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A Guide To Coal Bed Methane Operations
A Guide To Coal Bed Methane Operations
By
Vicki A. Hollub
Taurus Exploration, Inc. (Birmingham, Alabama)
Paul S. Schafer
Schafer Associates (Oxford, Ohio)
Paul S. Schafer owns and operates Schafer Associates, a consultancy that provides technical
communication services to the petroleum and petrochemical industries. He previously worked ten years with Marathon Oil Company as a production and operations engineer and as an advanced reservoir engineer. Paul holds a Master of Technical and Scientific Communication from Miami University at Oxford, Ohio and a B. S. in Petroleum Engineering from Marietta College. He is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers and the Society for Technical Communication.
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Disclaimer
LEGAL NOTICE: This publication was prepared as an account of work sponsored by Gas Research Institute (GRI) and other organizations. Neither GRI, members of GRI, nor any person acting on behalf of either: a. makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this publication, nor that the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this publication may not infringe privately owned rights; or b. assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this publication. Reference to trade names or specific commercial products, commodities, or services in this publication does not represent or constitute an endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by GRI of the specific commercial product, commodity, or service.
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Guide to Coalbed Methane Operations provides practical information on siting, drilling, completing, and producing coalbed methane wells. Whether youre an experienced coalbed methane producer or youre exploring coalbed methane operations for the first time, this guide will give you the information you need to make informed decisions about producing this resource. This guide is a working reference. It will help you in planning and performing field activities. Each chapter provides an overview of key field operations as well as specific guidelines for performing them. The chapters also describe the equipment and materials required for each operation. Though the guide focuses on developing multiple coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin, you can apply many of the concepts to other coal basins as well. You will notice an emphasis on practical applications rather than lengthy technical explanations and engineering data. However, if you want to investigate any of the topics in greater depth, the Additional Resources section at the end of each chapter will guide you to selected references. The information in this guide represents the shared knowledge and expertise of many specialists in the coalbed methane field. Much of this information resulted from GRIs Rock Creek Methane from Multiple Coal Seams Completion Project and from several operators and service company representatives in the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama. We hope this guide contributes to greater understanding of coalbed methane production and more economical development of this gas resource.
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Table of Contents
About this Guide i List of Figures and Tables iv Conventions Used in This Guide vii Acknowledgments viii About Producing Coalbed Methane x Chapter I Selecting and Preparing a Field Site
Protecting Wetland Areas 1-2 Disposing Produced Water 1-3 Controlling Non-Point Source (NPS) Pollution 1-4 Preventing Spills 1-13 Safety and Operating Guidelines 1-14
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Chapter 2
Drilling and Casing the Wellbore Planning the Drilling Program 2-2 Drilling the Wellbore 2-32 Coring the Wellbore 2-36 Casing and Cementing the Wellbore 2-4 Wireline Logging Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties 3-2 Open Hole Logging Tools 3-4 Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite 3-35 Guidelines for Open Hole Logging 3-36 Cased Hole Logging Tools 3-37 Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite 3-41 Guidelines for Cased Hole Logging 3-42 Production Logging Tools 3-44 Completing the Well Reservoir Considerations in Completing Coalbed Methane Wells 4-2 Objectives of Completing the Well 4-2 Completing in Open Hole 4-4 Completing in Cased Hole 4-8 Accessing the Formation 4-10 Selecting Production Tubing 4-27 Working Over Wells 4-27
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
Fracturing Coal Seams Performing a Minifracture Test 5-2 Planning a Fracture Treatment Design 5-4 Preparing for a Fracture Treatment 5-30 Performing a Fracture Treatment 5-35 Evaluating a Fracture Treatment 5-48 Selecting Production Equipment and Facilities Estimating the Volume of Water to be Produced 6-2 Pumping Equipment 6-3 Power Supply for Pumping Equipment 6-19 Surface Production Facilities 6-23 Gas Compressors 6-35 Gas Dehydration Equipment 6-40 Operating Wells and Production Equipment Preparing Surface Facilities for Production 7-2 Unloading the Well 7-3 Bringing the Well on Line 7-8 Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems 7-8 Treating and Disposing Produced Water Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water 8-2 Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal 8-6 Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System 8-8 Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water 8-10 Testing the Well Performing Pressure Transient Tests 9-2 Evaluating Production from Multiple-Seam Wells 9-21 Summary of Permitting Requirements for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama Quality Control and Job Supervision Guidelines for Stimulation Treatments Procedures and Surface Equipment for Implementing the Forced Closure Fracturing Technique
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Chapter 6
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Chapter 7
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Chapter 8
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Chapter 9
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Chapter 2
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The Planning Process for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well 2-2 Setting Casing Through Zones with Lower Fracture Gradients 2-5 Selecting Hole Size 2-7 Casing Selection Chart 2-11 Conventional Rotary and Rotary-Percussion Drilling Techniques 2-16 Typical Cementing Manifold 2-50 Two Stage Cementing 2-52
Chapter 3
Wireline Logging
Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 Figure 3-3 Figure 3-4 Figure 3-5 Figure 3-6 Figure 3-7 Figure 3-8 Figure 3-9 Figure 3-10 Figure 3-11 Figure 3-12 Figure 3-13 Figure 3-14 Figure 3-15 Figure 3-16 Figure 3-17 Table 3-1 Table 3-2 Table 3-3 Table 3-4 Table 3-5 Table 3-6 Table 3-7 Table 3-8 Table 3-9
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Bulk Density Log 3-6 Comparison of Conventional and Mineral Logging Density Logs 3-9 Dual Induction/Shallow Log 3-13 Phasor Induction Log 3-14 SP Log 3-20 Compensated Neutron Log 3-21 Comparison of Cleat Orientation from Microscanner Log & Cores 3-23 Sonic Log 3-25 Full Waveform Sonic Log 3-27 Geochemical and Carbon/Oxygen Log 3-29 VOLAN Log 3-30 Spectral Gamma Ray Log 3-32 Computer-Processed Coal Quality Log 3-34 Cement Bond/Variable Density Log 3-40 Wellhead Configuration for Annular Logging 3-44 Flowmeter Developed for Coalbed Methane Wells 3-46 Flowmeter Log 3-47 Primary Non-Log Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties 3-2 Logging Sources for Estimating Reservoir Properties 3-3 Matrix Densities for Common Formations 3-7 Photoelectric Absorption Index for Common Formations 3-10 Total Natural Radioactivity of Common Formations 3-11 Responses for Logs Commonly Used to Evaluate Coals 3-16 Logging Tools for Open Hole Exploration Wells 3-35 Logging Tools for Open Hole Development Wells 3-36 Logging Tools for Cased Hole Wells 3-42
Chapter 4
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i v
Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8
Perforated Cased Hole Completion 4-12 Slotted Cased Hole Completion 4-13 Fracture Communication from Restricted Access 4-21 Limited Entry Multiple-Zone Completion 4-22 Lithology of the Well P5 Interseam Completion 4-25
Chapter 5
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Chapter 6
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Chapter 7
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Chapter 8
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(Cont'd)
Chapter 9
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v Caution A triangular caution note warns you about a situation that could be unsafe, environmentally hazardous, or damaging to equipment. gImportant Information that is particularly important for you to understand is highlighted with the symbol above.
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Acknowledgments
Guide to Coalbed Methane Operations was possible because of the generous contributions of experience and knowledge by the people listed below: Dr. Richard Schraufnagel Gas Research Institute (GRI) Senior Project Manager, Coalbed Methane Engineering Dr. Schraufnagel generated the concept for this guide and provided important guidance and support throughout its development. Stephen Spafford Taurus Exploration, Inc. Manager, Rock Creek Project Selecting and preparing a field site, drilling, completing, fracturing, and treating and disposing produced water Francis Dobscha GeoMet, Inc. Special thanks to Fran for his extensive contributions on selecting and preparing a field site, drilling, completing, fracturing, selecting production equipment, operating wells and production equipment, treating and disposing produced water, and testing wells Jerry Saulsberry Taurus Exploration, Inc. Drilling, wireline logging, fracturing, and testing wells Peter Steidl Taurus Exploration, Inc. Wireline logging Paul Stubbs GeoMet, Inc. Testing wells Randy McDaniel Taurus Exploration, Inc. Selecting and preparing a field site, and treating and disposing produced water Brian Luckianow Taurus Exploration, Inc. Selecting and preparing a field site, and treating and disposing produced water
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Jerry Sanders and Eddie Jones Black Warrior Methane, Inc. Drilling, fracturing, selecting production equipment and facilities, and operating wells and production equipment Michael Conway Stim-Lab, Inc. Completing and Fracturing Allen Neel and Bill Lawrence Black Warrior Drilling and Completion Company Drilling and completing Brad Taff and Ted Martin Halliburton Logging Services, Inc. Wireline logging Daniel Felcman and Doug Womack Tidewater Compression Services, Inc. Selecting gas compression equipment Brad Benge and Roger Hudson Tidewater Compression Services, Inc. Operating and maintaining gas compression equipment Richard Montman, Dick Bretzke, and Robert Singleton Halliburton Services, Inc. Fracturing and cementing Jerry Broadway Black Warrior Drilling and Completion Company Selecting and operating progressing cavity pumps Adam Olszewski ResTech, Inc. Wireline logging Larry Strider AMPCO Resources, Inc. Drilling, completing, and selecting pumps Gary Conner Computalog Wireline Services, Inc. Production logging David Stuart Robbins and Myers, Inc. Selecting and operating progressing cavity pumps Matt Hollub Graphic Artist Cover Art
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C
s
oalbed methane is produced commercially in the United States, and it has attracted worldwide attention as a potential source of costcompetitive natu ral gas. Since the beginning of the coalbed methane industry in the mid1970s, operators have modified and applied petroleum industry technology to improve the operation of their fields. However, conventional oil and gas technology does not always work effectively for producing coalbed methane. Because coal geology is so different from that of typical gas formations, you must use a different approach that takes into account: The composition of the rock. Coal is 90 percent organic, whereas conven tional gas formations are nearly 100 percent inorganic. The different mechanical properties of coal. Coal is brittle and weak, and it tends to collapse in the wellbore. Coals naturally occurring fractures, or cleats. These fractures, called face cleats and butt cleats, are extensive in coals. Most coal reservoirs, however, require hydraulic fracturing to stimulate produc tion. Coals gas storage mechanism. Gas is adsorbed or attached onto the internal surfaces of the coal, whereas gas is confined in the pore spaces of conventional rocks. The large volumes of water present in the coal seams. Water must be pumped continuously from coal seams to reduce reservoir pressure and release the gas. The low pressure of coal reservoirs. Backpressure on the wellhead must be kept low to maximize gas flow. And all produced gas must be compressed for delivery to a sales pipeline. The modest gasflow rates from coal reservoirs. Capital outlays and operating expenses must be minimized to produce an economical project.
These unique characteristics of coalbed reservoirs will allow few inefficiencies. Successfully developing a coalbed methane field requires pru dently managing the technical as well as the economic aspects of the project. To develop techniques for economically producing coalbed methane fields, Gas Research Institute (GRI) and Taurus Exploration, Inc. designed The Rock Creek Methane from Multiple Coal Seams Completion Project. This field research site is located in the Black Warrior Basin southwest of Bir mingham, Alabama. The overall objective of this project, initiated in 1983, is to develop tech nology for more cost-effective production of methane from shallow, thin multiple coal seams using single vertical wellbores. Ile project has specifi cally focused on determining the best combination of drilling, completing, stimulating, and operating techniques to economically produce these wells. The Rock Creek project and the work of other operators in the Black Warrior Basin have produced many practical techniques and guidelines for developing coalbed methane fields. The cooperation and open communication between operators and service companies in the Black Warrior Basin have been necessary to advance both basic knowledge and applied experience in producing methane from coal seams.
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n selecting and preparing a field site, you will make some of the most important decisions about the coalbed methane project. These decisions will affect the environmental, safety and operations aspects of the project. These factors, in turn, will likely influence the projects economic success.
Environmental Guidelines
As citizens become increasingly aware of and concerned about environmental issues, the number and scope of environmental regulations continue to grow. Certain activities related to coalbed methane production are regulated by State and Federal agencies to help prevent damage to the environment. By incorporating sound environmental management into the planning and operation of a coalbed methane field, you will help protect the environment, minimize current regulatory requirements, and possibly avoid costly penalties. You should become familiar with the applicable environmental regulations in your area before selecting and preparing a field site. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has primary jurisdiction over environmental regulations in the United States, but administration of regulations varies from state to state. In the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama, the Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) and the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) administer most environmental regulations.
Chapter
The primary environmental regulations for developing coalbed methane sites in the Black Warrior Basin are:
Protecting Wetland Areas Disposing Produced Water Controlling Non-Point Source (NPS) Pollution Preventing Oil Spills Protecting Historical Sites
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permit. For more information about permits, refer to Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
What is the maximum volume of produced water which I will need to dispose?
Are there waterways near the site that could be used for water discharge?
Do these waterways have sufficient year-round flow to allow discharge in compliance with discharge limits?
Are other operators using the same drainage basin to discharge produced water?
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What discharge limits do the regulatory agencies place on the waterway overall and on individual dischargers into the waterway?
For more information on treating and disposing of produced water, refer to Chapter Eight.
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Developing Drilling Locations Siting and Constructing Pipelines Preventing Oil Spills
Controlling Erosion
The major component of non-point source pollution is sedimentation from soil erosion. Sedimentation reduces stream capacities, interrupts ecosystems, carries other pollutants into a waterbody and may cause other potential environmental problems. Soil types, which vary greatly from one location to another, significantly influence soil erosion characteristics and are a factor in designing and implementing BMPs. To minimize erosion when constructing coalbed methane facilities, practice these general erosion control techniques:
Divert runoff from well sites and roads onto level vegetated areas, terracing, riprap, or other areas that will disperse the water and prevent soil erosion.
Install temporary erosion controls such as hay bales and/or silt fences in the natural drainage areas before or during the construction of well sites, roads, etc.
Install more permanent erosion control devices (i.e., geotextiles, riprap, matting, etc.) in areas of severe erosion.
Line, fertilize, and seed and/or mulch roadsides, drilling locations and pipelines where slopes are sufficient to cause high velocity flow and erosion. Perform this operation as soon as practical after construction and use accepted soil conservation practices.
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Pave and cover with gravel or plant vegetation on all disturbed areas, regardless of location. Perform this operation as soon as practical, and maintain all erosion controls until the disturbed area is covered or permanent vegetation is re-established.
Reuse onsite topsoil, if available, on the surface of each site. This action will help maintain vegetation in disturbed areas.
Site roads along ridge lines to minimize road grades and to lessen the potential of disturbing a water course.
Construct roads and roadway drainage only under the guidance of a person experienced in road construction techniques and erosion control.
Install velocity breakers (stabilized water bars) to control high velocity flow and potential stream erosion.
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Avoid constructing roads through areas having highly erodible soils, wetlands or wet meadows. If necessary to build roads in these areas, use erosion control methods and wetland road construction techniques to minimize disturbance. If operations are not permitted under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (Nationwide Permit) you must obtain individual permits from the U.S. Corps of Engineers (ACOE) before disturbing any wetland area. In addition, you may need an ACOE permit under the requirements of Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 and/or section 193 of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act.
Test quarterly for pH any mine tailings (i.e., black or red rock) used in roadbed construction. Test each source of black or red rock. The pH must range from 6 to 9 pH units. Keep good records of the testing for three years. Never use known hazardous or toxic materials in constructing roadbeds.
g Important
Maintain vegetated filter strips of sufficient length to assist sediment deposition between streams and roads. If terrain limitations necessitate, use other permanent methods (geotextiles, riprap, matting, etc.) instead of or in conjunction with vegetated filter strips, provided the water course is not altered or diverted.
Take measures to prevent construction materials (dirt, boulders, rock, trees, etc.) from being deposited into water-bodies. If these materials inadvertently enter the water, take environmentally sound measures to remove them immediately. These measures should prevent further environmental damage.
Because of the topography of coalbed methane operations in many areas, you may need to cross a stream with a road. Roadways can cause
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Chapter
more water course disturbance, redirect flow, and/or possibly limit movement of stream life. Through planning and careful construction, you can eliminate or significantly lessen potential environmental damage when crossing streams. When developing roadstream crossings, follow the guidelines below whenever practical:
s
Minimize stream crossings whenever practical. Use existing culverts, bridges, fords and/or other crossings whenever possible.
Make stream crossings at right angles to the main stream channel, when practical and/or when it will limit environmental damage.
Test quarterly for pH each source of mine tailings (black or red rock) used for fill material during construction of the stream crossing. The pH must range from 6 to 9 pH units. Keep good records of the testing for 3 years.
g Important
Submit a stream crossing plan for pre-approval to the state environmental agency. In Alabama, these plans are based on mean stream water flow of less than 10 cfs (using the best available historical data). If the crossing plan is for a stream with mean water flow of 10 cfs or greater or where there is greater than 200 cubic yards of fill below the plane of the ordinary high water mark, you must coordinate the plan with the Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) and the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) or the environmental agency in your state.
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Keep the size of the drilling pad as small as practical to lessen the amount of surface area disturbed.
Minimize all slopes and use appropriate erosion control and construction techniques to lessen erosion of those slopes.
Construct pads and/or pits at a sufficient distance from a waterbody for maintenance of a streamside management zone (SMZ). A streamside management zone is an area along a stream bank where existing vegetation is not disturbed, which helps prevent soil from moving into the stream. If pads and/or pits are necessarily built adjacent to water bodies, take appropriate measures to protect that waterbody and water quality. If sufficient SMZ area is not available, use other erosion control measures in conjunction with available SMZ to lessen potential water quality and water body damage, provided the water course is not altered or diverted.
Take measures to prevent construction materials (dirt, boulders, rock, trees, etc.) from being deposited into waterbodies. If these materials inadvertently enter the water, take environmen-
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tally sound measures to remove them immediately. These measures should prevent further environmental damage.
Contour sites during construction to prevent stormwater runoff from creating erosion paths.
To eliminate or minimize environmental damage, practice the following guidelines, whenever possible, in constructing drilling pits:
s
Do not use materials that adversely affect pit wall integrity (i.e., trees, tree stumps, large boulders, etc.).
Construct pits, if practical, in cut or non-disturbed areas instead of areas that have been dirt filled. If necessary, to construct pits in fill, take measures to compact the pit walls to ensure structural integrity. Compact all fill areas and all containment pits built in fill material.
Line pits with polyethylene or other non-permeable material in areas where soil types do not prevent potential contamination of groundwater.
Dispose of pit waste waters under the guidelines established by the ADEM Interim Land Application Guidelines (or your state environmental agency), and the subsequent BMP plans filed by each operator for handling these fluids.
Do not place in or over levees or walls siphons or openings that would permit escape of contents thereby causing pollution or contamination.
Do not allow liquid level in pits to rise within two feet of the pit levees or walls. Maintain pit levees or walls at all times to prevent deterioration, subsequent overfill, and leakage of contents to the environment.
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Do not place into a reserve pit any oil, trash or other materials which would increase the difficulty in cleanup of the pit or otherwise harm the environment. Properly store or dispose such material according to applicable state or federal regulations. Do not burn or bury garbage on site. Dispose all garbage at an approved landfill site.
You may burn trees and stumps (not household garbage) on location after notifying the Alabama Forestry Commission and according to local, State, and Federal regulations.
Empty and close drilling pits by burying them after drilling and fracturing operations are completed. Contour and seed the area. Before closing the pit, drain and haul away liquids in the pit and remove or perforate the pit liner.
Minimize stream crossings if you cannot follow roadways. If necessary to cross streams while constructing a pipeline, minimize stream disturbance and use erosion control techniques to prevent sedimentation of the stream body downstream of the crossing.
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If operations are not permitted under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (Nationwide Permit), the operator must obtain individual permits from the Army Corps of Engineers before disturbing any wetland area.
When constructing pipelines, follow the guidelines below to the extent practical:
s
Construct pipelines only under the guidance of a person experienced in pipeline construction techniques and erosion control.
Install water bars on extreme pipeline right-of-way grades to reduce runoff velocities.
Avoid areas of highly erodible soils, wetlands and wet meadows. If necessary to construct pipelines in these areas, use erosion control methods and wetland pipeline construction techniques to minimize disturbance to these areas.
Maintain vegetated filter strips of sufficient length to assist sediment depositions between streams and pipelines. If terrain limitations necessitate, use other permanent methods (geotextiles, riprap, matting, etc.) instead of, or in conjunction with, vegetated filter strips.
Backfill trenches with soil according to accepted pipeline construction techniques. s Minimize pipeline surface disturbance.
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Preventing Spills
Preventing Spills
By properly siting a coalbed methane facility, you can greatly reduce control requirements and impacts associated with a release event (spill). Any coalbed methane operation must prepare a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plan (SPCC) to prevent the discharge of oil from any facility into or upon any waters of the state. This plan is required under Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 112 (40 CFR 112), Oil Pollution Prevention-Non-Transportation Related Onshore and Offshore Facilities. The basic elements of an SPCC Plan consist of the identification and description of the following:
y y y
General setting of the facility Inventory of spills and potential spill sources Structures and/or equipment to prevent spills from reaching waters of the state and conformance with applicable SPCC guidelines.
The operator of a coalbed methane operation is responsible for determining which specific parts of the regulation apply to his operation. When planning a coalbed methane site, you should carefully consider where you locate potential oil spill sources such as compressor stations, bulk waste oil storage, and fuel bulk storage. For example, in most cases it is advantageous to locate compressors on top of hills or knolls. However, if a large oil spill occurred at the compressor, oil could migrate quickly down the hill and into streams. Siting a facility away from potentially environmentally sensitive areas such as streams, rivers, and wetlands greatly reduces exposure to any mitigative action required in the event of an oil release. Planning facilities to comply with SPCC requirements will help reduce unforeseen spill cleanup costs. If a spill should occur, effective control
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measures will help reduce impacts to the environment and necessary clean-up efforts.
Pre-Planning
s
Learn all applicable State and Federal environmental regulations before selecting and preparing a site. For more information see Environmental Guidelines in this guide.
g Important
Establish good relations with landowners and residents near the field site. These people can be great allies for your project if treated with courtesy and respect. They may be instrumental in granting mineral rights and access rights-of-way and in reporting any trespassing or vandalism at the site. Meet and talk with landowners and residents individually before conducting any site surveys or other field activities. Explain plans for developing the field and what types of activities they could expect from a coalbed methane operation. Candidly address their questions, concerns, and fears.
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Before beginning site development, delineate roads, drilling pads and pits, and facility locations with visible reference markers. Carefully review development plans with the site developers. These preparations will minimize environmental impact and help ensure that site developers do not harm life or property of nearby landowners and residents.
Clearing Timber
s
If site development will involve clearing a substantial amount of timber, you may consider contracting with a timber company to cut and purchase the timber. Obtain necessary authorization from landowners before clearing any timber. Contracting timbering to a qualified timber company may make site development safer and easier. In addition, revenue from selling the timber may help offset any payments to landowners for timber removed during site preparation.
Place gravel or similar material on roadbeds to provide a stable surface for heavy equipment. Road surfacing is especially important during the winter and wet seasons.
Plan main access road(s) into the site with the help and cooperation of a county commissioner (or equivalent public official) to help ensure safe road design.
Construct roads along ridge tops when practical. Attempt to design roads so drivers will have a clear line of sight.
Avoid designing roads with sharp curves, blind spots, steep grades, or in or near streams, valleys, or severe drop-offs.
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trance to the road(s) from any highways. Consult the state Department of Transportation for the correct specifications and placement of these signs and any other requirements.
Develop the well site at least several months in advance of well work. This step will facilitate proper drainage and create a more stable surface for heavy equipment. Develop well sites during the dry summer months to significantly reduce costs.
Determine the size of the well site based on the space needed to accommodate not only the drilling rig, but the fracturing equipment (fluid tanks, pumps, blenders, turbines, etc.) as well.
Locate production equipment (separators, meters, compressors, tanks, etc.) around the perimeter of the site to create an open work area near the wellhead.
Locate production equipment (separators, meters, compressors, tanks, etc.) near main gas and water collection lines and power lines to avoid digging up the well pad area for repairs.
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Additional Resources
Additional Resources
Best Management Practices Plan For Non-Point Source Discharge Control, Coalbed Methane Resource Extraction Industry, Coalbed Methane Association of Alabama and Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1990.
Environmental Protection Agency Regulations on Oil Pollution Prevention, 40 CFR 112, March 26, 1976.
Federal Interagency Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989. Federal Manual for Identifying and Delineating Jurisdictional Wetlands, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Cooperative Publication.
Federal Register, Part II Department of Defense, Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army, 33 CFR Parts 320 through 330, Regulatory Programs of the Corps of Engineers, Final Rule, Vol. 51, No. 219, Thursday November 13, 1986, Rules and Regulations.
Luckianow, B.J., W.C. Burkett, and C. Bertram, Overview of Environmental Concerns for Siting of Coalbed Methane Facilities, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, (May 13-16).
Simpson, T.E., Environmental Overview, Coalbed Methane Gas Development in Alabama, 1984-1989, Dames & Moore, 1989.
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o successfully drill and case a coalbed methane well, you must consider several operational factors not usually encountered with conventional wells. For example, most coalbed wells in the Black Warrior Basin are drilled into relatively shallow (500-3500 feet), lowpressure coal formations. Because these formations produce very low rates of gas, project economics require an extremely efficient and costeffective drilling program. A significant part of this drilling program will be shaped by the stimulation treatment and completion methods you select for the wells. Similarly, the unique mechanical properties of coals require that you use procedures that avoid damaging the coal formation. This chapter explains these and other important considerations for drilling a coalbed methane well. This chapter will guide you through:
Planning the Drilling Program Drilling the Wellbore Coring the Wellbore Casing and Cementing the Wellbore
Chapter
Figure 2-1 The Planning Process for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well
1. Collecting
Information
2. Evaluating
Formations
6. Selecting a
Drilling Technique
5. Selecting Casing
Weight and Grade
4. Selecting
Hole Size
9. Designing the
Cementing Program
2-2
1.
Collecting Information
Before you can make informed decisions about a drilling program, you must learn as much as possible about coalbed drilling and production operations in your area. Begin by collecting any well information available from offset coalbed methane operators. You may also find some of this information recorded as public information at your local and state oil and gas regulatory agencies. Specifically, you should try to obtain this well information:
y y y y y y y y
Formation depth, pressure, and production Type of coal and non-coal formations Well logs Rig type and drilling assembly Drilling fluid specifications Casing program Drilling problems encountered Stimulation and completion methods
In addition, you should talk with drilling contractors who have substantial experience in your area of interest. You should try to find out:
y
Types of rigs, surface and downhole equipment commonly used Drilling problems typically encountered Drilling procedures for eliminating problems Equipment cost and availability
y y y
You should also become familiar with considerations for preparing the well site for drilling operations. For information on this topic, refer to
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Chapter 1 of this guide. Finally, you should consult with your local and state oil and gas agencies and environmental agencies to learn what laws and regulations you must follow.
2.
Evaluating Formations
After collecting offset well information, you should evaluate any available well logs and drilling records to determine approximate depths for prospective coal intervals. You should also attempt to identify any potential problem zones, such as:
y y y y
Depleted zones that may cause lost circulation Sloughing shales Overpressured zones or water disposal zones Fresh water aquifers
Accurately identifying prospective coal intervals and problem zones will help you to design an effective casing and cementing program.
3.
Fracture gradients of coal seams and adjacent formations Regulatory requirements Drilling problems Isolation of coal seams
y y y
Before selecting the casing setting depth, you first must determine the fracture gradient, or pressure per foot of depth, required to fracture the coal seams and adjacent formations. In general, you should set casing through zones that have a fracture gradient that is
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significantly different than the fracture gradient of deeper zones. Figure 2-2 illustrates how an operator could prevent possible lost circulation problems by setting casing through a low-fracturegradient coal seam before drilling ahead through a coal seam having a significantly higher fracture gradient.
Figure 2-2 Setting Casing Through Zones with Lower Fracture Gradients
You can predict fracture gradients by using various published correlations or by using a fracture gradient formula, such as Eatons Equation, shown below: F =
where: F = fracture gradient, psi/ft S = overburden stress, psi P = wellbore pressure, psi D = depth, ft v = Poissons ratio
S-P x v 1D v
+ P D
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Fracture gradients for coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin range from as low as 0.5 psi/ft to over 1.0 psi/ft. To determine proper casing setting depths, you must also consider the requirements of state and local regulatory agencies. For example, regulatory agencies governing the Black Warrior Basin require that you set a minimum of 300 feet of surface casing in wells up to 4000 feet deep. You should also consider potential drilling problems when determining casing setting depths. Set casing to isolate zones that may cause problems such as water influx, sloughing shales, or abnormal pressures. Finally, when selecting casing setting depths, you should isolate prospective coal seams to optimize well completions. For example, set surface casing deep enough to eliminate drilling problems, but try not to set surface or intermediate casing across coal intervals that you plan to complete. A well completed through two strings of casing (surface and production casing) will likely be much less productive than a well completed through only one string.
4.
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Artificial Lift Method Removing Drilling Cuttings Tubing Size Performing Future Workovers and Recompletions
Completion Method
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Chapter
To select optimum hole size, you should begin by estimating the expected water and gas production rates for the well. You may be able to obtain these estimates from offset well data, as explained earlier in Collecting Information.
Next, you must decide what method of artificial lift you will use to remove water from the wellbore. Because coalbed methane reservoirs typically have very low pressures, you must select a lift system that will maintain a low wellbore water level to minimize bottomhole pressure and optimize gas production. For more information on selecting an artificial lift system, refer to Chapter 6.
Tubing Size
When you design the artificial lift system, you will determine the optimum production tubing size to install in the well. This decision is based on the type and size of lift system you select as well as the estimated production rates. For more information on selecting tubing size, refer to Chapter 4.
g Important
Selecting an insufficient tubing size may prevent you from effectively dewatering a coalbed reservoir, and thus severely limit ultimate gas production.
Completion Method
Next, you should consider how you will complete the well. Your choice of an open hole or cased hole completion will influence the amount and size of production casing you run. For example, you must select casing sizes that will accommodate the diameter of completion tools (e.g., perforation guns, slotting tools, underreamers) you will need to complete the well. For more information on designing the well completion, refer to Chapter 4. After determining the optimum casing string for your tubing and completion requirements, you should consider several other factors.
2-8
In addition to the production considerations above, you must also consider whether you will perform a fracture stimulation on the well. If you plan to fracture the well, determine whether the fracture will be pumped down the tubing string or down the casing string. If you plan to pump the treatment down the casing, size the casing large enough to accommodate the desired treatment rates. In addition, you must determine whether you will run isolation baffles for fracturing treatments. If you plan to use isolation baffles, you must install them when you run the casing string. For more information on fracturing considerations, refer to Chapter 5.
g Important
Selecting an insufficient casing size can limit the injection rate or fluid type needed for an effective fracture treatment.
You should also determine the hole size required to effectively remove cuttings from the hole. Because of the shallow, low-pressure coal formations in the Black Warrior Basin, most wells in this basin are drilled using compressed air or air mist instead of drilling mud. To effectively remove cuttings from an air-drilled hole, you must properly size the hole and the air compressors. The larger the hole size you select, the greater will be the volume of air required to remove cuttings. As you increase hole size, you also increase the horsepower required to lift cuttings. Therefore, when selecting the optimum hole size for removing cuttings, you must also consider the cost for the size of compressor you will use.
When selecting hole size, you should also consider the sizes of any downhole tools that you may need to run to workover or recomplete the well in the future. Make sure casing strings have sufficient clearance to accommodate these tools. For more information on the types of tools you may need to use, refer to Chapter 4.
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Chapter
Select the production casing size that best satisfies all of the production and other considerations explained above. Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin run 4-1/2 inch or 5-1/2 inch production casing. Most of the wells at the Rock Creek Project were cased with 5-1/2 inch production casing.
The size of the production casing you select will help determine the size of the production hole required. The hole size you select should be large enough to prevent the casing from sticking while being run. In addition, the hole size should allow sufficient annular space to provide an effective cement job. Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin drill a 7-7/8 inch production hole to accommodate a 5-1/2 inch production casing string. For additional guidance in selecting a proper hole size, refer to Figure 2-4.
2-10
You can use this chart to select the casing, hole, and bit sizes for many drilling programs. To use the chart, follow the steps below: 1. 2. 3. Determine the size of the last casing to be run. Enter the chart at that casing size. Follow the arrows to select the hole size required to set that size pipe (e.g., 5 in. casing inside 6-1/8 in. or 6-1/2 in. hole). Solid lines indicate commonly used bits for that size pipe. This bit size will normally provide adequate clearance to run and cement the casing (e.g., 5-1/2 in. casing inside 7-7/8 in. hole). Dashed lines indicate less common hole sizes (e.g., 5 in. casing inside 6-1/8 in. hole). If you select a dashed path, you should carefully consider casing connections, mud weight, cementing, and doglegs. Large OD connections, thick mudcake buildup, problem cementing areas (high water loss, lost returns, etc.), and doglegs may aggravate attempts to run casing when clearance is low. Follow the arrows to select a casing large enough to allow passage of a bit to drill the hole selected in step 3. Solid lines indicate commonly required casing sizes, encompassing most weights (e.g., 6-1/2 in. bit inside 7-5/8 in. casing). Dashed lines indicate casing sizes for which you can use only the lighter weights (e.g., 6-1/8 in. bit inside 7 in. casing). Repeat steps 2-4 until you have selected all casing sizes for the well.
4.
5.
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Chapter
The size of the production casing you select will determine the size of the surface casing string to run. You should select surface casing large enough to accommodate the bit needed to drill the hole for the production casing string. If you plan to run a cement collar on the production string, make sure the drift diameter of the surface casing is large enough to accommodate the bit required to provide the maximum hole size for the cementing collar, as specified by the cementing collar manufacturer. Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin run an 8-5/8 inch surface casing string. Most of the wells at the Rock Creek Project were also cased with 8-5/8 inch surface casing.
The size of the surface casing you select will determine the size of the surface hole required. Many operators in the Black Warrior Basin drill a 12-1/4 inch surface hole to accommodate an 8-5/8 inch surface casing string. For additional guidance in selecting surface hole size, refer to Figure 2-4.
5.
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Burst Pressure
Burst pressure refers to a condition of unbalanced internal pressure. Burst pressure is probably the most important factor in designing the coalbed casing string because the pipe will likely experience the greatest pressures during fracturing stimulations, when treating pressures can exceed 5000 psi. You can estimate the treating pressures required by using the fracture gradients you predicted when determining casing setting depth (step 3 above). Once you have estimated fracture gradients for the coal seams of interest, you can select the proper casing weight and grade. For more information on casing specifications, refer to a service company casing handbook.
Collapse Pressure
Collapse pressure is the unbalanced external pressure imposed on the pipe. The worst operational case is for the pipe to be empty with a normal hydrostatic pressure gradient exerted on it from the outside. The greatest differential pressure exerted on the casing is most likely to occur during flowback of a fracture treatment or during the later stage of production when pressure inside the wellbore decreases significantly. You should design the casing string for this worst case scenario. Typically, water levels in coalbed wells are pumped down to minimize hydrostatic pressure and optimize gas production. The collapse pressure becomes a more significant factor in deeper coalbed wells. Because of the relatively shallow wells (500-3500 feet) in the Black Warrior Basin, casing collapse has posed few problems in this area. However, the collapse strength of the casing may be reduced by mechanical operations such as slotting or high density perforating.
Tensile Load
Tensile load is the force exerted on a joint by the weight of the joints below it. Because each joint supports all the weight below it, the greatest tension occurs at the top of the string. Most coalbed wells in the Black Warrior Basin are shallow; therefore, tensile load is not a primary consideration for this area. Production casing is usually available in sizes ranging from 4.5 inches to 7.0 inches and in a variety of weights and grades. Casing is also
2-13
Chapter
classified as API (American Petroleum Institute) standard casing or limited service casing. API standard meets all specifications for wall thickness, outside diameter, inside diameter, drift, collapse, internal yield, and joint yield strength ratings for its respective grade. Limited service casing is also called mill reject because one or more specifications does not meet API standards. However, limited service casing may also be tested to 80 percent of the minimum yield as set forth by API specifications. Therefore, to reduce cost you may choose to use limited service casing for some applications. Typical casing grades are F-25, H-40, J-55, K-55, C-75, N-80, C-95, and P-110. These grades represent the strength of the casing. A variety of casing weights and wall thicknesses is also available for use according to well conditions. Select the size, weight, and grade of production casing based on the individual well design and completion technique. For more information on completing coalbed methane wells, refer to Chapter 4.
g Important
Before ordering casing, find out the limitations of casing weight and length for the rig you will use to run the tubulars. By ordering Range Two casing and tubing, which have lengths of 28-32 feet, you may be able to use a smaller, less costly rig.
v Caution Using casing smaller than 4-1/2 inch (O.D) limits the size of production tubing you can run inside it. If the casing/tubing annulus is too small, the flow path for gas will be restricted and the annulus can easily plug.
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6.
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Chapter
were drilled, a mixture of water and liquid soap was added to the compressed air to enhance lifting of cuttings and cleaning of the hole. For more information on removing drilling cuttings, refer to step 7, Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring.
