Chng 2.

Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

23
Chng 2: MA TRN V NH THC
Bi 1: Khi nim ma trn v cc php ton trn ma trn
______________________________________________________
1. Ma trn:
1.1 nh ngha:
Ma trn m dng, n ct trn trng s K ( , ) l mt bng s hnh ch nht gm m dng, n
ct, mi s trong ma trn thuc trng v c gi l mt phn t ca ma trn.
Ta k hiu tp cc ma trn l M(m, n; K) v mi ma trn thuc M(m, n; K) c vit chi
tit l:
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
m m mn
a a a
a a a
a a a
(
(
(
(
(

hoc
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
m m mn
a a a
a a a
a a a
| |
|
|
|
|
\ .

Hay vit gn l ( )
ij m n
A a

= hoc [ ]
ij m n
A a

= trong 1, i m = ch s dng v 1, j n = ch s
ct ca phn t.
Hai ma trn ( )
ij m n
A a

= v ( )
ij m n
B b

= c gi l bng nhau nu
ij ij
a b = vi mi 1, i m =
v 1, j n = .
V d: Ma trn
2x3
3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
; 4 5 6
4 5 6
7 8 9
x
A B
(
(
(
= =
(
(

(


1.2 Mt s dng ma trn c bit:
1.2.1 Ma trn vung:
Trong trng hp s dng v s ct ca hai ma trn bng nhau th ta c khi nim ma trn
vung. K hiu tp cc ma trn vung l M(n; K), vi n l cp ca ma trn vung.
A=
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
n n nn
a a a
a a a
a a a
(
(
(
(
(


Trong ma trn vung cc phn t
11 22
, ,...,
nn
a a a l cc phn t nm trn ng cho chnh,
cc phn t
1 ( 1)2 1
, ,...,
n n n
a a a

l cc phn t nm trn ng cho ph.

V d:
1 2
3 4
A
(
=
(

l ma trn vung cp hai v
1 2 3
4 5 7
7 8 9
B
(
(
=
(
(

l mt ma trn vung cp 3.
Phn t nm trn ng cho chnh ca ma trn A l 1; 4. Phn t nm trn ng ch
chnh ca ma trn B l 1, 5, 9.

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

24
1.2.2 Ma trn dng, ma trn ct:
Nu m = 1 th ma trn ch c mt dng, c gi l ma trn dng. Tng t, nu n = 1 th ta
c ma trn ch c mt ct, c gi l ma trn ct. Ma trn dng v ma trn ct thng c
gi l vect dng v vect ct.
Mt s thuc trng K c gi l ma trn mt dng, mt ct.
V d:
Ma trn dng: | |
1 2 3 4 A= v ma trn ct
1
5
7
B
(
(
=
(
(


1.2.3 Ma trn khng
Ma trn c tt c cc phn t u bng 0 c gi l ma trn khng. Ta dng s 0 biu
th cho mi ma trn khng cp m x n.
V d:
Ma trn 0 cp 2x3:
0 0 0
0 0 0
(
(


1.2.4 Ma trn cho
Ma trn vung c cc phn t ngoi ng cho chnh u bng 0 v cc phn t trn
ng cho chnh khc khng c gi l ma trn cho (hay ma trn ng cho). Ma trn
cho cp n c dng
A=
11
22
0 ... 0
0 ... 0
0 0 ...
nn
a
a
a
(
(
(
(
(


( )
0, :1,
ii
a i n =

V d:
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 4
C
(
(

(
=
(
(


Nhn xt: Ma trn ng cho thng c k hiu bi
1 2
diag( , ,..., )
n
a a a vi cc phn t trn
ng cho chnh l
1 2
, ,...,
n
a a a
1.2.5 Ma trn n v:
Ma trn cho cp n, c tt c cc phn t trn ng cho chnh u bng 1, c gi l ma
trn n v, k hiu
n
I
1.2.6 Ma trn tam gic
Ma trn c cc phn t trn (hoc di) ng cho chnh bng 0 c gi l ma trn tam
gic
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

25
A =
11 12 1
22 2
...
0 ...
0 0 ...
n
n
nn
a a a
a a
a
(
(
(
(
(


Trong 0
ij
a = khi i> j c gi l ma trn tam gic trn.
V d:
1 2 3 4
0 4 3 2
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 5
A
(
(
(
=
(
(

l ma trn tam gic trn
B =
11
21 22
1 2
0 ... 0
... 0
...
n n nn
b
b b
b b b
(
(
(
(
(

Trong 0
ij
b = khi i < j c gi l ma trn tam gic di.
V d:
3 0 0
1 2 0
0 1 1
B
(
(
=
(
(

l ma trn tam gic di.
Nhn xt: Ma trn tam gic trn v ma trn tam gic di c gi chung l ma trn tam
gic.
1.2.7 Ma trn chuyn v
a) nh ngha:
Cho ma trn A, ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A, k hiu
T
A l ma trn m trong , vai tr
ca dng v ct hon chuyn cho nhau nhng vn gi nguyn ch s ca chng.
Gi s ta c ma trn A=
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
m m mn
a a a
a a a
a a a
(
(
(
(
(

th khi ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A l
11 21 1
12 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
m
m T
n n mn
a a a
a a a
A
a a a
(
(
(
=
(
(


Nu ma trn A c cp l m x n th ma trn
T
A c cp l n x m.
Trng hp c bit chuyn v ca ma trn ct l ma trn dng v ngc li chuyn v ca
ma trn dng l ma trn ct.
V d:
Ma trn
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 1 2 3
A
(
(
=
(
(

th ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A l
1 5 9
2 6 1
3 7 2
4 8 3
T
A
(
(
(
=
(
(


Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

26
b) nh l: Cho cc ma trn
x
, ( )
m n
A B M K e . Khi ta c cc khng nh sau:
( )
T
T
A A = .
T T
A B A B = =
1.2.8 Ma trn i xng Ma trn phn i xng:
Nu ma trn vung A tha
T
A A = th ta ni A l ma trn i xng.
V d: Ma trn
1 2 3
2 1 0
3 0 1
A
(
(
=
(
(

l mt ma trn i xng cp3.
Ma trn
1 2 3 4
2 0 1 2
3 1 1 0
4 2 0 3
A
(
(

(
=
(
(

l ma trn i xng cp 4.
Nu ma trn vung A tha
T
A A = th A ma trn phn i xng.
V d:
Ma trn
0 2 3 4
2 0 5 1
3 5 0 3
4 1 3 0
B
(
(

