INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SEM I 2005

ECE 1101 EXPERIMENT NO 3 TITLE OF EXPERIMENT:

THEVENINS & NORTONS THEOREMS POWER TRANSFER & SUPERPOSITION THEOREMS

16 AUGUST 2005

KHAIRUL EINUDDIN ABD RAHIM (0438945) MOHD HAKIKI MD TOHID (0434459) SOIFFOINE ISSA SAID (0519749) LAB SECTION: 3 LAB SESSION: (TUESDAY, 4.30PM 7.30PM) LECTURER : SISTER FARAH AYU

THEVENINS & NORTONS THEOREMS

6:59 With Him are the keys of the unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but He. He knoweth whatever there is on the earth and in the sea. Not a leaf doth fall but with His knowledge: there is not a grain in the darkness (or depths) of the earth, nor anything fresh or dry (green or withered), but is (inscribed) in a recorded clear (to those who can read) INTRODUCTION This experiment basically is about the Nortons and Thevenins Theorems: Thevenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source V Thevenins in series with a resistor R Thvenins, where V Thevenins is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and R Thevenins is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source In in parallel with a resistor R Nortons , where I Nortons is the short-circuit current through the terminal and R Nortons is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

APPARATUS DC supply (Vs=15V) Digital multimeter. Resistors; R1=1.8k , R2=3.6k, R3=820, R4=R5=100, RL=180. Pspice software

OBJECTIVE 1. To find the current flowing in a particular resistor (variable load) of a network by application of Thevenins and Nortons theorems. 2. To verify the theorems by comparing the simulated values to those obtained by measurement. PROCEDURE (a) Thevenins Theorem: 1. RL is selected as the resistor where it is propose to determine the current value.

2.

The supply voltage and resistance of each resistor has been measured. These values are recorded in Table 4-1. 3. Contact up the circuit as shown in Figure 4-1. Do not turn on the supply. 4. Resistor RL is removed from the network. 5. The supply has been turned on. The voltage between the points A and D of the network has been measured. This is the Thevenins voltage. The voltage value has been recorded. 6. The supply has been switched off. The supply has been replaced with a short circuit. 7. The resistance between the terminals A and D has been measured. This is the Thevenins resistance. The value has been recorded. 8. The resistor R5 is being placed back in circuit with an ammeter between terminals A and B or C and D. 9. The supply is being placed back in the circuit instead of the short circuit. 10. The supply has been turned on back. The current value flowing in the resistor R5 has been read and recorded. 11. Using the values of the supply voltage and the resistors as measured, draw two PSpice schematics has been drawn and simulated to find the theoretical values of thevenins resistance, thevenins voltage and current through RL. (b) Nortons Theorem: 1. 2. 3. 4. R is selected as the resistor where it is proposed to determine the current value. Contact up the circuit as shown in Figure 4-1. Do not turn on the supply Resistor RL has been removed from the network. The supply has been turned on. The current shown by the ammeter between terminals a and d has been read. This is Nortons current, I n. Its value has been recorded. 5. The supply has been switched off. The supply has been replaced with a short circuit. 6. The resistance between the terminals a and d has been measured. This is Nortons resistance. The value has been recorded. 7. The resistance RL has been placed back in circuit with an ammeter between terminals a and b or c and d. 8. Instead of the short circuit, the supply in circuit has been placed back into the circuit. 9. The switch S has been closed. The current value flowing in the resistor R L has been read and recorded. 10. Using the values of the supply voltage and the resistors as measured, a PSpice schematic has been drawn and simulated to find the theoretical values of short circuit Nortons current. Nortons resistance is equal to Thevenins resistance, and the same goes for current through RL. 11. A Nortons equivalent circuit inclusive of resistor RL has been drawn.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS (a)Thevenins theorem

