1

1.1
G X . G
X ( G X )
g G x X
gx X , x X g1 , g2 G, :
(i) (g1 g2 )x = g1 (g2 x )
(ii) 1x = x.
, G X X
(g, x ) gx g G x X .
G X .
.
.
1 (i) X G
Sym(X ). G X . gx = g(x ),
g(x ) x g, g G x X .
G X .
(ii) V F - .
F V .
G X .
G X
xg = g1 x
1

 1.

g G x X . g1
.

1.2 -

. -
.
.
1 G X .
(i) G X . g G

g : X X
g (x ) = gx. g g G.
: G Sym(X )
g g .
- G G X .
(ii) G Sym(X ). G
X ,
gx = (g)(x )
g G x X . - G
. 
- X ,
Sym(X ), Sym(X ).
1 , G X .

1.3 Burnside
G X . X
(, X X ) : x, y X x y

1.3. BURNSIDE

g G gx = y.
. (orbits).

orb(x ) = {gx : g G }.

StabG (x ) = {g G : gx = x }.
StabG (x ) G
x G.
- G
:
Ker = x X StabG (x ).
H G. H G , , h H g G hg G.
,
H G. g G,

StabH (g) = {h H : hg = g} = {1}.

, . , g

ordH (g) = {hg : h H } = Hg,

H G g. ,
H G .
H G
. |Hg| = |gH |
g G, Lagrange.
H = G, Cayley.

G .
1 G - X x X .
|orb(x )| = |G : StabG (x )|.
. X1 = orb(x ), H = StabG (x ) Y
H G.
: X1 Y

1.

(gx ) = gH. 1 1 .
-. g1 , g2 G.
g1 x = g2 x g1 H = g2 H.
g1 x = g2 x

(g21 g1 )x = g21 (g1 x ) = g21 (g2 x ) = (g21 g2 )x = 1x = x.

, g21 g1 StabG (x ) = H. g1 H = g2 H. g1 H = g2 H
g21 g1 H, (g21 g1 )x = x g1 x = (g2 (g21 g1 ))x = g2 x.
1 1. .
. 
V |V | = n. (permutation group) V
Sym(V ). G Sym(V ). G V : gv = g(v)
v V , g(v) v
g. 1 Lagrange
-.
2 (-) G
V v V . |StabG (v)||orb(v)| = |G |.

G .
3 G V
v V . g G, gStabG (v)g1 = StabG (gv).
. h StabG (gv). (hg)v = gv g1 hg StabG (v),
., h gStabG (v)g1 . , h gStabG (v)g1 . h = gh g1
h StabG (v). h = g1 hg StabG (v) (g1 hg)v = v.
h StabG (gv). 
Burnside
. V , fix( )
v V , .,

fix( ) = {v V : (v) = v = v}.

1.3. BURNSIDE

4 ( Burnside) G V . t G V
1
G |fix( )|.
|G |
.
T = {(, v) G V : v = v}.
T . v V
, v = v.

|T | =

|StabG (v)|.

vV

, v v = v |fix( )|.

|T | =

|fix( )|.

|StabG (v)| =

vV

|fix( )|.

orb(

V = orb(v1 )
vt ).

|StabG (s)| =

i =1 sorb(vi )

|fix( )|.

3, s orb(vi ),

StabG (s) = StabG (vi ) 1 ,

vi = s. ,

|StabG (vi )| = |StabG (s)|,

s orb(vi ).
t

i =1

|orb(vi )||StabG (vi )| =

|fix( )|.

 1.

6
(-),
t |G | =

|fix( )|

. 
.
1 ( ) V -
|V | = n. G Sym(V ). G V :
gv = g(v) v V . G V
V : S V ,
g

S = {gs : s S}

V . G
V G
P(V ) V . |g S| = |S|. k
G V G k-
(, V k ) V . G
V G k-
V.
V , V Aut()
. FV
V KV
V . ()
V E (KV ). KV n2
n

, 2(2) .
, .
V . 1 2 Sym(V )
1 2 .
,
Sym(V ) E (KV ).
- .

n!
.
|Aut()|

1.3. BURNSIDE

2 ( ) G
X . (transitive) .
( , n X = {1, . . . , n }.
Sn X .) H G
X H G.
G X
: g G xH X gxH. ,
. x1 H x2 H , (x1 x21 )x2 H = x1 H. stabG (xH ) = xHx 1 .
1, |G : xHx 1 | = |X | = |G : H |.
Lagrange G . H
- G .
KerH = x G xHx 1 = HG . (, core H G.) |G : H | < ,
Sym(X ) S|G :H | . H G S|G :H |
.
1 H G , G/HG
S|G :H | .
.
1 H
G K G , K H G/K
.
2 G p
G. H G p,
H G.
. H G |G : H | = p. |G : HG | = |G/HG | =
p|H : HG |. |H : HG | = 1. |H : HG | > 1 q
|H : HG |. Lagrange, q
G. q p. , |G/HG |
p!. , pq (p 1)!p q (p 1)!.
q , q < p, . |H : HG | = 1
. 

 1.

2 (I) ( ) G
. g, x G,
g
x = gxg1
( x.) G
:
g x =g x = gxg1
x, g G. G
. x x. (
x.) ,

StabG (x ) = CG (x )
(, x G). -
: G Sym(G ) (g) = g : x 7 gxg1 .

Ker = x G CG (x ) = Z(G ).
1, |orb(x )| = |G : CG (x )| x G.
: G
s x1 , . . . , xs G
,

|G | =

|G : CG (xi )|.

i =1

(II) ( ) G
P(G ) G. g G
U G, g U
g

U = gUg1 = {gug1 : u U }

U . G
P(G ).
2 (). (
G .)
U P(G ) U U ,
,
orb(U ) = {gUg1 : g G },

1.3. BURNSIDE

U G.

StabG (U ) = {g G : gUg1 = U },
U G NG (U ). H U
H NG (U ). 1
2 U G, |orb(U )| = |G : NG (U )|.
, |G : NG (U )| U
G. 
H G, NG (H )
G H .
U G, U G
CG (U ) = u U CG (u ) G.
CG (U ) = G U Z(G ).
H U H CG (U ). , CG (U ) E NG (U ).
5 H G, CG (H ) E NG (H ) NG (H )/CG (H ) Aut(H ).
. H NG (H ), g h H h H g NG (H ).
NG (H ) H . NG (H ). g NG (H ), (g)(h ) = g h
h H. , Ker = CG (H ) ( CG (H ) NG (H ).) 1
, CG (H ) E NG (H ) Im  NG (H )/CG (H ).
g NG (H ), (g) H. (g)
H. Im Aut(H ), NG (H )/CG (H )
Aut(H ). 
H , , Aut(H ) . 5, .
3 G .
H G, G/CG (H ) . , G
- ,
G G. 