(
=
(
(

l ma trn phn i xng.
nh l: Nu A l ma trn i xng th , , 1,
ij ji
a a i j n = =
Nu A l ma trn phn xng th , , 1,
ij ji
a a i j n = = , t y suy ra 0
ii
a = (cc phn t trn
ng cho chnh bng 0).
1.2.9 Ma trn bc thang:
Nu mt ma trn trn K c cc dng khc 0 nm bn trn cc dng 0, ng thi trn hai
dng khc 0, ta c cc phn t khc 0 u tin ca dng di nm bn phi phn t khc 0 u
tin ca dng trn th ma trn c gi l ma trn bc thang trn K.
V d: Ma trn
0 3 12 1 7 0
0 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0
B
(
(
(
=
(
(

l ma trn bc thang c ba dng khc 0.
1.3 Cc php bin i s cp trn dng ca ma trn: bao gm cc php bin i sau
i. i ch hai dng i v dng j ca ma trn cho nhau.
ii. Nhn dng th i vi mt s khc khng.
iii. Cng dng th i vi dng th j nhn vi mt s vi i j = .
Nu thay t dng bng t ct ta c cc php bin i s cp trn ct.
Ma trn B c gi l tng ng dng vi ma trn A nu c mt s hu hn php bin
i s cp dng bin ma trn A thnh ma trn B.
Nhn xt:
- Cc php bin i s cp trn dng, ct c gi chung l cc php bin i s cp.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

27
- Quan h tng ng dng l mt quan h tng ng vi cc tnh cht phn x; i
xng; bc cu.
- Mt ma trn vung cp n trn K nhn c t ma trn n v
n
I qua duy nht mt php
bin i s cp c gi l ma trn s cp.
V d:
3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
I
(
(
=
(
(

th c cc ma trn s cp nhn c t
3
I qua cc php bin i s cp l:
1
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
S
(
(
=
(
(

vi
1 4
3 1
d d
I S

2
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 4
S
(
(
=
(
(

vi
3 3
4
3 2
d d
I S

3
1 0 2
0 1 0
0 0 1
S
(
(
=
(
(

vi
1 1 4
2
3 3
d d d
I S
+

2. Cc php ton trn ma trn
2.1 Php cng cc ma trn
2.1.1 nh ngha: Tng ca hai ma trn ( )
ij m n
A a

= v ( )
ij m n
B b

= l mt ma trn
( )
ij m n
C c

= vi
ij ij ij
c a b = + . Tng hai ma trn c k hiu C = A+B.
11 12 1 11 12 1 11 11 12 12 1 1
21 22 2 21 22 2 21 21 22 22 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
... ... ...
... ... ...
... ... ...
n n n n
n n n n
m m mn m m mn m m m m mn mn
a a a b b b a b a b a b
a a a b b b a b a b a b
a a a b b b a b a b a b
+ + + ( ( (
( ( (
+ + +
( ( (
+ =
( ( (
( ( (
+ + +


2.1.2 V d:
1 2 3
2 1 4
A
(
=
(

v
0 2 1
1 3 4
B
(
=
(

. Khi ,
1 0 4
3 2 0
A B
(
+ =
(


2.2 Php nhn ma trn vi mt s:
2.2.1 nh ngha: Tch ca ma trn ( )
ij m n
A a

= vi s thu c bng cch nhn cc phn

t ca ma trn A vi s , k hiu A . Ta c, ( )
ij m n
A a

=

2.2.2 V d:
4 2 3 8 4 6
2
7 3 2 14 6 4
( (
=
( (



Vi A v B l hai ma trn cp m x n, ta k hiu A + (-1)B = A B, gi l php tr ca hai ma
trn.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

28
2 3 5
4 2 1
A
(
=
(

v
2 1 3
3 5 2
B
(
=
(

th
0 4 8
1 3 3
A B
(
=
(

2.2.3 nh l: Vi
x
, , ( )
m n
A B C M K e v , K e ta c:
a) A + B = B + A
b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
c) 0 + A = A + 0 = A
d) A + (-A ) = (-A) + A = 0
e) ( )
T
T T
A B A B + = +
f) ( ) A B A B + = +
g) ( )A A A + = +


2.3 Php nhn hai ma trn:
2.3.1 nh ngha:
Cho hai ma trn ( )
ij m r
A a

= v ( )
ij r n
B b

= , khi tch ca hai ma trn A v B, k hiu l AB

l mt ma trn ( )
ij m n
C c

= vi cc phn t
ij
c l tng ca cc tch cc phn t tng ng dng i
ca ma trn A vi ct j ca ma trn B.
Tc l
1 1 2 2
1
...
r
ij i j i j ir rj ik kj
k
c a b a b a b a b
=
= + + + =

11 12 1
11 12 1 21 22 2 11 12 1
21 22 2 21 22 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1
1
2
2
...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
.
...
... ... ...
...
r
n r n
n n
r r rn m m mn
m m m
ij
j
j
i
rj
ir
r
i
a a a
b b b a a a c c c
b b
b
b b c c c
b b b c c c
a a
c a
a
b
a a
(
(
(

