AnatomyoftheEar

Earhasthreeregions
n n n

outer middle inner

outerandmiddleare concernedwiththe transmissionof soundtotheinner ear innerearconverts soundtofluidmotion andthentoelectrical impulses(action potentials)

ThePhysiologyoftheEar

OuterEar
n

n n

Auricle(pinna)flapof elasticcartilage Externalauditorycanal Tympanicmembrane (eardrum) semitransparentthin fibroelasticconnective tissuemembrane, coveredbyepidermison theexternalsideanda simplelowcuboidal mucousepithieliumon theinnerside

ExternalAuditoryCanal

An annulusfibrosus Lpi longprocessofincussometimesvisiblethroughahealthytranslucentdrum Um umbotheendofthemalleushandleandthecentreofthedrum Lr lightreflexanteroinferioirly Lp Lateralprocessofthemalleus At Atticalsoknownasparsflaccida Hm handleofthemalleus

MiddleEar
n

n n n

Ossicles(malleus, incus,stapes) Ovalwindow Roundwindow Openingintothe Eustachiantube

InnerEar
Vestibular apparatusfor balanceand equilibrium Cochleafor hearing

Sound
Resultsfromthemotionofair moleculeswhichoscillate. n Compressionandrarefactionwithea. pressurepulse>pressurewaves. n Soundwavestravelinalldirections fromtheirsource.
n

EarsandHearing
n

Wavesarecharacterizedbyfrequency andintensity.
n

Frequency:
Measuredinhertz(cyclespersecond). n Greaterthefrequencythehigherthepitch.
n

Intensity:
Directlyrelatedtoamplitudeofsoundwaves. n Measuredindecibels.
n

OuterEar
n

Theshapeoftheouterear(auricle)increases theintensityoftheintermediatefrequencies: thosethataremostimportantforpreception ofspeechsounds Soundwavesarefunneledbytheauricleinto theexternalauditorymeatus. Externalauditorymeatuschannelssound wavestothetympanicmembrane.

n

Increasessoundwaveintensity.

MiddleEarBones
n

Theossicles(the smallestbonesinthe body)amplifythe sound20Xdueto leverage

n

advantage:sensitivity tosoftsounds disadvantage possibledamageto sensorycellsfromloud sounds

MiddleEar(Cavitybetweentympanic
membraneandcochlea)
n

Malleus
n

Attachedtotympanic membrane.
n

Vibrationsof membraneare transmittedtothe stapes. Anvil. Attachedtooval window. Vibratesinresponseto vibrationsintympanic membrane.

Incus:
n

Stapes:
n

Ossiclestransmitsoundformanairmediumtoafluidmedium

MusclesoftheMiddleEar
n

Stapedius
n

thesmallestskeletalmusclein thehumanbody. connectstothestapes(the stirrup) whenitcontracts,itreducesthe actionofthestapes(i.e.,it reducesamplification) contractsjustbeforespeaking andchewingbecauseourown speakingandchewingactuallycould beloudenoughtodamagethe sensitivemechanismsoftheinner earifthesoundswerefurther amplified. innervatedbyabranchoftheFacial Nerve(CNVII).

MusclesoftheMiddleEar
n

Tensortympani
n

insertsonthemalleus andactstotensethe tympanicmembrane reducingthe effectivenessofsound transmission,protecting theinnerearduringloud sounds. innervationfroma branchofthemandibular nerve(V3ofCNV).

(1)Malleus (2)Malleusligament (3)Incus (4)Incusligament (5)Stapesmuscle(stapedius) (6)Stapesfootplate (7)Eardrum (8)Eustachiantube (9)Malleusmuscle(tensor tympani) (10)Nerve(chordatympani) sectioned.

BonyLabyrinthofCochlea

MembranouslabyrinthofCochlea

Thebonycapsule(bony labayrinth)hasbeen dissectedout,showing the21/2coilsofthe membranouslabyrinth (35mminlength).The oval(bluearrow)and round(yellowarrow) windowsareindicated.