 1.

10

3 ( Cayley)
.
,
.
k- Qk .
V (Qk ) = Z2 .
k

, V (Qk ) 2k k- 0 1.
. Qk : v k-.
v : x 7 x + v
( Z2 ) Qk .
v . 2k
H.
H V (Qk ). , x, y V (Qk ).
x +y x y. H
Aut(Qk ). k Qk . , Sk (x1 , . . . , xk ) V (Qk )

k : (x1 , . . . , xk ) 7 (x (1) , . . . , x (k ) )
Qk . ( Sk V (Qk )
.) K k Sk .
K Aut(Qk ) K  Sk . Aut(Qk ) HK.

|HK | =

|H ||K |
.
|H K |

H K = {1}, |Aut(Qk )| 2k k !. k-
Cayley.
G C G
.
Cayley X (G, C) C
E (X (G, C)) = {gh : hg1 C}.

1.4.

11

Cayley . ,
g G,
g : x 7 gx
x G. g
X (G, C). g Aut(X (G, C))
G.
. , hg1 g h. 

1.4
(
). ,
. ,
. .
,
.
G H . G ( )
H , g G h H gh H

(i) G H ( )
(ii) g(h1 h2 ) = (gh1 )(gh2 ) g G h1 , h2 H. .
3 (i) R 1R , U (R )
R R + = (R + , +)
R. U (R ) R + : g U (R ), R + ,
g = g.
(ii) G Aut(H ). G H :
G h H, h = (h ).
(iii) K E G. G K ( ) .
, g k = gkg1 g G, k K.
2 G ( ) H.
g G g : H H g (h ) = g h

 1.

12

H. , : G Aut(H ) (g) = g
. , : G Aut(H ) .
G ( ) H : g G, h H,
g h = g (h ) g = (g).
. g G. G H G
H g H. h1 , h2 H,
g (h1 h2 ) = g(h1 h2 ) = (g h1 )(g h2 ) = g (h1 )g (h2 ).
g Aut(H ). , Aut(H ) Sym(H )
: G Aut(H )
, G H. ,
g (h1 h2 ) = g (h1 h2 ) = g (h1 )g (h2 ) = (g h1 )(g h2 )
g G, h1 , h2 H. , G H. 

1.5
G H . G H. G
H
.
G H
.
.
3 G ( ) H ( ).
(h, g) g G h H
: (h1 , g1 )(h2 , g2 ) = (h1 (g1 h2 ), g1 g2 ) g1 , g2 G
h1 , h2 H. 
3
G H H G (
2) G H. G
H

1.5.

13

H G. G H
= H G. g G, g (1H , g) ,
h H, h (h, 1G ). G = {(1H , g) :
g G } H = {(h, 1G ) : h H }. G
H . , H E , /H  G , = H G
G H = {1}.
hg, g G h H,
g = H G.

1.5.1
Dn n-
. n- . Dn
2n , ,
Dn = c, b : c n = b2 = 1, bc = c 1 b.
, Dn = HK, H = c Dn 2
K = b Dn 2. H K = {1}.

Dn K H,
K H ( ) :
: K Aut(H )
(b) = , H (c ) = c 1 .

1.5.2
G . a G, a : G G,
a (g) = ag g G. a Sym (G ).

ab (g) = (ab)g = a (bg) = a (bg) = a b (g)

a a 1 (g) = g g G. ab = a b , a 1 = a 1 .
(G ) = {a : a G }.
(G ) Sym (G ).
: G Sym (G ) (a ) = a a G.

14

1.

G
G.
G. ra : G G, ra (g) = ga 1
g G ra Sym (G ) ra
G.

r (G ) = {ra : a G }.
r (G ) Sym (G )
r : G Sym (G ) r (a ) = ra a G. r
G G. r G G.

(ra a )(x ) = axa 1 = a (x )

x G Aut(G ) Sym (G ),

(G ), Aut(G ) = r (G ), Aut(G ).
Sym (G ) G
Hol(G ).
Hol(G ). Aut(G )
g G. rg 1 = r(g)1 g 1 = (g) r (G ), (G )
Hol(G )

Hol(G ) = r (G )Hol(G ) = (G )Hol(G ).

r , r (G ) Aut(G ) = (G ) Aut(G ) = {1}.

Hol(G ) = r (G ) o Aut(G )
= (G ) o Aut(G ),
G r (G ) (., (G )) (rg ) = r(g)1 (., (g ) = (g) ). , Aut(G ),
g (g) , g G, (G )
, : G (G ),
(G ) . , (G ) Hol(G ).

1.6.

15

G H, G, G
H.
, r (G ) (G );

.
4 CHol(G ) (r (G )) = (G ) CHol(G ) ((G )) = r (G )
G.
. C = CHol(G ) (r (G )) C. ra = ra
a G. (1) = s. ra ( (1)) = ra (s) = sa 1 (ra (1)) = (a 1 ).
, (a 1 ) = sa 1 a G, (a ) = sa a G.
= s (G ). , s (G ).
ra (s (g)) = ra (sg) = (sg)a 1

s ra (g) = s (ga 1 ) = s(ga 1 ).

, ra s = s ra a G s C.
CHol(G ) (r (G )) = (G ). ,
CHol(G ) ((G )) = r (G ). 

1.6
1. 3.
(. .)
2. G - X .
g G x X xg = g1 x.
G X .
3. H G, H G = H g : g G HG = gG H g .
(. 2.)
4. H G n,
HG n !.

 1.

16
(. 2.)

5.
. G . G
.
(. 4.)
6. G X - . X
G-, G X . X G- Y X ,
Y G- gy Y g G y Y .
G- G-. - G-
(irreducible) G- X
X . G- X G- Y
G- (gx ) = g(x ) g G x X .
(6 ) X - G-. G
X G- X , G X . , X
G X .
(6) X - G- {Xr : r R }
G- X . - G-
Y X - S R Y = sS Xs .
(6 ) G- G- X G-
Y . Im G- Y . , G-
W U , {x X : (x ) W } G- X .
(6 ) G- G- X G Y . , G- W Y Im W W Im = .
(6 ) X - G-
G- X X
SymG (X ) Sym(X ). X G-, |SymG (X )| |X |.
(6 ) H G X H
G G X , X
G- SymG (X )  NG (H )/H.
(. .)
7. G x, y G. xy yx .
, .
(. yx = x 1 (xy)x. x, y G ,

1.6.