(b) nortons theorem

DISCUSSION 1. This experiment had been conducted to find the current flowing in a particular resistor (variable load) of a network by application of Thevenins and Norton theorems. 2. Thevenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source V Thevenins in series with a resistor R Thvenins, where V Thevenins is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and R Thevenins is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. 3. Thevenin voltage is determined by measure the voltage between A and D when the resistor RL is remove from the circuit. 4. The Thevenins resistance can be measured by replace the supply with a short circuit, and then measured the value of resistance between A and D. 5. Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source In in parallel with a resistor R Nortons , where I Nortons is the short-circuit current through the terminal and R Nortons is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. 6. Nortons current is determine by remove the resistor RL from the network and turn on the supply and then read the current through terminal a and d. 7. To measure the Nortons resistance, the supply must be replace with a short circuit and measure the resistance between the terminal a and d. 8. During conduct this experiment, there are some errors which have effect the value of the variable. The errors are: The value of the current voltage is not correct. This happen because the ammeter is damaged. The measured value is not the actual value. During measured the value, the value is not stable. So, we just take value which is likely to be accurate. 9. To minimize the error, We must assure that the ammeter is working by check it before use it. Take many readings then take the average value of it to minimize the error. 10. In general, the initial objective of our experiment is achieved. ANALYSIS, DEDUCTIONS AND CONCLUCIONS 1. The aims of this experiment have been achieved because the Thevenins and Norton theorem have been verified. 2. The value from the PSpice is differentiating with the value from this experiment. The small percentage errors indicate that the theorems have been verified.

3. Some errors occur while handling this experiment which leads to inaccurate result compared with experiment using Pspice. But the error is small and the percentage is low. The error occur because of ; The value of the supply voltage is not consistence. This happen because when we want to measured the other variable value, the supply voltage will decrease The value of the resistor is not same as the printed one. May be the resistor has been used for long time, so the value had been decreased The measured value is not the actual value. During measured the value, the value is not stable. So, we just take value which is likely to be accurate. 4. Kirchoffs laws are not applicable for some transistor circuits. 5. Transistor circuit. CALCULATIONS All theoretical values were generated using PSpice software. Percentage error: % error = |Theoretical value-experimental value| ---------------------------------------------Theoretical value x 100%

(a)Thevenins Theorem: Percentage difference: i. ii. iii. Thevenins resistance: 618.2 - 614 100 =0.68 % 618.2 Thevenins voltage: 4.88 V 4.81V 100 =1.43% 4.88 V Current in RL: 5.623 mA 6.01mA 100 = 6.88% 5.623 mA

(b) Nortons Theorem: Percentage difference: i. Nortons resistance: : 618.2 -614 100 =0.68 % 618.2 Nortons current: 6.401 mA 7.63mA 100 =19.2 % 6.401 mA Current in RL: 5.623 mA 6.01mA 100 = 6.88%

ii. iii.

5.623 mA

REFERENCE 1. Introductory Circuit Analysis, Robert L. Boylestad. Prentice-Hall International, Inc. 8th Edition, 1994. 2. Fundamentals of Electric Circuit, Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N.O. Sadiku. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 2nd Edition, 2003.

POWER TRANSFER & SUPERPOSITION THEOREMS

Test (a) maximum power transfer: AIMS For the theory part, maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load. To this experiment, we are going to verify the maximum power transfer theorem. APPARATUS 1- DC power supply = 15V 2- Digital millimeters. 3- Variable load resistor RL Using decade resistance box Fixed resistor Rth = 5.1k. 4- PSpice software. METHOD In this experiment we are going to develop several tests to verify the maximum power transfer theorem. Firstly, we construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit in figure 5.1. After turn off the supply voltage, we set the slider of resistor RL for maximum resistance. Then, turn on the supply voltage. In line to this, we take the corresponding reading of voltage and current for various values of load resistance RL (1k each step) including the condition when RL is short circuited (RL=0). For the theoretical value, we used the PSpice software.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

RESULT
Source voltage (volts) Source power output (watt) Load voltage (volt) Theo Current (A) theo Load power (watt) exp Load resistance (k) Transfer efficiency (%) exp

15 15 15 15

41.1 33.9 31.05 26.7

0.00 2.459 4.225 5.556

2.941 2.459 2.113 1.852

0.00 6.04 8.99 10.28

0 1 2 3

15 15 15 15 15 15 15

24 21.45 19.65 17.85 16.65 15.45 14.4

6.593 7.426 8.108 8.678 9.160 9.57 9.93

1.648 1.485 1.351 1.240 1.145 1.064 0.993

10.86 11.03 10.96 10.76 10.49 10.19 9.87

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Transfer Efficiency Transfer efficiency for RL 0 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 1 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 2 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 3 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 4 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 5k = Transfer efficiency for RL 6 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 7k = 0.00 x 100 = % 45.00 6.04 x 100 = % 33.9 8.99 x 100 =% 31.05 10.28 x 100 =% 26.7 10.86 x 100 =% 24 11.03 x 100 =% 21.45 10.96 x 100 =% 19.65 10.76 x 100 =%