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In most cases, you can achieve the greatest penetration rate in hard formations by using a percussion bit with an air hammer. However, if you encounter a particularly hard formation when drilling with a tri-cone roller bit, you may switch from air to water to better cool the bit. All of the wells at the Rock Creek site were drilled using only air or air mist as the circulating fluid. The main benefits and limitations of drilling with air circulation are:
Benefits
y y y y y
Eliminates possible filtration damage to coal Reduces loss-of-circulation problems Provides straighter holes because of less weight-on-bit Lower cost because no mud is used Faster drilling rate
Limitations
y y y y
Unable to effectively lift large volumes of water Bit gauge can degrade appreciably during drilling Drillpipe can wear excessively from sandblasting effect Air compressor packages may not be available in some areas
When drilling in some parts of the Black Warrior Basin, you may encounter permeable faults and fracture systems that produce large volumes of water. Because state and federal environmental regulations prohibit overflow of drilling pits, you must stop air drilling if a well produces water faster than it can be hauled away. This problem can severely jeopardize projects with economics based on the lower cost of air drilling. Water producing zones can also cause loss of circulation problems with wellbores that are rotary drilled with fluid. Using conventional lost circulation materials to control fluid loss has sometimes proven ineffective and expensive. In addition, lost circulation materials may greatly reduce the effective permeability and the gas producing potential of coal formations. Similarly, squeeze cementing to control water influx and loss of returns can be prohibitively expensive.
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Chapter
When drilling with a rotary-percussion assembly, you cannot use the technique of alternating air mist and water. Percussion hammers operate pneumatically and will not tolerate large amounts of water.
2-18
7.
Minimizing Damage to Coal Formations Effectively Cleaning the Hole Cooling and Lubricating the Bit
g Important
If you need to use a drilling fluid to control formation pressures, you should carefully select the type of fluid and additives. If formation pressures permit, the safest and most economical fluid to use is fresh water with a small amount of bentonite to add viscosity. Using heavy muds could plug or even fracture the coal. You should use them only as a last resort. You should also avoid chemicals that could damage the coals.
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Chapter
The optimum air circulation rate is a function of drilling depth, the annular area between drillpipe and hole, and the rate of penetration. In 1957, R. R. Angel published a set of charts that show the minimum air circulation rate at various depths for given drillpipe diameters and hole sizes. These charts are based on the minimum annular velocity of 3000 ft/min, which is necessary to lift cuttings from the hole. Angel converted this velocity to volumetric flow rates based on depth, the annular areas for various pipe and hole sizes, and the effects of bottomhole pressures and air compressibility on the downhole volumes. Recent research has shown the actual volumetric rate of flow necessary to efficiently lift cuttings is slightly higher than the volumes in the Angel curves. Some drilling contractors in the Black Warrior Basin recommend using an air volume at least 25% greater than the values in the Angel curves.
Determining the Air Pressure Needed for Air Drilling
To effectively clean the hole, you must also inject air at sufficient pressure to keep cuttings from falling back. Determining the required surface, or injection, pressure in advance of drilling will help you to properly size the air compressor for the job. You can estimate the required surface air pressure using the equation below: Psurf = Pf + Pah + Pcsg
where: Psurf = the compressor discharge pressure at the surface Pf = the friction pressure of air in the drillpipe and the friction pressure of air, water, and cuttings in the annulus
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Pah = the total hydrostatic head in the annulus minus the hydrostatic head in the drillpipe. Pcsg = the backpressure on the discharge line to the drilling pit. (This pressure should be zero under normal drilling conditions.)
The most difficult variable to estimate is Pah. For example, if you are drilling with air and there is no influx of formation water into the annulus, there would be air in the drillpipe and air plus cuttings in the annulus. Thus, Pah could be near zero, depending on the amount of cuttings in the annulus. However, if water flows into the annulus, Pah would be essentially equal to the hydrostatic pressure created by that water influx. Because it is difficult to predict the amount of water influx, it is likewise difficult to accurately estimate the surface air pressure required. In the Black Warrior Basin, drilling contractors have found they can drill a 7-7/8 inch hole with an air compressor capable of an air injection rate of 2000 cfm. Most compressors used for air drilling have a maximum allowable discharge pressure of 350 psi. If you need greater pressure, you can route the primary compressor through a booster compressor. If you are drilling with an air percussion hammer, you should consult the hammer manufacturers air pressure charts for the surface pressure required to operate the hammer.
To enhance removal of cuttings, you can use a mixture of air, water, and chemicals to create an air mist drilling fluid. Common chemical additives for air mist systems are detergents for foaming, lubricants for reducing friction, corrosion inhibitors, and viscosifiers. Because air mist fluids have a higher viscosity than air fluids, they can effectively lift cuttings at a much lower flow velocity than air. For example, air circulation usually requires a flow velocity of 3000 ft/minute to effectively clean the hole, whereas a stable foam fluid may require a velocity of only 200-300 ft/minute. The high flow velocity needed for air drilling can erode and enlarge the hole, greatly reducing the ability to remove cuttings.
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Chapter
To effectively remove cuttings from an air or air mist hole, you must properly size the hole and the air compressors. The larger the hole size you select, the greater will be the volume of air required to remove cuttings. Therefore, as you increase hole size, you also increase the horsepower required to lift cuttings. When selecting the optimum hole size for removing cuttings, you must also consider the cost for the size of compressor you will use.
8.
DRILLBITS
When determining the bit program for a coalbed well, you should consider these factors:
y y y y y
2-22
Before selecting the bits for your drilling program, the data that you gathered as discussed in Section 1 should provide information about formation types, drilling techniques, and commonly used hydraulics. The bit records of offset wells should be included in that data. If not, this type of information can often be obtained from bit suppliers. A review of the offset bit records will help to estimate the number and types of bits to use. You will determine the size of the drillbits based on the sizes of the holes for the surface casing and production casing, which you selected in step 4, Selecting Hole Size, earlier in this chapter. The bits most commonly used in drilling coalbed methane wells are tricone rotary bits and percussion bits.
Tri-Cone Rotary Bits
The sealed bearing,tri-cone rotary bit is the most common and the most versatile bit used in the oil and gas industry. These bits are available for drilling a variety of different formations. A specially designed tri-cone rotary bit is available for air drilling. This bit contains ports which allow air to flow through the bearing assembly for cooling. Most tri-cone air bits are open port bits and are thus more susceptible to corrosion than sealed bearing tri-cone rotary bits. If you drill with air only, a tri-cone air bit may provide the longest bit life. However, if you plan to alternate drilling air mist and water, a sealed bearing bit will likely last longer. You should consider using sealed bearing bits to provide the flexibility of drilling with either airmist or water.
Percussion bits
Percussion bits are used in combination with air hammers. This type of bit is used exclusively for drilling hard formations with air or air-foam mist. As discussed earlier in step 6, Selecting a Drilling Technique, percussion drilling is necessary when drilling hard formations at very shallow depths. Percussion bits with air hammers cannot be used in soft or sloughing formations. A typical percussion bit and air hammer is shown in Figure 2-5. If you encounter a soft formation, such as the Cretaceous in the Southwestern part of the Black Warrior Basin, you should use tri-cone rotary bits with fluid.
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Chapter
At the Rock Creek project, the surface holes were drilled with rotary bits because the first several feet of the hole are in a soft formation. Because the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama required less surface casing then than it does now, drilling was continued with the rotary bit down to the setting depth for the surface casing. After setting surface casing, the production holes at Rock Creek were drilled with percussion bits and air hammers.
Drill Collars
To select the number of drill collars for the drillstring, you must consider the weight-on-bit that the operator or drilling contractor has determined necessary to drill the hole. You can determine the optimum weight-on-bit by conducting drilloff tests or by estimating it from offset bit records. For more information on determining weighton-bit, you may consult with drilling contractors in your areas of interest as well as drillbit suppliers. When air drilling, the drillstring and bottomhole assembly (BHA) are subjected to high vibration loads. This vibration is often extreme on the bottomhole assembly and the connection between the BHA and the drillpipe, especially when drilling hard formations. To protect the drillstring and the drillstring/BHA connection, you should design the drillstring so that the neutral point between axial, tensile, and compressive stresses during normal drilling is located in the drill collars. You can calculate the length of drill collars needed to achieve this condition by using this equation:
where: BW = Desired bit weight, lb BF = Buoyancy factor, dimensionless (The BF for air is 1.0 because the collar weights are measured in air.) CW = Collar Weight (in-air), lb/ft
2-24
Industry experts recommend adding ten percent to this calculation to account for unforeseen forces such as bounce, hole friction, hole deviation, etc. Operators in the Black Warrior Basin typically run enough 6-inch collars to provide a weight-on-bit of approximately 5000 pounds/inch for tri-cone bits and 500 pounds/inch for air-hammer bits.
Drillpipe
When selecting drillpipe, you should base your selection on the worst case drilling scenario. If you are drilling wells in a developed area, consult with drilling contractors in the area. They likely have gained enough experience to recommend drillpipe designs that work effectively in that area. In the Black Warrior Basin, most drilling contractors use 4-1/2 inch drillpipe. For more information on designing drillstrings, refer to Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers are sometimes run in the drillstring to control hole deviation. The operator must usually decide what arrangement of stabilizers, if any, to run. When determining the type and number of stabilizers to run, you should consider the desired weight-on-bit, penetration rate, and type of formations to be drilled. To learn what arrangements of stabilizers work best in your area of interest, you should consult with drilling contractors in the area. In most parts of the the Black Warrior Basin, drilling contractors do not use stabilizers because controlling hole deviation is not a problem. Most of the wells in the basin are drilled with air or air mist. Because air drilling requires less weight-on-bit than fluid drilling, there is less tendency for the bit to walk, or deviate. However, in a few parts of the Black Warrior Basin stabilizers are needed to prevent deviation. These are areas where the formations are stressed by extensive faulting and folding. When stabilizers are used, the typical bottomhole assembly includes:
y y
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Chapter
y y y y
Short drill collar First stabilizer Full drill collar Second stabilizer
Check Valves
You should install check valves at specific intervals in the drillstring to:
y
Prevent backflow of cuttings into the drillstring during connections or other shut-downs that would otherwise plug the bit. Reduce the volume of air that must be bled off when making a connection.
To learn what combination of check valves works best in your area of interest, consult with drilling contractors experienced in the area. For the Rock Creek Project, check valves were usually placed at intervals of 400 feet in the drillstring.
9.
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1.
Determine the fracture gradient of the coal formation(s) you plan to cement. For more information on fracture gradients, see step 3, Selecting Casing Setting Depth, earlier in this chapter.
2.
Determine the depth for the top-of-cement based on regulations of the oil and gas regulatory agencies.
3.
Using the equation below, calculate the maximum cement density that the coal can support. Maximum height of cement = FG-(0.052 m Td) , ft 0.052(c - m)
where: FG = fracture gradient of the coal, psi/ft m = density of drilling mud in the hole, lbs/gal c = density of the cement, lbs/gal Td = depth to the coal seam, ft
4.
If the coal formation(s) cannot support a cement column to the required top-of-cement depth (using a cement with the lightest acceptable density), calculate the maximum height of cement the coal can support.
5.
Design a two-stage cement job based on the height of cement calculated in step 4.
For more information on specific types of cement and additives, refer to Selecting Cement and Additives, later in this chapter.
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Chapter
10.
Type of Drilling Rig Air Compressors Derrick Drive System Blowout Preventers or Diverter System Other Rig Equipment
Air Compressors
In the Black Warrior Basin, most wells are drilled with compressed air. To determine the number and size of air compressors needed to drill a particular well, you must first estimate an air circulation rate and maximum injection pressure. For information on estimating air circulation rate and injection pressure, refer to step 7, Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring, earlier in this chapter.
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At the Rock Creek site, an auxiliary compressor was used to provide the additional volumes of air at higher pressures needed to drill deeper formations and formations that produced large volumes of water. The auxiliary compressor ensured sufficient air velocity to carry cuttings to the surface. It also helped prevent flooding the downhole air percussion hammer with excessive water.
Derrick
You should select a rig with a derrick weight capacity that will enable the operator to use the designed drillstring and to run the desired casing string. The maximum loading on the rig usually occurs when running casing. You should also select a derrick height (single or double stand) that fits your well location size and is compatible with the depth of your well. The increased cost for a rig that can run doubles (two joints of pipe connected), may be justified in deeper wells because it could significantly reduce trip time. However, a rig with a single-stand derrick is usually sufficient for most coalbed wells. In the Black Warrior Basin, drilling contractors generally use single and double rigs. Some portable rigs have a derrick capacity up to 350,000 pounds, which is more than adequate for drilling in the Black Warrior Basin.
Drive System
In general, you can choose from two types of drive systems. The most common system is the conventional rotary table and kelly used in most oil and gas fields. The other is a top-drive system. The top-drive system uses a power swivel on top of the drillstring to rotate the string. The power swivel eliminates the rotary table and kelly. Because the top-drive system requires fewer drillpipe connections, it can reduce drilling time as well as provide greater safety. In the Black Warrior Basin, drilling companies use both conventional drives and top drives. The selection of a drive system is mostly a matter of personal preference and rig availability.
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Chapter
The return line, or blooey line, carries the exhaust air and cuttings from the annulus to the flare pit. The blooey line should be long enough to keep dust from interfering with rig operations. In most cases, the line should be 100-300 feet long. You should size the blooey line so that the internal cross-sectional area is about 10% greater than the annular area of the near-surface borehole. This slightly larger area is needed to compensate for the fluid energy loss that occurs as the air and cuttings make a 90-degree turn from vertical flow to horizontal flow under the rig floor. The end of the line should terminate downwind from the prevailing wind direction. You should also make sure the end of the blooey line is tied down securely.
Chemical Pumps
Chemical pumps are used to inject water or chemical foamers into the wellbore during drilling.
A standard orifice plate meter is normally used to measure the rate of air circulation. The size of the orifice plate selected will depend on the circulation rate needed to effectively clean the hole. To ensure accurate readings, make sure the meter has been calibrated recently. An alternative to the orifice plate meter is the turbine meter. If no
2-30
meter is available, you can estimate the air rate based on the size of the compressor and the suction and discharge pressures.
Pump Gauges
Accurate pressure gauges should be installed on the standpipe and at the compressor discharge. These gauges can be used to monitor wellbore conditions and predict potential downhole problems.
Bleed-Off Line
A bleed-off line should be installed to bleed pressure off the standpipe and the drillpipe down to the top check valve. This pressure is bled through the blooey line.
Burn Pit
A burn pit at the end of the blooey line can be used to catch any wellbore effluent (such as chemicals or hydrocarbons) that would otherwise contaminate the reserve pit. Because few chemicals are used to drill coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin, contamination of the reserve pit is usually not a problem. Thus most drilling contractors vent the blooey line directly to the reserve pit.
11.
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Chapter
process, depending on the number of agencies involved and their relationships with each other. In some states, the process to permit a well could take as long as six months to a year. When planning a coalbed project, you should read and understand the state and local regulations that may affect your operation. In most states, the initial application for a permit to drill a well must include a certified survey showing the exact well location. Some field procedures, such as cementing and testing casing, may require that you notify the proper agency and obtain approval before proceeding on to the next step in the operation. Though permitting requirements vary from state to state, many requirements are similar. To get some sense of typical regulations for coalbed methane operations, refer to the summary of Alabamas well permitting procedures, shown in Appendix A.
v Caution
1.
Before beginning drilling, stake down the return (Blooey) line and chain down all compressed air lines. An air line that blows out can seriously harm workers if it is not properly secured.
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2.
If there is any loosely compacted fill dirt at the surface, install conductor casing through it. Drill a 16-inch surface hole and install 14-inch conductor pipe down to solid earth. Backfill and compact dirt around the outside of the conductor pipe. The conductor casing provides for return of drilling water while drilling the surface hole and for cement slurry while cementing surface casing.
3.
Drill the initial part of the surface hole (20-30 feet) using a tricone roller bit with compressed air.
x
If the surface formations are unconsolidated (such as the Cretaceous section in the Black Warrior Basin), drill these formations using tri-cone rotary bit with drilling fluid.
4.
After drilling initial surface hole or after reaching competent formations, switch from the tri-cone bit to an air-hammer and hammer-bit assembly to drill the remainder of the hole.
x
If you encounter a hard formation at a shallow depth, you may use a percussion bit with an air hammer. Conventional bits may yield low penetration rates at shallow depths because of the inability to apply sufficient weight on the bit while drilling. When drilling 7-7/8 inch hole, the optimum rate of rotation for a percussion bit and air hammer is 10-30 RPM, and the optimum rate of rotation for a tri-cone rotary bit is 50-60 RPM.
g Important
Drill with air, whenever practical, to achieve the best penetration rate and to minimize damaging the coal formation with liquid drilling fluid invasion. Do not use an aerated drilling fluid (air and water mixed) when using an air-hammer assembly. Water can flood an air hammer.
5.
Circulate compressed air at a rate that lifts cuttings and water to the surface.
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Chapter
If you use the Angel curves or charts from a drillbit company to determine the air circulation rate needed to effectively lift cuttings, add at least 25% to these values. The Angel curves show circulation rates required for air drilling. These curves are presented in Volume Requirements for Air and Gas Drilling, R.R. Angel, Gulf Publishing Company, Fourth Printing 1985.
If the drilling cuttings are fine dust instead of large angular pieces, you should increase the air circulation rate. Fine dust is created when cuttings are pulverized by the bit instead of being removed from the hole. This action reduces the penetration rate and the bit life. For more information on keeping the hole clean, see Designing the Hydraulics of the Drillstring, earlier in this chapter.
If you encounter a hard formation that causes a large decrease in penetration rate, switch from air to an air mist drilling fluid to help cool the bit.
6.
If you encounter a formation that produces significant water when drilling with a tri-cone rotary bit, you may have to switch from air to water circulation to effectively lift cuttings to the surface. If you are drilling with a percussion bit and air hammer, you may have to switch to a tri-cone rotary bit with water circulation.
x
v Caution
Once you begin circulating water, you must continue using some water to drill the rest of the hole. If you switch back to just air after using water, you risk mixing dry and wet cuttings and causing severe plugging in the drillpipe-casing annulus. If you are drilling with water, add ordinary laundry detergent to the water to create a foam that will help clean up the hole.
7.
If the well begins to flow while drilling, switch to a heavyweight clear water or mud drilling fluid to control formation pressure.
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v Caution
Use drilling mud and other additives only if clear heavyweight fluids are not available or are not sufficient to control formation pressure. Drilling mud invasion into the coal may cause formation damage and may permanently destroy the productivity of the well.
8.
Monitor and control weight on bit to optimize penetration rate and drilling hydraulics.
x
In the Black Warrior Basin, the optimum weight-on-bit for a tri-cone bit is approximately 5000 lb/inch and 500 lb/inch for a percussion bit.
g Important 9. Drill at least 250 to 300 feet below the deepest target coal seam
to provide adequate sump for logging, fracturing, and production operations.
10. After drilling to the total depth of the well, circulate a mixture of air, water and soap, until returns are free of cuttings and the water is clean. You may also circulate water with a viscous pill to clean up the hole. This practice will eliminate excessive fill in the hole and make casing installation easier.
11. After the drillbit is removed from the hole, measure the diameter of the bit to make sure the diameter of the hole will provide the required clearance for the casing and casing hardware.
x
If the bit has been worn below the minimum diameter required, you will have to ream the hole to the appropriate size with a bit or hole opener.
For more information on drilling the wellbore, refer to the Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
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Chapter
2-36
Can obtain a large-diameter core. Larger cores provide a more representative sample of the coal seam Can recover a high percentage of the formation cored Requires no additional surface equipment Provides a larger wellbore, which allows using standard oilfield equipment for completion, production, and workover operations
y y y
Must pull drillstring to recover the core May lose an excessive amount of gas from the core, which adversely affects estimates of gas content Requires good stratigraphic control to accurately select the coring point
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Chapter
pulled with the wireline overshot, and it is replaced with the coring barrel. The coring barrel (and core catcher) is dropped inside the drillpipe and it automatically latches into the drill collar. After the core has been cut, the barrel (with the core inside) is pulled with the wireline overshot. The primary advantages of retrieving cores by wireline are:
y
Can cut and recover consecutive cores without pulling the drillstring Does not require continuous coring. Can alternate coring and drilling without pulling the drillstring Allows quicker retrieval of the core, which reduces the amount of gas lost before the core is tested Usually lower cost
Requires considerably more surface equipment The diameter of the core is limited. The diameters for wireline retrievable cores range from 1-1/64" to 2-13/32".
Can take cores from any depth after the hole is drilled
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To reduce the possibility of crushing the core inherent in wireline sidewall coring, a newer sidewall coring tool was developed. This tool uses a rotary sidewall drill rather than a bullet gun. The wirelineconveyed rotary tool has a diamond bit that drills the core horizontally from the side of the wellbore. Rotary sidewall coring may provide cores that are less disturbed than those obtained with wireline sidewall coring. However, this method is usually more expensive than wireline sidewall coring. The rotary sidewall coring tool is offered by Halliburton Logging Services.
If coring with a coring rig, retrieve the core with a wireline assembly to minimize the amount of gas lost from the core. Cores that are quickly retrieved by wireline usually provide more reliable gas desorption data.
Fill the wellbore with fluid before coring to reduce the amount of gas lost from core samples. Cores taken from air-drilled holes may lose a large amount of gas.
Data on coal joints and/or cleats can be obtained by oriented coring. Oriented coring allows the directional measurement of geologic features. Oriented coring was used successfully at the Rock Creek project to determine cleat direction, rock joint orientation, faults, etc. Unconsolidated or highly fractured formations can be cored with a rubber sleeve core barrel. Because the inner diameter of a rubber sleeve is smaller than the diameter of the core, the rubber sleeve stretches and contracts around the core as it enters the catcher. The rubber sleeve may help preserve the core enough to allow identification of fractures and lithological features.
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Chapter
Select core points with competent rock above and below the coal interval. Competent core above and below the coal in the core barrel will increase the probability of successfully retrieving the core. Run the core barrel into the hole slowly. Running in the hole at excessive speeds may damage the barrel if a dogleg is hit or may cause the barrel to plug.
Begin coring with a light bit weight and low rotary speed and then gradually increase weight and speed as cutting is established. Use low pump rates when coring to avoid washing away the coal. Monitor the pump pressure to ensure that fluid is passing over the bit and that the core barrel is not plugged. If the pump pressure increases, raise the bit off bottom. If raising the bit does not decrease pump pressure, the core barrel is probably plugged and should be pulled. A sudden decrease in penetration rate that is not caused by a formation change could indicate the core barrel is plugged or jammed and should be pulled. When finished coring, pull the drillstring very slowly. Pulling the drillstring too quickly can create suction, which can pull the core out of the barrel.
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Selecting Casing Hardware Selecting Cement and Additives Running the Casing String Cementing the Casing String
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Chapter
Guide Shoe
A guide shoe is a short heavy-walled pipe or collar with a round nose on bottom. The shoe is installed on the bottom of the casing to prevent the casing from hanging on ledges or other borehole irregularities. The guide shoe is attached to the bottom of the production casing before running the casing into the hole.
Float Collar
A float collar contains an internal valve which prevents backflow of cement up the casing string during cementing operations. It also increases the buoyancy of the casing, thus reducing the load on the rig while running casing. In addition, the float collar serves as a stop for the cement wiper plug so that all of the cement is not inadvertently pumped out of the casing. The float collar is usually installed one joint above the guide shoe.
Casing Centralizers
Casing centralizers ensure the casing remains in the center of the wellbore during cementing operations to allow for cement coverage on all sides of the casing string. Centralizing the casing improves the probability of effective cement jobs and zone isolation. In addition, centralization reduces the negative effects of bends or doglegs in the casing which could hamper artificial lift equipment and workover operations. When cementing across a coal seam, you should always run centralizers above and below each seam that may be produced at some future time.
2-42
The number of centralizers that you should run in the rest of the casing string depends on the hole size and the amount of hole deviation. When running 5-1/2 inch casing in a 7-7/8 inch hole, most service companies recommend running a centralizer at least every third or fourth joint. If the hole is highly deviated, you will need to space the centralizers closer together. g Important Inadequate centralization of the casing can prevent an effective cement job.
Cement Basket
A cement basket is a tool attached to the outside of the casing to provide support for the cement column while it cures. Cement baskets can be placed above zones that have low fracture gradients to prevent them from breaking down. If cement baskets become filled with debris, they may inhibit reciprocation of casing.
Float Shoe
A float shoe is a combination guide shoe and float collar. It has a round nose, and it contains a check valve and may also contain a catcher for the wiper plug. A latch-down plug may be used to prevent backflow in case the check valve fails. A float shoe can be used instead of a float collar and guide shoe.
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2-44
Class A Slurry Pozmix Slurry Silicalite Slurry Foam Slurry Specialized Slurry
Operators have used several different types of cement in coalbed methane wells. The simplest type used is Class A, which is a common portland cement. Class A cement has a density of 15.6 ib/ gal without additives. Adding bentonite to Class A cement can lower its density by increasing the maximum allowable volume of water that can be added to the cement. Adding 6% bentonite can reduce the density to 13.5 lb/gal. You can use Class A cement for relatively shallow coals if the coal will support its density. The maximum depth recommended for Class A is 6000 ft. Class A cement is more economical than the other premium cements.
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Pozmix Slurry
Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous/aluminuous materials which you can use to lower the density of cement slurries, much the same as bentonite. If you are working in an area where the coal formation will support cement densities of 12 to 14 lb/gal, you can use a Pozmix slurry to provide zone isolation and adequate compressive strength. A typical pozzolan blend is 50% Class A and 50% pozzolan. This mixture is commonly called "50/50 Poz." A 50/50 Poz cement has a density of 14.15 lb/gal. An advantage of pozzolan slurries is their resistance to corrosive fluids. A disadvantage is their lower compressive strength compared to Class A cement. A Pozmix cement design which has been used successfully at the Rock Creek project is listed below: 1. To mix the lead slurry, combine a 50/50 blend of Pozmix/ Class A cement with 4% total bentonite for a slurry weight of 12.7 to 12.8 lb/gal. To mix the tail cement slurry, combine the same mixture as for the lead cement, but mix at 13.5 lb/gal. You can also mix a tail cement of 15.6 lb/gal using neat cement, if the coal formation will support this weight.
2.
Silicalite Slurry
A Silicalite slurry is a blend of Class A, Pozmix, and Silicalite. Including Pozmix and Silicalite in the blend helps reduce the density by inceasing the amount of water which may be added to the slurry. In areas where coals will not support cement densities of 12 to 14 lb/ gal, a Silicalite cement may work effectively.You can mix a Silicalite slurry with a density from 11 to 13 lb/gal. A typical Silicalite slurry has a density of 11.5 lb/gal. Because the properties of silicalite cement are so well suited to coalbed methane wells, some operators use this slurry even in wellbores strong enough for a higher weight cement. The cement has excellent fluid loss characteristics, low slurry viscosity, set times
2-46
faster than Pozmix blends, essentially no free water, and high early compressive strengths.
Foam Slurry
Operators often use foam cement slurries to cement shallow, low pressure coalbed methane wells where weak zones would break down if a normal density cement were used. If you are working in an area where wellbore integrity requires slurries under 11 lb/gal, you may consider using a foam cement. Foam cement is usually a mixture of basic cement, foaming agents, stabilizing agents, and nitrogen. This combination provides a lightweight cement slurry with a high yield. Foam cement slurry may be the most economical if you have nearby access to nitrogen facilities. If nitrogen is not readily available, you may consider using conventional cement with multistage cementing tools. When comparing the cost of using a multistage tool to the cost of using foam cement, be sure to include the drillout cost for the multistage tool.
v Caution Pumping foam cement at too high a rate may create a higher friction pressure in the casing annulus than would other types of cement. This increased friction pressure may offset the benefit of the lighter weight of foam cement. To fully realize the benefits of foam cements lighter weight, do not pump foam cement at an excessive rate.
Specialized Slurries
You can use a variety of specialized slurries and additives to meet individual well requirements. For example, if you encounter a highly permeable zone that causes lost circulation, you could seal it off using a thixotropic cement, which sets very quickly. Thixotropic cements are also very effective for secondary or remedial cementing. Some types of light weight cement achieve lower densities by utilizing additives which allow adding more water to the slurry. However, the added water lowers the ultimate compressive strength of the cement. If you need a light cement for a primary cement job, you might use a special cement that incorporates hollow glass beads, or microspheres, with a base cement. You can add these hollow microspheres to any type
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of cement to produce slurries ranging in density form 9 to 12 lb/gal. This type of slurry can greatly reduce the density of the slurry without significantly reducing the compressive strength of the cured cement. Some glass microspheres may begin to crush at pressures near 4000 psi. Because the crush resistance of glass microspheres varies, you should check with the manufacturer or supplier of microspheres before using them. Though the depth to which glass microsphere slurrries can be used is limited, most coalbed methane wells are shallow enough to use them.
Cement Additives
Special additives are usually mixed with the base cement to alter or improve slurry properties. You can use additives to accelerate or retard cement curing, to reduce slurry density, to control fluid loss or lost circulation, or to modify other slurry properties. For example, you can add calcium chloride or sodium chloride to cement to accelerate the time required for the cement to set or to hydrate. As mentioned earlier, you also can add pozzolans or bentonite to reduce the density of the cured cement. When designing your casing program, consult several different cementing company representatives who are trained and experienced in cementing coalbed methane wells. They can provide information about a variety of additives available for altering slurry properties to meet the requirements of your particular well. In areas where leakoff is high, consider the following guidelines:
x
Add a low fluid loss additive to the slurry. Use an additive that does not delay thickening time or increase slurry viscosity. Add a lost circulation material such as gilsonite, cellophane flakes, or walnut shells to help prevent cement contamination of the fractured coal.
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2.
Several hours before pumping the cement, conduct a safety meeting with all people who will be on location during the cementing job. Discuss safe operating procedures, use of safety equipment, and contingency plans in case of an emergency.
3.
Obtain a sample of the actual dry cement mixture (with additives) that will be pumped. Maintain this sample as a quality control check in case problems arise on the cement job. You can have it sent to a lab for analysis, if necessary.
4.
Install the cementing manifold with plug(s) (from the cementing company) on top of the casing. Figure 2-6 shows a cementing manifold similar to the type used to cement the wells at the Rock Creek project.
5.
Pressure test all surface pumping lines with water. Test up to the maximum anticipated surface pump pressure.
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Chapter
6.
Obtain a sample of the mixed cement slurry so you can monitor its strength and curing characteristics over time.
If the wellbore contains large amounts of debris, first circulate the wellbore with water, and then circulate again with a gelled fluid to more effectively flush out cuttings and debris.
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2.
Pump the cement slurry. To help ensure the cement slurry distributes evenly around the casing, reciprocate or rotate the casing string while pumping the slurry.
3.
4.
5.
Pump fluid until the plug bumps bottom. When the plug bumps, you will see a sharp increase in surface pump pressure.
v Caution
Be careful not to bump the plug so hard that the pressure increase exceeds the casing burst pressure. Make sure the cementing service company uses a pump operator with enough experience to avoid this problem. If the well was drilled with mud, pump a bottom plug ahead of the cement slurry to wipe the mud from the casing and prevent contamination of the lead cement. As an alternative to pumping a bottom plug, you can pump a spacer or a mud preflush ahead of the cement. In wells drilled with air and circulated with fresh water, you do not need to pump a plug or spacer ahead of the cement.
1. Calculte the volume of cement needed to fill the annulus from the float shoe to the desired cement top. To determine this volume, use caliper log and add a safety factor of 10-20%.
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2.
Establish circulation down the casing and up the annulus with fresh water. This circulation will flush to the surface any debris in the wellbore.
x
If the wellbore contains large amounts of debris, first circulate the wellbore with water, and then circulate again with a gelled water fluid to more effectively flush out debris.
3. 4.
Pump the first stage of cement. Run a rubber closing plug above the cement at the cementing head. See Figure 2-7. The closing plug prevents the displacement water from intermingling with and contaminating the cement.
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5.
Pump the volume of displacement water behind the closing plug needed to move the plug to the bottom of the casing. You should see a sharp increase in pump pressure when the plug bumps bottom. After the plug reaches the bottom of the casing, it latches into a seat in the float shoe, preventing any further flow into or out of the annulus.
6.
Calculate the volume of cement needed to fill the annulus from the cement collar up to the desired height above the collar. To determine this volume, use the caliper log and add a safety factor of 10-20%.
7.
Drop an opening plug down the casing to the opening plug seat in the cementing collar. See Figure 2-7.
8.
After the plug is set, apply pump pressure inside the casing to open the lower sleeve of the cementing collar or to open the ports of the external casing packer, whichever is used. For more information on cementing collars and external casing packers, refer to Selecting Casing Hardware, earlier in this chapter.
9.
Pump water to establish circulation up the annulus to the surface. Circulate until returns are clean.
x
If using a cement collar only, allow at least 6 hours between the primary cement job and the second stage. This time is needed for the primary cement to gain sufficient strength to support the second stage. If using an external casing packer, you do not need to wait for the primary cement to cure. The packer will support the weight of the cement above it.
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11. Release a rubber closing plug at the cementing head. See Figure 2-7.
12. Pump water behind the plug to displace the cement into the annulus. See Figure 2-7. When the closing plug reaches the closing seat, the pump pressure in the casing closes the cementing collar ports to the annulus.
13. Shut in the well for at least 48 hours to allow the cement time to cure. A curing time of 72 hours is even better.
14. Pump into the casing with water and pressure test the cement to 1000 psi or to the pressure specified by your company.
Pumping additional stages
15. Repeat steps 6 through 14. Because all of the internal parts of the cementing collar and float shoes are drillable, you can pass drillbits through the casing to complete open hole intervals below the casing.
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effective than reciprocating the casing. Some operators prefer to both rotate and reciprocate the casing.
v Caution
Reciprocating casing too rapidly can create pressure surges in the wellbore and fracture the coal. To prevent pressure surges, reciprocate the casing no more than 15-20 ft over a period of two minutes.
Because wells drilled with air contain no drilling mud, rotating or reciprocating the casing is not needed to displace mud. Many airdrilled holes in the Black Warrior Basin have been successfully cemented without moving the casing. However, in air-drilled holes which have casing that is not centralized, cement may tend to channel up one side of the casing. In this case, rotating the casing may help to more evenly distribute the cement around the casing. Using an adequate number of centralizers can help centralize the casing and promote an effective cement job.
y
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Additional Resources
Adams, N.J., and T. Charrier, Drilling Engineering: A Complete Well Planning Approach, Pennwell Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1985.
Graves, S.L., J.D. Niederhofer, and W.M. Beavers, A Combination Air and Fluid Drilling Technique for Zones of Lost Circulation in the Black Warrior Basin, SPE Paper 12873, SPE Drilling Engineering, February 1986.
Lambert, S.W. et al, Multiple Coal Seam Well Completion Experience in the Deerlick Creek Field, Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, Proceedings of the 1987 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (November 16-19).
Lambert, S.W., M.A. Trevits, and P.F. Steidl, Vertical Borehole Design and Completion Practices to Remove Methane Gas from Mineable Coalbeds, U.S. Department of Energy, Carbondale Mining Technology Center, Carbondale, Illinois, 1980.
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Wireline Logging
o evaluate the gas producing potential of a coal formation, you must first know the reservoir and mechanical properties of the coal. Knowing these properties will also enable you to design effective, economical well completions and stimulations. You can determine most of these coal properties by analyzing data from wireline logs and whole cores retrieved while drilling the well. After the well is completed, you can obtain additional reservoir data from well tests. This chapter will guide you through:
Sources For Estimating Reservoir Properties Open Hole Logging Tools Selecting an Open Hole Logging Suite Guidelines For Open Hole Logging Cased Hole Logging Tools Selecting a Cased Hole Logging Suite Guidelines For Cased Hole Logging Production Logging Tools
Chapter
Wireline Logging
Reservoir Property
Source
Coal Thickness Permeability Adsorbed Gas Content Desorption Isotherm Desorption Time Initial Water Saturation Porosity
Core Test Well Test Core Test Core Test Core Test Well Test Core Test, History match with simulator Core Test Well Test
3-2
Coal identification
Net thickness
Proximate Analysis*
High Resolution Density, Compensated Neutron, Gamma Ray, Spectral Density, Sonic
None
None
Cleat Orientation*
Formation MicroScanner
None
Mechanical Properties*
None
3-3
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Bulk Density Log Spectral Density Log Caliper Log Natural Gamma Ray Log Dual induction/Shallow Induction Log High Resolution Induction Logs
3-4
the bulk density of coal (1.20 to 1.80 g/cc) to that of other formations (2.2 to 2.7 g/cc). The density of coal is affected by ash content. The higher the ash content, the higher the density response on the log. Density instruments generally consist of a gamma source (usually Cesium 137) and two detectors. The source and detectors are located on a skid (pad) which is forced against the side of the hole. The longspaced detector primarily measures the formation. The short-spaced detector measures the formation and the materials that occur between the pad and the formation. For wells drilled with air, the short-spaced tool will read the formation unless there is a washout in the wellbore. Gamma rays are emitted from the source into the formation and then are scattered by the orbital electrons of the atoms in the material being measured. This phenomena, called Compton Scattering, causes the gamma rays to lose energy. If the material is very dense (i.e., contains many electrons), the gamma rays become more scattered and more of them are absorbed by the material. Because of this absorption of gamma rays near the detector, fewer gamma rays reach the detector. In formations with fewer electrons (lower density), the gamma rays are not slowed as much and therefore more of them reach the detector. Identifying coal seams using the density log is generally straightforward. Figure 3-1 shows a bulk density log run at the Rock Creek Project. The relatively low bulk density in the Mary Lee seam at 10451048 ft (RHOB = 1.24 g/cc) and in the Blue Creek seam at 1051-1057 ft (RHOB = 1.4 g/cc) sharply contrasts with the density of the surrounding formations. A washout or borehole caving could cause a similar logging response; however, you can look at the caliper log and gamma ray log to check the hole condition across the interval.
