Chapter 02

Chng 2 Biu din bi ton &
Tm kim li gii
GV: Nguyn Th Trc Vin Email: nttvien@dit.hcmut.edu.vn
Ni dung
Bi ton:

Biu din bi ton. Tm kim.
Cc chin lc iu khin. Cc c trng ca bi ton. Vn trong thit k CT tm kim.
Khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin - i Hc Bch Khoa Tp. HCM Bi Ging Mn: Tr tu nhn to
Side 2
Bi ton
Gii bi ton bng cch tm kim, gm:
1. 2.
Biu din bi ton bng khng gian trng thi. Gii bi ton = Tm ra mt trng thi/con ng trong khng gian trng thi.
Trng thi:

Biu din mt bc no ca bi ton. Trong tr chi, nh tic-tac-toe, mi bn c c th l trng thi.

O O X
Trng thi
Trng thi
Trng thi
Side 3
Bi ton
Chuyn trng thi, lut chuyn:

Biu din cho s c th ca vic chuyn t trng thi no n trng thi khc. V d: trong tr chi, l lut chi ca game.
Lut chuyn
O O
Side 4
Bi ton
Trng thi u:

Trng thi xut pht ca bi ton. Mt bi ton c th c nhiu trng thi khi u. V d: game tic-tac-toe, trng thi u thng thng l:
Trng ch:

Trng thi m bi ton c gii. Mt bi ton c th c nhiu trng thi ch. V d: game tic-tac-toe, trng thi ch l:
O X X O X
Side 5
Bi ton
Khng gian trng thi:
B t: ( th)
1. 2. 3. 4.
N A S G
: tp cc trng thi. : tp cc ng chuyn trng thi. : tp cc trng thi bt u. : tp trng thi ch.
c im:
Biu din bi ton thng l:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Ch ra cch biu din mt trng thi. Ch ra lut chuyn trng thi. Ch ra tp trng thi bt u. Ch ra tp trng thi ch.
Khng gian trng thi s c xy dng DN DN khi chng trnh chy. Vi bi ton ln, khng thi gian, khng gian c t cho tng trng thi c th, v ng chuyn c th.
Khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin - i Hc Bch Khoa Tp. HCM Bi Ging Mn: Tr tu nhn to Side 6
Bi ton
V d:
Xt cc bi ton c th sau:
Tic tac toe. ong nc. 8 puzzle. C vua, c tng. Ngi nng dn qua sng. Ngi truyn gio v k n tht.
Hy biu din bi ton.
Side 7
Bi ton
8 puzzle:
Trng thi, v d.
Dng k hiu (symbolic prolog) domains item = integer. itemList = item*. state = state(itemList). . . . state([0,1,3,2,4,8,7,5,6]) 0 = trng.
Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6
Side 8
Bi ton
8 puzzle:
Trng thi, v d.
Dng k hiu (symbolic NNLT Java, C++, ?)
Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6
?
Side 9
Bi ton
8 puzzle:
Lut chuyn trng thi, v d.

Dng k hiu (symbolic prolog) predicates move(state,state) . . . clauses move( state([0,X2,X3,X4,X5,X6,X7,X8,X9]), state([X2,0,X3,X4,X5,X6,X7,X8,X9])) ).
Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6
1 2 7 4 5
3 8 6
Side 10
Bi ton
8 puzzle:
Trng thi u, ch, v d.