17

., x = g1 yg g G. x, y
n, m, .
.)
: U G,

|orb(U )| = |G : NG (U )|.
, |G : NG (U )| U
G. , U n |G : NG (U )| = n.
U = {s} NG (U ) = CG (s) s |G : CG (s)|
G. , H G, NG (H )
G H .
8. H G . H N
G.
(. 4,

. G K H G,
|G : K | = |G : H ||H : K |. H NG (H ).
H G, H
H = H1 , H2 , . . . , Hm G. |G : Hi | = |G :
H | i 9 2
H1 , H1 H2 , . . . , H1 H2 Hm
G.
H1 H2 Hm |G : H |m . K = H1
H2 Hm . K = a G a 1 Ha. x K
g G. x a 1 Ha a G g1 xg g1 a 1 Hag
a G. b G a G ag = b.
g1 xg b1 Hb b G g1 xg K.
K G.)
9. G ,
G. H G, H x 1 Hx
H x G.
(. X = x . X
G, |G : NG (X )| < . NH (X ) = H NG (X ).

 1.

18

|H : NH (X )| < . ( G K H G,
|G : K | = |G : H ||H : K |.) , CH (X ) H x 1 Hx
CH (X ) NH (X ).
2 X n
|X | = n < . y NH (X ). y1 xy = y1 Xy = X y1 xy
X . , y1 , . . . , yr
CH (X ) NH (X ), yi yj1 < CH (X )
i , j , yi1 xyi (i = 1, . . . , r )
X . X X n
|X | = n.)
10. G ,
G. H G
N G , N
H.
(. H = H1 , H2 , . . . , Hr H G.
9 i=1 Hi H k = 1, . . . , r.
N = ri=1 Hi .)
11. G H K G.
NG (H ) NG (K ) G.
(. K = x 1 Hx. NG (K ) = x 1 NG (H )x.
a NG (K ). a x 1 NG (H )x
xax 1 NG (H ). h H

(xax 1 )1 hxax 1 = xa 1 x 1 hxax 1 .

x 1 hx = k K x 1 Hx = K a 1 ka = k K a NG (K ).

(xax 1 )1 hxax 1 = xk x 1 = h H
xKx 1 = H.)
12. Sn

k- k.
(. Sn .

1.6.

19

. Sn . 1
.)
13. Sn , n 3, .
(.
. 12
n 3.)
14.
{1}.
(. C G |C| = n > 1. c C
|G : NG (c )| = n NG (c ) .
G .
G
.)
15. H G : G H ,
(h ) = h h H. G = (Ker)H Ker H = {1}.
( . H
Ker .
H Ker. , : G1 Aut(G2 ),
G1 G2
: g x = g (x ) g G1 x G2 ()
x g = g1 (x ) g G1 x G2 ().)
16. Klein S4 .
(. V = {(1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}
S4 ( Klein). S3 S4 , S3 V = {1}, S3 V/V  S3
S3 V = S4 . Aut(V )  S3 , S3
= (12)(34),  = (13)(24), = (14)(23). r (V ) Klein,
r (V ) = {(1), (1 )( ), (1)( ), (1 )()}. Hol(V ) = r (V ) S3  S4 .)

20

1.

 2

2.1
.
( ) H K.
H1 , . . . , Hm G. G
H1 , . . . , Hm , H1 Hm ,
:
(i) Hi E G, i = 1, . . . , m.
(ii) G = H1 , . . . , Hm
(iii) Hi H1 , H2 , . . . , Hi 1 , Hi +1 , . . . , Hm = {1} i = 1, . . . , m.
2 ( ).
. .
0G g
g g.
G .
.
.
A A
. A
A g A
21

22

2.

g = a1 + + an ,
ai Ui Ui . Ui  (Z, +)
Ui ui . A n
A n .
n (rank)
A. A n A = u1 , . . . , un
{u1 , . . . , un } A.
A.
.

.

(restricted direct sum).

. 3 .
.
3 A = u1 , . . . , un
n. H A
m m n.
. A = u1 , . . . , un
n. n. n =
1. A (Z, +).

. m = 1 m n.

n. H A. H
u1 , . . . , un 1 H u1 , . . . , un 1 ,
{u1 , . . . , un 1 } Z- .
H u1 , . . . , un 1 , ,
H n.
h H
h = a1 u1 + + an 1 un 1 + an un

2.1.

23

an , 0. S an > 0 h H.
S
n . an = bn + r, b Z 0 r < n .
S an bn S. n
r = 0.
v = 1 u1 + + n un H.
( S.)
h bv = 1 u1 + + n 1 un 1 .
N H
Z- u1 , . . . , un 1 . N
,
n 1 . N = v1 , . . . , vm 1 m 1 n 1.
H m.
H = N v. h bv N N = v1 , . . . , vm 1 .
H N + v. N H v H N + v H.
H = N + v = v1 , . . . , vm 1 , v.
b1 v1 + . . . + bm 1 vm 1 + bm v = 0
bm , 0. v1 , . . . , vm 1 Z-
u1 , . . . , un 1 , bm n = 0 n , 0. bm = 0 . v1 , . . . , vm 1 N ,
v1 , . . . , vm 1 , v Z . H
v1 , . . . , vm 1 , v. 
3
.
r (H ) = r (A) H , A. .

Z.
r (Z) = r (2Z) = 1 Z , 2Z.
.
G (projective) : K H : G H,
H K,  : G K  = . (
Mac Lane

 2.

24

: G G
.)
(projectivity)
.
5 G , N G G/N
n,
A n G A  G/N G = A N .
. g1 , . . . , gn G
G/N =

gi + N .