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3-6
Some of the more common matrix densities are listed in Table 3-3.
Sandstone Shale Limestone Dolomite Anhydrite Salt (halite) Coal Anthracite Bituminous Lignite
2.65 - 2.70 2.2 - 2.65 2.71 2.83 - 2.89 2.94 - 3.00 2.03
Once you determine from the density log that an interval contains a coal seam, be sure also to check the caliper log and gamma ray log to verify that the density response was not caused by a hole washout. Evaluating seam thickness using log data is directly related to the vertical resolution and sample rate of the logging device. The distance of the detector from the radioactive source strongly influences the vertical resolution of the logging device. Most standard oilfield density tools have a source-to-detector spacing of 18 inches. The vertical resolution of this tool has been improved by increasing the sample rate from every 6 inches to every tenth of a foot. Currently, oilfield density tools can provide a resolution of about 6 inches. The oilfield density logs can be computer enhanced to provide results similar to the density tools available from mineral logging service companies.
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Chapter
Wireline Logging
The density tool available from mineral logging service companies has a source-to-detector spacing of 0.75 inch and samples data at a rate of 50 samples per foot. This device has a vertical resolution of approximately one inch. Because the mineral logging density tool is smaller in diameter than a standard bulk density tool, make sure the mineral logging tool can offer the log quality for the wellbore size you have drilled. Figure 3-2 shows a comparison of the mineral logging density (high resolution) and the oilfield density (computer enhanced). The comparison shows that computer enhancement of the oilfield logging measurement is an accurate method for improving vertical resolution. [From The Development of Formation Evaluation Technology for Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report (December 1990 - December 1991) by ResTech, Inc. for GRI]
g Important
When using a density log, make sure to question the validity of density measurements across washed out zones. The density tool is a pad device which requires good borehole contact to measure accurately. As a guide for determining net pay thickness of coal seams for use in reservoir simulators and well test analysis, ResTech, Inc. recommends using a density cutoff of 1.75 g/cc. The coal thickness obtained using this method should be compared to core data (if available). In thin coal seams, the density value on the density log can be erroneously high.
3-8
Figure 3-2 Comparison of Conventional Density and Mineral Logging Density Logs
3-9
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Wireline Logging
the lithology. The average photoelectric absorption index for some common formations is shown in Table 3-4.
Formation
Caliper Log
The caliper log measures the gauge of the borehole. Formations may remain in gauge during drilling or they may have severe washouts. The hole condition will depend on the formations encountered and the drilling techniques used. If a well has severe washouts, you could easily mistake a low density log reading across the washout for a coal seam. By checking the caliper log, you may avoid such an erroneous interpretation. Conversely, a washed out interval could occur across a coal seam. To make sure a washed out interval does not contain a coal seam, you should check all available data, such as gamma ray log, neutron log, sonic log, cores, or drilling cuttings. Figure 3-3 shows a caliper log run with a bulk density log. The caliper shows that the Mary Lee seam at (1045-1048 ft) and the Blue Creek seam at (1051-1057 ft) are in gauge.
3-10
10 - 30 <70 80 - 140
Because coal usually exhibits low total natural radioactivity (usually less than 70 API units), you can identify coal seams by the deflection of the gamma ray curve to the left. Figure 3-1 shows the gamma ray response across two coal intervals in the Black Warrior Basin. The gamma ray resolution is greater across the slightly thicker Blue Creek seam (1051-1057 ft) than across the Mary Lee seam (1045-1048 ft). The presence of thin partings, consisting of various clay minerals, will increase the measured natural radioactivity. Under certain localized conditions (e.g., the absence of high and widely varying kaolinite concentrations), ash content may be determined empirically from the gamma ray log. Because this log can also be recorded in cased hole, it is used as a correlation log for other cased hole wireline operations such as perforating and production logs.
3-11
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Wireline Logging
Use the shallow curve to measure coal thickness. Sometimes you will be able to identify partings, or shale stringers, of one foot or greater in the coalbed to help you measure the thickness of the coal.
Use the shallow resistivity curve to read resistivity in the coalbed. Because of bed thickness effects on deep induction measurement, the shallow resistivity curve of the tool usually gives a more accurate measure of resistivity in the coalbed.
Figure 3-3 shows a dual induction/shallow induction log run on a well at the Rock Creek project.
3-12
3-13
Chapter
Wireline Logging
Other wireline logging companies have developed similar high resolution resistivity tools. Schlumberger offers the Phasor Induction Log, which has also been used successfully to define thin coalbeds in the Black Warrior Basin. Figure 3-4 shows a Phasor Induction Log with a coalseam at 2444-2448 ft.
The Phasor Induction Log is an improved version of the dual induction log. It collects eight measurements and can generate three induction curves. The tool detects signals returning from the
3-14
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
formation that previously were unused by the dual induction log (i.e., signals that are out of phase, or that do not return perpendicularly). The tool uses these out-of-phase signals to display a much sharper bed boundary. The Phasor Induction Log has a normal resolution of three feet. Like the dual induction log, this tool displays deep, medium, and shallow curves. The resolution of the tool may be enhanced to two feet by computer processing the shallow and medium curves. The most recent advance in the induction log is the Array Induction Tool (AIT). This Schlumberger log, which is an improvement over the Phasor Induction Log, collects 28 measurements and can display five induction curves. This tool can investigate as deep as 90 inches and as shallow as 10 inches. The AIT provides even better definition of shoulder beds than the Phasor Induction Log. The AIT has only been available to the industry for a few months, and it has not yet been used in coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin.
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Because each type of formation has a characteristic (but not necessarily unique) log response, it is possible not only to identify specific formations, but also to assess their quality. Logs have been used to estimate reservoir quality in conventional wells for many years. Based on these same principles, logs are now being used to evaluate the quality and mechanical properties of coal seams. Table 3-6 shows typical log responses in sandstone, shale, and coal for the logs most commonly used to evaluate coals: Density, Gamma Ray, Neutron, and Sonic.
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Wireline Logging
Density Logs Bulk Density (g/cc) Photoelectric Index Gamma Ray (API units) Neutron Porosity (%) Sonic TravelTime ( sec/ft)
Formation
-2 25-75 >50
You can run several logs to evaluate the quality and mechanical properties of coal and non-coal formations encountered in the wellbore. This section provides a brief discussion of the logging tools listed below:
Microlog Dual Laterolog/Microspherically Focussed Log Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log Compensated Neutron Log Epithermal Neutron Log Formation Microscanner Sonic Log Full Waveform Sonic Log
3-16
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Geochemical Logs Carbon/Oxygen Log Spectral Gamma Ray Log Borehole Televiewer Temperature Log Computer-Processed Log Presentations Geophysical Well Log Models
Microlog
The microlog is a tool that measures resistivities at two different depths in the formation immediately adjacent to the borehole. One of the resistivities is the mudcake resistivity and the other is the formation (or coal) resistivity. The resistivity of the mudcake is significantly less than that of coal. Consequently, if mudcake has formed in the borehole across an interval, the two resistivity curves will separate because they are reading different levels of resistivity. For mudcake to form, mud filtrate (liquid) must pass into the formation. Thus, the presence of mudcake across a formation is an indication of permeability in that formation. Therefore, positive separation of the resistivity curves on a microlog could indicate coal cleat development in coalbed wells drilled with mud. Because most wells in the Black Warrior Basin are drilled with air or water instead of mud, the microlog is not usually run in this basin. In areas where coalbed methane wells are drilled with mud, there are several factors that can affect the microlog:
y y y y y
Resistivity of the mud Mudcake thickness Depth of invasion Borehole rugosity Formation porosity
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Wireline Logging
The resistivity of the mud compresses or expands the microlog resistivity values. In low-resistivity muds, the microlog resistivities are compressed to a narrow range, which reduces the accuracy of the microlog ratio. In high-resistivity muds, the microlog resistivities are expanded, which enhances the accuracy of the microlog ratio interpretation. An optimum mud resistivity at bottomhole temperature is normally from 1 to 3 ohm-meters. Mudcake thickness controls the amount of separation between the normal and lateral curves. In general, the positive separation you see on the log increases as the thickness of the mudcake increases. This separation may indicate fluid filtration into the formation. You can qualitatively assess the permeability (and hence cleat development) of the coal by comparing the microlog separation across the coals to that across adjacent formations.
g Important
Some drilling mud additives used as flocculants can cause erroneous microlog interpretations. These flocculants, which plate boreholes with mudcake, may cause the microlog to show positive separation in low permeability coalbeds. Very heavy or viscous muds may also cause erroneously high estimates of coal cleating. You should closely monitor and control fluid loss while drilling the hole. Fluid loss of the mud system controls mudcake thickness.
g Important
The microlog is a pad device and is sensitive to rapid changes in the borehole wall. In washed out boreholes, the microlog often measures the resistivity of the mud. Therefore, you should run the log down the hole, with the tool closed, over the bottom 1,000 feet of hole to record a log of the mud resistivity. The log of mud resistivity will highlight any changes in mud resistivity over the zone of interest and help ensure that you use the correct value of Rm when interpreting the log.
3-18
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
The DLL/MSFL is well suited to coalbed wells because it yields more accurate resistivity measurement in formations with high resistivity values such as coalbeds. In general, using the DLL/ MSFL to determine the thickness of coalbeds is more accurate than using the deep induction curve. Because most wells in the Black Warrior Basin are air-drilled, the DLL/MSFL log is not usually run in this basin.
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Wireline Logging
into the formation. These neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms and are slowed down. The receivers on the neutron tool measure the speed, or energy, of the neutrons that have collided. This measurement reflects the concentration of hydrogen in the formation. Because the only hydrogen in clean reservoir rock is associated with water or oil, the neutron measurement indicates the porosity of the formation. In coalbeds, however, the high concentration of hydrogen (even when water is not present) causes the neutron log to measure erroneously high porosity values.
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Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
g Important The CNL can be run in liquid-filled holes, either open hole or cased hole. However, the CNL cannot be run in air or gas-filled holes. When using the compensated neutron log, you should question the validity of compensated neutron log measurements across washed out intervals.
Figure 3-6 shows a compensated neutron log run on a well in the Black Warrior Basin. The log shows a neutron porosity of about 55% across both the Mary Lee seam (1045-1048 ft) and the Blue Creek seam (1051-1057 ft).
3-21
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Wireline Logging
Formation MicroScanner
The Formation Microscanner (a registered trademark of Schlumberger) is a pad device that records microresistivity variations around the borehole wall. The tool can be used to determine coal cleat orientation. Formation MicroScanner data from the Rock Creek Project in the Black Warrior Basin were successfully analyzed to determine the orientation of coal cleat. Measurements from the Formation MicroScanner agreed favorably with cleat orientations determined from whole core data recovered from several wells. Figure 3-7 compares the Rose Diagrams determined from a Formation MicroScanner log and from cores for a well in the Black Warrior Basin. Rose Diagrams show the orientation of coal cleat.
3-22
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Figure 3-7 Comparison of Cleat Orientation Determined from a Formation MicroScanner Log and from Cores
Cleats were identified as small conductive breaks on opposing resistivity pad images that were enhanced. Cleat orientation was determined by selecting points on the resistivity images at the conductive breaks. An equidistant midpoint was also selected so that a plane defining cleat azimuth could be defined by the computer. Then, the cleat strike was determined by adding or subtracting ninety degrees to or from the computed azimuth.
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Wireline Logging
The Formation MicroScanner can also be used to determine the strike, dip, and azimuth of coalbeds, and to identify fractures in coal seams and adjacent formations.
Sonic Log
In conventional applications, empirical correlations are used to relate sonic travel time to porosity if the lithology is known. In coalbed methane wells, sonic logs may be used to determine coal rank. They also may be used to identify coalbeds; however, they are not as accurate as the density and gamma ray logs. Sonic tools measure the shortest time required for a compressional wave to travel vertically through one foot of formation adjacent to the wellbore. In coalbeds, sonic travel times range from 95 - 135 microseconds per foot. Sonic travel times in non-coal formations typically range from 60 - 90 microseconds per foot. Shales usually have a sonic travel time less than 100 microseconds per foot. However, it is often difficult to distinguish shale from anthracite coal.
g Important
You should evaluate all log information available when using the sonic tool to identify coal. You can easily confuse carbonaceous shales for coal if you rely only on analysis of transit time. Figure 3-8 shows a sonic log run at the Rock Creek project. The sonic travel time in the Blue Creek coal (1050-1056 ft) and the Mary Lee coal (1044-1047 ft) show travel times greater than 125 microseconds and 115 microseconds, respectively. The travel time in the Mary Lee coal is shorter because it is a thinner bed.
3-24
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
3-25
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Wireline Logging
measure the shear wave (which follows the compressional wave), and more recently to full waveform logging. Because of its complexity, full waveform logging technology is still in a developmental stage. Most waveform sonic logs are run in coalbed wells to evaluate mechanical rock properties, such as compressive strength and elastic moduli, for use in designing fracture treatments. Sonic logs may also be used to tie-in seismic data. For conventional formations, you may be able to infer formation permeability from full waveform sonic data. In this method, you first compare the shear or compressional arrivals in a permeable zone and a non-permeable zone. Then, you compare the energy levels of the sonic arrivals in the zone of interest to the other two values to estimate permeability. Experience has shown, however, that this correlation does not work well for coals because coals naturally attenuate the sonic signal. Figure 3-9 shows the shear, compressional, and Stonely travel times obtained from a full waveform sonic log run at the Rock Creek project. The coal seam is shown at 973-979 ft. Using empirical equations, Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus can be calculated from these travel times for both the coal and non-coal formations in the well. These rock properties can then be used to estimate the maximum fracture height that might occur during a fracture treatment.
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Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Geochemical Logs
Geochemical logs are useful in measuring elemental components of the formation. These logs can be used in creating depositional models for coalbeds and in correlating ash beds from well-to-well, similar to the use of the spectral gamma ray tools. Currently, GRI is sponsoring research on developing depositional models for coalbeds based on geochemical logging.
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Wireline Logging
A typical geochemical string includes a natural gamma ray tool, an aluminum activation clay tool, and a gamma ray spectroscopy tool. The combination of these tools can measure up to 10 elemental concentrations in the formation. You can use these elemental concentrations together with data from the density, neutron, and spectral density tools to detect the presence of up to 10 minerals. Geochemical logs are most accurate when run in open hole, but you can also run them in cased holes. Two methods are currently used to convert the elemental data to mineral data. You can calibrate the logging tool by using a data base containing core measurements from around the world. Or alternatively, you can calibrate the tool with local core data measurements. The geochemical log and the carbon/oxygen log are often run together and displayed on a computer-processed presentation such as the one shown in Figure 3-10 from the Rock Creek project. The right hand track of this presentation shows the formation composition derived by a computer model from the base logs (gamma ray spectroscopy, natural gamma ray, neutron, density, and dual induction). Because early lithology models could not adequately account for coal intervals, this log erroneously shows a quartz (sandstone) formation with high porosity across the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coal seam at 1044-1056 ft. Most logging companies now have computer-processed lithology models that can accurately identify coal seams. For example, geochemical log run Figure 3-11 shows a Schlumberger VOLAN in the same Rock Creek well. The VOLAN log, which is derived from the base logs (gamma ray spectroscopy, natural gamma ray, neutron, density, and dual induction), accurately identifies the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coal seam at 1045-1058 ft.
Carbon/Oxygen Log
The carbon/oxygen log provides a measure of the carbon content of the formation. In conventional oil and gas applications, the carbon/ oxygen (C/O) log is used to help determine oil saturation behind pipe. In coalbed methane wells, the carbon/oxygen log may be used to determine the BTU content of coal. Bituminous coal yields a large contrast between the carbon/oxygen ratio at the sand-shale baseline and in the coal. This contrast can help you identify coals behind pipe.
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Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
In most formations, the carbon/oxygen log responds primarily to the fluids that fill the rock's pore spaces (carbonate formations are an exception). In conventional oil fields, the carbon/oxygen maximum curve shows what the carbon content of the formation would be if the pore spaces were 100% oil-filled. The minimum curve shows what the carbon content would be if the pore spaces were 100% water-filled. The middle curve on the log indicates the actual carbon content of the formation. In conventional oil fields, these three curves would be used to calculate water saturation.
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Wireline Logging
Because coals have very low porosity (2-6%) and very high carbon content, the carbon/oxygen log responds primarily to the carbon content of the coal rather than to fluid-filled porosity. In fact, the carbon/oxygen log response is much more pronounced across a coal seam than across an oil-bearing sandstone. Figure 3-10 shows a carbon/oxygen log run across the Blue Creek/Mary Lee coal seam at 1044-1056 ft.
g Important
The C/O log is most accurate in a uniform gauge, open hole. In cased holes, washouts behind the pipe will degrade the C/O ratio.
3-30
Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
Borehole Televiewer
The borehole televiewer is an acoustic device that scans the borehole horizontally with a rotating, focused receiver. The televiewer has been used with only limited success in detecting coalbed thickness and in identifying coal cleats. Borehole televiewers are very sensitive to borehole geometry. Because it provides poor measurements in elongated, rugose, or collapsing boreholes, the borehole televiewer has been used little in coalbed wells.
Temperature Log
Because temperature changes across coalbeds are usually very subtle, temperature logs are not useful for delineating coalbeds.
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Wireline Logging
However, you can use a temperature log to locate water-producing zones, points of gas entry into the wellbore encountered during drilling, which may have to be cased off before completing the well.
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Open Hole Logging Tools for Determining the Quality and Properties of Coal
ray, resistivity, sonic, and neutron logs. Some of the computerprocessed logs also incorporate core data provided by the operator. Because the basic logs have better resolution in thicker formations, the accuracy of computer-processed logs is likewise greater in thick formations, such as those in the San Juan Basin, than it is in thin formations, such as those in the Black Warrior Basin. Though computer-processed logs may prove useful, if you decide to use them, make sure you fully understand what log data is used to generate the presentation and how that data is processed. The value of the computer-processed presentation will be no greater than the quality of the data used to create it. The computer-processed geochemical log shown earlier in Figure 3-10 is based on the gamma ray spectroscopy, natural gamma ray, neutron, bulk density, and dual induction logs. This geochemical log shows the formation composition of all intervals. Figure 3-13 shows a computer-processed coal quality log based on the sonic and bulk density logs. This log graphically shows the percentage composition of carbon, ash, volatiles, and moisture in the Upper Pratt "A" and Upper Pratt "B" coal seams.
3-33
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Wireline Logging
If you use geophysical modelling for a field, you should model each coal seam separately. Don't assume correlations for one coal seam will apply to another seam. In addition, you should understand the geology of the field well enough to recognize what factors might cause a variation in coal quality, gas content, or coal permeability. The reservoir and rock properties of the coal and overlying rock can vary considerably over short distances. Some of the variables that may contribute to this heterogeneity are the presence or absence of fractures in the overlying rock, stress regimes in the rock, cleat development within the coal, and the presence of mineral filling in the cleat system.
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Caliper
Permeability
Mechanical properties
3-35
Chapter
Wireline Logging
Logging Tool
Information Obtained
Caliper
g Important s When possible, you should log the open (uncased) hole as soon as practical after drilling and conditioning it. This practice helps to reduce the chance of damaging the formation before measuring its properties.
If the well has sufficient rathole and the logging truck is properly equipped, stack all of the logging tools and run them on a single trip in the hole. This procedure saves rig time for logging and eliminates possible depth discrepancies that could occur if you run the tools separately.
3-36
If you are logging in a new area, you can refer to well logs from offset wells (if they are available) to approximate coal seam depths.
Make one or two repeat runs over the coal beds before making the main logging run. Repeat runs help you to validate the logging measurement.
Make one logging pass at 18 feet/minute using high resolution processing to record maximum detail in the coalbeds. Shale stringers in coalbeds may be masked because they are thinner than the standard vertical resolution. High resolution processing of the density log can reduce the vertical resolution to six inches. You may be able to accurately identify shale stringers six inches thick, but you still may not be able to identify thinner stringers.
g Important s High-resolution processing must be done when you originally log the well. It is not possible to re-process a log recorded with a two-foot resolution to change its resolution to one foot.
To obtain greater detail from logs, you can present them on an expanded scale, (e.g., 20 inches equal to 100 feet).
3-37
Chapter
Wireline Logging
g Important
Washouts behind pipe can be difficult to interpret with a compensated neutron tool.
The pulsed neutron log is ineffective when it encounters hole washouts behind pipe.
You should establish the pulsed neutron ratio cutoff for coal on a well-by-well basis. Differences in hole size, cement quality, casing size, and tubing size affect the accuracy of the ratio curve.
3-38
Because the gamma ray log can be recorded in cased holes, it is very useful for:
y y
Correlating coalbeds Providing accurate depth control when it is run with a casing collar locator Locating radioactive tracers used in fracturing treatments (If more than one isotope is used, you should use the spectral gamma ray log)
To determine the effectiveness of the cement sheath in the casing-formation annulus To check the effectiveness of squeeze cementing To locate the cement top
y y
An improved version of the standard cement bond log is now available. This log can help you evaluate the distribution and quality of cement around the entire wellbore radius. The tool is useful for identifying channels that cannot be detected by standard
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Wireline Logging
CBL tools. This log also is unaffected by microannulus as is the standard CBL. Figure 3-14 shows a Cement Bond/Variable Density Log (CBL/ VDL) run in a well at the Rock Creek project. The log shows a transition from "free pipe" (poor cement bond) to good cement bond at 651 ft.
3-40
Often the decision whether to run cement evaluation logs is based primarily on economic considerations. When deciding whether to run cement evaluation logs, you should consider the following guidelines:
s
When well conditions allow you to apply sound primary cementing practices, the cement evaluation logs may not be necessary.
When conditions make primary cementing difficult, and where experience has demonstrated that success of primary cement jobs is low, the cement evaluation logs can help you identify potential problem areas and possibly improve cementing practices.
When fluid movement behind the casing is suspected, the cement evaluation logs may confirm the problem and may show where remedial cementing can be effectively applied.
When oil and gas regulatory agencies may require a CBL prior to completing and producing a well, check with the oil and gas regulatory agency in your area.
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Chapter
Wireline Logging
Gamma ray/CCL
Before beginning any wireline completions or workover operations, always compare the depths on the cased hole gamma ray log to the depths on the open hole gamma ray log. For example, when preparing to perforate an interval, never assume the cased hole gamma ray log has been properly correlated to the open hole gamma ray log. The perforations for new wells or recompletions are often selected from the open hole log. If you assume the cased hole log is on depth, and it is not, you could perforate the wrong interval. Always verify which log the perforations were selected from, and then correlate that log with the cased hole log.
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When running a cased hole log on a workover, always identify the static fluid level in the wellbore. Knowing the static fluid level can help with later log interpretation.
When running a cement bond log, make sure you include the logs or displays listed below. You can use the amplitude curve and variable density curve to evaluate the cement job.
y y y y
Amplitude curve for cement Variable density display Casing collar locator Gamma ray log
Avoid circulating cold fluids in the casing before running the initial cement bond log. Cold fluids could adversely affect the amplitude and VDL measurements on the cement bond log.
Correlate the cement bond log with the open hole log to make sure they are recorded at the same depth. The gamma ray log is the primary source for this correlation.
When running a cement bond log, make sure you tag and record the plugged back total depth (PBTD) of the well and log from PBTD to the top of the cement.
If the cement bond log shows poor cement bond throughout the hole or through a large section, pressure up on the casing and rerun the log under pressure. A microannulus between the casing and cement can cause the cement bond log to show poor bonding. Pressuring up on the casing expands the casing, which can reduce the microannulus and improve the cement bond.
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Wireline Logging
3-44
The most common production logging tools used in coalbed methane wells are:
Continuous Flowmeter
The continuous flowmeter is used to determine which coal intervals are contributing flow to the wellbore and the percentage flow contribution from each interval. The tool is a spinner type velocimeter which records a continuous flow profile versus depth. Although the continuous flowmeter has no practical upper limit on flow rate which can be measured, there is a minimum flow rate below which the tool will not operate. The flowmeters used for most conventional applications required minimum flow rates that were higher than many coalbed methane wells could produce. To reduce the required minimum flow rate, Computalog Wireline Services developed a flowmeter with a lighter (titanium) impeller and improved bearings. This flowmeter tool, illustrated in Figure 3-16, is being used successfully on coalbed methane wells in the Black Warrior Basin. Fluid viscosity has a marked effect on spinner speed; decreased viscosity increases spinner speed. Therefore, the downhole response curve of spinner speed versus fluid velocity must be established for specific well conditions. A method of interpretation called the Two-Pass Technique is effective for multi-phase flow. In its simplest form, this technique involves making one pass down and one pass up through the zone. The response curves are then matched in the zone of zero flow below the bottom perforations. The Two-Pass Technique should reduce interpretation time and permit recognition of relatively small fluid entries.
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Wireline Logging
g Important To properly calibrate a continuous flowmeter, you must first establish the baseline of no flow below the perforations and then make multiple runs at different speeds.
Figure 3-17 shows a continuous flowmeter log which was run in the Black Warrior Basin .
Gradiomanometer
The gradiomanometer is an effective tool for identifying gas entry and for locating standing water levels in wellbores. The gradiomanometer records a continuous profile of pressure gradient by measuring the difference in pressure between two pressure sensors. This pressure difference is principally due to changes in the average density of the wellbore fluid. Therefore, the greater the density difference between wellbore fluids, the more accurate is the resulting interpretation.
3-46
g Important Repeat runs with the well shut-in are useful in calibrating the gradiomanometer.
Temperature Log
The temperature log responds to temperature anomalies produced by fluid flow either within the production tubing, the casing or in the casing annulus. Therefore, the temperature log is useful for detecting tubing leaks or water flow behind casing. Temperature
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Wireline Logging
log interpretations can also be used to determine flow rates and points of fluid entry into the wellbore.
Downhole Camera
The downhole camera is a specially designed video camera that allows viewing of actual conditions in the wellbore. Because the resolution of downhole cameras has improved greatly in recent years, the camera has become an effective tool in diagnosing downhole production problems in coalbed methane wells. It has also helped in evaluating the location and orientation of fractures in open holes. Specifically, you can use downhole camera surveys in:
y
Determining whether perforations are open or plugged with fines or scale Determining qualitatively which zones are contributing flow and the amount of flow Determining the type of influx along vertical coal cleats or in bedding planes Evaluating the condition of casing (e.g., looking for corrosion or splits) Inspecting the location and position of a fish left while drilling or working over the well
Though the camera is a useful tool, it does have limitations. For example, the hole must contain clear fluid for the camera to provide detailed pictures. If the fluid is not clear, you may try to displace it with clear fluid. However, the fluid you pump may flow into shallow perforations or permeable zones. You may find it difficult to displace fluid from deeper intervals without running the tubing back into the well. Another possible limitation is the pressure rating of the camera. This rating not only limits the maximum depth at which the camera can be used, but may also limit the operations that can be performed with the camera in the hole. Because the camera used at
3-48
the Rock Creek Project was rated for 1000 psi, it worked effectively for the shallow zones of the Black Warrior Basin.
To get the best information from the camera survey, you should discuss your objectives for the survey with the camera crew before they rig up. Tell them specifically what information you would like for them to obtain from the survey. The usual procedure for running a downhole camera survey at the Rock Creek Project is listed below: At least one day before the survey 1. Prepare a list of features you wish to view in the well and their depths (if you know them).
2.
Schedule the camera unit to be at the well site and ready to run in the hole as soon as the workover rig finishes pulling the tubing.
3.
Schedule a truckload of fresh clear water to remain on standby at the well site while running the camera survey.
4.
Make sure to have a casing collar log on location so you can correlate the depth of the camera as you would with any production log.
2.
Pull sucker rod string, downhole pump, and tubing string out of the hole.
3.
Rig down the workover rig (unless it is more practical or economical to leave it rigged up during the survey).
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Wireline Logging
4.
5.
Proceed downhole as quickly as practical so you can view the zone before encroaching water covers it.
6.
Correlate the depth of the camera using a previous casing collar log. The camera survey is not run with a casing collar locator log, but you will be able to identify casing connections with the camera.
7.
Run the camera through the zone of interest and make notes of any pertinent observations.
8.
If the well fluid is too dark to see through, pump the standby water into the wellbore while the camera is downhole. Do not exceed a pressure of 1000 psi on the camera.
9.
When finished viewing the wellbore, pull the camera out of the hole.
10. Rig up the workover rig and run the tubing string, pump, and rod string back into the well.
y
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Additional Resources
Additional Resources
The Development of Formation Evaluation Technology for Coalbed Methane - Annual Technical Report (December 1990 December 1991), ResTech, Inc. (for GRI), March, 1992.
Hilche, D.W., Advanced Well Log Interpretation, Hilche, Inc., Golden, Colorado, 1982.
Douglas W.
Mullen, M.J., Log Evaluation In Wells Drilled For Coal-Bed Methane, Geology and Coal-Bed Methane Resources of the Northern San Juan Basin, Colorado and New Mexico, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, Denver, 1988.
Rieke, H.H. III, C.T. Rightmire, and W.H Fertl, Evaluation of Gas-Bearing Coal Seams, Journal of Petroleum Technology, January, 1981.
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echniques for completing coalbed methane wells have evolved from completion experience with conventional oil and gas wells. Though some conventional techniques can be applied directly, others have been modified to accommodate the unique characteristics of coal reservoirs. The primary goal in completing a coalbed methane well is to establish communication between the wellbore and the target formation. Effective formation access is essential to successfully stimulate and produce the well. This chapter will guide you through:
Reservoir Considerations in Completing the Well Objectives of Completing the Well Completing in Open Hole Completing in Cased Hole Accessing the Formation Selecting Production Tubing Working Over Wells
Chapter
In many cases, the cleat system of coal is 100% water saturated. Therefore, you must recover water to lower the formation pressure to initiate gas desorption and flow. The volume of water to be produced will affect the selection of tubulars and artificial lift method.
Coalbed methane wells are often drilled through a group of coal seams separated by non-coal formations. Your decision to complete individual seams or groups of seams will determine what completion method you select.
Because coal seams have relatively low permeability, you will likely need to hydraulically fracture the well to stimulate production. For more information on fracturing, refer to Chapter 5.
Production of coal fines is similar to sand production in unconsolidated sand reservoirs. The flow of fines into the wellbore may cause severe damage and plugging problems to the wellbore and to surface equipment. Hydraulic fracturing may help control coal fines. When you fracture a coalbed well, you redistribute the near-wellbore pressure profile so that the coalface is not exposed to a high pressure drop within a small area.
Provide effective communication between the wellbore and the natural fractures and cleat system of the coal. This communication is usually achieved by open hole completion and/or perforated/slotted cased hole completion.
4-2
Experience at the Rock Creek project and in other parts of the Black Warrior Basin has shown that effective communication with the coals natural fractures cannot always be established by perforating or slotting. Additional stimulation is sometimes needed to establish communication.
Provide for control over stimulation operations. When you plan to complete multiple coal seams, you must select a completion method that will allow you to effectively control stimulation operations on individual coal seams. These completion methods are explained later in this chapter.
Minimize completion cost. To ensure the economical development of low rate coalbed methane wells, you must carefully control the completion cost. A completion method must be relatively inexpensive to be economically viable. However, when designing completions, you must select casing sizes that will not restrict production from multiple zones. For more information on selecting casing size, refer to Chapter 2.
Minimize wellbore damage and maximize well productivity. Wellbore damage from drilling operations may cause flow restriction near the wellbore. To connect the wellbore to the virgin reservoir, you must eliminate this flow restriction. You can overcome wellbore damage by either removing the damage or bypassing it. Even if no wellbore damage exists, stimulation is required to establish commercial production because the permeability and productivity of coal is so low. The methods below are effective in minimizing wellbore damage and maximizing productivity.
Hole Enlargement
In this method, you remove near-wellbore damage simply by underreaming the hole, but not by applying any other stimulation. (The underreamer tool is described in Equipment for Workovers and Completions, later in this chapter.) This method may help establish economical production if reservoir permeability is high enough to drain a reasonable area of the reservoir. If permeability
4-3
Chapter
is low, then you must use a stimulation treatment that reaches beyond the near-wellbore area.
Hydraulic Fracturing
In fracturing the formation, you bypass wellbore damage rather than treating it directly. If the coal seam is not damaged, fracturing can provide a highly conductive flow path between the natural fractures in the coal and the wellbore. This technique creates a long fracture that connects the wellbore to the virgin reservoir. The length of fracture needed depends on many variables including the permeability and gas content of the coal. A fracture stimulation designed only to overcome near wellbore damage will not sufficiently stimulate the well. Experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that an optimum fracture length exists for a coal seam with a given permeability and gas content. In general, the longer the fracture length, the greater will be the gas producing potential of the reservoir. However, beyond a certain size fracture treatment, the incremental gas production may not justify the cost of the larger treatment. For more information on hydraulic fracturing, see Chapter 5.
4-4
as successful as cased hole completions. Formations in the open portion of the hole must be competent enough to prevent sloughing of formation into the wellbore. Sloughing can cause excessive well fill-up, which may eventually restrict production and require costly cleanout operations. In addition, open hole completions reduce your ability to control access to zones during stimulation. In some areas, open hole completions could also limit the control of water influx from non-coalbed aquifers adjacent to the coalbed. Figure 4-1 shows a typical single-zone, open hole coalbed completion.
In the Black Warrior Basin, the three most common methods for performing a single-zone, open hole completion are:
Drilling to Total Depth and Setting Casing Drilling to the Top of the Coalbed and Setting Casing Drilling to Total Depth, Backfilling, and Setting Casing
4-5
Chapter
The general procedures for each of these three methods are explained below:
2.
3.
4.
Position the casing shoe from 2 to 10 feet above the highest coalbed you plan to produce.
5.
6.
Drill out the packer/shoe (preferably with water or air mist), leaving the underlying coalbed open.
2.
3.
4.
Drill out the float shoe and hole to total depth, leaving the coalbed exposed.
4-6
2.
Backfill the hole to the casing point (2 to 10 feet above the coalbed) using sand or other such fill material.
3.
4.
5.
Wash the fill material from the well, leaving the coalbed open.
In each of these methods, you can also underream or enlarge the open hole portion to remove near-wellbore damage. Underreaming may help establish economical production from the reservoir if the wellbore intersects the natural fractures in the coal and if the permeability of the coal is high enough to drain a large area of the reservoir.
Separating zones is impractical if pay stringers are thin. Inflatable packers must be removed after each treatment. Packers may leak and cause communication between zones.
Fluids may leak past the packer because of hairline stress fractures in the formation caused by the packer. y Some open holes are too irregularly shaped for a packer to seal effectively.
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Chapter
4-8
y y y y
Allow selective completion of multiple coal seams Maintain control over the well during stimulation operations Reduce coal fines production Allow the use of resettable packers rather than inflatable packers
The cased hole completion method is especially effective for completing multiple zones in a single well. Figure 4-3 shows such a completion. Though cased hole completions provide several important benefits, they also can have some drawbacks that may reduce their effectiveness:
4-9
Chapter
Cement invasion caused by fracturing the coal during cementing operations can cause formation damage. Blockage of access points (perforations or slots) because of coal abrasion during stimulation or because of coal movement behind the casing during production.
At the Rock Creek project, a stage cementing technique was once used successfully to prevent cement invasion into coal seams. For more information on this technique, refer to Cementing the Casing String in Chapter 2. The Rock Creek project also tested a fracturing technique used by some operators in the Black Warrior Basin that can reduce blockage of access points during fracture stimulation. In this technique, called interseam completion, coal seams are fractured by initiating the fracture in noncoal formations adjacent to the coal layers. For more information on interseam completions, refer to Special Formation Access Techniques, later in this chapter.
4-10
Perforating Through Casing Jetting Slots Through Casing Special Formation Access Techniques
Perforating Through Casing
Perforations provide the most efficient and cost-effective method for accessing coalbeds, especially when you are targeting multiple zones. Using conventional wireline-conveyed perforating guns, you can access the formation rapidly and with pinpoint accuracy. You can perforate the casing using either bullets or jet charges. Jet charges have largely replaced bullets in the oil industry because they penetrate deeper in hard rock formations. However, bullets may provide better penetration and hole uniformity in low density coal formations. Perforations are available in a variety of sizes. A perforation diameter of 0.41 inches can provide sufficient formation access to reduce pressure losses during fracturing and decrease pressure drawdown into the wellbore during production. Smaller diameter shots provide greater penetration for channels through cement-invaded zones. Operators in the Black Warrior Basin use a variety of perforating charges. Some operators prefer to perforate shallow coal seams using charges that create a large hole size to maximize gas flow into the wellbore. However, for deeper coal zones, operators often sacrifice hole size in favor of charges that penetrate deeper into the formation and through any cement invasion. Most operators use a perforation charge that provides a hole size of 0.37 to 0.41 inches and a penetration of 8 to 13 inches. Typically, you can effectively access a coalbed interval with shot densities of 4-12 shots per foot, depending on fracture treatment design and expected production rates. For more information on specifications and operating procedures for perforating equipment, consult with wireline service companies that have experience perforating coalbed wells in your area.