CochlearPhysiology

Cochlea
n

Vibrationsofstapesand ovalwindowdisplace perilymph fluidwithin scalavestibuli. Vibrationspasstothe scalatympani.Assound frequencyincreases, pressurewavesofthe perilympharetransmitted throughthevestibular membraneandthrough thebasilarmembrane. Movementsofperilymph traveltothebaseofcochlea wheretheydisplacethe roundwindow.

OrganofCorti
Sensoryhaircellslocated onthebasilar membrane. n Stereocilia oftheouter haircellsareembedded inthetectorial membrane.
n

innerhaircells

outerhaircells

Stereocilla

OrganofCorti
tectorialmembrane

nervefibersin vestibulocochlearnerve

basilarmembrane

Stereocilla

Haircellshavestereocillaandkinocilium(truecillia)

OrganofCorti
n

Whenthecochlearductisdisplaced,a shearingforceiscreated,movingand bendingthestereocilia. Ionchannelsopen,depolarizingthehair cells,releasingglutamatethatstimulates thesensoryneuron. Greaterbendingofstereocilia,the increasedfrequencyofAPproduced. Nerveimpulsesincochlearnervetravel tobrainstemandontotheauditory areasofcerebralcortex,whereitis interpretedassound.

tiplinkprotein

K+ Ca++

K+
Ca++ influx

Nervefibersfromeachregion(high pitchbaseorlowpitchtip)leadto slightlydifferentregionsofbrain producingsensationofpitch. Soundvolumecausesmore vibrationincreasedstimulationis interpretedasloudersoundintensity. Toneisinterpretationofbrainbased ondistributionofhaircellsstimulated.

VestibularApparatusand Equilibrium
n

Vestibularapparatusmaintainsthebody(mainlythehead) atequilibrium(atbalance)andstabilizingtheeyesrelative totheenvironment

n

Staticequilibriummaintenanceofthepositionofthebody(mainly thehead)relativetotheforceofgravity Dynamicequilibriummaintenanceofthepositionofthebody (mainlythehead)inresponsetosuddenmovementssuchas rotation,acceleration,anddeceleration. Otolithicorgans

n

Consistsof2parts:
n

Utricleandsacculestaticequilibrium

Semicircularcanalsdynamicequilibrium

Vestibularapparatus
n

Bonylabyrinth surroundsmembranous labyrinthfilledwith endolymph(likeECF). Betweenbonylabyrinth andmembraneof membranouslabyrinth isperilymph(likeCSF)

Vestibularapparatus: Otolithicorgans
n

Utricleandsaccule
n

Sacculeconnectedto utriclebyduct.

Eachsensoryarea consistofamacule thatcontainsthe sensorymechanisms

Saccule Utricle

Utricle
n

anirregular,oblong membranoussac locatedonthemedial wallofthevestibule. lieshorizontally

n

Moresensitiveto horizontalacceleration.

maculaconsistof sensoryhaircellsand supportingcells (sustentacularcells)

Utricle
n n

Eachsensoryhaircellhasone kinociliumandmanystereocilia Thestereociliaandkinocilium areembeddedinagelatinous membrane,theotolithic membrane,whichsitsontop ofthesensorycells.

n

Themembraneisproducedby thesustentacularcells.

Onthesurfaceoftheotolithic membraneareotoliths(or ++ otoconia),crystalsofCa carbonatewhicharecomposed ofcalciumcarbonateand protein.

n

Theseotolithssensitiveto horizontalmovements

Saccule
n n

aflattened,irregularlyshaped membranoussacalsolocatedinthe medialwallofthebonyvestibule. saccularmacula,havingthesame strutureastheutricle,lies perpendicularandverticletothe maculaoftheutricle.

n

Moresensitivetovertical(saggital plane,upanddownforwardand back)acceleration.

hastwosmallopeningsarepresent inthesaccule.
n

Oneistheopeningofaduct,called theendolymphaticduct,that communicateswiththeutricle. Theotheropeningcommunicates withtheductofthecochleaviathe ductusreuniens.

CopyrightTheMcGrawHillCompanies,Inc.Permissionrequiredforreproductionordisplay.