(
(

(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(

(
(
(
(
(

Ch :
Tch ca ma trn A v ma trn B ch c xc nh khi s dng ca ma trn B bng ng s
ct ca ma trn A. Tc l nu A l ma trn cp m x p v B l ma trn cp p x n th AB l ma
trn cp m x n. Do , vi A v B l hai ma trn bt k th nu c tch ca AB, ta cng khng
hn suy ra c tch ca hai ma trn BA, ni cch khc, tch ca hai ma trn khng giao hon.
Ngoi ra, c nhng ma trn khc 0 nhng tch ca chng li l ma trn 0.
2.3.2 V d:
a) Gi s
1 2
1 3
A
(
=
(

v
2 1
0 1
B
(
=
(

khi ;
2 3
2 2
AB
(
=
(

v
1 7
1 3
BA
(
=
(

. Vy
AB BA =

b) Vi
1 0 0 0
;
0 0 1 0
C D
( (
= =
( (

ta c
0 0
0 0
CD
(
=
(

mc d
0; 0 C D = =
.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

29
2 5
4 3
2 1
B
(
(
=
(
(

Nu tn ti hai ma trn A, B tha AB = BA th ta ni ma trn A v ma trn B c th hon v
vi nhau. Ma trn n v c th hon v vi mi ma trn cng cp.
c) Cho
1 2 1
3 1 4
A
(
=
(

v

th
1.( 2) 2.4 ( 1).2 1.5 2.( 3) ( 1).1 4 2
3.( 2) 1.4 4.2 3.5 1.( 3) 4.1 6 16
AB
+ + + + ( (
= =
( (
+ + + +



d) Cho
1 3
2 1 1
x
A
(
=
(

v
2
4 B
y
(
(
=
(
(

. Nu
12
6
AB
(
=
(

hy tm x v y

Gii:
Ta c
2
1 3 2 4 3 12
4
2 1 1 6
x x y
AB
y
y
(
+ + ( ( (
(
= = =
( ( (
(

(


Suy ra y = 6 v x = -2.
2.3.4 nh l:
Cho
x
, ' ( )
m n
A A M K e
v
x
, ' ( )
n p
B B M K e
v
x
( )
p q
C M K e
v
K o e
th:
( )
x x
x x
0 0 ;
0 0 ;
( ') ';
;
( ) ( ) ( ),
n p m p
r m r n
T
T T
A
A
A B B AB AB
AB B A
AB A B A B K o o o o
=
=
=
=
= = e

2.3.5 nh l: Vi
1 2
diag( , ,..., )
n
A a a a =
v
1 2
diag( , ,..., )
n
B b b b =
th
1 1 2 2 1 1
1 1 2 2 1 1
diag( , ,..., )
diag( , ,..., )
A B a b a b a b
AB a b a b a b
=
=

2.3.6 Nhn xt:
Cho cc ma trn
1 2
, ,...,
n
A A A
l cc ma trn c s ct ca ma trn lin trc bng s dng ca
ma trn lin sau. Khi tch ca n ma trn ny c nh ngha theo cch quy np sau:
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 1 2 1
( )
( )
... ( ... )
n n n n
A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A A A

=
=
=

Hn th bng cch chng minh quy np ta c:
1 2 1 2 1
( .... ) ...
T T T T T
n n n
A A A A A A A

=

2.4 Ly tha ma trn:
2.4.1 nh ngha: Cho ma trn A, ly tha bc k ca ma trn A l:
l
. ...
k
k n
A A A A =
.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

30
C th,
0 1 2 1
; ; . ;..., .
k k
n
A I A A A A A A A A

= = = =

2.4.2 V d: Cho
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
A
(
(
=
(
(

th ta c
2
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
v
3
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .

Nhn xt: C nhng ma trn khc ma trn khng nhng ly tha k ln vi
k e
s thnh
ma trn khng.
Mt ma trn
( ; ) A M n K e
tha tnh cht tn ti mt s
k e
, sao cho
0
k
A =
th khi ma
trn A c gi l ma trn ly linh.
Mt ma trn
( ; ) A M n K e
tha tnh cht
2
0 A =
th khi ma trn A c gi l ma trn ly
ng.
2.4.3 Tnh cht:
Cho
( ; ) A M n K e
v
, r s e
, khi :

( ) 0 0;
r
=


( )
r
n n
I I =


.
r s r s
A A A
+
=

( )
s
rs r
A A =

2.4.5 nh l: Gi s A, B l hai ma trn giao hon trong M(n;K) (ngha l AB = BA) v
k e
, khi ta c:

( ) .
k k k
AB A B =
;

1 2 1
( )( ... )
k k k k k
A B A B A A B B

= + + +
;

( ) .
i
k i i k i
k
k
A B C A B

+ =

2.5 a thc ca ma trn:
Cho f l mt a thc bc n trn K c dng
1
1 1 0
( ) ...
n n
n n
f x a x a x a x a

= + + + +

Gi s
( ; ) A M n K e
th ta gi
1
1 1 0
( ) ...
n n
n n n
f A a A a A a A a I

= + + + +
l a thc ca ma trn A.
V d: Cho
3 2
( ) 3 5 f x x x = +
. Hy tnh f (A) vi
1 2 3
2 0
; 5 4 6
0 3
7 1 8
A B
(
(
(
= =
(
(

(


Ta c
3 2
2
8 0 4 0 1 0 1 0
( ) 3 5 3 5
0 27 0 9 0 1 0 5
f A A A I
( ( ( (
= + = + =
( ( ( (


(Sinh vin t gii f (B )nh l bi tp nh).




Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

31
Bi 2: nh thc - nh ngha, cc tnh cht, cch tnh nh thc
________________________________________________________________
1. nh ngha: nh thc ca ma trn A, k hiu l detA hay |A| c tnh bng
1 (1) 2 (2) ( )
det sign ...
n
n n
S
A a a a
t t t
t
t
e
=
, trong
n
S
l tp tt c cc php th ca tp hp gm n s t
nhin u tin {1, 2,, n}.
Nhn xt: nh thc ca mt ma trn vung cp n trn trng K thng c gi l mt nh
thc cp n.
V d:
Khi n = 2
Ta c nhm cc php th
2
1 2 1 2
;
1 2 2 1
S
| | | |
=
`
| |
\ . \ . )

Suy ra biu thc tnh nh thc cp 2 l:
11 12
11 22 12 21
21 22
a a
a a a a
a a
=

Khi n = 3
Ta c nhm cc php th
3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
; ; ; ; ;
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
S
| | | | | | | | | | | |
=
`
| | | | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ . \ . )

Suy ra:
11 12 13
21 22 23 11 22 33 12 21 33 23 32 11 13 22 31 12 23 31 13 21 32
31 32 33
11 22 33 12 23 31 13 21 32 12 21 33 23 32 11 13 22 31
a a a
A a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
= = + + =
= + +