4-11
Chapter
4-12
charged) at high pressure through 1/8 to 1/4 inch jet nozzles on a tubing string. Operators have used various forms of jet cutting to complete coalbed methane wells. Some operators jet open-hole completions to expand the wellbore and to remove skin damage on the coal face caused by invasion of drilling fluids or cement and to possibly induce fracture propagation. Operators most often use jetting in cased hole completions to cut two, three, or four vertical slots in the casing and to remove formation damage. Because of the relatively higher cost of jetting slots, many operators prefer to use perforations instead of slots. Figure 4-5 shows a typical jet-slotted cased hole completion.
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Chapter
To cut slots, coalbed methane operators normally use one of these jet slotting procedures:
1.
2 . Install a jetting nozzle on the end of the tubing. The jetting tool has a seat on which a ball can be used to plug the end of the tubing.
3 . Trip the tubing into the well to a depth where the end of the tubing is below the target zone.
4 . Run a gamma ray log down through the tubing and locate the target coal seam(s) by correlating this through-tubing gamma ray log with the openhole gamma ray log.
5 . Lower the gamma ray tool to the jetting nozzle and record the depth. Then raise the gamma ray tool up to the target zone and record this depth. Calculate the distance between these two depths and use this value in step 7.
4-14
7.
Place a mark on the outside of the tubing at the top of the slips or at the top of the wellhead. Raise the tubing string the distance calculated in step 5 and place another mark on the tubing above the slips or wellhead. This mark indicates the position that the tubing must be in to begin jetting.
8.
Connect the injection lines from the pump truck to the tubing.
9 . Circulate water down the tubing, out the bottom opening of the jetting nozzle, and up the annulus to remove any debris that may plug the nozzles.
10. Drop a ball to shut off the bottom opening of the tool. Before running the jetting tool, make sure the ball is the proper size for the seat in the tool. On some tools, the tungsten carbide nozzles may protrude into the throat of the tool, which reduces the I.D. above the ball seat.
1 1 . Circulate with water after the ball is dropped to make sure the ball has seated. When the ball is seated properly, you will notice a pressure increase in the tubing.
1 2 . Begin jetting with water* containing a sand concentration from 1 to 1-1/2 lb/gal. Jet in one place until you observe coal cuttings at the surface. To better monitor returns, set up a screen which will trap the cuttings. You should first observe metal cuttings from the casing at the surface. These cuttings may be so small that you have to use a magnet in the return stream to identify them. When you have cut through the casing, you should
4-15
Chapter
observe return water that is black or dark. This color is from the coal fines. After the color of the water changes, you should begin seeing coal cuttings at the surface.
13. After you see coal cuttings at the surface, move the tubing one or two inches to reposition the nozzle. 14. Begin jetting again, and monitor returns for metal cuttings and coal cuttings. After the first slot is cut, the water may remain dark for the rest of the slotting operation.
15. Repeat steps 14 through 16 until you have slotted the entire target interval.
16. After the interval has been slotted, stop pumping sand and circulate clean water until the returns are free of coal cuttings. The water may remain dark if you are cycling the water, but the coal cuttings should stop when the well is cleaned up.
17. When the returns are clean, shut down the pump and reverse the circulation by pumping down the annulus and up the tubing string to remove the ball in the nozzle.
18. After the ball is at the surface, lower the tubing string slowly while reverse circulating to clean out the casing to bottom. Monitor pump pressure closely. Large pieces of coal can plug the small opening at the bottom of the tool and cause a rapid increase in pump pressure.
* You may circulate nitrogen instead of water for slotting. Nitrogen can enhance cutting because it removes cuttings more quicklythan water. It also ensures returns to the surface. Though most coal seams can support the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water, some seams may not. If a seam cannot support a water column, you would not be able to observe the
4-16
returns at the surface. In such cases, using nitrogen will lower the hydrostatic pressure on the seam and allow you to get returns to the surface. Though nitrogen is more expensive than water, the additional cost may be offset by reduced slotting time.
v Caution
This method may partially fill the coalbed near the wellbore with sand and coal fines, which can make later fracturing and production operations difficult. This problem occurs because the slots created directly above or below the jet prevent the jet stream from circulating properly back into the wellbore.
1.
2.
Install a jetting nozzle on the end of the tubing. The jetting tool has a seat on which a ball can be used to plug the end of the tubing.
3.
Trip the tubing into the well so the end of the tubing is below the target zone.
4.
Run a gamma ray log down through the tubing and locate the target coal seam(s) by correlating this through-tubing gamma ray log with the openhole gamma ray log.
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Chapter
5.
Lower the gamma ray tool in the tubing to the jetting nozzle and record the depth. Then raise the gamma ray tool up to the target zone and record this depth. Calculate the distance between these two depths and use this value in step 7.
6. 7.
Pull the gamma ray tool out of the tubing. Place a mark on the outside of the tubing at the top of the slips or the top of the wellhead. Raise the tubing string the distance calculated in step 5 and place another mark on the tubing at the top of the slips or wellhead. This mark indicates the position that the tubing must be in to begin jetting.
8.
Draw a vertical line on the tubing in a place that can be referenced to a stationary point on the rig floor or the wellhead. This line will be observed when reciprocating the pipe to make sure the pipe does not rotate. Preventing the pipe from rotating will ensure the jetting nozzle is properly oriented inside the casing.
9.
Connect the injection lines from the pump truck to the tubing.
10. Circulate water down the tubing, out the bottom opening of the jetting nozzle, and up the annulus to remove any debris that may plug the nozzles.
11. Drop a ball to shut off the bottom opening of the tool. Before running the jetting tool, make sure the ball is the proper size for the seat in the tool. On some tools, the tungsten carbide nozzles may protrude into the throat of the tool, which reduces the I.D. above the ball seat.
12. Circulate with water after the ball is dropped to make sure the ball has seated. When the ball is seated properly, you will notice a pressure increase in the tubing.
4-18
from 1 to 1-1/2 lb/gal while reciprocating the pipe up and down across the interval to be slotted. Watch the vertical line marked on the tubing to make sure the pipe does not rotate. Continue jetting and reciprocating until you observe a continuous stream of coal cuttings at the surface. To better monitor returns, set up a screen which will trap the cuttings. You should first observe metal cuttings from the casing at the surface. These cuttings may be so small that you have to use a magnet in the return stream to identify them. When you have cut through the casing, you should observe return water that is black or dark. This color is from the coal fines. After the color of the water changes, you should begin seeing coal cuttings at the surface.
14. Repeat step 13 until you have slotted the entire target interval.
15. After the interval has been slotted, stop pumping sand and clean up the well by circulating clean water until the returns are free of coal cuttings. The water may remain dark if you are cycling the water, but the coal cuttings should stop when the well is cleaned up.
16. When the returns are clean, shut down the pump and reverse the circulation by pumping down the annulus and up the tubing string to remove the ball in the nozzle.
17. After the ball is at the surface, lower the tubing string slowly while reverse circulating to clean out the casing to bottom. Monitor pump pressure closely. Large pieces of coal can plug the small opening at the bottom of the tool and cause a rapid increase in pump pressure.
* You may circulate nitrogen instead of water for slotting. Nitrogen can enhance cutting because it removes cuttings more quickly than water. It also ensures returns to the surface.
4-19
Chapter
Though most coal seams can support the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water, some seams may not. If a seam cannot support a water column, you would not be able to observe the returns at the surface. In such cases, using nitrogen will lower the hydrostatic pressure on the seam and allow you to get returns to the surface. Though nitrogen is more expensive than water, the additional cost may be offset by reduced slotting time.
Interseam Completion
Restricted Access Completion
A special formation access technique called restricted access completion was developed at the Rock Creek project to propagate more effective fractures. Restricted access refers to the technique of perforating only one seam in a group of thin, closely-spaced seams. The primary objective of restricting access to a single seam is to stimulate multiple seams (via the single seam) without the expense of perforating and treating each thin seam individually. The technique also offers the following potential benefits:
y y y y
Helps prevent high pressures during stimulation Helps prevent propagation of multiple parallel fractures Reduces excessive fracture height growth Reduces migration of sand and coal fines
Tests conducted at the Rock Creek project demonstrated the effectiveness of the restricted access technique. Monitor well data, interference testing, dye tracing, and reservoir modelling all confirmed that fracture treatments initiated at the bottom of the multi-layer Black Creek interval are at least as effective as fracturing stimulations conducted each individual layer of the interval. Figure 4-6 illustrates the fracture communication created in the Black Creek Coal Group by the restricted access completion technique.
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Figure 4-6 Fracture Communication Created by the Restricted Access Completion Technique
The research from the Rock Creek project showed that restricted access completions are effective in a closely-spaced group of coal seams if:
y
There are no barriers to fracture height growth between the coal seams (i.e., the in-situ stresses of the formations between the seams are not significantly higher than the stress in the coal.) Stress profiles yield vertical rather than horizontal fractures Barriers to fracture height growth exist above and below the bottom coal seam
y y
4-21
Chapter
The limited entry completion method allows you to simultaneously stimulate a group of coal seams in a well instead of stimulating them separately, which requires downhole equipment and sand plugs for isolation. You can use the limited entry method only in perforated cased hole completions. Figure 4-7 shows a typical limited entry multiple-zone completion.
You can use the limited entry technique to hydraulically fracture several zones with different rock properties and in-situ stresses. You control stimulation treatments that require different initiation and propagation pressures by the number and size of perforations
4-22
you place across each zone. Adjusting the number and size of perforations at each zone controls the friction pressure through the perforations, which gives you some control over the treating pressure at each zone. The main benefit of a properly designed limited entry completion is the ability to fracture multiple seams with one treatment. To be successful, a limited entry completion must be designed to provide sufficient rate into each seam to adequately widen and extend the fracture. The ability to widen and extend the fracture is a function of the mechanical properties (Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio) of the formations. To properly design a limited entry completion, you must analyze the mechanical properties of each coal seam and its adjacent formations and account for the differing properties of each zone in the design. A design with perforations based solely on the thickness of the coal seam will likely not be an optimum design. An improperly designed limited entry completion could cause the problems listed below:
y
Propagation of a fracture at each set of perforations may result in a shorter fracture length and a greater fracture height than desired Inadequate injection rates into each set of perforations which could cause poor proppant transport, excessive fluid leakoff, and potential bridging in the fracture because of insufficient fracture width
The limited entry completion will likely be most successful when used to fracture multiple coal seams in the same coal group where there are confining barriers between the seams to be fractured. (A confining barrier is a zone that has a higher stress than the zone to be fractured and is thick enough to restrict the height growth of the induced fracture.) If the seams do not have confining barriers between them, a restricted access completion may work more effectively than a limited access completion. The restricted access completion is discussed in the next section. The limited entry completion has not been as successful for fracturing multiple coal groups as it has for fracturing multiple seams within one
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coal group. This variation in performance might be due in part to the degree of difference in the mechanical properties of the formations between the coal groups.
Interseam Completions
This completion technique involves perforating through casing into rock partings above, below, or between coal seams rather than directly into the seams. Interseam completions have been attempted in the Black Warrior Basin to complete coal zones for which conventional fracture stimulation pressures were excessive. In the basin, unusually high treating pressures are sometimes encountered while attempting to fracture coal seams. In some cases, treating pressures may reach the safe limit for the casing before the operator has established any substantial injection rate. At the Rock Creek project, two separate coal groups in Well P5 were completed using the interseam technique. Though high treating pressures have not presented problems at Rock Creek, the interseam technique was used to assess its effectiveness. Despite having no coal directly connected to the wellbore, Well P5 became one of the highest sustained gas producers in the field following its interseam completion. In addition, Well P5 required no pump repairs for 2 1/2 years. (On average, wells in the Black Warrior Basin require pump work 24 times a year). The results of this one test certainly cannot be considered conclusive; however, they do indicate that interseam completion may be effective for some wells. Figure 4-8 shows the lithology and location of perforations for the Well P5 interseam completion. The decision to complete wells with the interseam technique should be based on a thorough understanding of the in-situ stresses of the coal seams and surrounding strata. Though the usefulness of the interseam completion technique requires further investigation, the technique may offer the advantages listed below:
y y
High treatment pressures may be avoided Several target seams may be connected with a single treatment
4-24
A propped fracture initiated in interseam strata may inhibit plugging by migrating coal fines and proppant during production
4-25
Chapter
4-26
The access also must be able to maintain this low pressure differential for the life of the well (often 10 to 20 years.)
g Important You should not perforate or slot the casing until just before you fracture the well or place it on production. In some areas, leaving a coal seam exposed for an extended time without producing it may result in higher than expected treating pressures.
Select tubing size based on the estimated maximum water rate to be produced, the type and size of pump you will use, and the formation pressures expected. Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin use 2-3/8 inch tubing for shallow wells (2000 ft or less) and 2-7/8 inch tubing for deeper wells and/or wells expected to produce high rates of water.
When ordering the tubing string, order enough tubing so you can set the pump below the lowermost coal seam. Consider also having tubing on location to wash out the well to bottom if necessary. Pup joints usually are not necessary unless you need to set the pump at a precise depth. For example, if there is less than 30 ft between the lowermost coal seam and the bottom of the hole, you may use pup joints to place the pump below the perforations without setting the tubing on bottom.
Completion - the operations necessary to prepare a well for production. Completions are usually performed after casing has
4-27
Chapter
been set. Completion operations can include running cement bond evaluation tools, perforating or slotting, stimulating the reservoir, and installing artificial lift equipment.
Workover - remedial operations on a well which has produced previously. These operations may include repairing primary cement jobs, changing or adding perforated intervals, cleaning out the wellbore, repairing casing failures, etc.
Pulling Job - the operations necessary to retrieve a downhole pump and/or sucker rod string for replacement or repair. If a tubing-retrievable pump is used, you must pull the tubing string. However, if an insert pump is used, you may retrieve the pump by pulling the rods. You can retrieve the rotor from a progressing cavity (PC) pump by pulling the rods, but to retrieve the stator from a PC pump, you must pull the tubing string.
Because of the marginal economics of most coalbed methane wells, you must perform workovers prudently. For example, some operators work over a well only after its production has declined significantly. They find it more economical to defer workovers as long as possible and to continue producing gas at a lower rate. Of course, this practice will vary from well to well depending on the difference between the cost of the workover and the revenue from lost gas sales. To minimize workover costs, you should plan the workover carefully. The guidelines below will help ensure an economical workover:
Learn as much as you can about your well and offset wells so you can determine the type of equipment needed to do the job safely and effectively.
Evaluate several different options for performing a job. The most expensive option is not necessarily the most effective.
4-28
Bid out as much of the work as practical to get the best price. Investigate the reputation and quality of previous work performed by unknown contractors. The lowest price bid may not be a bargain if the work is unsatisfactory.
Schedule all equipment to be on location when needed to avoid downtime waiting on equipment and to avoid standby costs if equipment arrives too early.
g Important Though economics requires prudent spending on workover operations, you should not jeopardize the safety of workers by eliminating or reducing necessary safety equipment.
Packers
Operators normally use compression or tension packers for stimulation treatments, for testing zones and for squeeze cementing. Compression packers are used for deeper applications because they require sufficient tubing weight above them to set. Usually, the minimum required setting weight is 4,000 - 5,000 lbs. When using 2-3/8 inch, 4.7 lb/ft production tubing, the minimum depth for setting a compression packer is approximately 850 feet. For shallower depths, you should use a tension packer.
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Chapter
Perforating Guns
Conventional casing perforating guns are normally used to perforate coalbed methane wells. Before running a perforating gun in the wellbore, make sure the correct number of charges is loaded. Also, make sure length of the charges from one end to the other is equal the desired perforated interval. You should also note the distance from the collar locator tool to the top shot so you position the gun at the correct depth before firing. Keep in mind that you (not the wireline operator) are responsible for ensuring that the perforations are shot in the right location. After firing the gun and pulling it out of the hole, check to see that all shots fired.
Underreamer
An underreamer is a tool which may be run through casing to enlarge an openhole section below the casing. The tool is equipped with cutter arms which are normally held within the tool body by a coil spring. When the tool is in the openhole below the casing, the cutter arms may be extended by applying pump pressure through the tubing string. In medium or soft formations, most underreamers can enlarge a hole up to twice the diameter of the tool. The typical tool size for 5-1/2 inch casing is 4-1/2 inches. This size tool can enlarge a hole up to 9 inches.
4-30
The ZIP tool is inflated by nitrogen through a 1/4 inch stainless steel line strapped to the outside of the tubing string. A ZIP tool is also available with a pass-through, which enables you to run an inflation line through the tool to another ZIP installed below it. For more information on using the ZIP tool to measure production in multiple-seam wells, refer to Chapter 9.
y
4-31
Chapter
Additional Resources
Lambert, S.W.,Comparison of Open Hole, Slotting, and Perforation Completion Methods for Multiseam Coalbed Gas Wells, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).
Lambert, S.W. et al, Multiple Coal Seam Well Completion Experience in the Deerlick Creek Field, Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, Proceedings of the 1987 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (November 16-19).
Lambert, S.W., M.A. Trevits, and P.F. Steidl, Vertical Borehole Design and Completion Practices to Remove Methane Gas from Mineable Coalbeds, U.S. Department of Energy, Carbondale Mining Technology Center, Carbondale, Illinois (1980).
Schraufnagel, R.A., J.L. Saulsberry, and S.W. Lambert, Gas Production from Multiple Completion Wells at Rock Creek, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).
Schraufnagel, R.A., S.D. Spafford, and J.L. Saulsberry, Multiple Seam Completion and Production Experience at Rock Creek, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).
Spafford, S. D., Stimulating Multiple Coal Seams at Rock Creek With Access Restricted to a Single Seam, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).
4-32
hough most coals are naturally fractured, you normally need to hydraulically fracture coal seams to produce economic gas flow rates. In the reservoir, methane gas is adsorbed onto the surface of the coal. After the reservoir pressure is lowered and the gas desorbs from the coal, it flows through the natural fractures in the coal. For gas to flow to the wellbore at economical rates, effective communication must be established between the natural coal fractures or cleats and the wellbore. The most effective way to create this communication is by hydraulically fracturing the coal seam. In fracturing, large volumes of fluid and sand are pumped at high pressure down the wellbore. The fluid opens a crack in the coal, and after the fluid is removed, the sand remains in place to keep the new channel open. The resulting proppant-filled fracture provides a flow path into the wellbore for water and gas. When successful, hydraulic fracturing can greatly increase methane production from coal seams. Though much conventional fracturing technology can be applied to coalbed fracturing, many techniques have been developed specifically for coalbed methane wells. This chapter will explain these techniques and help you in:
Performing a Minifracture Test Planning a Fracture Treatment Design Preparing for a Fracture Treatment Performing a Fracture Treatment Evaluating a Fracture Treatment
Chapter
Estimate fracture gradient Estimate fluid leakoff Estimate fracture closure pressure Recognize high fracture pressures
Table 5-1 shows three types of minifracture tests and the data you can obtain from them.
Step Rate Test Pump-In/Flowback or Pump-In/Shut-In Test Minifracture Pressure Decline Test Pump-In/Shut-In Test (Longer Duration)
5-2
The fracture pressure for a coal is the pressure required to create a fracture. It equals the fracture gradient multiplied by the depth of the coal.
** The fracture closure pressure is the pressure at which the stresses in the coal cause the induced fracture to close onto the proppant. The fracture closure pressure is less than the fracture pressure.
Use pump-in/shut-in tests instead of pump-in/flowback tests. Traditionally, operators have used pump-in/flowback tests to determine the fracture closure pressure in low-permeability (very low fluid loss) reservoirs. However, pump-in/shut-in tests are more effective for coalbed reservoirs, because they have a high fluid loss. Pump-in/shut-in tests provide useful pressure data, called the estimated closure pressure (ECP). This data occurs very early in the pressure decline following a pump-in/shut-in test and, therefore, would be lost in a pump-in/flowback test.
Instruct the service company pumping the minifracture to use digital pressure recording equipment to record pressure values every few seconds. This step is necessary to obtain sufficient data for estimating the effective closure pressure (ECP) that best relates to the fluid loss rate which occurred during the injection period. The ECP, if applicable, will likely occur within the first few minutes of the test. Therefore, you will need sufficient data points for accurate analysis.
5-3
Chapter
Use the same fracture fluid and injection rate that you plan to use for the stimulation treatment. Because fluid loss in coal seams is essentially limited to the cleat and fracture system, the fluid loss rate is not controlled by a filter cake on the fracture face. Fluid viscosity plays an important role in fluid loss: higher viscosity fluids tend to exhibit lower fluid loss. In conventional (porous rock) reservoirs, small changes in bottomhole treating pressure (BHTP) do not significantly alter fluid loss rate. However, the cleat system in coals may tend to open more and allow higher fluid loss when the BHTP increases by even a small percentage.
5-4
Wireline Logs, Core Analysis Well Tests, Core Tests Wireline Logs Minifracture Tests, Core Tests Minifracture Tests Minifracture Tests Length: Fracture Design Software Height: Minifracture Tests, Wireline Logs Operators Completion Design Operators Completion Design Service Companies Service Companies Service Companies Fracture Design Software
Permeability of the Coal Temperature of the Coal Mechanical Properties of the Coal and Adjacent Formations Fracturing Fluid Leakoff Fracture Gradient of the Coal Fracture Length and Height
Location, Number, and Size of Perforations Mechanical Configuration of the Wellbore Fracturing Fluids Fracturing Fluid Additives Fracturing Proppants Pumping Schedule
5-5
Chapter
5-6
5-7
Chapter
loss for a naturally fractured formation is more difficult than for a non-fractured reservoir. To better define fluid loss characteristics for coals, Amoco conducted a field study in the Oak Grove Field (Black Warrior Basin). The study concluded that fluid efficiencies obtained from minifracture tests are not always accurate. This inaccuracy stems not only from the natural fractures in coal, but also from the pressure dependent nature of coal permeability, and from the tendency of proppants to bridge because of width constrictions in the fracture. For more information on the Amoco field study, see the paper in Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
5-8
To obtain an ISIP, follow these simple steps: 1 . Inject fluids at a rate sufficient to fracture the formation . 2. 3. After establishing this rate, shut the pumps down quickly. Record the surface pumping pressure the instant the pumps are shut down. Figure 5-1 shows an example of an ISIP recorded during a fracture treatment.
After obtaining an ISIP, you can easily calculate the fracture gradient for the formation using the equation below:
After you have determined the fracture gradient, you can estimate the bottomhole treating pressure and the surface treating pressure using the equations below: BHTP = FG x Dc, psi SIP = BHTP - (Ph + Pp + Pt) , psi
5-9
Chapter
Dc = Depth of the coal, ft SIP = Surface injection pressure, psi Ph = Hydrostatic pressure of fracturing fluid in the tubing, psi Pp = Pressure drop across the perforations, psi Pt = Pressure drop in the tubulars, psi
5-10
If you are designing a limited entry fracture treatment, you should use enough perforations so that each perforation has a pressure drop of only a few hundred psi. A common rule of thumb for a limited entry treatment is to design for an injection rate of 1/4 to 1 BPM/perforation. For an explanation of the limited entry technique, refer to Accessing the Formation in Chapter 4. The size of the perforation could affect the selection of the proppant size. Each perforation must be large enough relative to the maximum proppant diameter to prevent bridging across the perforation tunnel. Proppant bridging usually is not a problem in coalbed methane wells because most wells are perforated with casing guns that provide a perforation diameter of 0.37 - 0.41 inches. A perforation diameter of 0.41 inch would not limit the concentration of 20/40 or 16/30 proppant to below the maximum concentrations (4-6 lb/gal) that are normally pumped in coalbed methane wells.
g Important
The discharge coefficient is a factor used to calculate frictional pressure drop of fluid passing through the perforations. Perforations have an initial discharge coefficient of about 0.6. After you begin pumping proppant, the sand erodes the perforations and the discharge coefficient usually increases to around 0.95. The higher the discharge coefficient, the lower the pressure differential through the perforations. You should keep this guideline in mind both when designing the treatment and while pumping it.
5-11
Chapter
Through-Casing Fracturing
Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin fracture wells by pumping the treatment directly down the production casing string into the formation. To fracture through-casing, the low pressure casing head is removed and a high pressure frac valve is installed in its place. If the wellbore contains open perforations shallower than the coal to be fractured, you should not fracture through-casing unless you are certain the shallower perforated intervals have a much higher fracture pressure than will be used during the treatment. (Shallower intervals normally have a lower fracture pressure than deeper intervals.) To help prevent fracturing shallow perforated intervals, you can isolate the perforations with a tubing and packer assembly. Through-casing fracturing offers several advantages over the throughtubing method:
y y y
Allows pumping higher injection rates Provides flexibility for fracturing multiple coal seams in a well Requires less equipment downhole and at the wellhead and is thus operationally simpler
The through-casing method can be used to fracture single or multiple coal zones. Four different through-casing wellbore configurations have been used in the Black Warrior Basin:
Single Zone Multiple Zones Using Limited Entry Technique Multiple Zones Using Plugback Techniques Multiple Zones Using the Ball and Baffle Technique
Each of these applications are illustrated in Figure 5-2 and are explained below.
5-12
Single Zone
The simplest through-casing method involves perforating or slotting a single coal seam and then pumping the fracture treatment down the casing into the seam. The primary wellhead equipment needed for this method is a frac valve. No downhole equipment is required. Figure 5-2 (a) shows a single-zone, through-casing fracture treatment.
The limited entry technique involves simultaneously fracturing several coal seams (with differing rock properties and in-situ stresses) instead of fracturing individual seams (or groups of
5-13
Chapter
seams) separately. Ideally, the propagation pressures and treating rates for each zone are controlled by the number and size of perforations placed across each zone. By adjusting the number and size of perforations, you may be able to control the friction pressure through the perforations, which results in some control over treating pressure into each interval. The limited entry technique has generally proven ineffective in fracturing two or more coal groups (such as the Mary Lee and Pratt or Mary Lee and Black Creek seams). However, the limited entry technique for fracturing seams within the same coal group (such as the Black Creek) is commonly used. Figure 5-2 (b) shows a limited entry fracture treatment. Recent studies at the Rock Creek project have shown that you can successfully stimulate all seams within the same coal group through a single set of perforations in one seam of the group. This technique, called restricted access, was used successfully in the Black Creek coal group at Rock Creek. For more information on the restricted access completion method, refer to Accessing the Formation in Chapter 4.
The most common method used to fracture multiple zones in a well is to perforate and stimulate the lowermost zone first and then successively plug back, perforate and stimulate the shallower zones. Because plugging back allows you to isolate and treat each zone individually, you can control the treatments more effectively than with the limited entry technique. Several methods are used to plug back zones. Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin use sand plugs and/or retrievable bridge plugs to isolate zones for fracturing. Figure 5-2 (c) shows how the middle, or Mary Lee, coal group was isolated from the lower, or Black Creek, coal group using a sand plug, and the upper, or Pratt, coal group was isolated using a retrievable bridge plug. The decision to use a sand plug or a retrievable bridge plug will depend primarily on the distance between the prospective coal zones. A sand plug may be less expensive than a bridge plug. However, if the coal zones are separated by several hundred or more feet, using a retrievable bridge plug may be more practical than placing a large volume of sand and then washing it out of the wellbore.
5-14
The ball and baffle technique is used to isolate coal seams by installing cast-aluminum baffle plates at pre-selected depths in the casing string when the string is run in the hole. Figure 5-2 (d) shows a baffle frac job performed on Well P3 at the Rock Creek project. To isolate a perforated interval for fracturing, a rubber ball is dropped down the casing. The ball seats in the baffle and thus isolates the interval from treated deeper intervals. By installing baffles with successively larger inside diameters (from the bottom upward), you can effectively isolate single seams or groups of seams so they can be treated individually during the fracture job. The ball and baffle technique offers two significant advantages. First, it saves time because you can fracture the zones in succession without having to trip tools in and out of the hole. Second, it allows you to flow back each fractured interval immediately after the fracture job. Though this technique was used successfully at the Rock Creek project, it is not widely used for coalbed fracturing stimulations in the Black Warrior Basin.
5-15
Chapter
BHTP = Pt + Ph
where: BHTP = Bottomhole treating pressure Pt = Tubing pressure at surface gauge, psi Ph = Hydrostatic pressure in tubing, psi
5-16
When using a tubing dead string, you should place the tubing as close to the coal interval as practical. You must also select a pressure gauge or recorder that has a pressure rating greater than the maximum anticipated injection pressure. To protect the tubing from the abrasion of the sand-laden fluid, a tubing dead string assembly requires several pieces of equipment. This equipment is described below: Blast Joint A blast joint should be installed in the tubing string through the injection spool to prevent the abrasion of the proppant-laden fluid from cutting a hole in the tubing. At the Rock Creek project, a 2-3/8 inch tubing string was used for the dead string. To eliminate the cost for a 2-3/8 inch blast joint, a 2-7/8 inch pup joint was placed over the 2-3/8 inch non-upset tubing. The pup joint was supported on the bottom by a collar on the 2-3/8 inch string and on the top by the BOP rams, as shown in Figure 5-3. Casing Spool A wellhead fixture similar to a casing spool with side outlets allows injection of fracture fluids into the tubing/casing annulus. The treatment is pumped through the side ports in the spool. The spool is installed on the casing or casing head. (You may need a threaded companion flange if the casing is fitted with a threaded nipple and the spool is flanged.) Blowout Preventer (BOP) A pipe ram BOP is installed on top of the casing spool to contain the pressure in the tubing/casing annulus during the fracture job. To provide another pressure seal for additional safety, you may also install a stripper rubber head directly on top of the BOP. Mechanical Tubing Slips Tubing slips are placed above the BOP to support the weight of the tubing.
Through-Tubing Fracturing
Coal seams may be fractured with low injection rates. However, to adequately open and widen fractures, fracturing fluids must be pumped at relatively high rates to overcome high fluid leak-off rates. Therefore, fracturing coalbed methane wells through tubing is generally impractical because sufficient injection rates cannot be established.
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Chapter
Many through-casing fracture jobs are performed at rates of 25-40 BPM. The same fracturing treatment injected through-tubing would have to be pumped at a lower rate. The actual maximum injection rate will depend on the viscosity of the fluid used. You may be able to slightly increase through-tubing injection rates by adding friction reducers to the fluid. You may justify a through-tubing stimulation in cases where through casing treatments are not possible. For example, if the wellbore contains open perforations above the coal seam to be fractured. Similarly, through-tubing fracturing may be used if prefracture testing indicates that fracturing pressure will exceed the differential burst pressure of the casing at shallow depths.
v Caution If you attempt to isolate perforations close to the seam you intend to fracture, you risk fracturing into the isolated perforations. If the isolated perforations break down, proppant could flow through these perforations into the wellbore and stick the packer and pipe.
Fracturing Fluids
Selecting proper fracturing fluids is critical to a successful fracturing treatment. These fluids help initiate the fracture in the formation, extend the fracture once it opens, and transport the proppant into the fracture. To select the best fracturing fluid for a well, you should consider these factors:
Fluid Viscosity Formation Properties Frictional Pressure Fluid Loss Properties Economics
5-18
Fluid Viscosity
Viscosity may be the most critical factor in selecting a fluid. An effective fluid must not only initiate and extend a fracture, but also carry the proppant deep into the fracture. High viscosity fluids are necessary to develop fracture width and to effectively transport the proppant. A fluid with insufficient viscosity will limit the fracture width and prevent the transport of proppants deep into the fracture. It is also important to select the appropriate breaker and breaker concentration. No matter how good the proppant transport characteristics of the frac fluid, they can be completely negated by using excessive breaker concentrations. When selecting fluids, make sure you obtain viscosity information from the service company for the fluids you are considering using. You will need this information not only when designing the fracture job, but also when monitoring the fluids during the fracture job.
Formation Properties
To optimize the fracture treatment and prevent coal damage, the fracturing fluid must be compatible with the formation. In the Black Warrior Basin, guar gum and hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) gel fluids have been used extensively for fracturing. However, recent GRI-sponsored research has indicated that HPG gels and guar could adversely affect the permeability to both water and gas. Experience at Rock Creek has shown that guar and HPG gels can be used successfully, but they may also cause failure. For example, Wells P2 and P7 were both fractured in the Mary Lee formation with HPG gel, but Well P2s post fracture production rate (190 MCFD) was significantly higher than that of Well P7 (40 MCFD). The poor performance of the P7 treatment was attributed to the failure of the gel to break properly, which reduced permeability. GRI research indicates that the ability of guar-based fluids to break properly is extremely important in determining the success or failure of stimulation treatments. Conversely, research also indicates that a break schedule that is too aggressive may result in a fluid that fails to form a filter cake. A high volume of fluid could then leakoff to the cleat system and significantly impair production potential. Field studies conducted by Amoco also indicate that HPG gel is damaging to coal. Further, Amoco laboratory studies suggest that all polymers (including HEC gels and other chemical additives) can irreversibly damage coals.
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Chapter
The GRI and Amoco data suggest that you may reduce the possibility of damaging coal by using a fluid with low damage potential (such as KCl or a KCl substitute) or a fluid that contains a minimal amount of gel and that has a high fluid efficiency (such as foam). Amoco has successfully fractured wells in the Oak Grove Field (Black Warrior Basin) using water as the fracturing fluid. Similarly, GRI has successfully fractured wells at the Rock Creek project using 75 quality foam as the fracturing fluid. The greater fracture lengths that can be achieved with the foam fluid may offset any formation damage that might be caused by the HEC gel used with the foam treatment.
Frictional Pressure
Because nearly all coalbed methane wells are fractured through casing, frictional pressure does not usually affect fluid selection. However, if you must fracture a well through tubing, the frictional pressure may be the limiting factor in selecting a fluid.
Fluid Loss Properties
Because of the natural cleat system in coals, fluid losses during fracturing could be high. High fluid loss increases the probability of excessive deep damage to the cleat system.
Economics
When selecting a fracturing fluid, you must consider the cost of the treatment relative to the results expected from it. For example, if your objective is to create a short fracture that will simply ensure communication between the wellbore and the natural fracture system of the coal, you may not need to use a high viscosity fluid. However, if you have determined that a very long fracture length is needed to generate economical production rates from the well, you should probably use a high viscosity fluid.
5-20
Nongelled Water
You can pump fresh water, or treated water at high rates to place low concentrations of sand (e.g., less than 1 lb/gal) into fractures. However, if you use a water-based fluid, you will likely place the proppant a relatively short distance from the wellbore. The propped fractures from a water-based stimulation will be short because of the poor transport capacity of water and because the created fractures are close to wellbore.
v Caution Make sure that any water used is compatible with the fracturing fluids you plan to pump. Do not use water flowed back from a previous fracture treatment unless it has been properly
treated.
Recent research sponsored by GRI has shown that using 2% KCl (potassium chloride) water may help prevent formation damage. You may also consider adding a natural or synthetic friction reducer to the water, allowing you to pump at a higher rate to carry the proppant further out from the wellbore. Friction reducers may also allow you to use lower horsepower pumps. Before using a friction reducer, make sure it is compatible with the fracturing fluids you plan to use.
g Important
Sand-water fracture treatments are relatively inexpensive, but they also require recovering large volumes of water after the treatment.
You can pump hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) gel fluids to place sand concentrations of 1 to 3 lb/gal a moderate distance from the wellbore. Because these gelling agents gel quickly, you can use them in continuous, semi-continuous, or batch processes. Linear gels cannot hold proppants in perfect suspension. As the shear rate decreases in the fracture, the sand will settle. However,
5-21
Chapter
you can obtain greater propped fracture length with a linear gel fluid than with a water-based system. Linear gels also help reduce friction and control fluid loss. To facilitate recovery of the gel fluid after the treatment, the gel is designed to revert or break to the viscosity of water. This breakdown allows the stimulation fluid to drain from the fracture into the wellbore. Each service company uses different chemical systems to break gel fluids at various formation temperatures. Because the chemistry of these gel systems is complex, a carefully designed gel system is critical to the success of the fracture job. Linear gels clean up with breakers and produced load water and can leave a highly conductive propped bed. The cost of a linear gel fracture is higher than for a water-based fracture treatment. However, the longer propped length usually created by a linear gel should provide greater production than a water fracture treatment of the same size. Typically, the higher cost of a gel fracture is offset by higher production rates.
g Important For several years, operators in the Black Warrior Basin commonly used hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) fluids for fracturing. However, recent research sponsored by GRI indicates that hydroxypropyl guar (HPG) fluids may adversely affect the permeability to both gas and water.
Crosslinked gels were developed to provide a water-based fracturing fluid with a higher viscosity than linear gels. This higher viscosity can create wider, better propped, and more conductive fractures than linear gels. The viscosity of these fluids is increased by adding special crosslinking systems and stabilizers. Crosslinked gels can carry proppants in excess of 10 lbs/gal in suspension. As with linear gels, you can tailor crosslinked gels to break to a low viscosity fluid after fracture closure. However, crosslinked gels are more difficult to break than linear gels. To ensure recovery of the fracturing fluid and to reduce the potential for formation damage after the treatment, you should add sufficient breaker to the gel.