17.85 Transfer efficiency for RL 8 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 9 k = Transfer efficiency for RL 10 k = 10.49 x 100 =% 16.65 10.19 x 100 =% 15.45 9.87 x 100 = % 14.4

Test (b) The superposition theorem AIMS As the theory of the experiment, the superposition principles states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (Or currents through (the element due to each independent source acting alone. In this experiment, we are going to develop several test that can verify the super position theorem as stated by the theorem. APPARATUS 1-Two DC supplies (6V and 12V) 2-Digital multimeter. 3-Resistor R1 = 470 R2 = 5.6k R3 = 3.6k 4--PSpice software.

METHOD In this experiment, we have developed several tests to achieve our aim. Firstly, we measure the resistance of each resistor and the voltage of each source and fill the table 5.2. Then, switches S1 in position A and S2 in position D. we then record the value in the table 5-3. Dont forget to refer to the last configuration in figure 5-4. In line to this, a voltmeter is placed across R2 accordingly and the node voltage is recorded in the table 5-3. When switches S1 in position B and S2 in position D. Then, we record the magnitude and the direction of the current as indicated by each ammeter in appropriate table and repeat the step above with Vn replace by Vn. Dont forget to refer to the third

configuration in figure 5-4, Last but not least, we simulate the ammeter and voltmeter for each switching combination used during the test in items 2, 4 and 5 by using the measured values of the voltages and the resistance. Then, fill in the table 5-3. The current and the voltages are displays on the schematics.. From analysis, we examine the output acquire the branch currents direction. The theoretical value is record using Pspices.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Figure 5-3

Figure 5-4 (ii)

Figure 5-4 (ii)

Figure 5-4 (iii) RESULT Measured values. V1 (V) 12 Table 5.2 V2 (V) 6 R1 () 465 R2 (k) 5.51 R3 (k) 3.58

Switch Positions S1 S2 A D

Ammeter readings A1 (mA) 5.85 Measured A2 A3 (mA) (mA) -1.76 -4.26 Node voltage Vn =-9.28 A1 (mA) 5.881 Simulated A2 A3 (mA) (mA) 1.649 4.232 Node voltage Vn = -9.236

B A

D C Table 5.3

1.36 -4.46

0.158 -1.71

-1.57 -2.74

Vn =-676 Vn =-9.92

0.1558 4.509

1.372 1.764

1.488 2.745

Vn =644.99 Vn =9.88

Percentage error: A1: |5.86-5.881| x 100% = 0.35% 5.881 |0.155-0.1558| x 100% = 0.51% 0.1558 |4.51-4.509| x 100% = 0.1% 4.509 A2: |1.67-1.649| x 100% = 0.7% 1.649 |1.36-1.372| x 100% = 0.87% 1.372 |1.783-1.768| x 100% = 1.69% 1.768

A3: |4.2-4.232| x 100% = 0.76% 4.232 |1.48-1.488| x 100% = 0.53% 1.488 |2.74-2.745| x 100% = 0.18% 2.745

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. Regarding to the experiment, the superposition principle state that the voltage across ( or the current through ) an element in a linear circuit is algebraic sum of the voltages across ( or current through) that element due to each independent source acting alone. From the experiment conducted, we can conclude that we have verified the aims for this experiment. Also, it is based on linearity. For this reason, the power

absorbed by a resistor depends on the square of the voltage/current. Thus, mathematically A1 + A2 + A3 = 0 In this case, considered two limiting factors in circuit arrangement which would tend to make the superposition theorem unsatisfactory as a method of analysis. The superposition theorem cant be applied to a circuit: If the circuit has more than one independent circuit at a time. Because, we must consider one independent source at a time while all other independent source are turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit) If the dependent source are not connected to the circuit. Dependent sources should be left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.