2. Cch tnh nh thc bc 2 v bc 3:
Theo trn ta c
Cho
11 12
21 22
a a
A
a a
| |
=
|
\ .
ta c nh thc ca ma trn A l detA hay |A|, c tnh bng
2
1 (1) 2 (2) 11 22 12 21 11 22 12 21
det sign ( 1) .
S
A a a a a a a a a a a
t t
t
t
e
= = + =

Cho
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
a a a
A a a a
a a a
(
(
=
(
(

khi ta c
3
1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 11 22 33 12 23 31 13 21 32 13 22 31 11 23 32 12 21 33
det sign .
S
A a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
t t t
t
t
e
= = + +

Cng thc trn thng c nh theo quy tc Sarrus nh sau: Ta vit them ct th nht v
th hai vo bn phi nh thc ta c
11 12 13 11 12
21 22 23 21 22
31 32 33 31 31
a a a a a
a a a a a
a a a a a

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

32
Th tch cc phn t trn ba ng chm chm s c du nh sau

V d:
1 2 3
2 1 3 1.1.2 2.1.3 2.3.3 3.1.3 3.1.1 2.2.2 6
3 1 2
= + + =

2 1
2.3 2 4
2 3
= =

3. Cc tnh cht
3.1 Tnh cht 1: nh thc khng i qua php chuyn v, tc l
det det .
T
A A =

Ch : T tnh cht ny th mt mnh v nh thc nu ng vi dng th cng ng vi
ct v ngc li.
V d:

2 0 2 1
6
1 3 0 3
= =

3.2 Tnh cht 2: Nu ta i ch hai dng
( ) i j =
(hoc hai ct khc nhau) bt k ca nh
thc th nh thc i du.
V d:
1 3 5 3 1 7
2 7 9 2 7 9
3 1 7 1 3 5
=

3.3 Tnh cht 3: Nu tt c cc phn t ca mt dng (hoc mt ct) ca nh thc c
nhn vi

th nh thc mi bng nh thc ban u nhn vi

.
V d:
1 2 3 1 2 3
4 2 6 2. 2 1 3
9 8 6 9 8 6
=

Nhn xt: T tnh cht ny suy ra nu A l ma trn vung cp n th
det( ) det( ).
n
A A =

3.4 Tnh cht 4: Cho A l ma trn vung cp n. Gi s dng th i ca ma trn A c th biu
din di dng
' ''
ij ij ij
a a a = +
vi j = 1, 2, ,n. Khi ta c:
' '' ' '' ' '' ' ' ' '' '' ''
i1 i1 i2 i2 in in i1 i2 in i1 i2 in
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
det ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
A a a a a a a a a a a a a = + + + = +

Trong cc dng cn li ca 2 nh thc hai v l hon ton nh nhau v chnh l cc
dng cn li ca ma trn A.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

33
V d:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
4 5 6 6 5 4 2 0 2
7 8 9 7 8 9 7 8 9
= +

T tnh cht trn, ta cng c kt qu tng t i vi ct.
Ch : Cc tnh cht 2, 3, 4 trn chnh l tnh a tuyn tnh thay phin ca nh thc. T
cc tnh cht trn ta c cc kt qu sau:
3.5 Tnh cht 5: nh thc ca ma trn A s bng 0 nu tha mt trong cc iu kin sau:
C mt dng m tt c cc phn t ca dng u bng 0,
C hai dng bng nhau hoc t l vi nhau,

C mt dng l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc dng khc. Tc l tn ti dng
i
d m
1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
... ... ...
i i i i i k k
d a d a d a d a d a d
+ +
= + + + + + + +

vi
i
a eK.

3.6 Tnh cht 6: nh thc s khng thay i nu:
Nhn mt dng vi mt s bt k ri cng vo dng.
Cng vo mt dng mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc dng khc.
Nhn xt:
- Nu thay t dng bng t ct th cc tnh cht trn vn ng.
- i vi cc ma trn A c cp n (vi n l mt s rt ln), khi vic tnh detA bng nh
ngha ta s gp rt nhiu kh khn. Do , ngoi cch vn dng cc tnh cht trn ca nh
thc, ta cn rt hay s dng nh l Laplace sau y.
4. nh l Laplace:
4.1 nh thc con v phn b i s:
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n v k l mt s t nhin tha
1 k n s s
. Cc phn t nm trn
giao ca k dng bt k v k ct bt k ca A lm nn mt ma trn vung cp k ca A. nh thc
ca ma trn ny c gi l nh thc con cp k ca A.
c bit, khi cho trc
1 , i j n s s
, nu ta xa i dng i, ct j ca ma trn A ta s c ma
trn con cp n-1 ca ma trn A, k hiu l
ij
M
. Khi ,
( 1)
i j
ij ij
A M
+
=
c gi l phn b i
s ca phn t
ij
a
(vi
ij
a
l phn t nm hng i v ct j ca ma trn A).
V d: Xt ma trn
1 2 3 2
0 2 4 1
1 5 1 4
0 5 2 1
A
(
(
(
=
(
(

khi . nh thc
2
1 2
2
0 2
D = =
c gi l nh thc
con cp 2 ca A. Ta c
11
2 4 1
5 1 4
5 2 1
M =
khi phn b i s ca phn t dng 1 v ct 1 ca
ma trn A l:
1 1
11 11
( 1) | | 51 A M
+
= =

Nhn xt:
Nu M l nh thc con ca A to bi cc dng
1 2
, ,...,
k
i i i
v
1 2
, ,...,
k
j j j
th phn b i s ca
M. K hiu l M c xc nh nh sau:
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

34
1 2 1
... ....
' ( 1) det( )
k k
i i i j j
M K
+ + + + + +
=
vi K l ma trn c c t ma trn A khi b i cc dng
1 2
, ,...,
k
i i i
v cc ct
1 2
, ,...,
k
j j j
.
V d: i vi ma trn A cho trn, xt
1 2
1 5
M =
l nh thc ca A to bi dng 1 v dng
3; ct 1 v ct 2. Khi ,
4 1
2 1
K
(
=
(

l ma trn c c t ma trn A sau khi b i dng 1,
dng 3 ct 1 v ct 2. Vy,
1 1 1 2 3 1 3 2
4 1
' ( 1) 2
2 1
M
+ + + + + + +
= =
.
4.2 nh l Laplace: Cho A l ma trn vung cp n
11 12 1 1
21 22 2 2
i1 i2
1 2
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ...
j n
j n
ij in
n n nj nn
a a a a
a a a a
A
a a a a
a a a a
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(