5-22
Foam Fluids
Foam fluids are created by dispersing gas, usually nitrogen, in a liquid. To initiate the dispersion, a surfactant is normally used as a foaming agent. Because foams have high viscosity and low fluid leakoff properties, they can carry proppant further out into the formation than gel fracturing fluids. Foam quality is the volumetric ratio of the gas to the total volume of foam at downhole conditions. A 75 quality foam contains 75% gas by volume at downhole temperature and pressure. Foams used for fracturing typically range from 65-85 quality. Foam fracturing treatments at the Rock Creek project have used 75 quality foam. Higher quality foam provides greater viscosity, but also may increase pump pressure and limit maximum sand concentration. Foams with a quality less than 52 have a much lower viscosity than higher quality foams and thus do not function as effectively as high viscosity fluids. Foams with a quality less than 52 are usually unstable. Foams have several advantages over non-foam treatments:
y
Low liquid content of foam results in a lower hydrostatic head, which enhances well cleanup. Excellent fluid loss control eliminates the need for fluid loss additives, which reduces impairment of fracture conductivity. Excellent capability to support proppants, which results in more uniform distribution of proppant throughout the fracture. Energy from the gas in the foam helps to recover treating fluids from the reservoir. Formations that have been de-watered can be treated without fear of re-saturating the formation.
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Chapter
g Important Though foams offer the highest potential for minimizing damage to the coal, you still should carefully consider the polymer used for the aqueous phase as well as the foaming surfactant. Select a polymer and foamer that is least damaging to the coal. Many foamers will not work with coal because they adsorb onto the coal. Such foamers may reduce formation permeability. Select a foamer that will ensure 100% gas entrainment and maximum viscosity and proppant transport characteristics.
Biocides eliminate surface degradation of the polymers in the fluid tanks and stop the growth of anaerobic bacteria in the formation.
Breakers
Breakers enable viscous fracturing fluids to be controllably degraded to a thin, low viscosity fluid. The two types of breaker systems currently used are enzymes and catalyzed oxidizers. It is very important to select the appropriate breaker and breaker concentration. No matter how good the proppant transport characteristics of the fracturing fluid, they can be completely negated by using excessive breaker concentrations.
Buffers
Buffers control the pH of the fracturing fluid for the crosslinker and breaker systems and also accelerate or slow down the hydration of certain polymers.
Surfactants
5-24
fluid and reduce capillary pressure. They may also act as a demulsifier.
Clay Stabilizers
Clay stabilizers prevent excessive swelling of clays and reduce the migration of fines. Commonly used clay stabilizers include potassium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, and salt substitutes. Because of the problems associated with disposing high chloride waters, a number of surface active quaternary amine compounds are now available from the service companies. However, not all of these materials are compatible with coal. They may interact adversely with the breakers used in low temperature coalbed treatments. Therefore, before using these types of additives, you should confirm their compatibility with the fracturing fluid and with the formation.
Foam Stabilizers
Foam stabilizers help maintain the properties of foam fluids. Most foam stabilizers are polymers. Foams without stabilizers generally have a half-life of 3-4 minutes. By adding stabilizers, you can increase the half-life of a foam to 20-30 minutes.
Friction Reducers
Friction reducers suppress fluid turbulence and thus reduce the frictional pressure associated with high injection rates. Friction reducers may prove especially useful for improving injectivity in through-tubing fracture treatments, should they be necessary.
Diverting Agents
Diverting agents divert the flow of fracturing fluids to zones above or below the zone that was initially treated by plugging off perforations or the formation. Diverting agents are usually soluble in the formation fluid.
Fracturing Proppants
When fracturing a coalbed, the primary purpose of including proppant (sand) in the fluid is to provide mechanical support to hold open the hydraulically created fracture in the reservoir rock. Essentially all major producers agree that commercially successful coalbed completions depend on long, well-propped fractures. Long term success from fracturing without using proppant has been minimal. In many cases, wells without propped fractures demon-
5-25
Chapter
strate good early production rates, but decline dramatically as they begin to produce. A few coalbed methane producers believe that the primary function of the proppant is merely to fill the fracture and prevent or minimize the production of coal chips and fines that would otherwise plug any empty fracture voids caused by incomplete closure of the fractures. Some believe that coal seams will self prop because of spalling and erosion of the coal during the fracturing treatment. Other producers believe that larger size sands, such as a 12/20 size, serve mainly as a scouring agent, removing sufficient coal from the fracture faces so that the fracture will not close completely. The most common proppant used in coalbed methane wells is sand. Consider the following guidelines when choosing a proppant for a fracture treatment:
s
Select a proppant for a fracturing treatment based on the anticipated closure stress in the coal seam, the cost of the proppant, and its availability in your area. Because many of the coal seams currently being completed are very shallow, the anticipated closure stress on the proppant is usually lower than for a typical sandstone gas well. Because of these lower values of closure stress, you may be able to use fracture sands often considered unacceptable for conventional completions because of their poor crush resistance. Sieve a sample of the fracture sand to make sure the service company has provided the correct size. After sands are processed, they may contain a large amount of fines.
5-26
Proppant flowback usually occurs during the early cleanup and dewatering stages. You can usually reduce flowback of proppant by using an effective method of flowing the well back after the fracture treatment. For more information on methods to prevent flowback of proppant, refer to Pumping and Flowback Procedures later in this chapter. If you observe a history of proppant flowback in a field, you may incorporate a curable resin-coated proppant in the final stage of the fracturing treatment.. If you use a resin-coated proppant, make sure the resin will set under formation temperature and stress conditions and will not interfere with fluid clean-up properties.
Pumping Schedule
After all of the design considerations previously discussed have been incorporated into the fracture design, the pumping schedule can be prepared. The pumping schedule is a table showing the volumes, concentrations, and rates for pumping the fracturing fluids. Because optimizing the pumping schedule is usually an iterative process, it is best accomplished by using fracture design software. A detailed explanation of how to design a pumping schedule is beyond the scope of this guide. For assistance in designing a schedule, you may consult a variety of resources. For example, you can contact a service company or a consulting firm with experience in fracturing coalbed methane wells. All major fracturing service companies use computer models to design fracture treatments. You may also talk with other operators in the area to learn what types of fracture designs have proven successful for them. In addition, you can utilize one of the many commercially available fracture simulation models to test various treatment designs. The type and size of fracture treatment you use will depend on the properties of the coal reservoir and your particular objectives for the treatment. To give you a sense of the type of fracture treatments typically used in the Black Warrior Basin, a gel fracture design and a foamed fracture design used successfully at the Rock Creek project are shown in Tables 5-3 and 5-4. The input data and the selected pumping schedule are shown for each of the treatment designs.
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Chapter
Table 5-3 Pumping Schedule for a Gel Fracture Treatment on Well P2 at the Rock Creek Project
Mary Lee/Blue Creek 8.7 ft 2 vertical slots at 1028 - 1036 Cross-linked HPG gel
Coal seam:
Net thickness:
Perforated interval:
20 BPM 3,000 gal fresh water 90,000 gal cross-linked gel 11,000 lbs 20/40 mesh sand 126,000 lbs 12/20 mesh sand
Additives:
Stage
Fluid Type
Fresh water Cross-linked gel Cross-linked gel Cross-linked gel Cross-linked gel Cross-linked gel Cross-linked gel
5-28
Table 5-4 Pumping Schedule for a Foam Fracture Treatment on Well P3 at the Rock Creek Project
Coal seam:
Net thickness:
35 BPM 2,456 gal gel 100,00 gal foam 180,000 lbs 16/30 mesh Brady sand
Pumping Schedule
Fluid Volume (gals) Proppant Concentration (lb/gal)
Stage
Fluid Type
(PrePad) (Pad) 1 2 3 4 5
Gel 75 Quality Foam 75 Quality Foam 75 Quality Foam 75 Quality Foam 75 Quality Foam 75 Quality Foam
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Chapter
When Drilling and Completing the Well The Week Before the Fracturing Job The Day of the Fracturing Job
In addition to the quality control guidelines presented in this section, there are many other practices that may improve your fracture treatment. For a step-by-step quality control and job supervision checklist that you can use on the job, refer to Appendix B.
5-30
Horizontal fractures are less effective than vertical fractures because the drainage area affected with a horizontal fracture is considerably less per gallon of fluid injected than with a vertical fracture. In addition, the probability of a screenout, or unsuccessful fracture job, is much greater with horizontal fractures. Mineback observations have shown that a well with horizontal fractures may produce at an acceptable rate early in its life, but its production rate will decline dramatically as the area penetrated by the fracture depletes. Multiple fractures in a well can cause high treating pressures and screenouts. These problems make it difficult to achieve the fracture length needed to yield adequate production rates and an effective radius of drainage in the reservoir.
v Caution In open hole completions, fractures tend to initiate at the bottom of the casing.
Avoid excessive wellbore diameter, whether resulting from drilled hole size, borehole washout, or wellbore caving. Minimize production tests prior to fracturing because they can cause sloughing and caving. If you are required to prove that fracturing is necessary by performing high pressure drawdown production testing, you may create borehole conditions that jeopardize your opportunity to successfully fracture the well.
When completing the well, consider creating vertical notches adjacent from the coal seam using a jetting tool. For open hole completions, create notches with a short jetting operation. When creating jetted notches, avoid creating an excessive wellbore diameter. Improperly using a jetting tool can eliminate the benefits of notching.
v Caution
5-31
Chapter
Drill at least 100 to 200 feet below the deepest target coalbed to provide an adequate sump for fracturing and production operations. An adequate sump could help prevent a screenout when pumping the fracture treatment. An adequate sump can also allow the pump to be placed below the perforations, which is beneficial for production. For more information on the sump, refer to Pumping Equipment in Chapter 6.
g Important
The guidelines below are based on a GRI-sponsored statistical analysis of data from commercial fields in the Black Warrior Basin. Though these guidelines may apply to coalbed methane wells in some areas, data from the Rock Creek project (which is a controlled research site) indicates that minimizing the time between exposing the coal (by perforating or slotting) and stimulation may not be necessary.
s
Perform the fracturing treatment soon after the coal is exposed. In many coal seams, the mechanical condition of the coal exposed in the wellbore will degenerate with time. If significant time (several weeks or months) will pass before the well is fractured, run casing soon after the well is drilled but do not perforate or slot the casing until ready to fracture the well. Casing will minimize degeneration of the coal. If significant time has passed since a well was drilled (and casing was not set), you may attempt to use a jetting tool to remove the degenerated coal and expose fresh coal surfaces just before fracturing. When performing this procedure, avoid creating an excessive wellbore diameter. Carefully monitor surface returns while jetting to maximize cleanup of the coal face and minimize enlargement of the borehole.
Finalize the fracture treatment design with the service company. Discuss any specific equipment needed to connect the wellhead
5-32
to the fracturing equipment. Make sure the service company representatives know what type of wellhead connections they must tie into. Review your objectives for the treatment, including cost limitations and the use of standby equipment. Clarify what equipment and materials you (the operator) will provide and what things the service company will provide. Review the quality control procedures for the treatment, and determine who will be responsible for performing and documenting them. Designate a company representative who is responsible for supervising the treatment in the field. Make sure sure this person is informed of all objectives, decisions, and conditions regarding the job. Confirm that the service company representative is informed of these items, as well.
Estimate the total cost of the fracture treatment. In addition to the cost to pump the treatment, be sure to include any associated costs such as workover rig, frac tanks, water hauling, logging, etc.
Make sure you know what type of fluid, crosslinker and breaker (oxidizer or enzyme) you will use with the gel system. Service companies may keep some information about their fluid additives proprietary. However, to ensure the proper additives are used, you should at least know the answers to the questions below:
y
What type of crosslinker will be used (i.e., titanium, zirconium, borate, etc.)? How does the crosslinker work (delayed, adjustable delayed, or instantaneous)? How does the pH of the fluid affects its performance characteristics?
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Chapter
What type of breaker will be used (i.e., enzyme or oxydizing)? What is the breaker schedule? What tests will be performed on site to ensure the correct amount of breaker is used?
y y
Make sure you know any potential adverse effects of the fracturing fluid you plan to use. You can check published data on the compatibility of fracturing fluids with coal.
Make sure the service company thoroughly cleans the frac tanks before filling them with fluids.
Consider using a computerized fracture van at the well location to monitor the treatment and to record data. A van properly equipped with monitoring equipment provides an effective environment for making informed decisions during the fracture job.
Sieve the fracturing sand to make sure it is properly sorted (correctly sized). If the sand is not properly sorted, the conductivity of the proppant pack will be reduced. Collect samples of the sand when the sand storage bins on location are being loaded (usually the day before the job). Obtain the samples according to API recommended procedures for collecting sand samples.
5-34
Performing a FractureTreatment
Test the gel fluid to make sure it will mix, crosslink, and break at reservoir temperature. Measure the pH of the gel fluid. The pH must be correct for the fluid crosslinkers and breakers to work properly. If the pH is not correctly matched, the gel fluid may break too quickly or not at all. Measure the viscosity of the gel fluid. The viscosity must be correct for the fluid to carry the proppant effectively into the fractures.
Several hours to one day before the fracturing job, meet with all operating personnel and service company personnel and discuss:
y y y
The specific objectives of the fracturing stimulation The pumping schedule for the stimulation The type of data wanted from the service company and the form in which you want it Contingency plans in case of operational problems or emergency situations Safety and environmental precautions and procedures Any questions or concerns that the personnel may have
y y
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Chapter
2.
3.
Record the formation breakdown pressure. Breakdown pressure can give an indication whether perforations are open.
x
If the breakdown pressure is excessive (i.e., approaching horsepower limits of the pumps or the burst strength of the surface equipment or casing), the perforations or slots may be plugged. To correct this problem, you may try one of these options: A. If you can achieve a sustained, but low injection rate, mix 1/2 lb/gal sand slurry and pump in at a slightly increased pump-in rate to attempt to erode away any material that may be plugging perforations or slots. B. Spot 15% HCl acid across the perforations with the tubing and try again to break down the formation. If you dont have a rig on the well and cannot spot the acid with tubing, you might use a wireline dump bailer to spot the acid. C. Re-perforate or re-slot the casing. You may consider keeping a wireline truck and crew on standby for this purpose.
v Caution
Pumping an acid treatment to open perforations or slots may permanently damage the permeability of the coal if the appropriate acid is not used. Recent GRI-sponsored research suggests that some acids may react with coal to cause changes in the surface tension of the coal, resulting
5-36
in the coal retaining water. Some acids may be more damaging than others. 15% HCl has been found effective for fracture treatments. If acid is needed to clean perforations, use it sparingly.
4.
Start pumping the pad (fracturing fluid without proppant) slowly, then gradually increase the pump rate to the treating rate (e.g., 15-40 Bbl/min.) This step propagates and/or widens fractures and prepares them to accept the proppant-laden slurry. A typical pad is sized at 20-40% of the total fracture fluid volume. Most operators pump a large pad to ensure they can place all of the sand slurry they have mixed. However, pumping a large pad may not always be necessary and it could actually limit the amount of sand placed before screenout. Some operators believe that if you pump the sand slurry without first pumping a pad (i.e., before the fracture is opened sufficiently), the sand may bridge off at the entrance or tip of the fracture (referred to as tip plugging) and cause a screenout or cause the treating pressure to increase beyond the safe limits of the surface equipment or casing. Other operators feel that if the quality of the fluids pumped meets the design standards, little or no pad is needed.
5.
To record an instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP) for use in verifying formation fracture gradient, shut-in the well after establishing a stabilized injection rate. For more information about formation fracture gradient, refer to Planning a Fracture Treatment Design earlier in this chapter. For foam fracture treatments, shutting in to record an ISIP may be impractical because it will likely make it difficult to maintain the quality of the foam at design specifications.
g Important
6.
Slowly begin adding sand to the fracturing fluid. Start at a low concentration of about 1 lb/gal. Gradually increase proppant concentration until you reach the designed slurry concentration.
7.
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Chapter
By slowly increasing proppant concentration, you can determine if the fractures are conditioned enough to receive the proppant. For example, if the treating pressure increases dramatically while pumping a 1 lb/gal slurry, you will likely be unable to pump a 2 lb/gal slurry. If you observe a sharp pressure increase, slightly reducing sand concentration may allow you to continue the job.
v Caution
Because fluid constantly leaks off to the formation during the job, fluid viscosity tends to continuously increase. If you increase the proppant concentration too rapidly, fluid viscosity can rise quickly, causing treating pressure to increase sharply. 8. Carefully monitor the treating pressure while pumping the treatment. A useful diagnostic tool for evaluating treatment pressure response is the Nolte Plot. Figure 5-4 shows a Nolte Plot.
5-38
A small positive pressure increase indicates increasing fracture length with confined height growth. This response is desirable.
A constant pressure mode is potentially the most significant portion of the curve. The constant pressure mode is almost always followed by a sharp increase or decrease in pressure and never a return to the preferable Mode I (increasing fracture length with confined height). The cause of the constant pressure region (Mode II) can usually be inferred by interpreting the pressure behavior following the constant pressure region in Modes III and IV.
When Mode II is followed by a steep pressure increase, the cause could be one of the following:
y
Tip plugging (plugging of the entrance or tip of the fracture near the wellbore) Bridging off of sand inside the fracture Leakoff of fluid to the formation Settling or duning of sand in the wellbore
y y y
The pressure trends indicated in the Nolte Plot are formation treating pressures (downhole pressures). If you are measuring and analyzing surface pressures only (not downhole pressures), several factors could affect the surface pressures without necessarily affecting the formation treating pressures:
y
Changing hydrostatic pressure of the fracturing fluid as the sand concentration increases Decreasing perforation friction pressure as the sand erodes the perforations during the treatment
5-39
Chapter
Because both of these situations decrease the surface treating pressure, they could offset and mask increases in formation treating pressures during Mode III. These conditions might also easily be confused with decreasing formation treating pressure associated with Mode IV. To assess the effects of hydrostatic pressure, you can run downhole pressure gauges with a surface readout or a tubing dead string. Refer to Using a Tubing Dead String" to Measure Bottomhole Pressure, earlier in this chapter.
When Mode II is followed by a decrease in pressure, the most likely cause is fracture height growth. Because the goal of fracturing is to propagate a fracture out laterally from the wellbore, this response is undesirable.
x
If you observe a negative slope, you may try to reduce injection rate to minimize fracture height growth.
9.
If the estimated formation treating pressure increases as you increase the proppant concentration, you have three options: A. Increase the pump rate by about 20% and continue pumping the slurry at the same sand concentration until screenout. Increasing the pump rate may widen the fractures enough to accept the fracture fluid. Some operators believe that you have only a certain amount of time, or window of opportunity, within which to pump the slurry before screenout occurs. They prefer to continue pumping to place all the proppant they can before screenout. B. Cut sand concentration, then pump a pad (fluid without sand). If the treating pressure decreases, gradually increase sand concentration and continue the job. Some operators believe that during the fracture job, sand can settle and accumulate or dune near the wellbore. They prefer to pump a pad to attempt to clear the dune away and thereby lower the treating pressure.
5-40
C. If the end of the job is near, increase the pump rate and continue pumping the fluid at a higher sand concentration until the entire treatment is pumped or screenout occurs. Some operators increase sand concentration while continuing to pump at increased rate to try to maximize the amount of proppant they place before screenout occurs.
If you encounter a wellbore screenout while pumping a gel or foamed gel treatment, shut down the pumps and stop the treatment. You will likely have to wash the sand out of the wellbore using tubing. However, you may first try to flow back the well using one of the flowback methods described later in this chapter. If you encounter a wellbore screenout while pumping a water fracture treatment, you may try the procedure below to reestablish the treating rate: 1. Shut down pumps and free flow the well back to the surface pit until you get bottoms-up. 2. Monitor the blooey (return) line for dirty fluid and/or fluid with a high concentration of sand. 3. Pump clean fluid (without proppant) while gradually increasing the pump rate. 4. If you can re-establish the treating rate, start pumping sand again. 5. If you cannot re-establish the treating rate, repeat this procedure. 6. If you have pumped two-thirds or more of the treatment, and you cannot re-establish a treating rate, you may want to consider the job completed.
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Chapter
The procedure above may not be useful for gel fracture treatments. Because water has a lower viscosity and proppant transport capability than gels, it is possible that dunes of sand may develop in the fracture during a water fracture treatment. These dunes may become immobile, which can cause increased treating pressures and wellbore screenout. Backflowing the well, as described above, may help to move the dune enough to allow pumping the treatment again. Because gels have greater viscosity and better proppant transport capabilities than water, sand duning is not as likely during a gel treatment. Therefore the procedure above probably would not be as effective for a gel frac treatment.
11. Do not over-flush the wellbore after pumping the fracture treatment. Over-flushing means pumping clean fluid (without proppant) in an attempt to displace into the fractures any sand-laden fluid remaining in the wellbore once pumping is completed. Some operators over-flush to try to eliminate production of sand after the fracture treatment. However, over-flushing has not been demonstrated to control sand production.
v Caution
Over-flushing may wash away some of the near-wellbore sand pack. When treating pressure is released, the unpropped fractures near the wellbore may close and thus severely restrict production.
12. Near the end of the job, observe and record these pressures at the surface to help in the design of future fracture treatments:
Final treating pressure before shutting down pumps. Initial Shut-in Pressure (ISIP) at surface as soon as the
pumps shut down.
5-42
Performing a FractureTreatment
As fracture fluid leaks off into the formation, pressure in the fracture decreases. Eventually, the pressure declines enough to allow the fracture to close on the proppant. When the fracture closes, the fluid can only flow through the proppant pack, which creates increased frictional pressure loss. Therefore, the decreased rate of pressure decline you observe at the surface reflects the closure of the propped fracture.
Fractured wells should be flowed back at a slow rate immediately after the treatment to force the formation to close on the proppant before the gel breaks. This method is called forced closure. If the fracture does not close on the proppant before the gel breaks, the sand may settle to the bottom of the fracture. If the fracture extended below the coal seam, such sand settling could result in an unpropped fracture in the coal. New Techniques and Quality Control Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and Minimizing Proppant Flowback, J.W. Ely et al, SPE Paper 20708, SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1990.
Flowing back wells immediately after the fracture treatment will not prevent sand from settling in the fracture. Because flowing back the well only affects a small region near the wellbore, it will not prevent sand from settling in a fracture away from the wellbore. Moreover, as the treating pressure of the shut-in well leaks off to the formation naturally, the fluid flows through the proppant pack at a rate greater than could be achieved by flowing back the well.
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Chapter
Fractured wells should not be flowed back before the fracture closes on the proppant (fracture closure) so that pressures can be monitored. Monitoring pressures after the well is shut-in will help you to determine how quickly the fracture closes on the proppant and the pressure at which closure occurs. (Closure pressure is the fluid pressure required to initiate the opening of an existing fracture. This pressure is equal to and counteracts the stress in the rock perpendicular to the fracture plane. This stress, often called closure stress, is the minimum principal in-situ stress. Closure pressure is indicated by an inflection point, or sharp change, in the rate of pressure decline after the well is shut-in.) Experimental and Modeling Evidence for Major Changes in Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Field Procedures, M.P. Cleary et al, SPE Paper 21494, SPE Gas Technology Symposium, 1991.
Fractured wells should not be flowed back until the fracturing gel breaks. Prematurely flowing back unbroken gel may flush proppant out of the fracture at the wellbore and result in poor conductivity near the wellbore, where it is most needed. Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE Monograph Vol. 12, J.L. Gidley et al, 1989.
A theoretical discussion of these varying opinions is beyond the scope of this guide. However, you may want to investigate each of them further to help you determine the best flowback method for your particular application. Most operators in the Black Warrior Basin generally use one of three methods (or a variation of these methods) to flow back wells after a fracture stimulation. These methods are:
Shut-In with Slow Flowback Forced Closure Through Flowback High Rate Flowback Foam Treatment Flowback
5-44
Performing a FractureTreatment
5-45
Chapter
fracture proppant that enters the wellbore and surface production equipment, it reduces costly wellbore cleanouts and downhole pump replacements. The procedures used to flow back a well and place it on production at Rock Creek are listed below:
1.
After pumping the fracture treatment, shut-in the well until the gel breaks (usually 1/2 day to 1 day).
2.
If there is still pressure on the wellhead at the end of the shut-in period, flow the well back at a slow rate.
3.
Continually monitor the fluid for proppant or coal fines. If you observe proppant or fines, decrease the flow rate as needed to stop the flowback of proppant or fines.
4.
After the well has been flowed back long enough to bleed off wellhead pressure, remove the frac valve and re-install the wellhead.
5.
Run a string of production tubing to the bottom of the well to wash out the wellbore. You must wash any sand and debris out of the sump so you can place the production pump at or below the perforations to minimize bottomhole pressure and maximize flowrate.
6.
Pump clean fluid down the tubing-casing annulus and take returns up the tubing string. Lower the tubing string and wash the wellbore down to the bottom of the sump. Pumping down the tubing and taking returns up the tubingcasing annulus may cause any debris in the well to flow into perforations or slots and plug them. You may avoid this problem by washing the wellbore with air instead of water.
7.
v Caution
5-46
Performing a FractureTreatment
8.
Install the production pump and begin pumping the well down. For information on pumping the well down, refer to Chapter 7.
g Important
The decision to use the Shut-In with Slow Flowback method may depend on the type of fracture fluid used. If using a fluid with poor proppant-carrying capacity (i.e., water), sand in the fracture could quickly settle below the pay zone causing the fracture through the pay zone to close. Thus, when using a fluid with poor proppant carrying capacity, you may consider using the Forced Closure method.
v Caution The forced closure method may cause sand to flow into the wellbore if you flow the well back at an excessive rate. This proppant flowback may leave near-wellbore fractures unpropped and thus restrict production.
5-47
Chapter
v Caution The high rate flowback method may damage the fracture treatment by pulling sand out of the fracture. This proppant flowback may leave near-wellbore fractures unpropped and thus restrict production. This method is not recommended.
5-48
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
Production Comparison
In some conventional gas fields, the simplest and most conclusive way to evaluate a fracture treatment is to test the well before fracturing and then compare the pre-frac production rate to the rate after treatment. However, such production comparisons can be misleading for coalbed methane wells. In newly completed coalbed methane wells, pre-fracture production tests are often unreliable indicators of the true reservoir properties of the coal because of poor communication with the natural fracture system of the coal. Even though perforating or slotting may penetrate through the casing and cement, it is possible the penetration into the coal might be insufficient to penetrate the coals natural fractures. Comparisons with post-fracture production tests in offset wells can also be misleading because of heterogeneities in the coals and the overlying rock. The reservoir and rock properties of the coal and the overlying rock can vary considerably over short distances. Some of the variables that may contribute to this heterogeneity are the presence or absence of fractures in the overlying rock, stress regimes in the rock, cleat development within the coal, and the presence of mineral filling in the cleat system. Production comparisons may be helpful in evaluating fracture treatments, but you should not rely greatly on them and you should never use them as the only evaluation tool. If you do compare production from individual wells in a field, you should probably exclude the upper and lower 5-10% of the wells (based on production rate) in order to make realistic comparisons. At the Rock Creek project, production data is generally used as support information in evaluating fracture treatments. Fracture treatment evaluations are based primarily on well tests and data from monitor wells.
5-49
Chapter
5-50
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
To detect pressure changes with greater accuracy, you can run downhole pressure sensors in offset wells. Pressure sensors may provide accurate and useful data, but their rental cost may be difficult to justify. If you do use pressure sensors, try to take full advantage of them. For example, you can schedule a well test while the sensor is installed in the well to gain additional use from the pressure data.
5-51
Chapter
will help to eliminate traces of the radioactive isotopes in the wellbore and thus reduce the possibility of making erroneous log interpretations. However, each isotope has a specific half-life. You must run the log before the shortest half-life of any of the isotopes expires so the gamma ray log will still detect the radioactivity.
g Important
Using radioactive tracers may not always help you determine actual fracture height because tracers have a limited detection depth and because the fracture may not be in line with the wellbore. When planning to use radioactive tracers to evaluate a fracture treatment, consider the guidelines below:
s
Determine the types of information you want to obtain by using tracers. Discuss the evaluation with the reservoir engineer for the project. For example, will it be helpful to know where the fluids went or which proppant stage propped the near wellbore fracture?
Consult with a service company that will perform the fracture treatment to determine its capabilities and to obtain its recommendation for using radioactive tracers.
Make sure that either a cased hole or open hole gamma ray log has been run on the well before the fracture treatment.
Check with local regulatory agencies to learn about their policies for using radioactive tracers. More than one agency may regulate radioactive substances. Agencies in some states will not allow the use of radioactive tracers in shallow seams.
Tiltmeters
Tiltmeters are sensitive geophysical instruments that are used to measure slight displacements in the earths surface from horizontal. A tiltmeter is essentially a bubble level. The primary component in the tiltmeter is the tilt sensor, shown in Figure 5-5. The tilt sensor contains a receptacle filled with two fluids. Each fluid has a
5-52
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
different electrical resistivity. As the sensor is tilted, the bubble moves, and the resistance between the electrical contacts at AC and BD changes. These resistance changes are electronically converted into a voltage which is proportional to the tilt of the instrument. The voltage is then converted to a digital number and stored for analysis.
If you are developing a new field, knowing the expected azimuth, or orientation, of the created fracture can help you to determine the optimum well spacing. In fracture stimulations of shallow coalbeds, several tiltmeters can be placed around the well to help determine fracture azimuth and shape. After a fracture treatment, all of the data recorded and stored in the tiltmeter is collected. This data is then analyzed using computer models to help determine the shape and orientation of the fracture.
5-53
Chapter
To work properly, tiltmeters must be isolated from the large fluctuations of the earths surface. To achieve this isolation, tiltmeters should be placed in holes 15-20 feet deep. These holes are drilled and then cased with PVC pipe. The tiltmeters are lowered into these holes, sand is placed around the instruments, and a rod is used to pack the sand around the tiltmeters to hold them in place. Figure 5-6 shows a typical tiltmeter installation.
Tiltmeters should be installed at a distance of 0.4 times the depth of the seam to be fractured. This distance is estimated to be the location where maximum tilt will occur. For example, if the seam to be fractured is 1000 feet deep, the the tiltmeters should be installed 400 feet (1000 X 0.4) away from the well.
5-54
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
Tiltmeters should be installed at least a couple of days to a week before the fracture treatment to record and model the background tilt which is caused by the combined effects of the earths tides, thermal stresses and other environmental factors. These environmental factors are then removed from the data recorded during the fracture treatment so that only the tilt caused by the treatment can be modelled. After the fracture treatment, the tilt vectors can be displayed on a map showing the direction of the tilt from the tiltmeter site. Figure 5-7 shows a typical tilt vector display for a vertical fracture and for a horizontal fracture. Most actual displays may appear as some combination of the vertical and horizontal displays because of other effects such as fluid leakoff during the fracture treatment.
At the Rock Creek project, tiltmeters have been used successfully to determine fracture orientation and shape. Tiltmeters were used
5-55
Chapter
to record data when Wells P1A, P1B, P1C, and P4 were fractured. Analysis of the data for Well P1A indicated the Pratt coalseam (at 478 feet) was fractured horizontally. Analysis of data for Wells P1B and P1A indicated the Mary Lee/Blue Creek coalseams (1039 feet) and the Black Creek coalseam (1418 feet), respectively, were fractured vertically. The fracture of the Mary Lee in Well P4 also was found to be vertical.
Running tiltmeters is a sensitive and expensive operation. To obtain useful data you must carefully coordinate the fracture treatment with the service company providing the tiltmeters. To help ensure a successful job, consider the guidelines below:
Discuss the fracture stimulation plan and the tiltmeter installation requirements with the tiltmeter service representative in advance of the job.
Drill holes for tiltmeters at least one week before the fracture treatment.
Make sure the tiltmeters are calibrated and installed at least two days before the fracture treatment to record background trends, which are needed for the analysis.
Inform the tiltmeter service representative of the starting time for the fracture treatment.
Avoid scheduling the fracture treatment during stormy weather. Such weather conditions can adversely affect the data.
Make sure to include the cost of drilling tiltmeter holes in the cost estimate for running tiltmeters.
5-56
Evaluating a FractureTreatment
For more information on tiltmeters, you may consult with companies that provide specialized geophysical services.
y
5-57
Chapter
Additional Resources
Cleary, M.P., C.A. Wright, and T.B. Wright, Experimental and Modeling Evidence for Major Changes in Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Field Procedures, SPE Paper 21494, presented at the 1991 SPE Gas Technology Symposium, Houston (January 22-24).
Ely, J.W., W.T. Arnold, and S.A. Holditch, New Techniques and Quality Control Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and Minimizing Proppant Flowback, SPE Paper 20708 presented at the 1990 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans (September 23-25).
Gazonas, G.A., C.A. Wright, and M.D. Wood, Tiltmeter Mapping and Monitoring of Hydraulic Fracture Propagation in Coal: A Case Study in the Warrior Basin, Alabama, Geology and Coalbed Methane Resources of the Northern San Juan Basin, Colorado, New Mexico, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, Denver, 1988.
Gidley, J.L., S.A. Holditch, D.E. Nierode, and R.W. Veatch Jr., Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE Monograph 12, 1989.
Holditch, S.A. et al, Enhanced Recovery of Coalbed Methane Through Hydraulic Fracturing, SPE Paper 18250 presented at the 1988 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston (October 2-5).
Holditch, S.A. and Associates, Inc., Hydraulic Fracturing of Coal Seams, a short course presented at the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-16). Khodaverdian M., J.D. McLennan, A.H. Jones et al, Examination of Near-Wellbore Effects of Hydraulic Fracturing of Coal, in Rock Mechanics as a Multidisciplinary Science, Norman, Oklahoma, 1992.
5-58
Additional Resources
Lee, W.S., New Method of Minifrac Analysis Offers Greater Accuracy and Enhanced Applicability, SPE Paper 15041 presented at the 1986 Eastern Regional Meeting, Columbus, Ohio (November 12-14).
McDaniel, B.W., Benefits and Problems of Minifrac Applications in Coalbed Methane Wells, CIM/SPE Paper 90-103 presented a the the 1990 CIM/SPE International Technical Meeting, Calgary (June 10-13).
Nierode, D.E., Comparison of Hydraulic Fracture Design Methods to Observed Field Results, SPE Paper 12059 presented at the 1983 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco (October 5-8).
Nolte, K.G., Determination of Fracture Parameters from Fracturing Pressure Decline, SPE Paper 8341 presented at the 1979 Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas (September 23-26).
Nolte, K.G., A General Analysis of Fracturing Pressure Decline Analysis with Application to Three Models, SPE Formation Evaluation, December 1986.
Nolte, K.G. and Smith, M.G., Interpretation of Fracturing Pressures, Journal of Petroleum Technology, 1981.
Palmer, I.D., R.T. Fryar, K.A. Tumino, and R. Puri, Comparison Between Gel-Fracture and Water-Fracture Stimulations in the Black Warrior Basin, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, (May 13-16).
Puri, R., G.E. King, and I.D. Palmer, Damage to Coal Permeability During Hydraulic Fracturing, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-16).
5-59
Chapter
Shelley, R.F. and McGowen, J.M., Pump-in Test Correlation Predicts Proppant Placement, SPE Paper 15151 presented at the 1986 Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Billings (May 19-21).
Soliman, M.Y., R.D. Kuhlman, and D.K. Poulsen, Minifrac Analysis for a Heterogeneous Formation, CIM/SPE Paper 90-5 presented at the 1990 CIM/SPE International Technical Meeting, Calgary (June 10-13).
5-60
uch of the well equipment and production facilities for producing a coalbed methane field is the same as that used in a conventional oil or gas field. However, operating experience in the Black Warrior Basin has provided many useful adaptations and improvements you may find particularly effective for operating a coalbed methane project. This chapter provides practical guidelines to help you select proper equipment and facilities for your coalbed methane field. The chapter will guide you through:
Estimating the Volume of Water to be Produced Pumping Equipment Power Supply for Pumping Equipment Surface Production Facilities Gas Compressors Gas Dehydration Equipment
Chapter
When drilling exploratory wells or development wells, you can estimate water flow from formations by closely monitoring the drilling pits.
When a well has been drilled to total depth (TD), trip to TD with drillstring (or coiled tubing), inject compressed air, air mist, or nitrogen for several hours to clean out the wellbore, and observe water production rates at the surface. Obtain data from other producers in the area if it is available. Seek data about formation permeability, initial and peak water rates,and cumulative water volumes to-date for specific coal formations in the area. If producers are reluctant to share production data, you may find this data available as public information at your state or regional oil and gas agencies or environmental agencies.
6-2
Pumping Equipment
Perform hydrologic (slug) tests in exploratory wells or core holes to estimate the permeability of the coal seam. You can make a general approximation of the water influx rate based on this permeability estimate. For information on performing slug tests, refer to Chapter 9.
Pumping Equipment
To maximize gas production from a coalbed methane well, you must keep the water level in the wellbore below the lowest producing coalbed. Because coalbeds are usually relatively shallow, lowpressure formations, you must pump water from coalbed wells continuously (or intermittently) to minimize bottomhole pressure and allow gas to flow into the wellbore. This section will explain the benefits and limitations of the most common methods used to pump water from coalbed wells. These methods are:
Beam Pumps Progressing Cavity Pumps Gas Lift Electric Submersible Pumps
Table 6-1 shows a summary of the benefits and limitations of using these artifical lift methods for coalbed methane wells.