(1)

i =1

A = gi : i = 1, . . . , n . k1 g1 + + kn gn = 0,
k1 (g1 + N ) + + kn (gn + N ) = N

(2)
n

gi  G/N.
(1), k1 = = kn = 0. A =
i =1
g G g + N = (k1 g1 + + kn gn )+ N g (k1 g1 + + kn gn ) = b
b N G = A + N . g A N g = k1 g1 + + kn gn N
(2) k1 = = kn = 0
g = 0. G = A N . 
.
4 A
n H A. H
m n {u1 , . . . , un } A
{v1 , . . . , vm } H vi = i ui , i Z, i = 1, . . . , m j |j+1 , j
{1, . . . , m 1}.
. H 3. A = {f1 , . . . , fn } A H = {h1 , . . . , hm }
H.
hi =

aij fj ,
j =1

2.1.

25

aij Z, i = 1, . . . , m.

f1
f2
..
.
fn

h1

h2

= ..
.

hm

= (aij ) m n i = 1, . . . , m j = 1, . . . , n.

1 0 . . . . . . . . . 0

0 2 0 . . . . . . 0
= ..
..
..
..
..
.. ,
.
.
.
.
.
.

... ...

0... 0

i |i +1 , i = 1, . . . , m 1. .
A
H. .
) fr , fs A r
s . h , h H
.
) fj fj + fs , , 0 s , j.
> 0, hi
hi = ai1 f1 + ai2 f2 + . . . + aij (fj + fs ) + . . . + (ais aij )fs + . . . + ain fn .
( ) j s .
< 0, hi
hi = ai1 f1 + ai2 f2 + . . . + aij (fj fs ) + . . . + (ais + aij )fs + . . . + ain fn .
( ) j s .
) hr hr + hs (s , r ).
hr + hs =

j =1

(arj + asj )fj .

 2.

26

r- M ar1 + as1 , . . . , arn + asn

s- r-
.
) fr fr hi hi .
r i
1.
)-) A
H A A A H H
H. A
H
.
.
.
.
1.
.
,
.
1 ( )

a11 a12 a13 a14

A = a21 a22 a23 a24

a31 a32 a33 a34

M34 (R).

A,i , i = 1, 2, 3, i- A A,j ,
j = 1, 2, 3, 4, j- A.
A M14 (R)
A
M31 (R). A

A,1

A = A,2

A,3

A=

A,1 A,2 A,3 A,4

2.1.

27

. I3 I4 3
4, . I3 A I4
A.

3,1

I3 = 3,2

3,3

I4 =

)
4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 .

23

3,1

= 3,3

3,2

I3 3,2 3,3 .
23 A 2- 3-
A. ,

A,1

23 A = A,3

A,2

2- 4- I4 ,
24 .
A24 =

A,1 A,4 A,3 A,2

2- 4- A.

(23 A)24 = 23 (A24 ).

A,i + A,j R, i , j. , A,i A,j . .. A,2 + A,3

3,1
3,2
3,2 + 3,3

A =

A,1
A,2
A,2 + A,3

, A,i + A,j R, i , j. ,
A,i A,j . .. A,2 +
A,4
A

4,1 4,2 4,3 4,2 + 4,4

)
A,1 A,2 A,3 A,2 + A,4 .

28

2.

2.2
r s . ,
, D = diag(d1 , . . . , dk ), k = min(r, s),
di N {0}, 1 i k, di |di +1 , 1 i k 1.
1 di
0 . , ,
.
6 . T Q T Q 1 .
:
P (permuting): ( ),
M (multiplying): ( ) 1,
A (adding): ( )
( ).
: (
Gauss
.)
= (mij ), mij Z, i = 1, . . . , r, j = 1, . . . , s
-.
1. E = {|mij | : i = 1, . . . , r, j = 1, . . . , s}. , E . , d, , = |d |.
d (1, 1) P-.
2. M- d > 0.
3. (2, 1)
d. A- b,
0 b < d. s = 1, 7.
4. b = 0, 6. b , 0
1 2 3 b d.
5. 3 4 (2, 1)
.

2.2.

29

6. 3 5
- d (1, 1).
7. 3 6
d (1, 1).
8. d ,
11. , P A b (2, 1)
d - b.
9. 35 -
d (1, 1). 7
d.
10. 8 9 d = d1
(1, 1) .
11. 1 10 d2 (1, 1)
( d1 ).
12. 11
- .
.
2

6
2
2
2
4

6 6
0
0 2 2
6 2
4
2 3 4
6 4
2

.
E = {2, 3, 4, 6}
= 2. d 2 (2, 1).
1

5,2
5,1
5,3
5,4
5,5

2
6
2
2
4

0 2 2
6 6
0
6 2
4
2 3 4
6 4
2

 2.

30

2 6 ( A

5,1
(3)5,1 + 5,2
(1)5,1 + 5,3
5,1 + 5,4
(2)5,1 + 5,5

2
6
2
2
4

0 2 2
6 6
0
6 2
4
2 3 4
6 4
2

2
0
0
0
0

0 2 2
6 0
6
6 0
6
2 1 2
6 0
6

2
0
0
0
0

2

6

6

1 2

0
6
6
2
6

2
0
0
0

4,1
4,2
(1)4,1 + 4,3
4,1 + 4,4

T 2

= 0

0 0
6 0
6 0
2 1
0 6 0

0
6
6
2
6

BT B.

1 =

2
0
0
0
0

0 0
6 0
6 0
2 1
6 0

0
6
6
2
6

8, 2 4

5,1
5,4
5,3
5,2
5,5

4,3 + 4,1
4,2
4,3
4,4

T 2

= 0

5,1
(2)5,1 + 5,2
5,3
5,4
5,5

5,2
5,1
5,3
5,4
5,5

0 0
2 1
6 0
6 0
6 0

0
2
6
6
6

5,1
5,1 + 5,2
5,3
5,4
5,5

2.2.

2 =

31

2
1
0
0
0

0 0
2 1
6 0
6 0
6 0

0
2
6
6
6

9 1 2
1
2 ( 7) :

4,1
(2) +
4,1
4,2
1 2

4,1
4,3
(2)4,1 + 4,4

T 1 0

0 4

= 0 6

0 6

0 0
2 4
0 6
0 6
0 6

1 ,
11

1 0
0 4
0 6
0 6
0 6

0 0
2 4
0 6
0 6
0 6

4,1
4,3
4,2
4,4

T
4,1

4,2
24,2 + 4,3

24,2 + 4,4

, 12

5,1
5,2
5,3
(1)5,3 + 5,4
(1)5,3 + 5,5

1
0
0
0
0

0
2
0
0
0

0
0
6
6
6

0
0
6
6
6

T 1

= 0

4,1
4,2
4,3
(1)4,3 + 4,4

0
2
0
0
0 0

0
0
6
6
6

T 1

= 0

0
2
0
0
0 0

0
0
6
6
6

0
0
6
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

D =

1
0
0
0
0

0
2
0
0
0

0
0
6
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 1, 2, 6, 0 . T Q , T Q 1 = D.