.
Khi
Nu khai trin nh thc A theo dng th i th detA c biu din di dng
1 2
i1 i1 i2 i2
1
det ( 1) ( 1) ... ( 1) ( 1)
n
i i i n i k
in in ik ik
k
A a A a A a A a A
+ + + +
=
= + + + =

Nu khai trin nh thc A theo ct th j th detA c biu din di dng
1 2
1 1 2 2
1
det ( 1) ( 1) ... ( 1) ( 1)
n
j j j n j k
j j j j nj nj kj kj
k
A a A a A a A a A
+ + + +
=
= + + + =

V d:
a) Xt ma trn
1 0 2
2 0 0
3 4 5
0 0 0
a
b
A
c
d
=

Nhn thy dng 4 c nhiu s 0, nn khai trin nh thc theo dng 4 ta c:
4 1
0 2
( 1) 0 0
4 5
a
A d b
c
+
=
.
Tip tc khai trin theo dng th 3 ca nh thc
0 2 1
0 0
4 5
b
c
ta c:
2
. . ( )
0
a
A d c dc ab abcd
b
= = =

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

35
b) Xt ma trn
0 3 0 5
2 3 1 1
1 1 3 0
0 4 0 5
B =

Khai trin theo dng 1 c
1 2 1 4
2 1 1 2 3 1
( 1) 3 1 3 0 ( 1) 5 1 1 3
0 0 5 0 4 0
B
+ +
= +

Khai trin theo dng cui ca 2 nh thc trn c:
1 2 3 3 1 4 2 3
2 1 2 1
( 1) .3.5.( 1) ( 1) 4.( 1) .5 25
1 3 1 3
B
+ + + +
= + =

4.3 nh l Laplace (tng qut):
Cho
( )
n
A M K e
, chn trong A cc dng
1 2
...
k
i i i < < <
. Khi ,
1 2
...
det( ) '
k
j j j
A MM
< < <
=
, vi M l
cc nh thc con cp k ca A sinh bi cc dng
1 2
, ,...,
k
i i i
v cc ct
1 2
, ,...,
k
j j j
v M l phn
b i s ca M.
V d:
Tnh
0 3 0 5
2 3 1 1
1 1 3 0
0 4 0 5
A =

Chn M l ma trn vung cp 2 to bi cc phn t trn dng 1 v dng 4. Khi ,
1 4 2 4 1 4 1 2 1 4 2 4
1 4 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 1
3 5 2 1 0 3 1 1 3 0 2 1
( 1) . ( 1) . ( 1) .
4 5 1 3 0 4 3 0 4 0 1 0
0 0 3 1 0 5 2 1 0 5 2 3
( 1) . ( 1) . ( 1) .
0 0 1 3 0 5 1 3 0 5 1 1
( 1)( 5)5 25
A
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
= + +
+ + +
= =

Ta chn ma trn con da trn dng 1 v 3, ct 1 v ct 3.
p dng nh l Laplace ta c
1 3 1 3
2 8 9
1 1
det ( 1) 1 1 0 252
3 1
7 2 3
A
+ + +
= =

T nh l Laplace ta c th chng minh c hai tnh cht quan trng sau ca nh thc
4.3 Tnh cht 1: Nu A l ma trn tam gic trn (ma trn tam gic di) th nh thc ca
ma trn A bng tch ca tt c cc phn t trn ng cho chnh (ng cho ph). Tc l nu
11 12 1
22 2
...
0 ...
0 0 ...
n
n
nn
a a a
a a
A
a
(
(
(
=
(
(

v
1
2( 1) 2
1
0 0 ...
0 0
... ....
n
n n
n nn
b
b b
B
b b

(
(
(
=
(
(


Khi :
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

36
11 22
det . ...
nn
A a a a =
v
1 2( 1) 1
det . ...
n n n
B b b b

=
.
4.4 Tnh cht 2: Nu A v B l cc ma trn vung cp n th det(A.B) = detA . det B.
4.5 Nhn xt:
Nh c nh l Laplace, tnh mt nh thc cp cao (n > 3) ta c th khai trin nh thc
theo mt dng v mt ct bt k a v tnh cc nh thc cp b hn. C nh vy, sau mt
s ln ta s a vic tnh nh thc cp cao v dng tnh nh thc cp 2, 3. Tuy nhin, trn
thc t th nu lm nh vy th s lng php tnh s kh ln. Bi vy, ta thc hin theo cc
bc sau s lm gim i s php tnh cn thc hin:
Bc 1: Chn dng hoc ct c nhiu s 0 nht khai trin nh thc theo dng (ct)
.
Bc 2: S dng tnh cht 6 a nh thc v dng c dng (ct) chn thnh dng
(ct) ch c mt s khc 0.
Bc 3: Khai trin nh thc theo dng (ct) . Khi , vic tnh mt nh thc cp n
quy v vic tnh nh thc cp n-1. Tip tc lp li cc bc 1, 2 cho nh thc cp n-1, cui
cng ta s dn v vic tnh nh thc cp 2, 3.
4.6 Cc v d:
1) Tnh detA vi
1 0 1 1 2
0 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 2
1 1 1 1 1
A
(
(

(
( =
(

(
(

Gii:
Ta chn ct 2 khai trin. Tuy nhin, trc ht ta nhn dng 2 vi -2 ri cng vo dng 3
v nhn dng 2 vi -1 ri cng vo dng 5. Khi

1 0 1 1 2
0 1 1 2 1
1 0 1 4 3
1 0 1 0 2
1 0 0 1 2

.
Khai trin theo ct 2 ta c

1 1 1 2
1 1 4 3
1 1 0 2
1 0 1 2

Tip theo ta thc hin cc bc sau trn nh thc cp 4. Ta nhn ct 1 vi (-1) vi ct 3,
sau nhn ct 1 vi 2 ri cng vo ct 4. nh thc trn s tr thnh:
1 1 2 4
1 1 5 5
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0