6-3
Chapter
Beam Pumps
(Sucker Rod Pumps)
Operate over a wide range of depths & volumes Do not have to be submerged to operate Require only minor routine maintenance Can be rebuilt completely if worn or damaged
Rod string can fail Can become stuck if well produces large amounts of coal fines or sand, especially with bottom hold-down installation Increased wear in crooked holes
Can lift high rates of water Contain only one moving internal part, the rotor Require little space at surface because wellhead-mounted Surface equipment is unobtrusive visually
Can burn up if water level falls below the pump Stator & rotor can be rebuilt when worn out Setting depths are limited Rods may part if excessive torque is applied
Gas Lift
Requires gas source for initial production May require training of field personnel
High initial cost and maintenance cost Can easily burn up if they run dry
6-4
Pumping Equipment
Beam Pumps
Beam pumps, also called sucker rod pumps, have served as an effective, reliable, and relatively inexpensive method for removing liquids from wells since the early days of the oil industry. The beam pumping system consists of a downhole plunger pump, a sucker rod string, a surface pumping unit (pump jack), a gearbox/ speed reducer and a prime mover (motor). Figure 6-1 shows a typical beam pumping system.
6-5
Chapter
For a beam pumping to operate effectively and with minimal maintenance, all components of the pumping system must be designed and sized properly. The system must accommodate the well depth, and the volume, viscosity, and abrasiveness of fluids to be produced (water and gas). Beam pumps are relatively simple and durable. They require only minor routine maintenance. Special subsurface designs may be required in extremely gassy wells or wells with large amounts of sand and fines. Properly sized units can pump up to 2,500 BWPD; however, pumping units pumping less than 600 BWPD are more common. Because of the relatively shallow producing depths in the Black Warrior Basin, operators in this area use beam pumping units with peak torque ratings ranging from 40,000 inch-pounds to 228,000 inch-pounds and stroke lengths ranging from 36 inches to 120 inches.
6-6
Pumping Equipment
Operating experience in the Black Warrior Basin has produced these general guidelines, which should help you in selecting downhole equipment for beam pumping units:
Install a tubing anchor at the bottom of the tubing string to eliminate tubing stretch. If the tubing is not anchored, the pump can pick up the weight of the tubing string on the upstroke. This weight can greatly reduce the efficiency of the pump. Tubing stretch is more pronounced in deep wells.
In new wells, install a ring-type plunger pump initially. After the well cleans up and stops producing appreciable amounts of sand or coal fines, replace the ring-type pump with a metal plunger pump. Ring-type pumps contain non-metal parts which will not cut out as easily as metal pump parts.
Install double standing valves and double travelling valves in each pump. Installing two valves provides a backup in case the primary valve fails. This step can reduce the cost of pulling pumps by extending the time between pulling jobs.
In shallow, low-pressure wells, install the pump with a topseating hold-down assembly. Figure 6-2 shows a pump installed with a top-seating hold-down assembly. The top-seating hold-down assembly provides these distinct advantages:
y Prevents the pump from becoming stuck because it does not
allow sand and coal fines to settle between the pump barrel and the inside of tubing.
y The pump barrel cannot wear by rubbing against the tubing
because the body of the pump pivots from its top and aligns in crooked holes more readily than other types of pumps.
6-7
Chapter
In deep, higher pressure wells, install the pump with a bottom-seating hold-down assembly. Figure 6-3 shows a pump installed with a bottom-seating hold-down assembly. The bottom-seating hold-down assembly has these advantages and disadvantages:
y Using the bottom hold-down assembly reduces the possibility
of the pump barrel swelling. Both the inside and the outside of the barrel are exposed to the hydrostatic tubing pressure, which eliminates pressure differential across the wall of the barrel.
y Using the bottom hold-down assembly increases the danger of
the pump sticking in the well because solid particles can settle between the pump barrel and the inside of the tubing.
6-8
Pumping Equipment
Install a mud anchor and a strainer nipple or stainless steel screen at the pump inlet (bottom end of the pump) to prevent large solids from entering the pump. If a well produces scale, a mud anchor, strainer nipple, or screen may quickly plug with scale and cause the pump to fail. You may need to chemically treat the well to reduce severe scaling problems.
v Caution
In wells that produce a significant amount of gas, install a gas anchor at the pump inlet (bottom end of the pump) to minimize gas from entering the pump. The gas anchor is a device that acts as a separation chamber to direct gas up the casing/tubing annulus instead of into the pump inlet. Figure 6-4 shows a typical gas anchor.
6-9
Chapter
Order at least one set of pony rods (sucker rods in 2, 4, 6, and 8 ft lengths) to allow you to properly fit the length of the rod string to the tubing string.
Select a pumping tee and stuffing box assembly based on the operating pressure of the separator. For most low-pressure coalbed methane applications, a simple type stuffing box works well. For higher pressure applications, you may need to use a grease-packed type of stuffing box. The stuffing box provides a seal around the polished rod to contain water and gas in the tubing. The stuffing box also wipes the polished rod with water to keep it lubricated.
Install a latching assembly, or on/off tool, between the top of the pump and the first sucker rod.
6-10
Pumping Equipment
This tool allows you to release the sucker rod string from the pump and pull the rods if the pump becomes stuck in the tubing. You can then retrieve the pump by pulling the tubing.
Install a spray metal rod guide in the sucker rod string just above the top of the pump. This guide centers the valve rod in the pump and centers the pump in the tubing. Centering these components helps eliminate sucker rod whip, which can cause the pump plunger and barrel to wear excessively.
Install one or more joints of weight bar in the sucker rod string directly above the pump. Weight bar will help prevent the rods from whipping and allow the pump to operate more smoothly.
Install rod guides (nylon or plastic) at regular intervals in the sucker rod string to prevent rod whipping and excessive rod and tubing wear. Spacing of guides depends on the deviation of the well. More exotic rod guides are available for crooked wells.
Set the pump below the deepest producing coal seam to draw the fluid level below the lowermost perforations (or slots). Because shallow coal seams have very low reservoir pressures, you must decrease the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in the wellbore as much as possible to maximize the gas flow rate into the wellbore.
Submerge the pump as deeply as possible in the fluid to reduce the amount of gas that enters the pump.
Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin set the polished rod clamp so that the plunger bumps the bottom of the pump on the downstroke. Bumping bottom can help ensure the travelling valve and standing valve operate properly by keeping valve seats free of debris. However, bumping bottom can also subject the rod string to additional stress, which can cause premature rod failure.
6-11
Chapter
Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin run no lock sucker rod pumps to prevent gas locking.
6-12
Pumping Equipment
Determining the pumping depth, flowline pressure and the desired well production rate Evaluating the API gravity and pumping characteristics of the formation fluid Checking pump speed guidelines against formation fluid abrasiveness
6-13
Chapter
Evaluating pump compatibility with any chemical additives to be used Determining the appropriate pump size and operating speed Determining the proper sucker rod size Selecting the proper surface drive head Selecting the appropriate prime mover and drive system
y y y y
g Important
Operating experience in the Black Warrior Basin has shown that you should size the pump to run continuously instead of intermittently. Intermittent operation may allow sand or coal fines to settle and plug the pump when you shut in the well. Continuous operation keeps the sand moving up the wellbore. For more information on progressing cavity pumping systems, refer to Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
1.
Attach the pumps stator to the first joint of production tubing and insert the tubing string into the well.
2.
3.
Attach the pumps rotor to the first sucker rod and insert the sucker rod string into the production tubing.
4.
Install rod guides at regular intervals in the sucker rod string to prevent excessive rod and tubing wear.
6-14
Pumping Equipment
5.
Run the sucker rods and gently tag the pin at the bottom of the stator.
6.
7.
Position the rotor above the bottom of the stator pin a distance equal to the calculated rod stretch.
8.
Attach the surface drive head to the rod string and the pumping tee.
9.
Gas Lift
Gas lift is a method of artificial lift that uses an external source of gas to lift formation water from the wellbore. Gas is injected into the wellbore either continuously or intermittently. The injection gas mixes with the water and decreases the flowing pressure gradient of the mixture from the point of injection to the surface. The lower flowing pressure gradient reduces the flowing bottomhole pressure to establish the drawdown required to initiate and maintain gas production.
6-15
Chapter
The gas lift system consists of a series of gas lift valves housed in mandrels which are spaced at intervals in the tubing string. Two gas lift injection methods have been used to produce coalbed methane wells. The least common method is to inject gas down the tubing string and produce water and gas up the annulus. The method used more often is to inject gas down the casing and produce water and gas up the tubing string. In either case, aerating the water reduces its density and allows it to flow to the surface where the gas and water are separated. The produced water is then sent to the water disposal system and the methane gas is either recycled to continue gas lifting or sent to the gathering system. Figure 6-6 shows a typical gas lift installation.
6-16
Pumping Equipment
Though not as popular as beam pumps or progressing cavity pumps, gas lift has been used in the Black Warrior Basin with some success. Gas lift can be a particularly attractive method of artificial lift in areas where electric power is unavailable or its cost makes it uneconomical. The main advantages of gas lift are the ability to handle production of solids with little or no mechanical problems and the ability to accommodate a wide range of initial production rates. A major limitation of a gas lift system is the need for a source of compressed gas for initial operation. An additional disadvantage is the need to train field people to operate the system properly. If you install a gas lift system, you can run wireline-retrievable gas lift valves to optimize performance and eliminate the cost of pulling tubing when valve replacement is needed. In 1985, GRI conducted a study to determine the applicability of gas lift to coalbed methane production in the Black Warrior Basin. The study concluded that initiating production of coalbed methane fields using gas lift is more cost effective than using conventional pumping units. The study also showed that as water production declines with time, smaller conventional pumping units may be more economical. For more information on this study, refer to A Field Evaluation of Gas Lift and Progressive Cavity Pumps as Effective Dewatering Methods for Coalbed Methane Wells. See Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
6-17
Chapter
An electric submersible pumping system consists of a downhole electric-powered motor and centrifugal pump assembly. Electricity is supplied to the motor via a cable clamped to the production tubing as it is run in the well. The pump and motor are run on the end of the tubing string. If desired, the speed of the downhole motor and pump assembly can be regulated with a surface control unit. Figure 6-7 shows an electric submersible pumping system.
6-18
g Important Because the motor is cooled by fluid passing down the annulus to the intake of the pump, the pump is normally placed above the producing zone. Alternatively, a shroud can be installed with the pump to direct fluid past the motor if the pump is placed below the producing zone. In any case, the well should never be pumped dry.
The main advantages of electric submersible pumps are their ability to lift large volumes of water and their quiet, efficient operation. Two significant limitations of electric submersible pumps are their high cost (both purchase cost and installation/maintenance costs) and their susceptibility to burnout if they run dry. Because electric submersible pumps can effectively lift large volumes of water, they may be especially attractive in wells with high water production. For example, the water level may be high in a wellbore because of additional water influx from a non-coal zone. Similarly, a coal zone with a large permeability may produce water rates that preclude dewatering an extended area with conventional pumping units.
g Important
The heat generated by electric submersible pumps can cause severe deposition of scale on the downhole pump. This scale can eventually plug the pump and cause it to burn up. Because scale deposition presents serious problems in some parts of the Black Warrior Basin, electric submersible pumps may not be practical in these areas. If an electric submersible pump becomes stuck in a well because of sand or coal fines, it is usually difficult to retrieve because the O.D. of the housing on the pump is larger than the O.D. of the production tubing above it.
6-19
Chapter
You should base your decision of power supply on both the economic and the operational benefits and limitations of each method.
When compared to electric-powered pumps, natural gas-powered pumps also have several disadvantages: y Require higher maintenance y Require a backup gas supply y More susceptible to vandalism and theft y Cold weather may interrupt gas supply
Electric Power
Electric power may provide the most efficient and cost-effective power source if your field has ready access to existing power lines. In the Black Warrior Basin, most operators use electric power because it requires relatively little maintenance and its cost can be amortized over several years with the power company. In most cases, electric power can provide these benefits: y Requires low initial capital cost y Provides a more reliable power supply
6-20
y Requires lower maintenance y Produces no air pollution y Provides quieter operation y Contains few parts that can be stolen
When compared to natural gas power, electric power also has several disadvantages: y May require a higher initial cost if you install your own distribution system y May require access rights-of-way for power lines
If electric power is available nearby, you may choose to install your own power distribution network in the field and then connect it to the local utility system. The operator of the Rock Creek project in the Black Warrior Basin elected to install such a field network. The operator estimates the total cost to clear right-of-ways and install the network at approximately $35,000 per mile of power line. If the field contains several wells grouped fairly closely together, you may consider taking delivery of the electricity from the power company at a single point and then installing your own secondary lines to the individual wells. This may be the most economical method because you have only one meter and therefore incur only one demand charge from the power company. The primary factors you should consider in installing your own lines are:
6-21
Chapter
y Initial cost for equipment and installation y Cost to obtain and clear rights-of-way y Ongoing cost to maintain the network y Requirements for inspection by local government agencies and the utility company y Taking delivery of electricity at a single point (i.e., one meter) to lower the demand charge
The alternative to installing your own field power network is to to have a local utility company supply service to the field. The utility company could either provide individual power lines to each well site based on a wells estimated power needs or it could provide service connect/disconnect boxes on poles placed at selected points throughout the field. The primary factors you should consider when having a utility company install a power network are: y Total cost for equipment and installation, and how payment will be structured y Rates for usage of electricity, including any minimum charge y Responsibility for maintenance of lines y Scheduling of installation to meet production needs y Inspection requirements of the utility company before beginning or expanding service y Union requirements of the utility company for connecting or disconnecting equipment (e.g., Are electrical specialists required?)
6-22
6-23
Chapter
Figure 6-8 Typical Water Flow Path for Fields in the Black Warrior Basin
Water produced from coalbed wells, especially during early production, usually contains some coal, sand, or other rock fines. The water may also contain scale from oxidation of casing and tubing.
6-24
In addition, if formation water contains a large amount of salts, precipitates may form in surface flow lines and further increase the total solids in the water. Except for very large particles, most solids pass through the water production and metering system without difficulty. The solids remaining in the system usually accumulate in the housing chamber of the water meter, which can eventually impair and finally stop the measuring mechanism. Some meters may, however, repeatedly malfunction within several days after installation. Rock material can lodge in valve openings in the downhole pumping mechanism. Usually this material is coal or shale that has sloughed off formations exposed in the wellbore. This material is most likely to plug and stop the downhole pump during the first few days of production, especially after the well has been stimulated.
Solution To prevent large solids from plugging and damaging the surface equipment and meters, install a wire-wrapped screen (the type used in water wells) on the bottom of the pump.
Most large pieces of solid debris carried through the tubing settle in the separator. You can remove the remaining solids suspended in the flow system by installing a strainer downstream of the separator and upstream of the water meter.
Freezing of Water Lines
Produced water sometimes freezes inside surface lines, restricting flow and causing leaks. Extended freezing weather conditions can permanently damage wellhead equipment, pipes, and meters. Gas-producing coals are normally several hundred feet deep, and the water produced is usually warmer than winter surface temperatures. However, if you control pumping with a timer, there are times when no water is moving through surface lines. Water remaining in the lines during these periods cools rapidly and may freeze.
Solution To prevent freezing, wrap surface lines with electric heat tape and then cover them with waterproof insulation. In areas where severe and prolonged freezing temperatures are common, bury water lines below the frostline. In addition, place meters, water filters, and separators inside small, insulated houses. Further, you can install heat lamps inside the buildings as a simple, effec
6-25
Chapter
tive, and inexpensive prevention against freezing. Ventilate all houses, especially those using heat lamps.
v Caution Use only fixtures and wiring approved and appropriate for such equipment enclosures.
Gas passing through positive-displacement water meters or turbine meters is measured as water and may account for significant errors in production records. Gas enters water flow lines either dissolved in the water or as free gas drawn directly into the tubing by the downhole pump. Improper pump cycle settings or continuous pump operations which lower water level in the wellbore to the bottom of the pump cause gas to be drawn directly into the tubing and pumped to the surface. This gas in the water can cause large errors in metered water measurements. Tests conducted at wells where fluid levels were known to be at or near the base of the downhole pump show meter readings from 20 to 75 percent greater than the actual volume of water produced.
Solution You can remove gas from the water line and improve water meter accuracy by installing a separator in the surface water flow system. Alternatively, you can install a simple 30 to 50 gallon vented separation tank.
Air can enter water collection lines at high points in the line. This problem may be more severe when wells are pumped intermittently because of long periods of no water movement through the lines. When pockets of air or entrained gas are trapped in the water line, they compress much like a spring, preventing the water from moving through the line.
Solution Install a vacuum breaker device at high points in the water line. A vacuum breaker prevents a vacuum lock from stopping water flow in the line and releases air trapped at high points in the line.
6-26
Bucket Test The simplest test involves measuring the amount of time a well takes to fill a five-gallon bucket. You then convert the 5-gallon rate to a barrels per day rate by using this formula:
24 Minutes to fill 6 0
By recording bucket tests over a period of time, you can determine the efficiency of the downhole pump and tell whether or not a well is being pumped off effectively. At the Rock Creek project, an automatic bucket test system was installed at each well site. In this system, the bucket consists of half a standard 55-gallon drum. The drum collects water from the outlet of the water dump on the separator. A liquid level controller is connected to a small pump, which pumps the water from the drum into the water gathering system. A counter is connected to the liquid level controller to record the number of times the drum is drained each day. The equation below can be used to determine the daily water production based on the number of times the drum is drained each day. Barrels Per Day = h x D2 x N 7.15
Where: h = height between the dump line on the bucket and the float, ft D = diameter of the bucket, ft N = number of dumps per day
Positive-Displacement Meter A positive-displacement type meter can be installed in the flow line. This type of meter is inexpensive and can be used when no power is available in the field. However, water meters are generally ineffective in coalbed meth-
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ane fields because small amounts of coal fines, sand grains, or fracturing gel can easily plug the meter.
Turbine Meter This meter is essentially a water meter with turbine blades that is installed in line. Turbine meters can be sized for the rate and volume of flow expected. Like the positivedisplacement meter, the accuracy of the turbine meter is severely impaired by debris and flow rates outside the operating range of the meter.
When practical, install separators at each well site instead of piping all produced water directly to a central separation facility. Water carries fines and sludge that can cause plugging. The more water you can remove at the well site, the less plugging problems you will have downstream.
Select water pipelines with a large enough diameter to carry the estimated volume of produced water and to minimize frictional pressure losses, which increase backpressure at the wellhead.
v Caution
Flow lines that are too large in diameter can cause solids to drop out of the water and create plugging problems. A pipe partially full of water will tend to plug more easily than a pipe full of moving water. To prevent solids from settling in the flow lines, the flow velocity should be a minimum of 3 ft/second.
If the frictional pressure losses from flow lines creates excessive backpressure on the surface water facilities, you can install booster pumps at the well sites to move the water through the lines and reduce wellhead pressure.
6-28
The moisture content of coalbed gas has to be sufficiently low to assure accurate measurement of gas flow. In addition, coalbed gas sold commercially must meet requirements of purchase agreements, which usually limit the water content to approximately 7 pounds of water per million cubic feet of gas measured at standard temperature and pressure. As warm coalbed gas cools at the surface, it loses some of its ability to carry water and the water therefore condenses. The water con-
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Figure 6-9 Typical Gas Flow Path for Fields in the Black Warrior Basin
densate accumulates at low points along the pipeline and in gas meters. You will encounter this problem most frequently during winter months when differences between gas temperature and surface temperature are greatest. Water also separates from gas when the gas passes from a smaller to a larger diameter pipe, which reduces gas flow velocity. Therefore, water often accumulates in areas where pipe diameter changes. Finally, water condenses from the gas stream at angled sections along flow lines and at meter locations where there is turbulent flow.
Solution Install a separator at the well site to remove entrained liquid from the gas stream. The closer you place the separator to the well, the less is the potential for water and solids to disturb gas flow and measurement further downstream.
6-30
Also, install drips at low points in the gas lines to remove liquid from the gas stream or liquid that has accumulated in the pipeline. A drip is simply a 10-15 foot length of pipe tied into the line. The drip collects water in the line and allows drainage of the water through a valve in the pipe. Drips are available in two styles: manual or automatic. You must periodically open a valve and drain a manual drip. Automatic drips operate with a float system that automatically dumps the collected water when it reaches a pre-set level.
Freezing of Gas Lines and Meters
Problems with water in gas lines increase during periods of low temperature because conditions for condensation are intensified. The problem becomes severe when temperatures drop below freezing. Even small amounts of ice in gas flow lines increase backpressure and reduce gas production. Ice can also form in gas meters and severely damage the instruments.
Solution To prevent ice formation in gas lines near the wellhead, wrap the lines with electric heat tape and then cover them with waterproof fiberglass insulation. In addition, equip well sites with small insulated meters houses that contain heat lamps. Be sure to adequately ventilate the meter houses. Finally, increase the number of routine field inspections during especially cold weather to assure minimum condensate build up.
Solids in Gas Lines
Under normal flowing conditions, particles of rock or other solid material accumulate in most gas meters over time. If you do not correct this problem, solids will eventually cause any type of meter to malfunction. Rotary meters are the most susceptible to malfunction because of close tolerance between components of the rotating cartridge. Diaphragm meters usually continue to operate with small amounts of solids build-up, but meter accuracy diminishes as portions of the meters measuring reservoir fill with solids. Turbine meters normally allow very small material (less than one millimeter in diameter) to pass through its inner mechanisms.
Solution To prevent solids from plugging meters, install a cartridge-type filter with a fiberglass filtering element or a linestrainer (a steel cartridge containing numerous 3/64-inch holes).
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These commercially available filters are designed to remove fine solid particles with very little pressure drop (0.5 psig or less). Install the filter as close to the wellhead as possible using a Y connection. Put a small ball valve on one leg of the Y so you can periodically blow the filter to atmosphere to clean it.
Pressure Fluctuation in Gas Lines
Because coalbed methane wells usually produce at low pressures, the flowline pressure can fluctuate considerably when downstream pipeline conditions change (e.g., compressor shut-down, or slugs of water in the collection line). These pressure fluctuations can cause severe inaccuracies in gas meter readings.
Solution To maintain a steady line pressure at the gas meter, install a backpressure regulator just downstream of the meter. Set the regulator at a pressure just slightly higher than the line pressure.
Orifice Meter
Continuous chart provides record of well events Requires less maintenance AGPA standard for gas sales
Turbine Meter
Does not provide record of well events Highly sensitive to liquids, fines, and sludge
6-32
After gas exits the compressor discharge scrubber, it flows through a dehydrator and a sales gas meter, and then enters the gas purchasers pipeline. Typically, the gas sales contract bases measurement of gas volume and temperature on the primary sales meter at the point of sale into the pipeline. Gas contracts sometimes require the producer to maintain a duplicate meter downstream of the compressor. The duplicate meter is used as a check against the primary meter and in case the primary meter fails. To ensure consistent measurements, both meters are usually maintained and calibrated regularly by one independent gas measurement company. The gas purchaser pays the producer based on the BTU content of the sales gas, which the purchaser calculates from measured properties of the gas. The gas sales contract specifies precise ranges for the gas properties and measurement conditions. Table 6-3 shows specifications for a typical gas sales contract in the Black Warrior Basin.
Pressure Basis Temperature Basis Maximum CO2 Concentration Maximum O2 Concentration g Maximum Sulphur Concentration g Maximum H2S Concentration Maximum Water Content Minimum BTU Content (Dry Basis) Solids Content g = Extremely Important specification
14.73 psia 40 - 120F 3.0% 1.0% 200 grams/MMSCF 10 grams/MMSCF 7 lbs/MMSCF 950 BTU Free of dirt, sludge, etc.
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If the compressor discharge scrubber cannot dry the gas to the required sales gas specifications, you can install a glycol dehydrator to further dry the gas. A glycol dehydrator circulates gas up through liquid glycol, which has an affinity for water. The water in the gas adheres to the glycol, which is then heated to evaporate the water. The de-watered glycol then recirculates back through a tower to remove more water.
Install a manual globe-type valve on the wellhead to regulate gas flow rate and to control well surging. Do not install a plate-type valve on the wellhead. Production of any solids can quickly erode the seat on a plate valve.
g Important
When practical, avoid installing gas flow lines across low areas. Attempt to place lines on level or only slightly sloping ground to prevent water from accumulating in the lines.
Install a gas flare stack on the well site to vent gas during a pilot test program or during an emergency in a producing field. Never vent gas without the approval of the oil and gas agencies and environmental agencies in your area.
v Caution
Install a gas scrubber (small separator) upstream of the inlet to the gas compressor to prevent water from entering and damaging the compressor.
If the gas scrubber will not drain quickly enough by gravity, you can install a small pneumatic pump and water level
6-34
Gas Compressors
controller on the scrubber to prevent water from filling it and then entering the compressor. This type of pump is especially effective in handling slugs of water, which are common in coalbed methane production.
When installing the separator, install a bypass line around the separator. This bypass will allow you to re-route gas when you need to work on the separator. More importantly, it will enable you to bypass the separator later in a wells life when the water contains little entrained gas. By bypassing the separator, you can lower wellhead pressure and reduce leaking on the stuffing box.
Gas Compressors
Because methane gas produced from coal seams has little natural pressure, you must compress it to a higher pressure before it can be delivered to a pipeline for transportation and sale. Compression equipment used for conventional natural gas production can be easily adapted to the requirements of coalbed methane production. Selecting an efficient, reliable compressor package requires a basic understanding of the various types of compressors and the unique characteristics of coalbed methane production. This section explains the design, benefits, and limitations of the types of compressors and drivers (compressor engines) commonly used to compress coalbed methane gas. It also presents important guidelines for selecting auxiliary compressor equipment.
Types of Compressors
The two basic types of compressors commonly used for coalbed methane production are rotary compressors and reciprocating compressors. Both types are positive displacement compressors that increase the pressure of gas by reducing its volume. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages .
Rotary Compressors
The rotary design uses either vanes, lobes, or screws which rotate within a casing to compress and displace gas. The principal advantage of this design is its ability to compress large quantities of low pressure gas. The rotary compressor is particularly suitable for
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coalbed methane production as the first stage compressor in a gathering system. These units are compact, have a lower initial cost than a reciprocating unit, and are simple to maintain. The rotary compressor is at a disadvantage, however, when you need a higher discharge pressure or when you encounter large pressure differentials or pressure fluctuations in the gas line. Because of its valve-less design, the rotary compressor always compresses gas to its designed discharge pressure, regardless of the line pressure. Therefore, the rotary compressor is less efficient than a reciprocating unit when you operate at pressure conditions other than those for which it was designed.
Reciprocating Compressors
The reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving back and forth within a cylinder. Each stroke displaces a positive volume. Spring-loaded valves open whenever a pressure differential exists across the valve. When the valve opens, suction gas automatically enters the cylinder and discharge gas exits. The reciprocating compressor is the most widely used of all compression equipment. Although it is more complex than a rotary unit, the reciprocating compressor operates more efficiently and can accommodate higher discharge pressures, greater pressure differentials, and fluctuations in pressure and capacity. You can use a multi-stage reciprocating compressor on coalbed methane projects to meet the entire compression need -- gathering the wellhead gas at low pressure and increasing its pressure up to the pipeline pressure. You can also use it as a first-stage compressor in a gathering system and as a booster to the sales line. Each compressor is designed to handle a specific range of volume, pressure and pressure differential. The cylinders piston displacement and and clearance volume determine the compressors capacity. By adding clearance volume to the cylinder, you will reduce the compressors volumetric efficiency and its capacity. When you need to change the compressors capacity or operating pressure, you can adjust the cylinder clearance by setting the variable volume pocket. Because of this adjustment, you can operate a reciprocating compressor more efficiently than a rotary compressor at other than design conditions.
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Gas Compressors
Types of Drivers
In addition to selecting a compressor, you must also select the driver, or engine, to power the compressor. For field applications, you have two alternatives for drivers: electric motors or natural gas engines. Although electric motors are simple, reliable, and easy to operate and maintain, the cost of electric power usually dictates using natural gas engines for the savings in fuel cost. Natural gas engines also allow you to adjust capacity by varying engine speed, but regular A.C. motors do not. You can choose from two basic types of engines: high-speed engines and integral engines. High speed engines operate at speeds from 900 to 1800 rpm. You can connect them directly to the compressor with a coupling or by using V-belts (depending on compressor operating speed). Integral engines operate at speeds of 400 rpm and less. The power and compressor cylinders share a common frame and crankshaft. Although they cost more initially than high-speed engines, integral engines are more efficient, more reliable, and cost less to maintain. Some integral engines can be built as a skid-mounted package, but the high-speed design provides more horsepower in less space with less weight than does an integral engine.
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Gas scrubbers and pumps High level shut-down controls Fuel filters Solids filters Pilot devices Catalytic converters
The design of the auxiliary equipment should accommodate your particular operating environment and the characteristics of methane produced from coalbeds. The guidelines below have proven effective in the Black Warrior Basin:
s
To prevent water from entering and damaging the compressor, you should install a gas scrubber (small water separation unit) on the compressor skid. Because coalbed methane is saturated with water vapor, a production separator may not remove all the water.
If the gas scrubber will not drain quickly enough by gravity, install a small pneumatic pump and water level controller on the scrubber to prevent water from filling it and then entering the compressor. This type of pump is especially effective in handling slugs of water, which are common in coalbed methane production.
To protect the compressor from damaging slugs of water that might get through the scrubber, install an accurate high level shut-down control on the compressor control panel.
If you operate the compressor with a vacuum at the inlet, install a pneumatic pump on the scrubber. If the scrubber has a vacuum on the inside, opening a dump valve will not dump the water, but it could suck air into the system, causing further problems.
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Gas Compressors
Make sure fuel gas is taken downstream of the compressor discharge, after the gas has been dehydrated. Water can cause significant problems if it enters the engines fuel gas system.
Install a fuel filtering unit to further protect the fuel from water.
To prevent solids from entering the compressor, install a filter screen in front of the gas scrubber. Sometimes particles of coal or sand are carried in the gas stream. If these contaminants enter the compressor, they will wear its internal parts.
To prevent excessive loading of the compressor, install a pilot device that can control the suction pressure. A pilot device is a flow regulator that is controlled by pressure. As the pressure in the line to the compressor increases above the suction pressure limit, the regulator restricts gas flow and thus the inlet pressure as well. The loading or required hydraulic horsepower of a given compressor is a function of the volume of gas compressed and the suction and discharge pressures. Because coalbed methane fields produce at such low pressures, a small change in suction pressure can greatly affect the operating performance of the compressor. An increase in the suction pressure can increase the hydraulic horsepower requirements, which can overload the compressor and result in engine failure. Though every compressor is equipped with emergency shut-down devices to prevent high suction pressures, installing a pilot device to regulate suction pressures to the compressor may help eliminate compressor shut-downs due to high suction pressures.
If temporary changes in field operating conditions require additional compression, you may consider leasing or purchasing satellite compressors instead of making costly modifications to the main compressor. You can easily move a small, skid-mounted compressor around the field to effectively meet temporary compression demands.
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Check with the state and federal environmental agencies for requirements on gas compressors. Environmental agencies may require that you include catalytic converters on compressors to meet emissions standards for air quality. You may be able to avoid installing catalytic converters by spacing compressors so that their combined emissions do not exceed the regulation limit for a given area. Depending on the size of the compressor, you may also have to obtain a permit from the state environmental regulatory agency before the compressor is installed.
Selecting the proper gas compression equipment for your field is critical to successful coalbed methane production. Once the equipment is installed, you must practice effective maintenance to help ensure consistent compressor operation. For information on maintaining gas compressors and equipment, refer to Chapter 7.
Inlet gas scrubber Glycol-gas contact tower Glycol heat exchanger Glycol regenerator Filter Glycol pump
6-40
In coalbed methane applications, gas dehydrators are usually installed downstream of the compressor and upstream of the tie-in to the gas purchaser's metering point and transmission line. The gas from the compressor usually flows into an inlet gas scrubber that is installed with the glycol dehydrator system. The purpose of the inlet gas scrubber is to prevent slugs of free water from entering the glycol-gas contact tower. After flowing through the inlet gas scrubber, the gas stream enters the bottom of the glycol-gas contact tower. The inside of the contact tower contains trays or packing which facilitate contact between the glycol and the gas. When the gas contacts the glycol, the glycol absorbs the water in the gas. The dry gas then exits through the top of the contact tower and the water-rich glycol exits through the bottom of the tower. Before the glycol can be re-circulated, the water must be removed from it. Therefore, the water-rich glycol flows from the contact tower into the regenerator, where the glycol is heated (at atmospheric pressure) to evaporate the water. The de-watered glycol is then cooled by flowing it through the heat exchanger. The cooled glycol then flows back into the top of the contact tower to repeat the dehydration process. Glycol circulation rates vary from about 2 to 5 gallons of glycol per pound of water to be removed. You can determine the amount of water that must be removed by subtracting the contract water limit (usually about 7 lbs/MMSCF) from the amount of water present in the gas. The amount of water in the gas can be measured in the field using either a hand-held moisture analyzer or an electronic moisture analyzer. Alternatively, you can estimate water content from dew point correlations for natural gas. The maximum amount of water that may be present in the gas is a function of the temperature and pressure. At a constant temperature, the water content of gas is higher at lower pressures and is lower at higher pressures. Consequently, dehydrating gas at low pressures is both difficult and expensive. To alleviate this problem, you should install dehydrators downstream of the compressor.
Glycol dehydrators are relatively easy to operate and maintain. To ensure efficient operation of the dehydrator, you should periodically check the water content of the outlet gas to verify that it is at or below the maximum allowable value.
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If gas flow through the dehydrator increases as production from the field increases, you may need to adjust the glycol circulation rate. You should also check the volume of glycol in the system to ensure that excessive amounts of glycol are not being lost. Glycol absorbs a trace amount of gas at relatively low pressures. This gas is burned off in the regenerator. A small amount of glycol may be lost when the gas is burned. In addition, you should periodically check the pH of the glycol. You should maintain the pH of the glycol between 6.0 and 7.5. At lower pH levels, the glycol may decompose. For more information on dehydrating gas, refer to Engineering Data Book, listed in Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
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Additional Resources
Additional Resources
API Recommended Practice for Design Calculations for Sucker Rod Pumping Systems (Conventional Units), API RP 11L, Third Edition, Dallas (February 1977).
API Specification for Subsurface Pumps and Fittings, " API Spec 11AX, Seventh Edition, Dallas (June 1979).
Engineering Data Book, Natural Gas Processers Suppliers Association (NGPSA), Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Graves, S.L., A Field Evaluation of Gas Lift and Progressive Cavity Pumps as Effective Dewatering Methods for Coalbed Methane Wells, Quarterly Review of Methane from Coal Seams Technology, Vol. 3 no. 2 (September 1985).
Klein, S.T., The Progressing Cavity Pump in Coalbed Methane Extraction, 1991 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Lexington, Kentucky (October 22-25).
Lambert, S.W., M.A. Trevits, and P.F. Steidl, Vertical Borehole Design and Completion Practices to Remove Methane Gas from Mineable Coalbeds, U.S. Department of Energy, Carbondale Mining Technology Center, Carbondale, Illinois (1980).
Sykes, W.W., Gathering Systems Concepts-Planning, Design, and Construction, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).
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perating coalbed methane wells and production equipment requires some specialized production techniques. These techniques have been learned primarily through trial and error and observation in the field. For example, field experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that the manner in which you flow back a well after stimulation may significantly affect its recovery. Similarly, the procedure you use to pump a well down may influence the productivity of the well. Experience has also shown that you can greatly reduce production downtime by learning to diagnose and correct common production problems. As you gain operating experience in a particular coalbed methane field, you will undoubtedly develop techniques that work effectively in your area. This chapter will help you begin developing effective production strategies. It will guide you through:
Preparing Surface Facilities for Production Unloading the Well Bringing the Well on Line Troubleshooting Well and Equipment Problems
Chapter
g Important
s
Make sure you have complied with all applicable federal, state, and local safety and environmental regulations. You also may be required to notify certain regulatory agencies in your area of your intent to begin production from the field.
Notify the gas purchaser of the date you will begin delivery of gas so they have time to make any necessary preparations or adjustments. In addition, you should make sure the gas composition will meet the contract specifications with the gas purchaser.
Make sure flowlines and pipelines have been completed and are properly tied into the appropriate equipment.
If separation vessels are used, make sure that the drain valve is closed and that the liquid dump valve has been installed and is working properly.
If gas from the separator is to be vented, make sure you install the proper equipment for venting according to regulatory
7-2
requirements. The type of gas venting equipment needed may depend on where you are operating. Some state oil and gas regulatory agencies require you to vent gas through a flare stack. Contact your local regulatory agencies to find out about equipment requirements such as height and minimum distance from the wellhead.
Open all flow valves between the wellhead and separation equipment.
Check all gas metering equipment to make sure it is ready to measure gas flow. Though gas flow will likely be small initially, you should pressure test the meter run or metering assembly to make sure no connections are leaking.
Check orifice meters to make sure they are fitted with the proper size orifice plate for the volume of gas expected.
Check chart recorders or turbine flow meters to make sure they are properly calibrated.
Before significant gas flow begins, check the gas compressor to ensure that it has sufficient capacity for the gas. Since the compressor was first installed, loading conditions may have changed because of additional gas production from other wells or variations in suction and discharge pressures.