32

2.

2.3

.
5 G n- . G
h1 hn , h1 , . . . , hm
1 , . . . , m , , i |i +1 , i = 1, . . . , m 1
hm +1 , . . . , hn .
h1 , . . . , hm
, i 1. ,
n
n .
7
.
. . X = {x1 , . . . , xn }
. x X
Ax = {nx : n Z}.

A(X ) =
Ax
x X

X . A(X ) n.
G n- {g1 , . . . , gn }
G. X = {xi : i = 1, . . . , n }
A(X ) X . : X G
(xi ) = gi i {1, . . . , n }
: A(X ) G.
A(X )/Ker  G. 

.
6 G ,
.

2.3.

33

. H G.
7, G A/N , A . H G
H1 A H1 /N  H H1 ( 3), H
. 
G (torsion group periodic group)
.
G G
(torsion free). H G
(H ) H G.
() G , .
8 G T . , T = {g G : ng = 0G , n N}. T
G. , G/T
.
. 0G T . x, y T .
n, m nx = 0G my = 0G . d
n, m, d (x y) = 0G . x y T T
G ( ).
G. x T (x ) (x ) T .
, T G. ,
g + T G/T
n (g + T ) = T . ng T . T ,
m N m (ng) = 0G . m (ng) = (nm )g = 0G
g T . , G/T
{T }. 
T 8
G. G T = {0}.
G ( ).
p, Gp G
G p.
9 (i) Gp () G
G.

 2.

34

(ii) G () P

p Gp , {0}, G =
Gp .
pP
. (i) .
n
n
(ii) g G \ {0} n g. n = p11 pk k
n. i = 1, . . . , k, qi = pnni , q1 , . . . , qk
i
. x1 , . . . , xk
q1 x1 + + qk xk = 1.
( Bezout.)
g = q1 x1 g + + qk xk g = b1 + b2 + + bk ,
bi = qi xi g, i = 1, . . . , k.
pini bi = pini qi xi g = xi (ng) = 0
bi Gpi .
g Gp1 + + Gpk
G = Gp : p P . P = {p}, G = Gp .
P , {p}
Tp = Gq : q P, q , p
g Tp . g , 0, p1 , . . . , pk P pi , p, i = 1, . . . , k,
n
g = g1 + + gk gi pi i ni N, i = 1, . . . , k.
n
n1
g p1 pk k
g < Gp .
Gp Gq : q P, q , p = {0} G =
Gp . 
pP

.
7 (i)
G .
(ii)

.

2.3.

35

. G = x1 , . . . , xn .
n. n = 1, G . , G
. n > 1.
H = {y G, m Z \ {0}, my xn }.
H G. G/H
, k (g + H ) = H, kg H
mkg xn m Z \ {0}. g H g + H = H. G/H
n 1 (x1 + H, . . . , xn 1 + H ) ,
, . 5
A
G = H A.
H .
: H Q
(y) = mk , my = kxn . , m1 y = k1 xn
m2 y = k2 xn ,
0 = m2 (m1 y) m1 (m2 y) = (m2 k1 k2 m1 )xn

(y2 ) =

k2
,
m2

k1
m1

k2
.
m2

, (y1 ) =

k1
m1

m1 y1 = k1 xn , m2 y2 = k2 xn

m1 m2 (y1 + y2 ) = (k1 m2 + k2 m1 )xn ,

,
(y1 + y2 ) =

k1
m1

k2
m2

= (y1 ) + (y2 ).

(y) = 0, my = 0 y = 0. H
N (Q, +). H (
6) N . N
( 1) H. G = H A
. G
T G.
6 T .

 2.

36

G/T
. F G
F  G/T G = F T . 
5. A = f1 , . . . , fn
n A G ,
(fi ) = gi , i = 1, . . . , n. 7,
A/Ker  G. H = Ker. h H (h ) = 0.
h = 1 f1 + + n fn , 1 , . . . , n Z, h H
(h ) = 0, , 1 g1 + +n gn = 0. 3 H
m n. 4 {u1 , . . . , un }
A {v1 , . . . , vm } H vi = i ui i |i +1
i = 1, . . . , m 1. A/H  G
h1 , . . . , hn G u1 + H, . . . , un + H.
h1 , . . . , hn G.
G = h1 hn .
1 h1 + + n hn = 0 i hi = 0
i = 1, . . . , n. , t1 , . . . , tm Z
1 u1 + + n un = t1 v1 + + tm vm .
vi = i ui , i = 1, . . . , m, {u1 , . . . , un } A,
i = i ti i = 1, . . . , m j = 0 j = m + 1, . . . , n.
i ui = ti i ui = ti vi H
i = 1, . . . , m.
1 h1 = = m hm = 0

m +1 hm +1 = = n hn = 0.
G
h1 , . . . , hn , g G
g = g1 + + gn , gi hi i = 1, . . . , n.
g = g1 + + gn = g1 + + gn . gi = i hi , g = i hi
(i = 1, . . . , n ) (g1 g1 ) + + (gn gn ) = 0, (
) (i i )hi = 0 i = 1, . . . , n. , gi = gi ,

2.3.

37

i = 1, . . . , n. i hi = 0 i ui H
i = ti i ti Z, i = 1, . . . , m. hi |i |
i = 1, . . . , m i hi = 0 i = 0, i = m + 1, . . . , n.
G = h1 hn ,
hi |i | i = 1, . . . , m hi , i =
m + 1, . . . , n, . 
.
- (indecomposable)
.
-

(, p-).
8 G n, n ,
G p-
p.
. n = p11 prr n
p1 , . . . , pr .
t

G = g1 gr ,
gi pi i , i = 1, . . . , r. n = n1 n2 ,
1 < n1 , n2 < n .
n1 , n2 1, m1 , m2 (
Bezout) m1 n1 + m2 n2 = 1.
G1 = n1 g G2 = n2 g G = g. g
n.
G = G1 G2 .
t

g = m1 (n1 g) + m2 (n2 g) G ,
G1 G2 = {0}. x G1 G2 . n2 x = 0 x G2
n1 x = 0. x = m1 n1 x + m2 n2 x = 0. G = G1 G2 .
G1 G2
. 

