximum offset between arc and chord is called the middle ordinate or the sagitta
(sagitta is Latin for arrow) and represented by the symbol, s. As noted in Section 12.3.1,
the sagitta is approximately equal to L
c
2
/8R. The derivation is simple and is shown in
Figure 12.4.1.1-1. Once again, since these are approximations, it is unimportant
whether the arc length or chord length is used.
12.3.2.3 I-Beam Configuration/12.4.1.1 Arc Offset from Chord
SEPT 01
12.3.2.3
I-Beam Configuration
12.3.2.4
Continuity
12.3.2.5
Crossbeams
12.3.2.6
Superelevation
12.4.1.1
Arc Offset from Chord
12.4.1
Useful Geometric
Approximations
12.4
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Figure 12.4.1.1-1
Arc Offset from Chord
s
a
R
L
c
/2 L
c
/2
L
c
(Chord Length)
By Pythagorean Theorem:
Also:
Chord
Arc
But s is small compared to
R and L
c
. Therefore, ignore
the term s
2
and solve for s.
a
2
+ (L
c
/2)
2
= R
2
a = R - s
s =
R
2
- 2Rs + s
2
+ L
c
2
/4 = R
2
8R
L
c
2
The formula slightly underestimates the distance, s. The approximation is slightly
better if the length is taken as the arc length, L
a
.
The slant length of a beam on a grade is longer than the plan length by an amount
H
2
/2L, where H is the difference in elevation of the two ends of the beam. This is a
well-known formula, and is identical to the g
2
L/2 formula given in Section 12.2.6.1
(g is equal to H/L). The derivation is similar to that for the arc-chord offset. The
Pythagorean theorem is used, neglecting a small second-order quantity.
The length of an arc is longer than its chord by an amount 8s
2
/3L
c
, where s is the
arc-chord offset and L
c
the chord length. The excess length may also be expressed as
L
c
3
/24R
2
. This formula is derived by approximating the arc length as a series of short
chords, then taking the limit as the chord length approaches zero.
The shape of a curved beam on a grade is a helix. It has the same shape as the railing
on a spiral (more correctly, helical) stair. Such a railing is twisted. If a section were
cut out of the railing and laid flat, the twist would be apparent.
12.4.1.1 Arc Offset from Chord/12.4.1.4 Twist Resulting from Grade
SEPT 01
12.4.1.2
Excess of Slant Length
over Plan Length
12.4.1.3
Excess of Arc Length
over Chord Length
12.4.1.4
Twist Resulting from Grade
Figure 12.4.1.4-1
Twist Resulting from
Grade Change
Elev. 0
L
a
= Arc Length
Should be Elev.
Elev. L
a
Plan
= = 1.57 Radians
L
a
R
A
B B
B
A
A
2
L
a
L
a
= 1.57R
1.57
= Grade Angle
Elevation B-B Without Twist
Elevation B'-B' Twisted Beam
A
C
C
B
A
C
B
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

A

W
i
t
h
o
u
t

T
w
i
s
t
A
B
C
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

A

W
i
t
h

T
w
i
s
t
A
B
C
1.57
To understand more fully the twist in a curved beam caused by grade, consider a beam
curved 90 degrees (1.57 radians) in plan, made without twist, with square ends as
illustrated in the Plain View of Figure 12.4.1.4-1. The bearing at Point B is elevated
higher than at Point A by an amount 1.57gR as shown in Elevation B-B. Therefore, the
beam will be tipped by an angle of 1.57g. At Point B, the sides of the beam will not be
plumb; they will be tipped by an angle 1.57g. Also, note that at Point C, the midpoint
of the beam, the elevation of the beam will not be half of 1.57gR, as it should be.
Elevation B'-B', Figure 12.4.1.4-1, shows the elevation of the beam fabricated to a
true helix. The ends and sides of the beam will be plumb at Points A and B, and the
elevation at C will be correct. The beam must be twisted by an amount 1.57g.
Generalizing for angles other than 1.57 radians, the amount of twist is yg, or (L
a
/R)g
where L
a
is the arc length.
The approximation is this: The twist angle is normally small enough to be ignored in
beam fabrication, except for monorail beams. If the twist is ignored in beam fabrica-
tion, it should be realized that when the beam is set in the field, it will not be possi-
ble for both ends to be perfectly plumb. If the apparent twist is large enough to be
measurable, the beam should be set splitting the difference of the out-of-plumbness
at the two ends. This will also result in the midpoint of the beam being at proper ele-
vation (not including the effects of camber).
The center of gravity of an arc (and of a load applied along the arc) is offset from the
chord by 2s/3, or L
c
2
/12R. See Figure 12.4.1.5-1.
The area of a curved surface with radial ends, such as a bridge deck, is equal to BL
a
,
where B is the width and L
a
is the arc length along the centerline. See Figure
12.4.1.6-1.
The center of gravity of a curved surface lies outside of the center of gravity of the
centerline arc, because there is more area outside of the centerline than inside. This addi-
tional eccentricity, e, is equal to B
2
/12R. The total offset from the chord to the center of
gravity of the surface is therefore (L
c
2
+ B
2
)/12R. Where ends of the bridge are not radi-
al, a more detailed calculation is required for area and centroid of the surface.
The bending moments in a curved beam due to vertical loads may be analyzed by
considering the beam to be a straight beam of span equal to the arc length of the
curved beam. This approximation is very good, and sufficiently accurate for prelim-
inary design.
12.4.1.4 Twist Resulting from Grade/12.4.2.1 Analysis as a Straight Beam
SEPT 01
12.4.1.5
Center of Gravity of an Arc
Figure 12.4.1.5-1
Center of Gravity of Arc
C.G.
of Arc
Plan
2s
3 12R
s = L
c
2
/8R
+
L
c
2
=
L
c
12.4.1.6
Curved Surfaces
12.4.2.1
Analysis as a Straight Beam
12.4.2
Useful Structural
Approximations
Although flexural moments may be estimated by analyzing a straight beam of length
equal to the arc length of the curved beam, the same cannot be said for torsional
moments. Torsional moments are necessary for equilibrium of a curved beam. Figure
12.4.1.5-1 shows that, as noted in Section 12.4.1.5, the center of gravity of an arc
(and of loads applied along that arc) is offset from a line through the supports of a
simple span beam by an amount equal to L
c
2
/12R. The moment of weight, W, about
the supports is WL
c
2
/12R. This is resisted by torsional moments at each beam end,
approximately equal to WL
c
2
/24R. Again, because these are approximations, a
known value of L
a
may be used in lieu of L
c
.
The presence of end moments in continuous beams significantly reduces the tor-
sional moments at the support. As shown in Figure 12.4.2.3-1, end moments have
a component that helps resist the eccentricity of the weight, W, applied to the arc.
For a uniformly loaded, fixed-ended beam, the end moment of WL
a
/12 reduces the
torsional moment at the support to (approximately) zero. For continuous beams, the
torsional moment at the support will not be zero, but it will usually be less than half
of the simple span torsional moment at the support. This is discussed in more detail
in Section 12.5.2.
12.4.2.1 Analysis as a Straight Beam/12.4.2.3 End Moments and Torque
SEPT 01
Figure 12.4.1.6-1
Properties of a Curved
Planar Surface
+
+
La
=
A
rc
L
ength
e
e =
L
a
2 C.G.
of Arc at C
L
C.G.
of Surface
R
B
CL
12R
B
2
12R
12.4.2.2
Torsion
12.4.2.3
End Moments and Torque
Figure 12.4.2.3-1
Negative End Moments
Counteract Torsion in
Continous Beams
+
W
Eccentricity
Component of M(-) Helps
Resist Eccentricity of W
M(-)
Aga
tion
in li
Design charts for continuous, curved box beams are given in ABAM (1988). These
charts are useful for preliminary sizing of curved box beams.
As previously noted, the bending moments from longitudinal flexure are virtually the
same as those for a straight beam of the developed length. However, the distribution
of loads to the beams will be different in a curved bridge.
The shears and moments in the exterior beam on the outside of the curve are sub-
stantially larger than for other beams in the bridge. This is caused by the following
factors:
The arc length on the outside of the curve is longer than the nominal length at the
centerline of the bridge. This increases bending moments in the outer beam by
(approximately) the square of the ratio of the arc lengths.
The overhang at mid-arc may be increased by an amount equal to the arc-to-chord
offset.
Other beams will shed some of their torsional moment by shifting load toward the
next beam to the outside. The outermost beam is the final resting place for this
shifted load.
It is useful to look in more detail at how torsional moments develop in a curved
beam. It will be shown that torsional moments are related to the flexural moment M
divided by the radius of curvature R.
The development of torsional moments in a curved beam may be thought of in the
following way. Consider a short segment near midspan of the simple-span curved
beam shown in Figure 12.5.2.1-1.
12.4.3 Design Charts/12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple-Span Beams
SEPT 01
12.4.3
Design Charts
12.5.1.2
Loads on Outside Beam
12.5.2
Torsion
12.5.2.1
Torsion in Simple-Span Beams
12.5.1
Longitudinal Flexure
12.5.1.1
Analysis as a Straight Beam
12.5
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR
OF CURVED-BEAM
BRIDGES
Figure 12.5.2.1-1
Torsion and Curvature
M =
(approx.)
WL
a
8
M =
WL
a
8
M
t
=
M
t
= 0
x
Mx
R
= x/R
R
At midspan, the bending moment is WL
a
/8, and the torsional moment is zero (by
symmetry). At a small angle, y, away from midspan, the bending moment must
turn through the angle, y, and a torsional moment (approximately) equal to
xWL
a
/8R is necessary for equilibrium. Following around the curve to the support,
the torsional moment increases by increments of xM/R. However, M changes
between midspan and the support. Integrating the M/R diagram from midspan to
support, as shown in Figure 12.5.2.1-2, a torsional moment of WL
a
2
/24R is
obtained. This is identical to that obtained from equilibrium in Section 12.4.2.2.
Torsion in continuous beams may be understood by first examining torsion in a
fixed-ended beam. Figure 12.5.2.2-1 shows the M/R diagram for a fixed-ended
beam.
Because the area under the M/EI diagram for a fixed-ended beam must integrate to
zero, the area under the M/R diagram will also integrate to zero, given constant EI
and R. Thus, the torsion at the support will be zero. The maximum torque occurs at
the inflection point, and is 19 percent of the maximum torque in a simple-span
beam.
Continuous beams are intermediate between simple-span and fixed-ended beams.
Interior spans resemble the fixed case more closely, and the free end of exterior spans
may be closer to the simple-span case.
Continuity can significantly reduce torsional moments.
12.5.2.1 Torsion in Simple-Span Beams/12.5.2.2 Torsion in Continuous Beams
SEPT 01
Figure 12.5.2.1-2
Torque in a Simple-Span
Curved Beam
M/R Diagram
WL
a
2
24R
WL
a
2
24R
WL
a
8R
Area = =
WL
a
8R
L
a
2
2
3
( )( )( )
L
c
0.5L
c
Torque Diagram
12.5.2.2
Torsion in Continuous Beams
Beam gridworks composed of straight beam segments can resist eccentric loads with-
out torsion. Figure 12.5.2.3-1 shows a simple two-beam, three-segment gridwork.
12.5.2.2 Torsion in Continuous Beams/12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks
SEPT 01
Figure 12.5.2.2-1
Torque in a Fixed-Ended
Curved Beam
0.2887L
a
M/R Diagram
Torque Diagram
M
t
= 0.008WL
a
2
/R
0.2113L
a
WL
a
24R
Area = 0.2887L
a

0.008WL
a
2
WL
a
24R
2
3
( ( ) ) ( )
R
=
L
c
Figure 12.5.2.3-1
Simple Gridwork
Center of
Gravity
Beam
Moments:
R
i
R
i
R
o
R
o
Plan
V = (M
o
+ M
i
)/B
B
Elevation A - A - Crossbeam
Line Parallel
to Chord
Chord
C
L
Bridge
C
L
Crossbeam
C
L
Bridge
C
L
Outside Beam
A
A
Mo
M
o
M
o
M
o

M
i

12.5.2.3
Behavior of Beam Gridworks
The beam moment at a joint must turn the corner. In this case, equilibrium is supplied
by a bending moment in the crossbeam. This bending moment in the crossbeam is equal
to the angle (in radians) between the two beam segments multiplied by the bending
moment in the main beam.
An equilibrium sketch of the crossbeam is shown in Figure 12.5.2.3-1. The
moments at the two ends of the beam are equilibrated by shear forces, which trans-
fer load from the inner to outer beam.
Note that for a two-beam gridwork, the reactions may be determined by statics, because
the resultant of the reactions at each end must lie on a line through the resultant loca-
tion of the loads. For multiple beam gridworks, reactions may be estimated by assuming
a straight-line distribution of reactions that produces the correct location of the resultant.
A procedure similar to that described in the LRFD Specifications Commentary [Article
C4.6.2.2.2d], may be used. This is illustrated in the Design Example, Section 12.9.5.2.
After estimating the end reaction of the outside beam, one may estimate the bending
moment in the outside beam. This is done by comparison to the bending moment in a
straight beam of length equal to the arc (or chord) length of the centerline of the bridge.
Two correction factors are then applied to this bending moment. The first correction is
the ratio of the estimated end reaction in the beam grid work of the curved bridge to
that in a straight bridge. A simplifying assumption is made that the bending moment is
proportional to the end reaction multiplied by the length, giving the second correction
factor, the ratio of the length of the outside beam to the centerline length. The bending
moment of a straight beam of length equal to the centerline length of the bridge is then
multiplied by these two factors to obtain the estimate of bending moment in the outer
beam.
Loads applied after the gridwork is completed can theoretically be supported without tor-
sion. Although equilibrium could be obtained without torsion, an analysis will show a small
amount of compatibility torsion. If the factored compatibility torsion is below that given
in the LRFD Specifications [Equation 5.8.2.1-3], the torsion may be safely ignored.
Diaphragms in straight bridges, if used at all, are usually designed empirically, i.e., the
design is not based on calculated shears and moments. In curved bridges, crossbeams
must be designed for the shears and moments resulting from the change in direction of
the primary bending moment in the stringer at the location of the crossbeams. The lon-
gitudinal forces in the bottom flange have a transverse component at the location of the
crossbeam. The crossbeammust be deep enough to brace the bottom flange to resist this
component.
The loading stages given in Sections 12.6.2 and 12.6.3 are for simple spans. For con-
tinuous spans, more complex loading stages may be required.
Detail design is done using a beam gridwork computer model. For mathematical
consistency, it is better to use exact plan geometry instead of the approximations
used in preliminary design. The computer model may be created in a horizontal
plane, ignoring grade and superelevation. The extra weight in the haunch (or
pad) caused by superelevation should be taken into account, however.
12.5.2.3 Behavior of Beam Gridworks/12.6.1 Validity of Approximations
SEPT 01
12.5.3
Crossbeams
12.6.1
Validity of Approximations
12.6
DETAILED DESIGN
An initial stage of plant post-tensioning is applied to the bare simple span beam to
assemble the beam segments into a curved beam. This effectively applies the post-ten-
sioning and the self-weight bending moment at the same time. After erection, cross-
beams are cast, and their weight is applied to the bare beam.
The weight of the deck is applied to a non-composite gridwork, assuming unshored
construction.
The weights of future wearing surface, barriers, live load plus impact, and centrifu-
gal force are applied to the composite gridwork. The simplifying assumptions for dis-
tribution of these loads in straight bridges cannot be used for curved bridges.
Additional field post-tensioning could be applied after casting the deck to partially
compensate for the weight of the deck. This should not be done if future replacement
of the deck is anticipated.
A three-segment, simple-span I-beam is considered.
The segments are pretensioned in the plant to compensate for self-weight bending of
the individual segment.
The individual segments are erected in the field, supported by final bearings and by
shores at intermediate locations. Post-tensioning ducts are spliced and crossbeams are cast.
During this loading stage, stresses in the beams do not change. Loads are added to
the shoring.
Post-tensioning is applied to the non-composite gridwork after the crossbeams have
cured sufficiently. This lifts the beams from the shores. The load that was present in
the shores becomes a load applied to the non-composite beam gridwork.
The post-tensioning is best modeled as a set of external loads. That is, all the forces
applied to the concrete by the tendons and their anchors are applied as external loads
to the model. It is important that the transverse forces at the crossbeams not be over-
looked. These forces are caused by the tendons that change direction (in plan) at the
crossbeams.
The weight of the deck and haunch is also applied to the non-composite gridwork.
The weights of the future wearing surface, barriers, live load plus impact, and cen-
trifugal force are applied to the composite gridwork. See Section 12.6.2.3 for addi-
tional considerations.
12.6.2 Loading Stages Box Beams/12.6.3.4 Composite Gridwork
SEPT 01
12.6.2.3
Composite Gridwork
12.6.3
Loading Stages I-Beams
12.6.3.1
Individual Segments
12.6.3.2
Shoring Loads
12.6.3.3
Non-Composite Gridwork
12.6.3.4
Composite Gridwork
12.6.2.1
Bare Beam
12.6.2.2
Non-Composite Gridwork
12.6.2
Loading Stages
Box Beams
Checking allowable stresses, deflection and camber, prestress losses and ultimate
strength is generally similar to that for a straight bridge, keeping in mind the differ-
ences between post-tensioning and pretensioning.
Torsion is an additional consideration. For segmental I-beam curved bridges, the tor-
sion will often be below the limit for which the LRFD Specifications [Eq. 5.8.2.1-3]
permit torsion to be neglected. Full-span box beams have higher torsion from self-
weight, and a torsion analysis will be needed. Fortunately, for box sections, the tor-
sional shear may be added directly to the vertical shear [LRFD Specifications, Eq.
5.8.3.6.2-3], and the analysis is similar to that done for vertical shear only.
It is generally more economical to ship a full-span beam to the site instead of assem-
bling segments on site. However, curved I-beams seldom have a sufficient torsional
strength to permit this; thus, segments are used.
Box beams usually have enough strength to permit shipping a full-span beam. For
box beams, segments would only be shipped if the full-span beam is too large to be
shipped. The bathtub beam segments could be erected on shores, like that which is
done for I-beam segments.
Chord lengths of 20 feet are suggested for curved box beams as shown in Figure
12.7.1.1-1. This produces a maximum arc-to-chord offset of 1 in. on a 600-ft radius
and 2 in. on a 300-ft radius.
Using 20-ft chords, lay out the bridge so that the chords at each end are between 10-
ft and 20-ft long. Lay out the crossbeams parallel to each other, so that they intersect
the main beams at a form joint. These considerations will simplify beam forming and
fabrication. See Figure 12.7.1.2-1.
12.6.4 Other Design Checks/12.7.1.2 Bridge Layout
SEPT 01
12.6.4
Other Design Checks
12.7
FABRICATION
12.7.1
Box Beams
12.7.1.1
Chord Lengths
12.7.1.2
Bridge Layout
Figure 12.7.1.1-1
Precast Beam
Chorded Geometry
(
1
0
' M
in
.)
2
0
' T
y
p
.
C
L
Beam
C
L
C
L Pier
C
L Pier
Internal
Diaphrams
Symmetrical About Span
Plan
Beam Length,L
a
M
easured on Centerline
Figure 12.7.1.2-1
Box-Beam-Bridge Layout
Intermediate
Crossbeams
(Parallel)
of box beams C
L
(typ)
Pier
C
L
P
ier
C
L
In some localities, prestressed concrete bathtub beams of open trapezoidal shape are
used. The forms for such beams could possibly be adapted, but the top would need
to be closed in order to provide a torsion box.
Side forms can be erected on a steel table, as shown in Figure 12.7.1.3-1. The table
must be wide enough to accommodate the curvature. The 20-ft chorded side forms
are secured to the table, to the desired geometry.
Another forming method is the use of form sections that form both the sides and the
soffit. This is described in ABAM (1988). See Figure 12.7.1.3-2.
Using an inner form, the beam is cast up to the underside of the top flange (top of the
web). After the concrete hardens, the inner form is removed, and a stay-in-place form is
used to form the top flange which is cast in a second-stage operation. Alternatively, stay-
in-place void forms can be used if voids are properly anchored to prevent movement dur-
ing placement of concrete and if thorough consolidation is attained under the form.
12.7.1.3 Forms/12.7.1.4 Casting
SEPT 01
Figure 12.7.1.3-1
Chorded Forms on Flat Table
Side Form
Plate Joint
Table
Elastomeric Sealer
Variable Width
Support for
Inner Form
Inner Form
Form
Backer
Plate
Section
Detail
Side Form Plate Joint Detail
Plan of Table and Forms
(Inner Form Not Shown)
Table
Figure 12.7.1.3-2
Plan View of Forming
Reference Line
Section of
Box
Form
Support Beam
12.7.1.4
Casting
12.7.1.3
Forms
If the complete curved box beam is prefabricated, the beam is post-tensioned and the
ducts and anchorages are grouted at the plant. This may be done as a two-stage oper-
ation, with the first stage of post-tensioning done at an early age, and the final stage
done after concrete design strength is achieved. Where segments of curved beams are
spliced in the field due to haul limitations, additional post-tensioning will be
required. If curved beams are made continuous over piers, additional post-tensioning
near the piers or of the entire structure may be required in the field.
Chorded segment lengths should be made as long as is permissible (see Section
12.3.1), in order to minimize the field joints in the segmented beam. Generally two,
three, or four segments should be used.
In contrast to the box beam bridge layout, it is recommended that crossbeams be on
radial lines. This will result in a more consistent geometry, and the variation in length
of beam segments will not cause forming problems.
Standard beam forms may be used. It is usually necessary to widen the webs to
accommodate post-tensioning ducts. This can often be done by spreading the side
forms. A new pallet or pan, as well as new end bulkheads, may be required.
If post-tensioning tendons are anchored at the ends of the beams, as is frequently
done, end blocks will be required. End blocks are often cast with the segment but
may be added later as a secondary pour. End blocks will be needed only at one end
of each end segment, so odd lengths can be accommodated by adjusting the bulk-
head location at the opposite end. In some cases, end blocks may be eliminated by
placing post-tensioning anchorages in the end walls or end diaphragms.
The beam segments are cast in the usual manner with the addition of post-tensioning
ducts and anchorages. Splices between segments are generally wet cast, so match-casting
is not required.
The beam segments may have a small amount of pretensioning to compensate for
self-weight bending of the individual segments.
This section addresses handling considerations for curved box beams. Handling for
individual straight box beam segments to be assembled in the field is similar to the
handling of I-beam segments addressed in the following sections.
Pickup and support points must be located on a line through the center of gravity (in
plan) of the curved beam. Pickup and temporary support points may be located
inward from the beam ends, if the curvature is too great for the beam to be stable
when supported at the ends. Of course, the beam stresses must be checked for the
pickup and support point location. See Figure 12.8.1.1-1.
12.7.1.5 Post-Tensioning/12.8.1.1 Handling
SEPT 01
12.7.1.5
Post-Tensioning
12.7.2
I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams
12.7.2.1
Chord Lengths
12.7.2.2
Bridge Layout
12.7.2.3
Forms
12.7.2.4
Casting
12.7.2.5
Pretensioning
12.8.1
Box Beams
12.8.1.1
Handling
12.8
HANDLING,
TRANSPORTATION
AND ERECTION
Long-span box beams are very heavy. The maximum span may be governed by the
maximum practical transportable weight or transportable width instead of design
considerations. Curved box beams may also be spliced in the field if weight or width
limitations restrict transportable length. Special transporters will usually be required,
as illustrated schematically in Figure 12.8.1.2-1, to accommodate weight and long
overhangs from support points.
A temporary brace will probably be needed to stabilize the beam after erection, as
shown in Figure 12.8.1.3-1. This brace needs to remain in place until the end and
intermediate diaphragms are cast.
The I-beam segments present no unusual difficulties in handling and transportation.
The I-beam segments are typically erected on shoring located at the interior cross-
beam closure pours. The beams generally will rise off of the shores as they are
post-tensioned.
12.8.1.1 Handling/12.8.2.2 Erection and Post-Tensioning
SEPT 01
Figure 12.8.1.2-1
Beam Transporter
C
L
Support Point
C
L
Support Point
Cab for Steerable Rear Dolly
Beam
12.8.1.3
Erection
12.8.2
I-Beams and Bulb-Tee Beams
12.8.2.1
Handling and Transportation
12.8.2.2
Erection and Post-Tensioning
Figure 12.8.1.3-1
Schematic of Temporary
Brace to Stabilize Beam
Load Support
Box Beam
Connections
to Brace
Temporary
Support or Pier
Load
12.8.1.2
Transportation
Figure 12.8.1.1-1
Pick-Up and Support Points
for Curved Beam
C.G. of Beam
Pick-Up and Support Points
Width to be
Considered
During
Transport
This design example demonstrates the preliminary design of a 120-ft, simple-span,
bulb-tee-beam bridge on a 600-ft radius curve. Except for changes brought about by
the curvature, the bridge is the same as that designed in Section 9.4. The 120-ft span
is measured along the arc at the centerline of the bridge. The bridge is superelevated
6 percent, and the design speed is 40 mph. The splices, intermediate diaphragms and
piers are all arranged radial to the curve.
The superstructure consists of six beams spaced at 9'-0" centers, as shown in Figure
12.9.1-1. Beams are designed to act compositely with the 8-in. cast-in-place deck to
resist all superimposed dead loads, live loads and impact. A 1/2-in. wearing surface is
considered an integral part of the 8-in. deck. The design is accomplished in accor-
dance with the LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998. Design live load is HL-93.
Check to see if straight beams might be used. The arc-to-chord offset is L
a
2
/8R =
(120)
2
/(8 x 600) = 3 ft. This exceeds the maximum recommended offset of 1.5 ft. If
the beam is subdivided into three chords, the maximum offset will be reduced by a
factor of (3)
2
, producing an offset of 4 in. at the center of each chord. This will be
barely detectable visually and will be acceptable. In order to minimize the overhang
on the outside of the curve, the 3-ft overhang will be set at the middle of each chorded
segment. At the ends of the chorded segments, the overhang from beam centerline
on the outside will be 2'-8", and 3'-4" on the inside. Figure 12.9.1.1-1 shows the
plan geometry.
With a nominal chord offset of 3 ft for the span, the torsion will be too great for a
plant post-tensioned, full-length beam. Therefore, segmental (spliced) construction
will be used. Each 40-ft (nominal length) straight segment will be precast with
enough pretension to compensate for self-weight on the 40-ft span. Shoring will be
erected at the 1/3 points of the 120-ft span. The 40-ft segments will then be set on
the shores and on the end bearings at the abutments. Crossbeams, 12-in.-thick by 66-
in.-deep, will be cast at the ends. Crossbeams with the same cross-section will be cast
at the 1/3 points (splice locations). The beams will then be post-tensioned and the
shores removed.
The deck is generally cast after post-tensioning. This procedure makes it feasible to
replace the deck in the future, should that become necessary.
12.9 Design Example/12.9.1.2 Construction
SEPT 01
Figure 12.9.1-1
at Midspan
8" Uniform Deck Thickness
51'-0"
5 Spaces @ 9'-0" = 45'-0"
48'-0" 1'-6"
1'-6"
3'-0"
3'-0"
.06 Superelevation
12.9.1.1
Plan Geometry
12.9
DESIGN EXAMPLE
12.9.1
Introduction
12.9.1.2
Construction
Because the girders are post-tensioned, a thicker web will be used to provide necessary
cover over the ducts. This may be accomplished by spreading the side forms for an
AASHTO-PCI BT-72 by 2 in., creating an 8-in.-thick web. See Figure 12.9.1.2-1 for
modified section dimensions.
Figure 12.9.1.2-1
AASHTO-PCI BT-72
Dimensions with 2 in.
Added to Width
6"
10" 8"
4' - 6" 6' - 0"
2 '- 4"
4
1
/2"
2"
3' - 8"
3
1
/2"
2"
2"
Figure 12.9.1.1-1
Beam Framing Plan Geometry
4" Offset
Between
Arc and Chord
for Each Segment
C
L
Splices and
Intermediate
Crossbeams
C
L
of Outside
Beam
C
L
of Bridge
C
L
of Inside
Beam
3' 0" Arc to
Chord Offset
Edge of
Slab
2'-8'
L
a
= 120'
R

=

6
0
0
'
3'-4'
SEPT 01
These are almost identical to those used in the Section 9.4 example.
s
= 8.0 in.
Note that a 1/2-in. wearing surface is considered an integral
c
= 4.0 ksi
Precast beams: AASHTO-PCI Bulb-tee with 2-in.-added width as shown
in Figure 12.9.1.2-1
Concrete strength of beam at post-tensioning, f
ci
= 6.5 ksi
c
= 6.5 ksi
c
= 0.150 kcf
Design span = 120.0 ft (Arc length at centerline of bridge)
Post-tensioning strands: 0.6-in. dia, seven-wire, low-relaxation
2
pu
= 270.0 ksi
Yield strength, f
py
= 0.9f
pu
= 243.0 ksi [LRFD Table 5.4.4.1-1]
Stress limits for post-tensioning strands: [LRFD Table 5.9.3-1]
at jacking: f
pj
= 0.80f
pu
= 216.0 ksi
at service limit state (after all losses):
f
pe
< 0.80f
py
= 194.4 ksi
p
= 28,500 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.4.2]
y
= 60 ksi
s
= 29,000 ksi [LRFD Art. 5.4.3.2]
Future wearing surface: 2 in. additional concrete, unit weight = 0.150 kcf
A = area of cross-section of precast beam = 911 in.
2
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the precast beam = 608,109 in.
4
y
b
= distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam = 36.51 in.
y
t
= distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the precast beam = 35.49 in.
S
b
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam = 16,657 in.
3
S
t
= section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam = 17,134 in.
3
I
lat
= lateral moment of inertia of precast beam = 46,014 in.
4
w
g
= beam self-weight per unit length = 0.949 kip/ft
E
c
= modulus of elasticity, ksi = 33,000(w
c
)
1.5
[LRFD Eq. 5.4.2.4-1]
where
w
c
= unit weight of concrete = 0.150 kcf
The LRFD Specifications, Commentary C5.4.2.4, indicates that the unit weight of
normal weight concrete is 0.145 kcf. However, precast concrete mixes typically have
f
c

12.9.2 Materials/12.9.3.1 Non-Composite Sections
SEPT 01
12.9.2
Materials
12.9.3
12.9.3.1
Non-Composite Sections
a relatively low water/cementitious materials ratio and high density. Therefore, a unit
weight of 0.150 kcf is used in this example. For high strength concrete, this value
may need to be increased based on test results.
f
c
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity for:
cast-in-place slab, E
cs
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 3,834 ksi
precast beam at transfer of post-tensioning (at 28 days minimum)
E
ci
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 4,888 ksi
precast beam at service loads, E
c
= 33,000(0.150)
1.5
= 4,888 ksi
The torsional constant, J, is estimated in accordance with LRFD Specifications, and
Section 7.6.5.
The polar moment of inertia I
p
is equal to the sum of I and I
lat
. I
p
= 654,123 in.
4
Properties of the 12- by 66-in. crossbeam:
A = 792 in.
2
I = 287,496 in.
4
I
lat
= 9,504 in.
4
(for lateral bending)
J = 33,120 in.
4
w
g
= 0.825 kip/ft
Because this is a preliminary design it is reasonable to assume the same properties for
interior and exterior beams. Therefore, the properties for a typical interior beam are
used. Final designs will require more thorough calculations.
Effective flange width for interior beams shall be the lesser of: [LRFD Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
(1/4) span = (120 x 12)/4 = 360 in.
12t
s
= (12 x 7.5) + (0.5 x 44) = 112 in.
J in. =
911
40 654 123
26 324
4
4
( , )
,
J
A
I
p
4
40 0 .
6 50 .
6 50 .
4 0 .
12.9.3.1 Non-Composite Sections/12.9.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width
SEPT 01
12.9.3.2
Composite Sections
12.9.3.2.1
Therefore, the effective flange width is 108 in. for the beam.
For the interior crossbeams, the effective flange width is (12 x 7.5) + 12 = 102 in.
Note that the crossbeam in a curved bridge is not an ordinary beam spanning
between main beams ( 9 ft in this case). Rather, it transfers load all the way across the
bridge from inside to outside beams.
Modular ratio between slab and beam materials, n =
Transformed flange width for interior beams = n (effective flange width)
= (0.7845)(108) = 84.73 in.
Transformed flange area for interior beams = n(effective flange width)(structural thickness)
= (0.7845)(108)(7.5) = 635.45 in.
2
Note: Only the structural thickness of the deck, 7.5 in., is considered.
A minimum haunch thickness of 1/2 in. at midspan is considered in the structural prop-
erties of the composite section. The superelevation will cause the average thickness of the
haunch to be greater than 1/2 in. The extra weight will be accounted for, but the extra
thickness caused by superelevation will conservatively be neglected in computing com-
posite section properties. In addition, the width of haunch must be transformed.
Transformed width of haunch = (0.7845)(44) = 35.52 in.
2
if it is required to be provided in the completed structure. Therefore, some designers
A
c
= total area of the composite section = 1,564 in.
2
h
c
I
c
4
y
bc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme bottom
fiber of the precast beam = 53.05 in.
y
tg
the precast beam = 18.95 in.
y
tc
the deck = 26.95 in.
S
bc
= 22,784 in.
3
S
tg
= composite section modulus for the top fiber of the precast beam = 63,792 in.
3
S
tc
= composite section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the deck slab = 57,176 in.
3
I
clat
= moment of inertia of composite section for lateral bending = 666,423 in.
4
cs
c
= =
3 834
4 888
0 7845
,
,
.
12.9.3.2.1 Effective Flange Width/12.9.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties
SEPT 01
12.9.3.2.3
Transformed Section
Properties
12.9.3.2.2
Modular Ratio
For computing J
c
, the torsional constant for the composite beam, half the composite
flange width is used to compute the area A
c
and the polar moment of inertia I
pc
for
substitution in Eq. C4.6.2.2.1-2 in the LRFD Specifications. The transformed area A
c
is 1,246 in.
2
and I
pc
is 1,118,680 in.
4
This results in a value of J
c
of 53,865 in.
4
Composite properties of interior crossbeams:
A
c
= 1,397 in.
2
I
c
= 765,432 in.
4
I
clat
= 529,860 in.
4
for lateral bending
J
c
= 54,204 in.
4
For a first approximation, all loads except the truck load will be assumed to be dis-
tributed over the area of the deck. Later, after a beam gridwork model is created, the
computer program will generate member self-weights.
Beam and crossbeam weight:
Beams = (6)(120 ft)(0.949 kip/ft) = 683 kips
Crossbeams = (4)(45 ft)(0.825 kip/ft) = 149 kips
Total weight of beams and crossbeams = 683 + 149 = 832 kips
Deck weight:
Gross area of deck = (120 ft)(51 ft) = 6,120 ft
2
Actual thickness = 8 in.
Deck weight = [8 in./(12 in./ft)](0.150 kcf )(6,120 ft
2
) = 612 kips
For a minimum haunch thickness of 0.5 in., the superelevation of 0.06 will cause the
average haunch thickness to be 0.5 in. + 0.06(22 in.) = 1.82 in., say 2 in. The haunch
weight is 0.150 kcf (2 in.)(44 in.)/(144 in.
2
/ft
2
) = 0.092 kip/ft/beam
Haunch weight = (6)(120 ft)(0.092 kip/ft) = 66 kips
Weight of deck, including haunch = 678 kips
Barrier weight is given as 0.3 kip/ft/side
Barrier weight = (2)(120 ft)(0.3 kip/ft) = 72 kips
Future wearing surface is 0.025 ksf
(0.025 ksf )(120 ft)(48 ft) = 144 kips
Dead load on composite structure = 72 + 144 = 216 kips
Total dead load = 832 + 678 + 216 = 1,726 kips
12.9.3.2.3 Transformed Section Properties/12.9.4.1.3 Total Dead Load
SEPT 01
12.9.4
Loads
12.9.4.1
Dead Loads
12.9.4.1.1
Dead Loads Acting on the
Non-Composite Structure
12.9.4.1.2
Dead Loads Acting on the
Composite Structure
12.9.4.1.3
Total Dead Load
Design live loading is HL-93 which consists of a combination of: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.1]
1. Design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance.
The design truck is the same as the HS20 design truck specified by the Standard
Specifications. [LFRD Art. 3.6.1.2.2]
The design tandem consists of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced at 4.0 ft apart.
[LFRD Art. 3.6.1.2.3]
2. Design lane load of 0.64 kip/ft without dynamic allowance. [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.2.4]
IM = 33% [LFRDTable 3.6.2.1-1]
where IM = dynamic load allowance, applied to design truck or design tandem only
The number of design lanes is computed as:
Number of design lanes = the integer part of the ratio of w/12, where w is the clear
roadway width, ft, between the curbs: [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.1]
w = 48 ft
Number of design lanes = integer part of (48/12) = 4 lanes
Multiple presence factor, m: [LRFD Table 3.6.1.1.2-1]
For 4 lanes, m = 0.65.
Stresses from truck and lane loads obtained from refined analysis will be multiplied
by 0.65.
The lane load is positioned over a 10-ft width within the 12-ft design lane.
[LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.1]
To maximize the effect of the live load, the 10-ft loaded width is shifted to the left within
each design lane. This causes the lane load to have an eccentricity of 1 ft relative to the
lane centerline, and the four lane loads have an eccentricity of 1 ft relative to the bridge
centerline. The average arc length increases by the ratio of 601-ft radius/600-ft radius, to
120.2 ft.
The total lane loading for the four design lanes is (4)(120.2 ft)(0.64 kip/ft)(0.65)
= 200.0 kips.
The 0.65 factor above is the factor, m.
The total weight of the design truck is 8 + 32 + 32 = 72 kips.
Including 33% impact, 1.33 x 72 = 95.76 kips.
12.9.4.2 Live Loads/12.9.4.2.2 Truck Loading
SEPT 01
12.9.4.2.1
Lane Loading
12.9.4.2.2
Truck Loading
12.9.4.2
Live Loads
For 4 trucks, including the multiple presence factor, m:
4(95.76)(0.65) = 249.0 kips
Note that because this is a preliminary design of the main members of a 120-ft span,
the tandem load need not be considered at this time.
Total live load = 200.0 + 249.0 = 449.0 kip
[LRFD Art. 3.6.3]
The design speed is 40 mph. The centrifugal force coefficient is given by:
[LRFD Eq. 3.6.3-1]
where
C = coefficient to compute centrifugal force
v = highway design speed, ft/sec
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec
2
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane, ft
The design speed in ft/sec = 40 mph/0.682 = 58.65 ft/sec
This is applied to the truck axle loads only, without the dynamic load allowance, and with
the factor, m. The centrifugal force for four trucks is 4(72 kip)(0.2374)(0.65) = 44.4 kips.
The bending moments in the exterior beam on the outside of the curve will be greater
than in a straight bridge for three reasons:
1. The additional span length on the outside of the curve.
2. The center of gravity of the curved centerline lies outside of a line through the cen-
terline of the supports.
3. The center of gravity of an area load is further shifted outward, because there is
more area outside of the centerline than inward of the centerline.
The outside beam is on a radius of 622.5 ft. This increases the span length by a fac-
tor of 622.5/600 = 1.0375.
C=
=
4
3
58 65
32 2 600
0 2374
2
( . )
( . )( )
.
C
v
gR
=
4
3
2
12.9.4.2.2 Truck Loading/12.9.5.1 Additional Span Length Factor
SEPT 01
12.9.5
Correction Factors
12.9.5.1
Additional Span Length Factor
12.9.4.2.3
Total Live Load
12.9.4.2.4
Centrifugal Force
The center of gravity (in plan) of the centerline arc is offset from a line through the cen-
ter of the bearings by an amount equal to 2/3 of the arc-to-chord offset (2/3)(3 ft) = 2 ft.
The additional eccentricity caused by the extra area outside the centerline is equal to
B
2
/12R = (51 ft)
2
/(12)(600) = 0.36 ft, as shown in Figure 12.9.5.2-1. For the initial sim-
plification that all dead load is an area load, the eccentricity of the dead load is 2.36 ft.
The next step is to find how much the load on the outside beam is increased because
of this eccentricity. The procedure is analogous to one described in the LRFD
Commentary [Article C4.6.2.2.2d] (see Figure 12.9.5.2-2). For six unit areas at 9-ft
spacing, the moment of inertia is 1,417.5 ft
4
and the section modulus is 63 ft
3
. For
an arbitrary load of 1 kip per bearing, or 6 kips, at 2.36 ft eccentricity, P/A + Pe/S =
1 + 6(2.36)/63 = 1.2248. This is the increase in load on the outside exterior beam
caused by the eccentricity of the load. The total correction factor for bending
moment due to dead load is (1.0375)(1.2248) = 1.271.
12.9.5.2 Shift in Center of Gravity
SEPT 01
12.9.5.2
Shift in Center of Gravity
Figure 12.9.5.2-1
Center of Gravity
of Curved Area
L
a
= 120'
Center of Gravity
Chord Between
Supports
C
L

of Bridge
B = 51'
Eccentricity = 2.36'
R

=

6
0
0
'
Figure 12.9.5.2-2
Properties of Group
of Beam Supports
Eccentricity
C
L
Bridge
y = 22.5'
2.36'
6 kips
y = 13.5'
y = 22.5'
y = 13.5'
y = 4.5' y = 4.5'
Unit Areas
1 sf each
A = 6 ft
2
I = [(Unit Area)(y
2
)] = 1,417.5 ft
4
S = I/y
max
= 63 ft
3
For the lane loading, the LRFD requirement to place the load off-center of the lane
adds 1 ft to the eccentricity. See Figure 12.9.5.2-3. For a 6-kip load at 3.36-ft eccen-
tricity, the load on the outside beam is 1 + 6(3.36)/63 = 1.32. The total correction
factor for lane loading is (1.0375)(1.32) = 1.370.
For the truck loading, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1 specifies that the center of the wheel
load be placed 2 ft from the curb. This causes the center of the vehicle to be 5 ft from
the curb (also the lane edge), so the eccentricity from the centerline of the lane is 1
ft. The trucks are in the center of the bridge, which has a 3-ft eccentricity with respect
to the supports. Thus, the vertical truck loading has an eccentricity of 4 ft as shown
in Figure 12.9.5.2-4.
The effects of centrifugal force must also be taken into account. The total centrifu-
gal force of 44.4 kips acts at a height of 6 ft [LRFD Art. 3.6.3]. The vertical truck
loading is 249 kips. The horizontal force acting at 6 ft increases the eccentricity of
the vertical load by (44.4/249)(6 ft) = 1.07 ft. The total eccentricity of the vertical
truck load is 5.07 ft, and the correction is 1 + 6(5.07)/63 = 1.483, as shown in Figure
12.9.5.2-4 The total correction factor due to centrifugal force and truck loading is
(1.0375)(1.483) = 1.538.
The bending moments in the outside exterior beam may now be estimated. For all
loads, the bending moment may be estimated as that for a 120-ft straight beam mul-
tiplied by the correction factor. For all loads except the truck loadings, the 120-ft
straight beam bending moment is WL/8 divided by six beams in the bridge. For the
truck loading, the bending moment is scaled from that for a standard truck on a 120-
ft straight span. Table 12.9.6-1 is a summary of the estimated midspan bending
moments for the outside exterior beam.
12.9.5.2 Shift in Center of Gravity/12.9.6 Bending Moments Outside Exterior Beam
SEPT 01
Figure 12.9.5.2-3
Lane Load Eccentricity
10' Loaded
Width (Typ.)
0.64 kip/ft x 4 x 0.65 = 1.664 kip/ft
Chord Through
Supports
C.G. of
deck
at 1 ft Eccentricity (c.g. of live load)
2.36 ft
12' Lane 12' Lane
12' Lane
12' Lane
Lane Loading [LRFD Article 3.6.1.2.4]
C
L
Figure 12.9.5.2-4
Truck Load Eccentricity
4.00 ft
1.07 ft
Additional Eccentricity
Due to Centrifugal Force
Truck Loading [LFRD Articles 3.6.1.3.1 and 3.6.3]
Chord Through
Supports
C
L
12.9.6
Bending Moments
Outside Exterior Beam
Comparing these estimates to the values in the right column taken from Table 9.4.4-1,
it may be seen that the dead load moments are substantially increased, compared to
the interior beam of a straight bridge. However, the live loads are decreased some-
what, because of the factor, m [LRFD Art. 3.6.1.1.2], which is not used in the
approximate distribution method. It should also be noted that the curved beam is
almost 20% heavier than the straight beam.
The next step is to verify that the chosen beam section is adequate. It is assumed that
the bottom fiber stress due to the weight of the beams and crossbeams can be com-
pensated by the prestensioning.
Table 12.9.7-1 shows the bottom fiber stress caused by deck weight, superimposed dead
load, and live load. For service load tensile stress checks, the live load may be taken as 80
percent of the computed live load [LRFD Art. 3.4.1, limit state Service III]. The bottom
fiber stress for these loads applied to the beams and crossbeams in Table 12.9.7-1 is
2.903 ksi. The allowable temporary stress after post-tensioning (before time-dependant
losses) is 3.90 ksi. Therefore, because there is sufficient margin between the actual stress
after losses and the allowable stress before losses, the beam section should be adequate
and the computer model may be constructed using this beam.
12.9.6 Bending Moments Outside Exterior Beam/
12.9.7 Stresses Outside Exterior Beam
SEPT 01
Table 12.9.6-1
Estimated Bending Moments
in Outside Beam
Total
Weight
W, kips
Moment
for 120-ft
Straight
Beam
ft-kips
Moment
for Curved
Beam
ft-kips
Correction
Factor
Interior
Beam,
Straight
Bridge,
ft-kips*
Beam & Crossbeam 832 2,080 1.271 2,644 1,438
Deck & Haunch 678 1,695 1.271 2,154 1,660
Barrier 72 180 1.271 229 180
Wearing Surface 144 360 1.271 458 360
Truck Loading,
w/impact
249 1,080 1.538 1,662 1,830
Lane Loading 200 500 1.370 685 843
Total 5,895 7,830 6,311
* Bending moments in the right column are taken from Table 9.4.4-1.
12.9.7
Stresses
Outside Exterior Beam
Table 12.9.7-1
Estimate of Bottom Fiber Stress
LOAD
Bending
Moment,
ft-kips
S
b
or
S
bc
, in.
3
Bottom
Fiber
Stress, ksi
1. Self Weight of Beams and Crossbeams
(Compensated by pretensioning)
2,644 16,657 1.905
2. Deck and Haunch 2,154 16,657 1.552
3. Superimposed Dead Load 687 22,784 0.362
4. Live Load (0.8)(2,347) =
1,878 22,784 0.989
5. Sum of 2 + 3 + 4 2.903
Allowable stress at transfer of post-tensioning =
(0.60)f '
ci
= (0.6)(6.5) [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.1.1]
3.900
This model (not shown) is a variation of Model 2 (see below). The ends of the mem-
bers are released in bending to model the situation of simple span beam segments
supported on shores. The simple span length is conservatively taken as the center-to-
center distance of the crossbeams (40 ft). The reactions at each shoring location are com-
puted. These loads are then applied to the Model 2 beam gridwork to represent
removal of the shores. These loads are shown on Figure 12.9.8.2-1.
Model 2 is the non-composite beam gridwork on the nominal 120-ft span. The loads
applied to Model 2 are the loads that previously existed in the shores, as determined
in Model 1. When the shores are removed, the loads previously existing in the shores
are loads that are applied to Model 2. These loads are shown in Figure 12.9.8.2-1.
The analysis done using Model 1 could be skipped, and the self-weight loads applied
directly to Model 2. The difference in total self-weight bending moment in the out-
side exterior beam is less than 0.1 percent. However, it must be remembered that the
moment consists of two parts, that applied to the 40-ft nominal span, and that
applied to the 120-ft nominal span.
The total weight of the deck and the haunches between the deck and the top flanges
of the beam was calculated to be 678 kips in Section 12.9.4.1.1. This load is assumed
to be applied as a uniform load of 110.8 psf over the 6,120 sf gross area of the deck.
The model for deck weight is shown in Figure 12.9.8.3-1. The finite elements are only
used as a means of applying a uniform load. The structural properties of the deck are zeroed
out, because this is a non-composite model. The beam gridwork is the same as in Model 2.
Model 4 represents the composite structure. Composite section properties are used in the
beam gridwork. The general appearance of the model is the same as Model 3 (see Figure
12.9.8.3-1). The 0.025 ksf uniform load is applied over the entire 51-ft width of the deck.
A net barrier load of 0.263 kip/ft (0.3 kip/ft less the 0.025 ksf acting over the 1.5-ft width
occupied by the barrier) is applied as a line load along the longitudinal edges of the model.
12.9.8 Beam Gridwork Computer Models/
12.9.8.4 Model 4 Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface
SEPT 01
Figure 12.9.8.2-1
Non-Composite Model 2
Shore Loads
12.9.8.3
Model 3
Weight of Deck and Haunches
12.9.8.4
Model 4
Weight of Barriers and
Future Wearing Surface
12.9.8
Beam Gridwork
Computer Models
12.9.8.1
Model 1
Beam Segments on Shores
12.9.8.2
Model 2 Shore Loads
As noted in Section 12.9.4.2.1, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3 specifies that the design lane load
be applied over a 10-ft width within the design lane width (of 12 ft in this case). This
causes the resultant of the lane loads to be shifted 1 ft towards the outside of the curve.
The upper part of Figure 12.9.8.5-1 shows the specified location of the lane loads in a
cross-section through the bridge. The lower part of Figure 12.9.8.5-1 shows the actual
loads applied to the model. The loads were chosen so that deck elements would be
loaded uniformly and the total load would have the correct location of the resultant load.
Figure 12.9.8.3-1
Non-Composite Model 3
Deck Weight
Figure 12.9.8.5-1
Lane Loading
10' Loaded
Width (Typical)
0.64 kip/lin ft (4 lanes)(0.65)
= 1.664 kip/lin ft at 1 ft Eccentricity
12' Lane 12' Lane 12' Lane 12' Lane
3' 3'
45'
Resultant of the uniform loads
applied to the model =
1.664 kip/lin ft at 1 ft Eccentricity
0.0354 kip/ft
2
0.0231 kip/ft
2
Lane Loading [LRFD Article 3.6.1.2.4]
Loading on Model
12.9.8.4 Model 4 Weight of Barriers and Future Wearing Surface/
12.9.8.5 Model 5 Lane Loading
SEPT 01
12.9.8.5
Model 5 Lane Loading
The design truck is shown in Figure 12.9.8.6-1, which is Fig. 3.6.1.2.2-1 from the
LRFD Specifications. For maximum positive moment, the minimum rear axle spacing
of 14 ft controls. The maximum bending moment occurs with the middle axle load
placed 2.33 ft from midspan.
The main axle wheel loads are 16 kips each, plus a 33 percent dynamic allowance, or
21.28 kips. For the design speed of 40 mph, the centrifugal force is 0.2374 of the
truck weight (without dynamic allowance). This force acts 6 ft above the roadway.
The overturning moment per main axle is 0.2374 times 32 kips times 6 ft, or 45.58
ft-kips. Dividing by the 6-ft wheel spacing, the wheel loads due to centrifugal force
are 7.6 kip. The total main axle wheel loads, including the 0.65 factor, m, are 0.65
(21.28 7.6) = 18.77 kips and 8.89 kips. The front axle wheel loads are 1/4 of this,
or 4.69 kips and 2.22 kips.
The wheel loads are placed on fictitious, pin-ended members in order to transfer the
loads to the main beams, as shown in Figure 12.9.8.6-2 for the heavier axles.
The added pin-ended members and loads that represent the truck loading for the con-
dition producing maximum moment are shown in Figure 12.9.8.6-3.
The bending moments for each of the six beams from the six loading models are sum-
marized in Table 12.9.8.7-1. Pretensioning counteracts the moments from Model 1
while post-tensioning is used to counteract the moments from Models 2 through 6.
The LRFD Specifications [Article 3.4.1 and Table 3.4.1.1], states that for checking
tension in prestressed members at service load, the Service III load combination may
be used. This combination is 1.00 (DC + DW) + 0.8(L + IM).
12.9.8.6 Model 6 Truck Loading with Centrifugal Force/
SEPT 01
Figure 12.9.8.6-1
Characteristics of the
Design Truck
8.0 kip
14' - 0"
6' - 0"
14' - 0" to
30' - 0"
32.0 kip 32.0 kip
Figure 12.9.8.6-2
Wheel Load Placement across
Model for Heavy Axles
Lane Edge
2'
18.77
8.89 8.89 8.89 8.89
18.77 18.77 18.77
7 @ 6'
5 @ 9' = 45'
2.5'
12.9.8.7
Summary of
Bending Moments
12.9.8.6
Model 6
Truck Loading with
Centrifugal Force
SEPT 01
Figure 12.9.8.6-3
Truck Loading on Model 6
Table 12.9.8.7-1
Bending Moments in Each Beam
Maximum Bending Moments, ft-kips
Beam Number
Outside Inside
Load 1 2 3 4 5 6
Model 1 Segments on Shores 204 199 193 187 181 176
Model 2 Shore Loads 2,249 2,067 1,883 1,694 1,491 1,270
Model 3 Deck & Haunch 2,119 1,973 1,823 1,662 1,479 1,286
Model 4 Barrier & Surfacing 720 610 565 513 444 446
Model 5 Lane Loading 649 605 551 491 420 341
Model 6 Truck Loading 1,468 1,324 1,204 1,045 917 603
(0.8)Live Load = (0.8)(Models 5 + 6) 1,694 1,543 1,404 1,229 1,070 755
Models 2 + 3 + 4 + (0.8)(5 + 6) 6,782 6,193 5,675 5,098 4,484 3,757
The maximum self-weight bending moment for a beam segment is 204 ft-kips. The
bottom fiber stress is M/S
b
, or (204)(12)/(16,657) = 0.147 ksi. For y
b
= 36.51 in.,
the eccentricity, e, is 34.51 in for strands centered at 2 in. from bottom of the beam.
Try (4) 1/2 in.-dia strands with a force of 25 kips each.
Because this is a temporary condition, a check for minimum reinforcement is not
necessary.
Table 12.9.9.2-1 shows the stress to be resisted by post-tensioning. Assuming three
tendons, the maximum eccentricity is estimated to be y
b
less 9 in. (at the location of
maximum moment) as seen in Figure 12.9.9.2-1.
12.9.9 Selection of Prestress Force/12.9.9.2 Post-Tensioning
SEPT 01
12.9.9
Selection of
Prestress Force
12.9.9.1
Pretensioning
Table 12.9.9.1-1
Stress Due to Pretensioning
Fiber Stress, ksi
Stress
Top Bottom
P/A = 100/911 0.110 0.110
Pe/S = (100)(34.51)/S -0.201 0.207
M/S = (204)(12)/S 0.143 -0.147
Pretension & Self-Weight 0.052 0.170
12.9.9.2
Post-Tensioning
Table 12.9.9.2-1
Bottom Fiber Stresses in
Outside Beam at Location
of Maximum Moment
Load M/S
Bottom
Stress,
ksi
Shore Loads (2,249)(12)/16,657 = 1.620
Deck & Haunch (2,119)(12)/16,657 = 1.527
Barrier & Surfacing (720)(12)/22,784 = 0.379
(0.8)Live (1,694)(12)/22,784 = 0.892
Total Stress to be Compensated by Post-Tensioning, f
b
= 4.418
Figure 12.9.9.2-1
Bottom Flange Detail at
Maximum Moment Location
4
.
7
5
"
0
.
5
"
4
.
7
5
"
9
"
2
" 3
.
7
5
"
Assumed
C.G. of Tendons
Post-Tensioning
Duct
Note: Mild steel
reinforcement not
shown.
Pretensioned
Strands
For preliminary design, assume zero tension in the bottom fiber. The required final
force, P, is computed below, using non-composite section properties because the ten-
sioning is assumed to be completed before casting the deck.
P = f
b
/(1/A + e/S
b
)
P = 4.418/(1/911 + 27.51/16,657)
P = 1,607 kips
Try (48) 0.6-in.-dia strands at 162 ksi (0.6f
pu
)
P = (48)(0.217)(162) = 1,687 kips
A review of the total bending moments in Table 12.9.8.7-1 indicates that the post-
tensioning should be reduced in the other beams. Try 44 strands in Beam 2, 40 in
Beam 3, 36 in Beam 4, 32 in Beam 5, and 28 in Beam 6.
For the preliminary design, the post-tensioning trajectory is simplified to be three
straight segments, with horizontal and vertical angle changes at the interior
diaphragms. The tendons are modeled as bar elements, with a thermal coefficient
equal to 1/E
p
. The tensioning of the model is done by applying a negative tempera-
ture change equal to effective prestress.
Figure 12.9.9.3-1 shows the post-tensioning model. Short, rigid stubs are used to connect
the tendons to the beam gridwork. The length of these stubs is equal to the tendon eccen-
tricity, 0.29 ft at the ends and 2.29 ft at the interior crossbeams. These stubs will also resist
the transverse forces caused by the angle change of the tendons at the crossbeams.
For the middle third of the outer beam, the axial force is found to be 1,663 kips, and
the bending moment due to post-tensioning is 3,650 ft-kips which agrees well with
our assumptions. The tendon profiles will be held constant but the post-tensioning
force changed for the remaining beams.
Figure 12.9.9.3-1
Model - 7 Post-Tensioning
Tendon
Eccentricity =
2.29'
Tendon Eccentricity = 0.29'
SEPT 01
12.9.9.2 Post-Tensioning/12.9.9.3 Model 7 Post-Tensioning
12.9.9.3
Model 7 Post-Tensioning
Table 12.9.10.1-1 summarizes the stress history of the outside beam for the stages of
service loads. The stresses are within the limits. As stated in LRFD Article 3.4.1, the
Service I load combination is used to check compressive stresses, and the Service III
load combination is used to check tensile stresses. Service I uses a load factor of 1.0
for live loads, whereas Service III uses a load factor of 0.8 for live loads.
The check for the strength limit state is done in the same manner as that presented
in Section 9.4.9 for a straight beam. For the straight beam, the provided strength was
22 percent in excess of that required, and a similar amount of excess strength would
be found for the beams in the curved bridge.
The diaphragms function as crossbeams in the beam gridwork. They transfer load
from the inside to the outside of the curve. This load transfer maintains equilibrium
without the necessity of large torsional moments.
12.9.10 Results/12.9.10.3 Crossbeams
SEPT 01
12.9.10
Results
12.9.10.1
Stresses in Outside
Exterior Beam
Table 12.9.10.1-1
Stress Summary for
Outside Beam