Dng k hiu (symbolic prolog)
Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6
START
state([0,1,3,2,4,8,7,5,6]) state([1,0,3,2,4,8,7,5,6])
1 2 7 4 5
3 8 6
START
Side 11
Bi ton
Bi ton ong nc:
M t:
C 3 bnh nc, mt 4 lt v mt 3 lt. Mi bnh khng c vch o nc. Nc vo bnh c th ly t vi. Lm th no c th ong 2 lt nc vo bnh 4 lt ?
KGTT:
Trng thi: (X,Y). Vi X = s lt nc trong bnh 4 lt , X=0,1,2,3,4 Y= s lt nc trong bnh 3 lt. Y=0,1,2,3 Bt u: (0,0) Kt thc: (2,n), n =0,1,2,3. Lut: nh bng sau.
Side 12
Bi ton
Lut: TT V tri 1 (x,y) & x<4
V phi (4,y) (x,3) (x-d, y) (x, y-d) (0,y) (x,0)
Gii thch Lm y bnh 4 lt. Lm y bnh 3 lt. nc (d lt) ra khi bnh 4 lt nc (d lt) ra khi bnh 3 lt. Lm trng bnh 4 lt
2 3 4 5 6 7
(x,y) & y<3 (x,y) & x>0 (x,y) & y>0 (x,y) & x>0 (x,y) & y>0 (x,y) & x+y >=4 & y >0
Lm trng bnh 3 lt nc t bnh 3 lt sang bnh 4 (4, y-(4-x)) lt n khi bnh 4 lt y.
Side 13
Bi ton
Lut (tt.): V phi (x-(3-y),3) Gii thch nc t bnh 4 lt sang bnh 3 lt n khi bnh 3 lt y. ht nc t bnh 3 lt sang bnh 4 lt. ht nc t bnh 4 lt sang bnh 3 lt. 2 lt nc t bnh 3 lt Lm trng bnh 4 lt b. 4 lt.
Side 14
TT V tri 8 (x,y) & x + y >=3 & x>0 9 (x,y) & x + y <=4 & y>0 10 (x,y) & x + y <=3 & x>0
((x+y),0)
(0,(x+y)) (2,0) (0,2)
11 (0,2) 12 (x,2)
Bi ton
Li gii: Cn mt cu trc iu khin qu trnh bin chuyn i t TT bt u kt thc. Ngha l chui lut no c s dng. Mt v d nh sau: (xem chng 3 v tm kim) Bnh 3 lt 0 3 0 3 2 2 0 Lut 2 9 2 7 5 || 12 9 || 11
Bnh 4 lt 0 0 3 3 4 0 2
Side 15
Bi ton
Lu v lut chuyn trng thi:
Tn ti dng:
IF THEN . V d: 8puzzle: IF trng hin ti l: state([0,X2,X3,X4,X5,X6,X7,X8,X9]) THEN trng thi k l: state([X2,0,X3,X4,X5,X6,X7,X8,X9])
ong nc:
IF trng hin ti l: (X,Y) v X<4 THEN trng thi k l: (4,Y)
tng qut. Di chuyn t TT bt u (START) n TT ch (GOAL) Gii = Tm kim trn khng gian trng thi Qua vic: s dng lut + chin lc iu khin.
Side 16
Gii bi ton:
Chin lc iu khin
S cn thit ca chin lc iu khin:

gii c bi ton. gii nhanh bi ton. To ra s thay i.

V d: nu c chn lut u trong tp lut ca BT ong nc ra p dng khng th gii c BT.
Cc yu cu ca 1 chin lc tt:
C tnh h thng.
Chn lut radom tt hn so vi trng hp u, nhng qu trnh gii c th di hn. Cn xy dng kh nng duyt mt cch c h thng. Hai cch duyt c h thng:Breadth-First_Search BrFS v DepthFirst-Search (DFS) c trnh by sau.
Side 17
Chin lc iu khin (tt.)

(0,0)
(4,0)
(0,3)
Mt mc ca Breadth-First-Search (0,0)
(4,0)
(0,3)
(4,3)
(0,0)
(1,3)
(4,3)
(0,0)
(3,0)
Hai mc ca Breadth-First-Search

Breadth-First-Search:

To bin NODE-LIST. a TT bt u vo NODE-LIST. Lp: (n khi gp TT ch) OR (NODE-LIST trng):

E = RemoveFirst(NODE-LIST). Vi mi lut so trng c vi E:

p dng lut sinh TT mi. Nu TT mi l TT ch th thot, tr v TT ny. Ngc li: a TT mi vo CUI ca NODE-LIST.
Side 19

Depth-First-Search:

Nu TT u l ch dng, tr v success. Ngc li: Lp n khi gp succes hay gp error.

Pht sinh TT con ca TT bt u, gi l E. Nu khng c con no th bo error. Gi DFS vi E nh TT bt u. Nu success c tr v th tr v success. Ngc li: tip tc lp.
(0,0)
(4,0)
(4,3)
Cy do DFS sinh ra trong 2 ln lp.