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Chapter
v Caution
Bringing a well on production at an excessive flow rate can cause surging in the wellbore, which can plug perforations, pumps and surface equipment. Surging the well may also damage formation
7-4
permeability and reduce gas production by plugging fractures with coal fines. Experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that wells can plug with coal fines and sand in as little as 15 to 20 minutes when they are brought on stream too rapidly. Because each coalbed methane well has unique flow characteristics, you should base the rate at which you pump a well down on experience in the field or nearby offset fields. Operating experience at the Rock Creek project and at other fields in the Black Warrior Basin has produced a technique for pumping down wells that minimizes the potential for producing coal fines and sand. You may find this technique useful in your area as well.
Fewer well cleanouts Fewer problems with downhole and surface equipment Increased gas production over the life of the well
The procedures used at the Rock Creek project to pump wells down are described below: 1. Keep the annular valve at the surface closed. Make sure the valve on the casing-tubing annulus is a globe valve. You will use this valve to control gas flow while pumping the well.
2.
Begin pumping the well at a rate that begins to reduce the water level in the well.
3.
Closely monitor the water production rate while pumping at a rate near the design capacity of the pump.
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Chapter
If you observe a sharp decrease in the water rate, check the pump to make sure it is operating properly. For information on troubleshooting pumps, refer to Chapter 7. If the pump is operating properly, run an echometer survey to determine the fluid level in the well.
v Caution
If you are using a progressing cavity pump, maintain a fluid level above the pump at all times. Allowing the fluid level to drop below the pump could possibly burn up the motor.
4.
Carefully monitor the fluid level by running echometer surveys in the well.
5.
When the water level is at or near the pump intake, crack the globe valve and begin flowing gas at a rate that maintains a fairly constant or only slightly decreasing wellhead pressure. Your goal is to maintain sufficient backpressure on the casing to prevent surging of gas and water into the wellbore.
y
If the annular pressure decreases sharply when you crack the annular valve, shut the valve and continue pumping the well. After several hours or a day, repeat step 4.
6.
Continue pumping the well at a rate near the design capacity of the pump. Continue to monitor casinghead pressure and adjust the gas flow with the globe valve to maintain a relatively constant (or slowly decreasing) annular pressure.
v Caution
Do not open the annular valve rapidly. Releasing the gas too rapidly can cause surging of gas and water into the wellbore and plugging with coal fines and sand.
7.
Continue to pump the well to decrease the fluid level in the well. As annular gas pressure decreases, you may observe an increasing fluid level in the well if water influx from the coal seam is greater than the pump rate.
7-6
The flow characteristics of each coalbed methane well are different. However, as you gain experience with a particular field or producing area, you will be better able to determine the most effective pumping rates for your wells.
g Important
Foam usually causes greater problems in cold weather because water condenses more readily at lower temperatures. When pumping the well down in cold weather, bleed off annular pressure very slowly to prevent foam from entering the flowline. During warm weather, foam tends to vaporize in surface flow lines, but it still can condense in the field collection lines.
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from the field, the nitrogen concentration may be diluted sufficiently to avoid venting gas.
g Important Before venting any gas, you should obtain authorization from the local oil and gas agency and environmental agencies.
If the gas contains a high concentration of nitrogen, the BTU content of the gas may not be sufficient to run gas compressors or natural gas-powered pumping units. Therefore, if the nitrogencontaminated gas is the only gas available, you should order a tank of propane gas to power the compressor or pumping units until the nitrogen concentration declines sufficiently.
2.
3.
4.
Monitor the liquid level in the separator to ensure that the size of the dump valve is sufficient to discharge flow at maximum expected water flow rate.
5.
Continue to monitor the separator and well frequently during the early production time.
7-8
be unique to coalbed methane, others are common to most oilfield operations. This section will show you how to recognize and correct common problems with:
Artificial Lift Production Tubing Separation Equipment Surface Piping Gas Compressors
Beam Pumps Progressing Cavity Pumps Electric Submersible Pumps Gas Lift
For a description of each of these methods and their use in coalbed methane wells, refer to Chapter 6.
7-9
Chapter
You can usually detect most well problems by a significant decrease in gas and/or liquid production. Figures 7-2 and 7-3 will help you to troubleshoot potential problems with beam pumps when production has decreased.
7-10
The guidelines below will help you further diagnose and correct problems with the pump jack, prime mover, and rod string:
Make sure the pumping unit is balanced. You can check the balance two ways: Observe the difference in tension on the drive belt. If the tension on the upstroke is significantly different than the tension on the downstroke, then the unit is probably unbalanced. Check the amperage on one leg of the pump motor using amperage gauge. If the amperage on the upstroke is significantly different than the amperage on the downstroke, the unit is probably unbalanced.
If the pumping unit is out of balance: Make sure the pumping unit is properly aligned with the wellhead. Make sure the rod guide is aligned vertically and laterally with the tubing head. Adjust the counterbalance weights on the pumping unit until the unit operates smoothly. During early production, the water level in the annulus is usually high. Thus, the counter weights should be fairly close to the pivot of the beam. As the water in the annulus falls, you may need to periodically adjust the counter weights away from the pivot to compensate for the increased weight of water on the upstroke of the pump.
Reduce wear on the sucker rod string by: Periodically rotating the string 1/4 turn using a wrench or by installing an automatic rotator. This procedure will allow the rods to wear more evenly. Running a short sucker rod, or pony rod, in the string. Then, whenever the string is pulled, re-run the string placing the pony rod in a different location in the string. This procedure will prevent the string from continuing to wear in the same places.
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Chapter
Running nylon rod guides on the rod string. You may run the guides on every rod joint or on every other joint, depending on the amount of rod wear expected. Because the bottom portion of the hole is usually the most crooked, rods in this area usually wear the most.
To determine if the sucker rod string has parted, check the needle valve on the pumping tee (wellhead assembly). If there is no fluid production and the needle valve alternates blowing and sucking air, then the rod string is likely parted.
Reverse the rotation of the motor every year by reversing the electrical leads to the motor. This procedure will help the gears to wear more evenly.
Lubricate the pumping unit every 30-60 days or as specified by the manufacturer.
Change oil in the gearbox once a year. When you change the oil, check for water in the bottom of the gearbox, and remove any water.
7-14
continuous seal between the rotor and the stator helices keeps the fluid moving steadily, at a fixed rate directly proportional to the rotational speed of the pump.
g Important Progressing cavity pumps will burn up if they are not submerged in fluid. Therefore, you must periodically check the fluid level in the well using an echometer device. You can then adjust the speed of the pump or change the size of the pump to ensure that the pump remains submerged in fluid.
Figure 7-4 will help you to troubleshoot potential problems with progressing cavity pumps when you notice production has declined below expected levels. For more information on progressing cavity pumps, see Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
g Important The heat generated by electric submersible pumps can cause severe deposition of scale on the downhole pump. This scale can eventually plug the pump and cause it to burn up. Because scale deposition presents serious problems in some parts of the Black Warrior Basin, electric submersible pumps may not be practical in these areas.
7-15
Keep spare pumps on hand to avoid production downtime and workover rig time. Rebuilding pumps in the field is not as effective as installing a pump rebuilt in the shop.
When selecting people to service your pumps, call only on those with experience in repairing your particular type of pump.
For a plunger pump that is relatively new, you may be able to clean the check valves, replace rings or cups, and re-run the pump. However, you should send older pumps to the shop to make sure internal parts are not excessively worn. The shop will check the tolerances of internal parts with a micrometer to make sure seals are good and the pump is operating efficiently.
Be prepared to repair pumps more frequently during the early production period of new wells. As production of solids decreases with time, pump repairs will likely become fewer.
Production Tubing
Leaks in the production tubing string can reduce pumping efficiency and decrease gas flow up the tubing/casing annulus. One of the most common problems is connections that leak while under external or internal pressure. You can alleviate this problem by avoiding the following actions: y Failing to sufficiently inspect each length of tubing and its connections y Applying improper torque to the connections
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y Failing to clean the threads properly before making up a connection y Galling the threads by carelessly stabbing, making up too rapidly, using a damaged connection, over-torquing, or wobbling pipe during makeup y Dropping a string, even a very short distance y Excessively making up and breaking out connections y Mishandling tubing during transportation or at the well site To extend the life of tubing strings at the Rock Creek project, whenever a string is pulled, it is run back in the well in the reverse order. Thus, joints that were located near the top of the string end up near the bottom. This procedure prevents the sucker rod string from wearing excessively in the same locations. You can achieve the same goal by running a pup joint of tubing in the string, and changing the location of the pup joint whenever you pull the tubing string.
2.
3.
If the pressure on the annulus and on the pumping T are the same, or if both are on vacuum, the tubing likely has a leak.
To distinguish a tubing leak from other possible well problems, refer to Figures 7-2 and 7-3. To detect tubing leaks when you pull the tubing string, check for obvious cuts or holes, but also look for telltale water stains on the
7-18
outside of the tubing. Such stains often evidence small leaks that are otherwise difficult to detect. At the Rock Creek project most tubing leaks have been observed in the lower portion of the tubing string because the wellbore is usually more deviated near the bottom. Wellbore deviation problems, and thus the number of tubing leaks, generally increase with depth.
Separation Equipment
Most problems with separation equipment are caused by deposition of solids in vessels or their components. The guidelines below may help you prevent many of the plugging problems caused by solids:
s
Periodically clean out the separator. If you observe sludge in the bottom of the separator, clean out the vessel immediately. Make sure check valves on separators are working properly. When a check valve is working properly, you should hear a clicking sound as fluid passes through the valve.
Periodically flush out dump valves and check the valve seats to make sure they seal properly. Also check the float mechanism to make sure it operates properly. If the float is not cleaned regularly, it can stick and cause the separator to overflow liquid into the gas line.
Surface Piping
To ensure trouble-free operation of instruments and meters used to measure flow, you should prevent fines from entering the gathering system. If gas carries even a small amount of fines, the velocity of the gas will quickly abrade or plug turbine meters and orifice plates. Operating experience at the Rock Creek project has shown that you can significantly reduce maintenance costs by removing fines at the wellhead before they can move into the collection system. You can effectively control fines by installing a very fine mesh in-line filter at the wellhead. A screen will protect downstream equipment, such as orifice meters, turbine meters, etc.
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Chapter
These additional guidelines below will help you to maintain the surface piping system:
s
Periodically flush out surface flowlines and collection lines with water to prevent buildup of sludge in the lines. You can often detect buildup of sludge by a pressure increase at the wellsite pump used to move water through the collection line. Be prepared to flush flowlines and collection lines with water if you flow back a well that has been acidized. The acid can loosen accumulated sludge in lines and cause plugging of downstream equipment.
v Caution
Periodically check vacuum breakers in water lines to make sure the seat is clean so it will operate properly. If the seat is not clean, you may see water flowing out of the orifice in the vacuum breaker.
Periodically check drips to make sure they are not plugged. Check the float mechanism in automatic drips to make sure it is not stuck. During colder weather or after well stimulations, you may need to check drips more frequently because of the greater amount of water in the gas stream.
Gas Compressors
The gas compressor is perhaps the single most important equipment in a coalbed methane field. Because coalbed methane is produced at such low pressures (1/2 - 30 psi in the Black Warrior Basin), it will not flow naturally into the pipeline. Thus, without an effectively operating compressor, you simply are unable to sell coalbed methane gas. Compared to gas compression in conventional gas fields, coalbed methane gas compression is simpler in some ways. Because coalbed gas is approximately 98% methane, it contains no heavy hydrocarbons, which can damage compressor valves.
7-20
Gas Compressors
The greatest challenge in compressing coalbed methane is effectively removing water from the gas before compressing it. You can solve this problem by selecting proper gas dehydration equipment. For information on selecting compressors and compressor equipment, refer to Chapter 6. To ensure your compressor operates efficiently and continuously, you must practice a consistent maintenance program. The best maintenance program is probably the one recommended by the compressor manufacturer. However, as you gain experience with your field, you will likely learn additional maintenance practices that prove useful as well. Compressor operators in the Black Warrior Basin generally follow two separate maintenance schedules - an engine maintenance schedule and a compressor maintenance schedule. They have found the maintenance guidelines below especially effective in preventing compressor problems:
Change the engine oil and filter every 1000 hours of operation (approximately every 42 days).
Check the tolerance of engine valves to detect wear. By monitoring valve wear, you can estimate when downtime will be required for engine repair. This forecasting will help you to coordinate other necessary field repairs.
Torque the bolts which anchor the engine to its pad to maintain proper alignment of the engine and the compressor.
Plan maintenance work so that all necessary work can be performed at the same time to reduce downtime and well shut-ins.
Change the compressor oil about every 6 months. Change oil filter every 1000 hours of operation.
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Chapter
Send a sample of the used compressor oil to a testing laboratory to have it analyzed for contaminants. Contaminants in the oil, such as metal particles, may indicate the wearing and potential failure of internal components or leaking seals or gaskets. Check the tightness of all external bolts on the compressor every 1000 hours of operation. Tighten any loose bolts to their proper torque. The constant vibration of the unit during operation can cause bolts to loosen.
Check the tolerance of compressor valves to detect wear about every 3 months. At the same time, check the tolerance of the rider bands on the pistons to detect wear.
The first step in preventing compressor failure is to install proper equipment. For information on selecting compressors and compressor equipment for coalbed methane production, refer to Chapter 6.
7-22
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
Brown, K.E., "The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods, Volume 2a, Penwell Publishing Company, Tulsa (1977).
American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice for Care and Use of Subsurface Pumps, API RP 11AR, Third Edition, Washington, DC (June 1989).
American Petroleum Institute, API Specification for Subsurface Pumps and Fittings, API Spec 11AX, Seventh Edition, Dallas (June 1979).
Klein, S.T., Robbins & Myers, Inc. The Progressing Cavity Pump in Coalbed Methane Extraction, SPE Paper 23454, presented at the 1991 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Lexington, Kentucky (October 22-25).
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anaging produced water is critical to the successful development of a coalbed methane project. Some operators have initiated projects and invested great time and money in drilling and completing wells, but initially failed to sell any gas because of problems in disposing produced water. Because water treatment and disposal can represent a large portion of daily operating costs, improper planning of this operation may result in unexpected costs which can impair the economics of an otherwise profitable project. Water disposal problems often stem from not carefully investigating the character of the produced water, treatment and disposal options available, the costs of the various options, and the regulatory requirements that govern those options. A geological and engineering evaluation at the outset of the project can help prevent many waterrelated problems. This chapter provides an overview of the main issues you should consider in developing a plan to manage produced water.
Characteristics of Coalbed Methane Produced Water Regulations and Permitting for Water Disposal Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System Methods for Treating and Disposing Produced Water
Chapter
8-2
Mingling of incompatible waters Contact time Temperature change Pressure drop Evaporation Agitation pH
One or more of these factors can cause scale deposition in the formation matrix, fractures, perforations, wellbore, downhole pumps, tubing, casing, flowlines, and water disposal systems. In the Black Warrior Basin, scale is frequently found in downhole pumps and it has been observed on perforations by downhole camera. In most cases, this scale is caused by pressure drop and agitation. Scaling can cause serious production declines; however, the calcium carbonate scaling in the Black Warrior Basin has been removed by pumping an HCL acid treatment with an iron sequestering agent. In some cases, scale may also form outside casing and in the induced fractures. Scale inside fractures can severely restrict gas flow, and is difficult to remove. The composition of scale depends on the composition of the waters that produce them. The most common scale deposits found in conventional oil fields are calcium carbonate, gypsum, barium sulfate, and sodium chloride. In the Black Warrior Basin, you are most likely to encounter calcium carbonate scale.
Calcium Carbonate Scale
Calcium carbonate scale is usually caused by a change in pressure which releases CO2 from bicarbonate ions(HCO3-1). When the CO2 is released from solution, the pH increases, the solubility of dissolved
8-3
Chapter
carbonates decreases, and the more soluble bicarbonates are converted to less soluble carbonates. Calcium carbonate scale exhibits these characteristics:
y y y y y
Scaling increases with increased temperature Scaling increases with increased pH Scaling increases with increased contact time Scaling increases with increased turbulence Scaling increases with water agitation
Calcium carbonate scaling will decrease as the total salt content of water (excluding Ca+ ions) increases to a concentration of 120 g of NaCl per 1000 g of water. Further increases in NaCl concentration will decrease CaCO3 solubility and thus cause scaling to increase.
Gypsum Scale
Gypsum scale is composed of calcium sulfate. Gypsum scale exhibits these characteristics:
y y y
Scaling increases with a pressure decrease Scaling increases with water agitation Scaling is not affected by a pH of 6-8
Barium sulfate scaling is usually caused by the mingling of two unlike waters, one containing soluble salts of barium and the other containing sulfate ions. Barium sulfate scale exhibits these characteristics:
y y y
Scaling increases with a temperature decrease Scaling increases with a pressure decrease Scaling increases as hydrates evaporate
Iron Scales
Iron scales are often caused by corrosion products such as various iron oxides and iron sulfide. Sulfate-reducing bacteria can produce
8-4
hydrogen sulfide, which reacts with iron in solution or with steel surfaces to form iron sulfide. If oxygen is introduced to a system, it can react with iron to form a precipitate or with steel surfaces to form an oxide coating.
Identifying Scale
You can identify the various types of scale by using these methods:
X-Ray Diffraction
The most common method for identifying scale, X-ray diffraction, involves directing a beam of X-rays onto a powdered sample of scale crystals. Because each crystalline chemical compound in the scale diffracts X-rays in a characteristic manner, the scale can be identified. This method requires the least amount of sample.
Chemical Analysis
In this method, samples of scale are crushed and then dissolved in chemical solution. The elements are then analyzed by standard titration and precipitation techniques.
Effervescence
This method is used to identify calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scale. If a sample is CaCO3, it will bubble when you drop hydrochloric acid (HCl) on it. However, this test may not work if the sample contains iron sulfide or iron carbonate. The odor of sulphur indicates the presence of sulfide scale.
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Chapter
Removing Scale
Operators in the Black Warrior Basin have used both mechanical and chemical methods to remove scale. The most common mechanical method is reperforating and/or running a bit and scraper through the perforations. The most successful chemical treatment method is pumping HCL acid with an iron sequestering agent.
Preventing Scale
In the Black Warrior Basin, an effective method for preventing scale is to pump scale inhibitors in fracturing treatments. Fracturing service companies can recommend an inhibitor for your application. If you encounter a serious scale problem, you may consider continuously treating for scale down the annulus.
v Caution
Before pumping any chemical into a well, make sure the chemical is tested to ensure it is compatible with the formation water and that it is non-damaging to the coal. Make sure also that the chemical can be handled under the projects regulatory discharge permit (i.e., NPDES, etc.) For more information on the chemistry of coalbed methane waters, refer to Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
8-6
environmental agency for the state in which the surface water is located. Because almost all coalbed methane production water in the Warrior Basin is discharged to surface water, the Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) has the responsibility for permitting and monitoring the discharge of water produced by most coalbed methane wells. Table 8-1 shows the current surface discharge limitations and monitoring requirements for a NPDES permit for the Black Warrior Basin.
Table 8-1 NPDES Discharge Limitations for the Black Warrior Basin
Discharge Limitations Daily Daily Monthly Minimum Maximum Average N/A 6.0 s.u. N/A N/A N/A N/A Monitor 9.0 s.u. 6.0 mg/l 4.0 mg/l Monitor Continuous Monitoring 230 mg/l 210 mg/l 190 mg/l N/A 45 mg/l 30 mg/l Quarterly acute or chronic N/A N/A 3.0 mg/l 2.0 mg/l Monitor Continuous Monitoring N/A N/A N/A N/A
Water Characteristics
Flow (MGD) pH Iron (total) Manganese (total) Chlorides (effluent) Conductivity (instream)
Chlorides (instream) Well shut-in limit: Black Warrior River Tributaries Dissolved Oxygen BOD-5 Effluent Toxicity Testing
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For information on discharge regulations and permitting requirements in your area, contact the state oil and gas agency and environmental agency in the area.
Considerations for Designing a Water Disposal System To design an effective and economical water disposal system, you
first must consider the environmental regulations and permitting requirements for water disposal in your area. Once you understand these restrictions, you can begin evaluating the field criteria that will influence your selection of a treatment and disposal system. To design the system, you will need to know or estimate these five parameters:
Production start-up schedule Water flow rates from each well Variations in flow rates over the life of the project Water quality Assimilative capacity of the discharge stream or river
8-8
You can estimate water flow rates using a variety of techniques. You can incorporate permeability values from wells into a hydrologic model. You can also predict rates using a reservoir model designed for coalbed methane reservoirs. Some operators in the Black Warrior Basin use a more field-oriented approach to estimate water flow rates from wells that have been drilled but not yet produced. While drilling the well, they closely monitor the drilling pits to gauge the rate of water influx from each water zone penetrated. After drilling to total depth (TD), they clean out the wellbore by injecting compressed air at TD for several hours while monitoring water returns at the surface. Though this technique is used primarily to determine the size of pump needed for the well, you may also use it to approximate water disposal requirements for individual wells. You cannot use this method if there are any water bearing sands open to the wellbore.
Water Quality
The principal constituent influencing the quality of coalbed methane waters is the concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS), which includes the concentration of chlorides. Total dissolved solids concentrations range from 500 to 27,000 mg/l in waters generated in the eastern United States, and from 200 to 4,000 mg/l in the western United States (Lee-Ryan et al., 1991). Other constituents in coalbed methane waters likely to require treatment include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total iron. Typically, the concentration of dissolved oxygen must be increased before disposal. The quality of the total produced water stream will determine the type of discharge method you can use (these methods are explained later in this chapter). For example, in Alabama, water produced from coalbed methane wells can be treated like any other industrial or municipal waste stream. Thus, if the water meets permit standards, surface discharge of the water is allowed. To discharge into a surface water, you must apply for and receive an NPDES permit.
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Chapter
This permit will allow discharge into streams as long as the discharge is monitored and remains within permit requirements.
For a detailed discussion of how these five parameters can be incorporated into a comprehensive water management model, refer to the paper by Burkett, McDaniel, and Hall (See Additional Resources at the end of this chapter).
Treating Water and Disposing on the Surface Disposing Water in Disposal Wells Disposing Water after Well Stimulations
8-10
8-11
Chapter
Other states may or may not have similar permitting requirements. For current regulations in your area of operation, contact the state environmental agency.
8-12
Figure 8-1 Typical Water Disposal System in the Black Warrior Basin
g Important
In cases where stream flows are much greater than the flow of discharged fluids, relatively high amounts of chlorides can be discharged with little increase in the chloride concentration in the stream. In streams with low flow or with seasonal flow variations, produced water discharge may be limited. Unlike TDS concentration and other permit parameters that are determined by instream concentrations, the limit of iron or manganese in the water is based on its discharge (effluent) concentration. At the Rock Creek Project, two lined ponds with capacities of 34,000 gal and 400,000 gal provide treatment and holding capacity in case the produced water exceeds regulatory limits. These ponds also allow aeration of the water to precipitate iron. This technique
8-13
Chapter
has successfully reduced iron concentrations to meet the disposal permit requirements. This type of system may require some extra storage capacity in case of occasional upsets in the system. Some of the highest iron measurements in treatment ponds may be caused by algae growth. Algae accumulations on the bottom of the pond can collect settling iron precipitates. Often this algae floats to the surface, bringing the precipitated iron with it. When water samples are collected, this algae may be collected inadvertently, skewing iron measurements far above true levels. Experience has also shown that agitating the water by aeration can inhibit growth of floating algae accumulations. Algae growth is a function of the pH of the water. During hot summer weather, accelerated growth of algae in smaller settling ponds may elevate the pH level of water in the pond. You can usually reduce the pH to permit levels by shading the pond from the sun. When stream disposal is used, provisions must be made to allow year-round operation of the field even during periods of low stream flow. For example, many streams in the Black Warrior Basin approach near-zero flow during the summer and fall months. In most cases, storage of produced water is the only alternative to shutting-in wells. Storage, however, can be impractical for fields with high water rates unless the technical and economic constraints of large-scale temporary storage can be overcome. Toward this objective, Luckianow and Hall present an informative review of selected storage alternatives, design requirements, construction constraints, regulatory requirements, and cost data (see Additional Resources at the end of this chapter).
Safety of In-Stream Disposal
Because many producers in the Black Warrior Basin have obtained permits to discharge into streams, several studies have been performed to assure environmental safety. A key conclusion of these studies was that stream discharges could safely occur at levels specified by permits without adversely affecting biota (O'Neill et al, 1989; Drottar et al, 1989; O'Neill et al, 1991a; O'Neill et al, 1991b). In these studies, in-stream chlorides levels were increased until significant changes in biota were observed. These changes did not occur until chlorides exceeded 593 mg/l, a value more than 200% greater than the current maximum permitted concentration (O'Neill et al, 1989).
8-14
8-15
Chapter
Occasionally, after a well is stimulated the concentration of total organic carbon, or BOD, can be higher than specifications allow. If the well was shut-in for an extended period of time before production, any bacteriacide included with the fracture treatment may have lost its effectiveness. Such fracture waters are often most effectively treated separately, rather than mixing them with the entire water process stream.
8-16
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
Burkett, W.C., R. McDaniel, and W.L. Hall, The Evaluation and Implementation of a Comprehensive Production Water Management Plan, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).
Drottar, K.R., D.R. Mount, and S.J. Patti, 1989, Biomonitoring of Coalbed Methane Produced Water from the Cedar Cove, Alabama Degasification Field, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).
Kuuskraa, V.A. and C.F. Brandenburg, Coalbed Methane Sparks a New Energy Industry, Oil & Gas Journal, October 9, 1989.
Lee-Ryan, P.B., J.P. Fillo, J.T.Tallon, and J.M. Evans, Evaluation of Management Options for Coalbed Methane Produced Water, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).
Luckianow, B.J., Economics of Production Water Storage, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).
Luckianow, B.J., and W.L. Hall, Water Storage Key Factor in Coalbed Methane Production, Oil & Gas Journal, Mar 11, 1991.
ONeill, P.E., S.C. Harris, and M.F. Mattee, 1989, "Stream Monitoring of Coalbed Methane Produced Water from the Cedar Cove Degasification Field, Alabama, Proceedings of the 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (April 17-20).
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Chapter
ONeill, P.E. et al, 1991a, Long Term Biomonitoring of a Produced Water Discharge from the Cedar Cove Degasification Field, Alabama, GRI Topical Report, GRI-90/0233, (January).
ONeill, P.E. et al, 1991b, Long Term Biomonitoring of a Produced Water Discharge from the Cedar Cove Degasification Field, Alabama, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-17).
Schraufnagel, R.A., Coalbed Methane Production, in Hydrocarbons from Coal, American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), Tulsa, Oklahoma, not yet published.
Schraufnagel, R.A., and S.D. Spafford, Multiple Coal Seams Project Progress Report, Quarterly Review of Methane From Multiple Coal Seam Technology, V 7 N 3 (March).
Simpson, T.E., Environmental Overview, Coalbed Methane Gas Development in Alabama, 1984-1989, Dames & Moore, 1989.
8-18
o determine the economic feasibility of a coalbed methane well, you must evaluate the production potential of the coal seams before fracturing and producing the well. You can obtain the reservoir data for this evaluation from open hole logs, cores, and pressure transient tests. (For a list of information you can obtain from log and core analysis, refer to Chapter 3.) If the evaluation indicates the coal seam has potential for economical production, the well should be fractured and placed on production. After placing the well on production, you should check the gas and water rates periodically using well tests to ensure the well is producing at an optimum level. This chapter explains methods for obtaining the reservoir data needed to assess the productive potential of coalbed methane wells. You will find information to help you in:
Chapter
9-2
Slug Tests
Slug tests are the simplest and least expensive tests. They are commonly used on coalbed methane wells because they can be performed with a minimal amount of manpower and equipment. A slug test involves the instantaneous injection or withdrawal of a specific slug, or volume of water into or from the wellbore. The increase or decrease in wellbore pressure is then measured versus time until the pressure approaches the pressure measured before the slug was initiated. The results of the slug test can be matched with typecurves developed by Ramey and others (1975) to determine permeability with respect to both wellbore storage and skin effects. Most slug tests used on coalbed methane wells are run by injecting a slug of fresh water into the wellbore rather than withdrawing a slug of fluid from the wellbore. The main advantages of the slug test are: y Low cost y Simple to design and perform y Simple to analyze using type curve analysis The main disadvantages of the slug test are: y Not valid for two-phase flow y Reservoir must be under-pressured y Limited radius of investigation y Duration of test is long y Difficult to interpret reservoir heterogeneities
The only equipment needed to run a slug test is listed below: y Workover rig to prepare the well for test (if required) y Equipment to slug water into the wellbore (buckets of water, a small pump, or a vacuum truck)
9-3
Chapter
y A pressure transducer to install in the wellbore y A pressure data recorder at the surface y Tools to analyze data (software, such as STEP Match)
The equipment used at the Rock Creek project consists of a strain gauge pressure transducer connected by cable to a Hermit data logger at the surface. A typical slug test equipment configuration is shown in Figure 9-1.
9-4
Tubular Size
The most important consideration is the diameter of the tubing or casing through which the well will be slugged. The duration of the test is directly proportional to the square of the radius of the tubing or casing used. The duration of the test increases with increasing diameters because as the tubing size increases, the volume of water that must flow into the coal seam increases. Consequently, the permeability of the coal seam directly affects the duration of the test. To minimize the time required to test the well, you can use the smallest tubing size that is economically and operationally feasible. However, decreasing the test time also decreases the radius of investigation for the test. You can estimate the minimum test duration for a unique type curve match by using the equation below:
9-5
Chapter
Tubular Configuration
If you conduct the slug test down the casing, you will not need any additional equipment. However, if you conduct the test down the tubing string, you must run a packer on the tubing to isolate the annulus. If you do not seal off the annulus, the benefit of using a small tubing string (shorter test duration) will be negated.
Method of Slugging
To perform a slug test, you must load a volume of water into the tubing or casing. The methods most commonly used to load the slug of water into the tubing or casing are:
y y y
Dumping pails of water into the tubing Pumping the water with a chemical pump Pumping the water with the small pump on a vacuum truck
The method you use to load the well depends on the permeability of the coal and on the volume of water needed for the slug. The higher the coal permeability, the more rapidly you can load the water slug. You can estimate the volume of water needed for the slug if you know the static fluid level for the coal seam you are testing. The maximum volume of water required for the slug is the volume needed to fill the tubing or casing from the static fluid level to the surface.
2.
If the well is slugged through a tubing/packer assembly, test the tubing/casing annulus to make sure the packer is not leaking.
9-6
Fluid leaking into the well from the annulus would require using multiple storage coefficients, which would make the test difficult to analyze. If perforated intervals are above the zone of interest, you may not be able to test the packer unless those zones will support a minimal amount of pressure. An alternative method of determining that the packer is providing isolation is by pumping water into the annulus and monitoring the downhole data recorder for a pressure response.
3.
After installing the tubing/packer assembly, lower the pressure transducer into the wellbore. Place the transducer deep enough in the wellbore so that it remains below the fluid level throughout the test, but not so deep that the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid above the transducer exceeds the tools maximum pressure rating at any time during the test.
4.
Allow the well time to equilibrate before beginning the slug test. At the Rock Creek Project, Saulsberry et al have developed a spreadsheet program which can help you estimate the time required for the well to equilibrate and the equilibration pressure. If you cannot wait the required time before beginning the slug test, you can begin the test and use the estimated equilibration pressure as the initial pressure before the slugged volume.
5.
Inject a slug of water into the formation. At the Rock Creek project, it was learned that the best way to inject water depends on the permeability and/or skin of the zone being tested. For wells that do not take fluid rapidly, you can inject the slug by pouring buckets of water into the tubing. If a well is fairly permeable, you may need to use a pump or a vacuum truck to load the tubing with the slug of water.
6.
Start the data recording equipment at the instant the slug of water is injected into the wellbore. The early time data of a slug test is important to the interpretation of the pressure responses. To ensure that the early time data is recorded, you may need two people to initiate the test.
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Chapter
You should set the data recorder to record data at the frequencies shown in Table 9-1.
Recording Frequency
Tenths of a minute One minute Five minutes Ten minutes One hundred minutes
When you use a data recorder at the surface, you can analyze data as the test progresses and determine when you have collected a sufficient amount of data and when to conclude the test. As mentioned earlier, the minimum length of a slug test depends on the permeability of the coal seam being tested. Lower permeability seams require longer test periods.
Injection/Fall-Off Tests
An injection/fall-off test is a single-well pressure transient test which you can also use to estimate permeability. To conduct an injection/fall-off test, you inject water into the well at a constant rate for a period of time and then you shut in the well. During both injection and the shut-in periods, the bottomhole pressure is measured using a downhole pressure gauge. You can analyze pressure data from both the injection period and the fall-off period independently to estimate permeability. The most critical consideration in performing an injection/fall-off test is the fracture pressure of the formation. If the fracture pressure
9-8
is exceeded during the injection period, the injection pressure data is meaningless. The late-time data from the shut-in period could possibly be useful if the induced fracture closes soon enough for some of the pressure fall-off to measure the natural coal seam response. However, a permeability estimate derived from the late time data should be considered the upper bound for permeability. The main advantages of the injection/fall-off test are: y Can provide a larger radius of investigation y Relatively quick to perform y May be used for post-fracture analysis
The disadvantages of this type of test are: y Relatively expensive y Difficult to perform in low permeability coal seams because very low injection rates must be maintained (sometimes as low as 0.04 GPM).
The equipment needed to perform a slug test are: y Workover rig to install the tubular equipment downhole y Low rate pump y Low rate water meter y Supply of water y Slickline (wireline) unit to install pressure gauges and downhole shut-in tool y Pressure gauges y Downhole shut-in tool
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Chapter
q =
[ log k t c
rw2
- 3.23 + 0.869 S
q = Maximum injection rate, BPD Pinj = Maximum injection pressure, psi Pr = Formation pressure, psi Bw = Water formation volume factor, Bbl/STB (Use 1.0) k = Estimated minimum permeability, md t = time period for injection, hrs = porosity, % = viscosity of the water, cp ct = Total compressibility of the formation, psi-1 rw2 = Radius of the wellbore, ft2 h = Thickness of the coal, ft S = Skin factor (Use S = 0 if perforations are broken down.)
Notes:
(1) The maximum injection pressure should be less than 75% of the fracture pressure.
9-10
(2) The time period should be based on the injection period (e.g., 24 hours for a 24-hour injection period).
The fall-off portion of the test normally yields the most useful information. To increase the amount and quality of information obtained during this period, you can install a downhole shut-in plug after injection to reduce the wellbore storage effects.
2.
Prepare the well for the test. This step includes installing the appropriate bottomhole assembly that will hold the pressure gauges and the downhole shut-in plug (if one is to be used). A typical bottomhole assembly would include: y Joint of tubing with bull plug on bottom y Perforated sub y Packer y Seating nipple for the downhole shut-in plug y Tubing to the surface
As an alternative to the joint of tubing on bottom, you can install the perforated sub with a bull plug on bottom and the joint of pipe in between the perforated sub and the packer. This configuration is a matter of preference.
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Chapter
v Caution
To install the pressure gauges, there must be sufficient distance between the end of the tubing (bull-plugged joint) and the seat nipple. To ensure you have sufficient clearance to set the shut-in plug after the injection period, find out the length of the tandem pressure gauges from the service company representative .
3.
Make sure the surface connections include: y Full opening ball valve large enough to allow the downhole shut-in plug to pass through. This valve will allow the well to be shut-in after the injection is concluded. This valve may be needed because the plug might need pressure above it to hold it in place (depending on the pressure below the plug). The plug is designed to withstand a certain differential pressure. y Tapped nipple with pressure gauge. This gauge will be used to monitor pressure on the tubing during the shut-in period.
4.
Check and record the volume and quality of water on location. You must keep an accurate record of volume of water pumped into the well during the test. Water containing debris can prevent the plug from properly seating in the nipple.
g Important
5.
Pressure test the injection lines to the maximum allowable surface pressure.
x
If no valve is installed between the injection line and the connection to the tubing, you should observe the injection lines for leaks during the job. If you observe a leak during the job, attempt to fix the leak while continuing to inject, if possible. Once you begin injection, you should not discontinue injecting unless safety or environmental regulations are threatened. Water that is not fresh should never be allowed to drain onto the ground. If you continue injecting with a leaking line, collect and
g Important
9-12
measure the volume of leaked water so you can determine the actual injection volume.
If the tubing is not new, you should make a dummy run into the hole with sinker bars (sized as close to the O.D. of the tools as necessary) on slickline.
2.
Allow the gauges to sit in the well for a least one hour to measure the current pressure trend (if any) in the reservoir.
3.
Fill the tubing with water as quickly as possible, unless you are testing the well at a pressure below the hydrostatic pressure. Make sure the needle valve on the lubricator is open to allow air and/or gas to escape as the tubing is filled.
4.
After the tubing is filled, fill the lubricator with water. Loosen the top nut on the lubricator so pressure will bleed off the lubricator while it fills with water. As the lubricator is filled with water, the injection pressure will increase due to the increasing hydrostatic column in the lubricator. The maximum pressure increase due to the height of the lubricator depends on the height of the lubricator above the injection point. This pressure can be calculated using the equation below.
P = h x x 0.052 , psi
where: h = height of the lubricator above the tubing, ft = density of the water, lb/gal
9-13
Chapter
5.
Measure and record the volume of water left on location when injection is completed.