2.400 3.900
Stresses, ksi
Load Top
Slab
Top
Beam
Bottom
Beam
1. Pretensioning + Beam Segment
Self Weight
0.152 0.170
2. Post-Tensioning: P/A = 1,663/911 1.825 1.825
3. Post-Tensioning: M/S = (3,650)(12)/S -2.556 2.630
4. Shore Loads: M/S = (2,249)(12)/S
5. Stress after Losses*
1,575 -1.620
6. Deck & Haunch: M/S = (2,119)(12)/S
7. Barrier & Surface: M/S = (720)(12)/S
1.484 -1.527
0.151 0.135

-0.379
8. Dead Load** 0.151 2.615 1.099
9a. 0.8 Live Load: M/S = (1,694)(12)/S -0.892
9b. 1.0 Live Load: M/S = (2,117)(12)/S 0.445 0.399
0.596 3.014 0.207
Stress Limits 0.60f'
c
Compression
& 0 Tension
0 Tension
* The stress before losses should also be checked. The allowable temporary
compressive stress for this condition is (0.60)f '
ci
= (0.60)(6.5) = 3.90 ksi.
[LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2.1]
It appears, by inspection, that this stress should be OK.
** The allowable compressive stress in the beam under full dead load is (0.45)f'
c
= 2.925 [LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2.1] OK.
0.996 3.005
12.9.10.2
Strength Limit State
12.9.10.3
Crossbeams
Figure 12.9.10.3-1 shows the shear and moment curves for an interior crossbeam for
Model 2. The shear is relatively constant, transferring load to the outside. The cross-
beam is also loaded by bending moments at each stringer. These moments equilibrate
the primary bending moments in the stringers as they turn through an angle at the
joint with the crossbeam.
The maximum bending moment occurs at the first interior beam. Table 12.9.10.3-1
shows the factored bending moments at this location. The LRFD Specifications do not
give a load factor for prestressing. Because the bending from prestressing is additive
to that from loads, a load factor of 1.25 (the same as for dead load) was conserva-
tively used. The bending moments are well within the capacity of a non-prestressed
beam. Although the crossbeam could be post-tensioned, the simple solution is to use
a conventionally reinforced (non-prestressed) member.
12.9.10.3 Crossbeams
SEPT 01
Figure 12.9.10.3-1
Model 2 -
Crossbeam Shears
and Moments
17.2
9' 9' 9' 9' 4.5' 4.5'
Shear, kips
Outside
Inside
Moment, ft-kips
-149
-134
-27 -4
+40
+75 +67
-114
-57
-8
Table 12.9.10.3-1
Factored Bending
Moments in Crossbeam
and at First Interior Beam
Load
M
ft-kips
Load
Factor
M
u
ft-kips
Model 2 Beams -149 1.25 -186
Model 3 Deck
Model 4 Barrier & Surface -138 1.50 -207
Model 5 + 6 Live Loading -110 1.75 -193
Model 7 Prestress
Total
-130 1.25 -163
-34 1.25 - 42
-791
The behavior of the beam gridwork may be checked manually by observation of the
bending moments applied to the crossbeam. The beams are bent through an angle y
of 0.0667 radians at the crossbeam. The crossbeams must resist a moment of 0.0667
times the flexural bending moment in the beam.
Table 12.9.10.4-1 shows the flexural bending moment in each of the beams for
Model 2, Shore Loads. The third column shows the bending moments multiplied by
the angle y. The fourth column shows the moments in the crossbeams, from the
gridwork analysis. The difference is resisted by torsion in the beams. This is compat-
ibility torsion, caused by the fact that the bridge tilts slightly toward the outside of
the curve.
The beam gridwork is stable without torsional moments in its members. However,
some torsion occurs due to the deformations of the gridwork. LRFD Article 5.8.2.1
requires torsion to be investigated when:
T
u
> 0.25fT
cr
[LFRD Art. 5.8.2.1-3]
where
T
u
= factored torsional moment, in.-kips
f = resistance factor [LRFD Article 5.5.4.2]
T
cr
= torsional cracking moment, in.-kips, and where:
[LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.1-4]
where
A
cp
= total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section, in.
2
p
c
= the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section, in.
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either
at the centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the
junction of the web and flange where the centroid lies in the flange, ksi
For consistency, the transformed section is used to compute A
cp
, p
c
, and the
average f
pc
on the transformed section.
A
cp
= A
c
= 1,564 in.
2
p
c
= 400 in.
T f
A
p
f
f
cr c
cp
c
pc
c
=
0 125 1
0 125
2
.
.
12.9.10.4 Behavior Check/12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion
SEPT 01
12.9.10.4
Behavior Check
Table 12.9.10.4-1
Beam Gridwork Behavior Check
Beam
Number
Beam
Bending
Moment,
ft-kips
M x ,
ft-kips
Moment on
Crossbeam,
M
c
ft-kips
Torque, M
t
in Beam,
ft-kips
1 (outside) 2,255 150 134 16 150
2 2,067 138 122 16 138
3 1,883 126 110 16 126
4 1,694 113 97 16 113
5 1,491 99 83 16 99
6 (inside) 1,264 84 67 17 84
M
c
+ M
t
ft-kips
12.9.10.5
Shear and Torsion
f
pc
= P/A
c
= 1,663/1,564 = 1.063 ksi
= 4,058 in.-kips = 338 ft-kips
Check if T
u
< 0.25fT
cr
= 0.25(0.9)(338) = 76.1 ft-kips
Torsion may be neglected if the ultimate torque is less than 76.1 ft-kips. Examine tor-
sion in the outside exterior beam.
Table 12.9.10.5-1 shows that T
u
is less than 76.1 ft-kips. Therefore, torsion may be
neglected.
The shear design is performed in a manner similar to that shown in Section 9.4.11
for a straight beam. Note that for post-tensioned beams, LRFD Article 5.8.2.7
requires that the effective web width, b
v
, be computed deducting one half of the
diameter of grouted ducts. The actual web width is 8 in., but the effective width, b
v
,
will be approximately 6 in., similar to that for the straight beam.
Compared to the straight bridge of Section 9.4, the additional cost items for this
curved bridge are as follows:
1. Additional design cost.
2. The cost and inconvenience of shoring. This may be at least partially offset by the
reduced shipping and erection costs for the beam segments, as compared to full-
length beams.
3. The additional cost of concrete for 2 in.increase in width of beams (1 cf/lf of added
concrete) due to addition of post-tensioning.
4. The cost of intermediate crossbeams (not required for straight bridge).
5. Additional cost of post-tensioning compared to pretensioning.
6. The cost of additional strand. Less strand is used in the other five beams, but the
total strand area (including pretensioned strands) for the six beams is about 20 per-
cent greater than for the straight bridge.
7. A wider cap beam may be necessary to allow clearance for the post-tensioning jacks
between the ends of the beams.
T
cr
=
( )
+ 0 125 6 5
1 564
400
1
1 063
0 125 6 5
2
. .
,
.
. .
12.9.10.5 Shear and Torsion/12.9.11 Comparison To Straight Bridge
SEPT 01
Table 12.9.10.5-1
Torsional Moments in
Outside Beam
Load
T
ft-kips
T
u
ft-kips
Load
Factor
Model 2 Beams -16.1 1.25 -20.1
Model 3 Deck -15.9 1.25 -19.9
Model 4 Barrier & Surface -9.5 1.50 -14.3
Models 5 + 6: Live Loads -15.8 1.75 -27.6
Model 7 Prestress +21.7 0.9* +19.5
62.4 Total
*Because the prestress acts to oppose the other torsional
moments, a load factor of 0.9 was conservatively assumed.
12.9.11
Comparison To
Straight Bridge
The detailed final design of the curved beam bridge will generally follow the design
for a similar straight bridge, as described in Section 9.4. Some special points relating
to the post-tensioned curved bridge are given below.
The calculation of prestress losses for post-tensioned beams is somewhat different
from that for pretensioned beams. Refer to LRFD Specifications, Article 5.9.5.
The computer models used in the preliminary design to analyze the effect of vertical
loads are adequate for use in the detailed final design. The model for the post-ten-
sioning (Model 7) should be refined, using more realistic tendon trajectories and
accurate estimates of the initial and final prestress forces. In addition, the optimum
prestress levels for all six beams needs to be investigated more thoroughly. This is a
trial-and-error process.
The detailing of crossbeams between the beam segments is similar to that described
in Chapter 11 for spliced beams. Refer to Chapter 11.
Initial stresses in the beams at the crossbeam location need to be calculated in order
to determine the required initial concrete strength, f
ci
, for the crossbeam concrete at
the time the beams are post-tensioned.
The post-tensioning tendons undergo an angle change at the crossbeams. This cre-
ates an inward radial force equal to the tension in the tendon multiplied by the angle
change in radians. At the exterior beam on the inside of the curve, reinforcement
must be provided to tie this force back into the crossbeam. See Podolny 1985 for a
further discussion of this problem.
Post-tensioned beams will generally be detailed with end blocks to contain the ten-
don anchors. The design of post-tensioned anchorage zones is given in LRFD
Specifications, Article 5.10.9. An alternate method is to place anchorages in the end
walls to eliminate the need for end blocks on the beams.
ABAM Engineers Inc., Precast Prestressed Concrete Horizontally Curved Bridge
Beams, PCI Journal, V. 33, No. 5, September-October 1988, pp 50-95
FHWA Publication No. FHWA-SA-97-018, Seismic Bridge Design Applications, Part Two,
National Highway Institute (NHI) Course No. 13063, National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA, 1996-A
FHWA Publication No. FHWA-SA-97-007, Seismic Design of Bridges, Design Example
No. 2, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, 1996-B
12.10 Detailed Design/12.11 References
SEPT 01
12.10
DETAILED DESIGN
12.10.1
Loss of Prestress
12.10.2
Computer Models
12.10.3
Crossbeam Details
12.10.4
Post-Tensioning
Anchorages
12.11
REFERENCES
Podolny, Walter, Jr., The Cause of Cracking in Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder
Bridges and Retrofit Procedures, PCI JOURNAL, V. 30, No. 2, March-April 1985,
pp. 82-139 and discussion by Bruggeling, A.S.G., Lin, T.Y.and Podolny, Walter, Jr.,
V. 31, No. 4, July-August 1986, pp. 130-133
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16
th
Edition, American Association of
12.11 References
SEPT 01
JUN 04
NOTATION
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 Seismic Activity
15.1.2 Seismic Design Criteria
15.1.2.1 Background
15.1.2.2 Performance Objectives
15.1.2.3 Current Design Specifications
15.1.2.3.2 Caltrans Specifications
15.1.2.4 Effect of Local Geology and Soil Conditions
15.2 SEISMIC RESISTANT PRECAST CONCRETE BRIDGES
15.2.1 Spliced Precast Concrete Beam Bridges
15.2.2 Current Practice
15.2.3 Seismic Response Characteristics of Precast Concrete Bridge Systems
15.2.4 Integral Precast Concrete Beam System
15.2.4.1 Precast Concrete Pier Segment
15.2.4.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Bent Cap
15.2.4.3 Drop-In Precast Concrete Segment
15.2.5 Seismic Details
15.2.5.1 Superstructure-to-Bent Cap Connection
15.2.5.2 Ductility of Precast Concrete Piles
15.2.5.3 Pile-to-Cap Connections
15.2.6 Isolation Methods
15.3 SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
15.3.1 Analysis Methods
15.3.1.1 Conventional Force Method
15.3.1.2 Displacement Ductility Method
15.3.2 Computer Modeling
15.3.3 Seismic Design Issues
15.3.3.1 Causes of Failures
15.3.3.2 Preliminary Design Recommendations
15.4 SEISMIC DESIGN EXAMPLEBULB-TEE, TWO SPANS,
DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS DIVISION I-A
15.4.1 Introduction
15.4.1.1 Bridge Geometry
15.4.1.2 Level of Precision
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEISMIC DESIGN
7602 PCI Bridge Manual Ch 15.1-3.indd 1 6/22/04 9:53:26 AM
JUN 04
15.4.3 Seismic Analysis in Transverse Direction
15.4.3.1 Section Properties
15.4.3.1.1 Beam Properties
15.4.3.1.2 Composite Section Properties
15.4.3.1.3 Column Properties
15.4.3.2 Tributary Dead Load
15.4.3.3 Equivalent Transverse Stiffness
15.4.3.4 Period of Structure in the Transverse Direction
15.4.3.5 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient
15.4.3.6 Column Forces in the Transverse Direction
15.4.4 Seismic Analysis in Longitudinal Direction
15.4.4.1 Equivalent Longitudinal Stiffness
15.4.4.2 Period of Structure in the Longitudinal Direction
15.4.4.3 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient
15.4.4.4 Column Forces in the Longitudinal Direction
15.4.5 Combination of Orthogonal Forces
15.4.6 Abutment Design Forces
15.4.7 Minimum Abutment Seat Width
15.5 SEISMIC DESIGN EXAMPLEINTEGRAL BENT CAP
15.5.1 Introduction
15.5.1.1 Bent Cap Geometry
15.5.1.2 Reinforcement
15.5.1.3 Material Properties
15.5.1.4 Forces
15.5.1.5 Precision
15.5.2 Design Procedure
15.5.3 Principal Stresses in the Bent Cap
15.5.4 Joint Reinforcement Design
15.5.5 Shear-Friction Analysis
15.6 CALTRANS RESEARCH
15.6.1 Test Model Set-Up
15.6.2 Test Results
15.6.2.1 Columns
15.6.2.2 Superstructure
15.7 REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEISMIC DESIGN
JUN 04
NOTATION
SEISMIC DESIGN
A = total section area
A = seismic acceleration coefficient
A
c
= area of pile core measured to the outside of the transverse spiral rein-
forcement
A
g
= gross area of pile
A
h
= area of hoop reinforcement
A
i
= area of a segment in a bent cap section
A
jv
= vertical reinforcement to be placed over a distance of h
b
/2 from the
column face
A
ps
ARS = acceleration response spectrum
A
s
= area of reinforcing steel passing through shear plane including
prestressing steel
A
sc
= total area of longitudinal reinforcement in column section
A
vi
= interior vertical joint stirrup area
b
b
= bent cap width parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge
b
je
= effective width of bent cap
C
b
= compression force
C
c
= column compression force
C
s(long)
= elastic seismic response coefficient in the longitudinal direction
C
s(tr)
= elastic seismic response coefficient in the transverse direction
D = column diameter
D
= core diameter of spirally confined column

D
i
= force in diagonal compression strut within the superstructure/
substructure joint where i = 1 through 3
E
cc
= modulus of elasticity of deck and column concrete
E
cs
= modulus of elasticity of concrete in the beam and bent cap
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of nonprestressed reinforcement
F = bent cap prestressing force after all losses
F
i
= force in each quadrant
f
c
= specified compressive strength of concrete
f
o
yc
= over-strength stress of column reinforcement including strain hardening
f
h
= average horizontal stress (due to prestress) in the horizontal direction
f
v
= average joint axial stress in the vertical direction
f
y
= specified yield strength of non-prestressed reinforcement
f
yh
= yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement
f
yv
= yield strength of joint vertical reinforcement
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec/sec)
H = average column height in frame
h
b
= cap beam section depth
h
c
= column length from top of footing to center of gravity of the superstructure
IC = importance classification
JUN 04
I
c
= moment of inertia of column
I
s
= moment of inertia of superstructure cross-section about vertical axis
through centroid
K = equivalent transverse stiffness
K
c
= column shear stiffness
L = span length
L = length of longitudinal frame between expansion joints
l
a
= assumed length of column anchorage reinforcement in joint
M = total contributory mass of superstructure and column
M
o
bot
= column over-strength moment capacity at column bottom
M
o
i,bentcap
= moment at middepth of bent cap
M
L
= longitudinal moment
M
T
= transverse moment
M
o
top
= column over-strength moment capacity at column top
N = minimum abutment support length
n = modular ratio
P = axial force
P
DL,BOT
= axial force due to dead load at bottom of column
P
DL,TOP
= axial force due to dead load at top of column
P
e
= axial compression load on the pile
p
t
= principal tensile stress
q = uniformly distributed load
R = response modification factor
R
col
= column seismic shear force
RSA = response spectrum analysis
S = angle of skew (degrees) measured from a line normal to the span
S = site coefficient
SPC = seismic performance category
s
reqd
= required spacing of hoop reinforcement
T = external torsion
T
c
= partial tension force in column
T
c
= partial tension force in column
T
(long)
= period of structure in the longitudinal direction
T
(tr)
= period of structure in the transverse direction
V
c
= column shear force
V
o
i,column
= horizontal shear force at top of column
V
jh
= horizontal joint shear force
v
jh
= nominal horizontal shear stress in the joint
V
L
= longitudinal shear force
V
T
= transverse shear force
V
T(Abutment)
= abutment transverse shear force
NOTATION
SEISMIC DESIGN
JUN 04
f
ci
f
c
T
c
Y
b
V
V
= vertical shear force
W = total contributory weight of superstructure and column
x
i
, y
i
= distances defining location of quadrant force, F
i
Y
b
= distance to centroid of superstructure cross-section from extreme
bottom fiber
Z = force reduction factor
= longitudinal or transverse superstructure displacement at intermedi-
ate support(s)
1
ate support(s)
2
ate support(s)
= coefficient of friction over the interface
s
= ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of concrete
core (out-to-out of spiral)
s,min
= minimum required value of
s
= shear friction stress
NOTATION
SEISMIC DESIGN
JUN 04
The threat of seismic hazard is often thought to be limited to California and a few
other western states. However, the discovery of new fault zones and an increased
understanding of their activity have prompted many other states to include some
form of seismic design requirements in their bridge design specifications. Although
most states have not had significant levels of earthquake activity during recent history,
the occurrence of a few notable earthquakes indicates that there may be a significant
earthquake hazard in many states. For example, the most notable earthquake affect-
ing South Carolina was the one that shook the Charleston-Summervale area in 1886
causing loss of life and considerable damage. Small earthquakes still occur in the
region and seismologists indicate the potential for another damaging earthquake.
Other notable sources of earthquakes include the New Madrid Seismic Zone, the
Central Virginia Seismic Zone; the Giles County, Virginia, Seismic Zone; and the
Eastern Tennessee (or Southern Appalachian) Seismic Zone. Low seismic wave
attenuation in the Eastern United States has the potential to cause significant shak-
ing over broad areas, sometimes covering several states. The 1811-1812 New Madrid
earthquakes, for example, caused seismic shaking of Intensity VI on the Modified
Mercalli Intensity scale as far away as South Carolina. Figure 15.1.1-1, from the
Standard Specifications, shows contours of current estimates of peak ground accelera-
tions, expressed in terms of the gravitational acceleration coefficient, g. The accelera-
tions shown have a 10% probability of being exceeded in a 50-year period.
The first United States highway bridge design standard was published in 1931 by
American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO), predecessor to the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
Neither the first edition nor subsequent editions of the standard published prior
to 1941 addressed seismic design. The editions published in the 1940s mentioned
seismic loading only to the extent that bridge structures must be proportioned for
earthquake stresses.
The California State Department of Transportation (Caltrans) has been at the fore-
front in the development of specific seismic criteria for bridges. The first general
requirements for seismic design of bridges were formulated in 1940. Specific force
level recommendations for earthquake design were established in 1943.
The collapse of several California freeway structures during the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake was a major turning point in the development of seismic design criteria
for bridges in the United States. Prior to 1971, AASHTO and Caltrans specifications
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.1
INTRODUCTION
15.1.1
Seismic Activity
15.1.2
Seismic Design Criteria
15.1.2.1
Background
JUN 04
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.1.2.1 Background
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
5
.
1
.
1
-
1

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

A
,

f
o
r

t
h
e

U
n
i
t
e
d

S
t
a
t
e
s

(
g
s
)
JUN 04
for seismic design of bridges were based in part on the lateral force requirements for
buildings developed by the Structural Engineers Association of California. In 1973,
Caltrans developed a specification based on research that considered the relation-
ship of the site to active faults, seismic response of the soils at the site and dynamic
response characteristics of the bridge. In 1975, AASHTO adopted interim specifica-
tions that were slightly modified from the 1973 Caltrans provisions.
The 1971 San Fernando earthquake stimulated research activity by the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA), which, in 1978, funded a major research proj-
ect headed by the Applied Technology Council (ATC). This effort focused on the
development of improved seismic design guidelines for highway bridges that would
be applicable to all regions of the United States. It culminated in the publication of
Report No. ATC-6 entitled Seismic Design Guidelines for Highway Bridges (ATC,
1982). These guidelines incorporated an elastic Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA),
with R and Z factors to account for redundancy in the structure, ductility of the
structural components and risk. These guidelines emphasized detailing for ductile
behavior and prevention of collapse even after significant structural damage occurs.
Acceptable seismic performance criteria for bridge structures must satisfy both safety
and economic conditions. Clearly, requiring all bridges to be serviceable immediately
after an earthquake may not be economically feasible. At the same time, it is well
recognized that preventing bridge collapse and possible loss of life can and must be
achieved. The principles used in the development of AASHTO provisions were:
1. The design ground motion must have a low probability of being exceeded during
the normal lifetime of the bridge (10% probability of being exceeded in 50 years
or a 475-year return period).
2. The bridge must have a low probability of collapse due to the design ground
motion.
3. Structural damage is acceptable as long as it does not result in collapse or loss of
life; and, where possible, damage that does occur should be readily detectable and
accessible for inspection and repair. Small and moderate earthquakes should be
resisted within the elastic range of the structural components without significant
damage.
4. Functionality of essential bridges must be maintained.
5. The provisions must be applicable to all regions of the United States.
AASHTO adopted the ATC-6 recommendations as a guide specification in 1983, a
standard specification in 1990, and incorporated them into the Standard Specifications
in 1992. Subsequent to the earthquakes in Loma Prieta in California (1989), Costa
Rica (1991) and the Philippines (1991), AASHTO requested that the Transportation
Research Board review the provisions and prepare revised specifications as appropri-
ate. Funded by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), the
National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research prepared the seismic design
provisions that are included in the Standard Specifications.
15.1.2.2
Performance Objectives
15.1.2.3
Current Design Specifications
15.1.2.3.1
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.1.2.1 Background/15.1.2.3.1 Standard Specifications
JUN 04
Caltrans bridge engineering practice generally embraced deterministic ground
motion hazards as established based on Caltrans 1996 California Seismic Hazard
Map. A technical report published with the 1996 Map can be reviewed for further
information on the considered seismic sources. Caltrans uses the mean event for
standard practice and refers to it as the Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE).
Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC) V1.3, 2004, documents the current state
of the practice. These criteria are intended to achieve a No Collapse condition for
standard ordinary bridges using one level of Seismic Safety Evaluation.
Design spectra for three magnitudes of earthquake established in ATC 32 is used for
the one level Seismic Safety Evaluation unless site-specific spectrum is recommended
according to SDC V1.3. Design spectrum adjustment for long period structures and
proximity to a fault is prescribed in SDC V1.3. The SDC uses a strictly displacement
approach that compares displacement demands obtained from an elastic analysis to
displacements capacities obtained from inelastic static analysis commonly referred
to as Push Over Analysis. The Engineer is referred to SDC V1.3 for a thorough
description of the displacement approach adopted and practiced in California.
The AASHTO LRFD Specifications incorporates many of the seismic provisions of
the 1992 Standard Specifications, but has updated them in light of new research devel-
opments. The principal areas where provisions were updated are:
1. The introduction of separate soil profile site coefficients and seismic response
coefficients (response spectra) for soft soil conditions.
2. Definition of three levels of importance, namely critical, essential and other as
opposed to the two defined in previous AASHTO provisions. The importance
level is used to specify the degree of damage permitted by the use of appropriate
Response Modification Factors (R factors) in the seismic design procedure.
As more is learned about the effect of soil-structure interaction (SSI), new guidelines and
procedures continue to be developed to enhance the accuracy of predictions of the bridge
response to seismic loading. However, practical limitations prevent detailed incorporation
of SSI effects in every project. Where a situation warrants the development of a site-spe-
cific spectra, extra effort in site investigation, laboratory testing and modeling may be
required. On very long bridges, the subsurface conditions may vary to the extent that a
single-response spectra is not an accurate representation of the soil conditions. In these
cases, multiple-support excitations may be specified. Multiple-support excitation requires
the use of time history analysis, i.e., RSA cannot be used.
15.1.2.3.3
LRFD Specifications
15.1.2.4
Effect of Local Geology
and Soil Conditions
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.1.2.3.2 Caltrans Specifications/15.1.2.4 Effect of Local Geology and Soil Conditions
15.1.2.3.2
Caltrans Specifications
JUN 04
On large, important structures where the presence of large piles or drilled shafts
can significantly influence the soil response, free-field response spectra may not be
accurate. In these exceptional situations, state-of-the-art knowledge in the area of SSI
should be utilized to improve prediction accuracy.
In addition to SSI analyses, site stability issues should be addressed. These issues
include soil liquefaction, soft-clay sites and slope hazards. Soil liquefaction includes
the analysis for lateral spread, loss of support, dynamic settlement, as well as possible
means of mitigation (site improvements). Large site amplification effects are usually
considered for soft-clay sites. Earthquakes have been recognized as major causes of
slope hazards.
Spliced precast concrete beam techniques have received interest in recent years as evi-
denced by the amount of research in this area and the number of spliced-beam bridg-
es built. The impressive performance and the increased use of these techniques signify
an emerging application, which is expected to expand in coming years. Spliced beams
provide an effective alternative to steel and cast-in-place concrete bridges in the 150-
to 300-ft span range, a range previously unattainable by precast concrete beams. As
a result of continuity, spliced-beam bridges also provide increased redundancy and
improved ductility and seismic behavior. The precast, prestressed concrete industry,
in cooperation with Caltrans, has sponsored the development of a competitive pre-
cast concrete beam system that can be used in areas of high seismicity.
Seismic design practices and requirements vary from region to region, depending
on the level of anticipated seismic activity. For example, integral superstructure-to-
substructure connections may not be necessary to resist earthquake forces in areas of
low to moderate seismicity. However, precast concrete bridge systems developed for
some level of seismic resistance may offer certain desirable qualities which can result
in better and more economical designs, even when earthquakes are not among the
major design considerations.
The most common form of concrete bridge consists of a cast-in-place (CIP) concrete
deck on precast, prestressed concrete beams. The beams are set on elastomeric bear-
ing pads, which rest on the multi-column bents consisting of circular or rectangular
columns with a rectangular bent cap or abutments. The columns, in turn, are sup-
ported on either isolated or combined footings.
In California, cast-in-place prestressed concrete box girders monolithically connected
to the substructure are used to create longitudinal frames with multiple spans. The
box girders are, in some cases, supported on single columns. Multi-column bents
are usually provided on wider bridges. Unlike the precast concrete beam system of
a drop-cap pier, the CIP box girder system with a monolithic connection to the
substructure resists longitudinal forces in double curvature bending of the column
as shown in Figure 15.2.2-1. This is a decided advantage in areas where large longi-
tudinal forces are possible such as from a seismic event. However, CIP construction
requires extensive falsework and formwork, which can result in lengthy periods for
construction with possible traffic disruptions in roadways below the bridge.
15.2
SEISMIC RESISTANT
PRECAST CONCRETE
BRIDGES
15.2.1
Spliced Precast Concrete
Beam Bridges
15.2.2
Current Practice
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.1.2.4 Effect of Local Geology and Soil Conditions/15.2.2 Current Practice
JUN 04
The lack of monolithic action between the superstructure and bent cap in precast, prestressed
concrete beam systems causes the column tops to act as a pinned connection. Consequently,
while the transverse stability of multi-column bents is ensured by frame action in that direc-
tion, stability in the longitudinal direction requires the column bases to be fixed to the
foundation supports. This requirement places substantial force demands on the foundations
of multi-column bents, particularly in areas of moderate to high seismicity. Developing a
moment connection between the superstructure and substructure makes it possible to intro-
duce a pinned connection at the column bases. This results in less expensive foundations.
Integral bent caps are also beneficial in precast, prestressed concrete beam systems
with single-column bents. By introducing moment continuity at the connection
between the superstructure and the cap, the columns are forced into double-curva-
ture bending, which tends to substantially reduce their moment demands. As a result,
the sizes and overall cost of the adjoining foundations are also reduced.
In a seismic event, it is essential to have plastic hinging occur in the column rather than
the superstructure or footing. This is because plastic hinging is accompanied by a certain
degree of damage in the form of inelastic displacements, cracked and spalled concrete and
yielded reinforcement. Allowing such damage to occur in the superstructure near the ends
of a span could reduce the load-carrying capacity of the superstructure, thereby increasing
the likelihood of collapse. Damage to a footing or pile system is not easily detected and
is extremely difficult to repair. Plastic hinging in the column can be quickly identified by
inspection and sometimes repaired. More importantly, a properly confined column will
continue to carry axial load and therefore structural collapse may be avoided.
The longitudinal moment in a typical beam near the pier consists of the sum of the dead
load and a portion of the column seismic (plastic) moment on one side of the pier, and the
difference between dead load and the remaining portion of the column seismic (plastic)
moment on the other side. The result is a high, rapidly changing moment on the side
where the moments are additive and a smaller, relatively constant positive moment on the
15.2.3
Seismic Response
Characteristics of Precast
Concrete Bridge Systems
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.2 Current Practice/15.2.3 Seismic Response Characteristics of Precast Concrete Bridge Systems
Precast Beam (Non-Integral) System - Single Curvature
Integral Bent System - Double Curvature
Shape
Force
Force
Moment diagram
Shape Moment diagram
Fixed
Fixed
Fixed
Pinned
Figure 15.2.2-1
Single- versus Double-
Curvature Column
JUN 04
opposite side. This distribution is reversible depending on the direction of the earthquake
force. Therefore, the beams must be designed to carry both a high negative moment near
the pier, and a smaller positive moment for an extended length on each side of the pier (see
Figure 15.2.3-1). The dead load moment considered should properly account for time-
dependent and construction staging effects, which are not included in Figure 15.2.3-1.
Recently, a precast concrete girder system was developed, tested and introduced in
California to address the requirements of superstructure and substructure continuity, aes-
thetics and minimized traffic impact during construction. Cross-sections for both single
and two-column bents are shown in Figure 15.2.4-1. The superstructure of this bridge
system consists of three basic components as described in the following sections.
15.2.4
Integral Precast Concrete
Beam System
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.3 Seismic Response Characteristics of Precast Concrete Bridge Systems/
15.2.4 Integral Precast Concrete Beam System
30'
Support at
expansion joint
or abutment
140' 160' 160'
Reaction
from
adjacent
frame
Field splice
Dead load
Earthquake
Dead load + earthquake
Figure 15.2.3-1
Moment Distribution
along the Superstructure of a
Longitudinal Frame Unit
Two-Column Bent
Single-Column Bent
Figure 15.2.4-1
Typical Bridge Cross-Sections with
Single- and Two-Column Bents
JUN 04
The precast concrete pier segment as shown in Figure 15.2.4.1-1. It is a variable
length section comprised of a prismatic bulb-tee beam continuous over the columns.
The length is variable in order to locate the splice at the approximate point of inflec-
tion for a given span arrangement. Subject to weight limitations, the web in the cen-
tral portion of the pier segment may be thickened to accommodate the large negative
moments and shear forces at the pier. The section is pretensioned for shipping and
handling stresses and for a portion of the service negative moment over the pier. The
pier segment also contains ducts for two stages of longitudinal post-tensioning: one
for the beam-only section and one for the beam-deck composite section.
This portion of the system provides for the connection of the precast pier segment
to the column as shown in Figure 15.2.4.2-1. The pier diaphragm is formed and
poured around the precast pier segments and the entire system is connected by
means of transverse post-tensioning through the complete length of the pier cap.
Reinforcing steel in the top slab and in the cap improves the monolithic response of
the superstructure-column interface. The principal mechanism for developing mono-
lithic response is a combination of torsion and shear-friction through the bent cap,
which then translates into longitudinal bending of the beams. The corresponding
bent cap design procedure is presented in Example 15.5.
This drop-in section traverses the positive moment region of a span and utilizes
a standard bulb-tee shape. It is pretensioned for lifting and handling stresses and
contains ducts for the two-stage post-tensioning of the continuous beam and com-
15.2.4.1
Precast Concrete
Pier Segment
15.2.4.2
Cast-in-Place
Concrete Bent Cap
15.2.4.3
Drop-In Precast
Concrete Segment
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.4.1 Precast Concrete Pier Segment/15.2.4.3 Drop-In Precast Concrete Segment
Elevation
in girders
(full length)
for bent cap
Temporary shoring to support
girders and formwork
Section A-A
CIP closure joint
Temporary tie down or shoring
A
A
CIP Closure Joint
Variable length pier segment
40'-0" Standard length
in bent cap
Post-tensioning
in bent cap
connectors
Erection
tension ducts
Splice post-
Rebar splice
bracket
Post-tensioning
Continuity tendons
Figure 15.2.4.1-1
Details at Integral Cap and CIP Closure Joint
JUN 04
posite sections. See Figure 15.2.4.3-1. The drop-in segment is supported from the
pier segments by erection brackets as shown in Figure 15.2.4.1-1 and described in
Chapter 11.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.4.3 Drop-In Precast Concrete Segment
Typical Section at Pier
Section A-A (beams not shown)
in bent cap
A
Post-tensioning
A
Figure 15.2.4.2-1
Longitudinal Section and
Cross-Section of CIP Pier Cap
Typical drop-in segment
Stage 2 P-T
Section A-A
Stage 1 P-T
CIP splice (typ.)
Sym. about C
A
A
L
P-T ducts
Pretensioning
strands
Pier segment
Figure 15.2.4.3-1
and Cross-Section of
Drop-In Segment
JUN 04
One of the important features of the integral system is its minimal impact on traffic
during the construction process, compared to CIP box-girder systems. This is of criti-
cal interest in regions where bridge construction occurs in urban areas with minimal
vertical clearances. The proposed construction sequence using the system for a two-
span bridge is illustrated in Figure 15.2.4.3-2. Additional details for spliced beams
are found in Chapter 11.
The goal of a seismic connection at this location is to transfer the plastic moment
demands at the top of the column into the superstructure without yielding either
the connection itself or the beam ends. To achieve this, both the connection and
the beam ends must be designed to provide a design strength exceeding the required
strength from the forces transferred i.e., capacity must exceed demand. Additionally,
the connection should be detailed to ensure adequate distribution of the longitudinal
moment from the top of the column to the various beams.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.4.3 Drop-In Precast Concrete Segment/15.2.5.1 Superstructure-to-Bent Cap Connection
15.2.5
Seismic Details
15.2.5.1
Superstructure-to-Bent
Cap Connection
Stage 5 (days 39 thru 41): Post-tension bent cap
Stage 6A (days 43 thru 44): Erect left span segments and tie down
Stage 6B (days 45 thru 46): Erect right span segments
Stage 7 (days 49 thru 55): Cast closure joints
Stage 8 (days 56 thru 57): Tension first phase tendons
Stage 9 (days 58 thru 72): Construct cast-in-place deck
Stage 10 (day 73): Tension second phase tendons
Stage 11 (days 74 thru 83): Complete bridge
Stage 4 (days 29 thru 38): Formand cast bent cap
Stage 3 (days 19 thru 28): Erect segments on temporary suppports
Stage 2 ( day 2): Detension strands
Stage 1 (day 1): Pretension strands and cast girder concrete
Figure 15.2.4.3-2
Construction Sequence for Bulb-Tee Bridge
JUN 04
The design procedure involves the following steps:
1. Determination of the plastic moment capacities at the top and bottom of the
column.
2. Calculation of the principal stresses in the bent cap due to joint shear.
3. Design of joint reinforcement.
4. A torsion-shear friction analysis to verify the ability of the bent cap to transfer the
column plastic moments to the bridge superstructure.
5. A check of the bridge superstructure capacity to ensure that the plastic hinges
form in the column rather than the superstructure.
Piles in soft soils supporting bridge structures may be subjected to large horizontal
displacements due to design earthquakes. These deformations produce significant
curvatures in the piles. The pile-cap interface (end fixity of the pile in the pile cap) is
a region of significant curvature. Another region of high curvature is within the soil.
These regions of high curvature need to be designed to possess adequate ductility.
Ductility is improved by confining the concrete with spiral or hoop reinforcement.
In addition to confining the concrete, spiral or hoop reinforcement prevents the
buckling of reinforcing bars and tendons at large deformations and ensures adequate
shear resistance.
Gerwick (1982) and Sheppard (1983) reported on the results of lateral load tests
on prestressed concrete piles conducted in California. They provide specific recom-
mendations for the required transverse reinforcement in critical regions of the pile.
Park and Falconer (1983), summarize the results of experimental tests conducted
on precast, prestressed concrete piles at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand.
The objective of these tests was to determine if the requirements for transverse spi-
ral reinforcement in concrete columns and piers of the Standard Code of Practice of
New Zealand (1982) would result in ductile behavior of precast, prestressed concrete
piles. The spiral reinforcement in the test specimens was in accordance with the New
Zealand Code requirements for potential plastic hinge regions of ductile reinforced
concrete columns and piers. The tests showed that when there is adequate transverse
reinforcement, piles subjected to cyclic lateral loading are capable of undergoing large
post-elastic deformations without significant loss of load carrying capacity.
For pile bents in Seismic Performance Categories B, C and D, the Standard Specifications
requires that the volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement in potential plastic hinge regions
be:
s
g
c
c
yh
A
A
f
f
=
0 45 1 .
[STD Div. I-A, Eq. 6-4]
or,
s
c
yh
f
f
=

0 12 .
whichever is greater
15.2.5.2
Ductility of Precast
Concrete Piles
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.5.1 Superstructure-to-Bent Cap Connection/15.2.5.2 Ductility of Precast Concrete Piles
JUN 04
where

s
= ratio of the volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of concrete core
(out-to-out of spiral)
A
g
= gross area of the pile
A
c
= area of pile core measured to the outside of the transverse spiral reinforcement
f
c
= specified compressive strength of concrete
f
yh
= yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement
The Standard Specifications also requires that center-to-center spacing of the spirals
not exceed the smaller of 0.25 times the pile diameter, or 4 in. for Categories C and
D and 6 in. for Category B. At the top of piles in pile bents, the transverse rein-
forcement for confinement must be provided over a length equal to the maximum
cross-sectional pile dimension or one-sixth of the clear height of the pile, whichever
is the larger, but not less than 18 in. At the bottom of piles in pile bents, transverse
reinforcement must be provided over a length extending from three pile diameters
below the calculated point of moment fixity to one pile diameter, but not less than
18 in., above the mud line. Lapping of spiral reinforcement in the transverse confine-
ment regions is prohibited; connections of spiral reinforcement in this critical region
must be full strength lap welds.
In the New Zealand Standard Code of Practice satisfactory results have been obtained by
multiplying the generally accepted AASHTO volumetric ratios,
s
, by the expression:
0 5 1 25 . . +

P
f A
e
c g
where P
e
= axial compression load on the pile
For a perspective on Caltrans state of the practice, the engineer should refer to
Seismic Design Criteria SDC V1.3, 2004 and applicable references. In summary,
piles with a cap placed in competent soil are not designed explicitly for lateral dis-
placements; typical pile standard details (referred to as XS Sheets and downloaded
from www.dot.ca.gov) are used. For bridges with flexible foundations (i.e. soft or
marginal soil, liquefaction, scour), the piles are explicitly designed for both vertical
and lateral load path.
The strength and ductility of the connection between precast, prestressed concrete
piles or pile extensions and reinforced concrete pile caps or bent caps is vital to the
seismic performance of the piles. Gerwick (1993) describes three types of pile-to-cap
connections that have been successfully employed. The connections are illustrated in
Figure 15.2.5.3-1. They are described as follows:
Case 1 Pile embedment into the pile cap. The pile is designed to extend into the
cap. Prior to concreting the cap, the surface of the pile is cleaned and rough-
ened to provide shear transfer.
15.2.5.3
Pile-to-Cap Connections
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.5.2 Ductility of Precast Concrete Piles/15.2.5.3 Pile-to-Cap Connections
JUN 04
Case 2 Break away pile cover concrete and exposed strands. The concrete at the end
of the pile is broken back to expose the strands, which are then embedded
in the cast-in-place cap. The spirals are removed and the exposed strands are
splayed to facilitate the development of the full strand strength in the cap.
Case 3 Dowel bars embedded in the cap. Holes may be pre-formed in the pile with
flexible metal ducts that are held in place during concreting by a mandrel.
The holes may also be drilled in the pile after it is driven, provided the pile
is not damaged during driving. The dowels should be embedded a distance
sufficient to develop their full strength and the moment in the pile head.
Dowel bars are typically grouted with a non-shrink grout.
Tests at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, (Joen and Park, 1990) on
prestressed concrete piles showed that well detailed prestressed concrete piles and
pile-pile cap connections are capable of undergoing large post-elastic deformations
without significant loss in strength when subjected to severe seismic loading. The
three connection types mentioned above were investigated. All three permitted the
pile to reach its full flexural strength and all three were found to have satisfactory
ductile behavior.
The tests indicated that spiral steel, similar to that provided in the potential plastic hinge
regions should be provided within the region of the pile that is embedded in the pile cap,
especially in the broken-back pile head type connection (Case 2) described above. The spi-
ral steel improves the bond of the strands and assists in the transfer of the lateral forces to
the surrounding concrete in the cap. The tests showed that the non-prestressed reinforce-
ment was not essential to the satisfactory ductile performance of the pile but did permit a
greater dissipation of seismic energy by the pile.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.5.3 Pile-to-Cap Connections
Case 1 - Pile Embedment Case 2 - Break Pile Cover
Strands Strands
Break pile concrete
to expose
Case 3 - Dowel Bars
Dowels in
corrugated
tubing
Precast, prestressed
concrete pile
Precast, prestressed
concrete pile
concrete pile
Precast,
prestressed
CIP cap CIP cap CIP cap
4
3
/4"
clr
Spiral
#9 (total of 8)
Section A-A
A A
4
5
2'-0"
3
"
P-S strands
in Cap
Exposed P-S Strands
Concrete and Embed Embedded in Cap
spacing
strands @ equal
0.6"-dia. prestressed
metal tubing
2 1/4"- dia. corrugated
Figure 15.2.5.3-1
Alternative Pile-to-Pile
Cap Connections
JUN 04
Figure 15.2.5.3-2 details typical monolithic and independent pile extension or
build-up details for applications where the pile cut-off elevation may be different
from that specified on the drawings due to field conditions.
Seismic isolation is gaining increased acceptance in the United States both as a means of
enhancing the seismic performance of existing structures and as a way of reducing the seis-
mic force demand on substructures for new bridges. Seismic isolators decouple the super-
structure from the substructure, which is the opposite strategy to the integral superstruc-
ture-substructure connection. The objective of seismic isolation of bridge superstructures
is to protect the piers, abutments and their foundations by limiting the forces transferred
through the beams. Besides reducing seismic loads, the isolation design helps distribute the
seismic forces to the piers and abutments in relationship to their capacities.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.5.3 Pile-to-Cap Connections/15.2.6 Isolation Methods
15.2.6
Isolation Methods
W20 @ 2
1
/2" pitch
m
i
n
.
Pour monolithic with deck
Independent Pile Build-Up Detail
Monolithic Pile Build-Up Detail
hook ends
concrete pile
Driven prestressed
metal tubes
Corrugated
pile head (4 total)
#5 Ea. side
min.
m
a
x
.
Bottomof pier cap or
abutment footing
#5 @ 3 in.
Roughen top of pile
surface to 1/4" amplitude
#9 (total of 8)
Cut-off line
Bottom of pier cap or
abutment footing
#9 (total of 8)
Prestressing strands
Roughen top of
pile surface
to 1/4" amplitude
c
l
r
.
5
"
@
P
i
e
r
s
pile
Top of
driven
2
4
'
-
0
"
m
a
x
.
c
l
r
.
p
i
l
e
b
u
i
l
d
-
u
p
6
'
-
0
"
m
a
x
.
3
"
@
A
b
u
t
m
e
n
t
s
6
" 4"
2
"
For Pile Driven Up to 6" Below
Cut-Off Elevation
1
1
/
2
"
1
1
/
2
"
Figure 15.2.5.3-2
Typical Monolithic and
Independent Pile Buildup
Details
JUN 04
Decoupling the bridge superstructure and substructure from damaging horizontal
components of earthquake ground motions reduces the seismic demand on the sub-
structure. However, it is essential to limit the seismic displacements of isolated bridge
structures to tolerable levels in order to reduce the problem of supporting traffic
across excessive gaps (typically at the end abutments) and other structural problems
arising from large displacements.
In addition to performing the function of regular bridge bearings, seismic isolation
bearings should provide:
1. Additional flexibility in the bearings in order to lengthen the period of vibration
of the structure
2. Additional damping and energy dissipation to control relative displacements
across the isolator
3. Rigidity under service loads such as wind, braking and centrifugal forces
The required characteristics of the isolation bearing system result in the bilinear
force-deformation characteristics such as shown in Figure 15.2.6-1. Several propri-
etary seismic isolation bearing systems are available in the United States.
Two design philosophies are utilized in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic
Isolation Design (1999). The first is to take advantage of the reduced forces and pro-
vide a more economical bridge design than conventional construction. This option
uses the same modification factors as the Standard Specifications and hence provides
the same level of safety. The second option intends to eliminate or significantly
reduce damage to the substructure due to the design event. In this option, an R
(ductility) factor ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 will ensure an essentially elastic response by
eliminating the ductility demand on the substructure. The Guide Specifications also
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.6 Isolation Methods
Displacement
Force
Figure 15.2.6-1
Force-Displacement
Characteristics of Bilinear
Isolation Bearings
JUN 04
accounts for a reduction in the post-peak Acceleration Response Spectrum (ARS)
curve due to the damping characteristics of the isolation bearings.
Further information on isolation methods is provided by Billings and Kirkcaldie,
(1985) and Buckle and Mayes, (1990a and 1990b).
There are two general approaches to evaluate the seismic response of a bridge. The first
approach is the conventional force-based analysis while the second involves the use of a
displacement criterion. Caltrans uses the displacement method as described in the Seismic
Design Criteria V1.3, 2004.
In this method, the bridge analysis is performed and the forces on its various components
are determined. Next, the capacities of the components are evaluated. The component
demand/capacity (D/C) ratios are then calculated. A particular component is said to have
adequate capacity if its D/C ratio is less than a prescribed force reduction factor, R (or
Z). This factor allows for limited inelastic behavior and depends on the type of compo-
nent considered. The provisions contained in the Standard Specifications, Division I-A,
are largely based on this approach. Figure 15.3.1.1-1 is a flow chart of the basic steps of
seismic design in the Standard Specifications. The corresponding AASHTO classifications
and analysis requirements are given in Table 15.3.1.1-1.
Seismic
Acceleration
Coefficient
A
a
Importance Classification (IC)
IC = I
(Essential Bridges)
IC = II
(Other Bridges)
SPC
b
Minimum Analysis
Requirements
SPC
b
Minimum Analysis
Requirements
A 0.09 A Not Required A Not Required
0.09 < A 0.19 B
Regular
bridges with
2 through 6
spans:
c
Use
Procedure
1 or 2
d
Not regular
bridges with
2 or more
spans:
c
Use
Procedure
3
d
B
Regular
bridges with
2 through 6
spans:
c
Use
Procedure
1 or 2
d
Not regular
bridges with
2 or more
spans:
c
Use
Procedure
3
d
0.19 < A 0.29 C C
0.29 < A D C
a
Acceleration Coefficient, A, is defined in STD Div. I-A, Art 3.2
b
Seismic Performance Category, SPC, is defined in STD Div. I-A, Art 3.4
c
Regular bridge requirements are given in Table 4.2B of STD Div. I-A, Art 4.2
d
Seismic Analysis Procedures are defined in STD Div. I-A, Art 4.3 and 4.4