.

38

2.

9 (i) .
(ii) p- pr , p r
, .
. (i) G = g .
G ng n .
G1 = mg

G2 = tg
m, t . mtg , 0 mtg G1 G2 ,
G , G1 G2 .
G G -.
(ii) G = g pr .
G G, pg, . . ., p2 g, ..., pn 1 g. ,
G pg pn 1 g.
G1 G2 G G1 G2 , {0}
G , G1 G2 . 
G n N, nG G ng, g G.
n (g h ) = ng nh nG
ng, g G.
G, pG = {0}, p , p-.
Zp . , p- Zp . () G
p- p ,
p.
8.
10 p- G
p.
. |G | G.
|G | = 1, . |G | = n > 1

2.3.

39

() p-
n. G .
G p-, . g G
P = g. pm g. (
P. , P = {0, g, 2g, . . . , (pm 1 1)g}.)
G/P. G/P p- |G/P | < ,
.
G/P, b1 + P , . . . , bk + P ,
G/P = b1 + P bk + P .
pni bi +P. ci G
pni , bi + P = ci + P. pni bi = 0, ci = bi .
pni bi , 0. pni bi = i g 1 < < pm 1.
(i , pm ) = 1, pm +ni bi = 0 g
i = ki pi (ki , p) = 1.

ord(pni bi ) = pm i
bi pm i +ni . g, m i +
ni m i ni .
ci = bi ki pi ni g
. bi + P = ci + P, i = 1, . . . , k,
G/P = c1 + P c1 + P ,
ci + P G/P ci G .

G = c1 c1 g.
x G,
x + P = 1 (c1 + P ) + + k (ck + P ) = (1 c1 + k ck ) + P
x (1 c1 + k ck ) P. x = 1 c1 + + k ck + g,
1 , . . . , k , Z.
1 c1 + + k ck + g = 0.

 2.

40

1 (c1 + P ) + + k (ck + P ) = P.
( P G/P.) G/P
ci + P , i = 1, . . . , k, i (ci + P ) = P, i = 1, . . . , k, ci + P
ci i ci = 0, i = 1, . . . , k. g = 0.
G
1 c1 + + k ck + g. 
4 G p- g
G , g
G. 
10 n = p11 pk k ,
p1 , . . . , pk ,
n
Gpi , i = 1, . . . , k. , |Gpi | = pi i , i = 1, . . . , k.
n

. 9,
G = pP Gp ,
P p, Gp , {0}.
( Lagrange),
Gp , {0}, p {p1 , . . . , pk }. G = Gp1 Gpk .
m
m
m
10, |Gpi | = pi i , i = 1, . . . , k, mi 0. n = |G | = p1 1 pk k .
mi = ni , i = 1, . . . , k. 
Lagrange .
.
5 G n,
m, m n. 
11 G p
G = Cpm1 Cpmr

(3)

G = Cp n1 Cp ns

(4)

m1 m2 mr

n1 n2 ns . r = s mi = ni , i = 1, . . . , r.

2.3.

41

. Cpmi = ai , i = 1, . . . , r Cp nj = bj , j = 1, . . . , s.
a1 G,
a1 = k1 b1 + + ks bs .
(5)
a1 pm1 a1 , b1 ,
G, m1 = n1 .
b1 , . . . , b b1 , . . . , bs , pn1 = pm1 ,
k1 , . . . , k (3) p,
a1 pm1 .
, p - k1 (
b1 , . . . , b ).
G = Cpm1 Cp n2 Cp ns .

(6)

g Cpm1 (Cp n2 Cp ns ).
g = a1 = 2 b2 + + s bs .

(7)

(5) (7)
k1 b1 = a1 k2 b2 ks bs
= (2 k2 )b2 + + (s ks )bs
k1 b1 = 0 ( (4)). pm1 = pn1 k1
(k1 , p) = 1 pm1 |. g = a1 = 0
Cpm1 Cp n2 Cp ns . G
(3). |G | = p, .
p- pn
|G | = pn . (3) (6)
Cpm2 Cpmr  G/Cpm1  Cp n2 Cp ns .

(8)

r 1 = s 1 mi = ni , i =
2, . . . , r. m1 = n1 r = s mi = ni , i = 1, . . . , r. 
p- pn
pn1 , pn2 , . . . , pnk
.
:
( ) pn
n.

 2.

42

( n - n1
n2 nk 0 n = n1 + + nk . , (3, 2, 1, 1)
7.
GLn (K ) K 0.)
p- pn
pn1 , . . . , pnk n1 nk 0 p-
(n1 , . . . , nk ).
.
11 ( ) p- p ,
-
p- .
. G
GZ
}
Z Cpm1 Cprmr
| {z
1

GZ
}
Z Cq1n1 Cqsns ,
| {z
m

Cpr pr . T G . 8, T
G G/T .
G/T ,
7 (ii) G/T
. n = m. 5,
G = A T , A G n.
8, T .
T = Cpm1 Cprmr = Cqn1 Cqsns .
1

t T t =
10,

t
p11

T =

t
p

t.

Gpi ,
i =1

|Gpi | = pi i , i = 1, . . . , . 10 11
. 
t

2.4.

43

2.4
G g1 , . . . , gn
G. A n x1 , . . . , xn . A
{x1 , . . . , xn }, xi gi , i = 1, . . . , n,

A G. {g1 , . . . , gn } G,
,
A/Ker  G. Ker H. x A H (x ) = 0.
x = 1 x1 + . . . + n xn H (1 , . . . , n Z) 1 g1 + . . . + n gn = 0
. 3, H
m n. ,
G H.
, .
G, H , A G, B H.
A B G H GAH
 GA HB .
B
. G
. G A/H,
A n H
m, m n, ( 7
3 4),
A/H

= A({x1 , . . . , xn })/1 x1 , . . . , m xm
 (x1 xm xn )/(1 x1 m xm )
 C1 Cm xm +1 xn ,

0 C0
Z, 1 C1
n m (Z, +).
() A = A(x, y, z, t ) 4
H = gp{v1 = 6x + 6y + 6z, v2 = 2x + 2z 2t, v3 = 2x + 6y + 2z + 4t, v4 =
2x + 2y 3z + 4t, v5 = 4x + 6y + 4z + 2t }. 3

 2.