Tip theo ta khai trin theo dng 4 th c nh thc
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

37
5
1 2 4
( 1)( 1) 1 5 5 1
1 1 0

=

2) Gii phng trnh
2
5 100
1 1 2
0 0 1 0
0
1 2
0 0 1
x x x
x
x x x
x x
+

+

Gii:
Ta khai trin v tri theo dng 2 ta c
5 2
100
1 2
( 1) ( 1) 1 2
0 0
x x
VT x x x
x
+
=

Ta tip tc khai trin theo dng 3 ta c

2 100 2 2 100
1
(1 ) (1 )
1
x
VT x x x x
x
= =

Vy phng trnh cho tng ng vi

2 2 100
(1 ) 0 1, 0 x x x x = = =

4.7 Nhn xt: Trong thc t ta thng s dng cc php bin i tng ng trn dng
(ct) a ma trn A v dng tam gic trn (hoc tam gic di), sau p dng cng thc
Laplace tnh det A.
5. Cc phng php tnh nh thc cp n:

i vi cc nh thc c cp n kh ln (n>3), th ngi ta thng khng s dng nh ngha
tnh nh thc m s dng mt trong cc phng php sau:
5.1 Phng php bin i nh thc v dng tam gic:
S dng cc php bin i tng ng trn dng (ct) ca ma trn v s dng cc tnh
cht ca nh thc bin i ma trn ca nh thc v dng tam gic. nh thc sau cng s
bng tch cc phn t trn ng cho chnh.
V d: Tnh nh thc cp n vi
( 2) n >
sau y
1 2 2 ... 2
2 2 2 ... 2
2 2 3 ... 2
... ... ... ... ...
2 2 2 ... n

Gii:
Ta nhn dng 2 vi (-1) ri cng vo cc dng 3, 4, , n. Ta s c nh thc sau:
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

38
1 2 2 ... 2
2 2 2 ... 2
0 0 1 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... ( 2) n

Ta nhn dng 1 vi (-2) ri cng vo dng 2. Ta c nh thc sau:
1 2 2 ... 2
0 2 2 ... 2
( 2)( 2)! 0 0 1 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... ( 2)
n
n

=

V d 2: Tnh nh thc sau:
...
...
...
... ... ... ... ...
...
a b b b
b a b b
b b a b
b b b a

Gii:
Ta cng tt c cc ct cn li vo ct 1. Ta c nh thc sau:
( 1) ...
( 1) ...
( 1) ...
... ... ... ... ...
( 1) ...
a n b b b b
a n b a b b
a n b b a b
a n b b b a
+
+
+
+

Ta nhn dng (1) vi (-1) ri cng vo cc dng cn li, ta c nh thc sau:
1
( 1) ...
0 0 ... 0
( ( 1) )( ) 0 0 ... 0
.... .... .... .... ....
0 0 0 ...
n
a n b b b b
a b
a n b a b a b
a b

= +

5.2 Phng php quy np:
p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc, ta bin i, khai trin nh thc theo dng, hoc theo
ct biu din nh thc cn tnh qua cc nh thc c cp b hn nhng c cng dng. T
ta s nhn c cng thc truy hi.
S dng cng thc truy hi v tnh trc tip cc nh thc cng dng cp 1, cp 2 suy ra
nh thc cn tnh.
V d: Tnh nh thc sau
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

39
1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2 2
1 2
1 ...
1 ...
... ... ... ...
... 1
n
n
n
n n n n
a b a b a b
a b a b a b
D
a b a b a b
+
+
=
+

Gii
Ta tch nh thc theo ct th n, ta c
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1
1 ... 0 1 ...
... 0 ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 1 0 ... 1
... 1 ...
1 ... 0
...
n n n
n n n
n
n n n n n n n n
n n n n n n n n
n
n
a b a b a b a b a b
a b a b a b a b a b
D
a b a b a b a b a b
a b a b a b a b a b
a b a b
a b a b

+ +
= +
+ +
+
=
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 ...
0 ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... 1 0 ... 1
... 1 ...
n
n
n
n n n n n n n
n n n n n n n
a b a b a
a b a b a
b
a b a b a b a b a
a b a b a b a b a

+
+
+ +

Ta khai trin nh thc u theo ct th n ta c nh thc u bng
1 n
D

.
Nhn ct th n ca nh thc th 2 vi
( )
i
b
ri cng vo cc ct th i vi i tng ng nhn
cc gi tr t 1, 2, ., n-1. Ta c
1
2
1 1
1
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 1
0 0 ... 0
n n n n n n
n
n
a
a
D D b D b a
a
a

= + = +

T ta c cng thc truy hi
1 n n n n
D D b a

= +
. Suy ra,
1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
( ) ... ...
n n n n n n n n n n n n n
D D b a D b a b a D b a b a b a

= + = + + = = + + + +

Mt khc,
1 1 1
1 D b a = +
. Do ,
1 1 2 2
1 ...
n n n
D b a b a b a = + + + +

V d 2: Cho
, , a b a b e =
. Hy tnh nh thc sau
0 ... 0 0
1 ... 0 0
... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ...
0 0 0 ... 0
n
a b ab
a b ab
D
a b ab
a b
+
+
=
+
+

Gii:
Khai trin nh thc theo dng u ta c
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

40
1
1 0 ... 0 0
0 ... 0 0
( ) ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ...
0 0 0 ... 0
n n
ab
a b ab
D a b D ab
a b ab
a b

+
= +
+
+

Tip tc khai trin nh thc sau theo ct 1 ta c
1 2
( )
n n n
D a b D abD

= +
vi
3 n >
. Suy ra,
1 1 2
( )
n n n n
D aD b D aD

=
(1)
v
1 1 2
( )
n n n n
D bD a D bD

=
(2) vi
3 n >

p dng cng thc truy hi trn ta suy ra c
T (1)
2 2
1 1 2 2 3 2 1
( ) ( ) .... ( )
n n
n n n n n n
D aD b D aD b D aD b D aD b

= = = = =

T (2)
2 2
1 1 2 2 3 2 1
( ) ( ) ... ( )
n n
n n n n n n
D bD a D bD a D bD a D bD a