Side 20
10
Chin lc iu khin(tt.)
u im ca DFS:

DFS Yu cu t b nh hn BrFS. C th tm thy li gii, thng gp trong trng hp c nhiu li chp nhn c cng tn ti cho bi ton, m khng cn xem xt nhiu KGTT. Vi BrFS th phi duyt ht mc n trc khi sang mc n+1 Khng b vng vo vic phi xt mt con ng qu di (nh DFS) trc khi kt lun n khng cn con no xt. Nu c nhiu con ng th BrFS m bo tr v ng ngn nht.
u im ca BrFS:

Vi bi ton ong nc th chin lc no cng dn n ch nhanh. Song vi nhiu BT thc hn th cng phi cn thit nhng chin lc hiu qu hn.
Bi ton: Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP):
M t:
Ngi bn hng c N thnh ph phi i qua, ch i qua 01 ln/Tp. Mi cp TP c con ng ni. Tm con ng ngn nht i vng qua cc thnh ph v tr li Tp ban u.
S con ng: (N-1)! Bng n t hp cn chin lc mi nh sau. K thut: Nhnh v Cn (branch-and-bound):

Gi con ng ngn nht ang xt. Dng vic xem xt 1 con ng no nu n c tr ln hn con ng ngn nht ang xt.
Side 22
11
Tm Heuristic:

L k thut ci tin hiu qu qu trnh tm kim. Heuristic nh ngi hng dn tour. Heuristic:
General-purpose. Special-purpose, cho bi ton c th.
General-purpose:
Ngi lng ging gn nht:

bng cch chn cch tt nht ti mi bc. TSP: Ti mi thnh ph, chn TP k tip gn nht
time l N2 ( c l N!)
Special-purpose: hai cch tham gia vo tm kim:

Chnh trong cc lut. Hm heuristic: ng gi u th ca tng TT c th v chn TT mong mun. C mt trade-off gia thi gian tnh hm v thi gian c li do hm mang li.
Side 23
Cc c trng ca bi ton.
Hm heuristic: v d

Chess: u th trn i th. TSP: Tng khong cch hin ti. 8 puzzle: Tng khong cch cc ming sai v tr.
Cc c trng ca bi ton.
Mt s kha cnh cn phn tch khi chn k thut gii BT:

Kh nng phn r bi ton. Kh nng l i v quay lui. Kh nng d on ton cc. ch l trng thi hay con ng. Lng tri thc cn gii bi ton. C cn s can thip ca con ngi trong qu trnh gii khng?
Side 24
12
Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Kh nng phn r bi ton:
Phn r c: nh BT tnh tch phn k hiu.

Gii bng cch:

Chia nh BT ln thnh cc BT con c lp. Gii tng BT nh. Kt hp thnh BT ln.
Khng phn r c: BT th gii cc khi.

Chng 13 s kho st.
Cc bc gii c th l i hay quay lui:

C th l i : nh BT chng minh nh l.
V: nh l vn ng sau mt vi bc p dng cc lut.
C th quay lui: nh BT 8-puzzle.

V: c th di chuyn theo hng ngc li v TT trc.
Khng th quay lui: nh BT chi c.

V: game over!
Side 25

Cc bc gii c th l i hay quay lui:
C th l i :
C th p dng chin lc iu khin n gin khng cn quay lui. D dng hin thc.
C th quay lui:
Chin lc phc tp hn quay lui c ti nhng bc li. C th dng Push-Down Stack.
Khng th quay lui:

Dng cc chin lc phc tp hn v mi khi ra quyt nh th l quyt nh cui cng. C th dng gii php Planning. S c xem xt trong cc chng sau.
Side 26
13

Kh nng d on ca bi ton:
C th d on c: nh BT 8 puzzle.
c th ra 1 chui nc i v t tin vo kt qua s xy ra. C th quay lui c.
Khng th d on c: nh cc game c i khng.

Cn theo ui nhiu k hoch. C chin lc/nh gi chn k hoch tt.
Li gii l tuyt i hay tng i:
Tuyt i (best-path) : nh bi ton TSP.

Tnh ton kh hn (tng qut). Cn GT tm ton din hn.
Tng i (any-path): nh bi ton suy lun i thng (xem sau).

C th dng heuristic gii trong thi gian hp l.
Side 27
Bi ton suy lun nh sau:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Marcus was a man Marcus was a Pompeian Marcus was born in 40 A.D All men are mortal. All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D No mortal lives longer than 150 years. It is now 2004 A.D Hi: Is Marcus alive? ---------------------------Marcus is mortal (1,4) Marcusage is 1964 years. (3,7) Marcus is dead. (6,8,9) -----------OR---------------All Pompeians are died in 79 AD Marcus id dead.
Side 28
8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
14

Li gii l trng thi hay con ng:
Trng thi: nh bi ton tm ra cch hiu ph hp cho cu. V d:

The bank president ate a dish of pasta salad with the fork. Tng t nh: bank, president, c th c hiu theo nhiu cch. Mt kiu tm kim no c thc hin tm ra cch hiu ton b cho cu. Ch cn xut ra kt qu cui (Trng Thi), khng cn cc bc trung gian.
Con ng: nh BT ong nc.