44

{v1 , . . . , v5 } Z- .

6
2
2
2
4

6 6
0
0 2 2
6 2
4
2 3 4
6 4
2

1.2

1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0

= 0 0 6 0

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 1, 2, 6, 0 .

v1

x
y v2

= v3 .
z
v
4
t
v5

T (
2) T Q. Q GL4 (Z)

x
y
{x, y, z, t } A, Q {f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 } A.
z
t

H {f1 , 2f2 , 6f3 } , 4,

H 3. G = A(x, y, z, t )/H. G
G  C2 C6 C  C2 C2 C3 C .
() G x, y, z

x + y + 4z = x + 4y + z = 4x + y + z = 0.

2.4.

45

A 3 x1 , x2 , x3 H G
u = x1 + x2 + 4x3 , v = x1 + 2x2 + x3 , w = 4x1 + x2 + x3 . G
A/H ( 7).
{u, v, w} Z- . H
3.

x1
u

x2 = v ,

x3

1 1 4

= 1 4 1 .

4 1 1

1.2,

1 0

= 0 2

0
0
3

1 , 2 , 3 1, 3, 18 . A
f1 = x1 + x2 + 4x3 , f2 = x2 x1 f3 = x3 , H
f1 , 3f2 18f3 . G  C1 C3 C18 . 18 = 2 32 ,
C18 C18  C2 C9 . C1 = {0}
G  C3 C2 C9 .
() G p2 , p . |Z (G )| > p. ,
G
p2 . |G | = p2 , G .
Lagrange |Z (G )| = p p2 . |Z (G )| = p.
G/Z (G ) |G : Z (G )|
G. Lagrange |G/Z (G )| p. p
G/Z (G ) gZ (G ) .
x, y G. u, v Z (G ) x = gn u y = gm v
n, m Z. xy = yx. G
G = Z (G ), . |Z (G )| > p G = Z (G ), ,
G . () p2 ,
2. 10,
G Cp2 Cp Cp .

 2.

46

2.5
1. H
(Q, +) .
(. X = { q11 , . . . ,
p

pn
qn

1
q1 q2 qn

}.
.

X .)
2. G . G0
G G/G0 , G0 = T (G ).
(. 29, G0 T (G ). G/G0
, 26
A n G = A G0 . 17 n .
29, G/T (G ) G/T (G )  A.
, G = A G0 = A T (G ).)
3. G H . G  H
T (G )  T (H ) G/T (G )  H/T (H ).
(. 17.)
4. G H G.

() T (H ) = H T (G ).
() T (G )/T (H )  HT (G )/H  T (G/H ).
(. () . () G/H . T (G/H ) = {g + H : ng H, n
N} = {g + H : g T (G )}.)
5. n G H
.
() nG = {ng : g G }. nG G.
() G  H nG  nH G/nG  H/nH.
6. n G
.

r
r 5, g1 , . . . , gr G , G =
gi . nG =
ngi .
i =1
i =1

2.5.

47

7. n, r G r. G/nG r
n.
8. A n H
n. A/H .
9. {x1 , . . . , xn } A,
{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } A, x1 = x1 + q2 x2 + + qn xn .

48

2.

 3
Sylow
3.1
G , Lagrange
G G.
. , m n = |G |
G m. m
, m. 1872
Sylow

.
G ( ) A B
G. R G A, B :

(x, y) R x = ayb
a A b B. R
G.
AyB = {ayb : a A, b B}
y .
AyB .
, ,
. G A, B G.
AxB
49

 3. SYLOW

50

x 1 AxB. x 1 AxB x 1 Ax
B

(|AxB| =) |x 1 AxB| =

|x 1 Ax ||B|
|A||B|
= 1
.

1
|x Ax B| |x Ax B|

Ax1 B, . . . , Ax B R
G.

1
|G |
=
.

1
|x Ax B| |A||B|
i =1
12 ( Sylow) G .
(I) |G | = n, p pm p,
n. (, n = pm r, (p, r ) = 1.) G
pi i {0, . . . , m }. ( pm p-
Sylow.)
(II) Sylow . ,
p- Sylow G .
(III) p- Sylow G 1 + kp
G.
. (I) n = |G |.

n = |G | = + 1 + + k
= |Z(G )|, i = |Ci |, i = 1, . . . , k, Ci , i = 1, . . . , k,
G |Ci | > 1. i
Ci i |n, i = 1, . . . , k. n = 1
.
< n |G | = n. m > 0. p|
Z(G ) Z(G )
H p. ( 6.) H E Z(G ) H E G.
G/H pm 1 r
pi i {0, . . . , m 1}. N/H < G/H |N/H | = pi
i {0, 1, . . . , m 1} : G G/H
G G/H. 1 (N/H ) = N . Lagrange, |N | =
pi |H | = pi +1
p| . p , , p - .
pm |n (pm , ) = 1 i (pm , i ) = 1.

3.1.

51

i = |G : N |, N
Ci . (pm , i ) = 1 i > 1 pm ||N |
|N | = ni < n. N pi , i = 0, . . . , m.
(II) P1 , P2 p- Sylow. P1
P2 . G P1
P2 ,
G = P1 x1 P2 P1 x2 P2 P1 x P2
x1 = 1G . |P1 | = |P2 | = pm

|G | = pm r =

pm pm
d1

pm pm

+ +

dk
pm
d1
m

di = |xi1 P1 xi P2 |, i = 1, . . . , . r =
pm

,
m

+ + pd . di |pm ,
. (p , r ) = 1

i = 1, . . . , , di
di < pm i ( p r ).
di = pm i. |xi1 P1 xi P2 | = |P2 | P2 xi1 P1 xi .
|P1 | = |xi1 P1 xi | = |P2 |, xi1 P1 xi = P2 , , P1 P2
. , P p- Sylow
-, ., g1 Pg = P g G. P
p- Sylow P .
(III) p- Sylow . . P1 , . . . , Ps
p- Sylow G. (II), {P1 , . . . , Ps }
P1 . , s = |G : NG (P1 )|
s |G | ( Lagrange). s
1 + p 1. P {P1 , . . . , Ps } NG (P ) P G. P p-
Sylow NG (P ). P E NG (P ) P
NG (P ). (II) P p-
Sylow NG (P ).
i i , 1. P1 = a 1 Pi a a P1
P1 = Pi a 1 Pi a, a P1
P2 , . . . , Ps . NP1 (Pi ) = P1 NG (Pi ), 17,
|P1 : P1 NG (Pi )|. Pi p Sylow NG (Pi ) P1 NG (Pi )
P1 |P1 : P1 NG (Pi )| = pi i > 0.
{P2 , . . . , Ps } S : Pi Pj Pi = a 1 Pj a
a P1 . S {P2 , . . . , Ps }

52

3. SYLOW

. t . pj p Sylow j > 0 j = 1, . . . , t. s
s = 1 + p1 + + pt , i > 0, i = 1, . . . , t. s = 1 + kp. .
Sylow () Cauchy. 9
Cauchy .
6 ( Cauchy) p
G, G p. 