6.
Calculate the average injection rate during the test using the equations below:
Injection Volume = Initial Volume - Final Volume - Tubing Volume - Lubricator Volume
Remember to take into account the volume of water used to fill the tubing and the lubricator. The calculated average injection volume should be close to the value measured by the water meters on location.
7.
After concluding the injection period, set a tubing plug in the seating nipple.
8.
Pressure up the tubing above the plug to make sure the plug is set. Because most plugs will withstand a limited amount of differential pressure, the pressure that is left on the tubing while the well is shut-in should exceed the final injection pressure before the plug was set.
9.
10. After the pressure has fallen off completely, retrieve the downhole shut-in tool with a wireline retrieving tool and retrieve the downhole pressure gauges.
9-14
11. Analyze the pressure data. The bottomhole pressure data recorded during the injection portion of the test is often erratic (even though injection rates may have been stable) and is therefore difficult to analyze. The data obtained during the fall-off portion of the test usually provides the most useful information.
Interference Tests
An interference test is a multiple-well test with an active well and one or more observation wells. In an interference test, a pressure transient is applied to the formation to be tested by either injecting fluid into or withdrawing fluid from the active well. The pressure response to the applied stress is then monitored continuously in the active well and all of the observation wells. In designing an interference test, it is important to select an injection rate low enough not to fracture the formation. Multiple-well tests generally yield more information about a coalbed methane reservoir than single-well tests. In addition to static reservoir pressure and intrinsic permeability, multiple-well tests can also provide directional permeability, porosity-compressibility product, leakage from an adjacent aquifer through a semi-permeable barrier, or the location of a no-flow or constant-head boundary within the coal seam. Multiple-well tests are most useful for determining directional permeability. Interference tests can be analyzed using either type curves or the straight-line method. The main advantages of interference tests over other tests methods are: y Generally tests a larger portion of the coalbed reservoir y Provides more information about the reservoir
The main disadvantages of interference tests over other tests methods are: y Expensive y Lengthy test period y Sometimes difficult to analyze
9-15
Chapter
The equipment needed to run an interference test are listed below: y Workover rig to prepare the well for the test y Low rate pump (as low as 0.04 GPM) y Low rate water meter y Supply of water y Slick-line (wireline) unit to install pressure gauges in the test well and observation well(s), if necessary y Downhole pressure gauges
q =
Pinj - Pr 162.6 B w k h
[ log k t c
9-16
Where:
q = Maximum injection rate, BPD Pinj = Maximum injection pressure, psi Pr = Formation pressure, psi Bw = Water formation volume factor, Bbl/STB (Use 1.0) k = Estimated minimum permeability, md t = time period for injection, hrs = porosity, % = viscosity of the water, cp c t = Total compressibility of the formation, psi -1 r w 2 = Radius of the wellbore, ft 2 h = Thickness of the coal, ft S = Skin factor (Use S = 0 if perforations are broken down.)
Notes:
(1) The maximum injection pressure should be less than 75% of the fracture pressure. (2) The time period should be based on the injection period (e.g., 24 hours for a 24-hour injection period).
2.
Prepare the well for the test. This step includes installing the appropriate bottomhole assembly that will hold the pressure gauges and the downhole shut-in plug (if one is to be used).
9-17
Chapter
A typical bottomhole assembly would include: y Joint of tubing with bull plug on bottom y Perforated sub y Packer y Seating nipple for the downhole shut-in plug y Tubing to the surface
The surface connections should include: y A ball valve on the injection tubing so that the well can shut-in after the injection is concluded y A tapped nipple with a pressure gauge so that pressure on the tubing can be monitored during the shut-in period
2.
3.
Measure and record the volume of water left on location when injection is completed.
4.
Calculate the average injection rate during the test using the equations below: Remember to take into account the volume of water used to fill the tubing and the lubricator.
9-18
The calculated average injection volume should be close to the value measured by the water meters on location.
Injection Volume = Initial Volume - Final Volume - Tubing Volume - Lubricator Volume
5.
6.
After concluding the injection period, continue to monitor the pressures in the test well and in each observation well until all pressures have stabilized.
7.
After all pressures have stabilized, run in the hole and retrieve the pressure gauges.
8.
9-19
Chapter
The disadvantages to this method are: y The accuracy of pressure measurement is no greater than the fluid column weight across the length of one joint of tubing y Two-phase flow may complicate the analysis y Wellbore storage effects are usually significant y Pressure readings may be inaccurate if the fluid level is below a set of perforations
9-20
The only equipment required for this technique is an In-Situ pressure transducer, Bowen wiper and a Hermit data recorder. The pressure transducer is installed in the piping from the side outlet of the casing head. The cable for the pressure transducer is run through a Bowen wiper rubber that can hold the low pressures observed during this type of test. The cable is then connected to the Hermit recorder. The Hermit pressure recorder should be programmed to record frequent early time data. After all the equipment is connected, the Hermit is started and within 10 seconds, the pumping unit is stopped, the flowline valve on the annulus is closed, and the pressure buildup test begins. The main advantages to this method are: y Inexpensive y Easy to run (no outside services required) y Can be performed frequently The limitations of this method are: y Can only be used on wells with a working fluid level below the perforations y Two-phase flow may occur in the formation, which complicates the analysis
9-21
Chapter
9-22
9-23
Chapter
If you are testing more than one coal seam, you can equip the ZIP tool with a pass-through, which enables you to run a control line through the ZIP to another packer installed deeper in the well. This configuration allows you to determine the gas rate of three separate zones. Figures 9-3 and 9-4 illustrate the ZIP tool used for a two-seam test and a three-seam test, respectively.
At the Rock Creek project, the ZIP tool is installed in several wells which are tested frequently to determine production rates from the Mary Lee and Black Creek coal seams. One such test provided information which led to the successful re-stimulation of the Mary Lee interval in Well P3. For more information on the ZIP tool, refer to Determining Production from Individual Coal Groups in Multi-Zone Wells with a Zone Isolation Packer. See Additional Resources at the end of this chapter.
9-24
The advantages of using the ZIP tool to test coal seams are:
y
Individual seams may be tested without the expense of using a workover rig and retrievable bridge plugs The tool can remain installed in the tubing string for use in frequent tests The test can be completed quickly because the well does not have to be shut down to install test equipment
9-25
Chapter
This method is expensive and time consuming. To use this method, a workover rig is needed to install the retrievable bridge plugs and to retrieve them later. Before beginning the test, the well must be shut in to install the plugs, and the well must be pumped down to stabilize production rates.
This method involves analyzing the composition of the total gas stream and then comparing it with the composition of gas produced from individual coal seams. A study was conducted to determine if gas production rates could be estimated accurately using gas composition analysis. This method was not successful because of the relatively small variations in the compositions of the coal seams.
This method involves analyzing the composition of the total produced water stream and then comparing it with the composition of water produced from individual coal seams. This method has been used with some success to estimate the water production from individual coal seams. As with comparing gas compositions, this method can be successful only if there are distinct differences in water chemistry between the coal seams. Even if the differences are great, you can only estimate the water production from the individual seams. You would have to infer the gas production based on the premise that there is a reliable and consistent correlation between gas and water production in each coal group.
You can use flowmeters, gradiomanometers, and temperature surveys to approximate the flow rates of individual perforated intervals in the wellbore. Though this method has been improved
9-26
over the years, you may still find it difficult to estimate production rates from individual seams because many seams produce at extremely low rates. Camera surveys cannot be used to obtain quantitative production estimates. However, you can use camera surveys to see whether fluid is flowing into the wellbore, and if so, which intervals are producing that fluid. For more information on production logging tools and camera surveys, refer to Chapter 3.
Scale Deposition in the Formation Insufficient Fracture Stimulation Depletion of the Coal Seam
Some of the coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin contain waters with a high tendency for scaling. Scaling can occur in surface equipment and downhole equipment as well as in perforations and in the formation. Though you can easily observe scaling in equipment and in perforations (with a camera survey), you cannot observe scaling in the formation. To determine if scaling has occurred in the formation, you must use pressure transient tests to assess formation damage. If formation damage exists, it could have been caused by scale. For information on the scaling tendency of coalbed methane produced water, refer to Chapter 8.
9-27
Chapter
Poor production performance could also be caused by insufficient fracture stimulation of the coal seams or by depletion of the seams. You can diagnose these reservoir problems by analyzing pressure transient tests and by simulating reservoir performance using one of the commercially available computer models for coalbed methane reservoirs. To make well-informed production management decisions, you should attempt to gather and analyze quality data from a variety of independent sources. This practice will help ensure the operational as well as economic success of your coalbed methane project.
9-28
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
Koenig, R.A., and R.A. Schraufnagel, Application of the Slug Test in Coalbed Methane Testing, Proceedings of the 1987 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (November 16-19).
Koenig, R.A. and P.B. Stubbs, Interference Testing of a Coalbed Methane Reservoir, Proceedings of the 1986 Unconventional Gas Technology Symposium, Louisville, Kentucky (May 18-21).
McKee, C.R., Well Testing, GRI Coalbed Methane Workshop, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (February 6-7, 1989).
Rushing, J.A. et al, Analysis of Slug Test Data From Hydraulically Fractured Coalbed Methane Wells, SPE Paper 21492, Texas A&M University/Society of Petroleum Engineers, SPE Gas Technology Symposium, Houston (January 23-25, 1991).
Rushing, J.A. et al, Slug Testing in Multiple Coal Seams Intersected by a Single, Vertical Fracture, SPE Paper 22945, Texas A&M University/Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1991 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas (October 6-9).
Saulsberry, J.L., S.W. Lambert, and Dobscha, F.X., Determining Production from Individual Coal Groups in Multi-Zone Wells with a Zone Isolation Packer, Proceedings of the 1991 Coalbed Methane Symposium, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (May 13-16).
9-29
Appendix A
Summary of Permitting Requirements for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama (State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama)
Permit to Drill
Before you can spud a well in the State of Alabama, you must submit a Form OGB I (Application for Permit to Drill, Deepen, Convert, or Amend). This form must be accompanied by the following: Permit Fee Certified Survey Plat (Triplicate) Affadavit of Ownership or Control, Form OGB- 11. Bond, Form OGB-3 or OGB-4. Organization Report, Form OGB-5 This permit may not be approved until all other applicable environmental regulations have been approved by other agencies.
Drilling Operations
During drilling operations, an agent of the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama (Board) must be notified and approval obtained prior to performing any of the following operations: Construction of any pit Spudding Setting surface casing Slotting casing Running intermediate or production pipe Cleaning Perforating Chemical treatment or fracturing Logging
Attempting to recover a radioactive logging Testing of wells Disposing of pit fluids Plugging Recompletion or reworking Restoration of location Any other operation the Supervisor of the Board may designate. Some of these operations may be witnessed by an agent of the Board.
Casing Requirements
The minimum amount of surface or first string intermediate casing to be set below ground level and the test pressure requirements are as follows: Coalbed methane gas wells may be completed open hole or cased hole. If completed open hole, the production casing must be set not more than 100' above the uppermost coalbed which the operator intends to complete and the casing must be cemented to a point 200' above the base of the casing. For cased hole completions, the production casing must be cemented in place with sufficient cement to allow for 200' of cement over the uppermost coalbed that the operator intends to complete. After cementing the casing and before completing the well, the production casing must be tested to 600 psi for 30 minutes without a drop of more than 10 percent. The cement shall be allowed to stand a total of 12 hours before drilling the plug or initiating tests.
Drilling Pits
Reserve pits which are used during the drilling of the wells must be inspected by a qualified engineer and determined to be constructed in a manner that will prevent the pollution of the ground water. Ile level in the pits must be kept at least 2' below the top of the pit. After the well is completed or is plugged and abandoned, all fluids and recoverable slurry from pits must be disposed in a manner that is acceptable to the Board and the pit must be backfilled within 90 days.
Miscellaneous
A detailed and accurate record of the well must be kept during the drilling and completion of the well and must be accessible to the Board at any time. Pertinent information from these records must be submitted to the Board within 30 days of the completion of the well.
Copies of logs, drillstem test results, and cuttings must be submitted to the Board within 30 days of the completion of the well. If cores are taken, either whole or at least quarter slabs must be submitted to the Board within 6 months unless otherwise approved by the Board. Adequate blow-out preventers are required and must be tested regularly. Test results should be recorded in the drillers log and available to an agent of the Board upon request. Inclination surveys are required beginning with a depth not greater than the surface casing and succeeding shot points not more than 1000' apart or as required by the Board. The results should be reported to the Board on Form OGB-7. The summary above is only a partial listing of the regulations which affect the drilling of a coalbed methane well in Alabama. For further detail regarding these regulations and a full listing of the regulations regarding production operations in Alabama, you should consult the State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama Administrative Code.
v
v v
Appendix B
Summary of Permitting Requirements for Drilling a Coalbed Methane Well in Alabama (State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama)
QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES QUALITY CONTROL AND JOB SUPERVISION GUIDELINES FOR STIMULATION TREATMENTS
Page 1
INTRODUTION Quality control is a key element in the successful implementation of any stimulation treatment. Simply stated, attention to quality control is needed to ensure that the stimulation treatment is pumped as designed. Often times, quality control is considered the responsibility of the service company alone, but frankly, ensuring a successful job is the responsibility of both the operator and the service company. Attention to detail by both the operator and the service company and close cooperation between the two before, during, and after the job is certain to increase the quality of service in any stimulation treatment. The guidelines which follow this discussion should assist the engineer in the quality control and job supervision of stimulation treatments. The guidelines include a comprehensive supervision checklist to remind the engineer of equipment needed for the job, safety concerns, and questions to ask before, during, and after the job. The tables that follow the checklist permit the engineer to prepare a complete summary of the job (injection rates, injection pressures, fluid and proppant volumes, etc.), as well as an inventory of all products on location before and after the treatment. An important responsibility of the stimulation engineer is to obtain a reliable record of what actually occurred during the treatment; these guidelines and tables should help meet this responsibility. While these guidelines can be used for quality control and supervision of any stimulation treatment, we have attempted to tailor them for use in Appalachian Basin reservoirs where possible. While quality control problems are not unique to this area, proper job execution in Appalachian Basin reservoirs is especially important due primarily to the smaller treatments pumped routinely. Quality control on smaller, shorter treatments is often more troublesome than for the much larger stimulation treatments typically pumped in the western and southwestern United States. On larger volume treatments involving high pressure, high temperature
Page 2
wells, there is often more time to correct mistakes. In addition, the reservoir pressure and temperature themselves may help reduce cleanup problems created by gel lumping or lack of sufficient breaker. The combination of low pressures and low temperatures frequently encountered in many Appalachian Basin reservoirs provides for an environment that is not as tolerant of procedural mistakes. Unbroken gel or gel lumping, which may be only inconveniences in well cleanup for most wells, can result in the failure of a stimulation treatment in the Appalachian Basin. Preand post-fracture inventory of materials, fluid quality assurance, real-time monitoring of chemical additives, and attention to details such as flush volume and proper flowback can often make the difference between success and failure in low-pressure, low-temperature reservoirs.
Page 3
Fracture Stimulation Supervision Checklist Fracture Stimulation Company: Supervisor: Company: Well: I. Equipment needed on job site
Date: Location:
1. Company workover procedure with data sheet containing reservoir properties to include fracture gradient, bottomhole pressure, porosity, permeability, and temperature. Also, a complete surface and wellbore sketch and equipment inventory should be available from the operator. 2. Stimulation design 3. Logs with perforations and collars premarked 4. Tank strap (from service company) 5. Sand sieves (from service company) 6. Service company reference tables 7. Containers for samples, beakers 8. Calculator, pencils, and Quality Control Forms 9. Hardhat and steel-toed boots 10. Fann 35 or equivalent viscometer or availability of same from service company 11. Water and Acid test equipment (from service company) a. pH meter or paper i. TDS probe b. Thermometer j. B-2 bob and heat cup C. Iron test kit k. Syringes d. Phosphate test kit 1. Portable scale e. Reducing agent tester m. Blender and jar f. Chloride test kit n. Hydrometer g. Graduated cylinders o. Acid titration kit h. Bacteria vials II. The day before the job Tanks 1. Are there enough tanks on the location to store all fluids? Assume 10% of the tank volume will be umpumpable. Recommend at least 10% extra fluid on the location. 2. Have the tanks been cleaned prior to the job? How were they cleaned? 3. Was bactericide added prior to filling the tanks? 4. Does the water have the proper amounts of potassium chloride, sodium chloride, and other compounds? Check source water with water test kit. Is the source water compatible with proposed additives? Check with the chemist. 5. Are all of the tanks full? Get on the tanks yourself - do not take anyones word! 6. Where did the water come from? Does it appear to be clean? Check each tank yourself Do not pump dirty fluid down a well. River water may contain fines.
Page 4
7. Check the valves on the tanks to ensure that they are not leaking. If a valve has a trickle leak, replace it before the next job. If the tank has a large leak, consider having the tanks switched out prior to any pumping. 8. Conduct pre-gel quality control on fluid by completing quality control Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, and 7. Parts of Tables 1 and 2 will be done either again or only on the day of the job. Sand Storage 1. Get on top of the sand storage unit yourself and see if they contain enough proppant to do the job. Sieve proppant from each compartment. 2. Is the proppant in each compartment the correct size? Check for contamination. Add sand or other proppant to water and check pH. Also check while sieving for foreign material. Discussions with the Service-company Treatment Supervisor 1. Review the sand and fluid schedules in detail. 2. Are the proper additives and amounts going to be on the location? 3. Ask for confirmation that the chemicals are fresh and not shelf degraded or contaminated. 4. Is a standby blender going to be on location and in position to be usable? A standby is needed on treatments with pump time exceeding 1 hour. 5. Insist that a sand densiometer be available on the job. Check for the last time the densiometer was calibrated. 6. When pumping energized fluids, insist that a flowmeter is installed to measure the gas injection rates. 7. If the pumping time is going to take more than 4 hours, request that a service company mechanic be on the location to repair any equipment that malfunctions. Also, request an electronics technician to repair electrical problems on jobs with long pump times. 8. Make sure the required hydraulic horsepower is on location. Plan for contingencies. Are you willing to treat the well at a lower rate if a pump fails? 9. Go over rig up checklist (Table 15) with service company representative. 10. Arrange for testing of all gelled fluids and test crosslink time if applicable. (Table3). 11. Establish rapport with the treater and give the treater instructions on what you expect before, during, and after the treatment. 12. Have Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 completed (to the extent possible) at least 2 hours before pump time. III. Just Before Beginning the Treatment Discussions with the Service-company Treatment Supervisor 1. Review the sand and fluid schedules. Discuss quality control Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
Page 5
Page 6
Get on top of the sand storage unit with the treater and gauge the volume of proppant in each compartment. Remember to check any 100-mesh sand that is being pumped in the pad as a fluid-loss agent. Keep hatches on the sand storage unit closed to protect proppant from inclement weather. Wet proppant will tend to clump in the storage unit and may not come out at the required delivery rates. 11. Set up a system with the treater on numbering the sand storage unit compart ments in the order that they will be pumped. 12. Have service company weigh sand trucks before leaving yard and upon return ing to yard. Complete the Proppant Tracking Chart (Table 9). This will help you keep track of how much proppant is left at any point during the job. 13. Complete the Crosslinker Tracking Chart (Table 10), if applicable. This will help you keep track of how much crosslinker is left at any point during the job. 14. Complete the Breaker Tracking Chart (Table 11). This will help you keep track of how much breaker is left at any point during the job. 15. Complete the Fluid Loss Additive Tracking Chart (Table 12). This will help you keep track of how much fluid loss additive is left at any point during the job. 16. If pumping energized fluid, fill out the nitrogen product tracking chart (Table 13). Discussions with the Service-company Field Chemist or District Engineer 1. Have the chemist complete Table 1 for each tank of gel and acid. This is in addition to your own quality control work. Always have the service company confirm your tests to be surthe values are correct. 2. Check with the chemist to find which additives (such as crosslinkers, fluid-loss additives, and breakers) will be added on the fly during the job. 3. Check with the chemist to see that all tanks have been premixed with the necessary additives. 4. If running a crosslinked gel, catch a sample of gel from each tank and add the appropriate amount of crosslinker to evaluate the crosslinker. 5. Test the crosslinker and breaker systems at bottomhole temperature using a Fann 35 and a heated cup. Equipment 1. Is all equipment fueled up, and is there enough fuel on the location to complete the job? 2. Were all pumps and lines flushed with clean water before the job started? 3. Are all injection lines staked down? Ibis is very important when pump energized fluids. 4. Is a standby blender rigged up or in an immediately usable position? 5. Is the blender located close enough to each tank so that sucking the fluid at a high rate will not be a problem? 6. To be assured of sufficient suction between the blender and the tanks you should have 1 suction hose per 10 BPM for thin fluids; for thick fluids use 1 suction hose per 5 BPM. For example, a 40 BPM rate would require 8 suction hoses for 60-pound viscous gel.
10.
Page 7
Safety Equipment Checklist 1. Locate pumping trucks and tanks crosswind and a reasonable feet from well. Head all vehicles away from the well and keep access roads clear. 2. Each discharge line should have a full swing at the well and at the truck manifold and be staked at each end. Additional staking may be needed based on certain conditions. 3. Install check valves in each discharge line as near the wellhead as possible. 4. No one should stand on or near discharge lines under pressure and never pass lines under trucks or other equipment. 5. Pressure test discharge lines from pump to well at 500 psi greater than maximum treating pressure. 6. Inspect wellhead for any low pressure connections that may have inadvertently been added during well servicing. 7. Bleed off lines should be staked and in a safe direction (downwind, downhill, and/or to a pit). 8. Ensure that adequate fire fighting equipment is in good working condition and strategically located. 9. Conduct pumping operation in daylight. Do not pump during electrical or severe dust storms. 10. All personnel and equipment not necessary to the operation should move to a point at least 150 feet from well. 11. If flammable materials (crude oil, diesel, xylene, methanol, etc.) are pumped, all per sons within at least 150 feet from well should remove matches, lighters, and cigarettes from their pockets. 12. Prior to pumping, all company and contract supervisors and crew should meet to dis cuss job procedures, work signals, hazards, and safety precautions. At this time, an emergency assembly area should be designated in an upwind direction from the well. Also, a head count and a buddy system should be established so that all personnel can be accounted for, if necessary. 13. If pumping flammable material, have the service company wrap all discharge hoses from the blender to the pump trucks with canvas or other material. This will negate spraying of flammable material should the hoses leak or burst. Pumping Energized Fluids 14. Ensure that pressure release valves on pumping equipment are in working order and will pop off at the proper pressure. 15. Make sure nitrogen or C02 lines are laid in a straight line to the manifold and are staked down across their entire length. 16. Pressure test nitrogen lines to 500 psi above the maximum treating pressure. 17. Make sure treating van is strategically located so that the treater can see both the liquid and nitrogen injection lines. 18. Ensure check valves are installed in the nitrogen injection lines.
Page 8
I. PRE-TREATMENT INFORMATION Water Sample Analyzed by: Water Analysis Results: Bacteria Culture Results:
Bactericide Recommendation: Gel Pilot Test Results Frac Tanks Delivered: No. Frac Tanks Inspected: Date: Remarks: Bactericide Added: Date. Water Added: Date: II. TREATMENT INFORMATION Type of Fracturing Fluid: Amount of Fracturing Fluid on Location Beginning of Job: End of Job: Amount of Nitrogen on Location (if applicable): Beginning of Job: End of Job: Type of Proppant: Amount of Proppant on Location Beginning of Job: End of Job: Type of Prepad and Flush: Amount of Prepaid and Flush on Location Beginning of Job: End of Job: Pre-Job Safety and Information Meeting: Remarks:
Date:
Amount: Amount:
Time:
Page 9
TABLE 1 (Continued) Products Batch Mixed: Products Added on the Fly: Job Started: Time: Job Completed: Time: Job Recap: Average Clean Rate, BPM Average Nitrogen Rate (if applicable), scf/min Average Dirty Rate, BPM Average Total Rate (if applicable), BPM Average Pressure, psi Maximum Rate, BPM Maximum Pressure, psi ISIP, psi Frac Gradient, psi/ft 15 Minute Shut-In, psi Total Proppant Pumped, lbs Total Fluid to Recover, bbls
Acid
Frac
Remarks:
pH Chlorides (ppm)
rpm (cp)
rpm (cp)
rpm (cp)
Iron (ppm)
Phosphate (ppm)
TDS (ppm)
pH Chlorides (ppm)
rpm (cp)
rpm (cp)
rpm (cp)
Iron (ppm)
Phosphate (ppm)
TDS (ppm)
Page 10
TABLE 4 PROPOSED GELLED FLUID PUMPING SCHEDULE* During Treatment Checks Clean Type Stage Stage Fluid Volume () Dirty Stage Volume () Proppant Proppant Stage Proppant Concentration Weight Remaining (ppg) (lbs) (lbs) QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES Cross Linked Fluid Volumes () Sand Volumes ()
Page 11
TABLE 5 PROPOSED FOAM PUMPING SCHEDULE* During Treatment Checks Clean Type Stage Stage Fluid Volume () Dirty Stage Volume () Proppant Proppant Stage Proppant Concentration Weight Remaining (ppg) (lbs) (lbs) QUALITY CONTROL GUIDELINES Cross Linked Fluid Volumes () Sand Volumes ()
Page 12
Compartment No. Proppant Type Sieve Sizes 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 60 80 100 120 140 Pan
Percent On
*If this data not available on location, have service company supply recent sieve analysis on sand in yard.
Page 13
Page 14
Fluid Type: Base Fluid: Salts Added: Base Gel: Crosslinker: Bactericide: Surfactant: Buffer: Breaker: Fluid Loss:
Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type
Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount
/1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal
Fluid Type: Base Fluid: Salts Added: Base Gel: Crosslinker: Bactericide: Surfactant: Buffer: Breaker: Fluid Loss:
Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type
Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount
/1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal /1000 gal
Page 15
TABLE 8 FRAC TANK TRACKING CHART GaugedVolume in Tank () PumpableVolume* in Tank () Volume on LocationAfter Treatment ()
Tank No.
Total
*Pumpable volume = gauged volume - 10% of tank volume. (Some tank configu rations may allow more or less fluid removal. Consult with the treater as to pumpable tank volume.)
Page 16
TABLE 9 PROPPANT TRACKING CHART Type Proppant Gauged Quanity in Compartment (lbs) Proppant Remaining After Treatment (lbs)
Compartment No.
Total
Have service companies weigh sand trucks before leaving yard and upon return to yard.
Page 17
TABLE 10 CROSSLINKER/FOAMER TRACKING CHART Total Volume Crosslinker/Foamer on site: Crosslinker/Foamer Addition Rate: Stage Cumulative Stage Volume Usage (gal) (gal)
Total
*Usage for crosslinker or foamer as appropriate.
Page 18
TABLE 11 BREAKER TRACKING CHART Total Volume on site: Breaker Addition Rate: Stage Stage Volume (gals)
Compartment No. Proppant Type Sieve Sizes 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 60 80 100 120 140 Pan
Percent On
*If this data not available on location, have service company supply recent sieve analysis on sand in yard.
Page 19
Stage
Truck 1 Truck 2 Planned % Remaining % Remaining Volume Usage Remaining1 Volume2 Remaining (scf) (scf) (scf)
1 2
Read from guage on service company nitrogen truck. Obtain volimes from service company charts for the nitrogen truck.
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Page 21
TABLE 14 ACID AND FRACTURE TREATMENT SUMMARY SHEET Frac via Tubing Casing Annulus Tubing Size & Weight: Packer Depth: Packer Type: Casing Size & Weight: SITP: Tested Frac Lines to: Tubing Volume:
Casing Volume to Perfs: Total Flush Volume: Perforations: ISIP: Pressured Tubing-Casing Annulus to:
SICP:
Clean Volume ()
Remarks
Clean Volume ()
Remarks
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TABLE 15 (Continued) 5. Pressure transducer at or near wellhead. It is not uncommon to have pressure transducers actually being placed back at the pump trucks. This is not a disastrous situation, but it can be costly. You need to have the pressure transducer as close to the wellhead, because that is the hydraulic horsepower that you are paying for. If you put the transducer at greater distances from the wellhead, you have to pay for the friction between the pump trucks and the wellhead. This pressure can be much higher if the service company is using small iron to get to a manifold or small iron to go to the wellhead. 6. Tree saver, if required, properly installed. A major consideration is to be sure that the tree saver is, in fact, pumped down and in place and seated in the tubing. You need to make sure that the annulus valve or the wing valve is left open during the treatment assuring that the tree saver is in fact installed and sealing off in the tubing. Never shut in a wing valve and trust the tree saver to work. If the tree saver or the packer on the tree saver fails, you will be aware of failure with fluid coming out the wing valve. Do not exceed the maximum allowable rate for each size tree saver. Excess rate can cause the tubing to be cut below the isolation tool. Refer to service company guidelines. 7. Lines properly staked. Staking of pumping lines is particularly important when using energized fluids. If a line parts on a location, it is not uncommon for that line to blow up into the air and flail around the location causing potential loss of life and great injury. Staking of lines requires physical labor, but should be a requirement for safety. 8. All irons should be flexible. One of the major reasons for catastrophic failure of treating iron on fracture treatments, cementing treatments, etc. is that at some point in the installation of the treating iron, improper use of chicksans left a treating line virtually rigid. 9. Check valve and plug valve on each pump pretested before a job. This is a controversial item and may not be an absolute necessity depending upon the pressures and type of jobs being conducted. When treating wells where the pressures are high and there is potential for loss of a well, it would seem prudent to have the ability to isolate individual pumps during the treatment for repair of equipment or leaks. By having a check valve and a plug valve on each pump, you have a double safety device so if the check valve fails, you have a backup whereby pumping equipment can be individually isolated. The failure of a plug valve or a check valve without a backup on a treatment would almost necessitate the shut down of the entire job should a leak occur. We have found on many locations that check valves in many areas have not been maintained and are subject to leaking. We have also noted on many locations that service companies do not even put a blocking valve between their pump trucks and the wellhead. This necessitates going to the wellhead and shutting the well in should a failure occur between the wellhead and the pump. Many times this type of failure will result in the inability to get to the wellhead. We, therefore, recommend plug valves and checks between each pump and blocking valves at the wellhead.
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TABLE 15 (Continued) 10. Check minimum and maximum rates for trailer manifold, if used. It happens many times that pigs, manifold trailers, ground manifolds, or other terminology used for this type of equipment are designed for a maximum rate or in many cases for a minimum rate. Ile same restrictions apply on maximum rate through the manifold trailer as far as discharge lines. If you are going to have to pump 40 or 50 bbl/min and you have a 3-inch I.D. discharge line in the manifold trailer or the manifold itself, severe corrosion or friction will occur in the manifold. Additionally, these trailer manifolds or ground manifolds have large I.D. suctions. This can cause a great deal of proppant settling and potential plugging off on low viscosity delayed crosslink jobs or foam frac treatments where high proppant concentrations are being pumped. Discuss the potential settling out of high concentrations of proppant in low viscosity fluids with the service company if trailer manifolds are going to be used where these conditions exist. 11. Check for sufficient suction hose and evaluate velocity per hose. It is very common to find insufficient suction hose being used between the frac tanks and the blender and additionally insufficient hose being used on the discharge side of the blender. A good rule of thumb for 10 to 20 ft sections of 4-inch hose on the backside of the blender is that you must have one hose per 10 bbl/min of suction required for thin fluid, i.e., prepad or flush fluid. You should have one 4-inch hose for 5 bbl/min if pumping a 50 or 60 lb viscous gel. In the case of the discharge side where you are using pressurizing pumps, you need at least one hose for 10 bbl/min of discharge rate. Obviously, you need to consider the length of hosing and add additional hoses if there are indications of pumps starving, i.e., not getting fluid. This becomes a very important consideration on large treatments where many trucks are positioned at fairly large distances from the pressurizing blender. There is another consideration that needs to be taken into account when using high concentrations of proppant, as in foam fracturing treatments. Here, you need to maintain high velocities per hose to keep settling out and slugging of proppants occurring in low viscosity fluids. Where pumping very high concentrations of proppants such as 18 to 21 lb/gal from the blender to the pump trucks, you need to keep the hose length as short as possible and use as small an I.D. hose as will achieve the necessary rate without starving the pump. 12. Check horsepower and plunger sizes of pumps on location. This would appear to be something that is obvious and not the responsibility of the quality control engineer. That simply is not the case. You need to question the service engineer and find out the plunger size and horsepower of all trucks on location. By doing so and having him give you a flow rate versus pressure at various gear rates for the pumps, you have a backup for flow should flowmeters or other devices fail during the treatment. Additionally, it is not uncommon to have equipment on location that is not suited for the pumping pressures anticipated on the treatment. This would occur if large size plungers were on location where very high pressure pumping would occur. Human beings are used to set up equipment, and people make mistakes. The use of equipment not designed for high pressure pumping or alternatively high rate pumping where small size plungers are on pumps on location can cause very rapid failure of this equipment
TABLE 15 (Continued) 13. Check flow monitoring equipment before the job. It is always advisable to circulate the equipment on location and be sure that flowmeters, densiometers, etc. are functioning prior to starting the treatment. This should be done the day before or early in the morning of the treatment so that any electronic problems can be worked out and not delay treatments. Ensure that the flowmeters are properly sized for the designed pump rates. This is especially important on foam treatments, because liquid pump rates are typically much lower than on normal non-foam treatments. Know the minimum flow rate the meters can measure accurately. This applies to all types of meters (turbine, venturi, mass, etc.). 14. Estimate available fluid removable from the tanks. Depending upon the type of frac tanks used, there is always a certain portion that is simply not practically removed from that tank during that treatment. With large lay down 500 bbl tanks, it is not uncommon that you will leave 50 bbls or so of fluid in the tank. Attempting to suck lower than this on small volume or high rate treatments can cause loss of suction resulting in catastrophic problems at the blender. Work with the service company along these lines making sure that you have sufficient fluid to do the fracture treatment. Another approach would be to use work tanks to supply fluid to the primary fracturing blender. The work tanks are kept full, providing good hydrostatic pressure, by pumping from the other tanks into the work tank using a centrifugal pump or another blender. This will allow you to draw the fluid level in the other tanks as low as possible without the potential for losing suction at the primary blender. On large fracture treatments it is not uncommon to use two or three work tanks. It is never a good practice to suck out of 8 or 10 tanks simultaneously on a treatment. This allows no visual monitoring of pump rate during a treatment. You can very easily suck one of the tanks all the way down and lose prime, potentially screening out the well. 15. Check placement of proppant storage to assure convenient movement and access to standby blender. It obviously does no good to have standby blenders if you cannot get proppant to that blender during the treatment. A standby blender should be one that can immediately come on if you lose the primary equipment. The standby blender should be primed up and running before and during the treatment. It is also good practice to ask the service company to bring on the standby blender during the prepad of the treatment to see its efficiency in doing so, and then go back to the primary equipment. You need to physically look and be sure that proppant can get to the blender. One needs to check suction hoses and discharge hoses and be sure they are properly rigged up and chemical can be transferred and added when using a standby blender. 16. Double check working pressure rating on frac iron. We recommend physically walking around looking at the iron, and questioning the people on location if something does not look right. You should ask the personnel if all the iron is, in fact, the same pressure rating. A common problem here are fittings or connections at the wellhead that may or may not be supplied by the service company. Examples of disastrous occurrences are using low pressure Ls or Ts as crossover to the service company equipment. Double checking this equipment is an absolute must for safety and prevention of potential catastrophic accidents.
Appendix C
Procedures and Surface Equipment for Implementing the Forced Closure Fracturing Technique
(Excerpt from New Techniques and Quality Control Find Success in Enhancing Productivity and Minimizing Proppant Flowback Ely, Arnold, and Holditch, 1990, SPE 20708)
FORCED CLOSURE IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURE 1. Be sure that the wellhead and flowback manifold system are installed and tested so the well can be flowed back within 30 seconds of completing flush. Figure 12 illustrates a typical surface layout for forced closure implementation. 2. If a liquid fracturing fluid is used, install a flow meter capable of monitoring rates from 10to 20 gallons per minute downstream of a variable choke. If a foam fracturing fluid is used, no flow meter is needed. The flowback rate of gas can be calculated from the pressure drop across the orifice. 3. Isolate the choke and flowmeter with a block valve during the treatment4. Insure that the choke is fully closed and isolated prior to starting the fracture treat ment. 5. Within 30 seconds after completing the flush, open the block valve with the choke still closed. If the choke fails, the block valve can be used as a back-up to regulate flow rate. 6. Open the choke slowly. Do not exceed a flowback rate of 10-15 gallons per minute for liquids or an equivalent rate for gases. 7. Monitor pressure vs time to detect fracture closure. 8. Continue to flow at a low rate for 30 minutes after near wellbore fracture closure has been detected. 9. The flowback rate can then be increased to 20-25 gallons per minute for liquids or equivalent rates for gases. 10. Continue flowing for an additional 30 minutes. For normal pressured or energized produced fluids to measure sand content.wells, the flowback rate ran eventually be increased to 1-2 BPM. Always monitor the produced fluids to measure sand content. 11. Choke back the well as necessary when gas or oil flow rates become large. 12.Flow the well for several days or weeks using choke sizes no larger than 10-12/64 inch. 13.Monitor and record all data concerning flowing pressures and oil, gas and water flow rates.