SemicircularCanals
n

Provideinformation aboutrotational acceleration. Projectin3different planes. Eachcanalcontainsa semicircularduct.At thebaseisthecrista ampullaris.

n

=enlargedswellingsat baseofeachcanal communicatingwith utricles

Endolymph MovementinCanals

MovementofCupulaRelativetoBodyMovement

Endolymphprovidesinertiasothatthesensoryprocesseswillbendindirection oppositetotheangularacceleration.
n

Thesemicircularcanalsareresponsiblefor detectinganykindofrotationalmotionin thehead(pitch,roll,yaw). Theotolithorgans(utricleandsaccule)are primarilyresponsiblefordetectingany degreeoflinearmotionofthehead.

headistiltedtooneside acceleratedforwardandback,orsidetoside acceleratedupanddown(asinanelevator),

TheEye

OuterTunic
n

Sclera.
n

Toughconnectivetissuelayer.coversmostof eyeballandformsvisiblewhitepartofeye. Protective Anteriortransparentportionofsclera. Windowwhichhelpsfocuslight Mostblindnessfromcloudycornea

Cornea.
n n n

MiddleTunic
Choroid n Ciliarybody n Iris n Lens
n

Choroid
Highlypigmentedlayerwhichcontains manybloodvesselstonourishretina. n Posterior5/6ofeyeball n Anteriorportionbecomesspecialized intociliarybodyandiris.
n

Ciliarybody
Ringseyeforwardfromchoroid. n Controlslensshapeforaccommodation. n Producesaqueoushumor(fluidwhich nourishesnonvasculartissuesof corneaandlens).
n

Iris
Anteriortociliarybody. n Giveseyeitscolor. n Controlssizeofpupilandhowmuch lightenterseye.
n

Lens
Forfocusinglightonretina. n Separatesinteriorofeyeinto2 compartments. n Anteriorcavityhasaqueoushumor n Largerposteriorcavitybetweenlens andretinahasvitreoushumor.
n

PosteriorCavity
n

n n

Vitreoushumorinposteriorcavityis semifluid,jellylikesubstance. Enableseyetoretainitssphericalshape. Failuretodrainwill>increasedpressure insideofeye=glaucoma.Pusheslens backwardintovitreoushumor,whichis,in turn,pushedintoretina.Cancausedamage andblindnessifnottreated.

InnerTunic
Consistsofretina. n Retinahas4layers
n

Pigmentedepithelium n Receptorcells(rodsandcones) n Layerofbipolarneurons.Horizontaland amacrineneuronsheretoo. n Layerofganglioncells.

n

Vision
Eyestransduceenergyinthe electromagneticspectrumintoAPs. n Onlywavelengthsof400700nm constitutevisiblelight. n Neuronsintheretinacontributefibers thataregatheredtogetherattheoptic disc,wheretheyexitastheopticnerve.
n

Refraction
n

Lightthatpassesfrom amediumofone densityintoamedium ofanotherdensity (bent). Refractiveindex (degreeofrefraction) dependsupon:

n

Comparativedensity ofthe2media. Curvatureofinterface betweenthe2media.

n

Refractiveindexof air=1.00 Refractiveindexof cornea=1.38

Imageisinvertedon retina.

Accommodation
n

Abilityoftheeyes tokeeptheimage focusedonthe retinaasthe distancebetween theeyesand objectvaries.

ChangesintheLensShape
n n

Ciliarymusclecanvaryits aperture. Distance>20feet: n Relaxationplacestension onthesuspensory ligament. n Pullslenstaut. n Lensisleastconvex. Distancedecreases: n Ciliarymusclescontract. n Reducestensionon suspensoryligament. n Lensbecomesmore roundedandmoreconvex.

VisualAcuity
n n

Sharpnessofvision. Dependsuponresolving power: n Abilityofthevisual systemtoresolve2 closelyspaceddots. n Myopia (nearsightedness): n Imagebrought tofocusinfront ofretina. n Hyperopia farsightedness): n Imagebrought tofocusbehind theretina.

VisualAcuity
n

Astigmatism:
Asymmetryofthecorneaand/orlens. n Imagesoflinesofcircleappearblurred.
n

Correctedbycylindricallens.

Retina
n

Consistsofsinglecell thickpigmented epithelium Photoreceptorneurons:

n

Rodsandcones.

n n

Layersofotherneurons Neurallayersareforward extensionofthebrain.

n

Neurallayersfaceoutward, towardtheincominglight. Lightmustpassthrough severalneurallayersbefore strikingtherodsandcones.