Sylow.
13 () G pq, p q
p < q. G q
G. p q 1 G
.
. 1 + k1 p, p- Sylow, (1 + k1 p)|pq. 1 + k2 q, q- Sylow, (1 + k2 q)|pq. q
1 + k2 q, (1 + k2 q)|p. q > p. 1 + k2 q = 1. q- Sylow H.
Sylow (), H . p q 1.
, q , 1 + k1 p. (1 + k1 p)|pq p - (1 + k1 p)
(1 + k1 p)|q. 1 + k1 p = q 1 + k1 p = 1 q
1 + k1 p = 1. p- Sylow K,
. ( .) H K = {1G }.
, |H K | p q ( Lagrange).
(p, q) = 1, H K = {1G }. H = h K = k .
(h, k ) = h 1 k 1 hk = 1 ( H, K
G H K = {1G }). , hk = kh.
hk pq. m hk. (hk )pq = 1 (
hk = kh.), m |pq. pq 1, p, q, pq
m = pq. G = hk . 
()
30.

3.2.

53

14 () G 30. G
.
. 30 = 2 3 5. Sylow,
G 1 + 2k1 2, 1 + 3k2 3 1 +
5k3 5, k1 , k2 k3 - .
1 + 2k1 , 1 + 3k2 1 + 5k3 30.
k1 , k2 k3 G 2, 3
5 1, 3, 5 15 2, 1 10 3 1
6 5. 3
2, 10 3 6 5. H K
, |H | = p, |K | = q, p {2, 3, 5}, q
{2, 3, 5}. H K.
13, H K = {1}.
.

2 3, 10 3 20
6 5 24. 48
. 2, 3 5.
Sylow () .
30 . 

3.2

15. ,
,
15 ,
.

3.2.1 6
G 6. Sylow () G
1 + 31 3- Sylow 3 (1 + 31 )|6 1 + 22 2-
Sylow 2 (1 + 22 )|6. 1 = 0
3- Sylow H 3, . G
2- Sylow 2.

 3. SYLOW

54

, G 2- Sylow K
2. K .
G . , (
) .
G 2- Sylow. G . H
G 3.
H = a = {1, a, a 2 }
ord(a ) = 3. b G \ H. |G/H | = |G |/|H | = 2,
G/H = Hb = {H, Hb}.

G = {1, a, a 2 , ab, a 2 b, b}.

- G 6,
a b .
ba bH = Hb = {ab, a 2 b, b}. , ba = b ba = ab
ba = a 2 b. ba =
a 2 b. b 2 3. ord(b) = 3,
b 2 G b .
H G 3
ord(b) = 2. G = {1, a, a 2 , ab, a 2 b, b}
ba = a 2 b, ord(a ) = 3 ord(b) = 2. ;
S3 a = (123) b = (23),
. ( a

2/3 b
1.)

3.2.2 8
G 8 = 23 .
8. , .
3 (1, 1, 1), (2, 1) (3),

8 :
C2 C2 C2 , C4 C2 , C8 .

3.2.

55

G -
x G m. Lagrange, m = 2, 4 8.
m = 2 8 .
H = x 4 H 2 G, H
G. y G \ H y2 , y1 xy H = {1, x, x 2 , x 3 }.
G/H = Hy,
G = {1, x, x 2 , x 3 , y, xy, x 2 y, x 3 y}.
, , - G 8
x y . yx yH = Hy,
, yx y, xy, x 2 y, x 3 y.
- .

yx = y. x = 1, .
yx = xy x = y1 xy. G , .
yx = x 2 y.
x = y1 x 2 y = x 2 = (y1 x 2 y)(y1 x 2 y)
= x 2 = y1 x 4 y = y1 1y = 1,
. yx = x 3 y , y1 xy = x 1 .
y2 .

y2 = x. y 2 4,
x = 1 x 2 = 1, . ,
- G 2 4. , y2 , x.
y2 = x 3 . . y
2 4, x 3 = 1 x 2 = 1, .
, - G 2 4.
, y2 , x 3 .
.

y2 = 1 ( ).
G = {1, x, x 2 , x 3 , y, xy, x 2 y, x 3 y}
x y: x 4 = 1, y2 = 1 yx = x 3 y.
G .

 3. SYLOW

56

G. G;
. ( 0 E
. x

0 /2 y
E.)

y2 = x 2 ().
G = {1, x, x 2 , x 3 , y, xy, x 2 y, x 3 y}
x y: x 4 = 1, y2 = x 2 yx = x 3 y.
G , ,
G 8 .
H

A=

z
w
w z

z, w C. A, B H
A + B, A, AB H A , 0, A1 H. , H
R ( ).
z = a + ib w = c + id -
det(A) = a 2 + b2 + c 2 + d 2 , 0. R-

1 0
0 1

, X =

i
0
0 i

, Y =

0 1
1 0

0 i
i 0

Q4 .
X 4 = I2 , X 2 = Y 2 Y 1 XY = X 1 .

3.2.3 10
G 10. G ,
C2 C5 .
G -. Sylow
() G 5- Sylow 5,
H, H 1 + 2 2- Sylow 2.

3.2.

57

(1 + 2 )|10. 1 + 2 , 1 (
), 5 2. K
5 2.
H = a = {1, a, a 2 , a 3 , a 4 }

K = b = {1, b}.
,

H K = {1}.
b < H.

|G/H | = |G |/|K | = 2.

G = {1, a, a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , b, ab, a 2 b, a 3 b, a 4 b}.
ba bH = Hb ba
b, ab, a 2 b, a 3 b, a 4 b.
8
ba = a 4 b.
G.
G .

.
ABCDE 0. E
0 . a 72o

0 b E 180o .
, ,
a b.
G.
D5 .