= = = = =
Vi
2 2
2
D a b ab = + +
v
1
D a b = +

Suy ra,
1 1 n n
n
a b
D
a b
+ +

5.3 Phng php biu din nh thc thnh tng cc nh thc
Nhiu nh thc cp n c th tnh c bng cch tch nh thc theo cc dng (hoc theo
cc ct) thnh tng cc nh thc cng cp. Cc nh thc mi ny thng bng 0 hoc tnh
c d dng.
V d: Tnh nh thc
1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2 2
1 2
1 ...
1 ...
... ... ... ...
... 1
n
n
n
n n n n
a b a b a b
a b a b a b
D
a b a b a b
+
+
=
+

Gii:
mi ct ca D
n
c vit thnh tng ca hai ct m ta k hiu l ct loi 1 v ct loi 2
nh sau:
1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2 2
1 2
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 1
n
n
n
n n n n
a b a b a b
a b a b a b
D
a b a b a b
+ + +
+ + +
=
+ + +

(2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
Ta ln lt tch cc ct ca nh thc, sau n ln tch ta c
n
D
l tng ca
2
n
nh thc cp n.
Ct th i ca nh thc ny chnh l ct loi 1 hoc loi 2 ca ct th i ca nh thc
n
D
. Ta
chia
2
n
nh thc thnh 3 dng nh sau:
Dng 1: Bao gm cc nh thc c t 2 ct loi 2 tr ln, do cc ct loi 2 t l nn tt c
cc nh thc dng ny u bng 0.
Dng 2: Bao gm cc nh thc c ng 1 ct loi 2 cn cc ct khc l ct loi 1. Gi s
ct th i ca nh thc ny l ct loi 2. Khi ta c nh thc dng ny
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

41
1
2
,
1 0 ... ... 0
0 1 ... ... 0
... ... ... .... .... ...
0 0 ... ... 1
i
i
n i
n i
a b
a b
D
a b
=

ct (i)
Khai trin Laplace theo ct th i ta c
, n i i i
D a b = .
V c tt c n nh thc dng 2 nn tng cc nh thc dng 2 l
1
n
i i
i
a b
=

Dng 3: Khng c ct loi 2 no, tc l tt c cc ct ca nh thc l loi 1 nn nh thc
dng ny l
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
1
... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 1
=
Vy
1
1
n
n i i
i
D a b
=
= +

5.4 Phng php biu din nh thc thnh tch cc nh thc:
Gi s cn tnh nh thc D cp n. Ta s biu din ma trn tng ng A ca D thnh tch cc
ma trn vung cp n n gin hn: A = B.C. Khi , ta c D = detA = det(B.C)=detB. det C.
Tm c detB v detC ta s tnh c D.
V d: Tnh nh thc cp n, 2 n >
1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2 2
1 2
1 1 ... 1
1 1 ... 1
... ... ... ...
1 1 ... 1
n
n
n n n n
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
D
x y x y x y
+ + +
+ + +
=
+ + +

Gii
Vi 2 n > ta c
1
1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 3
2 1 2 2 2
1
1 2
1 0 ... 0 1 1 1 ... 1
1 1 ... 1
1 0 ... 0 ...
1 1 ... 1
... ... ... ... ... 0 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ...
1 0 ... 0 ... ... ... ... ...
1 1 ... 1
1 0 ... 0 0 0 0 ..
n
n
n
n
n n n n
n
x
x y x y x y
x y y y y
x y x y x y
A
x
x y x y x y
x

(
+ + + (
(
(
(
+ + +
(
( = =
(
(
(
(
+ + +

(

. 0
(
(
(
(
(
(
(


B C
Do
2 1 2 1
0 , 2
det det .det
( )( ), 2
n
A B C
x x y y n
>
= =

=

V d: Tnh nh thc cp n 2 n >
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

42
1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2
1 2
sin(2 ) sin( ) ... sin( )
sin( ) sin(2 ) ... sin( )
... ... ... ...
sin( ) sin( ) ... sin(2 )
n
n
n n n
D
o o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o o
+ +
+ +
=
+ +

Gii:
Ta c
1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2
1 2
1 1
2 2
3 3
sin(2 ) sin( ) ... sin( )
sin( ) sin(2 ) ... sin( )
... ... ... ...
sin( ) sin( ) ... sin(2 )
sin cos 0 ... 0
sin cos 0 ... 0
sin cos 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
sin cos 0 ... 0
n
n
n n n
n n
A
o o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o o
o o
o o
o o
o o
+ + (
(
+ +
(
=
(
(
+ +

1 2 3
2 2 3
cos cos cos ... cos
sin sin sin ... sin
. 0 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... 0
n
n
o o o o
o o o o
( (
( (
( (
( (
( (
( (
( (


(B) (C)
Ta c
2
1 2
0 , 2
det det .det
sin ( ), 2
n
A B C
n o o
>
= =

5.5 PP. Tnh nh thc bng cch rt ra nhn t tuyn tnh
Nu mi phn t ca ma trn vung A cp n l mt a thc bc nht i vi bin x no , th
nh thc |A| l mt a thc ca cc bin vi bc khng qu n. Nu bng cch no , ta tm
c n a thc bc nht f
1
, f
2
, ,f
n
c nghim khc nhau sao cho mi f
i
l c ca |A|, th ta c
th kt lun |A| v tch f
1
f
2
f
n
sai khc nhau mt nhn t hng s.
V d:
Tnh
0
0
0
0
x y z
x z y
y z x
z y x

Nhn xt:
Cng tt c cc ct sau vo ct u tin, ta thy nh thc chia ht cho x + y + z v
0 1
0 0 1 0
( )
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
x y z x y z x y z x y z
x z y x y z z y z y
x y z
y z x x y z z x z x
z y x x y z y x y x
+ +
+ +
= = + +
+ +
+ +

Nu nhn ct th ba v th t vi (-1) ri cng c ba ct cn li vo ct (1) ta thy nh thc
chia ht cho y + z - x, tht vy
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

43
0 1
0 0 1 0
( )
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
x y z x y z x y z x y z
x z y x z y z y z y
x y z
y z x y z x z x z x
z y x x y z y x y x