15.3.1.1
Conventional Force Method
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.2.6 Isolation Methods/15.3.1.1 Conventional Force Method
15.3
SEISMIC ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
15.3.1
Analysis Methods
Table 15.3.1.1-1
AASHTO Seismic
Classifications and Analysis
Requirements
JUN 04
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.3.1.1 Conventional Force Method
START
Preliminary Design
Applicablility of the Specification
STD Div. I-A, Art. 3.1
Acceleration Coefficient
Importance Classification
Site Effects
Seismic Performance Category
Determine Elastic Seismic Forces
Determine Analysis Procedure
Response Modification Factors
STD Div. I-A, Section 4
and Displacements
Determine Design Forces Design Foundations Design Abutments
Performance
Category D?
Seismic
Design Approach Slabs
STDDiv. I-A, Art. 7.4.5
Are
Adequate?
Components
Seismic Design Complete
Prepare Seismic Details
END
Revise Structure
No
No
Yes
Yes
Figure 15.3.1.1-1
Basic Steps in AASHTO
Division I-A Seismic Design
JUN 04
In the second approach, a more rational form of ductility assessment is sought by tak-
ing the effect of sequential yielding into account when evaluating capacity. Capacity
thus takes on a more global meaning since it refers to the entire structure rather
than to a given component, as in the force analysis. Displacement is taken as the
measure of the capacity of the structure. Failure occurs when enough plastic hinges
have formed to render the structure unstable or when a plastic hinge cannot sustain
any further increase in rotation. Typically, displacement demand is obtained from a
three-dimensional analysis using reduced flexural and torsional section properties. By
relying on the reserve strength of the materials involved in constructing the bridge,
this method results in considerable savings.
In most cases, the solutions to the equations of motion to determine demand forces
and displacements are based on a linear elastic multi-mode Response Spectrum
Analysis (RSA). This type of analysis is considered acceptable for basic regular struc-
tures. RSA offers the following advantages:
1. It is usually simple to use.
2. It eliminates the need for extensive testing. Representing non-linearities often
requires additional data to describe the behavior of the material.
3. It provides acceptable limit-state solutions. In most cases, there are no real gains
in resorting to a higher level of analysis. When discontinuities or other sources of
non-linearity exist, an iterative procedure based on the equivalent linear solution
may be used to satisfy force and displacement requirements. Limit states are often
used in conjunction with an iterative process to envelop the behavior of the struc-
ture. Each limit state is a worst-case scenario corresponding to a set of boundary
conditions or material properties. Examples of the commonly used limit states are
the tension and compression models of a bridge with expansion hinges and abut-
ment supports. The tension model corresponds to the opening of all expansion
hinges and lack of abutment soil springs (stiffness), while the compression model
corresponds to the closing of all gaps and the engaging of the soil at one or both
abutments.
4. It uses predefined ARS curves, except when required by the size of the project
and/or the geology of the site. The ARS curves take into account such factors as
proximity to fault zone and site geology (primarily the depth to rock).
Typical sources of non-linearity include:
Material:
Soil
Concrete
Soil-structure interaction
Inelastic action (yielding of the reinforcement)
Geometric:
P- effects
Gap elements
Expansion hinges
Abutments
Support system such as bearings
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.3.1.2 Displacement Ductility Method/15.3.2 Computer Modeling
15.3.1.2
Displacement Ductility
Method
15.3.2
Computer Modeling
JUN 04
15.3.3.1
Causes of Failures
15.3.3.2
Preliminary Design
Recommendations
15.3.3
Seismic Design Issues
Linear elastic solutions often provide adequate accuracy. The extra effort needed to
produce additional accuracy is rarely justified in the majority of bridge applications.
In fact, there are instances where the effort to obtain added accuracy may be coun-
terproductive and create misleading results. This is particularly true in cases where
an attempt is made to use non-linear time-history analysis without the proper model
parameters.
As more is learned about earthquake mechanics and its effects on structures, the
demand for improved seismic performance of bridges has been increasing. The gen-
eral trend is toward an increase in seismic design requirements and an emphasis on
the mechanics of resistance.
Based on experience learned from major earthquakes, bridge failures during an earth-
quake may be attributed to one or more of the following causes:
1. Unseating of the superstructure at abutments, hinges or expansion joints due to
insufficient support width.
2. Inadequate or poor distribution of lap splices of vertical column steel.
3. Column failure due to longitudinal bar buckling from inadequate lateral reinforcement.
4. Column failure due to horizontal shear forces and inadequate lateral reinforcement.
5. Joint shear failure at critical superstructure-substructure connections.
6. Columns punching through the superstructure due to large vertical acceleration
or inadequate connection details.
7. Footing failure due to lack of a top layer of reinforcement.
A systems approach to seismic design of bridges must be used because of the large
movements usually associated with earthquakes. The ability of the bridge to with-
stand such movements depends not only on the primary system displacement capac-
ity but also depends on the displacement compatibility of individual components.
The movements of components must be assessed in relation to other components
and to the overall bridge system. By providing the necessary displacement capacities,
the potential for both local and global failures will be minimized.
Several recommendations can be made regarding the preliminary design stages. These guide-
lines can help avoid problems during final design and enhance seismic performance.
1. Avoid span arrangements that induce large dead load moments in the columns,
thereby reducing column capacity to resist seismic moments.
2. Use continuous frames.
3. Avoid highly irregular or suddenly changing stiffnesses of members to prevent
concentration of load demands on a particular bent or frame. This will also
minimize the tendency of the bridge to undergo in-plane rotation.
4. Do not allow plastic hinges to form in the superstructure.
5. Consider a depth of flexibility for piers below the actual ground level.
6. Assume the footings to be fixed except where soft soil conditions exist. In those
cases, foundation flexibility should be considered when evaluating the demand.
7. Avoid skews at the abutments and hinges that are greater than 30 from the
normal to the centerline of the bridge.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.3.2 Computer Modeling/15.3.3.2 Preliminary Design Recommendations
JUN 04
8. Make the superstructure depth at integral bent caps equal to or greater than the
maximum column diameter.
9. Use isolation details at column architectural flares, or if the flares are to be relied
upon structurally, use proper confinement.
10. Consider using integral abutments for shorter bridges.
11. Consider using isolation methods.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.3.3.2 Preliminary Design Recommendations
JUN 04
This design example is of a bridge with two 140-ft-long spans supported by abut-
ments at each end and a single column midway between abutments as shown in
Figure 15.4.1-1. The superstructure consists of four precast, prestressed concrete
bulb-tee beams made continuous over the column and bent cap through post-ten-
sioning and a cast-in-place deck slab. The column is supported on a pile footing and
is therefore considered fixed at its base. The superstructure is integrally connected to
the column through a cast-in-place, post-tensioned bent cap.
It should be noted that superstructure-to-substructure continuity is not a require-
ment for seismic design. Introduction of continuity in this example provides a
prototype structure for the integral bent design, presented in the following section.
The seismic analysis procedure presented here is equally valid for other conventional
precast bridge systems.
15.4
SEISMIC DESIGN
EXAMPLEBULB-TEE,
TWO SPANS, DESIGNED
IN ACCORDANCE
WITH STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS
DIVISION I-A
15.4.1
Introduction
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4 Seismic Design ExampleBulb-Tee, Two Spans, Designed In Accordance With Standard Specifications Division I-A/
15.4.1 Introduction
2
6
'
-
0
"
5'-0"
typ.
Abutment
140'-0"
Typical Section
42'-6"
3 Spaces @ 10'-10"
6'-0" diameter column
Elevation
140'-0"
7'-0"
6'-8
1
/2"
Bulb-tee beam
Abutment
A
A
Shear key,
typ.
End diaphragm
Bearing pad
Bottom of end
diaphragm
Bearing pad
Shear key
Section A-A
Abutment Elevation
Pier
Field splice, typ.
Bearing
L
C
Bearing
L
C
L
C
Figure 15.4.1-1
Bridge Elevation and Typical Sections
7602 PCI Bridge Manual Ch 15.4.indd 1 6/22/04 9:57:39 AM
JUN 04
Because the bridge is a two-span concrete structure, the seismic loads and analysis
procedures of Division I-A of the Standard Specifications are applicable [STD Div.
I-A, Art. 3.1]. The bridge is assumed to be located in an area where the Seismic
Acceleration Coefficient, A, is 0.15 [STD Div. I-A, Art. 3.2]. Since the bridge
Acceleration Coefficient, A, is less than 0.29, the assignment of importance classifi-
cation (IC) is not required [STD Div. I-A, Art. 3.3].
Since A falls between 0.09 and 0.19, the Seismic Performance Category (SPC) is
B [STD Div. I-A, Art. 3.4].
The soil profile at the site is used to determine the Site Coefficient, S. In this exam-
ple, soil profile Type II is assumed. This soil type corresponds to stable deposits of
stiff clay and sand with a depth exceeding 200 ft. From STD Div. I-A, Table 3.5.1,
the corresponding S is 1.2.
The Response Modification Factors, R values, for the various components are shown
in Table 15.4.1-1
Component R Value
For a single column 3.0
Superstructure-to-abutment connection (shear key) 0.8
Column-to-superstructure connection 1.0
Column-to-foundation connection 1.0
For design, the bridge has the following dimensions:
Span length = 140.0 ft
Bent cap width = 7.00 ft
Bent cap depth = 6.71 ft for structural calculations
Column height = 26.00 ft
Column diameter = 6.00 ft
Beam spacing = 10.83 ft
Deck thickness = 8 in. for structural calculations
Abutment diaphragm thickness = 3.00 ft
The calculations in the design example are made using a minimum of three significant
figures.
Beam concrete strength = 6,000 psi
Bent cap concrete strength = 6,000 psi
Deck concrete strength = 4,000 psi
Column concrete strength = 4,000 psi
Unit weight of concrete = 144 pcf
Unit weight of beams and bent cap = 155 pcf
15.4.1.1
Bridge Geometry
15.4.1 Introduction/15.4.2 Material Properties
Table 15.4.1-1
Response Modification Factors
[STD Div. I-A, Table 3.7]
15.4.1.2
Level of Precision
15.4.2
Material Properties
JUN 04
Unit weight of deck, columns, and abutment diaphragms = 150 pcf
Modulus of elasticity of concrete in the beam and bent cap, E
cs
:
E f psi f ksi
cs c c
= =

57 000 57 ,
where f
c
= concrete strength, psi
E ksf
cs
= = 57 6 000 144 635 800 , ( ) ,

Modulus of elasticity of concrete in deck and column, E
cc
:
E ksf
cc
= = 57 4 000 144 519 100 , ( ) ,

Modular ratio between the two concretes, n:
n
E
E
cc
cs
= = =
519 100
635 800
0 816
,
,
.
Procedure 1 (Uniform Load Method) may be used because the SPC of the bridge is B.
According to this method, the seismic load is approximated as a uniform static load applied
at the center of gravity of the superstructure, transverse to its axis, as shown in Figure
15.4.3-1. The total seismic load (uniform load times bridge length) is taken equal to the
total dead weight of the superstructure plus the tributary weight of the columns multiplied
by the seismic response coefficient. The superstructure is assumed to respond to the uni-
form seismic load as a continuous beam supported on a flexible column.
Area of cross-section of precast beam = 7.39 ft
2
Overall depth of precast beam = 6.0 ft
Moment of inertia about the centroid of the major axis of the non-composite precast
beam = 36.44 ft
3
Moment of inertia about the centroid of the minor axis of the non-composite precast
beam = 3.33 ft
2
Distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the non-composite precast
beam = 3.10 ft
Distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the non-composite precast beam
= 2.90 ft
15.4.3
Seismic Analysis in
Transverse Direction
15.4.3.1
Section Properties
15.4.3.1.1
Beam Properties
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.2 Material Properties/15.4.3.1.1 Beam Properties
L
L
q
Figure 15.4.3-1
Assumed Transverse
Response According to the
Uniform Load Method
JUN 04
As a first step, the moment of inertia, I
s
, of the bridge cross-section about the verti-
cal axis through the centroid is calculated. The cast-in-place haunch above the beam
contributes very little to the moment of inertia of the section and may be ignored.
However, the deck eccentricity including the haunch thickness is used to determine
the location of the centroid.
Referring to Figure 15.4.3.1.2-1:
Transformed flange width = n(flange width) = 0.816 (42.5) = 34.68 ft
Transformed flange area = (transformed flange width)(deck thickness)
=
34 68 8
12
23 12
.
.
( )( )
= ft
2
I
s
=
( . )( . ) 0 667 34 68
12
3
+ 4(3.33) + 2(7.39)[(5.42)2 + (16.25)2] = 6,669 ft
4
The location of the centroid of the superstructure from the extreme bottom fiber is
Y ft
b
=
+
( )( )
+
=
( )( . )( . ) . .
( . ) ( . )
.
4 7 39 3 10 23 12 6 38
4 7 39 23 12
4 54
The moment of inertia of the uncracked circular column is:
I
c
=

D
4
64
6
64
4
=
( )
= 63.62 ft
4
The total dead load to be included in the seismic analysis is equal to the sum of the
weights of the deck slab, four beams with haunches, bent cap, two barriers, future
wearing surface, end diaphragms, and one-half of the column weight. Refer to Figures
15.4.1-1 and 15.4.3.1.2-1 for component dimensions and section properties.
Deck slab, haunch and beams:
[(42.5)(0.667) + (4)(4)(0.5/12)]0.150 + (4)(7.39)(0.155) = 8.93 kip/ft
Bent cap: (7.0)(6.71)(42.5)(0.155) = 309 kips
Barriers (2 barriers at 0.4 kip/ft): 2(0.4) = 0.8 kip/ft
15.4.3.1.2
Composite Section Properties
15.4.3.1.3
Column Properties
15.4.3.2
Tributary Dead Load
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.3.1.2 Composite Section Properties/15.4.3.2 Tributary Dead Load
X
8"
0.5"
1
.
8
4
'
6
.
3
8
'
C.G.
1
.
4
4
'
3
.
1
0
'
Effective width = 42.5 n = (42.5) (0.816) = 34.68'
Y
Girder
Y
X
Y = 4.54'
b
4'-0"
(typ.)
C. G. of
composite
section
c
Bulb-tee beam:
A = 7.39 ft
2
I = 36.44 ft
4
(Major axis)
I = 3.33 ft
4
(Minor axis)
f = 6,000 psi
'
Deck slab:
A = 23.12 ft
2
I = 0.86 ft
4
f = 4,000 psi
c
'
Figure 15.4.3.1.2-1
Geometric Properties
JUN 04
Future wearing surface at 35 psf: (0.035)(42.5) = 1.49 kip/ft
Abutment diaphragm: (3)(6.71)(42.5)(0.150) = 128 kips per diaphragm
Column:
6
2
0 150 4 24
2
( )
= . . kip/ft
Total dead weight of superstructure:
(8.93)[(2)(140) 7.00 (2)(3.00)] + 309 + (2)(140)(0.80 + 1.49) + (2)(128) = 3,591 kips
Tributary dead load of column: (4.24)(26/2) = 55.1 kips
Total dead load: 3,591 + 55.1 = 3,646 kips Use 3,700 kips.
In the transverse response mode, the superstructure is assumed to provide negligible
restraint against column-top rotations. Hence, the column is assumed to undergo
single-curvature bending (i.e., it acts like a cantilever). The column length, h
c
, used
for calculating shear stiffness is measured from the top of footing to the center of
gravity of the superstructure.
In this example, h
c
= 26 + Y
b
= 26 + 4.54 = 30.54 ft.
By referring to Figure 15.4.3.3-1, the following equations may be written:
1
=
5q(2L)
384E I
4
cs s
(Eq. 15.4.3.3-1)
where

1
= lateral displacement from a uniformly distributed load of q
q = uniformly distributed load
L = length of one span
2
=
( )
R 2L
48E I
col
3
cs s
(Eq. 15.4.3.3-2)
where

2
= lateral displacement caused by a column force of R
col
R
col
= column force
=
1

2
(Eq. 15.4.3.3-3)
where = net displacement
R K
3E I
h
col c
cc c
c
= =
3
(Eq. 15.4.3.3-4)
where K
c
= column shear stiffness
Substituting Eq. (15.4.3.3-1 and Eq. (15.4.3.3-2) in Eq. (15.4.3.3-3):
=
5q(16)L
384E I
R (8)L
48E I
4
cs s
col
3
cs s
(Eq. 15.4.3.3-5)
15.4.3.3
Equivalent Transverse
Stiffness
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.3.2 Tributary Dead Load/15.4.3.3 Equivalent Transverse Stiffness
1
q = 1.0 kip/ft
a) Applied Transverse Unit Load
R
2
col
b) Applied Restoring Force
From Column
c) Combined Effect
R
col
q = 1.0 kip/ft
Figure 15.4.3.3-1
Column Reaction Due to a
Uniform Transverse Load
JUN 04
Substitute q = 1.0 k/ft and R
col
from Eq. (15.4.3.3-4):

= =
(5)(1.0)(16)L
384E I
24E I L
48h E I
80L
384E I
24E I L
48h E I
4
cs s
cc c
3
c
3
cs s
4
cs s
cc c
3
c
3
cs s
( )
(Eq. 15.4.3.3-6)
E
cs
I
s
(superstructure) = (635,800)(6,669) = 4.240x10
9
kip-ft
2
E
cc
I
c
(column) = (519,100)(63.62) = 3.303x10
7
kip-ft
2
= =
(80)(140)
(384)(4.240x10 )
(24)(3.303x10 )(140)
48(30.54) (4.240x10 )
4
9
7 3
3 9
0 0189 0 3752 . .
= =
0 0189
1 3752
0 0137
.
.
. ft
Equivalent transverse stiffness, K =
1 0 2 140
0 0137
20 440 20 500
.
.
, ,
( )( )( )
= kip/ft kip/ft
T
(tr)
= 2 2 2
3 700
32 2 20 500

M
K
W
gK
= =
,
. ( , )
= 0.470 seconds
where
T
(tr)
= period of structure in the transverse direction
M = total contributory mass of superstructure and column
W = total contributory weight of superstructure and column
g = gravitational acceleration
C
s(tr)
=
1.2AS
T
2.5A
(tr)
2/ 3
where C
s(tr)
= elastic seismic response coefficient in the transverse direction
Substituting:
C
s(tr)
=
( . )( . )( . )
( . )
. . . .
/
1 2 0 15 1 2
0 470
0 357 2 5 0 15 0 375
2 3
= =
( )( )
= 2.5A
Therefore, C
s(tr)
= 0.357
Equivalent uniform static load = C
s(tr)
W
2L
0 357
3 700
2 140
.
,
( )
= 4.72 kip/ft
= (4.72)(0.0137) = 0.0647 ft
R
col
=
3E I
h
x
cc c
c
3
=
( )( . )( . )
( . )
3 3 303 10 0 0647
30 54
7
3
= 225 kips
Column seismic moment at bottom of column: (225)(30.54) = 6,872 ft-kips
15.4.3.4
Period of Structure in the
15.4.3.5
Elastic Seismic
Response Coefficient
15.4.3.6
Column Forces in the
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.3.3 Equivalent Transverse Stiffness/15.4.3.6 Column Forces in the Transverse Direction
JUN 04
The Uniform Load Method may also be used to calculate the longitudinal seismic
forces on the structure. The superstructure is assumed to displace as a rigid unit as the
supporting column undergoes bending deformations as shown in Figure 15.4.4-1.
Thus, the longitudinal stiffness is assumed equal to the shear stiffness of the column.
The total dead load that contributes to the seismic load in the longitudinal direction,
W, is equal to 3,700 kips (the same as the dead load used in the transverse direction).
The assumption of a rigid superstructure implies that the top of the column is restrained
against rotation. Therefore, the column undergoes double-curvature bending, as opposed
to single-curvature bending, which occurs in the transverse direction. The column length
used for calculating shear stiffness, H, is measured from the top of footing to the bottom
of the bent cap. In this example, H = 26 ft.
Column shear stiffness =
12E I
H
x
cc c
3
= =
12 3 303 10
26
22 550
7
3
( . )
( )
, kip/ft
In general, the abutments and soil behind them may contribute to the longitudinal
stiffness. Their contribution depends on the abutment type (i.e., integral vs. seat
abutment) and the longitudinal displacement of the structure. Several iterations may
be needed to evaluate the abutment effect on the stiffness. Additionally, a minimum
displacement in the range of 2 to 4 in. is typically required to mobilize the soil stiff-
ness. In this example, the total longitudinal displacement is small (0.75 in.), and thus
the abutment contribution to stiffness is ignored.
T
(long)
= 2 2 2
M
K
W
gK
3,700
32.2(22,550)
= = = 0.449 seconds
where T
(long)
= period of structure in the longitudinal direction
C
s(long)
=
1.2AS
T
2.5A
long
2/3
( )
[STD Div. I-A, Eq. 3.1]
where C
s(long)
= elastic seismic response coefficient in the longitudinal direction
C
s(long)
=
( . )( . )( . )
( . )
/
1 2 0 15 1 2
0 449
2 3
= 0.368 < 2.5A = 0.375
Therefore, C
s(long)
= 0.368
15.4.4
Seismic Analysis in
Longitudinal Direction
15.4.4.1
Equivalent Longitudinal
Stiffness
15.4.4.2
Period of Structure in the
15.4.4.3
Elastic Seismic Response
Coefficient
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.4 Seismic Analysis in Longitudinal Direction/15.4.4.3 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient
Elevation
Figure 15.4.4-1
Assumed Seismic Response in
the Longitudinal Direction
JUN 04
Column shear = (0.368)(3,700) = 1,362 kips
Column moment = (1,362)(26/2) = 17,706 ft-kips
A summary of the moments and shear forces are shown in Table 15.4.5-1.
Earthquake
Direction
Transverse Longitudinal
Moment Shear Moment Shear
ft-kips kips ft-kips kips
Transverse 6,872 225 0 0
Longitudinal 0 0 17,706 1,362
Seismic combination 1:
100% longitudinal force + 30% transverse force [STD Div. I-A, Art 3.9]
Transverse moment, M
T
:
M
T
= (1.0)(0) + (0.30)(6,872) = 2,062 ft-kips
Longitudinal moment, M
L
:
M
L
= (1.0)(17,706) + (0.30)(0) = 17,706 ft-kips
Transverse shear force, V
T
:
V
T
= (1.0)(0) + (0.30) (225) = 68 kips
Longitudinal shear force, V
L
:
V
L
= (1.0)(1,362) + (0.30)(0) = 1,362 kips
Seismic combination 2:
100% transverse force + 30% longitudinal force [STD Div. I-A, Art. 3.9]
M
T
= (1.0)(6,872) + (0.30)(0) = 6,872 ft-kips
M
L
= (1.0)(0) + (0.30)(17,706) = 5,312 ft-kips
V
T
= (1.0)(225) + (0.30)(0) = 225 kips
V
L
= (1.0)(0) + (0.30)(1,362) = 409 kips
Reinforced concrete shear keys, such as those shown in Figure 15.4.1-1, will resist
seismic transverse forces at the abutments. From statics, the total abutment reac-
tions are equal to the equivalent uniform static load minus the column reaction (See
Figure 15.4.6-1):
15.4.4.4
Column Forces in the
15.4.5
Combination of
Orthogonal Forces
Table 15.4.5-1
Summary of Column Forces
15.4.6
Abutment Design Forces
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.4.4 Column Forces in the Longitudinal Direction/15.4.6 Abutment Design Forces
JUN 04
Abutment transverse shear force, V
T(Abutment)
:
V
4.72 2 140 225
2
T(Abutment)
=
( )( )( )

= 548 kips
The elastic seismic force per shear key = 548/3 = 183 kips
Design shear per key = 183/R = 183/0.8 = 229 kips
The shear key design is typically based on the shear friction method. [STD Art. 8.15.5.4]
[STD Div. I-A, Art. 6.3.1]
The minimum support length N (in.), shown in Figure 15.4.7-1, is calculated by
the following equation:
N = (8 + 0.02L + 0.08H)(1 + 0.000125S
2
) [STD Div. I-A, Eq. 6-3A]
where
L = length (ft) of the longitudinal frame between expansion joints (2 x 140 = 280 ft)
S = skew angle (degrees) measured from a line normal to the span (0 degrees)
N = [8 + (0.02)(280) + (0.08)(26)][1 + (0.000125)(0)
2
] = 15.7 in. Use 16 in.
The seat width provided should be the larger of N and the elastic seismic displace-
ment in the longitudinal direction = column shear/longitudinal stiffness = (1,362/
22,550)(12) = 0.72 in. While in this example, N clearly controls, additional factors
such as the bearing size may control the final seat width.
LIST OF FIGURES15.4:
Figure 15.4.1-1 Bridge Elevation and Typical Sections
Figure 15.4.3-1 Assumed Transverse Response According to the Uniform Load Method
Figure 15.4.3.1.2-1 Bridge Cross-Section Geometric Properties
Figure 15.4.3.3-1 Column Reaction Due to a Uniform Transverse Load
Figure 15.4.4-1 Assumed Seismic Response in the Longitudinal Direction
Figure 15.4.6-1 Transverse Shear at the Abutments
Figure 15.4.7-1 Minimum Abutment Seat Width
15.4.7
Minimum Abutment
Seat Width
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.6 Abutment Design Forces/15.4.7 Minimum Abutment Seat Width
q = 4.72 kip/ft
225 kips
I
s
T
V
T
V
Plan
(Abutment)
(Abutment)
Figure 15.4.6-1
Transverse Shear at the
Abutments
JUN 04
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.4.7 Minimum Abutment Seat Width
Abutment seat
backwall
Abutment
or end of bridge deck
L = Distance to next expansion joint
[STD Div. I-A, Art. 6.3.1]
N
Figure 15.4.7-1
Minimum Abutment
Seat Width
JUN 04
This design example illustrates the procedure for integral bent cap design in spliced
I-beam bridges. The design procedure evolved from successful experimental testing of
a scale model of the Florida-type bulb-tee beam at the University of California at San
Diego. The results of this testing, which verified the longitudinal seismic response of
precast spliced-beam bridges, are reported in Holombo, et al (2000).
The integral bent cap is designed to provide force transfer from the spliced I-beam
bridge superstructure to the foundation through the development of column plastic
moments in a ductile manner.
Bent cap width = 84 in.
Bent cap depth, h
b
= 87 in.
Column cross-section: Circular with a 6.00-ft diameter, see Figure 15.5.1.1-1
Column reinforcement: Longitudinal: 30 #11 bars
Transverse: #6 spirals @ 4-in. pitch
Bent cap post-tensioning: Six 19x0.6-in.-dia strand tendons
Cast-in-place concrete strength, f
c
= 4 ksi
Reinforcing steel yield strength, f
y
= 60 ksi
Modulus of elasticity of tendons, E
s
= 29,000 ksi
15.5
SEISMIC DESIGN
EXAMPLEINTEGRAL
BENT CAP
15.5.1
Introduction
15.5.1.1
Bent Cap Geometry
15.5.1.2
Reinforcement
15.5.1.3
Material Properties
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5 Seismic Design Exampleintegral Bent Cap/15.5.1.3 Material Properties
Figure 15.5.1.1-1
Column Cross-Section
72 in.
#11(30 total)
#6 @ 4" pitch
Section
7602 PCI Bridge Manual 15.5-7.indd 1 6/22/04 10:02:26 AM
JUN 04
Axial load: Top of column, P
DL,TOP
= 2,225 kips
Bottom of column, P
DL,BOT.
= 2,350 kips
Column over-strength moment capacity at the top, M
o
top
= 14,115 ft-kips
Column over-strength moment capacity at the bottom, M
o
bot
= 14,340 ft-kips
The over-strength moment capacities are taken as 20% greater than the plastic
moment capacities.
The calculations in the design example are made using a minimum of three significant
figures.
The design procedure involves the following steps:
1. Calculate principal stresses in the bent cap.
2. Design joint shear reinforcement and ensure minimum embedment length for
column bars with the reinforcement being extended as close as possible to the top
reinforcement in the bent cap.
3. Perform a torsional shear-friction analysis to verify the ability of the bent cap to
transfer column plastic moments to the bridge superstructure.
Horizontal joint shear force, V
jh
, is given by:
V
jh
=
M
h
14,115 x12
87
1,947 kips
top
o
b
= =
Effective width of bent cap, b
je
, by the geometry shown in Figure 15.5.3-1 is
f
ci
f
c
M
o
bot
M
o
i,bentcap
M
o
top
T
c
Y
b
15.5.1.4
Forces
15.5.1.5
Precision
15.5.2
Design Procedure
15.5.3
Principal Stresses
in the Bent Cap
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.1.4 Forces/15.5.3 Principal Stresses in the Bent Cap
Figure 15.5.3-1
Effective Joint Width for Joint
Shear Stress Calculations
Cap beam
= je
b
D
b b
je b
Bridge axis
Web
2D
JUN 04
b
je
= 2 D ( for circular sections ) b
b
where
D = column diameter
b
b
= bent cap width parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge
b
je
= 1.414(72) = 101.8 in. > b
b
= 84 in. Therefore, use b
b
= 84 in.
Nominal horizontal shear stress in the joint, v
jh
:
v
jh
=
V
b D
1,947
(84)(72)
0.322 ksi
jh
b
= =
Calculate average joint axial stress, f
v
, in the vertical direction at middepth of the
bent cap:
f
P
b D h
2,225
(84)(72 87)
0.167 ksi
v
DL,TOP
b b
=
+
( )
=
+
=
The average joint axial stress in the horizontal direction, f
h
= 0 (I-beam superstructure, no
significant axial stress transferred to bent cap at middepth of bent cap)
The principal tensile stress, p
t
, in the bent cap/column connection is given by:
p
f f
2
f f
2
v
t
y h
2
v h
jh
2
=
+
+

=
+
+ =
(0.167) (0)
2
0.167 0
2
(0.322) 0.249 ksi
2
2
0.249 ksi 249 psi 3.94 f 3.94 4,000 3.5 f psi
c c
= = = >

According to Priestley, et al (1996):
If the principal tension stress 3.5 f
c
psi, only nominal joint reinforcement is

required.
If the principal tension stress > 5 f
c
psi, all requirements for joint reinforcement must

be met in accordance with a force-transfer mechanism.
If the principal tension stress is > 3.5 f
c
psi and 5 f
c
psi, linear interpolation

between full and nominal requirements for joint reinforcement must be met.
The principal tension stress is between 3.5
f
c
psi and 5 f
c
psi, so a linear inter-

polation between full and nominal joint reinforcement requirement would need
to be provided. However, for the purpose of this design example, the cap will be
designed for the full joint shear requirement.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.3 Principal Stresses in the Bent Cap
7602 PCI Bridge Manual 15.5-7.indd 3 7/2/04 12:28:37 PM
JUN 04
The joint design is in accordance with the procedure described in Priestley, et al
(1996) and verified by experimental results reported by Holombo, et al (2000). The
assumed joint force transfer mechanism is shown in Figure 15.5.4-1. The assumed
mechanism reduces congestion by placing the joint reinforcing steel outside the
column core region. The joint reinforcing steel facilitates the transfer of the column
tension force to the top of the joint.
Assumptions:
1. 75% of all column reinforcement providing T
c
is clamped by the main diagonal
compression strut D
1
(see Figure 15.5.4-1).
2. The remaining 25% of the total longitudinal column reinforcement at appropriate
strain hardening stress, T
c
, is clamped by the diagonal compression struts, D
2
and D
3
.
The vertical components of D
2
and D
3
are assumed equal. External joint stirrups
allow the development of strut, D
2
, which helps redirect the compression force,
C
b
, into the middle of the joint.
The external vertical reinforcement, A
jv
, should be placed over a distance of h
b
/2
from the column face on each side of the column in accordance with the following
equation:
A 0.125 A
f
f
jv sc
yc
o
yv
=
where
A
sc
= total area of longitudinal reinforcement in column section = (30)(1.56)
= 46.8 in.
2
f
o
yc
= material over-strength stress of column reinforcement allowing for strain
hardening
f
yv
= yield strength of joint vertical reinforcement
Taking f
o
yc
= 1.4f
yv
for Grade 60 reinforcement:
15.5.4
Joint Reinforcement Design
SEISMIC DESIGN
Figure 15.5.4-1
Assumed Mechanism for Joint
Force Transfer in Pier Cap
1
D
stirrups
Joint shear
c
C
c'
T T
c
c
V
D
3
2
D
C
b
Integral bent cap
Column
JUN 04
A (0.125)(46.8)
1.4f
f
8.19 in.
jv
yv
yv
2
= =
The number of #6 stirrup legs required = A
jv
/0.44 = 8.19/0.44 = 18.6, say 20 legs.
Provide 10 #6 two-legged stirrups on each side of the column face over a distance of
h
b
/2 = 87/2 = 43.5 in. from the column face.
An additional amount of vertical reinforcement equal to half of this amount should
be placed within the joint confines to help stabilize top beam reinforcement and
assist in the transfer of column tension force by bond.
Interior vertical joint stirrup area, A
vi
, is determined by:
A 0.0625A
f
f
(0.0625) (46.8)
1.4 f
f
4.10 in.
vi sc
yc
o
yv
yv
yv
2
= = =
The number of #6 stirrups required = A
vi
/0.44 = 4.10/0.44 = 9.3, say 10 legs. Provide
(10) #6 single leg stirrups within the column core. As the clamping action occurs at
the top of the joint, these stirrups need not extend to the base of the joint. They are
extended at least two-thirds of the bent cap depth or 2/3(87) = 58 in. Figure 15.5.4-2
indicates the locations for the placement of vertical joint reinforcement.
Note: The reinforcement placed outside the column core over a length of h
b
/2 is in
addition to the shear reinforcement required for conventional shear transfer in the
beam.
SEISMIC DESIGN
Figure 15.5.4-2
Locations for Vertical
Joint Reinforcement
1 2
2
2D
in each area, and
j
A
v
1
Bridge axis
A
vi
= 0.5A
jv
within core
JUN 04
Horizontal hoop reinforcement must be provided to resist a force of one-quarter of the
tension force in the column steel due to the plastic moment (0.25T
c
) in accordance with
the following equations:
s
yh a
sc yc
o
a
3.3
Df l
0.09A f D
l
F =

where
l
a
= assumed length of column anchorage reinforcement in joint = 80 in.
F = bent cap prestressing force after all losses
Assuming F = 0, the simplified equation is:
s
sc yc
o
a
2
yh
0.3A f
l f
=

= =
(0.3)(46.8)(1.4f )
(80) f
0.00307
yh
2
yh
However, minimum horizontal hoop reinforcement,
s,min
, must be provided according
to the following:
s,min
c
yh
f
f 60,000
= = = >
3 5 3 5 4000
0 00369 0 00307
. ( . )
. .
Use
s
= 0.00369
s
reqd
=
4A
D
(4)(0.44)
(68.25)(0.00369)
6.99 in.
h
s
= =

where
s
reqd
= required spacing of hoop reinforcement
A
h
= area of hoop reinforcement
D
= core diameter of spirally confined column = 68.25 in.

Provide #6 stirrups @ 6 in. spacing. If the hoop reinforcement ratio provided is
less than the required ratio, the difference could be made up with split hairpins as
described in Holombo, et al (2000).
Note: The hoop spacing could be decreased if the cap beam prestress force, F, is considered.
In the absence of the bottom slab in spliced I-beam bridges, column moments and shears
are transferred into the beams through the cap completely through torsional mechanisms.
Due to the limited length available between the face of the column and the beam, spiral
cracks typically associated with torsion cannot fully develop. Therefore, conventional tor-
sion design methodologies that are primarily based on this cracking pattern are not appli-
cable. Instead, the torsional capacity is calculated using a plastic friction model as illustrated
in Figure 15.5.5-1.
15.5.5
Shear-Friction Analysis
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.5.4 Joint Reinforcement Design/15.5.5 Shear-Friction Analysis
JUN 04
Assumptions:
1. Shearing stress is assumed constant over the cross-section and proportional to the
normal force, P.
2. Shear-friction contribution of each segment is assumed proportional to the area
of each segment.
The bent cap section is subjected to a vertical shear force, V
V
, a horizontal shear
force, V
L
, a torsion, T, and an axial clamping force, P. The cap is divided, conceptu-
ally, into four unequal segments of areas, A
1
to A
4
, as shown in Figure 15.5.5-2.
The direction of shear-friction resistance within each of the four segments is taken as
parallel to the outer edge, and the shear-friction stress, , is taken as:
= P/A
where
A = total section area
= coefficient of friction over the interface
SEISMIC DESIGN
Figure 15.5.5-1
Torsional Shear-Friction
Mechanism
T
V
P
V
L
V
Figure 15.5.5-2
Conceptual Force Diagram For
Resisting Torque In Bent Cap
V
2
A
1
F
1
A
3
F
4
A
4
V
L
F
3
h
x
y
4
y
V
A
2
F
2
1 3
x
b
b
b
T
JUN 04
The force, F
i
, in each segment, is then given by:
F
i
= A
i
where A
i
= area of the segment.
Equilibrium under external torsion, T, longitudinal shear force, V
L
, and vertical shear
force, V
V
, requires that:
V
V
= F
1
F
3
= (A
1
A
3
)
V
L
= F
2
F
4
= (A
2
A
4
)
T = F
1
x
1
+ F
2
y
2
+ F
3
x
3
+ F
4
y
4
= (A
1
x
1
+ A
2
y
2
+ A
3
x
3
+ A
4
y
4
)
where
T = external torsion
x
1
, x
3
, y
2
and y
4
are distances defined in Figure 15.5.5-2
The equations can be solved through trial and error by dividing the section into seg-
ments and trying different values until all three equations are satisfied, then checking
that the implied value of the friction coefficient, , is reasonable. Alternatively, a
limit design value of = 1.4 can be used with F
1
to F
4
selected to satisfy the first two
equations shown above. The torque predicted by the third equation must then be
checked to ensure that it exceeds the applied torque. The latter alternative is utilized
in this design solution.
The normal force, P, is calculated assuming a dilation strain of 0.0005 developed on
the shear plane.
P = F + A
s
(0.0005)E
s
where
F = prestressing force after all losses
A
s
= area of reinforcing steel passing through shear plane including the pre-
stressing steel
= three layers of ten #10 bars
= (3)(10)(1.27) = 38.1 in.
2
(ignore prestressing steel to be conservative)
A
ps
= (6)(19)(0.217) = 24.7 in.
2
F = (202.5)(0.8)(24.7) = 4,001 kips (A 20% loss is assumed)
P = 4,001 + (38.1)(0.0005)(29,000) = 4,553 kips
Assume = 1.4 because surface of beam in joint region is roughened (Caltrans, 2000)

= =
( )( )
( )( )
=
P
A
1.4 4,553
7.25 7.00
125.6 kips /ft
2
Horizontal shear force at top of column, V
M M
H
i,column
o bot
o
top
o
=
+
SEISMIC DESIGN
JUN 04
V
14,340 14,115
25.75
1,105 kips
i,column
o
=
+
=
Moment at middepth of bent cap, M M V
h
2

i,bentcap
o
top
o
i,column
o b
= +

M 14,115 1,105
87
(2)(12)
18,120
i,bentcap
o
= +

= ft-kips
P
DL,TOP
= 2,225 kips
Using a factor of safety of 1.1 for shear-friction analysis, the required resistances are
as follows:
Torsion:
M 1.1
2
18,120 1.1
2
i,bentcap
o
( )
=
( )( )
= 9,966 ft-kips
Longitudinal shear:
V 1.1
2
1,105 1.1
2
i,column
o
( )
=
( )( )
= 608 kips
Vertical Shear:
P
2
2, 225 1.1
2
DL,TOP
=
( )( )
= 1,224 kips
Table 15.5.5-1 summarizes the torsional shear-friction computations to ascertain
the ability of the bent cap to transfer the column plastic moment capacity to the
bridge superstructure. The assumed dimensions of each segment are shown in Figure
15.5.5-3.
Given
Bent Cap Depth = 7.25 ft
Bent Cap Width = 7.00 ft
Axial Force = 4,553 kips
Friction Coefficient = 1.4
= 125.6 kips/ft
2
Assumed
X-Coordinate = 4.90 ft
Y-Coordinate = 2.90 ft
Segment
Area, ft
2
Distance from
Centroid, ft
First Moment
about Centroid,
ft
3
No. Size, ft
1 7.25 x 4.90 A
1
= 17.763 x
1
= 1.867 33.16
2 7.00 x 4.35 A
2
= 15.225 y
2
= 2.175 33.11
3 7.25 x 2.10 A
3
= 7.613 x
3
= 2.800 21.32
4 7.00 x 2.90 A
4
= 10.150 y
4
= 2.658 26.98
Total 50.750 114.57
Capacity Required
T = (A
1
x
1
+ A
2
y
2
+ A
3
x
3
+ A
4
y
4
),
ft-kips
14,390 9,966
V
V
= (A
1
A
3
), kips 1,275 1,224
V
L
= (A
2
A
4
), kips 637 608
Table 15.5.5-1
Torsional Shear-Friction
Computations
SEISMIC DESIGN
JUN 04
The bridge superstructure moment capacity must also be checked to ensure that the
plastic hinges form in the column and not in the superstructure. Figure 15.5.5-4
depicts the reinforcement details for the integral bent cap.
SEISMIC DESIGN
Figure 15.5.5-3
Assumed Dimensions for Shear-
Friction Computations
A
4
A
3
7.25'
4.90'
4.35'
A
2
7.00'
2.10'
2.90'
A
1
Figure 15.5.5-4
Integral Bent Cap
& 20-#10 Top
#6 Stirrups
C Bent
L
Bottom of beam
Bent Cap Detail at Column
8-#10 Bott.
#6"
6
"
7
'
-
3
"
6" 6'-0"
7'-0"
6"
(
E
a
.
S
i
d
e
)
19 x 0.6"-dia. strand
tendon (total of 6)
#
6
@
6
"
JUN 04
Bridges in California have been predominantly CIP box girder systems due to the
requirements for high seismic resistance. The examples presented in Sections 15.4
and 15.5, show that spliced beams with integral bent caps can provide a viable
solution for highway bridges in moderate to high seismic areas. The precast beam,
integral-cap system was tested and has proven to provide levels of seismic resistance
comparable to CIP box girders. With minimal shoring and forming requirements,
the new system will shorten construction time, reduce interruption to traffic, and
lower the environmental impact. Other benefits of precast beams are reduced crack-
ing due to better quality control and efficient utilization of higher concrete strengths.
As a result, significant initial and long term cost savings are possible with the new
system.
Research conducted at the University of California at San Diego (UCSD) included
constructing and testing two 40% scale models under fully-reversed longitudinal seis-
mic loading. The first model utilized a modified version of the Florida bulb-tee beam.
The second model, of similar scale, incorporated trapezoidal U-shaped beams. The
objective of the testing program was to verify the structural adequacy of newly devel-
oped integral column-superstructure details under simulated seismic loads, and to
allow Caltrans engineers to evaluate the constructibility of these details via large-scale
models. The following sections describe the tests and results.
The focus of this research was to study the effects of longitudinal seismic forces on
the column-superstructure continuity. The prototype structure for the bulb-tee beam
system is shown in Figure 15.6.1-1. The dimensions and forces of the model test
unit were scaled directly from the prototype structure. The region selected for study
included the column, bent cap and full-width superstructure extending from mid-
span to midspan. Two horizontal actuators placed on either side of the unit applied
load to model the seismic inertia forces acting along the bridge. Four vertical actua-
tors located at the corners of the test unit applied seismic shear into the beams. The
test setup is shown schematically in Figure 15.6.1-2 (Holombo, et al, 2000).
15.6
CALTRANS RESEARCH
15.6.1
Test Model Set-Up
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6 Caltrans Research/15.6.1 Test Model Set-Up
Figure 15.6.1-1
Prototype Structure for Bulb-
Tee System Testing Program
42'-6"
Bent 2 Bent 3 Bent 4
Abutment 5
Abutment 1
585'-0"
BB EB
132'-6" 132'-6" 160'-0" 160'-0"
Region modeled
Earthquake force direction studied
2
6
'
-
0
"
7'-0" dia.
JUN 04
The prototype structure for the second test used precast U-beams. The U-beam seg-
ments were spliced at the bent cap and at the midpoint of each span. A single-pour,
monolithic bent cap is possible with this system because it is not feasible to make
the U-beams continuous over the bent. A setup similar to the one shown in Figure
15.6.1-2 was used for the second test.
Performance of the model bridge structures exceeded the design requirements during
the tests (Holombo, et at, 2000).
Ductile plastic hinges formed at the top and bottom of the column with little strength
degradation up to a displacement ductility of eight and six for bulb-tee and U-beam
models, respectively. Both models exceeded the design ductility capacity of four.
The force-displacement loop for the bulb-tee model is shown in Figure 15.6.2.1-1.
15.6.2
Test Results
15.6.2.1
Columns
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6.1 Test Model Set-Up/15.6.2.1 Columns
Figure 15.6.1-2
Test Setup
Reaction frame
tensioning
CG post-
Hold-down
Horizontal actuator
splice
Beam
Vertical actuators
total (2) each side
66'-6"
18'-0" 32'-0"
Reaction wall
floor
Test laboratory
2
'
-
9
1
/
8
"
Figure 15.6.2.1-1
Hysteresis Loop from Testing
of the Bulb-Tee System
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l
f
o
r
c
e
(
k
N
)
Displacement (mm)
Prediction V
i
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l
f
o
r
c
e
(
k
i
p
)
Displacement (in.)
V
i
JUN 04
The response of the superstructure to the simulated longitudinal seismic loading was
essentially elastic; only minor cracking was observed. Due to prestressing, the crack-
ing in the bent cap and the beams closed upon removal of the seismic loads, mak-
ing potential repair of the superstructure after a design level earthquake, essentially
cosmetic.
These tests demonstrate the versatility and flexibility of precast spliced-beam systems.
Specifically, the tests proved that an integral connection between the superstructure
and substructure can be achieved with or without beam continuity through the bent
cap. They also proved that, with proper design and detailing, the beam splice points
could be placed anywhere in the span or over the supports without any measurable
reduction in performance of the system.
ATC, Seismic Design Guidelines for Highway Bridges, Report No. ATC-6, Applied
Technology Council, Redwood City, CA, 1982, 210 pp.
ATC, Improved Seismic Design Criteria for California Bridges, Report No. ATC-32,
Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA, 1996, 214 pp.
Billings, I.J. and Kirkcaldie, D.K., Base Isolation of Bridges in New Zealand,
Proceedings of the US-NZ Workshop on Seismic Resistance of Highway Bridges,
Report No. ATC 12-1, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA, 1985
Bridge Design Specifications, California Department of Transportation, Division of
Structures, Sacramento, CA, 2000
Buckle, I.G. and Mayes, R.L., The Application of Seismic Isolation to Bridges,
Proceedings, ASCE Structures Congress: Seismic Engineering-Research and Practice,
May 1990a, pp. 633-642
Buckle, I.G. and Mayes, R.L., Seismic Isolation History, Application and
Performance A World View Earthquake Spectra, EERI, May 1990b
Budek, A.M., Benzoni, G. and Priestley, M.J.N., Precast Pile Tests Indicate High
Ductility Preliminary Report on Prestressed Pile Shaft Test Units, Prestressed Concrete
Manufacturers Association of California (PCMAC), Technical Update, 1996
Gerwick, B.C. Jr., Seismic Design of Prestressed Concrete Piles, Proceedings, 9th
FIP Congress, Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, Stockholm, Sweden,
V.2, 1982, pp. 60-69
Gerwick, B.C., Jr., Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1993, 591 pp.
15.6.2.2
Superstructure
15.7
REFERENCES
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.6.2.2 Superstructure/15.7 References
JUN 04
Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design, 2nd Edition, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1999, 80 pp.
Holombo, J., Priestley, M.J.N. and Seible, F., Continuity of Precast Prestressed
Spliced-Girder Bridges under Seismic Loads, PCI JOURNAL V. 45, No. 2, March-
April 2000, pp. 40-63
Joen, P. H. and Park, R., Simulated Seismic Load Tests on Prestressed Concrete
Piles and Pile-Pile Cap Connections, PCI JOURNAL, V. 35, No. 6, November-
December 1990, pp. 42-61
Park, R. and Falconer, T.J., Ductility of Prestressed Concrete Piles Subjected to
Simulated Seismic Loading, PCI JOURNAL, V.28, No.5, September-October
1983, pp. 122-144
Priestley, M.J.N., Seible, F. and Calvi, G.M., Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1996, 704 pp.
SDC, Seismic Design Criteria, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento,
CA, V1.3, 2004 (available at www.dot.ca.gov)
Sheppard, D.A., Seismic Design of Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL,
V. 28, No. 2, March-April 1983, pp. 20-49 and discussion by Gerwick, B.C. and
Sheppard, D.A., V. 29, No. 2, March-April 1984, pp. 172-173
Standard Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Structures, NZS 3101, Part 1,
Standards Association of New Zealand, Wellington, 1982, 127 pp. and Commentary
on NZS 3101, NZS 3101, Part 2, 1982, 156 pp.
SEISMIC DESIGN
15.7 References
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 STAY-IN-PLACE DECK PANELS
16.2.1 Advantages
16.2.2 Size Selection
16.2.3 Design Criteria
16.2.4 Design, Fabrication and Construction
16.2.4.1 Bearing Details
16.2.4.2 Reinforcement
16.2.4.3 Strand Extensions
16.2.4.4 Composite Behavior
16.2.4.5 Handling
16.2.4.6 Age at Installation
16.2.5 Applications
16.2.6 Additional Information
16.3 FULL-DEPTH DECK PANELS
16.3.1 Applications
16.3.2 Reinforcement
16.3.3 Connections
16.3.3.1 Panel-to-Beam Connections
16.3.3.2 Panel-to-Panel Connections
16.4 PILES
16.4.1 Applications
16.4.2 Pile Shapes
16.4.3 Advantages
16.4.4 Installation
16.4.5 Additional Information
16.5 PILE BENT CAPS
16.5.1 Advantages
16.5.2 Pile-to-Cap Connections
16.5.3 Size and Weight Limitations
16.5.4 Handling
SEPT 01
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ADDITIONAL BRIDGE PRODUCTS
6024 PCI Bridge Manual Ch 16 9/24/01 12:06 PM Page 1
SEPT 01
16.6 PIERS
16.6.1 Advantages
16.6.2 Pier Caps
16.6.3 Columns
16.6.4 Connections
16.6.4.1 Multi-Column Piers
16.6.4.1.1 Post-Tensioning
16.6.4.1.2 Spliced Reinforcement
16.6.4.2 Hammerhead Piers
16.7 ABUTMENTS
16.7.1 Applications
16.7.2 Advantages
16.7.3 Connections
16.8 EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
16.8.1 Sheet Piles
16.8.2 Gravity Retaining Walls
16.8.3 Mechanically-Stabilized Earth Walls
16.9 RAILINGS
16.9.1 Connections
16.10 CULVERTS
16.10.1 Sizes
16.10.2 Standards for Design
16.10.3 Three-Sided Culverts
16.11 REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Precast concrete products that are manufactured for bridges are not limited to super-
structure members such as I-beams, box beams and voided slabs. Many additional
precast components are widely used. These products have been used successfully,
some for more than 50 years, and have been proven economical. The advantages cited
for precast beams are characteristic of a large number of other bridge components.
Speed of construction and the consistent high quality of precast products are equal-
ly valuable to the owner and contractor for these other parts of the bridge. Some of
these precast components for bridges include stay-in-place (SIP) deck panels, full-
depth deck panels, piles, pile bent caps, railings, piers, pier columns and abutments.
Precast systems are also used for earth retaining systems and box culverts. Each of
these applications of precast products is discussed in this chapter.
Precast, stay-in-place (SIP) deck panels are precisely-designed and fabricated precast
concrete slabs spanning between concrete or steel beams. They serve as a form for the
cast-in-place (CIP) deck concrete and provide the principal positive moment reinforce-
ment in the composite deck. That is, the prestressing or conventional reinforcement
in the panel is designed to resist the self-weight of the panel and the weight of the
field-placed concrete topping as a non-composite section. Then, after the field-placed
concrete topping cures, the SIP panel becomes an integral part of the composite deck
that resists all subsequent dead and live loads applied to the deck. See Section 3.8 for
more information on the fabrication of SIP panels.
SIP panels provide a permanent structural form for the bridge deck. The contractor is
able to quickly use a broader and therefore safer working area provided by the panels. In
addition, there is no need for the contractor to remove formwork after the CIP por-
tion of the deck has cured, thereby saving a
considerable amount of labor, time and
exposure. The contractor saves the time,
labor and material of having to install a
bottom mat of reinforcing steel. The
amount of field-placed and field-cured
concrete is substantially reduced compared
to a concrete deck cast on removable or
steel forms. Figure 16.2.1-1 illustrates the
working surface provided by the installa-
tion of SIP panels on the Louetta Road
Bridge (Ralls, et al, 1993).
SIP panels are fabricated using dense, high performance concrete that resists chloride
intrusion. The prestressed panel is designed to be crack-free throughout its depth for
all loading conditions. Research and practice have shown that panels placed with
tight joints result in excellent local continuity even without dowels projecting across
joints. Although some cracks have appeared in the CIP portion of the deck, these
cracks are generally smaller and of less consequence than cracks in fully-cast-in-place
SEPT 01
Additional Bridge Products
16.1
INTRODUCTION
16.2.1
Advantages
16.2
STAY-IN-PLACE DECK
PANELS
Figure 16.2.1-1
SIP Panel Erection between
Precast Concete U-Beams
decks. Research by Tsui, et al, 1986, has shown that decks properly constructed with
precast, prestressed SIP panels are stronger, stiffer and more crack-resistant than CIP
decks.
The depth of SIP panels that are commonly used for composite decks, ranges from
3 in. to 4.5 in., based largely on the design span of the deck. The depth of the SIP
panel should be as deep as necessary to provide the maximum benefits from the use
of precast concrete while allowing for a depth of CIP concrete adequate to provide
cover over the top mat of mild reinforcing steel.
The width of SIP panels (perpendicular to the panel span) is typically standardized
on an even dimension of 4 or 8 ft. Narrower panels can be cast or cut to fill the spaces
remaining at the ends of the bridge span. Panels cast or cut to skews may also be used
at the ends of each bridge span.
SIP panel span lengths vary based on beam spacing and are feasible whenever a CIP
deck may be used. Panel lengths can be as short as needed. Panels shorter than two
times the development length of the prestressing strands must be designed to account
for a reduced ultimate moment capacity or be provided with additional mild steel
reinforcement. Sometimes only conventional reinforcement is used. The details
should accommodate a minimum of 3 in. lap over each beam.
Panel thickness is important when choosing the diameter of the prestressing strands
to be used. As illustrated in Table 16.2.2-1, the recommended ratio of panel thick-
ness to strand diameter is 8:1.
Stress limits for prestressed members are shown in the AASHTO Specifications (STD Art.
9.15.2; LRFD Art. 5.9.4.2). Tension limits depend on the environmental conditions at
the project site. Typically, tension is limited to for non-corrosive locations and
for corrosive environments. The stress history for both tension and compression must be
determined for the SIP panel for non-composite and composite loads. As with other
prestressed concrete design procedures, the design is based on the service condition
(allowable stress) and then evaluated for ultimate capacity or strength. Design live
load plus impact is identical to that used for a CIP deck. Considerable additional
information on design is found in Section 8.8 and Design Examples 9.7 and 9.8.
The successful and economical use of SIP deck panels depends entirely on the selec-
tion of proper design, fabrication and construction details. These details include
bearing on the girder, strand placement, strand extension, horizontal shear, provisions
for handling and shipping, and even the age of the panels at installation. A discus-
sion of each of these topics follows.
3 f
c
6 f
c