Khng ch xut ra trng thi cui nh : (2,0) m cng con ng dn ra trng thi cui.
Song, iu ny cng tng i. V c th biu din trng thi n c th bao gm thng tin v mt phn hay ton b con ng.
Side 29

Vai tr ca tri thc l g?
Cn t tri thc:
Nh bi ton: chi c. Tri thc = lut di chuyn hp l, c ch iu khin, chin lc iu khin tng tc tm kim.
Cn nhiu tri thc:

Nh bi ton: Hiu cu chuyn trn tp ch. Tri thc: nhiu, c nhng ci ghi tng minh v c nhng ci khng c ghi trong chnh cu chuyn.
Side 30
15

Cng vic c cn tng tc vi con ngi?
Khng cn tng tc: CT nhn m t bi ton, sinh ra li gii m khng cn s tng tc vi con ngi trong qu trnh gii nhn thm thng tin hay gii thch cc bc.
Nh BT: chng minh nh l (vi yu cu n gin l vo l ra l li gii).
Cn tng tc: CT cn tng tc vi con ngi nhn thm thng tin, gii thch, nhn c hng dn cn thit.
Nh BT: xy dng cc h chun on bnh.
S phn bit ny cng c tnh tng i. Nh vic chng minh l ni trn, i lc CT cng c yu cu gii thch tng bc chng minh hay i cng cn phi nhn hng dn bt u t im no. Xc nh c CT c cn tng tc hay khng s gip chn ra phng php gii thch hp.
Side 31

Nguyn tc gii bi ton:

Khng c mt k thut n no c th gii mi bi ton. Phn tch k cc bi ton mu v cc k thut gii ton. Xem xt xem k thut no ph hp vi loi bi ton no. Khi gp mt vn mi thay v xem xt li t u chn la k thut ph hp- c phn tch k.
Side 32
16
Cc vn trong thit k cc CT tm kim

S tm kim:

Tm kim ~ duyt cy, t TT bt u TT ch. C cy tm kim thng khng c xy dng sn, thay vo l c sinh ra dn dn trong qu trnh tm. Cu trc th thng thay th cho cy trong biu din KGTT. Xc nh hng tm (forward hay backward reasoning). Cch la chn lut p dng (matching) Cch biu din NODE ca qu trnh tm (knowledge representation problem, frame problem). Cc NODE trong th c th c pht sinh nhiu ln, v c th c xem xt trc trong qu trnh duyt cn loi b nhng NODE lp li. cn lu li cc NODE xt.
Side 33
Cc vn :

Cc vn trong thit k cc CT tm kim(tt.) Gii thut kim tra NODE lp li ( DFS):

1. 2. 3.
Xem xt tp NODE to ra, xem NODE mi c cha. Nu cha th thm NODE mi vo th. Nu c:
1.
2.
Thit lp im m rng k tip l con ca NODE ang tn ti , NODE c th b i. Nu GT c lu gi con ng tt nht hin c th cn xem xt xem n t n NODE mi trn con ng tt hn khng, nu vy th cp nht li con ng tt nht.
Side 34
17
Cc c trng ca h lut sinh

Hai vn :

C tp c trng no gip cho vic xy dng h lut sinh d dng? C tn ti quan h gia loi bi ton v loi h lut sinh dng gii bi ton . Monotonic: h lut sinh m khi p dng mt lut no n khng ngn cn vic p dng mt lut khc m n c th cng c p dng ti thi im m lut u tin c la chn. Nonmonotonic: ngc li vi monotonic. Partially commutative: h lut sinh c thuc tnh. Nu p dng mt chui lut bin t trng thi X sang Y th bt k hon v no ca chui lut ny nu c php (so trng c) cng bin i t X sang Y. Commutative: va partially commutative v monotonic.
Side 35
Cc loi h lut sinh:
Cc c trng ca h lut sinh

Monotonic Partially commutative Not Partially commutative Theorem proving Chemical synthesis Nonmonotonic Robot navigation Bridge
Side 36
18
Bi ton
Bi ton chi c, vit CT cn ch r:
Bn c bt u. Lut ca mi nc i. Bn c cho bit s thng cuc. v mc tiu: Chng nhng chi c m cn phi c gng thng.
C th vi c vua:

Bt u: bn c 8x8 , cc qun c ng v tr xut pht truyn thng. ch: bn c m trong i th khng i c hay tng ca h b tn cng. Lut:
v tri: mu bn c dng so trng. v phi: mu bn c c th chuyn n t mu bn tri rt nhiu lut khng tt. Dng khc nh v d sau:
Side 37
Bi ton
V d v lut c vua:
IF: Tt trng (e,2). (e,3) trng. (e,4) trng. THEN: Chuyn tt trng n (e,4).
S dng qu nhiu lut (lut khng tng qut) dn n:

Con ngi kho ngh tp lut ng, y . CT kh x l tt.
nh ngha bi ton chi c y:

Chi c = Di chuyn trong khng gian trng thi. Mi trng thi = Bn c hp l. Chi c = Bt u t bn c u, dng cc lut di chuyn v c gng gp trng thi ch.
Side 38
19
H lut sinh
Tm kim: ct li ca cc h thng minh. Cu trc CT theo hng lm thun tin vic m t v thi hnh qu trnh tm kim. H lut sinh. H lut sinh , gm:

Mt tp lut. CSDL/tri thc cha cc thng tin cho cng vic c th. Chin lc iu khin ch r:
th t lut c so trng. Gii quyt xung t khi nhiu hn 1 lut c th dng c.
B p dng lut.
Side 39
20

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Chng 2 Biu din bi ton &

GV: Nguyn Th Trc Vin Email: nttvien@dit.hcmut.edu.vn

Biu din bi ton. Tm kim.

Cc chin lc iu khin. Cc c trng ca bi ton. Vn trong thit k CT tm kim.

Biu din mt bc no ca bi ton. Trong tr chi, nh tic-tac-toe, mi bn c c th l trng thi.

Hy biu din bi ton.

Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6

Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6

Lut chuyn trng thi, v d.

Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6

Trng thi u, ch, v d.

Dng biu tng (ICON) 1 2 7 4 5 3 8 6

V phi (4,y) (x,3) (x-d, y) (x, y-d) (0,y) (x,0)

Lm trng bnh 3 lt nc t bnh 3 lt sang bnh 4 (4, y-(4-x)) lt n khi bnh 4 lt y.

(0,(x+y)) (2,0) (0,2)

gii c bi ton. gii nhanh bi ton. To ra s thay i.

Chin lc iu khin (tt.)

Chin lc iu khin (tt.)

To bin NODE-LIST. a TT bt u vo NODE-LIST. Lp: (n khi gp TT ch) OR (NODE-LIST trng):

Chin lc iu khin (tt.)

Nu TT u l ch dng, tr v success. Ngc li: Lp n khi gp succes hay gp error.

Cy do DFS sinh ra trong 2 ln lp.

S con ng: (N-1)! Bng n t hp cn chin lc mi nh sau. K thut: Nhnh v Cn (branch-and-bound):

Special-purpose: hai cch tham gia vo tm kim:

Mt s kha cnh cn phn tch khi chn k thut gii BT:

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Phn r c: nh BT tnh tch phn k hiu.

Chia nh BT ln thnh cc BT con c lp. Gii tng BT nh. Kt hp thnh BT ln.

Khng phn r c: BT th gii cc khi.

Cc bc gii c th l i hay quay lui:

C th quay lui: nh BT 8-puzzle.

Khng th quay lui: nh BT chi c.

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Khng th quay lui:

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Khng th d on c: nh cc game c i khng.

Li gii l tuyt i hay tng i:

Tuyt i (best-path) : nh bi ton TSP.

Tng i (any-path): nh bi ton suy lun i thng (xem sau).

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Bi ton suy lun nh sau:

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Trng thi: nh bi ton tm ra cch hiu ph hp cho cu. V d:

Con ng: nh BT ong nc.

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Cn nhiu tri thc:

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Cc c trng ca bi ton (tt.)

Cc vn trong thit k cc CT tm kim

Cc vn trong thit k cc CT tm kim(tt.) Gii thut kim tra NODE lp li ( DFS):

Cc c trng ca h lut sinh

Cc loi h lut sinh:

Cc c trng ca h lut sinh

S dng qu nhiu lut (lut khng tng qut) dn n:

nh ngha bi ton chi c y:

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