Retina
n

Rodsandcones synapsewithother neurons. APconductedoutward intheretina. Outerlayersof neuronsthat contributetooptic nervecalledganglion cells.

Retina
n

Neuronsreceivesynaptic inputfrombipolarcells, whichreceiveinputfrom rodsandcones. Horizontalcellssynapse withphotoreceptors. Amacrinecellssynapse withseveralganglioncells.

EffectofLightonRods
n

Rodsareactivatedwhenlight produceschemicalchangein rhodopsin. n Bleachingreaction: n Rhodopsindissociates intoretinene (rentinaldehyde)and opsin. n 11cisretineneis convertedtoall transform. n Initiateschangesinionic permeabilitytoproduce APinganglioniccells. Provideblackandwhitevision.

DarkAdaptation n Gradualincreaseinphotoreceptor
sensitivitywhenenteringadarkroom. n Maximalsensitivityreachedin20min. n Increasedamountsofvisualpigments produced.
Slightincreasedpigmentincones. n Greaterincreasedrhodopsininrods.
n
n

100,00foldincreaseinlightsensitivityinrods.

ElectricalActivityof RetinalCells
n

n n n

Ganglioncellsandamacrinecellsareonly neuronsthatproduceAP. Indark,photoreceptorsreleaseinhibitoryNT thathyperpolarizesbipolarneurons. LightinhibitsreleaseofinhibitoryNT. Darkcurrent: + channels RodsandconescontainmanyNa thatareopeninthedark. Causesslightmembranedepolarizationin dark.

ElectricalActivityof RetinalCells
n

+ channelsrapidlycloseinresponseto Na light.
n n

+ channelsopen. cGMPrequiredtokeeptheNa OpsindissociationcausesthealphasubunitsofG proteinstodissociate. Gproteinsubunitsbindandactivate phosphodiesterase,convertingcGMPtoGMP. + channelsclosewhencGMPconvertedtoGMP. Na

ConesandColorVision
Coneslesssensitivethanrodstolight. n Conesprovidecolorvisionandgreater visualacuity. n Highlightintensitybleachesoutthe rods,andcolorvisionwithhighacuity producedbycones.
n

ConesandColorVision
n

Trichromatictheoryof colorvision: n 3typesofcones: n Blue,green andred. n Accordingto theregionof visual spectrum absorbed.

ConesandColorVision
n

Eachtypeofconecontainsretinene associatedwithphotopsins. n Photopsinproteinisuniqueforeachofthe 3conepigments. Eachconeabsorbsdifferentwavelengthsof light.

VisualAcuityand Sensitivity
n

Eacheyeorientedsothat imagefallswithinfovea centralis.

n n

Foveaonlycontainscones. Degreeofconvergenceof conesis1:1.

Peripheralregionscontain bothrodsandcones.
n

Degreeofconvergenceof rodsismuchlower.

Visualacuitygreatestand sensitivitylowestwhenlight fallsonfovea.

NeuralPathwaysfrom Retina
n n

Righthalfofvisualfield projecttolefthalfofretina ofbotheyes. Lefthalfofvisualfield projecttorighthalfofretina ofbotheyes. n Leftgeniculatebody receivesinputfromboth eyesfromtherighthalf ofthevisualfield. n Rightgeniculatebody receivesinputfromboth eyesfromlefthalfof visualfield. n Neuronsprojecttostriate cortex.

EyeMovements
Superiorcolliculuscoordinate: n Smoothpursuitmovements:
n

Trackmovingobjects. n Keepimagefocusedonthefovea.
n

Saccadiceyemovements:
Quickjerkymovements. n Occurwheneyesappearstill. n Moveimagetodifferentphotoreceptors.
n

NeuralProcessingof VisualInformation
n

Receptivefield:
n

Partofvisualfieldthataffectsactivityofparticular ganglioncell. Responsesproducedbylightinthecenterof visualfields. Responsesinhibitedbylightinthecenterand stimulatedbylightinthesurround.

Oncenterfields:
n

Offcenterfields:
n