16.2.1Advantages/ 16.2.4 Design, Fabrication and Construction
SEPT 01
16.2.2
Size Selection
Table 16.2.2-1
Recommended Strand
Diameter for Panel Thickness
Shown
Panel Thickness
Recommended
Strand Diameter
3"
3 1/2"
4" or more
3/8"
3/8" or 7/16"
1/2"
16.2.3
Design Criteria
16.2.4
Design, Fabrication
and Construction
The SIP panel must have positive bearing on the supporting beams. Typically, the
panel is temporarily supported on a strip of slightly compressible material near the
edge of the beam. The panel should overhang this bearing material by a minimum of
1.5 in. The bearing material must be tall enough to allow the CIP deck concrete to
flow under the panel and completely fill the space between the top of the beam and
the bottom of the SIP panel. Care must be used to ensure proper consolidation of
concrete into this space. When the CIP concrete cures, it provides positive bearing
for the panel and allows for transfer of superimposed loads from the deck to the beam
Figure 16.2.4.1-1. Some panel systems use adjustable screw jacks to set the elevation
of the panel and temporarily support the panel on the beam. Fillers are used between
the panel and the girder. When the concrete cures, the screw jacks are removed and a
solid, positive and permanent bearing remains. One system is shown in Chapter 3, Fig.
3.8.3-1. Some projects such as Fancher Road Bridge, 1984, have used side forms
mounted on the beams to support panels together with non-shrink grout beneath
panels. This method has proven less effective than others described.
Proper strand placement during fabrication is very important particularly in a thin
section like a SIP panel. The strands may be designed to be eccentric about the
horizontal center of gravity of the panel. However, most designers place the strands
concentric at mid-depth of the panel. Eccentricity increases the efficiency of the pre-
stress force. It provides initial camber prior to placement of the CIP concrete. As
always, specified concrete cover over the prestress strands must be maintained.
Welded wire reinforcement or reinforcing bars are provided as nominal shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement to control potential cracking. Small-diameter bars are
often used at the ends, both above and below strands, to control potential cracks due
to transfer of force upon detensioning.
Research performed at the University of Texas at Austin (Bieschke and Klingner,
1982) indicates that there is no local or global difference in the performance of decks
constructed using SIP panels with or without strand extensions. There is a significant
implication to strand extensions. Strand extensions require the fabricator to install
forms in the bed between each panel thereby increasing fabrication cost. If there is no
strand extension, the panels may be cast in a single, long slab and subsequently cut
to length when the concrete reaches transfer strength.
16.2.4.1 Bearing Details/16.2.4.3 Strand Extensions
SEPT 01
16.2.4.1
Bearing Details
Figure 16.2.4.1-1
SIP Panel Bearing Detail
16.2.4.2
Reinforcement
Bearing
Material
Extended Beam
Shear Reinforcement
Cast-In-Place Composite
Concrete Topping
3" Minimum
1 1/2"
SIP Panel SIP Panel
16.2.4.3
Strand Extensions
Strand extensions are generally not recommended. However, some designers prefer to
use them citing these benefits:
The use of a form between each panel in the prestressing bed helps assure proper strand
position
The extension acts as a dowel in the CIP deck
The embedment of the strand into the CIP concrete may reduce the potential sepa-
ration of the panel end from the CIP concrete that may be caused by creep, shrink-
age and thermal effects.
Mechanical shear connectors are not required to achieve composite action between
the SIP panel and the CIP slab. Full composite action is achieved if the deck panel is
intentionally roughened during fabrication and is free of contaminants. Research by
Kumar and Ramirez (1996) has shown that prestressed SIP deck panels with a 0.05
to 0.075-in. amplitude broom-finished surface do not require horizontal shear con-
nectors to achieve full composite action with the CIP topping.
Thorough wetting of the SIP panel without ponding prior to placement of the CIP
slab will provide adequate bond at the interface. Tests conducted by the University of
Texas at Austin for the Texas Department of Transportation confirm excellent struc-
tural performance (Burns, et al, 1990-A and 1990-B).
Generally, the larger the deck panel, the more susceptible it is to damage during shipping
and handling. Handling stresses should be investigated during design. Plans should provide
details and locations for lifting and storing the
panels. Storing and stacking should be done
in a manner that does not induce undesirable
stresses in the panels. See Section 3.3.8.3.
Figure 16.2.4.5-1 shows panels being deliv-
ered to a project site. If panels are handled in
stacks, special support slings or lift devices
may be required to prevent bending or tor-
sion in the panels and overloading of panels
near the bottom of the stack.
SIP panels often contain relatively high levels of prestress. Therefore, creep can be an
important consideration. It is desirable that panels be from one- to two-months old
when the CIP portion of the deck is placed. This substantially reduces the potential
for distress in the CIP deck associated with creep and shrinkage of the panel.
Klingner (1989) makes the conservative recommendation that planks be at least two
months old. He notes that satisfactory results have been achieved with less time. He
provides procedures for calculation of more precise minimum time estimates.
Precast, prestressed concrete SIP deck panels are used extensively in several parts of the
country. In most of these areas, state highway agencies have prepared standard designs
and details that are incorporated in the plans for most bridges. Many major projects, as
well as hundreds of smaller bridges have used SIP panels since the mid-1950s. When
offered on plans as an alternate, experienced general contractors usually select SIP pan-
els because of their inherent cost savings due to speed, safety and simplicity. These ben-
efits are apparent in Figure 16.2.5-1 where SIP panels were used to both cover and
span between open-topped trapezoidal box beams.
16.2.4.3 Strand Extensions/16.2.5 Applications
SEPT 01
16.2.4.4
Composite Behavior
16.2.4.5
Handling
16.2.4.6
Age at Installation
16.2.5
Applications
Figure 16.2.4.5-1
SIP Deck Panels being
Delivered to Bridge Site
The March/April 1988 issue of the PCI JOURNAL contains a Recommended
Practice for Precast Concrete Composite Bridge Deck Panels. This report presents
detailed recommendations for the design, manufacture and erection of SIP panels.
The report also includes a thorough design example in accordance with the AASHTO
Standard Specification in effect at that time.
Section 8.8 provides additional detailed design information. Design Examples 9.7 and 9.8
provide both Standard and LRFD Specifications examples, respectively, of deck panel design.
A unique precast composite deck system, NUDEK, is described in Section 8.8.3.1
and in Badie, et al, 1998. It provides a method to span multiple beams and eliminate
the conventional forming of overhangs. The system is estimated to reduce construc-
tion time by 60 percent.
The following are references where additional detailed information on panel research and
installations may be found: Buth, et al, 1972; Barker, 1975; Kluge and Sawyer, 1975; Texas
Highway Department, 1975; Barnoff, et al, 1977; PCI Bridge Committee, 1978; Kelly,
1979; Kao and Ballinger, 1982; Slavis, 1983; and PCI Committee on Bridges, 1987.
In addition to using precast concrete panels as stay-in-place forms for bridge decks,
more and more projects are using precast concrete to provide the full depth of the
bridge deck (Biswas, 1986). This product is particularly useful on projects where:
The installation and stripping of forms proves difficult;
The placement of large quantities of CIP concrete is difficult;
Disruption of traffic is an overriding concern due to safety or user costs.
In these situations, the deck slab may be fully precast and then erected on the sup-
porting members.
Full-depth deck panels are suited for bridge rehabilitation projects requiring new decks and
especially in areas with high traffic volumes. The speed of installation is extremely impor-
tant under these conditions. Culmo (1991) reports that in Connecticut, a six-span, 700-ft-
long, one-lane ramp with compound curvature on a seven-percent grade was completely
replaced in 48 days. On another project, 34 spans were replaced over two construction sea-
sons using only 60-hour weekend closures. Entire spans were replaced within a 60-hour
16.2.5 Applications/16.3.1 Applications
SEPT 01
16.2.6
Additional Information
16.3
FULL-DEPTH DECK
PANELS
Figure 16.2.5-1
SIP Panels used with U-Beams
(Texas DOT)
16.3.1
Applications
window (Culmo, 2000). The Pimmit Run Bridge on the George Washington
Memorial Parkway in Fairfield, VA, has a length of 345 ft and a width of 68 ft. It was
redecked inside of six weekend closures (Miller, et al, 1991).
Large sections of deck can be removed and replaced quickly, minimizing the impact
to traffic. In many projects, traffic on a bridge has been maintained without signifi-
cant interruption during construction. This was the case in the redecking of the
Woodrow Wilson Memorial Bridge in Washington, DC (Lutz and Scalia, 1984).
Full-depth panels benefit new construction as well. In addition to speed of installa-
tion, all of the other unique advantages of precast concrete come into play, such as
dense, durable concrete, reduced reliance on ready-mixed concrete and field labor,
elimination of field curing systems and time-consuming field forming. Full-depth
deck panel systems have proven cost competitive when compared to alternate con-
struction methods. Enthusiasm over a redecking project in 1982 led to a proposed
new deck system for bridges. It included a cost estimate that showed a system savings
of more than eight percent (Kempf, 1983).
The report of a survey on full-depth panels conducted by Issa, et al (1995) revealed
experiences and methods used by 13 states and one providence. The survey indicat-
ed that 43 states were interested in using this system of construction.
The growing interest by the owner agencies in methods to speed construction have
resulted in the development of new full-depth deck panel systems. One unique panel
system is described briefly in Section 8.8.3.2. It resulted from a federally-funded
study by the Center for Infrastructure Research at the University of Nebraska (Tadros
and Baishya, 1998). Even though it is a full-deck system, it is reported to be thinner
and lighter then other concrete deck systems available. The panels use high perfor-
mance concrete and are prestressed in both directions. A portion of this study with a
description of load tests is reported in Yamane, et al (1998).
Bridge decks have been successfully installed using panels incorporating either mild
steel reinforcement or prestressing. Prestressed concrete panels may be pretensioned
in the plant or post-tensioned in the plant or in the field. In most installations, some
amount of field-applied post-tensioning has been used. The need for prestressing is
dependent on specific project objectives and panel handling stresses.
Proper connection of full-depth deck panels to the supporting superstructure and to
adjacent panels is important to ensure satisfactory performance of the deck. Various
means have been used to connect full-depth panels to beams and panels to panels.
Early installations of full-depth precast concrete deck panels used connections to
beams that did not provide composite action. These simple connections, such as used
at the Pintala Creek Bridge in Montgomery, AL, (Biswas, 1986) clamped the panels
to the beams with a bolt and plate system. This ensured only that the panels would
not be dislodged from the beams during subsequent construction operations (Figure
16.3.3.1-1). More recently, connections have been designed to transfer horizontal
shear between the beams and slabs to make use of the efficiency of composite action.
In most cases, a pocket is cast in the precast slab during fabrication. In some
16.3.1 Applications/16.3.3.1 Panel-to-Beam Connections
SEPT 01
16.3.2
Reinforcement
16.3.3
Connections
16.3.3.1
Panel-to-Beam Connections
instances, the locations of these pockets are coordinated with those of shear connectors
attached to the beams (Figure 16.3.3.1-2). In most cases, shear connectors are
attached to beams through pockets in the panels following erection of the panels.
This eliminates problems with coordinating the locations of pockets and connectors.
There is, of course, a slight increase in field labor. There were a few bridge decks built
by the New York State Thruway Authority that had panels bolted directly to steel
girders. Difficulty was reported in achieving proper bolt tension. In addition, slab-
cracking caused by deflection due to bolt tensioning resulted in alternate methods of
connecting decks to beams in subsequent installations (Biswas, 1986).
Several panel-to-panel connection techniques have been developed in response to
specific project requirements. Open gaps between panels have been provided that are
sufficiently large to provide for lapped reinforcing bars that project from panel edges.
These joints are then filled with field-placed concrete. This type of joint diminishes
a primary advantage of speed of construction by requiring installation of forms and
the placement and curing of concrete. Most installations have used keyways that are
filled with non-shrink grout or epoxy mortar (Figure 16.3.3.2-1). In several projects,
post-tensioning perpendicular to the panel joints was used to enhance performance of
the keyway (Biswas, 1986). A significant analytical study was conducted by Issa, et al,
1998, that evaluates the performance of joints with different levels of post-tensioning.
16.3.3.1 Panel-to-Beam Connections/16.3.3.2 Panel-to-Panel Connections
SEPT 01
16.3.3.2
Panel-to-Panel Connections
Figure 16.3.3.1-1
Slab-to-Beam Connection,
Pintala Creek Bridge
Bolt Anchored
in Panel
Spacer
SIP Panel
Bridge
Beam
Plate Washer
Figure 16.3.3.1-2
Slab-to-Beam Connection,
Bridge No. 6, NYSDOT
Non-Shrink Grout
Precast Slab
Welded Headed Stud
Non-Shrink Grout
Asphaltic Overlay
Membrane
1/8"
1/4"
Stringer
7

1
/
2
"
2

1
/
2
"
16.4
PILES
16.4.1
Applications
16.4.2
Pile Shapes
One of the most versatile precast concrete components is prestressed concrete piling.
Piles are not only used in bridge construction, but also in buildings and marine facil-
ities. Prestressed piles have been in constant use since the inception of prestressed
concrete. Thousands of installations throughout the country date back to the early-
to-mid-nineteen fifties. Prestressed piles have generally demonstrated outstanding
performance. Chapter 20 is devoted to an in-depth discussion of prestressed concrete
piling applications including design, fabrication and installation.
The uses of prestressed concrete piling range from pier foundations for minor grade
crossings to the foundations of major bridges over navigable waterways, such as the
Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa Bay, FL (Chandra and Szecsei, 1988). Concrete
piles are especially effective for supporting bent caps. In this application, they extend
from the ground into a cap that supports the superstructure. Two examples appeared
in the PCI JOURNAL in 1989. These are the Bohemia River Bridge and the
Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad Bridge.
Prestressed piles are used extensively to support abutments. Moreover, where soil con-
ditions will not adequately support the spread footing of a retaining wall, piles have
been successfully used to withstand both axial and horizontal loads from the soil.
Prestressed concrete piles are also used as soldier piles for other earth retaining sys-
tems. Due to their ductility and large moment capacity, prestressed concrete piles are
used as fender piles and to support piers that must be designed for large ship impact
forces.
Prestressed piles normally are one of three cross-sections: square, octagonal or cylin-
drical. Square piles as small as 12 in. by 12 in. are commonly used in some states for
bridge construction. Pile sizes generally increase in 2-in. increments from 10 in. to
20 in. and starting at 24 in., in 6-in. increments to 30 in. and 36 in. In some states,
the three larger sizes are cast with a circular void through the cross-section. This
reduces the volume of concrete, lowers cost, shipping and handling weights, and
facilitates field handling. Using a voided section also reduces the required prestress
force. Octagonal piles typically range in width from 10 in. to 24 in., measured from
flat-to-flat, in 2-in. increments. The three largest sizes (20, 22 and 24 in.) may be
solid or cast with a central circular void.
Round piles are usually made with a circular void and are referred to as cylinder piles.
These piles are generally larger than square or octagonal piles. Typical outside dimen-
sions for cylinder piles are 36 in., 42 in., 54 in. and 66 in. The wall thickness is usually
16.3.3.2 Panel-to-Panel Connections/16.4.2 Pile Shapes
SEPT 01
Figure 16.3.3.2-1
Panel-to-Panel Connection,
Bridge No. 6, NYSDOT
(Biswas, 1986)
Non-Shrink Grout
Epoxy Grout
7

1
/
2
"
2

1
/
2
"
2

1
/
2
"
2

1
/
2
"
2"
1"
1/8"
2
"
5 in. but may be as much as 8 in. Cylinder piles are very effective when large vertical
and/or horizontal forces are expected, such as for crossings over navigable waterways.
Square and octagonal piles are usually cast in long-line forms. Cylinder piles are usu-
ally fabricated in shorter sections and then post-tensioned together in the casting
plant to provide the required length of pile. They may also be cast as one piece in
long-line forms. Cylinder pile sections can be spun cast (compacted centrifugally)
using closed forms. This increases the density of the concrete, reduces the
water/cementitious materials ratio and even further improves the quality of these pre-
cast, prestressed concrete products.
Prestressed concrete piles provide a very economical method of constructing deep
foundations. Readily available local materials are used in the concrete mixture. Being
prestressed, the pile can easily be handled, shipped to the project and driven to the
required capacity. Figure 16.4.3-1, taken from Table 2.7.1 in the PCI Design
Handbook, provides guidance for the designer concerning allowable concentric loads
on prestressed piles. These values must be evaluated based on soil conditions and the
ability of the soil to support loads.
Prestressed concrete piles exhibit substantial corrosion resistance. There is no steel
exposed to the elements. The concrete is uncracked, dense and of high quality, typi-
cal of the concrete associated with plant-cast products. In some areas, engineered
concrete mixtures are used to enhance the durability of the piles.
For most applications, the ability of the pile to transfer loads to soil is based on a
combination of skin friction and end bearing. The shapes of prestressed concrete piles
provide both a large surface area for friction, and a larger bearing area than most
other pile shapes. This likely will reduce the length of pile necessary to obtain speci-
fied capacities.
The successful installation of prestressed concrete piles begins with proper handling and
transportation. Damage to the piles may occur if not lifted, stored and transported accord-
ing to proper industry practices. Once properly placed in the driving leads, a cushion, usu-
ally made from layers of plywood, is placed on the top of the pile to protect it from ham-
mer damage during driving. The size of the hammer, the energy imparted during driving
and the thickness of the cushioning material are all important considerations. A Wave
Equation Analysis of Piles (WEAP) is often used to model the hammer-pile-soil interaction
and to identify potential installation prob-
lems. These problems may include over-
stressing due to the use of an oversized ham-
mer or the pile may reach premature refusal
above the required pile tip elevation due to
the use of an undersized hammer. Use of
WEAP can supplement dynamic formulas in
estimating the ultimate capacity of the piles
and the required blow count to achieve that
capacity. Figure 16.4.4-1 shows the instal-
lation of cylinder piles. Note the joints
where the pile segments have been grout-
ed and post-tensioned together during
production.
16.4.2 Pile Shapes/16.4.4 Installation
SEPT 01
16.4.3
Advantages
16.4.4
Installation
Figure 16.4.4-1
Driving Cylinder Piles
16.4.4 Installation
SEPT 01
Figure 16.4.3-1 Section Properties and Allowable Service Loads of Prestressed Concrete Piles
The PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete Piling has published a Recommended
Practice for Design, Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed Concrete Piling
(1993). This report discusses design of prestressed concrete piling, materials, manu-
facturing, handling, transportation and installation.
Other references on piles include: Falconer and Park, 1983; Sheppard, 1983;
Lincoln, 1988; Joen and Park, 1990A & 1990B; Shahawy and Issa, 1992; Kamel, et
al, 1996; and Nigels, 1998.
The pile bent is a common form of bridge substructure, particularly for stream cross-
ings or long trestles over larger bodies of water. The pile bent consists of a cap sup-
ported by piles driven in the soil. The bent cap is usually a rectangular, cast-in-place,
mildly reinforced concrete beam. Some designers have taken advantage of the posi-
tive characteristics of precast concrete by using precast bent caps. Precast bent caps
have been used in combination with steel H-piles, pipe piles, prestressed concrete
piles (including cylinder piles), and even timber piles.
There are several advantages to using precast bent caps. The quality of the concrete
is superior to field-placed concrete and problems associated with hauling ready-
mixed concrete to the site are substantially reduced. Erection of forms, placement of
reinforcing steel, and placement and curing of the concrete are replaced with simple
erection of the precast cap onto the piles and the connection to the piles. Reduced
field labor translates into a substantial reduction in construction time. This was the
case for the Sandpoint Bridge (1984), Bonner County, ID, where 177 precast caps
were used after the contractor started with, but later rejected, a cast-in-place alternate.
There are several ways to connect precast bent caps to piles. If steel piles are used,
steel plates can be cast into the bottom of the precast bent cap and welded to the tops
of the piles. Even though this is an effective connection, it requires field welding in a
difficult location. A better method of connecting piles to precast caps involves form-
ing a simple void in the bottom of the cap that fits over and around the piles. The
void is then filled with concrete or grout to make the connection. This method has
been used successfully with all types of piles. The Bayside Bridge in Pinellas County,
FL, used precast bent caps supported on prestressed concrete piles for the low-level
approach spans.
For those situations when a moment connection is required between the pile and cap,
several methods can be used. For steel piles, studs or reinforcing steel can be welded
to the pile and anchored into the grout. For solid concrete piles, reinforcing steel can
be anchored into the tops of the piles with epoxy grout and extended into the void.
The final installed location of a pile is seldom the exact location called for on the
plans, so provisions must be made for pile driving tolerances.
The void in the bent cap into which the pile will fit must be large enough to accom-
modate the pile placement tolerance and, conservatively, a little more. Adequate
clearance must be maintained between the pile and the inside face of the void. The
space between the pile and the face of the void must be large enough to adequately
distribute the grout.
16.4.5 Additional Information/16.5.2 Pile-to-Cap Connections
SEPT 01
16.4.5
Additional Information
16.5
PILE BENT CAPS
16.5.1
Advantages
16.5.2
Pile-to-Cap Connections
16.5.4
Handling
16.6
PIERS
Designers must be aware of limitations related to length and weight of products.
These limitations will vary from project to project. The weight per unit length is a
function of width. The width, in turn, is typically a function of the size of the piles
supporting the cap. The overall weight of the cap must be kept within limits estab-
lished by the project scope and location. Shipping and erection of a cap at a small
stream crossing will probably necessitate a smaller, lighter section than at a large water
crossing where shipping and erection can take place with barges. As a rule, smaller
projects where product will be shipped overland should be limited to a maximum
weight of 50 tons and sometimes, even 40 tons. Projects where larger cranes will be
available and shipping weights are less restrictive may have a limiting weight of 70 to
80 tons. One means of reducing the weight of the cap is to fabricate and ship caps in
several pieces. Connections can be made by means of a field-cast section, by welding
or by post-tensioning the pieces or segments together. By adjusting pile spacing to
provide reasonable cap cantilevers in the interior portion of the bridge, the need to
make a connection between separate cap segments at a given bent may be eliminat-
ed. Another method to reduce weight is to create a void in the cap between the piles.
This can be accomplished by using an inverted-U shape, or by casting a hollow void-
former in the interior of the cap. Figure 16.5.4-1
A bent cap is typically considered a continuous beam supported by the piles.
Therefore, the span length for a bent cap in its service condition may be relatively
short compared to its overall length. However, prior to placement on the piles, the
span length is the distance between the lifting locations during handling or the sup-
port points during storage and shipping. The cap may be subjected to greater
moments and shears during handling and shipping than when in service. These forces
must be considered when designing the reinforcement in the cap. Lifting and storage
locations should be clearly shown on the shop drawings.
The use of precast concrete used for bridge piers continues to increase steadily. A few
recent projects may be used to illustrate this trend.
The Edison Bridge in Fort Myers, FL, was cited in Chapter 4 (Fig. 4.5.3.2-1). This
large water crossing consists of two bridges, one supporting two lanes of traffic
plus shoulders and the other supporting two lanes of traffic plus a sidewalk and
shoulders. The maximum clearance over the water is 55 ft. The shorter piers
were erected in a single day. It took only a maximum of three days each to erect
the tallest piers.
16.5.3 Size and Weight Limitations/16.6 Piers
SEPT 01
Figure 16.5.4-1
Typical Inverted-U Pile
Bent Cap
1'-8"
4'-0"
1
'
-
6
"
1'-2" 1'-2"
4" Cover
4" Cover
(Typ.)
3
'
-
0
"
16.5.3
Size and Weight
Limitations
The four precast concrete bridges of the Baldorioty de Castro Avenue in San Juan,
Puerto Rico, range in length from 700 to 900 ft (Endicott, 1993). All piers and
caps are precast concrete. The four bridges were each constructed and opened to
traffic in less than 36 continuous hours from the start of precast erection.
The Louetta Road Overpass in Houston, TX, (Ralls, et al, 1993) uses precast
piers. Each of the superstructures spread trapezoidal U-beams is supported by
an individual precast pier column. These cantilevered columns consist of
hollow, multi-sided, match-cast segments. The segments were plant-cast and
transported to the site where they were erected and post-tensioned together. See
Figures 16.6-1 and 16.6-2.
The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge, SR-1, DE, uses 463 box pier seg-
ments for 48 columns ranging from 50- to 130-ft tall. The typical box segment
measures 18 ft by 8 ft and varies from 4- to 10-ft tall. The segments were
stacked and post-tensioned vertically. Joints were sealed with epoxy grout.
Figure 16.6-3 shows a typical pier segment being erected. Figure 16.6-4 shows
several finished piers supporting the cable-stayed bridge under construction.
Typically, 100 ft of box pier column was constructed in a day (Pate, 1995).
Figure 16.6-4
Finished Pier Columns, C & D Canal Bridge
Figure 16.6-3
Erection of Pier Column Segment
16.6 Piers
SEPT 01
Figure 16.6-2
Columns and U-Beams at Louetta Road Overpass
Figure 16.6-1
Louetta Road Overpass Precast Segmental Pier Column
16.6.2
Pier Caps
The use of precast concrete bridge piers offers unique opportunities (Billington, et al,
1999):
Reduced construction time
Reduced inconvenience to the public during construction
Lower cost
Plant-cast quality concrete and enhanced architectural surface treatments.
Significant savings in con-
struction time can be
achieved by fabricating pre-
cast substructures off site
while the foundations are
installed. As discussed in
Section 16.6, the Baldorioty
de Castro Avenue bridges
were each constructed excep-
tionally fast in just a mat-
ter of hours. This unique sys-
tems approach to bridge
construction is depicted in
Figure 16.6.1-1. For long
water crossings, reduced
labor represents not only a
direct reduction in the salary
paid to the construction
workers, but also reduced
costs associated with work-
mans compensation taxes, insurance and exposure. The use of precast caps represents
a maximum reduction in the contractors construction effort because it eliminates the
need to erect and strip cap forms. In addition to the time and cost savings, the qual-
ity of the concrete is nearly always better than when cast in the field.
Caps for single and multicolumn piers can be precast in a variety of shapes. For typical
grade crossings, simple rectangular sections can be fabricated, shipped to the site and
erected on the columns. Inverted-T sections can also be easily fabricated. These simple
shapes do not require special forming systems. The reinforcement required is essentially
the same as for cast-in-place concrete caps.
For larger caps, such as those used on the Edison Bridge, an inverted-U shape may be
more desirable. The inverted-U shape reduces the volume of concrete and therefore the
weight for shipping and handling. However, the forming system for U shapes is more
complex, as is the reinforcement.
Hammerhead piers can also use precast caps. They consist of a single column and a cap with
equal or near equal cantilever lengths. However, these caps are normally fairly large, and
special considerations are usually necessary to reduce the weight of these components.
One method to reduce the weight of the cap is to produce the cap in sections and make
appropriate connections in the field. Since this can sometimes be complicated, another
method is to use a precast concrete shell as a form for the cap. The shell is designed to
16.6.1 Advantages/16.6.2 Pier Caps
SEPT 01
Figure 16.6.1-1
Pier Schematic, Baldorioty de
Castro Avenue Bridges
Wearing
Course
100 ft.-Long
Precast Box
Beams, 42 in.
Deep
Precast Composite
Parapet
Precast Pier Cap
Threaded
Post-Tensioning Bars
Precast Box Pier
Cast-In-Place
Footing
16.6.1
Advantages
support its own weight plus that of the CIP
concrete that fills it. While not completely
a precast system, this process eliminates the
need to erect and later strip forms for the
cap. Relatively large caps can be construct-
ed in this manner while achieving manage-
able weights. For hammerhead piers with
smaller caps, a solid cap can be fabricated
in the plant, shipped to the site and erect-
ed with routine effort. The caps for the
piers supporting the guideway for the J.
Paul Getty Museum Tram near Los
Angeles, CA, were constructed in this
manner as shown in Figure 16.6.2-1
(Josten, et al, 1995).
Using precast columns in a multicolumn pier usually does not offer the same level of
timesavings to the contractor as do precast pier caps, particularly for grade crossings.
However, use of precast columns does provide the advantage of high performance
concrete associated with precast products. Another advantage of precast concrete
columns is the manufacturers ability to produce uniform architectural finishes.
Precast concrete fabricators can typically incorporate form liners into their forming
systems more easily and with more uniform results than can be achieved with cast-
in-place concrete. The most economical precast column shapes for multicolumn
grade crossings are square, rectangular and octagonal.
Precast columns for multicolumn piers at water crossings generally provide a greater
potential for time and cost savings. The heavier weights typical of the longer columns
required for navigable water crossings are usually not prohibitive because pieces can
be shipped by barge and because larger cranes are generally available on marine sites.
In addition to the shapes previously discussed, I-shaped columns such as those used
for the Edison Bridge can be used to reduce concrete volume and column weight (see
Section 4.5.3.2).
Hammerhead piers provide another opportunity for the use of precast columns. These
columns are usually fairly massive, and the weight of each component can present a special
challenge. Solid rectangular or oval shapes can easily be fabricated, but will be very heavy. By
using hollow sections, weights can be reduced significantly. If a solid section is necessary to
resist horizontal forces, such as ship impact, the hollow precast column can serve as a stay-
in-place form for field-placed concrete. Both solid and hollow columns can be cast in short-
er segments and joined in the field. The large flat surfaces of this type of column provide an
excellent location for architectural finishes including striations, rustications, reveals and ribs.
The use of precast columns for hammerhead piers presents an opportunity to signifi-
cantly reduce the volume of field-cast concrete. This may be especially beneficial
when existing interchanges are rebuilt. At these locations, the motoring public will
be better served by the reduced time of construction. Over water, precast columns for
hammerhead piers provide the same time and monetary incentives as the other pre-
viously discussed precast pier systems.
16.6.2 Pier Caps/16.6.3 Columns
SEPT 01
16.6.3
Columns
Figure 16.6.2-1
Erection of Precast Cap over
Column Dowels
Connection design, construction details and installation are all important issues.
Several methods to achieve pinned or rigid connections can be effectively applied to
bridge substructure components. Simplicity and reasonable construction tolerances
are primary concerns of both the contractor and precast concrete fabricator.
Most multicolumn piers are designed as rigid frames, with moment transfer between
the cap and the columns. However, at typical grade crossings, especially single-level
crossings, it is not always necessary to provide a full moment connection between the
cap and the columns in multicolumn systems. Often, the design loads can be resist-
ed by the columns acting as cantilevers fixed at the foundations. In these instances, a
very simple method can be used to provide a pinned connection at the top. This con-
nection uses a small cage of reinforcing steel that projects from the column into a
pocket or void in the bottom of the cap (Figure 16.6.4.1-1). This steel can easily
transfer the very small moment necessary to keep the cap from rolling off the col-
umn. The cap is designed as a continuous beam, simply supported at the columns.
The columns are designed as cantilevers about both axes. Although the moment at
the bottom of the column is larger than for a comparable rigid frame, the use of min-
imum steel in the column usually provides the required capacity. In most instances,
connections from a precast column to a footing must be capable of transferring
moment. This can most easily be accomplished with the use of grouted bar couplers
that are described below. Although post-tensioning may be used, the need to anchor
the strand or bar in the foundation can present a challenge. Post-tensioning will like-
ly not be cost effective except on very large structures.
For piers designed as rigid frames, there are two basic methods to make full moment-
resisting connections between the columns and pier caps.
Post-tensioning the cap vertically to the tops of the columns provides the necessary
mechanism to transfer moments. This system has been used effectively in a contrac-
tor-proposed alternate for a series of two-column piers with solid rectangular precast
caps at the SR 10 over Western Flood Plain (Victory Bridge) in Jackson and Gadsden
Figure 16.6.4.1-1
Precast Cap-to-Column
Pinned Connection
Concrete Fill Hole
~
Shim
Bedding Grout
Reinforcement
Extending From
Top of Column
Column
Precast Cap
16.6.4.1.1
Post-Tensioning
16.6.4 Connections/16.6.4.1.1 Post-Tensioning
SEPT 01
16.6.4
Connections
16.6.4.1
Multicolumn Piers
Counties, FL. Post-tensioning bars were anchored in the tops of the CIP columns.
The cap was then lowered into place, the bars tensioned, and the ducts grouted
(Figure 16.6.4.1.1-1).
Another means of providing a moment connection is the use of mechanical splices
for reinforcing steel known as splicing sleeves or grouted bar couplers. These devices
emulate continuous reinforcement across joints between concrete components. This
scheme was used effectively on the Edison Bridge in Florida. The connection used a
grouted bar coupler cast into the precast component for each main reinforcing bar.
A dowel protruding from the footing or adjoining precast component is inserted into
each coupler. When the precast unit is set, the coupler is filled with grout to provide
a full-strength splice of the reinforcing steel. See Figure 16.6.4.1.2-1. The use of a
grouted coupler requires coordination and close tolerances to ensure that the dowels
and couplers are in the proper location and orientation. This is easily accomplished
with the use of jigs and templates both in the field and in the precast plant. All of the
connections for the Edison Bridge were successfully installed.
16.6.4.1.1 Post-Tensioning/16.6.4.1.2 Spliced Reinforcement
SEPT 01
16.6.4.1.2
Spliced Reinforcement
Figure 16.6.4.1.1-1
Precast Pier Cap-to-Column
Connection, Victory Bridge
Grout Vent
Tube
Concrete Cap
Precast Cap
Grout Injection
Tube (Typ.)
High Performance
Grout
Post-Tensioning
Bars Thru Sleeves,
4 Required
Round Column
Grout Injection
Tube
Figure 16.6.4.1.2-1
Typical Grouted
Coupler Detail
Shim
Grout
Fill
Tube
Grout
Vent
Tube
Grouted
Bar Coupler
Bedding Grout
The connection of cap to column in a hammerhead pier must be capable of transferring
moments in two directions. As with multicolumn piers, a moment connection can be
made using post-tensioning or grouted bar couplers. Since the moments at the column-
cap interface are substantially less than at the bottom of the column, the full amount of
column steel is not required to secure the cap to the column. For post-tensioned con-
nections, it may be possible to reduce the amount of post-tensioning at the top of the
column. When bar couplers are used, a reduction in the steel will reduce the number of
couplers required.
If the precast cap shell described in Section 16.6.2 is used, there is a simple means of
connecting the column to the cap that does not require post-tensioning or grouted
couplers. In this method, a percentage of longitudinal column reinforcing bars is
extended through sleeves in the bottom of the shell. These bars are developed when
field-placed concrete in the shell cures, thereby providing moment capacity. Refer to
Figure 16.6.4.2-1.
As previously described, precast columns for hammerhead piers must often be erected in
more than one piece. Connections between these segments, as well as the connection to
the foundation, must be capable of transferring the full column forces and moments.
Post-tensioning can be an effective means of providing these connections, particularly for
larger columns. Grouted bar couplers can also be used. With couplers, it is usually more
cost effective to use fewer, larger reinforcing bars (#11 or #14) to reduce both the costs
of the couplers and the potential for misaligned connections in the field.
Abutments are the end supports of a bridge. There are many variations of abutments
in use such as bench or spill-through, stub, deep, etc. A bench abutment is a resting
pad for the superstructure components with a vertical back wall that retains the soil
and supports the approach slab. The abutment may be supported on a spread foot-
ing or on piles. A spill-through abutment usually refers to a pile bent where the fill
behind the bent slopes down from the bottom of the cap to the channel or roadway
shoulder below. The precast version of this system is essentially a precast pile bent
cap. Stub abutments and deep abutments refer to those end supports that include a
load-bearing wall from the superstructure support to the ground beneath the bridge.
The basic difference between stub and deep abutments is the height of the wall.
16.6.4.2 Hammerhead Piers/16.7 Abutments
SEPT 01
16.6.4.2
Hammerhead Piers
Figure 16.6.4.2-1
Precast Hammerhead
Cap-to-Column Connection
Precast Cap Shell
Fill Shell
with Concrete
Extended
Column Bar
Fill Shell with
Concrete
Sleeve
Column
or Wall
Shim
Bedding Grout
16.7
ABUTMENTS
6024 PCI Bridge Manual Ch 16 10/8/01 10:33 AM Page 20
Precast abutments can be used effectively almost anywhere that a CIP abutment is
used. A precast cap can be used for the spill-through type of abutment as easily as for
a typical pile bent. In states where the back wall is made part of the substructure, the
back wall could be cast in the plant with the cap, or it could be cast in the field. Stub
and deep abutments are essentially walls, for which precast concrete is very effective.
The walls can be cast and shipped to the project horizontally, then erected into their
vertical position on a foundation, which may be either precast or cast-in-place.
In addition to the advantages involving the quality of precast concrete components,
the speed of construction is very important. For stub and deep abutments, the use of
precast elements eliminates costly and time-consuming forming and curing of walls
at the project site. The reduced volume of field-placed concrete may be especially
advantageous in remote locations, where there are long distances to ready-mix plants
or where concrete delivery is otherwise difficult.
For spill-through abutments, connection options are the same as those outlined previous-
ly for precast pile bents. For wall-type abutments, the connections will be similar to those
used for precast wall systems for building structures. Grouted reinforcing bar couplers are
an excellent method to make a moment connection at the base of an abutment. A
moment-resisting connection between the abutment and the ends of the superstructure
can also be achieved to create an integral abutment. This eliminates costly, high mainte-
nance expansion joints. See Figures 16.7.3-1 and 16.7.3-2. Other mechanical bar splic-
ing systems require patching of the concrete where the splice is made and may be less desir-
able because the area will be exposed to earth backfill. Although post-tensioning is an
option for stub abutments, it is generally cost effective only for taller systems.
16.7.1 Applications/16.7.3 Connections
SEPT 01
16.7.1
Applications
16.7.2
Advantages
16.7.3
Connections
Figure 16.7.3-2
Erection of Abutment Wall , Route 9N over Sucker Creek
Precast Voided Slab
Void
Shim
Shims
Grout
CIP Footing
Precast
Abutment
Panel
Grout
Grout Fill
Tubes
Bar
Couplers
Dowel Bar
Substitute
(Threaded
Socket)
Figure 16.7.3-1
Precast Integral Abutment, Route 9N over Sucker Creek,
Hague, NY
16.8 Earth Retaining Systems/16.8.2 Gravity Retaining Walls
SEPT 01
16.8
EARTH RETAINING
SYSTEMS
16.8.1
Sheet Piles
16.8.2
Gravity Retaining Walls
The use of precast concrete components has become popular for earth retaining systems.
Concrete sheet piles, gravity retaining walls and mechanically-stabilized earth walls have
been successfully and economically installed with an excellent service record.
Precast concrete sheet piles, both prestressed and non-prestressed, have been in use
for several decades. Applications of sheet piles include both cantilever and anchored
bulkheads. Corrosive environments, such as marine installations, exploit the advan-
tage of prestressing to the fullest, since the uncracked section substantially reduces the
potential for chloride penetration. The durability of precast concrete in corrosive
environments has been proven repeatedly.
Sheet piles are usually fabricated with a concentric prestress force, or a reinforcing
pattern symmetric about the center of the sheet. Pile widths vary, but the most eco-
nomical installations use a single sheet width. Typical pile widths range from 2 ft-6
in. to 5 ft-0 in. Where changes in the alignment of the wall occur, non-prestressed
corner pieces are often used. A simple tongue and groove connection between sheet
piles assists in aligning the panels during installation and distributes horizontal earth
loads between the sheets. It is advantageous to place the tongue of the panel on the
leading edge of the sheet, so that the groove of the subsequently placed sheet pile is
free of soil. Concrete sheet piles are most easily installed by jetting into place with a
water stream. As shown in Figure 16.8.1-1, the beveled portion at the leading edge
of the sheet pile helps to snug the sheet being installed to the previously placed panel.
Several precast concrete retaining wall systems have been developed that depend on
the weight of the soil being retained to resist overturning. These gravity retaining
walls are similar to a traditional CIP wall and footing system. These systems must
resist both the horizontal earth pressure as well as an overturning moment. Precast
counterfort walls have also been successfully employed.
Figure 16.8.1-1
Typical Layout, Precast
Concrete Sheet Piles
Section
Elevation
(Soil not shown)
Starter Pile
Using the weight of the soil to resist the horizontal earth pressure, mechanically-stabilized
earth (MSE) walls have proven to be very economical systems, especially for large wall
areas. MSE walls usually consist of interlocking precast concrete panels that are stacked. A
leveling pad of field-placed concrete is used to insure the proper elevation at the bottom
of the wall. Horizontal straps connected to the precast concrete panels resist the horizon-
tal earth pressure. The straps extend into the earth fill behind the wall. Strap lengths are
determined by the supplier, and are governed by the height of the wall, surcharge loadings
and the soil properties of the backfill. Most MSE wall systems are proprietary.
Precast bridge railings, also known as parapets or barriers, have been used very success-
fully. The reduced time used to install the precast product increases the cost effectiveness
of the system. The concrete is more durable and can be made more attractive than most
CIP systems.
There are two typical connections used between precast railings and bridge decks. In one sys-
tem, threaded reinforcing bars project from the bottom of the railing through the deck and
are secured with washers and bolts. This system requires careful coordination between the
contractor and the precast railing producer to ensure proper location of the holes in the deck.
A second type of connection requiring additional field labor uses shorter dowels projecting
from the bottom of the railing. These dowels are set with adhesive anchors into holes drilled
in the top of the deck. Crash testing of either of these connection systems may be required.
When small stream crossings require greater hydraulic capacity than can be provided
by circular conduits, concrete culverts provide an excellent alternative to small bridge
structures. Precast concrete culverts provide an option that includes all the advantages
associated with quality concrete and speed of construction. Precast culverts are espe-
cially attractive if stream flow must be maintained during construction. Precast con-
crete culvert installations include boxes and three-sided systems, placed with single
cells or multiple cells to gain greater hydraulic capacity.
Precast culverts range in size from small boxes to three-sided systems that span more than
60 feet. As with most precast components, the maximum size is limited by weight and
vertical and horizontal clearances when being transported. By placing multiple cells side
by side, the hydraulic capacity is virtually limitless. Precast systems can be used anywhere
CIP box culverts are feasible and as an alternative to a low-level bridge.
In the Standard Specifications, loadings on culverts and requirements for footings are
contained in Section 6. Article. 17.7, contains design requirements for precast rein-
forced box culverts. Article 17.8 provides design requirements for precast, reinforced
concrete three-sided structures.
Concrete design in the LRFD Specifications is contained in Section 5. For culverts
that are under two or more feet of fill, special considerations for the shear design of
culvert slabs are presented in Article 5.15.5.1. The soil-structure aspects of culvert
design are contained in Section 12.
AASHTO and ASTM Standards contain designs for box culverts with heights and
spans to 12 ft. The standard designs are based on specific concrete strengths and use
welded wire reinforcement with small concrete cover. Some agencies have referred
to these standard sections for use on projects, but specify increased cover for the
16.8.3 Mechanically-Stabilized Earth Walls/16.10.2 Standards for Design
SEPT 01
16.8.3
Mechanically-Stabilized
Earth Walls
16.9
RAILINGS
16.9.1
Connections
16.10
CULVERTS
16.10.1
Sizes
16.10.2
Standards for Design
reinforcing steel. These standards also address the fabrication and installation of pre-
cast box culverts.
AASHTO M273 and ASTM C850 address the use of precast box culverts with
less than two feet of earth between the driving surface and the top of the culvert.
AASHTO M259 and ASTM C789 govern where the earth cover is greater than two
feet. The ASTM Standard C1433 covers both conditions.
When the span of a box culvert becomes large, the use of a three-sided culvert is an
attractive alternative. These systems consist of a top slab and vertical walls with an
open bottom. Three-sided culverts are generally supported on spread footings, which
can be either precast or CIP. Infrequently, this system has been installed on pile-sup-
ported foundations. Some three-sided systems rely on the horizontal earth pressures
to help support the vertical load on the structure. Other systems are rigid frames, sup-
porting loads with only the structure. These systems are generally proprietary and are
manufactured regionally by precasters throughout the country. All have standard
designs for various applications and loadings.
Badie, S. S., Baishya, M. C. and Tadros, M. K., NUDECK An Efficient and
Economical Precast Bridge Deck System, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 5, September-
October 1998, pp. 56-75 and discussion by Bassi, K. G., Badie, S. S., Baishya, M. C.
and Tadros, M. K., V. 44, No. 2, March-April 1999, pp. 94-95
Barker, J. M., Research, Application, and Experience with Precast Prestressed Bridge
Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 20, No. 6, November-December 1975, pp. 66-85
and discussion by Sawyer, H. A. and Barker, J. M., V. 21, No. 4, July-August 1976,
pp. 112-113
Barnoff, R. M., Orndorff, Jr., J. A., Harbaugh, Jr., R. B. and Rianey, D. E., Full
Scale Test of a Prestressed Bridge with Precast Deck Planks, PCI JOURNAL, V. 22,
Billington, S. L., Barnes, R. W. and Breen, J. E., A Precast Segmental Substructure System
for Standard Bridges, PCI JOURNAL, V. 44, No. 4, July-August 1999, pp. 56-73
Biswas, Mrinmay, Precast Bridge Deck Design Systems, PCI JOURNAL, V. 21,
No. 2, March-April 1986, pp. 40-94
Bieschke, L. A. and Klingner, R.E., The Effect of Transverse Strand Extension on
the Behavior of Precast Prestressed Panel Bridges, Center for Transportation
Research, Report 303-1F, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, June 1982
Bohemia River Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 34, No. 1, January-February 1989,
pp. 148-153
Burns, N. H., Fang, I. K., Klingner, R. E. and Tsui, C. K. T., Fatigue Behavior of
Cast-in-Place and Precast Panel Bridge Decks With Isotropic Reinforcement, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 35, No. 3, May-June 1990-A, pp. 28-39
16.10.2 Standards for Design/ 16.11 References
SEPT 01
16.10.3
Three-Sided Culverts
16.11
REFERENCES
Burns, N. H., Fang, I. K., Klingner, R. E. and Tsui, C. K. T., Load Capacity of
Isotropically Reinforced, Cast-in-Place and Precast Panel Bridge Decks, PCI JOUR-
NAL, V. 35, No. 4, July-August 1990-B, pp. 104-113
Buth, E., Furr, H. L., Jones, H. L. and Toprac, A. A., Evaluation of a Prestressed
Panel, Cast-in-Place Concrete Bridge, Texas Transportation Institute, Research
Report 145-3, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX, September 1972
Chandra, V. and Szecsei, G., Sunshine Skyway Bridge Ship Impact Design of Low
Level Approaches, PCI JOURNAL, V. 33, No. 4, July-August 1988, pp. 96-123
Culmo, M. P., Bridge Deck Rehabilitation Using Precast Concrete Slabs,
Proceedings, Eighth Annual International Bridge Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, June
1991, pp. 389-396
Culmo, M. P., Rapid Bridge Deck Replacement with Full-Depth Precast Concrete
Slabs (Paper No. 00-1220), Transportation Research Record No. 1712, Construction
2000, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, pp. 139-146
Endicott, W. A., Instant Bridges Keep Traffic On The Move, Ascent, Summer
1993, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, pp. 26-28
Falconer, T. J. and Park, R., Ductility of Prestressed Concrete Piles Subjected to
Simulated Seismic Loading, PCI JOURNAL, V. 28, No. 5, September-October
1983, pp. 112-144
Fancher Road Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 29, No. 2, March-April 1984, pp. 166-171
Issa, M. A., Idriss, A.-T., Kaspar, I. I. and Khayyat, S. Y., Full Depth Precast and
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 40, No. 1,
January-February 1995, pp. 59-80
Issa, M. A., Yousif, A. A., Issa, M. A., Kaspar, I. I. and Khayyat, S. Y., Analysis of
Full Depth Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 1,
January-February 1998, pp. 74-85 and discussion by Brown, J. T., Issa, M. A., Yousif,
A. A., Issa, M. A., Kaspar, I. I. and Khayyat, S. Y., V. 43, No. 3, May-June 1998,
p. 102
Joen, P. H. and Park, R., Flexural Strength and Ductility Analysis of Spirally
Reinforced Prestressed Concrete Piles, PCI JOURNAL, V. 35, No. 4, July-August
1990-A, pp. 64-83
Joen, P. H. and Park, R., Simulated Seismic Load Tests on Prestressed Concrete Piles
and Pile-Pile Cap Connections, PCI JOURNAL, V. 35, No. 6, November-
December 1990-B, pp. 42-61
16.11 References
SEPT 01
Josten, M. G., Painter, Jr., W. L. and Guarre, J. S., Precast Prestressed Concrete
Structure Provides Solution for Getty Center Tram Guideway, PCI JOURNAL, V.
40, No. 3, May-June 1995, pp. 24-39
Kamel, M. R., Benak, J. V., Tadros, M. K. and Jamshidi, M. Prestressed Concrete
Piles in Jointless Bridges, PCI JOURNAL, V. 41, No. 2, March-April 1996,
pp. 56-67
Kao, A. M. and Ballinger, C., Static and Fatigue Tests on PIC Precast Prestressed
Ribbed Bridge Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 27, No. 3, May-June 1982,
pp. 76-91
Kelly, J. B., Applications of Stay-In-Place Prestressed Bridge Deck Panels, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 24, No. 6, November-December 1979, pp. 20-26
Kempf, F. J., Experiences in Precast Concrete Bridge Decks, Proceedings, National
Bridge Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, June 1983, pp. 37-48
Klingner, R. E., Design and Behavior of Precast, Prestressed Plank Bridge Decks in
Illinois, Unpublished report to the Illinois Department of Transportation,
September 21, 1989, 59 pp.
Kluge, W. R. and Sawyer, H. A., Interacting Pretensioned Concrete Form Panels for
Bridge Decks, PCI JOURNAL, V. 20, No. 3, May-June 1975, pp. 34-61 and dis-
cussion by Barker, J. M., McCabe, Jr., J. M., Kluge, W. R. and Sawyer, H. A., V. 21,
No. 1, January-February 1976, pp. 90-92
Kumar, N. V. and Ramirez, J. A. Interface Horizontal Shear Strength in Composite
Decks with Precast Concrete Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 41, No. 2, March-April
1996, pp. 42-55
Lincoln, R. L., Splicing Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles, PCI JOURNAL, V. 33,
Lutz, J. G. and Scalia, D. J., Deck Widening and Replacement of Woodrow Wilson
Memorial Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 29, No. 3, May-June 1984, pp. 74-93 and
discussion by Yoshida, H., Lutz, J. G. and Scalia, D. J., V. 30, No. 1, January-
February 1985, pp. 194-197
Miller, D. W., Corven, J. A. and Rohleder, J., Bridge Deck Rehabilitation with
Precast Concrete Panels George Washington Memorial Parkway over Pimmit Run,
Fairfax, Virginia, Proceedings, Eighth Annual International Bridge Conference,
Pittsburgh, PA, June 1991, pp. 326-332
Nigels, M. C., Prestressed Concrete Tension Piles and Their Connections, PCI
16.11 References
SEPT 01
Pate, D., The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge Design-Construction
Highlights, PCI JOURNAL, V. 40, No. 5, September-October 1995, pp. 20-30
PCI Bridge Committee, Tentative Design and Construction Specifications for
Bridge Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 23, No. 1, January-February 1978, pp. 32-
39 and discussion by Barnoff, R. M., Sutherland, F. G. and PCI Bridge Committee,
V. 23, No. 6, November-December 1978, pp. 80-82
PCI Committee on Bridges, Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck Panels, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 32, No. 2, March-April 1987, pp 26-45
PCI Committee on Bridges, Recommended Practice for Precast Concrete
Composite Bridge Deck Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V. 33, No. 2, March-April 1988,
pp 67-109
PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete Piling, Recommended Practice for Design,
Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL, V.
38, No. 2, March-April 1993, pp. 14-41
PCI Design Handbook, Fifth Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL, 1999, 690 pp.
Ralls, M. L., Ybanez, L. and Panak, J. J., The New Texas U-Beam Bridges: An
Aesthetic and Economical Design Solution, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38, No. 5,
September-October 1993, pp. 20-29 and discussion by Campbell, T. I., Bassi, K.,
Ralls, M. L., Ybanez, L. and Panak, J. J., V. 39, No. 2, March-April 1994,
pp. 122-124
Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad Bridge over Quantico Creek,
PCI JOURNAL, V. 34, No. 1, January-February 1989, pp. 154-163
Sandpoint Bridge, PCI JOURNAL, V. 29, No. 2, March-April 1984, pp. 160-165
Shahawy, M. A. and Issa, M., Effect of Pile Embedment on the Development
Length of Prestressing Strands, PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No. 6, November-December
1992, pp. 45-59
Sheppard, D. A., Seismic Design of Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL,
V. 28, No. 2, March-April 1983, pp. 20-49 and discussion by Gerwick, B. C. and
Sheppard, D. A., V. 29, No. 2, March-April 1984, pp. 172-173
Slavis, C, Precast Concrete Deck Modules for Bridge Deck Reconstruction, PCI
16.11 References
SEPT 01
Tadros, M. K. and Baishya, M. C., Rapid Replacement of Bridge Decks, NCHRP
Report No. 407, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, DC, 1998, 52 pp.
Texas Highway Department, Summary Report on Investigation to Determine
Feasibility of Using In-Place Precast Prestressed Form Panels for Highway Bridge
Decks, PCI JOURNAL, V. 20, No. 3, May-June 1975, pp. 62-67
Tsui, C. K., Burns, N. H. and Klingner, R. E., Behavior of Ontario-Type Bridge
Deck on Steel Girders: Negative Moment Region and Load Capacity, Center for
Transportation Research, Report 350-3, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX,
January 1986
Yamane, T., Tadros, M. T., Badie, S. S. and Baishya, M. C., Full-Depth Precast
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck System, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 3, May-June
1998, pp. 50-67
16.11 References
SEPT 01
NOTATION
17.0 INTRODUCTION
17.1 TYPICAL PRODUCTS AND DETAILS
17.1.1 Piles
17.1.2 Pile Caps and Abutments
17.1.3 Superstructures
17.1.3.1 Slab Beams and Box Beams
17.1.3.2 Other Products
17.1.3.3 Connection Details
17.2 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
17.2.1 Advantages
17.2.2 Standard Designs
17.2.3 Train Operations
17.2.4 Construction Methods
17.2.5 Substructures
17.3 THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY
ASSOCIATION LOAD PROVISIONS
17.3.1 AREMA Manual
17.3.2 AREMA Loads
17.3.2.1 Live Load
17.3.2.2 Impact Load
17.3.2.3 Other Loads
17.4 CURRENT DESIGN PRACTICE
17.4.1 New Bridges
17.4.2 Replacement Bridges
17.4.3 Simple Span Bridges
17.4.4 Skew Bridges
17.5 CASE STUDY NO. 1TRUSS BRIDGE REPLACEMENT
17.5.1 Existing Bridge
17.5.2 New Piles
17.5.3 New Intermediate Piers
17.5.4 New Superstructure for Approach Spans
17.5.5 Truss Removal
17.5.6 New Superstructure for Truss Spans
SEPT 01
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RAILROAD BRIDGES
5844 Bridge Manual Ch 17.0-17.6 9/24/01 1:28 PM Page 1
SEPT 01
17.6 CASE STUDY NO. 2TIMBER TRESTLE REPLACEMENT
17.6.1 Existing Bridge
17.6.2 New Superstructure
17.6.3 Substructure Construction
17.6.4 Superstructure Construction
17.7 DESIGN EXAMPLEDOUBLE-CELL BOX BEAM, SINGLE SPAN, NON-
COMPOSITE, DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH AREMA SPECIFICATIONS
17.7.1 Background
17.7.2 Introduction
17.7.2.1 Geometrics
17.7.2.2 Sign Convention
17.7.2.3 Level of Accuracy
17.7.3.1 Concrete
17.7.3.2 Pretensioning Strands
17.7.3.3 Reinforcing Bars
17.7.4 Cross-Section Properties for a Single Beam
17.7.5 Shear Forces and Bending Moments
17.7.5.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Superimposed Dead Load
17.7.6 Permissible Stresses in Concrete at Service Loads
17.7.7 Estimate Required Prestressing Force
17.7.8 Determine Prestress Losses
17.7.8.1 Prestress Losses at Service Loads
17.7.8.1.1 Elastic Shortening of Concrete
17.7.8.1.2 Creep of Concrete
17.7.8.1.3 Shrinkage of Concrete
17.7.8.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel
17.7.8.1.5 Total Losses at Service Loads
17.7.8.2 Prestress Losses at Transfer
17.7.9 Concrete Stresses
17.7.9.1 Stresses at Transfer at Midspan
17.7.9.2 Stresses at Transfer at End
17.7.9.3 Stresses at Service Load at Midspan
17.7.9.4 Stresses at Service Load at End
17.7.10.1 Stresses in Strands at Flexural Strength
17.7.10.2 Limits for Reinforcement
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RAILROAD BRIDGES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RAILROAD BRIDGES
SEPT 01
17.7.10.3 Design Moment Strength
17.7.10.5 Final Strand Pattern
17.7.11 Shear Design
17.7.11.1 Required Shear Strength
17.7.11.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete
17.7.11.2.1 Simplified Approach
17.7.11.2.2 Calculate V
ci
cw
c
17.7.11.3 Calculate V
s
and Shear Reinforcement
s
17.7.11.3.2 Determine Stirrup Spacing
17.7.11.3.3 Check V
s
Limit
17.7.11.3.4 Check Stirrup Spacing Limits
17.7.12 Deflections
17.7.12.1 Camber Due to Prestressing at Transfer
17.7.12.2 Deflection Due to Beam Self-Weight at Transfer
17.7.12.3 Deflection Due to Superimposed Dead Load
17.7.12.4 Long-Term Deflection
17.7.12.5 Deflection Due to Live Load
17.8 REFERENCES
NOTATION
RAILROAD BRIDGES
A = area of cross-section of precast beam
A
c
= total transformed area of composite section
A
ps
= area of one pretensioning strand or post-tensioning bar
A
ps
= area of strands in the tensile zone
A
v
= area of shear reinforcement
A
vh
= area of web reinforcement per unit length required for horizontal shear
a = compression block depth
B = buoyancy
b = width of compression face of member
b
e
= top flange width of precast beam
b
v
= width of cross section at the contact surface being investigated for horizontal shear
b
w
= width of web of a flanged member
CF = centrifugal force
D = dead load
DF = live load distribution factor
d = distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the prestressing force
E = earth pressure
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning steel
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of non-pretensioned reinforcement
EQ = earthquake (seismic)
e
c
= eccentricity of strands at midspan
F = longitudinal force due to friction or shear resistance at expansion bearings
f
b
f
c
= specified concrete strength at 28 days
f
cds
= concrete stress at the centroid of the pretensioning steel due to all dead loads except
the dead load present at the time the pretensioning force is applied
f
ci
= specified concrete strength at transfer
f
cr
= stress in the concrete at the centroid of the pretensioning steel
f
d
= stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is
caused by externally applied loads
f
lc
= loss of prestress due to creep of concrete
f
le
= loss of prestress due to elastic shortening
f
lr
= loss of prestress due to relaxation of pretensioning steel
f
ls
= loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage
f
pc
= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at the centroid
of cross section resisting externally applied loads
f
pe
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretensioning forces only (after
allowance for all pretension losses) at the extreme fiber of section where tensile stress
is caused by externally applied loads
f
ps
= stress in the pretensioning steel at nominal strength
SEPT 01
f
pu
= ultimate tensile strength of pretensioning steel
f
se
= effective stress in pretensioning steel after losses
f
t
= concrete stress at the top fiber of the precast beam
f
tc
= concrete stress at top of fiber of the slab for the composite section
f
y
= specified yield strength of non-prestressed reinforcement
h = overall depth of precast beam
h
c
I = the percentage of the live load for impact
ICE = ice pressure
I
c
L = span length
L = live load
LF = longitudinal force from live load
M = maximum service load design moment
M
cr
= moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads
M
D
= unfactored bending moment due to total dead load
M
d
= unfactored bending moment due to composite beam dead load
M
g
= unfactored bending moment due to precast beam self-weight
M
LL+I
M
max
= maximum factored moment at the section due to externally applied loads
M
n
M
SDL
= unfactored bending moment due to superimposed dead load
M
u
= factored bending moment at the section
M
x
n = modular ratio of elasticity between slab and beam materials
OF = other forces (rib shortening, shrinkage, temperature and/or settlement of supports)
P
eff
P
se
P
si
R = relative humidity
S
b
= non-composite section modulus of the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
S
bc
= composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
S
t
= non-composite section modulus of the extreme top fiber of the precast beam
S
tc
= composite section modulus for extreme top fiber of the slab
S
tg
SF = stream flow
s = spacing of the shear reinforcement in direction parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement
V = service load shear force
V
c
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete
SEPT 01
NOTATION
RAILROAD BRIDGES
SEPT 01
NOTATION
RAILROAD BRIDGES
V
ci
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from
combined shear and moment
V
cw
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from
excessive principal tensile stress in web
V
D
= unfactored shear force at section due to total dead load
V
d
= unfactored shear force due to composite beam dead load
V
g
= unfactored shear force due to precast beam self-weight
V
i
with M
max
V
LL+I
= unfactored shear force at section due to live load plus impact
V
p
= component of pretensioning force in the direction of the applied shear
V
s
= nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement
V
SDL
= unfactored shear force due to superimposed dead loads
V
u
= factored shear force at the section
V
x
= shear force at a distance x from the support
v
dh
= horizontal shear stress
W = wind load on structure
WL = wind load on live load
w = weight per foot
w
c
w
equ
= equivalent uniform load
x = distance from the support
y
b
y
bc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme bottom fiber of the
precast beam
y
bs
y
t
y
tc
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to the extreme top fiber of the
slab
y
tg
= distance from the centroid of the composite section to extreme top fiber of the
precast beam
D = deflection
f = strength reduction factor
r
p
= ratio of pretensioning reinforcement
y = angle of harped pretensioned reinforcement
Precast concrete is playing an increasingly important role in railroad bridge struc-
tures. The economy, durability and speed of construction make precast concrete the
material of choice for new and replacement railroad bridges. The focus of this chapter is
on the specific requirements and guidelines for railroad bridges. Typical products and
details, construction considerations, and identification of applicable AREMA
(American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association, formerly
AREA) provisions are also discussed. Two case studies and a railroad superstructure
design example are presented.
A wide variety of precast products is used for railroad bridge construction. From the
ground up, these include concrete piles, pile caps, abutments and superstructure beams.
Over the years, many railroads have developed standards for precast concrete, including
concrete mixes, member design, member detailing and quality control.
Several railroads use precast, prestressed concrete piles, but their use may be limited by the
capacity of track-mounted pile drivers. Concrete piles are preferred for use in marine envi-
ronments. In highly corrosive locations, precast concrete pile extensions are spliced to steel
pipe piles. This permits the embedment of the steel into the anaerobic soil zone and pro-
vides a more durable prestressed concrete pile in the more corrosive environment.
Precast concrete pile caps are widely used throughout the country. Typically, these are
fabricated with an embedded plate running along the bottom of the cap. This allows
welding of steel piles to the bottom of the cap. Concrete pile caps are sometimes used
to support steel or timber beams, as well as concrete beams. Some railroads are now
beginning to use precast concrete caps with precast concrete piles. The caps are cast
with a socket for the pile to fit into. Grouting is used to tie the components togeth-
er after installation. Bridge abutments can also be prefabricated. The bases of these
abutments are similar to the pile caps and serve the same function of supporting the
superstructure. Abutment backwalls and wingwalls can be precast in sections and
bolted or welded together in the field.
Railroads use a wide variety of superstructure elements. Spans typically range from
12 ft to over 80 ft. Since many precast concrete spans are installed to replace timber
trestles, standard span lengths for a given railroad are frequently multiples of their
standard timber stringer span lengths (typically 14 to 16 ft). For spans of 12 ft to 20
ft, precast slab beams are frequently used. For spans in the 20- to 30-ft range, precast,
prestressed concrete box beams are the most common although tee-beams and I-
beams are occasionally used. For spans over 30 ft, box beams are dominant. Spans up
to 50 ft typically use two box beams per track. Generally, these are double celled with
through-voids. Through-voids allow fabricators to use removable and reusable void
forms in casting the beams. This helps reduce costs. Spans over 50 ft generally use
four single-void box beams per track. The shift from two beams per track on shorter
spans to four on longer spans is dictated by the lifting restrictions associated with the
SEPT 01
Railroad Bridges
17.0
INTRODUCTION
17.1.1
Piles
17.1.2
Pile Caps and Abutments
17.1.3
Superstructures
17.1
TYPICAL PRODUCTS
AND DETAILS
heavier weight of the longer beams. Shear keys and transverse post-tensioned steel tie
rods are frequently used to tie the box beams together with diaphragms provided at
the location of the tie rods. For spans greater than 70 to 80 ft, beams with compos-
ite cast-in-place concrete decks are frequently used.
A variety of shapes with depth and width variations are available throughout the
country. Designers should contact the manufacturers and the specific railroad to
determine the properties and dimensions of products available for a proposed pro-
ject. Typical superstructure shapes and span ranges applicable to railroad bridges are
There are a few other precast products used for different span ranges. Brief descrip-
tions of these products are given in Figures 17.1.3.2-1 through 17.1.3.2-4.
The solid single tee beam is used for spans of 20 to 34 ft, and the voided super tee
for spans up to 55 ft in length. Both beams are set on a precast concrete cap that has
a welded plate connection to the piles as needed.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.1.3 Superstructures/17.1.3.2 Other Products
SEPT 01
17.1.3.1
Slab Beams and Box Beams
17.1.3.2
Other Products
Figure 17.1.3.1-1
Typical Precast Concrete
Superstructure Shapes
7'-0"
3'-6"
7'-0"
Varies from
1'-2" to 1'-8"
Varies
from
2'-6"
to
7'-0"
Varies
from
2'-6"
to
4'-0"
Slab Beam
Spans 12' to 20'
Single Cell Box
Spans 20' to 80'
Double Cell Box
Spans 20' to 50'
Figure 17.1.3.2-1
Tee Beam
(Intermediate and Long Spans)
Tee Beam
(Intermediate
Span)
Precast Cap
Super Tee
(Long Span)
Steel Piling
w/Welded Plate
Connection to
Pile Cap
Voided box beams are used on 20- to 50-ft long spans, with optional diaphragms and
curbs. Boxes may be set on precast or cast-in-place concrete caps with piling.
Short span bridges up to 24 ft in length with limited headroom require the use of low
profile slabs. These slabs may be set on precast caps that are either prestressed or
non-prestressed.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.1.3.2 Other Products
SEPT 01
Figure 17.1.3.2-2
Box Beam
(Intermediate Spans)
Optional
Curb
Precast Cap
Steel Piling
w/Welded Plate
Connection to
Pile Cap
24" Octagonal
Prestressed Piling
w/C.I.P. Cap
Closed Ended
Voided
Box Beam
Open Ended
Voided
Box Beam
Figure 17.1.3.2-3
Low Profile Slab
(Short Spans)
Optional
Curb
Concrete
Keeper
Steel
Keeper
Low Profile
Slabs
Precast Cap Precast Prestressed Cap
Steel Piling
w/Welded Plate
Connection to
Pile Cap
Timber
Piling
Precast, prestressed concrete deck slabs are used in a variety of lengths and widths;
with new or existing steel beams. These slabs can be cast with single and double bal-
last curbs and with integral walkways to further speed up construction of the bridge.
Structural steel tees or plates are frequently used to cover the longitudinal joint in slab
beams and double-cell box beams as shown in Figure 17.1.3.3-1. Transverse post-
tensioned steel tie rods, as shown in Figure 17.1.3.3-2, are generally provided in
multiple single-cell box beam superstructures to help the group act as a unit.
Concrete or structural steel keepers or retainers are usually provided at the ends of
the caps to limit lateral movement, as shown in Figure 17.1.3.3-3. Designers should
contact the specific railroad to determine their standards and preferred connection
details.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.1.3.2 Other Products/17.1.3.3 Connection Details
SEPT 01
Figure 17.1.3.2-4
Ballast Deck
(With Steel Beams)
Steel Piling
w/Welded Plate
Connection to
Pile Cap
Precast Cap
Steel Beams
Precast Ballast Deck
on Steel Beam
Integral Walkway
17.1.3.3
Connection Details
Figure 17.1.3.3-1
Steel Tee between Box Beams
Steel Tee
Precast concrete offers many advantages in the construction of railroad bridges. These
include:
Speed of constructionPrecast concrete structures can usually be constructed
faster than bridges comprised of alternative materials.
Fabrication timeIn addition to saving construction time, the lead time for
fabricating elements is shorter than for competing materials such as steel.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.1.3.3 Connection Details /17.2.1 Advantages
SEPT 01
Figure 17.1.3.3-2
Post-Tensioned Steel Tie Rod Post-Tensioned
Steel Tie Rod
Diaphragm
Bearing
Plate
Figure 17.1.3.3-3
Concrete and Steel
Keeper Details
Concrete
Keeper
Steel
Keeper
Pile Cap
17.2
CONSTRUCTION
CONSIDERATIONS
17.2.1
Advantages
DurabilityCompared with many older structures that require frequent inspec-
tions and maintenance, railroad engineers find the low maintenance requirements
of precast concrete attractive. Use of concrete with low permeability and strict
quality control in the casting plant help assure durable bridge components.
QualityThe higher quality control of workmanship and materials available in
casting plants compared to cast-in-place construction is another plus. Railroads can
work with precast suppliers to ensure that members are cast to their satisfaction.
Site constraintsThe remote locations of many railroad bridges make the pre-
cast aspect of precast construction very useful. When the nearest ready-mix
plant is many miles away from the site, cast-in-place construction within a rail-
roads time constraints is virtually impossible.
Emergency responsePrecast concrete bridge elements provide components
for rapid repair of bridges as a result of damage caused by derailments or tim-
ber trestle fires. Several railroads keep entire precast bridges stockpiled for rapid
emergency replacement. Concrete bridges are less vulnerable to damage from
fire compared to steel or timber bridges.
Most railroads have standard precast concrete trestle bridge designs that incorporate rep-
etition of modular precast units. These standard designs are used for replacement of
existing bridges, as well as construction of new bridges. Railroads and contractors famil-
iar with railroad bridge construction have developed low-cost methods of trestle bridge
construction. These methods minimize the time that railroad operations must be sus-
pended. In addition, precast concrete bridge components are often shipped by rail,
which, in many cases, is the only way to deliver components to remote locations.
For construction of bridges, railroads normally only permit train operations to be
suspended from two to eight hours at any one time depending on the day and time.
If an alternate route is available, 12 to 72 hours are the normal acceptable range.
Additional costs of rerouting include obtaining operating rights on another railroad
and using the other railroads personnel. Use of either option is dependent upon the
type and density of train traffic and the availability of alternate routes.
The various methods used to construct railroad bridges to support existing trackage
while minimizing disruptions to train operations include the following:
rolling spans on runways
floating spans on barges
pick and set
temporary rail line change
permanent rail line change
trestle bridge construction
These methods are utilized because train operations cannot be suspended for the
amount of time that would be required to construct the new bridge piece by piece in
its permanent location.
In many bridges, the existing substructure is reused and, if necessary, modified for
replacement of the superstructure. Sometimes, the bridge may require new substruc-
ture elements. In both cases, the substructure work is performed beneath the existing
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.2.1 Advantages/17.2.5 Substructures
SEPT 01
17.2.2
Standard Designs
17.2.3
Train Operations
17.2.4
17.2.5
Substructures
track and superstructure so that the track is out of service for only very limited peri-
ods while driving piles or placing temporary supports. For replacement of existing
bridges utilizing this method, ballast removal, as well as relocating the decks and
beams of the existing bridge, may be required to allow pile driving for the new bridge.
It is often necessary to reduce the speed of traffic over existing bridges during con-
struction due to reduced load carrying capacity resulting from relocating the decks
and beams.
Precast concrete beams are usually installed using pick and set methods. This method
requires access to the bridge construction site for cranes that have adequate capacity to
lift the beams. A typical bridge replacement procedure is illustrated in Figure 17.2.5-1.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.2.5 Substructures
SEPT 01
Figure 17.2.5-1
Typical Bridge Replacement
Construction Sequence
SUSPEND TRAIN OPERATIONS
INTERMITTENTLY AS REQUIRED TO
INSTALL PILES OR SHAFTS
CONSTRUCT BENT CAPS
SUSPEND TRAIN OPERATIONS
DISCONNECT TRACK AT EACH END OF
BRIDGE OR SPAN TO BE REPLACED
RESUME TRAIN OPERATIONS
INSTALL NEW PRECAST CONCRETE
SUPERSTRUCTURE ON BENT CAPS
REMOVE EXISTING
SUPERSTRUCTURE
RECONNECT TRACK
SURFACE AND ALIGN TRACK
This section briefly discusses the types of loads on railroad bridges. The emphasis is
on those loads that are different from highway bridge loads covered in Chapter 7.
Provisions of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
Association (AREMA) Manual for Railway Engineering are introduced relative to
design loads and load combinations. In addition, applicable portions of the manual
are referenced.
The AREMA Manual provides the recommended practice for railroads and others con-
cerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties, allied
services and facilities. Prior to starting the design of a project, design engineers should
discuss specific loadings, forces, standards and procedures with the appropriate railroad.
The AREMA Manual Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations, specifically
addresses reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete structures. Article 2.2.3 covers
the design loads and forces to be considered in the design of railroad structures sup-
porting tracks, including bridges. Briefly, design loads include:
Design engineers familiar with highway bridge design will recognize the loads and
forces listed above. The magnitude of the loads and forces are explained in detail in
the AREMA Manual. Loads that are different from highway bridges are described in
the following sections.
The following description of live load is based on the AREMA Manual:
(1) The recommended live load in pounds per axle and uniform trailing load for each track
is the Cooper E 80 load, which is shown in Figure 17.3.2.1-1. Table 17.3.2.1-1 pro-
vides a table for live load bending moments, shear forces and reactions for simple span
bridges. Values for span lengths not shown are generally computed by interpolation.
(2) The Engineer (the Railroads Chief Engineer) shall specify the Cooper live load
to be used, and such load shall be proportional to the recommended load, with
the same axle spacing.
(3) For bridges on curves, provisions shall be made for the increased proportion carried by
any truss, beam or stringer due to the eccentricity of the load and centrifugal force.
D = Dead Load
L = Live Load
I = Impact
CF = Centrifugal Force
E = Earth Pressure
B = Buoyancy
W = Wind Load on Structure
WL = Wind Load on Live Load
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
F = Longitudinal Force due to
Friction or Shear Resistance
at Expansion Bearings
EQ = Earthquake (Seismic)
SF = Stream Flow Pressure
ICE = Ice Pressure
OF = Other Forces (Rib Shortening,
Shrinkage, Temperature and/or
Settlement of Supports)
Figure 17.3.2.1-1
Cooper E 80 Load
8'
4
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
4
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
8
0
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
5
2
,
0
0
0
8,000 lb per
lin ft
8' 8' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 6' 5' 5' 6' 9' 9'
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.3 The American Railway Engineering And Maintenance-of-Way
Association Load Provisions/17.3.2.1 Live Load
SEPT 01
17.3
THE AMERICAN
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
AND MAINTENANCE-
OF-WAY ASSOCIATION
LOAD PROVISIONS
17.3.1
AREMA Manual
17.3.2
AREMA Loads
17.3.2.1
Live Load
(4) For members receiving load from more than one track, the design live load on the
tracks shall be as follows:
For two tracks, full live load on two tracks
For three tracks, full live load on two tracks and one-half on the other track
For four tracks, full live load on two tracks, one-half on one track, and one-
quarter on the remaining track
For more than four tracks, as specified by the Engineer
The selection of the tracks for these loads shall be that which produces the most critical
design condition in the member being designed.
Table 17.3.2.1-1
Maximum Bending Moments, Shear Forces and Pier Reactions for Cooper E 80 Live Load (Based on AREMA Manual Table 1-17)
Span
Length
ft
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
18
20
24
28
32
36
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
100
Maximum
Bending
Moment
ft-kips
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
93.89
112.50
131.36
160.00
190.00
220.00
280.00
340.00
412.50
570.42
730.98
910.85
1,097.30
1,311.30
1,601.20
1,901.80
2,233.10
2,597.80
3,415.00
4,318.90
5,339.10
6,446.30
Maximum
Bending
Moment at
Quarter Point
ft-kips
37.50
45.00
55.00
70.00
85.00
100.00
115.00
130.00
145.00
165.00
210.00
255.00
300.00
420.00
555.00
692.50
851.50
1,010.50
1,233.60
1,473.00
1,732.30
2,010.00
2,608.20
3,298.00
4,158.00
5,060.50
End
40.00
46.67
51.43
55.00
57.58
60.00
65.45
70.00
73.84
77.14
85.00
93.33
100.00
110.83
120.86
131.44
141.12
150.80
163.38
174.40
185.31
196.00
221.04
248.40
274.46
300.00
Quarter
Point
30.00
30.00
31.43
35.00
37.78
40.00
41.82
43.33
44.61
47.14
52.50
56.67
60.00
70.00
77.14
83.12
88.90
93.55
100.27
106.94
113.58
120.21
131.89
143.41
157.47
173.12
Maximum Shear Forces
kips
Midspan
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
21.82
23.33
24.61
25.71
27.50
28.89
28.70
(1)
31.75
34.29
37.50
41.10
44.00
45.90
49.73
52.74
55.69
61.45
67.41
73.48
78.72
Maximum
Pier
Reaction
kips
40.00
53.33
62.86
70.00
75.76
80.00
87.28
93.33
98.46
104.29
113.74
121.33
131.10
147.92
164.58
181.94
199.06
215.90
237.25
257.52
280.67
306.42
354.08
397.70
437.15
474.24
All values are for one rail (one-half track load)
(1) AREMA table does not include a value for Cooper E 80 live load. A value of 28.70 kips is provided for alternative live load.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.3.2.1 Live Load
SEPT 01
For reinforced concrete (precast and cast-in-place), the impact load is a percentage of
the live load based on the ratio of live load to live load plus dead load:
I = [AREMA Eq. 2-1]
The impact load shall not exceed 60% for diesel engines and 80% for steam engines.
For prestressed concrete, the impact load is a percentage of the live load based on
span length in ft:
L 60 ft, I = 35 - L
2
/500 [AREMA Eq. 17-1]
60 < L 135 ft, I = 14 + 800/(L - 2)
L > 135 ft, I = 20%
where L = span length of member in ft
All other loads and forces are defined similarly to highway bridges although the mag-
nitudes are different. The design engineer should refer to the AREMA Manual for
additional information.
The various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be subjected are
grouped in a similar manner as highway bridges. Each component of the structure or foun-
dation upon which it rests, shall be proportioned for the group of loads that produces the
most critical design condition. The group loading combinations for service load design and
load factor design are as shown in Table 17.3.2.4-1 and Table 17.3.2.4-2, respectively, and
are reproduced from AREMA Article 2.2.4.
100L
L D +
Table 17.3.2.4-1
Group Loading Combinations
Service Load Design
Item Group
Allowable
Percentage of
Basic Unit Stress
I 100
II 125
III Group I + 0.5W + WL + LF + F
D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF
D + E + B + SF + W
125
IV Group I + OF 125
V Group II + OF 140
VI Group III + OF 140
VII D + E + B + SF + EQ 133
VIII Group I + ICE 140
IX Group II + ICE 150
Table 17.3.2.4-2
Group Loading Combinations
Load Factor Design
Group Item
I
IA
1.4 (D + 5/3(L + I) + CF + E + B + SF)
1.8 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF)
II 1.4 (D + E + B + SF + W)
III 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + LF + F)
IV 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + OF)
V Group II + 1.4 (OF)
VI Group III + 1.4 (OF)
VII 1.4 (D + E + B + SF + EQ)
VIII 1.4 (D + L + I + E + B + SF + ICE)
IX 1.2 (D + E + B + SF + W + ICE)
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.3.2.2 Impact Load/17.3.2.4 Load Combinations
SEPT 01
17.3.2.2
Impact Load
17.3.2.3
Other Loads
17.3.2.4
Load Combinations
As with all engineering design practices, railroad industry practice continues to
change as experience and research is incorporated into the AREMA Manual and indi-
vidual railroad company standards and procedures. This section will discuss current
railroad industry practice relative to overall railroad bridge design philosophy, skew
limitations and superstructure continuity. Designers should discuss philosophies,
standards and procedures with the specific railroad as applicable to the project.
New railroad bridges are constructed to support railroad tracks over existing water-
ways, roadways, and other railroads. In addition, new railroad bridges are built to
replace existing bridges due to:
unsatisfactory capacity to support current or future loadings
unsafe condition resulting from deterioration and/or poor maintenance
damage as a result of an accident or natural disaster
inadequate waterway opening
highway or railroad grade separation projects
navigation, drainage and flood control projects
The large majority of railroad bridge projects usually involve existing trackage.
Consequently, one of the most important considerations for the railroad bridge
designer is to design the bridge such that construction will have minimal disruption
to train operations. This affects design details, construction methods and project
costs. Much of todays rail traffic is under contract with the customer and the con-
tract often includes a guarantee of service between origin and destination. Penalties
and possible loss of a contract can result if unreasonable delays in the agreed upon
schedule are experienced. Taking a track out of service or reducing the speed of rail
traffic for an extended period of time for bridge construction can have a detrimental
economic effect on the railroad. The project must be properly planned and coordi-
nated with the operating and marketing departments of the railroad during the
design and construction phases.
The use of standardized precast components speeds both the design and construction
of bridges. Replacement spans can be specified by length alone, and railroad bridge
workers are familiar with the sections and construction procedures. Since the vast
majority of precast concrete bridges have all the superstructure below track level, ver-
tical and horizontal clearance is not limited by these structures. This allows wide
cargo or double stack containers to be shipped without clearance concerns and
reduces the threat of bridge damage caused by shifted loads.
Many railroads prefer simple span bridges to continuous structures, finding them eas-
ier to install and maintain. Since they are structurally determinate, simple spans are
better able to handle problems such as support settlement and thermal effects than
some continuous bridges. Precast concrete elements are particularly suited to simple-
span construction. Additional reasons many railroads prefer simply supported bridges
to continuous span bridges include the following:
If repair or replacement of superstructure elements is necessary, less interrup-
tion to train traffic is incurred with a simple span bridge than with a continu-
ous span bridge.
Installation of simple spans can be accomplished more quickly than continuous
spans.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.4 Current Design Practice/17.4.3 Simple Span Bridges
SEPT 01
17.4
CURRENT DESIGN
PRACTICE
17.4.1
New Bridges
17.4.2
Replacement Bridges
17.4.3
Simple Span Bridges
If a bridge experiences substructure problems such as settlement, a continuous
span bridge may require immediate and more extensive work, thereby resulting
in greater interruptions to train traffic.
Simple span bridges have a proven history of performing well.
It is desirable to limit the end skew of railroad bridge precast beams to less than 30
degrees for constructibility and placement of reinforcing steel in the beam. When the
bridge skew relative to the substructure exceeds 30 degrees, staggered precast ele-
ments as shown in Figure 17.4.4-1 should be considered.
This case study describes a Southern Pacific railroad truss bridge replacement
(Marianos, 1991). This project illustrates the use of precast concrete elements to
replace a structure without serious interruption to rail traffic. The existing structure
consisted of a 90-ft long timber trestle approach, two 154-ft long through-truss spans
and a 30-ft long plate-girder approach span.
The truss spans were nearly 90 years old and were at the end of their useful service
lives due to joint wear. Since the truss spans required replacement, the railroad decid-
ed to replace the entire bridge with precast concrete.
Using a track-mounted pile driver, steel H-piles were driven through the track on the
timber trestle. The pile bents were spaced to give 30-ft replacement span lengths in
the trestle area. After the piles were cut off at the required elevation, precast concrete
bent caps were placed and the piles welded to steel plates embedded in the bottom of
the caps.
Since the truss spans crossed a creek subject to high flood flows, it was essential to
minimize obstruction of the waterway. For this reason, new intermediate piers with
four 79-ft long precast, prestressed box beams replaced the two 154-ft long truss
spans. The 79-ft long beams were beyond the span range of the railroad standards
and required a new design.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.4.3 Simple Span Bridges/17.5.3 New Intermediate Piers
SEPT 01
17.4.4
Skew Bridges
17.5.1
Existing Bridge
17.5.2
New Piles
17.5.3
New Intermediate Piers
Figure 17.4.4-1
Layouts for Skewed Bridges
Skew 30
Skew > 30
17.5
CASE STUDY NO. 1
TRUSS BRIDGE
REPLACEMENT
Railroad crews built intermediate piers at midspan of each truss by driving piles
through the existing truss floor systems, and the 79-ft long box beams were ordered
and fabricated.
When the substructure was completed, superstructure replacement began. The 90-ft
long timber trestle was replaced by 30-ft long spans of precast, prestressed box beams,
as shown in Figure 17.5.4-1. Two box beams placed side by side were used for each
span. Each box beam has two through-voids and an integral ballast retaining sidewall
and walkway cast on the outside edge. A shear key between the box beams helped
ensure load distribution between the two beams. The box beams were placed using a
track-mounted crane.
A similar 30-ft long box beam span was used to replace the steel plate-girder span on
the approach opposite the timber trestle. Precast concrete bolster blocks were used on
top of the existing masonry piers to obtain the proper elevation because the new
structure was shallower than the existing one.
After the approach spans were completed, preparation began for replacing the truss
spans. An area under the truss spans was filled with ballast and leveled. Railroad track
panels were laid perpendicular to the bridge on the fill below the structure. Steel
frames mounted on rail trucks were placed on these tracks and used to support the
trusses for removal. With these preparations for truss replacement complete, a care-
fully orchestrated construction effort began.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.5.3 New Intermediate Piers/17.5.5 Truss Removal
SEPT 01
17.5.4
New Superstructure for
Approach Spans
17.5.5
Truss Removal
Figure 17.5.4-1
Precast 30-ft Approach Span
on Precast Bolster Blocks
First, the truss ends were jacked up to lift them off the pier. The truss was then
secured to the steel frames and rolled laterally clear of the work area, as shown in
Figure 17.5.5-1. The construction crew then finished preparations on the pier top
for placing the precast, prestressed concrete box beams. This work included remov-
ing the remaining truss attachments and placing elastomeric bearing pads.
Each 154-ft long steel truss was replaced by two spans of precast box beams. When
the pier preparation was completed, the four box beams of the first span were lifted
into position using truck cranes. While workmen epoxied the longitudinal joints and
shear keys between these beams, the box beams for the second span were being
placed. After the joints of both spans were epoxied and handrail cables strung along
the walkways, prefabricated panels of railroad track were placed on the spans. This
allowed a hopper car to be moved out on the track to dump ballast on the new spans.
After the ballast was tamped and the track reconnected, the new spans were ready for rail
traffic. Replacing a 154-ft long truss span was completed in a 12-hour track closure.
Several weeks later, the second truss span was replaced, completing the reconstruction.
The use of precast elements, as shown in Figure 17.5.6-1, allowed the speedy and
economical replacement of the structure, using the railroads own work force.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.5.5 Truss Removal/17.5.6 New Superstructure for Truss Spans
SEPT 01
Figure 17.5.5-1
Roll-Out of Truss Span
to be Replaced
17.5.6
New Superstructure
for Truss Spans
This case study discusses a timber trestle bridge replacement on the Union Pacific
Railroad system. Bridge 177.81 is located approximately 1.59 miles west of
Marysville, CA on Union Pacific Railroads Canyon Subdivision. The existing bridge,
shown in Figure 17.6.1-1, consisted of numerous timber trestle spans and a steel
plate-girder span over the Yuba River. The plate-girder was to remain in place and the
timber trestle portion of the bridge was to be replaced.
Due to the volume of rail traffic and importance of on-time delivery by the Union
Pacific Railroad, minimal disruption to train operations was mandatory. Substructure
construction was to be performed without interference or downtime to the railroad.
Superstructure change-out would be performed during windows approved by the
railroad. A precast, prestressed concrete superstructure system was selected based on
economics, speed of erection and the ability to meet the construction constraints
associated with the need for minimal disruption to train operations.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.5.6 New Superstructure for Truss Spans/17.6.2 New Superstructure
SEPT 01
Figure 17.5.6-1
Completed Structure
17.6
CASE STUDY NO. 2
TIMBER TRESTLE
REPLACEMENT
17.6.1
Existing Bridge
Figure 17.6.1-1
Existing Plate-Girder and
Timber Trestle Spans.
17.6.2
New Superstructure
The existing timber trestle spans varied in length with an average span of slightly less
than 15 ft. Based on a field survey of the timber bent locations, new bent locations
were selected to minimize interference with existing timber pile bents and optimize
beam spans. A span length of 44 ft was selected for the new superstructure. For this
span length, 45-in. deep double-cell, prestressed concrete box beams were deter-
mined to be the most economical structural system.
Based on field conditions, prevalent construction practice in the area and construc-
tion constraints governed by railroad operations, cast-in-place reinforced concrete
bents were selected for the substructure. The bents consisted of 100-ft long, 4-ft
diameter drilled shafts, 4-ft diameter cast-in-place reinforced concrete column exten-
sions and cap beams. All structural components were designed in accordance with the
AREMA Manual and Union Pacific Railroad standards and procedures.
The sequence of construction was as follows:
The existing bridge footwalk and handrail were removed as required to facilitate
drilled shaft installation. The drilled shafts were spaced at 15-ft centers perpendicu-
lar to the track to allow installation of the drilled shafts without interference to rail-
road operations. Continuous train operations were maintained throughout the entire
construction of the substructure. Due to foundation conditions, steel pipe casing was
necessary for drilled shaft installation. The pipe casing was installed using a vibrato-
ry hammer. Reinforcing steel cages were set and the holes were filled with 4,000 psi
compressive strength concrete. Drilled shaft column extensions, bent cap beams and
the abutment were constructed under the existing timber superstructure. Due to the
depth of the new concrete beams, the bent and abutment construction were com-
pleted without interfering with the existing timber superstructure, as shown in
Figure 17.6.3-1.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.6.2 New Superstructure/17.6.3 Substructure Construction
SEPT 01
17.6.3
Substructure Construction
Figure 17.6.3-1
Completed Concrete Bents
under Existing Timber Trestle
Working within railroad approved construction windows, the timber structure was
removed and precast beams were set. In a continuous, well-planned procedure, the
ballast, ties and rail were placed and train operations were resumed. The use of pre-
cast concrete allowed the Union Pacific Railroad to replace a timber trestle with a
stronger, more durable structural system with minimal disruption to railroad service.
The completed bridge is shown in Figure 17.6.4-1.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.6.4 Superstructure Construction
SEPT 01
17.6.4
Superstructure
Construction
Figure 17.6.4-1
Completed Bridge Structure
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7 Design ExampleDouble-Cell Box Beam, Single Span, Non-Composite, Designed
in Accordance with AREMA Specifications/17.7.2 Introduction
SEPT 01
Prestressed concrete double-cell box beams and solid slab beams are commonly used
in the railroad industry. Solid slab beams are used for spans up to 20 ft, especially
when superstructure depth has to be minimized. Prestressed concrete double-cell box
beams are used for spans up to 50 ft in length. Prestressed concrete single-cell box
beams are more economical for spans longer than 40 ft and are used for span lengths
up to 80 ft. When span lengths exceed 80 ft, prestressed concrete I-beams with a
composite deck become more feasible from a design, economic and construction
point of view. This example illustrates the design of a non-composite, prestressed
concrete, double-cell box beam.
In non-composite design, the beam acts as the main structural element. Therefore,
the beam has to carry all the dead loads, superimposed dead loads and live load. The
beams are assumed to be fully prestressed under service load conditions. The dead
load consists of the self-weight of the beam including diaphragms. The superimposed
dead loads consist of ballast, ties, rails, concrete curbs and handrails, as shown in
Figures 17.7.2-1 and 17.7.2-2. The live load used for this bridge is Cooper E 80,
which is described in the AREMA Manual, Chapter 8, Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design, Article 2.2.3. The prestressed concrete beams are designed using the AREMA
Manual, Chapter 8, Part 17, Prestressed Concrete Design Specifications for Design of
Prestressed Concrete Members. The beams in this example are checked for both service-
ability and strength requirements.
17.7
DESIGN EXAMPLE
DOUBLE-CELL BOX BEAM,
SINGLE SPAN, NON-
COMPOSITE, DESIGNED
IN ACCORDANCE WITH
AREMA SPECIFICATIONS
17.7.1
Background
17.7.2
Introduction
Figure 17.7.2-1
Ballast
Handrail post (Typ.)
30" Prestressed
concrete box
beam
Precast curb
and walkway
Void drain, typ.
1 ea. end, ea. cell
Timber ties
L
C Track & Bridge
8'-0" Min. Clear
8" Min.
1/2" Gap
7'-0" 7'-0"
8'-0" Min. Clear
3'-10 7/8"
Steel tee (Typ.)
5844 Bridge Manual Ch 17.7 9/24/01 1:37 PM Page 1
For design, the bridge has the following dimensions:
Beam length = 30.0 ft
Beam width = 7.0 ft
Center-to-center distance between bearings = 29.0 ft
Bearing width (measured longitudinally) = 8 in.
Bearing length (measured transversely) = 6.67 ft
Depth of ballast = 15 in.
Timber ties: length = 9 ft; width = 9 in.; depth = 7 in.
Rail section = 132 RE (Bethlehem Steel Co.)
No. of tracks = one
For concrete:
Compression positive (+ve)
Tension negative (-ve)
For steel:
Compression negative (-ve)
Tension positive (+ve)
Distance from center of gravity:
Downward positive (+ve)
Upward negative (-ve)
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.2 Introduction/ 17.7.2.2 Sign Convention
SEPT 01
Figure 17.7.2-2
Bridge Elevation
30'-1" Face to face of backwalls
L
C
Abutment No.1
L
C
Abutment No.2
abutment
Cast-in-place
abutment
Cast-in-place
Flow line
box beam
30" prestressed concrete
granular fill
Well
compacted
17.7.2.1
Geometrics
17.7.2.2
Sign Convention
Some calculations are carried out to a higher number of significant figures than com-
mon practice with hand calculation. Depending on available computation resources
and designer preferences, other levels of precision may be used.
ci
= 4,000 psi
c
= 7,000 psi
c
= 150 pcf
Modulus of elasticity of prestressed concrete, E
c
, psi [AREMA Art. 2.23.4]
where
w
c
= unit weight of concrete, pcf
f
c
= specified strength of concrete, psi
Modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer, using f
ci
= 4,000 psi, is:
Modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days, using f
c
= 7,000 psi, is:
1/2-in. diameter, seven wire, low-relaxation strands
Area of one strand, A
ps
= 0.153 in.
2
Ultimate tensile strength, f
pu
= 270.0 ksi
s
= 28,000 ksi
E ksi
c

( )
150 33 7 000 1 000 5 072
1 5 .
( ) , / , ,
E ksi
ci

( )
150 33 4 000 1 000 3 834
1 5 .
( ) , / , ,
E w f
c c c

1 5
33
.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.2.3 Level of Precision/17.7.3.2 Pretensioning Strands
SEPT 01
17.7.2.3
Level of Precision
Item Units Precision
Concrete Stress
1/1000
Steel Stress
1/10
Prestress Force
1/10
Moments
1/10
Shears
1/10
For the Beam:
Cross-Section Dimensions
1/100
Section Properties
1
Length
1/100
Area of Prestressing Steel
1/1000
Area of Mild Reinforcement
1/100
ksi
ksi
kips
kips
in.
in.
in.
2
in.
2
ft
ft-kips
17.7.3
Material Properties
17.7.3.1
Concrete
17.7.3.2
Yield strength, f
y
= 60,000 psi
s
= 29,000 ksi
For cross-sectional dimensions of a single box beam, see Figure 17.7.4-1. Note that
the depth varies from 30 in. to 31 in. to provide drainage
A = area of cross-section of precast beam = 1,452 in.
2
h = average depth of the precast beam = (0.5)(31 + 30) = 30.5 in.
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the precast beam = 171,535 in.
4
y
b
= distance from centroid to extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam = 15.25 in.
y
t
= distance from centroid to extreme top fiber of the precast beam = 15.25 in.
S
b
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam = 11,248 in.
2
S
t
= section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the precast beam = 11,248 in.
3
NOTE: Section properties do not include precast curbs and walkway. Reinforcement
in curbs and walkway not shown for clarity
Self-weight of beam = = 1.513 kip/ft
Weight of end diaphragm = 1.7 kips
1 452 150
1 000 144
, ( )
, ( )
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.3.3 Reinforcing Bars/
SEPT 01
17.7.3.3
Reinforcing Bars
17.7.4
for a Single Beam
Figure 17.7.4-1
Box Beam Cross-Section
mild steel
of prestressing strand to
Relative vertical position
#4 Bars
#4 Stirrups
3x3"
Fillet
(Typ.)
prestressing strands)
adjust as required to clear
(24)#6 Bars (place as shown-
5"
1'-5 1/2"
(Typ.)
1 1/2"
Clr.
2'-8 3/4"
8 1/2"
2'-8 3/4"
5"
7'-0"
2'-7"
7"
1'-5 1/2"
6 1/2"
6"
2'-0"
17.7.5
Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
17.7.5.1
Moments Due to Dead Load
The equations for shear force (V
x
) and moment (M
x
) for uniform loads on a simple
span (L) are given by:
V
x
= (Eq. 17.7.5.1-1)
M
x
= (Eq. 17.7.5.1-2)
where
w = weight/ft = 1.513 kip/ft
L = span length, ft
x = distance from the support, ft
Using the above equations, values of shear forces (V
g
) and bending moments (M
g
)
are computed and given in Table 17.7.5.1-1.
Diaphragm Load: Since distance between the centerline of the bearing and center of
gravity of the diaphragm is less than the effective depth, ignore the effect of the
diaphragm load in this example.
Superimposed dead loads consist of ballast, ties, rails, curbs and handrails.
Ballast, including track ties at 120 pcf
= 15/12(7 + 0.04/2 gap)(0.120) = 1.053 kip/ft [AREMA Art. 2.2.3]
Track rails, inside guardrails and fastenings at 200 plf /track = = 0.100 kip/ft
For this example, assume concrete curb at 1.5 ft
2
+ handrail post at
5% = (1.5)(0.150)(1.05) = 0.236 kip/ft
Total superimposed dead load per beam per linear ft = 1.389 kip/ft
Using a uniform load of 1.389 kip/ft and Equations 17.7.5.1-1 and 17.7.5.1-2,
values of shear forces (V
SDL
SDL
) are computed and given
in Table 17.7.5.1-1.
0 200
2
.
wx
2
L x
( )
w
L
x
2

j
(
,
\
,
(
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.5.1 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Dead Load/
17.7.5.2 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Superimposed Dead Load
SEPT 01
Table 17.7.5.1-1
Shear Forces and
Bending Moments
x, ft
0.0*
21.9
0.0
20.1
0.0
0.0
164.6
10.0
6.8
143.7
6.3
132.0
892.0
86.8
14.5
0.0
159.1
0.0
146.0
1,033.0
46.8
7.25
10.9
119.3
10.1
109.5
785.7
104.8
4.0
15.9
75.7
14.6
69.5
6.0
12.8
104.4
11.8
95.8
1.27**
20.0
26.6
18.4
24.5
194.5
150.7
Vg, kip
Mg, ft-kips
V
SDL
, kip
M
SDL
, ft-kip
V
LL+I
, kip
M
LL+I
, kip
* At the support
** At the critical section for shear (See Section 17.7.11)
17.7.5.2
Moments Due to
The actions caused by the Cooper E 80 live load can be determined by using the
tables in the AREMA Manual, Chapter 15, Art. 1.15 Appendix or by using any com-
mercially available computer program. A distribution factor (DF) equal to 0.5 is
used, since there are two beams supporting one track.
For span lengths less than 60 ft, the impact factor is:
[AREMA Eq.17-1]
The values of shear forces (V
LL+I
LL+I
) for live load plus
impact for one beam were determined using a computer program and are given in
Table 17.7.5.1-1.
For Group I loading:
Service Load Design = D + (L + I)(DF) [AREMA Table 2-2]
Load Factor Design = 1.4(D + 5/3(L + I)(DF)) [AREMA Table 2-3]
Values of shear forces and bending moments for service load design and factored load
design are determined from Table 17.7.5.1-1 and given in Table 17.7.5.4-1.
The maximum value of shear occurs near the supports while the maximum value of
bending moment occurs near midspan for a simply supported span.
At transfer (before time-dependent prestress losses): [AREMA Art. 17.6.4]
Compression: 0.60 f
ci
= 0.60(4,000) = 2.400 ksi
Tension: without bonded reinforcement =
At service loads (after allowance for all prestress losses): [AREMA Art. 17.6.4]
Compression: 0.40 f
c
= 0.40(7,000) = 2.800 ksi
Tension in precompressed tensile zone: 0 ksi
Try eccentricity of strands at midspan, e
c
= y
b
- 2.5 = 12.75 in.
Bottom tensile stress due to applied loads:
f
M M M
S
b
g SDL LL I
b
+ +
+
3 4 000 , 0.190 ksi 3 f
ci
I
L
of live load
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
35
500
35
29
500
33 32
2 2
( )
. %
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.5.3 Shear Forces and Bending Moments Due to Live Load/
17.7.7 Estimate Required Prestressing Force
SEPT 01
17.7.5.4
Load Combinations
17.7.6
Permissible Stresses in
Concrete at Service Loads
17.7.7
Estimate Required
Prestressing Force
Table 17.7.5.4-1
Moments for Design
Self Wt
(g)
Dead
(SDL)
Live +
Impact
(L+I)
Total
Service
Load
Total
Factored
Load
Max. Shear Force
at 1.27 ft, kips
20.0 18.4 150.7 189.1 405.4
Max. Bending
Moment at
Midspan, ft-kips
159.1 1,46.0 1,033.0 1,338.1 2,837.5
17.7.5.3
where
f
b
M
g
= unfactored bending moment due to precast beam self-weight, ft-kips
M
SDL
= unfactored bending moment due to superimposed dead load, ft-kips
M
LL+I
= unfactored bending moment due to live load plus impact, ft-kips
Since allowable tensile stress in bottom fiber at service load is zero, required precom-
pression is 1.428 ksi.
Bottom fiber stress due to prestress after all losses:
where P
se
Then 1.428 =
and P
se
= 783.7 kips
Since losses are generally between 15 and 20%, assume 18% final prestress losses.
Allowable tensile stress in prestressing tendons immediately after prestress transfer is
the larger of 0.82f
py
= (0.82)(0.9f
pu
) = 0.738 f
pu
or 0.75f
pu
0.75 f
pu
= 0.75(270) = 202.5 ksi [AREMA Art. 17.6.5]
Number of strands required = = 30.8 strands
Try 32 strands at bottom, y
bs
= 2.5 in.
Plus 4 strands at mid-height, y
bs
= 15.25 in.
Plus 6 strands at top, y
bs
= 27.50 in.
Total No. of strands = 32 + 4 + 6 = 42 strands
Center of gravity of strands, y
bs
= = 7.29 in.
Eccentricity of strands, e
c
= y
b
- y
bs
= 15.25 - 7.29 = 7.96 in.
Total initial prestressing force before loss = 202.5(0.153)(42) = 1,301.3 kips
To determine effective prestress, f
se
, allowance for losses of prestress due to elastic
shortening of concrete, f
le
, creep of concrete, f
lc
, shrinkage of concrete, f
ls
, and relax-
ation of prestressing steel, f
lr
, will be calculated.
32 2 5 4 15 25 6 27 50
42
( . ) ( . ) ( . ) + +
783 7
1 0 18 0 75 270 0 153
.
( . )( . )( )( . )
P P
se se
1 452
12 75
11 248 ,
( . )
,
+
f
P
A
P e
S
b
se se c
b
+
f 1.428 ksi
b

+ +
12 159 1 146 0 1 033 0

11 248
( . . , . )
,
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.7 Estimate Required Prestressing Force /17.7.8 Determine Prestress Losses
SEPT 01
17.7.8
Determine
Prestress Losses
[AREMA Eq. 17-16]
where
f
cr
= stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement immediately after
transfer, due to total prestress force and dead load acting at time of transfer,
and is calculated as follows:
=
where
P
si
= pretension force after allowing for initial losses. Taken as 0.69 f
pu
f
cr
=
f
lc
= 12f
cr
- 7f
cds
[AREMA Eq. 17-18]
where
f
cds
= concrete stress at centroid of prestressing reinforcement, due to all dead
loads not included in calculation of f
cr
=
f
ls
= 12(1.177) - 7(0.081) = 13.6 ksi
Assume relative humidity, R = 70% (see also AREMA Fig. 17-1):
f
ls
= 17,000 - 150 R [AREMA Eq. 17-19]
= = 6.5 ksi
For pretensioning tendons with 270 ksi low-relaxation strand:
f
lr
= 5,000 - 0.10f
le
- 0.05(f
ls
+ f
lc
) [AREMA Eq. 17-21]
= - 0.10(8.6) - 0.05(6.5 + 13.6) = 3.1 ksi
5 000
1 000
,
,
17 000 150 70
1 000
,
,
( )
M e
I
0.081 ksi
SDL c

146 0 12 7 96
171 535
. ( )( . )
,
f ksi
e l

( )

28 000
3 834
1 177 8 6
,
,
. .
+
159 1 12 7 96
171 535
. ( )( . )
,
0.824 0.442 0.089 1.177 ksi
42 0 69 0 153 270
1 452
42 0 69 0 153 270 7 96
171 535
2
( . )( . )( )
,
( . )( . )( )( . )
,
+
P
A
P e
I
M e
I
si si c
2
g c
+
f
E
E
f
e
s
ci
cr l

RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.8.1 Prestress Losses at Service Loads/
17.7.8.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel
SEPT 01
17.7.8.1.2
Creep of Concrete
17.7.8.1.3
Shrinkage of Concrete
17.7.8.1.4
Relaxation of
Prestressing Steel
17.7.8.1
Prestress Losses at
Service Loads
17.7.8.1.1
Elastic Shortening
of Concrete
Total prestress losses = 8.6 + 13.6 + 6.5 + 3.1 = 31.8 ksi
Final prestressing force, P
se
= (202.5 - 31.8)(0.153)(42) = 1,096.9 kips
Percentage prestress losses =
Losses due to elastic shortening, f
le
= 8.6 ksi
Total initial prestress losses = 8.6 ksi
Initial prestress force after loss, P
si
= (202.5 - 8.6)(0.153)(42) = 1,246.0 kips
Percentage initial prestress losses = = 4.25%
Stresses need to be checked at several locations along the beam to ensure that the
design satisfies permissible stresses at all locations at both transfer and service loads.
For this design example, stresses will be checked at midspan and at the ends, which
will govern straight strand designs without debonding.
t
:
M
g
is based on overall length of 30 ft
M
g
= wL
2
/8 = 1.513(30)
2
/8 = 170.2 ft-kips
f
t
=
= 0.858 - 0.882 + 0.182 = 0.158 ksi
Compare with permissible values:
0.190 ksi < 0.158 ksi < 2.400 ksi O.K.
Compute concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam f
b
:
=
= 0.858 + 0.882 - 0.182 = 1.558 ksi
Compare with permissible values:
-0.190 ksi < 1.558 ksi < 2.400 ksi O.K.
1 246
1 452
1 246 7 96
11 248
170 2 12
11 248
,
,
( , )( . )
,
. ( )
,
+
f
P
A
P e
S
M
S
b
si si c
b
g
b
+
1 246
1 452
1 246 7 96
11 248
170 2 12
11 248
,
,
( , )( . )
,
. ( )
,
+
f
P
A
P e
S
M
S
t
si si c
t
g
t
+
8 6
202 5
100
.
.
j
(
,
\
,
(
31 8
202 5
100 15 7
.
.
. %
j
(
,
\
,
(

RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.8.1.5 Total Losses at Service Loads/17.7.9.1 Stresses at Transfer at Midspan
SEPT 01
17.7.9
Concrete Stresses
17.7.9.1
at Midspan
17.7.8.1.5
Total Losses at Service Loads
17.7.8.2
Total Losses at Service Loads
Stresses should be checked at the end of the transfer length when designing a pre-
stressed beam (see Section 9.1.8.2 for an example of this check). However, in this
design example, a standard beam design is being checked. Therefore it is conserva-
tive to check the stresses at the very end of the member, assuming the full prestress
force is effective at that location. Since the strands are straight and all strands are
bonded for the full length of the beam, the concrete stresses at the end are simply the
stresses at midspan without the stress due to dead load moment.
f
t
= -0.023 ksi, which is within permissible values shown above O.K.
f
b
= 1.740 ksi, which is within permissible values shown above O.K.
t
:
=
= 0.755 - 0.776 + 1.428 = 1.407 ksi < 2.800 ksi O.K.
b
:
=
= 0.755 + 0.776 - 1.428 = 0.103 ksi > 0.0 ksi O.K.
The prestress force is at its maximum value at release and service loads do not affect
stresses at the end of the beam. Therefore, stresses at release will govern at the end of
the beam, so there is no need to check stresses at the end at service loads.
In lieu of a more accurate determination of stress in pretensioning strands at nominal
strength, f
ps
, based on strain compatibility, the following approximate value of f
ps
is
used:
, provided f
se
is greater than 0.5 f
pu
[AREMA Eq. 17-2]
where
f
se
= effective stress in pretensioning steel after losses
= 202.5 - 31.8 = 170.7 ksi > 0.5(270) = 135.0 ksi O.K.
f f
f
f
ps pu p
pu
c

j
(
,
\
,
(
1 0 5 .
1 096 9
1 452
1 096 9 7 96
11 248
1 338 1 12
11 248
, .
,
( , . )( . )
,
, . ( )
,
+
f
P
A
P e
S
M M M
S
b
se se c
b
g SDL LL I
b
+
+ +
+
1 096 9
1 452
1 096 9 7 96
11 248
1 338 1 12
11 248
, .
,
( , . )( . )
,
, . ( )
,
+
f
P
A
P e
S
M M M
S
t
se se c
t
g SDL LL I
t
+
+ +
+
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.9.2 Stresses at Transfer at End/
17.7.10.1 Stress in Strands at Flexural Strength
SEPT 01
17.7.10
Flexural Strength
17.7.10.1
Stress in Strands at
Flexural Strength
17.7.9.3
Stresses at Service
Load at Midspan
17.7.9.4
Stresses at Service
Load at End
17.7.9.2
Stresses at
Transfer at End
r
p
=
where
A
ps
= total area of pretensioning steel in tension zone
= 36 (0.153) = 5.508 in.
2
b = effective flange width = 7(12) = 84.0 in.
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of pretensioning force
= 30.5 - = 26.58 in.
Note: In many cases, strands near or above midheight are neglected when com-
puting d for calculating the average stress in strands at flexural strength. This is
because, at the flexural strength, the strands located higher in the cross-section will
not reach a strain (and stress) as high as the bottom strands. However, for this stan-
dard beam design, the strands at midheight have been included as shown above. A
strain compatibility analysis (described in Sections 8.2.2.5 and 8.2.2.6) can be used
to compute the strain and stress in the strands at midheight. Such an analysis for
this beam indicates that the strands at midheight would reach a stress of approxi-
mately 251 ksi, which is reasonable when compared with the stress, f
ps
, computed
below. The same analysis indicates that the strands in the bottom row would reach
a stress of nearly 260 ksi. Therefore, in this case, incorporating the strands at mid-
height has provided a reasonable result. If the strands at midheight are neglected,
the strength of the section at midspan would prove to be inadequate.
r
p
=
f
ps
=
Assuming a rectangular section, compute the reinforcement ratio as:
O.K. [AREMA Art. 17.5.4]
When the reinforcement ratio exceeds 0.30, design moment strength shall not be
taken greater than the moment strength based on the compression portion of the
moment couple.
Assuming beam acts as a rectangular section::
fM
n
= f [AREMA Eq. 17-3]
= f [AREMA Eq. 17-4]
A f d
a
2
ps ps

j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
]
]
]
A f d
f
f
ps ps p
ps
c
1 0 6
j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
p
ps
c
f
f
0.0907 0.30
<
0 00247 257 1
7 0
. ( . )
.
270 1 0 5 0 00247
270
7 0
j
(
,
\
,
(
( . )( . )
.
257.1 ksi
A
bd
0.00247
ps

5 508
84 26 58
.
( . )
32 2 5 4 15 25
36
( . ) ( . ) +
A
bd
ps
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.10.1 Stress in Strands at Flexural Strength/17.7.10.3 Design Moment Strength
SEPT 01
17.7.10.2
Limits for Reinforcement
17.7.10.3
Design Moment Strength
where
M
n
f = strength reduction factor for flexure = 0.95 [AREMA Art.17.5.2]
a = [AREMA Art.17.5.4d]
Average depth of top flange = 6.5 in. > 2.83 in.
Therefore, rectangular section assumption is appropriate.
Using AREMA Eq. 17-4:
fM
n
= 0.95 = 2,821.2 ft-kips
Factored moment due to dead and live loads from Table 17.7.5.4-1 = 2,837.5 ft-kips.
Percentage over = = 0.58% (insignificant) say ok.
The total amount of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement should be ade-
quate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the
cracking moment, M
cr
: fM
n
1.2M
cr
. The calculation (not shown here but similar
to the calculation in Section 9.1.10.2) yields 2,821.2 ft-kips > 2,427.3 ft-kips O.K.
Final strand locations are shown in Figure 17.7.10.5-1
( , . , . )
, .
( )
2 837 5 2 821 2
2 821 2
100
5 508 257 1 26 58
2 83
2
1
12
. ( . ) .
.
j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
]
]
]
A f
f b
in.
ps ps
c
0 85
5 508 257 1
0 85 7 84
2 83
.
. ( . )
. ( )( )
.

RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.10.3Design Moment Strength/17.7.10.5 Final Strand Pattern
SEPT 01
17.7.10.5
Final Strand Pattern
17.7.10.4
Figure 17.7.10.5-1
Strand Pattern
17 Spaces @ 2" 2'-10"
2'-1"
2 1/2"
6 Strands
4 Strands
32 Strands
4 1/2"
3'-3 3/4"
1'-3 1/4"
4" 10" 1'-8" 1'-4"
7'-0"
1'-8" 10" 4"
2 1/2"
2 1/2"
3" 10" 17 Spaces @ 2" 2'-10"
Void Drains Drip
Note: Curbs and warkway not shown
3"
2'-1"
3 1/2"
Prestressed concrete members subjected to shear are designed so that
V
u
f (V
c
+ V
s
) [AREMA Eq. 17-8]
where
V
u
= factored shear force at section considered
V
c
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete
V
s
= nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement
f = strength reduction factor for shear = 0.90 [AREMA Art. 17.5.2]
Per the AREMA Manual, Article 17.5.9b, the critical section for shear is located at a
distance h/2 from face of support. In this design example, the critical section for shear
is calculated from the centerline of the bearings since the pads are not rigid and have
the potential to rotate.
h/2 = 30.5/2 = 15.25 in. = 1.27 ft
(from Table 17.7.5.4-1)
The shear strength provided by concrete, V
c
, can be calculated by using AREMA
Manual Eq. 17-9, provided that the effective prestress force is not less than 40% of
the total tensile strength provided by the flexural reinforcement.
V
c
= [AREMA Eq. 17-9]
where
M
u
= factored bending moment at the section
= 1.4 = 525.4 ft-kips
b
w
= total web width = 5 + 8.5 + 5 = 18.5 in.
d = 26.58 in. > 0.8h = (0.8)(30.5) = 24.4 in.
Therefore, use d = 26.58 in.
[AREMA Art. 17.5.9c]
However, the maximum value of V
c
is limited to:
< V
c
= 368.9 NO GOOD
AREMA Manual Art. 17.5.9c allows higher values of V
c
if a more detailed calculation
is made. According to this method, V
c
is the lesser of V
ci
or V
cw
.
5 5 7 000 18 5 26 58 1 000 205 7 f b d kips
c w
= = , ( . )( . ) / , .
V 368.9 kips
c
= +
( )
= 0 6 7 000 700 1 0 18 5 26 58 1 000 . , ( . ) . ( . ) / ,
V d
M
1.71 1.0, use 1.0
u
u
= = >
405 4 26 58
525 4 12
. ( . )
. ( )
26 6 24 5
5
3
194 5 . . . + +
( )
0 6 700 . f
V d
M
b d
c
u
u
w
V kips
u
= 405 4 .
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.11 Shear Design /17.7.11.2.1 Simplified Approach
SEPT 01
17.7.11
Shear Design
17.7.11.1
Required Shear Strength
17.7.11.2
Shear Strength Provided
by Concrete
17.7.11.2.1
Simplified Approach
where
V
ci
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking
results from combined shear and moment
V
cw
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking
results from excessive principal tensile stress in web
V
ci
= [AREMA Eq. 17-10]
but not less than
where
V
D
= shear at section due to service dead load = V
g
+ V
SDL
= 20.0 + 18.4
= 38.4 kips
M
cr
= moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads
=
where
f
pe
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress force only, at the
extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied
loads
f
pe
=
= = 0.755 + 0.776 = 1.531 ksi
f
d
= stress due to unfactored dead load at extreme fiber of section where ten-
sile stress is caused by externally applied loads
f
d
=
M
cr
=
V
i
= factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring
max
= V
u
- V
D
= 405.4 - 38.4 = 367.0 kips
M
max
= maximum factored moment at the section due to externally applied
loads = M
u
- M
g
- M
SDL
= 525.4 - 26.6 - 24.5 = 474.3 ft-kips
V
ci
= [AREMA Eq. 17-10]
= = 1,497.7 kips
0 6
7 000
1 000
18 5 26 58 38 4
367 0 1 854 0
474 3
.
,
,
( . )( . ) .
. ( , . )
.
+ +
0 6 . f b d V
VM
M
c w D
i cr
max
+ +
6 7 000
1 000
1 531 0 055
11 248
12
,
,
. .
,
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
1,854.0 ft-kips
M M
S
0.055 ksi
g SDL
b
+
+
( )
26 6 24 5 12
11 248
. .
,
1 096 9
1 452
1 096 9 7 96
11 248
, .
,
, . ( . )
,
+
P
A
P e
S
se se c
b
+
S f f f
b c pe d
6

+
j
(
\
,
1 7 . f b d
c w
0 6 . f b d V
VM
M
c w D
i cr
max
+ +
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.11.2.1 Simplified Approach/17.7.11.2.2 Calculate V
ci
SEPT 01
17.7.11.2.2
Calculate V
ci
but not less than
Therefore,
V
ci
= 1,497.7 kips
V
cw
= [AREMA Eq. 17-11]
where
f
pc
= compressive stress in the concrete (after allowance for all pretension losses)
at the centroid of cross section resisting externally applied loads
V
p
= vertical component of effective prestress force at section
= 0 for straight strands.
Transfer length of strands = 50 strand diameters = 50(0.5) = 25 in. from end of beam.
Since the distance h/2 = 15.25 in. is closer to end of member than the end of the
transfer length of the prestressing strands, a reduced pretensioning force will be con-
sidered when computing V
cw
. [AREMA Art. 17.5.9c(2)(c)]
Effective prestress force at distance h/2 from centerline of the bearing,
P
se
=
f
pc
=
Therefore,
V
cw
=
V
c
= lesser of V
ci
and V
cw
V
c
= V
cw
= 238.7 kips
[AREMA Eq. 17-8]
Required stirrup spacing is calculated as follows:
[AREMA Eq. 17-14]
where A
v
= area of shear reinforcement within a spacing, s
V
A f d
s
s
v y
V
V
V 211.7 kips
s
u
c

405 4
0 9
238 7
.
.
.
3 5 7 000
1 000
0 3 0 642 18 5 26 58 0
. ,
,
. ( . ) ( . )( . ) +
j
(
,
\
,
(
+ 238.7 kips
932 4
1 452
.
,
0.642 ksi
15 25 6 00
25
1 096 9
. .
( , . )
+
( )
932.4 kips
3 5 0 3 . . f f b d V
c pc w p
+
j
(
\
,
+
1 7 1 7
7 000
1 000
18 5 26 58 69 9 . .
,
,
( . )( . ) . f b d kips
c w

RAILROAD BRIDGES
ci
/17.7.11.3.2 Determine Stirrup Spacing
SEPT 01
17.7.11.2.3
Calculate V
cw
17.7.11.2.4
Calculate V
c
17.7.11.3
Calculate V
s
and
Shear Reinforcement
17.7.11.3.1
Calculate V
s
17.7.11.3.2
Determine Stirrup Spacing
Try two closed stirrups, which provides (4) # 4 bars,
A
v
= 4(0.20) in.
2
= 0.80 in.
2
Stirrups are provided at 4 in. spacing to satisfy the minimum flexural requirements of
the top slab of the box beam. Calculations for the top slab flexural reinforcement are
not provided in this example.
Spacing required, s = O.K.
Use # 4 stirrups (4 legs) at 4-in. centers.
A
v
provided = 4(0.20) = 0.80 in.
2
Shear strength provided by stirrups,
V
s
= O.K.
Allowable maximum shear strength provided by stirrups is:
[AREMA Art. 17.5.9d(5)]
= 329.1 kips > V
s
O.K.
Check for maximum spacing of stirrups
[AREMA Art. 17.5.9d(3)]
Therefore, maximum spacing is lesser of 3/8h = 3/8(30.5) = 11.4 in. or 12 in.
Provide # 4 stirrups (4 legs) at 4-in. centers < 11.4 in. O.K.
Calculations for shear at other sections along the beam are not provided in this example.
For shear reinforcement details, see Figures 17.7.4-1 and 17.7.11.3.4-1
4 4
7 000
1 000
18 5 26 58 f b d 164.6 kips V
c w s
<
,
,
( . )( . )
8 8 7 000 18 5 26 58 1 000 f b d
c w
, ( . )( . ) / ,
0 80 60 26 58
4
. ( )( . )
> 319.0 210.4 kips
A f d
V
6.1 in. in.
v y
s
>
0 80 60 26 58
210 4
4
. ( )( . )
.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.11.3.2 Determine Stirrup Spacing/17.7.11.3.4Check Stirrup Spacing Limits
SEPT 01
17.7.11.3.4
Check Stirrup
Spacing Limits
17.7.11.3.3
Check V
s
Limit
Figure 17.7.11.3.4-1
Elevation Showing
Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
shown for clarity
#6 Bars at web not
Note:
#6 Bars
#4 Stirrups
#4 Bar
(4) #4 End
bars
(Typ.)
#6 Bars
Girder
(Symm.)
2 1/4"
Spacing @ About 6" Centers 11 Spaces @ 3 1/4"
L
C
4" 3'-8"
Camber and deflection calculations are required to determine the bridge seat eleva-
tions and maintain the minimum ballast depth. They are also required for the design
of the elastomeric bearings.
= - 0.223 in.
= 0.037 in.
= 0.025 in
According to PCI Design Handbook - 5th Edition, Table 4.8.2, long-term camber and
deflection of prestressed concrete members can be calculated by an approximate method
using multipliers. Calculations are shown in Table 17.7.12.4-1.
Live load deflection is generally calculated using influence lines. At this point, use of
a computer program becomes very useful. However, for short span bridges, the
designer can quickly calculate an approximate value for deflection by using the equiv-
alent uniform load. The equivalent uniform live load, w
equ
, for a simply supported
beam can be derived from the maximum moment at midspan,
M
LL + I
=
w
equ
=
D =
Maximum allowable deflection =
= [AREMA Art. 17.6.7a]
29 12
640
( )
0.544 in. > 0.180 in. O.K.
L
640
5 0 819 29 12
384 5 072 171 535
4
( . ) ( )
( , )( , )
( )
0.180 in.
8M
L
0.819 kip/in.
LL I
2
+
( )

8 1 033 0 12
29 12
2
( , . )( )
( )
w L
8
equ
2

( ) 5wL
384E I
4
c
5 1 389 12 29 12
384 5 072 171 535
4
( . / ) ( )
( )( , )( , )

( ) 5wL
384E I
4
ci
5 1 513 12 29 12
384 3 834 171 535
4
( . / ) ( )
( )( , )( , )

( ) P e L
8E I
si c
2
ci
1 219 7 7 96 29 12
8 3 834 171 535
2
, . ( . ) ( )
( , )( , )
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.7.12 Deflections/17.7.12.5 Deflection Due to Live Load
SEPT 01
17.7.12
Deflections
17.7.12.1
Camber Due to
Prestressing at Transfer
17.7.12.2
Deflection Due to Beam
Self-Weight at Transfer
17.7.12.3
Deflection Due to
17.7.12.5
Deflection Due to Live Load
17.7.12.4
Long-Term Deflection
Table 17.7.12.4-1
Calculated Deflection, in.
At Release
(a)
Multiplier
(b)
Erection
(c) (a)(b)
Multiplier
(d)
Final
(e) (a)(d)
Prestress 0.223 1.80 0.401 2.45 0.546
Self-Weight + 0.037 1.85 + 0.068 2.70 + 0.100
Dead Load N/A + 0.025 3.00 + 0.075*
Total 0.186 0.308 0.371
* This is the result of multiplying the dead load deflection at erection (c) by multiplier (d)

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, 2000 Edition, American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association, Landover, MD, 2000
Marianos, W. N., Jr., Railroad Use of Precast Concrete Bridge Structures, ACI
Concrete International, V. 13, No. 9, September 1991, pp. 30-35
PCI Design Handbood, Fifth Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
IL, 1999, 690 pp.
RAILROAD BRIDGES
17.8 References
DEC 00
17.8
REFERENCES
OCT 97
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX A
CORRESPONDING CORRESPONDING
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS
A area of cross section of stringer or beam A (4.6.2.2.1)
A constant
A maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface A (5.10.9.7.2)
that is similar to the loaded area and concentric with it
and does not overlap similar areas for adjacent anchorage
devices
A effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexural A (5.7.3.4) A (8.16.8.4)
tension reinforcement and having the same centroid as
that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars or
wires; when the flexural reinforcement consists of several
bar sizes or wires, the number of bars or wires shall be
computed as the total area of reinforcement divided by
the area of the largest bar or wire used
A
b
net area of a bearing plate A
b
(5.10.9.7.2)
A
c
area of core of spirally reinforced compression member A
c
(5.7.4.6) A
c
(8.18.2.2.2)
measured to the outside diameter of the spiral
A
c
total area of the composite section
A
c
area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member
A
cs
cross-sectional area of a concrete strut in strut-and-tie A
cs
(5.6.3.3.1)
model
A
cv
area of concrete section resisting shear transfer A
cv
(5.8.4.1) A
cv
(8.16.6.4.5)
A
g
gross area of section A
g
(5.5.4.2.1) A
g
(8.1.2)
A
g
gross area of bearing plate A
g
(5.10.9.7.2)
A
h
area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension A
h
(5.13.2.4.1) A
h
(8.15.5.8,
reinforcement 8.16.6.8)
A
o
area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam C4.6.2.2.1
A
ps
, A
s
*
area of prestressing steel A
ps
(5.5.4.2.1) A
s
*
(9.17)
A
PT
transverse post-tensioning reinforcement
A
s
area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement A
s
(5.5.4.2.1) A
s
(9.7, 9.19)
A
s
total area of vertical reinforcement located within the
distance (h/5) from the end of the beam
A
s
area of compression reinforcement A

s
(5.7.3.1.1) A
s
(9.19)
A
sf
steel area required to develop the compressive strength of A
sf
(9.17)
the overhanging portions of the flange
A
sk
area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face A
sk
(5.7.3.4) A
sk
(8.17.2.1.3)
NOTATION
4734 Bridge Manual APPENDIX A 6/30/03 3:37 PM Page 1
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
A
sr
steel area required to develop the compressive strength of A
sr
(9.17-9.19)
the web of a flanged section
A
ss
area of reinforcement in an assumed strut of a A
ss
(5.6.3.3.4)
strut-and-tie model
A
st
total area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement A
st
(5.6.3.4.1) A
st
(8.16.4.1.2,
8.16.4.2.1)
A
t
area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement A
t
(5.8.3.6.2)
A
v
area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s A
v
(5.8.2.5) A
v
(9.20)
A
vh
area of web reinforcement required for horizontal shear
A
vf
area of shear-friction reinforcement A
vf
(5.8.4.1) A
vf
(8.15.5.4.3)
A
vf
total area of reinforcement, including flexural A
vf
(5.10.11.4.4)
reinforcement
A
v-min
a distance from the end of beam to drape point
a depth of equivalent rectangular stress block a (5.7.2.2) a (8.16.2.7, 9.17.2)
a lateral dimension of the anchorage device measured a (5.10.9.6.2)
a
f
distance between concentrated load and face of support a
f
(5.13.2.5.1)
a
v
shear span, distance between concentrated load and face a
v
(5.13.2.4.1) a
v
(8.15.5.8,
of support 8.16.6.8)
B constant
B buoyancy B (3.22)
BR vehicular braking force BR (3.3.2)
b the lateral dimension of the anchorage device measured b (5.10.9.6.2)
parallel to the smaller dimension of the cross-section
b width of bottom flange of the beam
b effective flange width
b width of beam b (4.6.2.2.1)
b width of compression face of member b (5.7.3.1.1) b (8.1.2)
b width of pier or diameter of pile b (3.18.2.2.4)
b
width of web of a flanged member b
(9.1.2)
b
v
, b
e
effective web width of the precast beam b
v
(5.8.2.7)
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
b
v
width of cross section at the contact surface being b
v
(5.8.4.1) b
v
(9.20)
investigated for horizontal shear
b
w
width of a web of a flanged member b
w
(5.7.3.1.1) b
w
(8.15.5.1.1)
b
w
width of web adjusted for the presence of ducts b
w
( 5.8.2.5)
C stiffness parameter = K(W/L) C (3.23.4.3)
C centrifugal force in percent of live load C (3.10.1)
C
a
creep coefficient for deflection at time of erection due to
loads applied at release
C
u
ultimate creep coefficient
C
u
ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of

application of the superimposed dead loads
CE vehicular centrifugal force CE (3.3.2)
CF centrifugal force CF (3.22)
CR creep CR (3.3.2)
CT vehicular collision force CT (3.3.2)
CV vessel collision force CV (3.3.2)
C (t,t
o
) creep coefficient at a concrete age of t days
c cohesion factor c (5.8.4.1)
c vehicular braking force
c distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis c (5.7.2.2) c (8.16.2.7)
D parameter used in determination of load fraction of D (3.23.4.3)
wheel load
D prestressing steel elongation
D a constant that varies with bridge type and geometry
D width of distribution per lane
D dead load D (3.3.2) D (3.22)
DC dead load of structural components and nonstructural DC (5.14.2.3.2)
attachments
DD downdrag DD (3.3.2)
D.F. fraction of wheel load applied to beam D.F. (3.28.1)
DFD distribution factor for deflection
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
DFM distribution factor for bending moment
DF
m
live load distribution factor for moment
DFV distribution factor for shear force
DL contributing dead load DL (3.1)
DW dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities DW (3.3.2,
5.14.2.3.2)
d distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the d (9.1.2)
pretensioning force
d depth of beam or stringer d (4.6.2.2.1)
d precast beam depth
d distance from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of the d (9.1.2)
reinforcing but not less than 0.8h . In negative moment
section, the reinforcement is assumed to be located at the
mid-height of the slab. For computing horizontal shear
strength of composite members, d should be the distance
from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement for entire composite section.
d
b
nominal diameter of a reinforcing bar or wire d
b
(5.10.2.1) d
b
(8.1.2)
d
b
nominal diameter of prestressing steel d
b
(5.10.2.1) D (9.17, 9.27)
d
c
thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme d
c
(5.7.3.4) d
c
(8.16.8.4)
tension fiber to center of bar or wire located closest thereto
d
e
distance between the center of exterior beam and interior d
e
(4.6.2.2.1)
edge of curb or traffic barrier
d
e
effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the d
e
(5.7.3.3.1)
centroid of the tensile force in the tensile reinforcement
d
ext
depth of the extreme steel layer from extreme compression
fiber
d
i
depth of steel layer from extreme compression fiber
d
p
distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid d
p
(5.7.3.1.1)
of the prestressing tendons
d
s
distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid d
s
(5.7.3.2.2) d
t
(9.7, 9.17-9.19)
of the non-prestressed tensile reinforcement
d
v
effective shear depth d
v
(5.8.2.7)
d
s
distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of d

s
(5.7.3.2.2) d
(8.1.2)
compression reinforcement
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
d" distance from centroid of gross section, neglecting the d" (8.1.2)
reinforcement, to centroid of tension reinforcement
E earth pressure
E width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed E (3.24.3)
E
b
the modulus of elasticity of the bearing plate material E
b
(5.10.9.7.2)
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete E
c
(5.4.2.4) E
c
(3.26.3, 8.7.1)
E
ci
modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer E
ci
(5.9.5.2.3a)
E
eff
effective modulus of elasticity E
eff
(C5.14.2.3.6)
E
p
, E
s
modulus of elasticity of pretensioning reinforcement E
p
(5.4.4.2) E
s
(9.16.2.1.2)
E
s
modulus of elasticity of non-pretensioned reinforcement E
s
(5.4.3.2) E
s
(3.26.3, 8.7.2)
E
c
*
age adjusted effective modulus of concrete for a gradually
applied load at the time of release of prestressing
EH horizontal earth pressure load EH (3.3.2)
EQ earthquake EQ (3.3.2) EQ (3.22.1)
EQ equivalent static horizontal force applied at the center EQ (3.1)
of gravity of the structure
ES earth surcharge load ES (3.3.2)
EV vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill EV (3.3.2)
e eccentricity of the strands at h/2
e eccentricity of strands at transfer length
e correction factor for distribution e (4.6.2.2.1)
e eccentricity of a lane from the center of gravity of the e (4.6.2.2.2d)
pattern of girders
e the eccentricity of the anchorage device or group of e (5.10.9.6.3)
devices, with respect to the centroid of the cross-section,
always taken as positive
e
difference between eccentricity of pretensioning steel at

midspan and end span
e
c
eccentricity of the strand at the midspan
e
e
eccentricity of pretensioning force at end of beam
e
g
distance between the centers of gravity of the basic e
g
(4.6.2.2.1)
beam and deck
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
e
p
eccentricity of the prestressing strands with respect to
the centroid of the section
F
b
allowable tensile stress in the precompressed tensile
zone at service loads
F
b
allowable bending stress F
b
(2.7.4.2)
F
cj
force in concrete for the j th component
FR friction FR (3.3.2)
F
pi
total force in strands before release
F
reduction factor F
(5.8.3.4.2)
f stress
f
D
sum of dead load bending stresses
f
(L+I)
f
b
f
b
average bearing stress in concrete on loaded area f
b
(8.15.2.1.3,
8.16.7.1)
f
c
extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads f
c
(8.15.2.1.1)
f
c
specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days, f

c
(5.4.2.1) f
c
(8.1.2)
unless another age is specified
f
ca
concrete compressive stress ahead of the anchorage devices f
ca
(5.10.9.6.2)
f
cds
average concrete compressive stress at the c.g. of the f
cds
(9.16)
prestressing steel under full dead load
f
cgp
concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning f
cgp
(5.9.5.2.3a) f
cir
(9.16)
tendons, due to pretensioning force at transfer and the
self-weight of the member at the section of maximum
positive moment
f
ci
compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress f

ci
(5.9.1.2) f
ci
(9.15)
f
ct
average splitting tensile strength of lightweight f
ct
(5.8.2.2) f
ct
(9.1.2)
aggregate concrete
(f
c
)t compressive strength of concrete at t days

f
cu
the limiting concrete compressive stress for design by f
cu
(5.6.3.3.1)
strut-and-tie model
f
d
stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of f
d
(9.20)
section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
f
f
fatigue stress range in reinforcement f
f
(5.5.3.2) f
f
(8.16.8.3)
f
min
algebraic minimum stress level in reinforcement f
min
(5.5.3.2) f
min
(8.16.8.3)
f
n
nominal concrete bearing stress f
n
(5.10.9.7.2)
f
pb
compressive stress at bottom fiber of the beam due to
prestress force
f
pc
compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all f
pc
(C5.6.3.5) f
pc
(9.20)
prestress losses) at centroid of cross section resisting
externally applied loads or at junction of web and flange
when the centroid lies within the flange (In a composite
member, f
pc
is resultant compressive stress at centroid of
composite section, or at junction of web and flange when
the centroid lies within the flange, due to both prestress
and moments resisted by precast member acting alone.)
f
pe
effective prestress after losses f
pe
(5.6.3.4.1) f
se
f
pe
compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress f
pe
(9.20)
forces only (after allowance for all prestress losses) at
f
pi
initial stress immediately before transfer
f
pj
stress in the prestressing steel at jacking f
pj
(5.9.3)
f
po
stress in the prestressing steel when the stress in the f
po
(5.8.3.4.2)
surrounding concrete is 0.0
f
ps
average stress in prestressing steel at the time for which the f
ps
(C5.6.3.3.3)
nominal resistance of member is required
f
pt
stress in prestressing steel immediately after transfer f
pt
(5.9.3)
f
pu
, f
s
ultimate strength of prestressing steel f

pu
(5.4.4.1) f
s
(9.15, 9.17)
f
py
yield point stress of prestressing steel f
py
(5.4.4.1) f
y
*
(9.15)
f
r
the modulus of rupture of concrete f
r
(5.4.2.6) f
r
(9.18,
8.15.2.1.1)
f
s
allowable stress in steel, but not taken greater than 20 ksi
f
s
tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads f
s
(8.15.2.2)
f
sa
tensile stress in the reinforcement at service loads f
sa
(5.7.3.4)
f
se
effective final pretension stress
f
si
effective initial pretension stress
f
su
*
stress in prestressing tension steel at ultimate load f
su
*
NOTATION
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
f
t
extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at service loads f
t
(8.15.2.1.1)
f
t
concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the
non-composite section
f
tc
concrete stress at top fiber of the slab for the
composite section
f
tg
concrete stress at top fiber of the beam for the
composite section
f
y
specified yield strength of non-prestressed conventional f
y
(5.5.4.2.1), f
y
(8.1.2), f
y
reinforcement f
y
(5.7.3.1.1) (9.19), f
sy
(9.19,
9.20)
f
yh
specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement f
yh
(5.7.4.6)
g A factor used to multiply the total longitudinal response
of the bridge due to a single longitudinal line of wheel
loads in order to determine the maximum response of
a single girder
g distribution factor g (4.6.2.2.1)
H average annual ambient mean relative humidity, percent H (5.4.2.3.2) RH (9.16.2.1.1)
H height of wall H (A13.4.2)
h overall thickness or depth of a member h (5.8.2.7) h (9.20)
h
c
total height of composite section
h
f
compression flange thickness h
f
(5.7.3.1.1) h
f
(8.1.2)
I moment of inertia about the centroid of the I
g
(5.7.3.6.2) I (9.20)
I
c
moment of inertia of composite section
I
cr
moment of inertia of cracked section transformed I
cr
(5.7.3.6.2) I
cr
(8.13.3)
to concrete
I
e
effective moment of inertia I
e
(5.7.3.6.2) I
e
(8.13.3)
I
g
moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the I
g
(5.7.3.6.2) I
g
(3.23.4.3,
centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement 8.1.2, 9.20)
I
s
moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis I
s
(5.7.4.3) I
s
(8.1.2)
of member cross section
IC ice load
ICE ice pressure ICE (3.22.1)
IM vehicular dynamic load allowance IM (3.6.1.2.5) I (3.8.2)
NOTATION
OCT 97
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
J gross St. Venant torsional constant of the precast member J (4.6.2.2.1) J (3.23.4.3)
K effective length factor for compression members K (5.7.4.1) k (8.16.5.2.3)
K factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
K wobble friction coefficient K (5.9.5.2.2b) K (9.16)
K
g
longitudinal stiffness parameter K
g
(4.6.2.2.1) K (3.23.4)
K
r
factor used for calculating relaxation loss occurs prior
to transfer
k factor used in calculation of distribution factor for k (4.6.2.2)
multi-beam bridges
k factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning
steel for Strength Limit State
k live load distribution constant for spread box girders k (3.28.1)
k
c
product of applicable correction factors = k
la
(k
h
) (k
s
)
k
c
a factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio k
c
(5.4.2.3.2)
k
cp
correction factor for curing period
k
f
a factor for the effect of concrete strength k
f
(5.4.2.3.2)
k
h
correction factor for relative humidity k
h
(5.4.2.3.3)
k
la
correction factor for loading age
k
s
product of applicable correction factors = k
cp
(k
h
) (k
s
)
k
s
correction factor for size k
s
(5.4.2.3.3)
L length in feet of the span under consideration for positive L (3.8.2.1)
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans
for negative moment
L Overall beam length or design span
L span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams
L length of the loaded portion of span from section under
consideration to the far reaction when computing shear
due to truck loads.
L loaded length of span L (5.7.3.1.2) L (3.8.2)
LL, L live load LL (3.3.2) L (3.22)
L total length of prestressing steel from anchorage to anchorage
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
L
c
critical length of yield line failure pattern L
c
(A13.4.2)
LF longitudinal force from live load LF (3.22)
LS live load surcharge LS (3.3.2)
L
r
intrinsic relaxation of the strand
l
d
development length
l
t
transfer length
l
u
unsupported length of compression member l
u
(5.7.4.1) l
u
(8.16.5.2.1)
M
b
unfactored bending moment due to barriers weight
M
c
flexural resistance of cantilevered wall
M
CIP
unfactored bending moment due to cast-in-place
topping slab
M
const
unfactored bending moment due to construction load
M
cr
moment causing flexural cracking at section due to M
cr
(5.7.3.6.2) M
cr
(8.13.3, 9.20)
M
cr
*
cracking moment M
cr
*
(9.18)
M
D
M
d
M
d/nc
non-composite dead load moment M
d/nc
(9.18)
M
f
unfactored bending moment due to fatigue truck per beam
M
g
M
LL
unfactored bending moment due to lane load per beam
M
LL+I
unfactored bending moment due to live load + impact
M
LT
unfactored bending moment due to truck load with
dynamic allowance per beam
M
max
maximum factored moment at section due to externally M
max
(9.20)
applied loads
M
n
nominal flexural resistance M
n
(5.7.3.2.1) M
n
(9.1.2)
M
n/dc
M
r
factored flexural resistance of a section in bending M
r
(5.7.3.2.1)
M
service
total bending moment for service load combination
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
M
S
unfactored bending moment due to slab and haunch weights
M
SDL
unfactored bending moment due to super-imposed
dead loads
M
SIP
unfactored bending moment due to stay-in-place panel
M
u
factored moment at section M
n
M
u
(C5.6.3.1) M
u
(9.17, 9.18)
M
sw
moment at section of interest due to self-weight of the
member plus any permanent loads acting on the
member at time of release
M
ws
unfactored bending moment due to wearing surface
M
x
bending moment at a distance (x) from the support
m material parameter
m stress ratio = (f
y
/ 0.85 )
N group number N (3.22.1)
N
b
, N
B
number of beams N
b
(4.6.2.2.1) N
B
(3.28.1)
N
L
number of traffic lanes N
L
(4.6.2.2.1, N
L
(3.23.4)
3.6.1.1.1)
NL number of traffic lanes
N
u
applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile
N
uc
factored axial force normal to the cross section, occurring N
uc
(5.13.2.4.1) N
u
(8.16.6.2.2)
simultaneously with V
u
to be taken as positive for
tension, negative for compression; includes effects of
tension due to creep and shrinkage
n modular ratio of elasticity - E
s
/E
c
n (5.7.1) n (8.15.3.4)
P concentrated wheel load P (3.6.1.2.5)
P live load intensity P (C3.11.6.2)
P live load on sidewalk P (3.14.1.1)
P load on one rear wheel of truck P (3.24.3)
P Diaphragm weight concentrated at quarter points
P
c
permanent net compression force P
c
(5.8.4.1)
P
eff
effective post-tensioning force
P
i
total pretensioning force immediately after transfer
P
n
nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity P
n
(5.5.4.2.1) P
n
(8.1.2)
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
P
n
nominal axial resistance of strut or tie P
n
(5.6.3.2)
P
n
nominal bearing resistance P
n
(5.7.5)
P
nx
nominal axial load strength corresponding to M
nx
, with P
nx
(8.16.4.3)
bending considered in the direction of the x axis only
P
ny
nominal axial load strength corresponding to M
ny
, with P
ny
(8.16.4.3)
bending considered in the direction of the y axis only
P
nxy
nominal axial load strength with biaxial loading P
nxy
(8.16.4.3)
P
o
nominal axial load strength of a section at 0.0 eccentricity P
o
(5.7.4.5) P
o
(8.16.4.2.1)
P
pe
total pretensioning force after all losses
P
s
prestress force before initial losses
P
s
design jacking force
P
se
P
si
P
r
factored bursting resistance of pretensioned anchorage
zone provided by transverse reinforcement
P
T
factored axial resistance of strut or tie P
r
(5.6.3.2)
P
T
factored bursting resistance of pretensioned anchorage t P
r
(5.10.10.1)
zone provided by transverse reinforcemen
PL pedestrian live load PL (3.3.2)
p fraction of truck traffic in a single lane p (3.6.1.4.2)
p A
s
/bd, ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcement p (9.7, 9.17-9.19)

p
A
s
/bd, ratio of compression reinforcement p
(9.19)
p
*
A
s
*
/bd, ratio of prestressing steel p
*
(9.17, 9.19)
p
c
outside perimeter of the concrete section p
c
(5.8.2.1)
p
h
perimeter of the centerline of the closed transverse torsion p
h
(5.8.3.6.2)
reinforcement
Q first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being
considered
Q statical moment of cross sectional area, above or below the Q (9.20)
level being investigated for shear, about the centroid
Q total factored load Q (3.4.1)
q generalized load q (3.4.1)
NOTATION
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
q
i
specified loads q
i
(3.4.1)
R rib shortening R (3.22)
R
u
flexural resistance factor
R
w
total transverse resistance of the railing R
w
(A13.4.2)
r radius of gyration of cross section of a compression member r (5.7.4.1) r (8.16.5.2.2)
r/h ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse r/h (5.5.3.2)
deformations
S coefficient related to site conditions for use in determining S (3.10.5)
seismic loads)
S surface area of concrete exposed to drying
S shrinkage S (3.22)
S spacing of beams S (3.23.3, 3.28.1)
S effective span length of the deck slab S (3.25.1.3)
S width of precast member S (3.23.4.3)
S
b
noncomposite section modulus for the extreme fiber of S
b
(9.18)
section where the tensile stress is caused by externally
applied loads
S
bc
composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of
the precast beam, I
c
/y
bc
S
c
composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section S
c
(9.18)
where the tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads
S
t
section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the
S
tc
composite section modulus for top fiber of the slab,
I
c
/(n)(y
tc
)
S
tg
composite section modulus for top fiber of the precast
beam, I
c
/y
tg
S
u
ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete adjusted for
S(t,t
o
) shrinkage strain at a concrete age of t days
SE settlement SE (3.3.2)
SF stream flow pressure SF (3.22)
NOTATION
OCT 97
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
SH shrinkage SH (3.3.2, S (3.22)
5.14.2.3.2)
SR fatigue stress range
s spacing of shear reinforcement in direction parallel to the s(5.8.4.1) s (9.20)
longitudinal reinforcement
s effective deck span s (3.25.1.3)
s length of a side element s (C4.6.2.2.1)
s spacing of rows of ties s (5.8.4.1)
T collision force at deck slab level
T mean daily air temperature T (C3.9.2.2)
T
burst
the tensile force in the anchorage zone acting ahead of the T
burst
(5.10.9.6.3)
anchorage device and transverse to the tendon axis
T
cr
torsional cracking resistance T
cr
(5.8.2.1)
T
n
nominal torsion resistance T
n
(5.8.2.1)
T
T
factored torsional resistance provided by circulatory T
r
(5.8.2.1)
shear flow
T
u
factored torsional moment T
u
(C5.6.3.1)
TG temperature gradient TG (3.3.2, C4.6.6)
TU uniform temperature TU (3.3.2)
t thickness of web
t thickness of an element of the beam
t time in days t (5.4.2.3.2)
t average thickness of the flange of a flanged member t (9.17, 9.18)
t deck thickness t (3.25.1.3)
t
f
thickness of flange
t
i
age of concrete when load is initially applied t
i
(5.4.2.3.2)
t
la
loading ages in days
t
s
depth of concrete slab t
s
(4.6.2.2.1)
t
o
age of concrete in days at the end of the initial curing period
V design shear force at section V (8.15.5.1.1)
NOTATION
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
V variable spacing of truck axles V (3.7.6)
V volume of concrete
V
c
nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in V
c
(5.8.2.4) V
c
(9.20, 8.16.6.1)
the concrete
V
ci
nominal shear strength provided by concrete when V
ci
(9.20)
diagonal cracking results from combined shear and moment
V
cw
nominal shear strength provided by concrete when V
cw
(9.20)
diagonal cracking results from excessive principal tensile
stress in web
V
d
shear force at section due to unfactored dead load V
d
(9.20)
V
i
factored shear force at section due to externally applied V
i
(9.20)
loads occurring simultaneously with M
max
V
LL
unfactored shear force due to lane load per beam
V
LL+I
unfactored shear force due to live load plus impact
V
LT
unfactored shear force due to truck load with dynamic
allowance per beam
V
mu
ultimate shear force occurring simultaneously with M
u

V
n
nominal shear resistance of the section considered V
n
(5.8.2.1) V
n
(8.16.6.1)
V
nh
nominal horizontal shear strength V
nh
(8.16.6.5.3,
9.20)
V
p
component in the direction of the applied shear of the V
p
(C5.8.2.3) V
p
(9.20)
effective pretensioning force, positive if resisting the
applied shear
V
s
shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement V
s
(5.8.3.3) V
s
(8.16.6.1, 9.20)
V
T
factored shear resistance V
r
(5.8.2.1)
V
u
factored shear force at section V
u
(C5.6.3.1) V
u
(8.16.6.1, 9.20)
V
uh
factored horizontal shear force per unit length of the beam
V
x
shear force at a distance (x) from the support
v factored design shear stress v (5.8.3.4.2) v (8.15.5.1.1)
v permissible horizontal shear stress v (9.20)
v
c
permissible shear stress carried by concrete v
c
(8.15.5.2)
WS, W wind load on structure WS (3.3.2) W (3.22)
W overall width of bridge W (3.23.4.3)
NOTATION
OCT 97
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
W roadway width between curbs W (3.28.1)
WA water load and stream pressure WA (3.3.2)
WL wind load on live load WL (3.3.2) WL (3.22)
w width of clear roadway w (3.6.1.1.1)
w a uniformly distributed load
w
b
weight of barriers
w
c
unit weight of concrete w
c
(5.4.2.4) w
c
(8.1.2)
w
g
beam self-weight
w
s
slab and haunch weights
w
ws
weight of future wearing surface
X distance from load to point of support X (3.24.5.1)
X
ext
horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the X
ext
(C4.6.2.2.2d)
pattern of girders to the exterior girder
x the distance from the support to the section under question
x horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the x (C4.6.2.2.2d)
pattern of girders to each girder
x length of prestressing steel element from jack end to x (5.9.5.2.2b) L (9.16)
point x
y
b
distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the
y
bc
distance from the centroid of the composite section to
extreme bottom fiber of the precast beam
y
bs
distance from the center of gravity of strands to the
bottom fiber of the beam
y
t
distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the
y
t
distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting y
t
(5.7.3.6.2) y
t
(8.13.3, 9.20)
reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension
y
tc
extreme top fiber of the slab
y
tg
extreme top fiber of the precast beam
Z crack control parameter Z (5.7.3.4)
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
Z factor reflecting exposure conditions
angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to (5.8.3.3)
longitudinal axis
angle between inclined shear reinforcement and (5.8.3.3) (8.1.2)
longitudinal axis of member
factor used in calculating elastic shortening loss
total angular change of prestressing steel path from jacking (5.9.5.2.2b) (9.16)
end to a point under investigation
the angle of inclination of a tendon force, with respect to (5.10.9.6.3)
the centerline of the member
h
total horizontal angular change of prestressing steel path
h
(5.9.5.2.2b)
from jacking end to a point under investigation
s
angle between compressive strut and adjoining tension tie
s
(5.6.3.3.3)
v
total vertical angular change of prestressing steel path from
v
(5.9.5.2.2b)
jacking end to a point under investigation
factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to (5.8.3.3)
transmit tension (a value indicating concrete contribution)
factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on the shear (5.8.3.3)
capacity of concrete, as indicated by the ability of
diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension
b
ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total area of
b
(5.11.1.2.1)
b
(8.24.1.4.2)
reinforcement at the section
d
absolute value of ratio of maximum dead load moment to
d
(5.7.4.3)
d
(8.1.2)
maximum total load moment, always positive
D
load combination coefficient for dead loads
D
(3.22.1)
L
load combination coefficient for live loads
L
(3.22.1)
1
ratio of depth of equivalent compression zone to depth
1
(5.7.2.2)
1
(8.16.2.7,9.17-
9.19)
deflection
beam
deflection due to beam self-weight
b+ws
deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights
fcdp
change in concrete stress at c.g. of prestressing steel due
fcdp
(5.9.5.4.3)
to all dead loads, except dead load acting at the time the
prestressing force is applied
f
pA
loss in prestressing steel stress due to anchorage set f
pA
(5.9.5.1)
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
f
pCR
loss in prestressing steel stress due to creep f
pCR
(5.9.5.1) CR
c
(9.16)
f
pES
loss in prestressing steel stress due to elastic shortening f
pES
(5.9.5.1) ES (9.16)
f
pF
loss in prestressing steel stress due to friction f
pF
(5.9.5.1)
f
pi
total loss in pretensioning steel stress immediately
after transfer
f
pR
total loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel f
pR
(5.9.5.1) CR
s
(9.16)
f
pR1
loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel f
pR1
(5.9.5.4.4b)
at transfer
f
pR2
loss in prestressing steel stress due to relaxation of steel f
pR2
(5.9.5.4.4c)
after transfer
f
pSR
loss in prestressing steel stress due to shrinkage f
pSR
(5.9.5.1) SH (9.16)
f
pT
total loss in prestressing steel stress f
pT
(5.9.5.1)
f
s
total prestress loss, excluding friction f
s
(9.16)
D
deflection due to diaphragm weight
L
deflection due to specified live load
LL+I
deflection due to live load and impact
LL
deflection due to lane load
LT
deflection due to design truck load and impact
max
maximum allowable live load deflection
p
camber due pretension force at transfer
SDL
deflection due to barrier and wearing surface weights
slab
deflection due to the weights of slab and haunch
strain
cu
the failure strain of concrete in compression
cu
(5.7.3.1.2)
ps
strain in prestressing steel
s
tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tension tie
s
(5.6.3.3.3)
sh
concrete shrinkage strain at a given time
sh
(5.4.2.3.3)
si
strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective
pretension stress
x
longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the
x
(5.8.3.4.2)
flexural tension side of the member
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
1
principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to
1
(5.6.3.3.3)
factored loads
resistance factor (5.5.4.2.1) (8.16.1.2)
c
curvature at midspan
0
curvature at support
load factor (3.22)
*
factor for type of prestressing steel
*
(9.17)
= 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
= 0.40 for stress-relieved steel
= 0.55 for bars
i
load factor
i
(3.4.1)
p
load factor for permanent loading
p
(3.4.1)
variable load modifier which depends on ductility, (3.4.1)
redundancy and operational importance
a correction factor for closely spaced anchorages (5.10.9.6.2)
parameter used to determine friction coefficient and it is (5.8.4.2) (8.15.5.4,
related to unit weight for concrete 8.16.6.4)
coefficient of friction (5.8.4.1) (8.15.5.4.3)
Poisson's ratio (3.23.4.3)
skew angle
angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (5.8.3.3)
s
angle between compression strut and longitudinal axis of
s
(5.6.3.3.2)
the member in a shear truss model of a beam
tension reinforcement ratio - A
s
/b
w
d, A
s
/bd (8.1.2)
compression reinforcement ratio = A

s
/bd
(8.1.2)
*
, ratio of pretensioning reinforcement
*
(9.17, 9.19)
actual
actual ratio of nonpretensioned reinforcement
b
reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions
b
(8.16.3.1.1)
min
minimum ratio of tension reinforcement to effective
min
(5.7.3.3.2)
concrete area
v
ratio of area of vertical shear reinforcement to area of gross
v
(5.10.11.4.2)
concrete area of a horizontal section
A
bd
s
*
NOTATION
OCT 97
AASHTO AASHTO
LRFD STANDARD
a factor reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less
than the intrinsic relaxation
angle of harped pretensioned reinforcement
(t,ti)
creep coefficient - the ratio of the strain which exists t days
(t,ti)
(5.4.2.3.2)
after casting to the elastic strain caused when load p
i
is
applied t
i
days after casting
aging coefficient
NOTATION
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX B
AASHTO/PCI STANDARD PRODUCTS
AASHTO Solid and Voided Slab Beams
OCT 97
Dimensions (inches)
Type L H L1 L2 No. of Voids D1 D2
SI-36 36 12 - - 0 - -
SII-36 36 15 10.5 7.5 2 8 -
SIII-36 36 18 10.5 7.5 2 10 -
SIV-36 36 21 10.0 8.0 2 12 -
SI-48 48 12 - - 0 - -
SII-48 48 15 10.0 14.0 3 8 8
SIII-48 48 18 9.5 14.5 3 10 10
SIV-48 48 21 10.0 14.0 3 12 10
Properties
Type Area
in.
2
y
bottom
in.
Inertia
in.
4
Weight
kip/ft
Max. Span*
ft
SI-36 432 6.0 5,184 0.450 40
SII-36 439 7.5 9,725 0.457 47
SIII-36 491 9.0 16,514 0.511 52
SIV-36 530 10.5 25,747 0.552 57
SI-48 576 6.0 6,912 0.600 42
SII-48 569 7.5 12,897 0.593 49
SIII-48 628 9.0 21,855 0.654 53
SIV-48 703 10.5 34,517 0.732 57
*Based on simple span, HS-25 loading and f
c
= 7,000 psi. See chapter 6 for more information.
Typical Keyway Details Typical Longitudinal Section
L1 L2 L2 L1
L
H
C
L
D1 D2 D1
15" min.
6"
1/2"
1"
4"
3"
3/8"
3/4"
4612 Bridge Manual APPENDIX B 6/30/03 3:13 PM Page 1
OCT 97
48"
12"
23 @ 2.25"
23 @ 1.75"
15"
23 @ 2"
18"
23 @ 2.25"
21"
17 @ 2"
36"
12"
15"
17 @ 1.75"
18"
17 @ 2"
21"
17 @ 2.25"
Type SI-48 Type SI-36
Type SII-48 Type SII-36
Type SIII-48 Type SIII-36
Type IV-48 Type IV-36
AASHTO Box Beams
OCT 97
Dimensions (inches)
Type W H
BI-36 36 27
BI-48 48 27
BII-36 36 33
BII-48 48 33
BIII-36 36 39
BIII-48 48 39
BIV-36 36 42
BIV-48 48 42
Properties
Type Area
in.
2
y
bottom
in.
Inertia
in.
4
Weight
kip/ft
Max. Span*
ft
BI-36 560.5 13.35 50,334 0.584 92
BI-48 692.5 13.37 65,941 0.721 92
BII-36 620.5 16.29 85,153 0.646 107
BII-48 752.5 16.33 110,499 0.784 108
BIII-36 680.5 19.25 131,145 0.709 120
BIII-48 812.5 19.29 168,367 0.846 125
BIV-36 710.5 20.73 158,644 0.740 124
BIV-48 842.5 20.78 203,088 0.878 127
c

Typical Keyway Details
Typical Longitudinal Section
1/2"
1"
8"
6"
6"
3/8"
3/4"
18" min.
W
H
5.5"
5" 5"
5.5"
3"
3"
AASHTO Box Beams
AASHTO Box Beams
OCT 97
39"
42"
Type BI-48 Type BI-36
Type BII-48 Type BII-36
Type BIII-48 Type BIII-36
Type BIV-48 Type BIV-36
33"
33"
42"
27"
48"
2"
22 Spac. @ 2"
2"
27"
36"
2" 16 Spac. @ 2" 2"
33"
2"
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
1.75"
AASHTO Box Beams
AASHTO I-Beams
OCT 97
Dimensions (inches)
Type D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6
I 28.0
Type I-IV Type V-VI
4.0 0.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 12.0 16.0 6.0 3.0 0.0 5.0
II 36.0 6.0 0.0 3.0 6.0 6.0 12.0 18.0 6.0 3.0 0.0 6.0
III 45.0 7.0 0.0 4.5 7.5 7.0 16.0 22.0 7.0 4.5 0.0 7.5
IV 54.0 8.0 0.0 6.0 9.0 8.0 20.0 26.0 8.0 6.0 0.0 9.0
V 63.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 8.0 42.0 28.0 8.0 4.0 13.0 10.0
VI 72.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 8.0 42.0 28.0 8.0 4.0 13.0 10.0
Properties
Type Area
in.
2
y
bottom
in.
Inertia
in.
4
Weight
kip/ft
Maximum
Span,* ft
I 276 12.59 22,750 0.287 48
II 369 15.83 50,980 0.384 70
III 560 20.27 125,390 0.583 100
IV 789 24.73 260,730 0.822 120
V 1,013 31.96 521,180 1.055 145
VI 1,085 36.38 733,320 1.130 167
c

B2
D1
D5
D6
B3 B4
B6
B1
D4
D2
B1
B2
D1
D3
D4
D5
D6
D2
B3 B4 B5
B6
AASHTO I-Beams
AASHTO I-Beams
OCT 97
28"
36"
54"
Type I Type II
Type IV
Type V Type VI
72"
63"
45"
Type III
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
AASHTO I-Beams
OCT 97
Properties
Type H
in.
H
w
in.
Area
in.
2
Inertia
in.
4
y
bottom
in.
Weight
kip/ft
Maximum
Span,* ft
BT-54 54 36 659 268,077 27.63 0.686 114
BT-63 63 45 713 392,638 32.12 0.743 130
BT-72 72 54 767 545,894 36.60 0.799 146
c

2"
2"
3.5"
4.5"
6"
2'- 2"
10" 6"
1'-4"
2"
H
3'- 6"
H
w
OCT 97
72"
63"
BT-54
BT-63 BT-72
54"
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
Deck Bulb-Tees
OCT 97
Dimensions and Properties
H
in.
H
w
in.
W
in.
Area
in.
2
Inertia
in.
4
y
bottom
in.
Weight
kip/ft
Maximum
Span*
ft
35 15
48
72
96
677
823
967
101,540
116,071
126,353
21.12
23.04
24.37
0.75
0.91
1.07
100
78
65
53 33
48
72
96
785
931
1,075
294,350
335,679
365,827
31.71
34.56
36.63
0.87
1.03
1.19
145
121
105
65 45
48
72
96
857
1,003
1,147
490,755
559,367
610,435
38.55
41.95
44.46
0.95
1.11
1.27
168
148
130
c

91/2"
H
6"
3"
2"
3"
6"
W
2" 1'-71/2" VAR.
6"
2'-1"
H
w
Deck Bulb-Tees
Deck Bulb-Tees
OCT 97
5
3
"
4
8
"
-
9
6
"
D
e
c
k

B
T
-
3
5
D
e
c
k

B
T
-
5
3
3
5
"
4
8
"
-
9
6
"
D
e
c
k

B
T
-
6
5
2
"

(
T
Y
P
.
)
2
"

(
T
Y
P
.
)
2
"

(
T
Y
P
.
)
3
5
"
4
8
"
-
9
6
"
D
e
c
k

B
u
l
b
-
T
e
e
s
Double Tee Beams
OCT 97
Light Sections
W
ft
H
in.
T
in.
A
in.
C
in.
E
in.
Area
in.
2
Inertia
in.
4
y
bottom
in.
Weight
kip/ft
Maximum
Span* ft
5
6
6
8
8
27
23
27
27
35
5
5
5
5
5
4.50
4.50
4.50
3.75
3.75
8.00
6.50
8.00
5.75
6.50
36
36
36
48
48
575
558
635
689
787
33,740
21,366
35,758
32,888
72,421
18.60
16.61
19.15
20.64
26.20
0.599
0.582
0.662
0.718
0.820
40
30
37
40
35
Heavy Sections
W
ft
H
in.
T
in.
A
in.
C
in.
E
in.
Area
in.
2
Inertia
in.
4
y
bottom
in.
Weight
kip/ft
Maximum
Span* ft
5
6
7
8
36
35
35
35
6
5
5
5
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
8.00
9.75
9.75
9.75
30
48
48
48
780
840
900
960
90,286
90,164
95,028
99,299
23.69
23.30
23.91
24.45
0.812
0.876
0.938
1.001
87
70
64
62
6
7
8
27
27
27
5
5
5
7.00
7.00
7.00
9.75
9.75
9.75
48
48
48
731
791
851
45,084
47,486
49,566
18.09
18.58
19.00
0.761
0.824
0.886
52
47
45
6
7
8
21
21
21
5
5
5
7.75
7.75
7.75
9.75
9.75
9.75
48
48
48
644
704
764
22,720
23,903
24,920
14.11
14.48
14.80
0.671
0.733
0.796
37
35
32
c

W
E
A A
H
T
C
Double Tee Beams
Double Tee Beams
OCT 97
W
H
W
H
Light Sections
Heavy Sections
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
2" (TYP.)
Double Tee Beams
AASHTO-PCI-ASBI Standard Segment For Span-By-Span Construction
OCT 97
V
a
r
i
e
s

f
r
o
m

8
,
4
0
0

t
o

1
1
,
4
0
0
4
,
2
0
0
'
A
'
'
A
'
1
,
4
2
2
1
,
2
0
0
4
0
0

R
2
0
0

R
1
1
2
.
5
2
.
5
2
,
1
3
0
4
,
2
6
0
2 2 5 2 2 5
2 2 5
2 , 1 0 0
3
2
5
4 8 0
4 8 0
2
1
0
0
-
1
D
e
c
k

W
i
d
t
h
m
m
'
A
'
m
m
A
r
e
a
m
m
2
W
t
/
3
,
0
0
0

m
m
K
n
I
x
m
4
Y
t
m
m
8
,
4
0
0
8
,
7
0
0
9
,
0
0
0
9
,
3
0
0
9
,
6
0
0
9
,
9
0
0
1
0
,
2
0
0
1
0
,
5
0
0
1
0
,
8
0
0
1
1
,
1
0
0
1
1
,
4
0
0
0
1
5
0
3
0
0
4
5
0
6
0
0
7
5
0
9
0
0
1
,
0
5
0
1
,
2
0
0
1
,
3
5
0
1
,
5
0
0 9
0
0
( M i n . )
2 2 5
( M a x . )
1
7
0
1
9
6
0
1
2
2
8
3
5
0
2
.
9
6
7
2
.
9
9
9
3
.
0
3
0
3
.
0
6
0
3
.
0
8
9
3
.
1
1
8
3
.
1
4
5
3
.
1
7
2
3
.
1
9
9
3
.
2
2
5
3
.
2
5
0
7
9
9
7
9
0
7
8
1
7
7
2
7
6
3
7
5
5
7
4
7
7
3
9
7
3
1
7
2
3
7
1
6
3
6
0
3
6
5
3
7
0
3
7
5
3
8
0
3
8
5
3
9
0
3
9
4
3
9
9
4
0
4
4
0
9
4
,
9
1
6
,
0
0
0
4
,
9
8
4
,
0
0
0
5
,
0
5
1
,
0
0
0
5
,
1
1
9
,
0
0
0
5
,
1
8
6
,
0
0
0
5
,
2
5
4
,
0
0
0
5
,
3
2
1
,
0
0
0
5
,
3
8
9
,
0
0
0
5
,
4
5
6
,
0
0
0
5
,
5
2
4
,
0
0
0
5
,
5
9
1
,
0
0
0
S
y
m
m
.

A
b
o
u
t

C
L

G
i
r
d
e
r
A
A
S
H
T
O
-
P
C
I
-
A
S
B
I

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

S
e
g
m
e
n
t

F
o
r

S
p
a
n
-
B
y
-
S
p
a
n

C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

AASHTO-PCI-ASBI Standard Segment For Span-By-Span Construction
OCT 97
2 2 5
3
5
0
'
A
'
2 2 5
2
0
0

R
4
0
0

R
'
A
'
S
y
m
m
.

A
b
o
u
t

C
L

G
i
r
d
e
r
2
,
0
2
2
3
7
7
1
,
5
0
0
1
,
5
0
1
V
a
r
i
e
s

f
r
o
m

1
0
,
8
0
0

t
o

1
3
,
5
0
0
5
,
4
0
0
5
,
4
6
0
2
,
7
3
0
2
1
0
0
-
2
D
e
c
k

W
i
d
t
h
m
m
'
A
'
m
m
A
r
e
a
m
m
2
W
t
/
3
,
0
0
0

m
m
K
n
I
x
m
4
Y
t
m
m
1
0
,
8
0
0
1
1
,
1
0
0
1
1
,
4
0
0
1
1
,
7
0
0
1
2
,
0
0
0
1
2
,
3
0
0
1
2
,
6
0
0
1
2
,
9
0
0
1
3
,
2
0
0
1
3
,
5
0
0
0
1
5
0
3
0
0
4
5
0
6
0
0
7
5
0
9
0
0
1
,
0
5
0
1
,
2
0
0
1
,
3
5
0
4 8 0
4 8 0
2 2 5
9
0
0
( M i n . )
2 2 5
1
2
.
5
1
2
.
5
2 , 1 0 0
2
,
5
3
3
1
9
7
( M a x . )
6
,
0
5
0
,
0
0
0
6
,
1
1
7
,
0
0
0
6
,
1
8
5
,
0
0
0
6
,
2
5
2
,
0
0
0
6
,
3
2
0
,
0
0
0
6
,
3
8
7
,
0
0
0
6
,
4
5
5
,
0
0
0
6
,
5
2
2
,
0
0
0
6
,
5
9
0
,
0
0
0
6
,
6
5
7
,
0
0
0
3
.
6
8
5
3
.
7
1
5
3
.
7
4
4
3
.
7
7
2
3
.
8
0
0
3
.
8
2
7
3
.
8
5
4
3
.
8
8
0
3
.
9
0
6
3
.
9
3
1
7
7
6
7
6
9
7
6
2
7
5
5
7
4
8
7
4
1
7
3
4
7
2
8
7
2
2
7
1
5
4
4
3
4
4
8
4
5
3
4
5
8
4
6
3
4
6
8
4
7
2
4
7
7
4
8
2
4
8
7
A
A
S
H
T
O
-
P
C
I
-
A
S
B
I

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

S
e
g
m
e
n
t

F
o
r

S
p
a
n
-
B
y
-
S
p
a
n

C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

AASHTO-PCI-ASBI Standard Segment For Balanced Cantilever Construction Segment
OCT 97
S
y
m
m
.

A
b
o
u
t

C
L

G
i
r
d
e
r
V
a
r
i
e
s

f
r
o
m

8
,
4
0
0

t
o

1
1
,
4
0
0
4
,
2
0
0
'
A
'
'
A
'
1
,
4
2
2
1
,
2
0
0
1
,
2
0
1
4
0
0

R
2
0
0

R
1
2
.
5
2
,
0
1
0
4
,
0
2
0
2 2 5
2 2 5
2 2 5
2 , 4 0 0
3
5
0
4 8 0
4 8 0
2
4
0
0
-
1
D
e
c
k

W
i
d
t
h
m
m
'
A
'
m
m
A
r
e
a
m
m
2
W
t
/
3
,
0
0
0

m
m
K
n
I
x
m
4
Y
t
m
m
8
,
4
0
0
8
,
7
0
0
9
,
0
0
0
9
,
3
0
0
9
,
6
0
0
9
,
9
0
0
1
0
,
2
0
0
1
0
,
5
0
0
1
0
,
8
0
0
1
1
,
1
0
0
1
1
,
4
0
0
0
1
5
0
3
0
0
4
5
0
6
0
0
7
5
0
9
0
0
1
,
0
5
0
1
,
2
0
0
1
,
3
5
0
1
,
5
0
0
9
0
0
( M i n . )
2 2 5
1
,
8
1
3
( M a x . )
1
9
7
3
7
7
1
2
.
5
5
,
1
7
7
,
0
0
0
5
,
2
4
5
,
0
0
0
5
,
3
1
2
,
0
0
0
5
,
3
8
0
,
0
0
0
5
,
4
4
7
,
0
0
0
5
,
5
1
5
,
0
0
0
5
,
5
8
2
,
0
0
0
5
,
6
5
0
,
0
0
0
5
,
7
1
7
,
0
0
0
5
,
7
8
5
,
0
0
0
5
,
8
5
2
,
0
0
0
4
.
0
6
4
4
.
1
0
7
4
.
1
4
8
4
.
1
8
8
4
.
2
2
8
4
.
2
6
6
4
.
3
0
4
4
.
3
4
0
4
.
3
7
6
4
.
4
1
1
4
.
4
4
5
9
0
8
8
9
8
8
8
8
8
7
8
8
6
9
8
5
9
8
5
0
8
4
1
8
3
3
8
2
4
8
1
6
3
7
9
3
8
4
3
8
9
3
9
4
3
9
9
4
0
4
4
0
9
4
1
4
4
1
9
4
2
3
4
2
8
A
A
S
H
T
O
-
P
C
I
-
A
S
B
I

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

S
e
g
m
e
n
t

F
o
r

B
a
l
a
n
c
e
d

C
a
n
t
i
l
e
v
e
r

C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n

S
e
g
m
e
n
t
AASHTO-PCI-ASBI Standard Segment For Balanced Cantilever Construction
OCT 97

2 2 5
3
7
5
'
A
'
2 2 5
2
0
0

R
4
0
0

R
'
A
'
S
y
m
m
.

A
b
o
u
t

C
L

G
i
r
d
e
r
2
,
0
2
2
1
,
5
0
0
1
,
4
7
4
V
a
r
i
e
s

f
r
o
m

1
0
,
8
0
0

t
o

1
3
,
5
0
0
5
,
4
0
0
5
,
2
2
0
2
,
6
1
0
2
4
0
0
-
2
D
e
c
k

W
i
d
t
h
m
m
'
A
'
m
m
A
r
e
a
m
m
2
W
t
/
3
,
0
0
0

m
m
K
n
I
x
m
4
Y
t
m
m
1
0
,
8
0
0
1
1
,
1
0
0
1
1
,
4
0
0
1
1
,
7
0
0
1
2
,
0
0
0
1
2
,
3
0
0
1
2
,
6
0
0
1
2
,
9
0
0
1
3
,
2
0
0
1
3
,
5
0
0
0
1
5
0
3
0
0
4
5
0
6
0
0
7
5
0
9
0
0
1
,
0
5
0
1
,
2
0
0
1
,
3
5
0
4 8 0
4 8 0
2 2 5
9
0
0
( M i n . )
2 2 5
1
2
.
5
2 , 4 0 0
2
,
3
8
6
2
2
4
( M a x . )
1
2
.
5
4
0
4
6
,
3
2
7
,
0
0
0
6
,
3
9
5
,
0
0
0
6
,
4
6
2
,
0
0
0
6
,
5
3
0
,
0
0
0
6
,
5
9
7
,
0
0
0
6
,
6
6
5
,
0
0
0
6
,
7
3
2
,
0
0
0
6
,
8
0
0
,
0
0
0
6
,
8
6
7
,
0
0
0
6
,
9
3
5
,
0
0
0
5
.
0
4
5
5
.
0
8
5
5
.
1
2
4
5
.
1
6
2
5
.
1
9
9
5
.
2
3
6
5
.
2
7
2
5
.
3
0
7
5
.
3
4
2
5
.
3
7
6
8
8
2
8
7
4
8
6
6
8
5
8
8
5
1
8
4
3
8
3
6
8
2
9
8
2
1
8
1
5
4
6
3
4
6
8
4
7
3
4
7
8
4
8
3
4
8
8
4
9
3
4
9
8
5
0
3
5
0
8
A
A
S
H
T
O
-
P
C
I
-
A
S
B
I

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

S
e
g
m
e
n
t

F
o
r

B
a
l
a
n
c
e
d

C
a
n
t
i
l
e
v
e
r

C
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX D
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDIX D
OCT 97
NEBRASKA DEPARTMENT OF ROADS SPECIFICATIONS
WASHINGTON DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION SPECIFICATIONS
4612 Bridge Manual APPENDIX D 6/30/03 3:27 PM Page 1
SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS
OCT 97
Introduction
Generic specifications for production of precast and prestressed concrete products
have not been published by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). Such
specifications require extensive committee involvement and a lengthy concensus
approval process within the PCI structure. As a temporary substitute for generic spec-
ifications, this Appendix lists, without technical alteration, the specifications used by
the states of Nebraska and Washington. Nebraska represents Midwestern conditions,
while Washington represents coastal conditions. These two sets of specifications are
not claimed to be model specifications, nor are they representative of conditions
throughout the country as diverse geographically and economically as the United
States. For example, critical evaluation of the validity of weather-related provisions
for applications in hot, humid locations in the Southeast or hot, dry locations in the
Southwest need to be assessed. Also, the characteristics of aggregates and other local
raw materials need to be taken into account in adapting sample specifications to a
particular location.
Both sets of specifications have recently been updated, and are thus reflective of most
recent thinking of professionals at the Nebraska Department of Roads and the
Washington State Department of Transportation. Both states are known to have lead-
ership in the area of precast/prestressed concrete and are known to have a strong part-
nership with PCI and its producer members.
1. This work consists of all labor, materials and equipment required in the produc-
tion of precast/prestressed structural units.
1. The materials used shall meet the requirements prescribed in this specification.
2. Precast/prestressed concrete structural units whose compressive strength does not
achieve design strength shall be rejected.
3. The concrete class used in the manufacture of precast/prestressed structural units
shall be shown in the Plans.
4. The Contractor is responsible for the concrete mix design and may use other con-
crete mixes which are proportioned in accordance with ACI Standard 318 and the
following additional requirements:
a. The mix designs shall be submitted to the Engineer 30 working days before
beginning any concrete work.
b. Concrete shall consist of Type I, Type II or Type III Portland cement, aggre-
gate, air-entraining admixture and water. Concrete may also contain Class C
or Class F fly ash, and ASTM C494 approved Type A, Type B, Type D and
Type F admixtures.
c. The minimum cement content shall be 335 kg per cubic meter.
d. Coarse aggregate shall have a minimum limestone content of 30 percent of the
total aggregate by mass.
e. Fly ash cannot exceed 15 percent of cement by mass.
f. Data from at least 15 individual batches shall be collected and given to the
Engineer. The data collected shall include the following:
(1) The 28-day compressive and flexural strength test results.
(2) The water cement ratio.
(3) The air content between 2.0 percent and 6.0 percent inclusive.
(4) The cement and fly ash content.
(5) The amount of fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and sand and gravel.
5. No change shall be made in the concrete mix design during the progress of the
work without the prior written permission of the Engineer.
6. Welding reinforcing steel is prohibited unless specifically authorized by the
Engineer.
OCT 97
705
PRECAST/
PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL UNITS
705.01
Description
705.02
Material Requirements
Nebraska Department
of Roads Specifications
7. Prestressed steel other than that specified in the Plans or Special Provisions may be
furnished with the approval of the Engineer. The yield and ultimate strength and
other pertinent characteristics of this steel shall be submitted to the Engineer.
8. The area of broken wires shall not exceed 2 percent of the cross-sectional area of
the stressing strands when the number of strands is 14 or less.
9. The area of broken wire shall not exceed 1 percent of the cross-sectional area of the
stressing strands when the number of strands exceeds 14.
10. No more than one broken wire will be allowed in a single strand.
11. Bars for post-tensioning shall be of high tensile strength steel. They shall be
equipped with wedge-type end anchorages which will develop the minimum
specified ultimate bar stress on the nominal bar area. The physical properties of
the bar steel determined by static tensile tests shall conform to the following:
High-Strength Steel Post-Tensioning Requirements
Ultimate Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,000 MPa minimum
Stress at 0.7% Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .896 MPa minimum
Stress at 0.3% Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517 MPa minimum
Elongation in 20 Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4% minimum
Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 GPa minimum
Diameter Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Plus or Minus 2.54 mm
12. Materials specified for testing shall be furnished 30 days before anticipated time
of use. All materials required for testing shall be furnished by the Contractor to
the Engineer without additional costs to the Department. The Engineer shall
select a representative sample length for the various prestressed steel as follows:
a. Two meters for wires requiring heading.
b. For wires not requiring heading, sufficient length to make up one parallel-lay
cable two meters long consisting of the same number of wires as the cable to
be furnished.
c. Two meters between near ends of fittings for a strand furnished with fittings.
d. Two meters between threads at the ends of bars furnished with threaded ends.
13. If the anchorage assemblies are not attached to prestressing steel samples, two
anchorage assemblies shall be furnished for testing, complete with distribution
plates of each size or type of prestressing steel to be used.
14. Any defective material shall be rejected.
15. Concrete quality control shall be the responsibility of the Contractor. Concrete
shall be sampled and tested as shown in Table 705.02.
16. Plant Approval Requirements:
a. (1) All precast/prestressed concrete structural units shall be produced in a
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) Certified Plant.
(2) The method of manufacture and quality of concrete are also subject to
Department approval/inspection.
b. (1) A Contractor proposing to furnish precast/prestressed structural units
shall submit the following additional details to the Department concern-
ing the method of manufacture:
OCT 97
(i) Type, number, size and location of the prestressing elements, and the
name of the manufacturer of the post-tensioning or pretensioning ele-
ments.
(ii) Complete information as to type, size and method of installation of
devices for anchoring post-tensioning elements.
(iii) The proposed manufacturing methods, and the Plans and design
details of proposed casting beds and forms.
c. The use of portable pretensioning beds for the manufacture of concrete struc-
tural units or piles will not be allowed.
1. The Contractor shall construct precast structures and piles as shown in the Plans.
2. The Contractor shall erect precast concrete structures and drive precast concrete
piles as prescribed in the Plans.
3. a. When the precast superstructure units have been erected, the Contractor shall
pack the shear key openings with grout.
b. A pneumatic tool shall be used.
c. Grout to be used for constructing shear keys in the precast concrete superstructure
shall be composed of either Type I or Type II Portland cement, aggregate and water.
OCT 97
Required Concrete Sampling and Testing
Contractor
Test Samples*
Department
Test Samples
Correlation Test
Yield ASTM C138 One per day. One per 10
Contractor tests. Air meter measuring bowl.
Air content ASTM C231 One per load. One every five
production days. (0.8% variation allowed)
Concrete temperature. One per load. One every five
production days. ASTM C1064
Concrete Compressive Strength
28-day strength
ASTM C31 Section 9.3 cure.
56-day strength NA
(only if 28-day strength
is less than specified.)
ASTM C31 Section 9.7 cure.
* At least 6 cylinders shall be made each production day and at least 2 cylinders are
required from each load.
* Cylinders shall be 150 mm by 300 mm.
Two cylinders - each
from a different load;
and one from the last load.
Two cylinders - each
from a different load and
from same load as 28-day
break.
One set of two
cylinders every five
production days.
Table 705.02
705.03
(1) The aggregate shall be fine aggregate as specified for the class of concrete
being furnished.
(2) The Portland cement and aggregate shall be proportioned on the basis of
350 kg of dry aggregate per 100 kg of cement.
(3) The water content of the grout shall be limited to that necessary for prop-
er mixing and placement. In no case shall the total water content exceed
45 kg per 100 kg of cement.
4. a. No live load shall be allowed on the superstructure units until the shear keys
and tie bolts have been placed and the shear key grout cured, unless cross
planking or mats not less than 190 mm in thickness and 4.2 m long are placed
on the structure to distribute the load.
b. In no case shall the live load vehicle mass exceed:
(1) 23 Mg.
(2) 9 Mg on any single axle.
(3) 18 Mg on any tandem axle.
5. Stressing Requirements:
a. (1) In all methods of tensioning, the stress induced in the prestressing ele-
ments shall be measured by the Contractor both with jacking gages and
by elongation of the elements, and these results shall be the same within
a five-percent tolerance.
(i) Means shall be provided for measuring the elongation of reinforce-
ment to at least the nearest 3 mm.
(ii) All steel stressing devices, whether hydraulic jacks or screw jacks,
shall be equipped with accurate reading calibrated pressure gages,
rings or other devices as applicable to the jack being used.
(iii) All devices shall be calibrated and, if necessary, recalibrated so as to
allow the stress in the prestressing steel to be computed at all times.
(iv) A certified calibration curve shall accompany each device.
(v) Safety measures must be taken by the Contractor to prevent acci-
dents due to possible breaking of the prestressing steel or the slipping
of the grips during the prestressing process.
(2) All calibrations and tests shall be performed at no additional cost to the
Department.
(3) Pressure gages, load cells, dynamometers, and any other devices used in
determination of loads and/or pressures shall be accurate in their effec-
tive range within a two-percent tolerance.
(i) Such equipment shall be calibrated by an approved testing laboratory.
(ii) The laboratory shall furnish calibration curves for each device and
shall certify the curves as being accurate and verifiable.
(iii) The calibration of tensioning devices shall be accomplished in place.
(iv) The configuration of jacks, gages and other components during cal-
ibration shall be exactly the same as during the actual stressing oper-
ation.
(v) The method of calibration shall be as approved by the Engineer.
(vi) Tensioning devices shall be calibrated at least once a year and anytime
a system appears to be operating in an erratic or inaccurate manner, or
gage pressure and elongation measurements fail to correlate.
OCT 97
(4) If the strand tension indicated by the gage pressure and by elongation
method fail to agree within five percent, the operation shall be carefully
checked and the source of error determined before proceeding further.
b. (1) The Contractors elongation and jacking pressure measurements shall
make appropriate allowance for friction and all possible slippage or relax-
ation of the anchorage.
(2) For pretensioned members, independent references shall be established
adjacent to each anchorage by the Contractor to indicate any yielding or
slippage that may occur between the time of initial stressing and final
release of the cables.
(3) The Contractor may tension straight post-tensioned tendons from one
end. The curved tendons shall generally be stressed by simultaneous jack-
ing from both ends of the bar.
c. In all stressing operations, the Contractor shall keep stressing force symmetri-
cal about the members vertical axis.
6. Stressing Procedure:
a. Prestressing methods are shown in the Plans. When the Contractor elects to
use a method other than that shown in the Plans, the Contractor shall submit
complete shop Plans for the proposed method.
(1) Pretensioning method.
(2) Post-tensioning method.
(3) Combined method.
b. Pretensioning Method:
(1) The amount of stress to be given each strand by the Contractor shall be
as shown in the Plans.
(2) All strands to be prestressed in a group shall be brought to a uniform ini-
tial tension before being given their full pretensioning. This uniform ini-
tial tension of approximately 4.5 to 9.0 kN shall be measured by a
dynamometer or other approved means so that it can be used as a check
against the computed and measured elongation.
(3) After initial tensioning, either single strand or multiple strand groups
shall be stressed until the required elongation and jacking pressure are
attained and reconciled within the five-percent tolerance.
(4) With the strand stressed in accordance with the Plan requirements and
these Specifications, and with all other reinforcing in place, the
Contractor shall cast the concrete to the lengths desired. Strand stress
shall be maintained between anchorages until the concrete has reached
the compressive strength specified in the Plans.
c. Post-tensioning Method: For all post-tensioned bars, the Contractor shall set the
anchor plates exactly normal in all directions to the axis of the bar. Parallel wire
anchorage cones shall be recessed within the beams. Tensioning shall not be done
until the concrete has reached the compressive strength specified in the Plans.
d. Combined Method: In the event that the girders are manufactured with part
of the reinforcement pretensioned and part post-tensioned, the applicable por-
tions of the requirements listed above shall apply to each type.
7. Forms:
a. Forms for precast/prestressed concrete structural units shall conform to the
requirements for concrete formwork as provided in Section 704.
b. Forms shall be accessible for the vibration and consolidation of concrete.
OCT 97
8. Placing Concrete:
a. The Contractor shall provide the Department a 4-week production schedule
that is updated as necessary. Unscheduled production changes may delay fab-
rication when the Department elects not to reschedule inspectors.
b. The Engineer may observe any or all of the procedures and shall have access to
all reported data anytime during fabrication. The Engineer shall report any
inconsistencies to the job superintendent and note them in the plant diary.
c. Concrete shall not be placed before completing the forming and placing of
reinforcement.
d. (1) Concrete shall be placed continuously in each unit, take care to avoid
horizontal or diagonal planes of weakness.
(2) However, if there is a delay in delivery of concrete, or for some other rea-
son placement is interrupted for more than 30 minutes, then the con-
crete shall be rejected.
e. (1) Special care shall be exercised to work and consolidate the concrete
around the reinforcement and to avoid the formation of stone pockets,
honeycombs and other defects.
(2) The concrete shall be consolidated by vibrating, or other means approved
by the Engineer.
f. The forms shall be overfilled, the excess concrete screeded off, and the top sur-
faces finished to a uniform, even texture.
g. Each precast/prestressed concrete structural unit shall be stamped or marked
with an identification number and its manufacture date.
h. (1) The optimum range of concrete temperatures from the time the concrete
is completely mixed until the beginning of the presteam segment of the
steam curing cycle shall be 10C to 35C. Failure to operate within the
optimum range shall be cause for curtailment of operations to operate
consistently within the range set forth. During the preset segment of the
curing cycle, the temperature of the concrete shall not exceed 38C nor
fall below 10C.
(2) When placing concrete under cold weather conditions (ambient air tem-
perature less than 2C), follow the cold weather Specifications in Section
1002.
(3) Forms and reinforcing materials shall be preheated to a minimum tem-
perature of 5C and a maximum temperature not to exceed that of the
concrete at the time of placement.
(4) The Contractor may preheat the drums of the mixer-trucks to the limits
set for forms and reinforcing, but under no condition shall heat be
applied to the drums while they contain any of the batch materials or
concrete.
9. Curing:
a. General:
(1) The Contractor shall cure the concrete with wet burlap, waterproof cov-
ers, polyethylene sheets, or liquid membrane-forming compound.
Liquid membrane-forming compound shall not be used on that portion
of precast/prestressed concrete girders, twin tees, or bridge beams upon
which concrete will be cast later.
(2) Water spray curing, or other moist curing methods may be used, subject
to the approval of the Engineer.
OCT 97
(3) The period of curing shall be determined by the results of the compres-
sive strength test on cylinders made during the progress of the work and
cured to closely approximate the concrete strength of the product it rep-
resents.
(4) Side forms may be removed 12 hours after placing the concrete, provid-
ed curing is continued with one of the approved NDOR curing proce-
dures.
b. Steam or radiant heat will be allowed for accelerated curing provided the fol-
lowing procedure is adhered to:
(1) Curing chambers shall be reasonably free of leakage and shall have a min-
imum clearance of 75 mm between the enclosure and restricting portions
of the forms in order to ensure adequate circulation of heat. The relative
humidity within the curing enclosure shall be maintained between 70
and 100 percent.
(2) One approved continuous recording thermometer for each 35 meters of
casting bed with a minimum of two continuous recording thermometers
shall be located in each enclosure or curing chamber.
(i) Continuous temperature record charts for each casting shall be avail-
able to the Engineer for his examination and approval at anytime.
(ii) If the temperature records or other temperature readings taken by the
Engineer indicate that hand control of heat is producing temperature
changes in excess of those specified, the Engineer may direct that
automatic controls which can be activated by the recording ther-
mometers or by separate temperature switches be installed. These
automatic controls are to control the rate of temperature change and
maximum curing temperature according to a preset plan.
(3) Temperature of the curing concrete shall be 10C to 30C and shall be
maintained near placement temperature until the concrete has reached
initial set as determined by ASTM C403 Time of Setting of Concrete
Mixture by Penetration Resistance.
(i) The temperature rate of rise shall not exceed 30C per hour.
(ii) The concrete shall be completely covered with a waterproof curing
chamber during accelerated curing periods.
(4) Steam jets shall not be directed at the concrete or the steel forms.
(5) When the heat has been applied for a minimum of 3 hours and the
desired concrete temperature has been reached (not to exceed 80C), the
heat source may be turned off. Should the temperature within the con-
crete rise above 80C, the concrete shall be rejected.
(6) The temperature in the concrete shall be maintained so that at any given
time the difference between the highest and lowest temperature station
readings will not be more than 15C. If the temperature varies more than
15C, the product shall be rejected.
(7) Eight hours after placing the concrete, individual sections may be uncov-
ered to remove their forms. The curing may be discontinued during this
operation. The section shall not be left uncovered longer than necessary
and never longer than 30 minutes. Waterproofed covers shall be used to
recover the product.
(8) After the heat source has been turned off, the curing cover shall be main-
tained in place during the soaking period until the release strength has
been reached.
OCT 97
(9) Detensioning shall be accomplished before the temperatures of the units
drop below 40C and while they are still moist.
(10) An automatic master slave heat curing system may be used for curing
quality control cylinders.
10. Defects and Repair Procedures:
a. After the forms are removed, stone pockets, honeycombs, or other defects may
be exposed. The Engineer shall determine if these defects affect the items struc-
tural integrity and in which case the item will be rejected.
b. Precast/prestressed concrete structural units which have chips, spalls, honey-
comb or otherwise defective areas which are not considered detrimental to
structural integrity may be used after being repaired in the following manner:
(1) Remove all unsound concrete.
(2) Coat the affected area with epoxy resin binder. Care shall be taken to pre-
vent getting epoxy on the exposed surface.
(3) Fill the prepared area with Class 47B-XX concrete mix (Aggregate larg-
er than 10 mm is not allowed) with the type of cement used in placing
the unit. Where the unit is exposed to view, white cement shall be added
to give a uniform appearance with the concrete surrounding the patch.
(4) Place and secure formwork to ensure all required configurations.
(5) Cure 24 hours with wet burlap. Steam curing at 25C will be allowed.
(6) The patch shall be ground smooth to remove all joints.
11. Surface Finish:
a. The exterior face of all exterior girders or beams plus the bottoms and cham-
fers on all lower flanges shall be given the following finish:
(1) All uneven form joints in excess of 3 mm shall be ground smooth.
(2) The surface shall be steel brushed to remove scale and laitance, and to
open partially obstructed holes.
(3) Dampen surface.
(4) The grout shall consist of 1.5 parts of fine sand, 1 part of Portland
cement and sufficient water to produce a consistency of thick paint. The
cement used in the grout shall be a blend of regular Type I and white
Portland cement to duplicate the lighter appearance of the steam-cured
units.
(5) If necessary, an admixture which will not discolor the concrete may be
used in the grout to reduce shrinkage if approved by the Engineer.
Admixtures containing iron particles shall not be used.
(6) Apply grout to the surface.
(7) The surface shall be float finished with a cork or other suitable float. This
operation shall completely fill all holes and depressions on the surface.
(8) When the grout is of such plasticity that it will not be pulled from holes
or depressions, sponge rubber or burlap shall be used to remove all excess
grout.
(9) Surface finishing during cold weather shall not be performed unless the
temperature is 50C and rising. The surface shall be protected against
temperature drops below 5C for a period of 12 hours after finishing.
(10) A uniform appearance will be required. In the event the appearance pro-
duced by the above procedure is not uniform, both in texture and col-
oration, other methods approved by the Engineer shall be employed.
OCT 97
b. The interior face of an exterior girder or beam and all interior girders or beams
shall be finished from the lower flange to the fillet of the web in accordance
with subparagraphs (3), (4), (5) and (6) above.
12. Grouting for Post-Tensioned Units:
a. The Contractor shall install steel in flexible or other approved tubes which shall
be cast in the concrete and shall be pressure-grouted after the prestressing
process has been completed.
b. Bonding grout shall be made to the consistency of thick paint and shall be
mixed in the proportions as follows: Portland cement (Type I), 45 kg; Fly ash
(ASTM C618), 15 kg; Water, 20 to 27 kg (adjust at site); and admixture
(Interplast B), 0.5 kg.
c. The final grouting pressure shall be at least 550 kPa.
d. The Contractor shall make provisions to demonstrate to the Engineer that
grouting material has completely filled all areas within the conduit.
13. The Contractor shall paint all exposed metal, except weathering grade steel.
14. Handling, Transporting and Storing:
a. (1) After precast structural units have attained a compressive strength of 20
Mpa, the Engineer shall approve the method used to remove the units
from the casting beds.
(2) Prestressed concrete structural units shall attain the release strength
specified in the Plans before being delivered to the site. Prestressed con-
crete structural units will not be incorporated in the final product until
the minimum age and strength specified in the Plans is attained.
(3) All precast/prestressed concrete structure units shall be supported at or
within 150 mm of all lifting or bearing devices. When supported at the
proper positions, no part of the units shall be allowed to rest on the
ground. Prestressed concrete bridge girders shall be set on a level area to
prevent field bowing, and adequate supports shall be placed under their
lifting or bearing devices to prevent settlement into the ground.
(4) The girders shall be transported in an upright position and the points of
support and direction of the reactions with respect to the girder shall be
approximately the same during the transportation and storage, as when
the girder is in its final position. If the Contractor finds it necessary to
transport or store the precast girders in some other position, the
Contractor should be prepared to prove no internal damage resulted.
(i) Adequate padding shall be provided between tile chains and cables to
prevent chipping of the concrete.
(ii) Live loads shall not be allowed on the superstructure units until the
floor slab is placed and has attained the design strength shown in the
Plans.
15. Inspection Facilities:
a. The Contractor shall arrange with the producer of precast/prestressed concrete
structural units to provide an office laboratory, and a bathroom for the
Departments inspector. The areas shall meet the following requirements:
(1) Thermostatically controlled heating and air conditioning shall be pro-
vided so that temperature can be maintained between 20C and 25C.
(2) The floors shall be tile or a similar floor covering.
(3) Interior and exterior walls shall be well maintained and painted.
OCT 97
(4) All exterior doors shall have cylinder locks and all keys shall be turned
over to the Engineer.
(5) Ceiling lighting shall provide a minimum of 5,000 lx of light on all work-
ing surfaces.
(6) Electrical outlets shall be spaced no more than 2 m apart with no less
than one outlet on any wall of the office or lab.
(7) A single trunk telephone shall be installed in the office and the installa-
tion charges shall be paid by the Contractor. The monthly charges shall
be paid by the State.
(8) A fire extinguisher and first aid kid shall be provided.
(9) A ventilated bathroom with a toilet and sink shall be provided in the
structure. A fresh water supply and drain will be required in the lab area.
(10) The lab, office and bathroom shall be separate rooms with intercon-
necting doors.
(11) The minimum lab area is 21 m
2
.
(12) The minimum toilet area is 2 m
2
.
(13) The minimum office area is 15 m
2
.
(14) The Contractor shall clean and maintain the rooms and shall supply all
heating fuel, electricity and water.
(15) The Contractor shall also supply for the sole use of the inspectors, all
desks, work tables, chairs, files, lockers and sanitary supplies necessary
and commensurate with the inspection of his/her plant. It is anticipat-
ed that the following minimum amount of office and lab equipment
will be required: One desk with approximately 1 m x 2 m top; one
upright locker or wardrobe, with shelves, approximately 1.5 m deep;
two four-drawer file cabinets; one chair per inspector; one square meter
of work surface per inspector in the office area; and a 1 m x 15 m lab
counter with storage space beneath.
1. Precast/prestressed concrete superstructures will be measured for payment by the
lump sum.
2. The cost of furnishing and maintaining the inspection facilities will not be paid
for directly, but shall be considered subsidiary to the items for which the contract
provides that direct payment will be made.
3. If a precast or prestressed structural items 56-day compressive strength is less than
the design strength, then the Engineer will determine if the item can be used. It
the item is to be used, a payment deduction of 25 percent will be taken if the 56-
day compressive strength is less than 95 percent of the design strength.
4. Payment is considered full compensation for all work prescribed in this Section
including the cost of prestressing and precasting.
OCT 97
705.04
Method of Measurement
and Basis of Payment
The Contractor shall be required to perform quality control inspection. The manu-
facturing plant of prestressed concrete girders shall be certified by the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institutes Plant Certification Program for the type of
prestressed member to be produced and shall be approved by WSDOT as a Certified
Prestress Concrete Fabricator prior to the start of production. WSDOT certification
will be granted at, and renewed during, the annual prestressed plant review and
approval process.
Prior to the start of production of girders, the Contractor shall advise the Engineer
of the production schedule. The Contractor shall give the Inspector safe and free
access to the work. If the Inspector observes any nonspecification work or unaccept-
able quality control practices, the Inspector will advise the plant manager. If the cor-
rective action is not acceptable to the Engineer, the girder(s) will be rejected.
The Contracting Agency intends to perform Quality Assurance Inspection. By its
inspection, the Contracting Agency intends only to facilitate the work and verify the
quality of that work. This inspection shall not relieve the Contractor of any respon-
sibility for identifying and replacing defective material and workmanship.
The various types of girders are:
Prestressed Concrete Girder - Refers to prestressed concrete girders including
Series W42G, W50G, W58G, and W74G girders, bulb-tee girders, and deck
bulb-tee girders.
Bulb-Tee Girder - Refers to a bulb-tee girder or a deck bulb-tee girder.
Deck Bulb-Tee Girder - Refers to a bulb-tee girder with a top flange designed
to support traffic loads (i.e., without a cast-in-place deck). This type of bulb-tee
girder is mechanically connected to adjacent girders at the job site.
The Plans show design conditions and details for prestressed girders. Deviations will
not be permitted, except as specifically allowed by these Specifications and by manu-
facturing processes approved by the annual plant approval process.
Shop plans shall allow the size and location of all cast-in holes for installation of deck
formwork hangers and/or temporary bracing. Holes for formwork hangers shall
match approved deck formwork plans designed in accordance with Section 6-
02.3(16). There shall be no field-drilled holes in prestressed girders.
The Contractor shall have the option to furnish Series W74G prestressed concrete
girders with minor dimensional differences from those shown in the Plans. The
2-5/8-inch top flange taper may be reduced to 1-5/8 inches and the bottom flange
may be increased to 2 feet 2 inches. Other dimensions of the girder shall be adjusted
as necessary to accommodate the above mentioned changes. Reinforcing steel shall be
adjusted as necessary. The overall height and top flange width shall remain
unchanged.
Washington Department
Of Transportation
Specifications
6-02.3(25)
PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE GIRDERS
6-02.3(25)A
Shop Plans
OCT 97
If the Contractor elects to provide a Series W74G girder with an increased web thick-
ness, shop plans along with supporting design calculations shall be submitted to the
Engineer for approval prior to girder fabrication. The girder shall be designed for at
least the same load carrying capacity as the girder shown in the Plans. The load car-
rying capacity of the mild steel reinforcement shall be the same as that shown in the
Plans.
The Contractor may alter bulb-tee girder dimensions as specified from that shown
in the Plans if:
1. The girder has the same or higher load carrying capacity (using current AASHTO
Design Specification);
2. The Engineer approves, before the girder is made, complete design calculations
for the girder;
3. The Contractor adjusts substructures to yield the same top of roadway elevation
shown in the Plans;
4. The depth of the girder is not increased by more than 2 inches and is not
decreased;
5. The web thickness is not increased by more than 1 inch and is not decreased;
6. The top flange minimum thickness of the girder is not increased by more than 2
inches, providing the top flange taper section is decreased a corresponding
amount;
7. The top flange taper depth is not increased by more than 1 inch; and
8. The bottom flange width is not increased by more than 2 inches.
The Contractor shall provide four copies of the shop plans to the Engineer for
approval. Only steel side forms will be approved, except plywood forms are accept-
able on the end bulkheads. Approval of shop plans means only that the Engineer
accepts the methods and materials. Approval does not imply correct dimensions.
Before casting girders, the Contractor shall have possession of an approved set of shop
drawings.
All concrete mixes to be used shall be pre-approved in the WSDOT plant certifica-
tion process and must meet the requirements of Section 9-19.1. The temperature of
the concrete when placed shall be between 50 F and 90 F. The temperature limits in
Section 6-02.3(6)A do not apply to prestressed concrete girders.
Air entrainment is not required in the concrete placed into prestressed precast con-
crete girders unless otherwise noted. The Contractor shall use air-entrained concrete
in the entire roadway deck flange of deck bulb-bee girders. Maximum and minimum
air content shall be as specified in Section 6-02.3(3)A.
No welds will be permitted on steel within prestressed girders. Once the prestressing
steel has been installed, no welds or grounds for welders shall be made on the forms
or the steel in the girder, except as specified.
The Contractor may form circular block-outs in the girder top flanges to receive
falsework hanger rods. These block-outs shall:
1. Not exceed 1 inch in diameter,
2. Be spaced no more than 72 inches apart longitudinally on the girder,
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)B
Casting
3. Be located 3 inches or more from the outside edge of the top flange on Series
W42G, W50G, and W58G girders, and 6 inches or more for Series W74G gird-
ers, and
4. Be located within 1 foot 3 inches of the web centerline for bulb-tee girder.
The Contractor may form circular block-outs in the girder webs to support brackets
for roadway slab falsework. These block-outs shall:
1. Not exceed 1 inch in diameter,
2. Be spaced no more than 72 inches apart longitudinally on the girder, and
3. Be positioned so as to clear the girder reinforcing and prestressing steel.
Each stressing system shall have a pressure gauge or load cell that will measure jack-
ing force. Any gauge shall display pressure accurately and readably with a dial at least
6 inches in diameter or with a digital display. Each jack and its gauge shall be cali-
brated as a unit and shall be accompanied by a certified calibration chart. The
Contractor shall provide one copy of this chart to the Engineer. The cylinder exten-
sion during calibration shall be in approximately the position it will occupy at final
jacking force.
Jacks and gauges shall be recalibrated and recertified:
1. Annually,
2. After any repair or adjustment, and
3. Any time there are indications that the jack calibration is in error.
The Engineer may use pressure cells to check jacks, gauges and calibration charts
before and during tensioning.
All load cells shall be calibrated and shall have an indicator that shows prestressing
force in the strand. The range of this cell shall be broad enough that the lowest 10
percent of the manufacturers rated capacity will not be used to measure jacking force.
From manufacture to encasement in concrete, all reinforcement used in girders shall
be protected against dirt, oil, grease, damage, rust and all corrosives. If strands in the
stressing bed are exposed before they are encased in concrete, the Contractor shall
protect them from contamination or corrosion. The protection method requires the
Engineers approval. If steel has been damaged or if it shows rust or corrosion, it will
be rejected.
During curing, the Contractor shall keep the girder in a saturated curing atmosphere
until the girder concrete has reached the required release strength. If the Engineer
approves, the Contractor may shorten curing time by heating the outside of imper-
vious forms. Heat may be radiant, convection, conducted steam or hot air. With
steam, the arrangement shall envelop the entire surface with saturated steam. The
Engineer will not permit hot air curing until after approving the Contractors pro-
posed method to envelop and maintain the girder in a saturated atmosphere.
Saturated atmosphere means a relative humidity of at least 90 percent. The
Contractor shall never allow dry heat to touch the girder surface at any point.
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)C
Prestressing
6-02.3(25)D
Curing
Under heat curing methods, the Contractor shall:
1. Keep all unformed girder surfaces in a saturated atmosphere throughout the
curing time;
2. Embed a thermocouple (linked with a thermometer accurate to plus or minus 5 F)
6 to 8 inches from the top or bottom of the girder on its centerline and near its
midpoint;
3. Monitor with a recording sensor (accurate to plus or minus 5 F) arranged and
calibrated to continuously record, date and identify concrete temperature
throughout the heating cycle;
4. Make this temperature record available for the Engineer to inspect;
5. Heat concrete to no more than 100 F during the first two hours after pouring the
concrete, and then increase no more than 25 F per hour to a maximum of 175 F;
6. Cool concrete, after curing is complete, no more than 25 F per hour, to 100 F;
and
7. Keep the temperature of the concrete above 60 F until the girder reaches release
strength.
The Contractor may strip side forms once the concrete has reached a minimum com-
pressive strength of 3,000 psi. All damage from stripping is the Contractors respon-
sibility.
Concrete strength shall be measured on test cylinders cast from the same concrete as
that in the girder. These cylinders shall be cured under time-temperature relation-
ships and conditions that simulate those of the girder. If the forms are heated by
steam or hot air, test cylinders will remain in the coolest zone throughout curing. If
forms are heated another way, the Contractor shall provide a record of the curing
time-temperature relationships for the cylinders for each girder to the Engineer.
When two or more girders are cast in a continuous line and in a continuous pour, a
single set of test cylinders may represent all girders provided the Contractor demon-
strates uniformity of casting and curing to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
The Contractor shall mold, cure, and test enough of these cylinders to satisfy speci-
fication requirements for measuring concrete strength. The Contractor may use 4-
inch by 8-inch or 6-inch by 12-inch cylinders. The required design strength shall be
increased 5 percent when using 4-inch by 8-inch cylinders. This 5 percent increase
will not be applied for the determination of the release strength. If heat is used to
shorten curing time, the Contractor shall let cylinders cool for at least 1/2 hour
before testing.
Test cylinders may be cured in a moist room or water tank in accordance with
AASHTO T-23 after the girder concrete has obtained the required release strength.
If, however, the Contractor intends to ship the girder prior to the standard 28-day
strength test, the design strength for shipping shall be determined from cylinders
placed with the girder and cured under the same conditions as the girder. These
cylinders may be placed in a noninsulated, moisture-proof envelope.
To measure concrete strength in the girder, the Contractor shall randomly select two
test cylinders and average their compressive strengths. The compressive strength in
either cylinder shall not fall more than 5 percent below the specified strength. If these
two cylinders do not pass the test, two other cylinders shall be selected and tested.
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)E
Contractors Control
Strength
If too few cylinders were molded to carry out all required tests on the girder, the
Contractor shall remove and test cores from the girder under the surveillance of the
Engineer. If the Contractor casts cylinders to represent more than one girder, all gird-
ers in that line shall be cored. These cores shall measure 4 inches in diameter by web
thickness high and shall be removed from just below the top flange, one approxi-
mately 3 feet to the left and the other approximately 3 feet to the right of the mid-
points of the girders length. The Engineer may accept the girder if these cores have
the required compressive strength.
If the girder is cored to determine the release strength, the required patching and cur-
ing of the patch shall be done prior to shipment. If there are more than two holes or
if they are not in a neutral location, they shall be patched prior to the release of pre-
stress.
The Contractor shall coat cored holes with a Type II, Grade 2 epoxy and patch the
holes using the same type concrete as that in the girder, or a mix approved during the
annual plant review and approval. The girder shall not be shipped until tests show the
patches have reached the required design strength of the girder.
Side and flange forms that restrain deflection shall be removed before release of the
prestressing reinforcement.
All harped and straight strands shall be released in a way that will produce the least
possible tension in the concrete. This release shall not occur until tests show each
girder has reached the minimum compressive strength required by the Plans.
When a girder is removed from its casting bed, all bars and strands projecting from
the girder shall be cleaned and painted with a minimum dry film thickness of 1 mil
of paint Formula No. A-9-73. During handling and shipping, projecting reinforce-
ment shall be protected from bending or breaking. Just before placing concrete
around the painted projecting bars or strands, the Contractor shall remove from
them all dirt, oil and other foreign matter.
The Contractor shall apply a Class 2 finish, as defined in Section 6-02.3(14), to:
1. The vertical exterior surfaces of the outside girders;
2. The bottoms, sides, and tops of the lower flanges on all girders; and
3. The bottom of the outside roadway flange of each outside bulb-tee girder section.
All other girder surfaces shall receive a Class 3 finish.
The interface on I-girders and other girders that contact the cast-in-place deck shall
have a finish of dense, screeded concrete without a smooth sheen or laitance on the
surface. After vibrating and screeding, and just before the concrete reaches initial set,
the Contractor shall texture the interface. This texture shall be applied with a steel
brooming tool that etches the surface transversely leaving grooves 1/2-inch to 1/4-
inch wide, between 1/2-inch and 1/4-inch deep, and spaced 1/4-inch to 1/2-inch
apart.
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)F
Prestress Release
6-02.3(25)G
Protection of Exposed
Reinforcement
6-02.3(25)H
Finishing
On the deck bulb-tee girder section, the Contractor shall test the roadway deck sur-
face portion for flatness. This test shall occur after floating but while the concrete
remains plastic. Testing shall be done with a 10-foot straightedge parallel to the gird-
er centerline and with a flange width straightedge at right angles to the girder cen-
terline. The Contractor shall fill depressions, cut down high spots, and refinish to
correct any deviation of more than 1/4 inch within the straightedge length. This sec-
tion of the roadway surface shall be finished to meet the requirements for finishing
roadway slabs, as defined in Section 6-02.3(1).
The Contractor may repair rock pockets and other defects in the girder provided the
repair is covered in the annual plant approval package. All other repairs and repair
procedures shall be documented and approved by the Engineer prior to acceptance
of the girder.
The girders shall be fabricated as shown in the Plans and shall meet the dimensional
tolerances listed below. Actual acceptance or rejection will depend on how the
Engineer believes a defect outside these tolerances will affect the structures strength
or appearance.
1. Length (overall): 1/4 inch per 25 feet of beam length, up to a maximum of
1 inch
2. Width (flanges): +3/8 inch, 1/4 inch
3. Width (narrow web section): +3/8 inch, 1/4 inch
4. Girder Depth (overall): 1/4 inch
5. Flange Depth: +1/4 inch, 1/8 inch
6. Strand Position: 1/4 inch from the center of gravity of a strand group and of
an individual strand
7. Longitudinal Position of the Harping Point: 18 inches
8. Bearing Recess (center recess to beam end): 1/4 inch
9. Beam Ends (deviation from square or designated skew): Horizontal: 1/2 inch
from web centerline to flange edge; Vertical: 1/8 inch per foot of beam depth
10. Bearing Area Deviation from Plane (in length or width of bearing): 1/16 inch
11. Stirrup Reinforcing Spacing: 1 inch
12. Stirrup Projection from Top of Beam: 3/4 inch
13. Mild Steel Concrete Cover: 1/8, +3/8 inch
14. Offset at Form Joints (deviation from a straight line extending 5 feet on each
side of joint): 1/4 inch
15. Differential Camber Between Girders in a Span (measured in place at the job site)
For I-girders: 1/8 inch per 10 feet of beam length (Series W42G, W50G,
W58G and W74G).
For deck bulb-tee girders: Cambers shall be equalized by an approved method
when the difference in cambers between adjacent girders
or stages measured at mid-span exceeds 1/4 inch.
16. Position of Inserts for Structural Connections: 1/2 inch
17. Position of Lifting Loops: 3 inches longitudinal, 1 inch transverse
18. Weld plates for bulb-tee girders shall be placed 1/2 inch longitudinal, and
1/8 inch vertical
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)I
Tolerances
The Contractor shall check and record the horizontal alignment of both top and bot-
tom flanges of each girder upon removal of the girder from the casting bed. The
Contractor shall also check and record the horizontal alignment within a two-week
period prior to shipment, but no less than three days prior to shipment. If the gird-
er remains in storage for a period exceeding 120 days, the Contractor shall check and
record the horizontal alignment at approximately 120 days. Each check shall be made
by measuring the distance between each flange and a chord that extends the full
length of the girder. The Contractor shall perform and record each check at a time
when the alignment of the girder is not influenced by temporary differences in sur-
face temperature. These records shall be available for the Engineers inspection and
included in the Contractors Prestressed Concrete Certificate of Compliance.
Immediately after the girder is removed from the casting bed, neither flange shall be
offset more than 1/8 inch for each 10 feet of girder length. During storage and prior
to shipping, the offset (with girder ends plumb and upright and with no external
force) shall not exceed 1/4 inch per 10 feet of girder length. Any girder within this
tolerance may be shipped, but must be corrected at the job site to the 1/8 inch max-
imum offset per 10 feet of girder length before concrete is placed into the
diaphragms.
The Engineer may permit the use of external force to correct girder alignment at the
plant or job site if the Contractor provides stress calculations and a proposed proce-
dure. If external force is permitted, it shall not be released until after the roadway slab
has been placed and cured ten days.
The Contractor shall check and record the vertical deflection (camber) of each gird-
er upon removal of the girder from the casting bed. The Contractor shall also check
and record the vertical deflection (camber) within a two-week period prior to ship-
ment, but no less than three days prior to shipment. If the girder remains in storage
for a period exceeding 120 days, the Contractor shall check and record the vertical
deflection (camber) at approximately 120 days. The Contractor shall perform and
record each check at a time when the alignment of the girder is not influenced by
temporary differences in surface temperature. These records shall be available for the
Engineers inspection and included in the Contractors Prestressed Concrete
Certification of Compliance.
The D dimensions shown in the Plans are computed girder deflections at midspan
based on a time elapse of 120 days after release of the prestressing strands. A positive
(+) D dimension indicates upward deflection.
The Contractor shall control the deflection of prestressed concrete girders that are to
receive a cast-in-place slab by scheduling fabrication or other means. The actual gird-
er deflection at the midspan may vary from the D dimension at the time of slab
forming by a maximum of plus 1/2 inch for girder lengths up to 80 feet and plus 1
inch for girder lengths over 80 feet. The method used by the Contractor to control
the girder deflection shall not cause damage to the girders or any over stress when
checked in accordance with the AASHTO Specifications.
All costs, including any additional Contracting Agency engineering expenses, in con-
nection with controlling the girder deflection shall be borne by the Contractor.
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)J
Horizontal Alignment
6-02.3(25)K
Girder Deflection
6-02.3(25)M
Shipping
During handling and storage, each girder shall always be kept plumb and upright. It
shall be lifted only by the lifting strands at either end. Series W42G, W50G and
W58G girders can be picked up at a maximum angle of 30 degrees to the vertical
(measured in the longitudinal plane of the girder). All other prestressed girders shall
be picked up vertical. Girders shall be braced laterally to prevent tipping or buckling
as specified in the Plans.
Before moving a long girder, the Contractor shall check it for any tendency to buck-
ling. Each girder that may buckle shall be braced on the sides to prevent buckling.
This bracing shall be attached securely to the top flanges of the girder. The lateral
bracing shall be in place during all lifting or handling necessary for transportation
from the manufacturing plant to the job site and erection of the girder. The
Contractor is cautioned that for some delivery routes more conservative guidelines
for lateral bracing may be required. Before removing the bracing to cast diaphragms,
the Contractor shall fasten all girders in place by other means.
If the Contractor wishes to deviate from these handling and bracing requirements,
the vertical pickup, or the pickup location, the proposed method shall be analyzed
by the Contractors engineer and submitted with the supporting calculations to the
Engineer for approval. The Contractors analysis shall conform to Articles 5.2 and
5.3 of the PCI Design Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Third Edition, or
other approved methods. The Contractors calculations shall verify that the con-
crete stresses in the prestressed girder do not exceed those listed in Section
6-02.3(25)M.
If girders are to be stored, the Contractor shall place them on a stable foundation that
will keep them in a vertical position. Stored girders shall be supported at the bearing
recesses or, if there are no recesses, approximately 18 inches from the girder ends. For
long-term storage of girders with initial horizontal curvature, the Contractor may
wedge one side of the bottom flange, tilting the girders to control curvature. If the
Contractor elects to set girders out of plumb during storage, the Contractor shall
have the proposed method analyzed by the Contractors engineer to ensure against
damaging the girder.
After the girder has reached its 28-day design strength, and the fabricator believes it
to comply with the specification, the girder and a completed Certification of
Compliance (DOT 350-151), signed by a Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
Certified Technician or a professional engineer, acceptable to the Contracting
Agency, shall be presented to the Engineer for inspection. If the Engineer finds the
certification and the girder to be acceptable, the Engineer will stamp the girder
Approved for Shipment.
No prestressed girders shall be shipped that are not stamped Approved for Shipment.
No bulb-tee girder shall be shipped for at least seven days after concrete placement.
No other girder shall be shipped for at least ten days after concrete placement.
OCT 97
6-02.3(25)L
Handling and Storage
Girder support during shipping shall meet these requirements unless otherwise
shown in the Plans:
Centerline Support Within
Type of Girder This Distance From Either End
Series W42G and W50G and
all bulb-tee girders 3 feet
Series W58G 4 feet
Series W74G 5 feet
If the Contractor wishes to use other support locations, they may be proposed to the
Engineer for review and approval in accordance with Section 6-02.3(25)L. The
Contractors proposal shall include calculations showing that concrete stresses in the
girders will not exceed those listed below:
Criteria for Checking Girder Stresses at the Time of Lifting or Transporting and
Erecting
Stresses at both support and harping points shall be satisfied based on these criteria:
1. Allowable compression stress, f'
c
0.60 f'
cm
a. f'
cm
= compressive strength at time of lifting or transporting verified by
test but shall not exceed design compressive strength (f'
c
) at 28 days in
psi + 1,000 psi
2. Allowable tension stress, f
t
a. With no bonded reinforcement =
b. With bonded reinforcement to resist total tension force in the concrete
computed on the basis of an uncracked section = . The allowable
tensile stress in reinforcement is 30 ksi (AASHTO M-31, Gr. 60)
3. Prestress losses
a. 1 day to 1 month = 20,000 psi
b. 1 month to 1 year = 35,000 psi
c. 1 year or more = 45,000 psi (max.)
4. Impact on dead load
a. Lifting from casting beds = 0 percent
b. Transporting and erecting = 20 percent
Before beginning to erect any prestressed concrete girders, the Contractor shall sub-
mit to the Engineer for review and shall have received approval for the erection plan
and procedure describing the methods the Contractor intends to use. The erection
plan and procedure shall provide complete details of the erection process including
but not limited to:
1. Temporary falsework support, bracing, guys, deadmen and attachments to other
structure components or objects;
2. Procedure and sequence of operation;
3. Girder stresses during progressive stages of erection;
7 f
cm
.5

3 f
cm

OCT 97
6-02.3(25)N
Prestress Concrete
Girder Erection
6-02.3(25)O
Deck Bulb-Tee Girder
Flange Connection
4. Girder weights, lift points, and lifting devices, spreaders, angle of lifting strands
in accordance with Section 6-02.3(25)L, etc.;
5. Crane(s) make and model, weight, geometry, lift capacity, outrigger size and
reactions;
6. Girder launcher or trolley details and capacity (if intended for use); and
7. Locations of cranes, barges, trucks delivering girders, and the location of cranes
and outriggers relative to other structures, including retaining walls and wing
walls.
The erection plan shall include drawings, notes, catalog cuts, and calculations clear-
ly showing the above listed details, assumptions, and dimensions. Material proper-
ties and specifications, structural analysis, and any other data used shall also be
included. The plan shall be prepared by (or under the direct supervision of ) a
Professional Engineer, licensed under Title 18 RCW, State of Washington, in the
branch of Civil or Structural, and shall carry the engineers seal and signature, in
accordance with Section 6-02.3(16).
The Contractor shall submit the erection plans, calculations and procedures directly
to the Bridge and Structures Office, Construction Support Engineer, in accordance
with Section 6-02.3(16). After the plan is approved and returned to the Contractor,
all changes that the Contractor proposes shall be submitted to the Engineer for
review and approval.
When prestressed girders arrive on the project, the Project Engineer will confirm that
they are stamped Approved for Shipment and that they have not been damaged in
shipment before accepting them.
The concrete in piers and crossbeams shall reach at least 80 percent of design strength
before girders are placed on them. The Contractor shall hoist girders only by the lift-
ing strands at the ends, always keeping the girders plumb and upright.
Instead of the oak block wedges shown in the Plans, the Contractor may use Douglas
fir blocks if the grain is vertical.
Before the grout pads are placed, the concrete beneath them shall be thoroughly
cleaned, roughened, and wetted with water to ensure proper bonding. Pads shall be
kept wet continuously until they reach a compressive strength of at least 2,000 psi.
Grout pads shall reach this strength before girders are set on them. Grout compres-
sive strength will be determined by fabricating cubes in accordance with WSDOT
Test Method 813 and testing in accordance with AASHTO T-106.
The Contractor shall check the horizontal alignment of both the top and bottom
flanges of each girder before placing concrete in the bridge diaphragms as described
in Section 6-02.3(25)J.
The Contractor shall fill all block-out holes and patch any damaged area caused by
the Contractors operation, with an approved mix, to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
The Contractor shall submit a method of equalizing deck bulb-tee girder deflections
to the Engineer for approval. This submittal shall be prepared by, or under the direc-
tion of, a professional engineer licensed under Title 18 RCW, State of Washington,
and shall carry the engineers signature and seal. This submittal shall be made a min-
OCT 97
imum of 60 days prior to field erection of the deck bulb-tee girder. Deflection equal-
izing methods approved for previous Contracting Agency contracts will be acceptable
providing the bridge configuration is similar and the previous method was satisfac-
tory. A listing of the previous Contracting Agency contract numbers for which the
method was used shall be included with the submittal.
On the deck bulb-tee girders, girder deflection shall be equalized utilizing the
approved method before girders are weld-tied and before keyways are filled. Keyways
between the nonshrink grout shall have a compressive strength of 4,000 psi before
the equalizing equipment is removed. Compressive strength shall be determined by
fabricating cubes in accordance with WSDOT Test Method 813 and testing in accor-
dance with AASHTO T-106.
Welding grounds shall be attached directly to the steel plates being welded when
welding the weld-ties on bulb-tee girders.
No construction equipment shall be placed on the structure, other than equalizing
equipment, until the girders have been weld-tied and the keyway grout has attained
a compressive strength of 4,000 psi.
Intentionally Omitted.
Concrete for precast non-prestressed units shall meet all the requirements for a
Contractor-provided mix design and the following acceptance limits:
Maximum Slump 4 inches
Minimum Entrained Air 4 1/2 percent
Compressive Strength Specified Design Strength
If the design strength of the precast concrete is 4,000 psi or less, the Contractor may
use Contracting Agency provided mix design Class 4000 with air.
Precast units shall not be removed from forms until the concrete has attained a min-
imum compressive strength of 70 percent of the specified design strength as verified
by rebound number determined in accordance with ASTM C805.
Precast units shall not be shipped until the concrete has reached the specified design
strength as determined by testing cylinders made from the same concrete as the pre-
cast units. The cylinders shall be made, handled, and stored in accordance with
WSDOT Test Method 809 Method 2 and compression tested in accordance with
WSDOT Test Methods 801 and 811.
The Contractor shall perform quality control inspection. The manufacturing plant
for precast concrete units shall be certified by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institutes Plant Certification Program for the type of precast member to be produced
and shall be approved by WSDOT as a Certified Precast Concrete Fabricator prior
to the start of production. WSDOT Certification will be granted at, and renewed
during, the annual precast plant review and approval process. Products which shall
conform to this requirement include noise barrier panels, wall panels, floor and roof
panels, marine pier deck panels, retaining walls, pier caps and bridge deck panels.
OCT 97
6-02.3(26)
Cast-In-Place
Prestressed Concrete
6-02.3(27)
Concrete for Precast Units
6-02.3(28)
Precast Concrete Panels
6-02.3(28)A
Shop Drawings
Prior to the start of production of the precast concrete units, the Contractor shall
advise the Engineer of the production schedule. The Contractor shall give the
Inspector safe and free access to the work. If the Inspector observes any nonspecifi-
cation work or unacceptable quality control practices, the Inspector will advise the
plant manager. If the corrective action is not acceptable to the Engineer, the units(s)
will be rejected.
The Contracting Agency intends to perform Quality Assurance Inspection. By its
inspection, the Contracting Agency intends only to facilitate the work and verify the
quality of that work. This inspection shall not relieve the Contractor of any respon-
sibility for identifying and replacing defective material and workmanship.
If products are prestressed, all prestressing materials and methods shall be in accor-
dance with Section 6-02.3(25).
Before casting the structural elements, the Contractor shall submit:
1. Seven sets of shop drawings for approval by the Bridge and Structures Engineer,
Department of Transportation, Transportation Building, Olympia, WA 98504;
and,
2. Two sets of shop drawings to the Project Engineer.
These shop drawings shall show complete details of the methods, materials and
equipment the Contractor proposes to use in prestressing/precasting work. The shop
drawings shall follow the design conditions shown the Plans unless the Engineer
approves equally effective variations.
The shop drawings shall contain as a minimum:
1. Unit shapes (elevations and sections) and dimensions.
2. Finishes and method of constructing the finish (i.e., forming, rolling, etc.)
3. Reinforcing, joint, and connection details.
4. Lifting, bracing, and erection inserts.
5. Locations and details of hardware attached to the structure.
6. Relationship to adjacent material.
Approval of these shop drawings shall not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for
accuracy of the drawings or conformity with the Contract. Approval will not indicate
a check on dimensions.
The Contractor may deviate from the approved shop drawings only after obtaining
the engineers approval of a written request that describes the proposed changes.
Approval of a change in method, material or equipment shall not relieve the
Contractor of any responsibility for completing the work successfully.
Before completion of the Contract, the Contractor shall provide the Engineer with
reproducible originals of the shop drawings (and any approved changes). These shall
be clear, suitable for microfilming, and on permanent sheets that conform with the
size requirements of Section 6-01.9.
OCT 97
Before casting precast concrete units, the Contractor and Fabrication Inspector shall
have possession of an approved set of shop drawings.
All concrete mixes to be used shall be preapproved in the WSDOT plant certification
process, and shall meet all the requirements for a Contractor provided mix design
with the following acceptance limits:
Minimum Slump 4 inches
Maximum Slump 6 inches
Entrained Air Per Section 6-02.3(3)A
Compressive Strength Specified Design Strength
If the design strength of the precast concrete is 4,000 psi or less, the Contractor may
use Contracting Agency-provided mix design Class 4000 with air.
Precast units shall not be removed from forms until the concrete has attained a min-
imum compressive strength of 70 percent of the specified design strength.
Forms may be steel or plywood faced, providing they impart the required Finish to
the concrete.
Concrete in the precast units shall be cured by either moist or accelerated curing
methods. The methods to be used shall be preapproved in the WSDOT plant certi-
fication process.
1. For moist curing, the surface of the concrete shall be kept covered or moist until
such time as the compressive strength of the concrete reaches the strength speci-
fied for stripping. Exposed surfaces shall be kept continually moist by fogging,
spraying or covering with moist burlap or cotton mats. Moist curing shall com-
mence as soon as possible following completion of surface finishing.
2. For accelerated curing, heat shall be applied at a controlled rate following the ini-
tial set of concrete in combination with an effective method of supplying or retain-
ing moisture. Moisture may be applied by a cover of moist burlap, cotton matting
or other effective means. Moisture may be retained by covering the unit with an
impermeable sheet.
Heat may be radiant or convection or conducted stream of hot air. Heat the concrete
to no more than 100F during the first two hours after pouring the concrete, and
then increase no more than 25F per hour to a maximum of 175F. After curing is
complete, cool the concrete no more than 25F per hour to 100F. Maintain the con-
crete temperature above 60F until the unit reaches stripping strength.
Concrete temperature shall be monitored by means of a thermocouple embedded in
the concrete (linked with a thermometer accurate to plus or minus 5 F). The record-
ing sensor (accurate to plus or minus 5 F) shall be arranged and calibrated to con-
tinuously record, date and identify concrete temperature throughout the heating
cycle. This temperature record shall be made available to the Engineer for inspection
and become a part of the documentation required.
The Contractor shall never allow dry heat to directly touch exposed unit surfaces at
any point.
OCT 97
6-02.3(28)B
Casting
6-02.3(28)C
Curing
6-02.3(28)E
Finishing
6-02.3(28)F
Tolerances
6-02.3(28)G
Handling and Storage
The concrete strength at stripping and the verification of design strength shall be
determined by testing cylinders made from the same concrete as that in the precast
units. The cylinders shall be made, handled, and stored in accordance with WSDOT
Test Method 809 Method 2 and compression tested in accordance with WSDOT test
Methods 801 and 811.
For accelerated-cured units, concrete strength shall be measured on test cylinders cast
from the same concrete as that in the unit. These cylinders shall be cured under time-
temperature relationships and conditions that simulate those of the unit. If the forms
are heated by steam or hot air, test cylinders will remain in the coolest zone through-
out curing. If forms are heated another way, the Contractor shall provide a record of
the curing time-temperature relationship for the cylinders for each unit to the
Engineer. When two or more units are cast in a continuous line and in a continuous
pour, a single set of test cylinders may represent all units provided the Contractor
demonstrates uniformity of casting and curing to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
The Contractor shall mold, cure and test enough of these cylinders to satisfy specifi-
cation requirements for measuring concrete strength. The Contractor may use 4-inch
by 8-inch or 6-inch by 12-inch cylinders. The required design strength shall be
increased 5 percent when using 4-inch by 8-inch cylinders. This 5 percent increase
will not be applied for the determination of the stripping strength. The Contractor
shall let cylinders cool for at least one-half hour before testing for release strength.
Test cylinders may be cured in a moist room and water tank in accordance with
AASHTO T-23 after the unit concrete has obtained the required release strength. If,
however, the Contractor intends to ship the unit prior to standard 28-day strength
test, the design strength for shipping shall be determined from cylinders placed with
the unit and cured under the same conditions as the unit. These cylinders may be
placed in a noninsulated, moisture-proof envelope.
To measure concrete strength in the precast unit, the Contractor shall randomly
select two test cylinders and average their compressive strengths. The compressive
strength in either cylinder shall not fall more than 5 percent below the specified
strength. If these two cylinders do not pass the test, two other cylinders shall be
selected and tested.
The Contractor shall provide a finish on all relevant concrete surfaces as defined in
Section 6-02.3(14), unless the Plans or Special Provisions require otherwise.
The units shall be fabricated as shown in the Plans, and shall meet the dimensional
tolerances listed in PCI MNL-116-85, unless otherwise required by the Plans or
Special Provisions.
The Contractor shall lift all units only by adequate devices at locations designated on
the shop drawings. When these devices and locations are not shown in the Plans,
Section 6-02.3(25)L shall apply.
Precast units shall be stored off the ground on foundations suitable to prevent differ-
ential settlement or twisting of the units. Stacked units shall be separated and sup-
ported by dunnage of uniform thickness capable of supporting the units. Dunnage
shall be arranged in vertical planes. The upper units of a stacked tier shall not be used
as storage areas for shorter units unless substantiated by engineering analysis and
approved by the Engineer.
OCT 97
6-02.3(28)D
Contractors Control
Strength
Precast units shall not be shipped until the concrete has reached the specified design
strength. The units shall be supported in such a manner that they will not be dam-
aged by anticipated impact on their dead load. Sufficient padding material shall be
provided between tie chains and cables to prevent chipping or spalling of the con-
crete.
When the precast units arrive on the project, the Project Engineer will confirm that
they are stamped Approved for Shipment. The Project engineer will evaluate the
units for damage before accepting them.
The Contractor shall lift all units by suitable devices at locations designated on the
shop drawings. Temporary shoring or bracing shall be provided, if necessary. Units
shall be properly aligned and leveled as required by the Plans. Variations between
adjacent units shall be leveled by a method approved by the Engineer.
OCT 97
6-02.3(28)I
Erection
6-02.3(28)H
Shipping
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX E
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL GLOSSARY
OCT 97
Accelerated curing Curing of concrete, mortar, grout or neat cement paste at an elevated temperature
using live steam or radiant heat.
Active earth pressure Lateral pressure resulting from the earth being retained by a structure or component,
which is tending to move away from the soil mass.
Active earth wedge Wedge of earth with a tendency to move if not retained by a structure or component.
Adjacent box beams Precast, prestressed concrete box beams that are set side-by-side.
Admixture A material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement and fiber reinforcement,
used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar and added to the batch immediately
before or during its mixing.
Aeroelastic vibration Periodic, elastic response of a structure to wind pressure.
Agency A public entity that issues design/construction specifications. Usually the federal gov-
ernment or a state, county or municipal government or entity created by legislation
such as a tollroad, through-way or port authority.
Alkali-aggregate reaction Chemical reaction in either mortar or concrete between alkalies (sodium and potassi-
um) from portland cement or other sources and certain constituents of some aggre-
gates; under certain conditions, deleterious expansion of concrete or mortar may
result.
Allowable stress In working stress design, the maximum stress permitted for a specified condition.
Analysis A mathematical process by which structural deformations, forces and stresses are
determined.
Anchorage In post-tensioning, a mechanical device used to anchor the stressed tendon to the
concrete; in pretensioning, a device used to anchor the tendon until the concrete has
reached a predetermined strength and the prestressing force has been transferred to
the concrete; for reinforcing bars, a length of reinforcement, or a mechanical anchor
or hook, or combination thereof, at the end of a bar needed to transfer the force car-
ried by the bar into the concrete.
Anchorage blister A built-out area in the web, flange or flange-web junction for the incorporation of
tendon anchorage fittings.
Anchorage seating Deformation of anchorage or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestress-
ing force is transferred from jack to anchorage device.
Anchorage zone The portion of the structure in which the prestressing force is transferred from the
anchorage device onto the local zone of the concrete, and then distributed more wide-
ly into the general zone of the structure.
Aspect ratio Ratio between length and width of a rectangle.
At Jacking See Jacking.
At loading See Loading.
At transfer See Transfer.
Axle unit Single axle or tandem axle.
Beam A longitudinal stringer used primarily for relatively short spans; used interchangeably
with stringer or girder.
Berm An earthwork used to redirect or slow down impinging vehicles or vessels; also used
to stabilize fill, embankment or soft ground and cut slopes.
Blanketing See Debonding.
Bleeding The autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed
concrete or mortar, caused by the settlement of the solid materials within the mass.
Bonded tendon Prestressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or through grouting.
4739 Bridge Manual APPENDIX E 6/30/03 3:41 PM Page 1
OCT 97
Bracket (or Corbel) Short (haunched) cantilever that projects from the face of a column or wall to sup-
port a concentrated load or beam reaction.
Bridle strand (lead strand) In a production plant, prestressing strand which is not embedded in a precast con-
crete member but extends from near the end of the member(s), through the end of
the casting bed. It is reused for each cast by splicing it to the end of the production
strand, which is embedded in, and extends a short distance out of the member.
Bursting force Tensile forces in the concrete in the vicinity of post-tensioning anchorages caused by
the transfer of prestressing forces.
Cast-in-place concrete Concrete placed in its final location in the structure while still in a plastic state.
Cementitious materials Materials having cementing properties such as portland cement, blast furnace slag, fly
ash, silica fume, and metakaolin.
Centrifugal force A lateral force resulting from a change in direction of the movement of a vehicle.
Closely spaced anchorages Anchorage devices are defined as closely spaced if their center-to-center spacing does
not exceed 1.5 times the width of the anchorage devices in the direction considered.
Closure A placement of cast-in-place concrete used to connect two or more previously cast
portions of a structure.
Coating Material used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction
between tendon and duct, or to debond prestressing tendons.
Coefficient of thermal expansion Increase or decrease in linear dimension per unit length or increase or decease in vol-
ume per unit volume per degree of temperature increase or decrease, respectively.
Composite construction Concrete components or concrete and steel components interconnected to respond
to force effects as a unit.
Compressive strength Specified compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square inch, psi.
of concrete (f
c)
Concrete cover The specified distance between the surface of the reinforcing bars, strands, post-ten-
sioning ducts, anchorages or other embedded items, and the surface of the concrete.
Concrete, structural lightweight A concrete containing lightweight aggregate having an air-dry unit weight as deter-
mined by Method of Test for Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight Concrete
(ASTM C 567), not exceeding 115 pcf. In this specification, a lightweight concrete
without natural sand is termed all-lightweight concrete and one in which all fine
aggregate consists of normal weight sand is termed sand-lightweight concrete.
Confinement A condition where the disintegration of the concrete under compression is prevented
by lateral and/or circumferential reinforcement.
Confinement, anchorage Anchorage for a post-tensioning tendon that functions on the basis of containment
of the concrete in the local anchorage zone by special reinforcement.
Corbel see Bracket.
Couplers (couplings) Means by which prestressing force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing
tendon to another.
Creep of concrete Time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load.
Curvature friction Friction resulting from the tendon moving against the duct when tensioning, due to
bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
Debonding (blanketing) Wrapping, sheathing, or coating prestressing strand to prevent bond between strand
and surrounding concrete.
Deck A component of a bridge superstructure, with or without wearing surface.
Deck slab A solid concrete slab, resisting and distributing wheel loads to the supporting com-
ponents.
OCT 97
Decompression The stage at which the compressive stresses, induced by prestress, are overcome by the
tensile stresses.
Deep component Components in which the distance from the point of 0.0 shear to the face of the sup-
port is less than 2d, or components in which a load causing more than one-third of
the shear at a support is closer than 2d from the face of the support.
Deep draft waterways A navigable waterway used by merchant ships with loaded drafts of 14-60 ft.
Deformed reinforcement Deformed reinforcing bars, deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric, and welded
deformed wire fabric.
Design lane A notional traffic lane positioned transversely on the roadway.
Design load All applicable loads and forces or their related internal moments and forces used to
proportion members. For design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN, design load refers
to loads without load factors. For design by STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD,
design load refers to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
Design strength Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor, .
Design water depth Depth of water at mean high water.
Development length Length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of the
reinforcement at a critical section.
Deviation saddle A concrete block built-out in a web, flange or web-flange junction, cast monolithi-
cally with the segment, to control the geometry of, or to provide a means for chang-
ing direction of external tendons.
Distortion Change in structural geometry.
Dolphin Protective object, which may have its own fender system, usually circular in plan, and
structurally independent from the bridge.
Duct Hole or void formed in a prestressed concrete member to accommodate a tendon for
post-tensioning.
Durability The ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and
other conditions of service.
Dynamic load allowance An increase in the applied static force effects to account for the dynamic interaction
between the bridge and moving vehicles.
Edge distance The minimum distance between the centerline of reinforcement or other embedded
elements and the edge of the concrete.
Effective depth The depth of a component effective in resisting flexural or shear forces; as for d and d
v
.
Effective prestress Stress remaining in concrete due to prestressing after all calculated losses have been
deducted, excluding effects of superimposed loads and weight of member; stress
remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred excluding effects of
dead load and superimposed load.
Elastic shortening of concrete Shortening of member caused by application of forces induced by prestressing.
Embedment An object, usually metal, plastic or wood, intentionally cast into concrete and used to
lift the member, provide a hole or sleeve in the member, or to make a welded or bolt-
ed attachment to the member.
Embedment length The length of reinforcement or anchorage provided beyond a critical section over
which transfer of force between concrete and reinforcement may occur.
End anchorage Length of reinforcement, or mechanical anchor, or hook, or combination thereof,
beyond point of zero stress in reinforcement; mechanical device to transmit pre-
stressing force to concrete in a post-tensioned member.
End block Enlarged end section of a member designed to reduce anchorage stresses.
OCT 97
Equivalent fluid A notional substance whose density is such that it would exert the same pressure as
the soil it is seen to replace for computational purposes.
Exposed A condition in which a portion of a bridge's substructure or superstructure is subject
to physical contact by any portion of a colliding vessel's bow, deckhouse or mast.
External tendon A post-tensioning tendon placed outside of the body of concrete, usually inside a box
girder.
Extreme A maximum or a minimum.
Factored load Load, multiplied by appropriate load factors, used to proportion members by the
strength design method.
Fatigue strength The greatest stress which can be sustained for a given number of stress cycles without
failure.
Fender Protection hardware attached to the structural component to be protected, or used to
delineate channels or to redirect aberrant vessels.
Fiber reinforced Reinforcement made with a resin matrix containing continuous fibers that work
plastic reinforcement together as a single element.
Finite element method A method of analysis in which a structure is discretized into elements connected at
nodes, the shape of the element displacement field is assumed, partial or complete
compatibility is maintained among the element interfaces, and nodal displacements
are determined by using energy variational principles or equilibrium methods.
Flexible duct A loosely interlocked duct which can be coiled into a 4.0 ft diameter without damage.
Fly ash The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal
and which is transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue gases.
Force effects A deformation or a stress resultant, i.e., thrust, shear, torque and/or moment, caused
by applied loads, imposed deformations or volumetric changes.
Form A mold into which fresh concrete is placed to fabricate a specified shape.
Frazil ice Ice resulting from turbulent water flow.
Friction (post-tensioning) Surface resistance between tendon and duct in contact during tensioning (also, see
Curvature friction).
General zone Region adjacent to a post-tensioning anchorage within which the prestressing force
spreads out to an essentially linear stress distribution over the cross-section of the
component.
Girder The main longitudinal superstructural element. The term is used primarily for I- and
box-section bridges of relatively long span; used interchangeably with stringer or
beam.
Global Pertinent to the entire superstructure or to the whole bridge.
Grillage analysis method A method of analysis in which all or part of the superstructure is discretized into
orthotropic components that represent the characteristics of the structure.
Grout A mixture of cementitious material and water, with or without aggregate, propor-
tioned to produce a consistency without segregation of the constituents. The consis-
tency may range from that required for pouring to that required for dry packing.
Grout opening (vent) Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in post-tensioning duct for grout, water, or air.
Heat of hydration Heat evolved by chemical reactions with water, such as that evolved during the set-
ting and hardening of portland cement, or the difference between the heat of solu-
tion of dry cement and that of partially hydrated cement.
High performance concrete Concrete that meets special performance and uniformity requirements including: ease
of placement and consolidation without affecting strength; long-term mechanical
properties; early high strength; toughness; volume stability; and, longer life in severe
environments.
Honeycomb Voided or unsound area of concrete resembling the cellular structure of a honeycomb.
May exist at the face of formed surfaces or internally and is caused by incomplete
vibration or consolidation often in combination with restrictions to the placement of
concrete caused by the close spacing of reinforcement or other obstructions.
Influence surface A continuous or discretized function over a bridge deck whose value at a point, mul-
tiplied by a load acting normal to the deck at that point, yields the force effect being
sought.
Intermediate anchorage Anchorage not located at the end surface of a member or segment for tendons that
do not extend over the entire length of the member or segment; usually in the form
of embedded anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess pockets.
Internal tendon A post-tensioning tendon placed within the body of concrete.
Isotropic reinforcement An arrangement of reinforcement in which the bars are orthogonal and the rein-
forcement ratios in the two directions are equal.
Jacking (at jacking) Tensioning of the prestressing tendons; at the time of tensioning.
Jacking force The force exerted by the device, which introduces tension into the prestressing tendons.
Knot A velocity of 1.1508 mph.
Lane live load The combination of tandem axle and uniformly distributed loads, or the combina-
tion of the design truck and design uniformly distributed load.
Launching bearing Temporary bearings with low friction characteristics used for construction of bridges
by the segmental launching method.
Launching nose Temporary steel assembly attached to the front of an incrementally launched bridge
to reduce superstructure force effects during launching.
Lever rule The statical summation of moments about one point to calculate the reaction at a sec-
ond point.
Lightweight concrete Concrete containing lightweight aggregate and having an air-dry unit weight not
exceeding 135 pcf, as determined by ASTM C-567.
Liquefaction The loss of shear strength in a saturated soil due to excess hydrostatic pressure. In sat-
urated, cohesionless soils, such a strength loss can result from loads that are applied
instantaneously or cyclically, particularly in loose fine to medium sands that are uni-
formly graded.
Load The effect of acceleration, including that due to gravity, imposed deformation or vol-
umetric change.
Load factor A coefficient expressing the probability of variations in the nominal load for the
expected service life of the bridge.
Loading (at loading) The time when loads are applied. Such loads include prestressing forces and perma-
nent loads, but generally not live loads; refers to the maturity of the concrete at the
time of loading.
Local Pertinent to a component or subassembly or components.
Local zone The volume of concrete surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device,
subjected to high compressive stresses.
Loss of prestress Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete
and steel, including effects of elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete,
relaxation of steel stress, and for post-tensioned members, friction and anchorage
seating.
Low-relaxation steel Prestressing strand in which the steel relaxation losses have been substantially reduced
by stretching at an elevated temperature during manufacture.
Method of analysis A mathematical process by which structural deformations, forces and stresses are
determined.
OCT 97
OCT 97
Mode of vibration A shape of dynamic deformation associated with a frequency of vibration.
Modulus of elasticity The ratio of uniaxial normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive
stress below the proportional limit of a material.
Modulus of rupture A measure of the ultimate load-carrying capacity of a plain concrete beam and some-
times referred to as rupture modulus or rupture strength. It is calculated as the appar-
ent tensile stress in the extreme fiber of a test specimen under the load which pro-
duces rupture.
Multi-beam bridge deck A bridge constructed with precast, prestressed concrete beams that are placed side-by-
side on the supports.
Navigable waterway A waterway, determined by the U.S. Coast Guard as being suitable for interstate or
foreign commerce, as described in 33CFR205-25.
Node A point where finite elements or grid components meet; in conjunction with finite
differences, a point where the governing differential equations are satisfied.
Nominal load An arbitrarily selected design load level.
Nominal strength Strength of a member or cross-section calculated in accordance with provisions and
assumptions of the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD before application of any
strength reduction factors.
Normally consolidated soil A soil for which the current overburden pressure is the greatest that has been experienced.
Normal-weight concrete Concrete having a weight between 135 and 160 pcf.
Orthotropic Perpendicular to each other; having physical properties which differ in two or more
orthogonal directions.
Overconsolidated soil A soil which has been under greater overburden pressure than currently exists.
Overconsolidation ratio OCR equals Maximum Preconsolidation Pressure divided by Overburden Pressure.
Overlay A layer of portland cement or asphaltic concrete placed on a new or existing bridge
deck or roadway and used as a wearing or leveling course or both. Portland cement
concrete overlays may be non-composite or bonded to the underlying deck, with or
without connecting reinforcement, to increase the structural depth and capacity of
the section.
Partially debonded strand A prestressing strand that is bonded for a portion of its length and intentionally
debonded elsewhere through the use of mechanical or chemical means. Also called
shielded or blanketed strand.
Partially prestressed concrete Concrete with a combination of tensioned prestressing strands and reinforcing bars.
Passive earth pressure Lateral pressure resulting from the earth resisting the lateral movement of a structure
or component into the soil mass.
Permanent loads Loads and forces which are, or assumed to be, constant upon completion of con-
struction.
Permeability The ability of concrete to resist penetration of liquids and gases.
Permit vehicle Any vehicle whose right to travel is administratively restricted in any way due to its
weight or size.
Plain reinforcement Reinforcement that does not conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
Post-tensioning A method of prestressing concrete whereby the tendon is kept from bonding to the
plastic (wet) concrete, then elongated and anchored directly against the hardened
concrete, imparting stresses through end bearing.
Post-tensioning duct A form device used to provide a path for post-tensioning tendons or bars in hardened
concrete. The following types are in general use: see flexible, rigid, semi-rigid duct.
OCT 97
Pozzolan A siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious value in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemical-
ly reacts with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds pos-
sessing cementitious properties.
Precast members Concrete elements cast in a location other than their final position.
Precompressed zone Portion of flexural member cross-section compressed by prestressing force.
Prestressed concrete Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce poten-
tial tensile stresses in concrete resulting from loads.
Prestressing steel High strength steel used to prestress concrete and consisting of seven-wire strands,
single wires, bars, rods, or groups of wires or strands.
Pretensioning A method of prestressing concrete whereby the tendons are elongated, anchored while
the concrete in the member is cast, and released when the concrete is strong enough
to receive the forces from the tendon through bond.
Quality assurance Actions taken by an owner or his representative to provide assurance that what is
being done and what is being provided are in accordance with the applicable stan-
dards of good practice for the work.
Quality control Actions taken by a manufacturer or contractor to provide control over what is being
done and what is being provided so that the applicable standards of good practice for
the work are followed.
Radiant heat curing Curing of concrete, mortar, grout or neat cement paste at an elevated temperature
using heat applied by means of pipes circulating steam, oil or hot water, by electric
blankets or heating elements or by circulating warm air.
Reinforcement Bats, wires, strands, or other slender members, which are embedded in concrete in
such a manner that they and the concrete act together in resisting forces.
Relaxation (of tendon stress) Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
Release strength (prestress release, The strength of concrete when the strands are detensioned in pretensioned members.
prestress release strength)
Reliability index A quantitative assessment of safety expressed as the ratio of the difference between the
mean resistance and mean force effect to the combined standard deviation of resis-
tance and force effect.
Required strength Strength of a member or cross-section required to resist factored loads or related inter-
nal moments and forces in such combinations as are stipulated in Article 3.22.
Rigid duct (post-tensioning) Seamless tubing stiff enough to limit the deflection of a 20.0 ft length supported at
its ends to not more than 1.0 in.
Roadway width Clear space between barriers and/or curbs.
Sand-lightweight concrete A class of lightweight concrete containing lightweight coarse aggregate and natural
sand fine aggregate.
Segmental component A component made up of individual elements, either precast or cast-in-place and
post-tensioned together to act as a monolithic unit under loads.
Semi-rigid duct (post-tensioning) A corrugated duct of metal or plastic sufficiently stiff to be regarded as not coilable
into conventional shipping coils without damage.
Service load Loads without load factors.
Setting temperature An average temperature for the structure used to determine the dimensions of a struc-
ture when a component is added or set in place.
Shallow draft waterways A navigable waterway used primarily by barge vessels with loaded drafts of less than 9-10 ft.
Shear friction A recognized concept used in the design of areas with shear forces that achieves duc-
tility by placing reinforcement across an anticipated crack so that the tension devel-
oped by the reinforcing bars will provide a force normal to the crack. This normal
force in combination with friction at the crack interface provides the shear resis-
tance.
Shear lag Nonuniform distribution of stress over the cross-section.
Shrinkage of concrete Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes
(hydration process).
Skew angle Smaller angle between the centerline of a support and a line normal to the roadway
centerline.
Slab A component having a width of at least four times its effective depth.
Spacing of beams The center-to-center distance between beams.
Special anchorage device Anchorage device whose adequacy should be proven in a standardized acceptance test.
Most multi-plane anchorages and all bond anchorages are Special Anchorage Devices.
Specified strength of concrete The nominal compressive strength of concrete specified for the work and assumed for
design and analysis of new structures.
Splice Connection of one reinforcing bar to another by lapping, welding, mechanical cou-
plers or other means; connection of welded wire reinforcement by lapping; connec-
tion of a length of prestressing strand to another using special chucks; connection of
piles by mechanical couplers.
Spiral reinforcement Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical or rectangular helix.
Splitting tensile strength The tensile strength of concrete, determined by a splitting test made in accordance
with ASTM C496.
Spread box beams Precast, prestressed concrete box beams that are placed on the substructure with a
space between them that requires a formed structural topping (deck slab).
Steam curing Curing of concrete, mortar, grout or neat-cement paste in water vapor at atmospher-
ic pressure and at a maximum temperature between about 100 F and 200 F.
Stirrups or ties Lateral reinforcement formed of individual units, open or closed, or of continuously
wound reinforcement. The term stirrups is usually applied to lateral reinforcement
in horizontal members and the term ties to those in vertical members.
Stress range The algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stresses due to tran-
sient loads.
Stringer A bridge superstructure element which is repeated in the superstructure, primarily in
the longitudinal direction but occasionally in the transverse direction; used inter-
changeably with beam or girder.
Structural mass concrete Any large volume of concrete where special materials or procedures are required to
cope with the generation of heat of hydration and attendant volume change to min-
imize cracking or concrete degradation.
Structurally continuous barrier A barrier, or any part thereof, which is interrupted only at deck points.
Strut-and-tie model A model used principally in regions of concentrated forces and geometric disconti-
nuities to determine concrete proportions and reinforcement quantities and patterns
based on assumed compression struts in the concrete, tensile ties in the reinforcement
and the geometry of nodes at their points of intersection.
Substructure Structural parts of the bridge, which support the horizontal span.
Sulfate attack Either a chemical or a physical reaction or both between sulfates usually in soil or
ground water and concrete or mortar; the chemical reaction is primarily with calcium
aluminate hydrates in the cement-paste matrix, often causing deterioration.
Superstructure Structural parts of the bridge, which provide the horizontal span.
OCT 97
OCT 97
Surcharge A load used to model the weight of earth fill or other loads applied to the top of the
retained material.
Tandem Two closely spaced axles usually connected to the same under-carriage which
enhances the equalization of load between the axles.
Temperature Gradient Variation of temperature of the concrete throughout the cross-section.
Tendon A tensioned element, generally high-strength steel wires, strands, or bars, used to
impart prestress to the concrete. In post-tensioned concrete, the complete assembly
of prestressing steel, anchorages and sheathing, when required, is also called a tendon.
Tension tie member Member having an axial tensile force sufficient to create tension over the entire cross-
section and having limited concrete cover on all sides. Examples include: arch ties,
hangers carrying load to an overhead supporting structure, and main tension ele-
ments in a truss.
Thermal expansion See Coefficient of thermal expansion.
Ties See Stirrups.
Ton (short) 2,000 lb (U.S. measure).
Tonne (metric) 2,205 lb.
Transfer (at transfer) Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to
concrete member; immediately after the transfer of prestressing force to the concrete.
Transfer length Length over which prestressing force is transferred to concrete by bond in preten-
sioned members.
Transverse reinforcement Reinforcement used to resist shear, torsion, and lateral forces or provide confinement of
concrete in a structural member. The terms stirrups and web reinforcement are usu-
ally applied to transverse reinforcement in flexural members and the terms ties, hoops
and spirals are applied to transverse reinforcement in compression members.
Type A joints Cast-in-place joints of wet concrete and/or epoxy between precast units.
Type B joints Dry joints between precast units.
Vent See Grout opening.
Wall friction angle An angle whose arctangent represents the apparent friction between a wall and a soil
mass.
Water-cement ratio The ratio of the amount of water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregates,
to the amount of cement in a concrete, mortar, grout, or cement paste mixture;
preferably stated as a decimal by mass and abbreviated w/c.
Water-cementitious The ratio of the amount of water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregate, to
materials ratio the amount of cementitious materials in a concrete or mortar mixture.
Welded wire reinforcement A series of longitudinal and transverse wires arranged substantially at right angles to
each other and welded together at all points of intersection.
Wheel Single or dual tire at one end of an axle.
Wheel line A transverse or longitudinal grouping of wheels.
Wheel load One-half of a specified design axle load.
Wobble friction Friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its spec-
ified profile or alignment.
Workability That property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease with
which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.
Wrapping or sheathing Enclosure around a prestressing tendon to avoid temporary or permanent bond
between prestressing tendon and surrounding concrete.
Yield strength The specified yield strength of reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
PCI PLANT
CERTIFICATION
Standards
Production Experience
Quality System Manual
Audits/Auditors
Closing Meeting/Reports
Grades
Since 1967, the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) has been a leader in the
development of innovative quality programs. It was 1967 that saw the beginning of
the PCI Plant Certification Program, a program that would set the pace for other
construction-related certification programs that followed in later years (Duggleby,
1992). In 1985, PCI implemented its Plant Quality Personnel Certification Program
and in 1999, introduced the Certified Field Auditor and Field Qualification
Programs for erectors of precast concrete (Shutt, 2000).
With the ever-increasing demand for quality, the certification of manufacturers, erec-
tors and personnel provides the customer the assurance that quality systems are being
followed, personnel are qualified and control is practiced through each step of the con-
struction process. Independent, unannounced audits help to assure process control.
The certification of a manufacturing plant by PCI ensures that the plant has devel-
oped and documented an in-depth, in-house quality system that is based on time-
tested national industry standards.
Production and quality standards are contained in the PCI publication, Manual for
Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products
(MNL-116). This manual has been recognized by the construction industry as the
standard for the manufacture of precast and prestressed concrete since it was first
printed in 1970. MNL-116 is the only such recognized national standard for the
industry.
Each company must have at least one year of production experience in order to qual-
ify for certification.
Every plant must document their specific practices in a custom Quality Systems
Manual (QSM). The requirements for the QSM are contained in Division 1 and
Appendix A of MNL-116. Fifteen separate sections require that all operations in the
plant be addressed thoroughly by management. Each QSM must be approved by PCI
prior to certification and must then be reviewed annually and updated if necessary.
Plants can obtain additional assistance for compiling a QSM in the PCI publication
Preparation Guidelines for a Structural Plant Quality System Manual (2000).
Nearly all new plants undergo a Precertification Evaluation after which a plant is
audited twice each year. These audits are not announced in advance. Auditors are
independent, specially trained engineers. They are employed by a single consulting
engineering firm under contract to PCI, which ensures consistency for every plant
(Shutt, 1994).
Every audit ends with a closing meeting. Auditors and key plant personnel meet to
review preliminary results. If improvements are needed, they can be started right
away. Later, a detailed written analysis documents observations and reasons for
required improvements. The report also includes a numerical grade sheet that indi-
cates the level of compliance with the standards.
The numerical grade sheet is organized with each section of the gradesheet corre-
sponding to a division (chapter) of MNL-116. During an audit, each division is eval-
uated separately. Grades in each division must meet or exceed an established mini-
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX F
PCI CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS
SEPT 01 1
5970 Bridge Manual APPENDIX F 9/21/01 11:11 AM Page 1
mum value. Then, the grades for all divisions are combined into an overall grade. A
minimum overall grade must also be achieved for certification. Audits are evaluated
on a strict pass-fail criteria. A failing grade requires a Special Immediate Audit.
Failure of that audit or the subsequent Regular Audit results in loss of Certification.
A plant is evaluated and classified according to the type of products produced. This
allows for a more product-specific inspection and analysis of a plants specialized
capabilities. It provides specifiers with more information about the production expe-
rience of precast plants.
Plants, including bridge products producers, may be certified in up to four general
groups of products. The manuals listed in parenthesis contain the standards for cer-
tification in that Group.
Architectural Concrete Products (MNL-117)
Bridge Products (MNL-116) or the combination of the A and B Product Groups
(MNL-116)
Commercial (Structural) Products (MNL-116) or the combination of the A and C
Product Groups (MNL-116)
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Products (MNL-130)
The Product Groups are further divided into Categories that define a products rein-
forcement or the ways in which the products are manufactured or used. Product
Categories that include prestressing may incorporate pretensioning or post-tension-
ing or both. Bridge products producers must be certified in one Category from
Group B or Group BA.
B1 Precast Bridge Products (no prestressed reinforcement)
Examples include pile caps, retaining wall components, three-sided boxes or
arches, median barriers, parapet walls, railings, fascia panels, abutment panels,
sound barriers, pier columns, pier caps, precast diaphragms and conventionally-
reinforced segmental units, and partial- and full-depth deck panels.
B2 Prestressed Deck and Miscellaneous Bridge Products (non-superstructure)
Examples include prestressed (pretensioned or plant post-tensioned) pier
columns, pier beams, sound walls, fascia panels, piles, sheet piles, partial-
and full-depth deck panels.
B3 Prestressed Straight-Strand Bridge Beams (superstructure)
Examples include solid-slab beams, voided slabs, box beams, I-beams, bulb-
tees, double tees, multiple-stemmed units, box beam segments with preten-
sioned or plant post-tensioned prestressing.
B4 Prestressed Deflected-Strand Bridge Beams (superstructure)
Examples include box beams, I-beams, bulb-tees, double tees, multiple-
stemmed units and plant post-tensioned precast beams with draped tendons.
Group B Category products with an architectural finish
(see additional information that follows)
B1A Precast Bridge Products with Architectural Finish (no prestressed reinforcement)
B2A Prestressed Miscellaneous Bridge Products with Architectural Finish (non-
superstructure)
SEPT 01 2
Product Groups
Product Categories
Group A
Group B Categories
Group BA Categories
Group G
Group B or Group BA
Group C or Group CA
B3A Prestressed Straight-Strand Bridge Beams with Architectural Finish (super-
structure)
B4A Prestressed Deflected-Strand Bridge Beams with Architectural Finish (super-
structure)
Producers may also be certified in one or more of the following Groups and Categories.
AT Miscellaneous Architectural Trim Units
A1 Architectural Precast Concrete Products
C1 Precast Concrete Products (no prestressed reinforcement)
C2 Prestressed Hollow-Core and Repetitively-Produced Products
C3 Prestressed Straight-Strand Structural Members
C4 Prestressed Deflected-Strand Structural Members
Group C Category products with an architectural finish
(see additional information that follows)
C1A Precast Concrete Products with Architectural Finish (no prestressed rein-
forcement)
C2A Prestressed Hollow-Core and Repetitively-Produced Products with Architec-
tural Finish
C3A Prestressed Straight-Strand Structural Members with Architectural Finish
C4A Prestressed Deflected-Strand Structural Members with Architectural Finish
Within a Product Group, the Categories listed above are intended to be in ascending
order of production complexity. A producer qualified to produce products in a given
Category is automatically qualified in the preceding Categories but not in succeed-
ing Categories. See the following Guide Qualification Specifications and accompa-
nying notes for more details.
For more descriptive information about the types of products and projects that are
represented by these Categories, contact PCI, visit the PCI website at www.pci.org,
or refer to other more-detailed program literature from PCI.
Beginning with the Fourth Edition of MNL-116 (1999), an additional product dis-
tinction was made available to the specifier. The new classification defines products
that have architectural finishes applied to more traditional structural products. Before
now, these products were not addressed in either MNL-116 or MNL-117. The spe-
cial requirements for finish, texture, color, tolerances and quality control are includ-
ed at the end of each division of manual MNL-116.
The architectural finishes designation may be applied to any B or C category.
Qualified producers will be identified with the suffix A following their normal des-
ignation of B1 through B4 and C1 through C4. For example, if a precaster
is certified to produce precast sound barrier wall panels with conventional steel rein-
forcement and with an exposed aggregate surface finish, the appropriate designation
will be B1A. A bridge-products producer that manufactures prestressed fascia panels
SEPT 01 3
Group A Categories
Group C Categories
Group CA Categories
Identification of BA and
CA Producers
Architectural Finishes
Product Groups BA and CA
with an architectural finish for a bridge would be required to hold B2A certifica-
tion. Refer to the Guide Qualification Specification near the end of this appendix for
information about how to specify this and other Bridge Groups and Categories.
A current listing of all PCI Certified Plants is published quarterly in PCIs ASCENT
magazine. A convenient searchable list is regularly updated on the PCI website at
www.pci.org, or contact Director of Certification Programs at PCI.
PCI holds a National Evaluation Report (NER QA-105) as an approved Quality
Assurance Agency by the National Evaluation Service (NES). The NES includes:
Building Officials and Code Administrators Evaluation Service Inc. (BOCA ES)
Southern Building Code Congress International, Public Safety Testing and
Evaluation Services Inc. (SBBCI PST&ESI)
PCI holds a separate registration (AA-658) as an approved Quality Assurance Agency
by the International Conference of Building Officials Evaluation Service Inc. (ICBO
ES).
PCI Plant Certification is included in the MasterSpec of the American Institute of
Architects and is required in the specifications of the following federal agencies:
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Civil Works Division & Military Programs
U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFEC)
Federal Aviation Administration
General Services Administration
U.S. Department of Agriculture, FSIS
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation
Plant Certification is strongly endorsed in correspondence by the Federal Highway
Administration (Kane, 1996) for precast concrete bridge products and is required or
accepted by more than two-thirds of the individual state departments of transporta-
tion (Merwin, 1995).
Conducting an effective quality control program requires knowledgeable and moti-
vated testing and inspection personnel. Each must understand quality basics, the
necessity for quality control, how products are manufactured, and precisely how to
conduct tests and inspections. PCI has been training quality control personnel since
1974. In 1985, the first technician training manual was published by PCI and the
first qualified personnel attained certification.
There are three levels of Plant Quality Personnel Certification.
Level I requires six months or equivalent of approved industry experience. It requires
a basic level of understanding of the many quality control issues normally encoun-
tered in a precast plant, such as:
Quality and quality control programs, testing and measuring
Prestressing concepts and tensioning procedures for straight strands, including
basic elongation calculations
SEPT 01 4
PCI PLANT QUALITY
PERSONNEL
CERTIFICATION
PCI Plant Quality
Personnel Certification,
Level I
List of Certified Plants
Endorsements
Basic concepts about concrete water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm),
types of cements, accelerated curing concepts
Control of purchased materials
Precast production procedures
Welding practices including welding of reinforcing bars and studs
Interpretation of basic shop drawings
Certification at Level I requires current certification in the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) Concrete Field Testing Technician Program, Grade I. The ACI certi-
fication requires a closed-book written test and precise field demonstration of seven
ASTM methods to test properties of fresh concrete.
Certification at Level I is accomplished by passing a closed-book written examina-
tion. Examinations may be administered locally by a PCI-approved proctor or at a
PCI-conducted training school. A manual for training and self-study (TM-101) is
available from PCI. Level I must be renewed by testing every five years unless a higher
level of PCI certification has been attained.
Level II certification requires one year of approved industry experience or equivalent
plus PCI Level I and current ACI Level I as prerequisites. Other requirements for
Level II include a greater level of knowledge of most of the topics previously
described for PCI Level I, as well as:
Tensioning and elongation corrections that account for temperature effects,
chuck seating, abutment movement and bed shortening. Calculations for elon-
gation and corrections are required.
Effects of accelerated curing and importance of w/cm are further emphasized.
Corrections to mix proportions must be calculated to account for excess mois-
ture in the aggregates.
Material control tests are further explored including aggregate gradations and
analysis. Calculations are required for gradation analysis.
Plant topics include more detail in reading shop drawings and in procedures for
welding reinforcing bars and studs.
Certification through Level II is accomplished by passing a closed-book written
examination. Examinations may be administered locally by a PCI-approved proctor
or at a PCI-conducted training school. A manual for training and self-study for Level
II (TM-101) is available from PCI. Level II must be renewed every five years by test-
ing unless Level III has been attained.
Level III provides significant instruction in concrete materials and technology. Certi-
fication at this level requires two years of approved industry experience (or equiva-
lent) and attendance at a four-day PCI school. The candidate must pass a closed-
book written examination at the school. PCI Level II certification is a prerequisite.
Certification at Level III is valid for life. There is a training manual (TM-103) avail-
able from PCI that covers all course topics, including:
Properties of:
- Basic concrete materials
- Admixtures
- Fresh concrete
- Hardened Concrete
SEPT 01 5
PCI Plant Quality
Level III
PCI Plant Quality
Level II
Mix designs using normal and lightweight aggregates
Architectural concrete
Troubleshooting and fine-tuning concrete mixes
Finished product evaluation
Stud welding and welding of reinforcing steel
Deflected prestressing strands and the calculation of deflection forces
Plant Quality Personnel Certification is required by nearly a third of the individual
state departments of transportation. They require certification for plant quality per-
sonnel and for their own materials inspectors and quality assurance personnel.
The precast, prestressed concrete industry, through PCI, has taken bold steps to
establish industry quality standards. The standards apply to personnel, to production
and operations, to quality control, and to field operations. The standards have been
published and widely disseminated and are open for evaluation and written com-
ments, all of which will be given consideration.
The PCI industry standards for quality production are demanding to achieve. Once
attained and practiced regularly, adherence to these standards contributes to improved
and continuing customer satisfaction. Following these standards has been shown to
reduce the cost of quality for the owner as well as the producer.
Certification by PCI assures compliance to the published standards for quality pro-
duction. Certified personnel and producers choose to demonstrate their proficiency by
voluntarily undergoing examinations and audits by accredited third-party assessors.
PCI Plant and Personnel Certification are reliable means for qualifying personnel and
precast concrete producers. Use the Guide Qualification Specification that follows to
require PCI Certification Programs for your projects.
The following guide specification can be used to qualify a precast concrete manufac-
turer to submit a bid on your project. Generally, the easiest procedure would be to
list the precast product or the various precast products included in your project.
Then, determine the appropriate Product Group and Category for each product,
considering the use of the product, the method of reinforcement and special required
surface finishes, if any. Show each of the products and the required Group and
Category in the project specifications. Refer to the following Notes to Specifiers for
additional discussion.Product categories that include prestressing may incorporate
pretensioning or post-tensioning or both.
Further, it is recommended that the manufacturer employ trained and certified per-
sonnel according to the Personnel Qualifications guide specification that follows.
The precast concrete manufacturing plant shall be certified under the Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute Plant Certification Program. The Manufacturer shall be certified at
the time of bidding. Certification shall be in the following Product Group(s) and
Category(ies):
[Select and insert one or more of the following applicable groups and categories]
SEPT 01 6
GUIDE QUALIFICATION
SPECIFICATION
Manufacturer Qualifications
Structural Precast Concrete
SUMMARY
Agency Requirement
Group B Bridge-Related Products
B1 Precast Bridge Products (no prestressed reinforcement)
B2 Prestressed Miscellaneous Bridge Products (non-superstructure)
B3 Prestressed Straight-Strand Bridge Beams (superstructure)
B4 Prestressed Deflected-Strand Bridge Beams (superstructure)
Group BA Bridge-Related Products that Require Architectural Finishes
B1A Precast Bridge Products with Architectural Finish (no prestressed reinforcement)
B2A Prestressed Miscellaneous Bridge Products with Architectural Finish (non-
superstructure)
B3A Prestressed Straight-Strand Bridge Beams with Architectural Finish (super-
structure)
B4A Prestressed Deflected-Strand Bridge Beams with Architectural Finish (super-
structure)
Notes to Specifiers:
1. Additional guide specifications, not shown here, are available from PCI for
Product Groups A, C and G.
2. Categories in Product Group B are listed in ascending order of production
complexity. For example, a plant certified to produce products in Category B4
is automatically certified to produce products in the preceding Categories B1,
B2 and B3. However, a plant certified to produce products in Category B2,
while certified for Category B1, is not certified for Categories B3 or B4.
3. Categories in Group BA are also listed in ascending order. See Notes 2 & 4.
4. Group BA supercedes Group B in the same Category. For example, a plant cer-
tified to produce products in Category B4A is automatically certified to pro-
duce products in the preceding Categories B1A, B2A, B3A, and in categories
B1, B2, B3 and B4. However, a plant certified to produce products in
Category B2A, while also certified for Categories B1A, B1 and B2, is not cer-
tified for Categories B3A, B4A, B3 or B4.
5. A Product Group and Category should be determined and shown in the spec-
ifications for each type of precast concrete product used in a project.
Separating products will enable precasters to submit bids on specific products.
For example, on a project that included both prestressed piling and beams, a
precaster with expertise in producing prestressed piling (with Certification B2)
could submit a price on piles only. On the same project, a producer with
Certification B4 could submit a price for the beams and decide to either
include or exclude the piling.
6. Specify the most appropriate Product Group and Category for the project. Do
not select a higher Category than necessary. Similarly, do not add A to a list-
ing when not necessary to meet project requirements. Selecting an inappro-
priate Group or Category could result in unnecessary cost or could restrict the
number of available bidders.
SEPT 01 7
The Manufacturer shall employ a minimum of one person, regularly present in the
plant, who is certified by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute for Plant Quality
Personnel, Level II. All other personnel regularly engaged in the measuring, testing
or evaluation of products or materials shall be similarly certified, or actively pursuing
certification for Plant Quality Personnel, Level I.
Duggleby, J., Setting a Higher Standard, ASCENT Fall, 1992 Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, pp. 28-31
Shutt, C., Erector Qualification Brings Precast Quality Assurance Full Circle,
ASCENT, Fall 2000, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, pp. 122-123
Preparation Guidelines for a Structural Plant Quality System Manual, QSM-1,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 2000, 50 pp.
Shutt, C., Ross Bryan Associates Makes the Grade, ASCENT, Winter 1994,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, pp. 12-16
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Structural Precast Concrete
Products, Fourth Edition, MNL-116-99, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Architectural Precast Concrete
Products, Third Edition, MNL-117-96, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Glass Fiber Reinforced
Concrete Products, MNL-130-91, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL,
1991, 184 pp.
Kane, A., Letter (Unpublished), Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,
1996
Merwin, D. P., Two States Bridge the Quality Gap, ASCENT, Spring 1995,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, pp. 18-21
Quality Control Technician/Inspector Level I & II Training Manual, TM-101,
Quality Control Personnel Certification Level III Training Manual, TM-103,
SEPT 01 8
Personnel Qualifications
REFERENCES

PCI Bridge Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PCI Bridge Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Precast Prestressed Concrete

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

7161 Bridge Book CH1_v2 SINGLE 9/25/03, 3:04 PM 19

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 2

40 000 1 000 000

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 3

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL CHAPTER 6

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

Conditions at Service Load

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

, is equal to the moment divided by the

DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

, where W is the weight of the beam,

, use the gross moment of inertia, I

of 40,500 in.-kip per radian. The factors of safety for

, may be expected to be in the range of 3,000 to 6,000 in.-kip per radian

, is the sum of that for the tractor

, is determined by the dimensions and

/1000 = 4,613 ksi

DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

= 0.543 ksi (tension), f

9. Find factor of safety against failure, FS

= 4,500 in.-kip per radian per dual axle

= 4.5(4,500) = 20,250 each for tractor and for trailer

, for hauling rig. K

= 40,500 in.-kip per

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

(psi) depending on the severity

= 541 psi if bonded reinforcement is provided

[STD Art. 9.17.2]

[STD Eq. 9-13]

= width of web for a flanged section

)t(d 0.5t)] [STD Eq. 9-23]

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-4]

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.1.1-3]

[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.2.2-1]

[LRFD Art. 5.4.2.6]

= 2(5) = 10.00 in.

= 4(0.2)(60) + 2(0.153)(46.9) + 46(0.153)(255.4) = 48 14 + 1,798

= [0.85(3)(5)(48) + 0.85(5.8)(9.72 5)(48)] = [612 + 1,117] = 1,729 kips

[STD Eq. 8-17]

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

[STD Eq. 9-42]

[LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1]

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of

= sum of rotational spring constants of supports

[STD Eq. 9-27c]

in the extreme fiber.

= strength of the concrete in diagonal tension