= = + +
+
+ +

Nu nhn ct th hai v ct th t vi (-1) ri cng c 3 ct vo ct (1) th nh thc chia ht
cho x y + z

0 1
0 0 1 0
( )
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
x y z x y z x y z x y z
x z y x z y z y z y
x y z
y z x y z x z x z x
z y x x y z y x y x
+
+
= = +

+

Nu nhn ct th hai v ct th ba cho (-1) ri cng c ba ct vo ct (1) ta c nh thc chia
ht cho x+y z.
0 1
0 0 1 0
( )
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
x y z x y z x y z x y z
x z y x z y z y z y
x y z
y z x x y z z x z x
z y x z x y y x y x
+
+
= = +
+


Vy nh thc trn chia ht cho (x+y+z)(y+z-x)(x-y+z)(x+y z)
Tch ny cha z
4
vi h s (-1) trong nh thc li cha z
4
vi h s +1. Cho nn
D = -(x+y+z)(y+z-x)(x-y+z)(x+y z)



















Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

44
Bi 3: Hng ca ma trn, cch tnh hng ca ma trn
_____________________________________________
1. nh ngha: Cho A l ma trn cp mxn khc khng. Hng ca ma trn A l s t nhin r,
1 min{ , } r m n s s
tha mn cc iu kin sau:
Tn ti t nht mt nh thc con cp r ca ma trn A khc 0.
Mi nh thc con cp ln hn r (nu c) ca ma trn A u bng 0.
Ni cch khc hng ca ma trn
0 A=
chnh l cp cao nht ca cc nh thc con khc
khng ca ma trn A. Hng ca ma trn A, k hiu l r(A) v rank(A).
Quy c: Hng ca ma trn 0 bng 0.
2. V d:
Tm hng ca ma trn A sau:
1 2 3 0
3 2 1 0
0 0 5 0
4 4 4 0
A =

Ma trn A c duy nht mt nh thc cp 4 v n bng 0. Tn ti mt nh thc con cp 3 ca A
l
1 2 3
3 2 1 20 0
0 0 5
= =
. Vy rank(A)=3
3. Cc tnh cht:
3.1 Tnh cht 1: Hng ca ma trn khng i qua cc php bin i sau:
Php chuyn v ma trn. Tc l
( ) ( ).
T
rank A rank A =

Cc php bin i s cp dng hoc ct.
B i cc dng hoc cc ct gm ton s 0.
B i cc dng hoc cc ct l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc dng hay cc ct khc.
3.2 Tnh cht 2: Nu A l ma trn vung cp n th:

( ) det 0 rank A n A = =


( ) det 0 rank A n A < =

Nu xy ra trng hp u th ta ni ma trn vung A khng suy bin.
Nu xy ra trng hp hai th ta ni ma trn vung A suy bin.
3.3 Tnh cht 3:
Nu A, B l cc ma trn cng cp th
( ) rank A B rankA rankB + s +
.
Cho A, B l cc ma trn sao cho tn ti tch AB. Khi ,
( ) min{ , } rank AB rankA rankB s


Nu A tng ng dng (ct) vi B th rank (A ) = rank (B )




Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

45
4. Cch tnh hng ca ma trn:
4.1 Tm hng ca ma trn bng phng php nh thc
T nh ngha hng ca ma trn ta c th suy ra thut ton sau tnh hng ca ma trn A
cp mxn
( 0) A=
.
Bc 1:
Tm mt nh thc con cp k khc 0. S k cng ln cng tt. Gi s nh thc con cp k
khc khng l
k
D
.
Bc 2:
Xt tt c cc nh thc con cp k+1 ca A cha nh thc
k
D
. Xy ra 3 kh nng sau:
1. Khng c mt nh thc con cp k+1 no ca A. Kh nng ny xy ra khi k =min{m, n}.
Khi rankA = k. Thut ton kt thc.
2. Tt c cc nh thc con cp k+ 1 cha nh thc
k
D
u bng 0 . Khi rankA = k v
thut ton kt thc.
3. Nu tn ti ,mt nh thc con cp k+1 ca A l
1 k
D
+
cha nh thc con
k
D
khc 0. Khi
ta lp li bc 2 vi
1 k
D
+
thay cho v tr ca
k
D
. Tip tc nh vy n khi xy ra trng hp
1 hoc 2 th thut ton kt thc.
V d: Tnh hng ca ma trn sau:
1 2 2 1 4
1 1 1 1 3
1 3 3 2 2
2 1 1 0 1
A
(
(

(
=
(
(


Gii:
Xt ma trn to bi hai dng u
1 2
1 1
A
(
=
(

c nh thc detA = 3.
Ta xt tip ma trn to bi cc ct 1, 2, 4 v dng 1, 2, 3 ta c ma trn
1 2 1
1 1 1
1 3 2
B
(
(
=
(
(

cha
ma trn A v c detB = 1.
Tip tc xt cc ma trn con cp 4 cha ma trn B th c hai ma trn B
1
v B
2

1
1 2 2 1
1 1 1 1
1 3 3 2
2 1 1 0
B
(
(

(
=
(
(


2
1 2 1 4
1 1 1 3
1 3 2 2
2 1 0 1
B
(
(

(
=
(
(


Vy detB
1
v detB
2
u bng 0. C hai nh thc ny u bng 0. Do rankA = 3.
Nhn xt:
Vic tnh hng ma trn bng s dng nh thc kh phc tp nn trong thc t ta thng t
s dng phng php ny, m ngi ta thng s dng phng php tm hng ma trn bng
cch s dng cc php bin i tng ng trn ma trn.


Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

46
4.2 Tm hng ca ma trn bng cch s dng cc php bin i s cp (PP. Gauss)
4.2.1 Nhn xt: Ma trn A cp mxn khc khng c gi l ma trn bc thang nu tn ti
mt s t nhin r tha
1 min{ , } r m n s s
tha cc iu kin sau:
(1) r dng u khc 0. Cc dng th r +1 tr i (nu c) u bng 0.
(2) Xt dng th k vi
1 k r s s
. Nu
k
ki
a
l phn t u tin bn tri (tnh t tri sang phi)
khc khng ca dng k th ta phi c
1 2
...
r
i i i < < <
.
Cc phn t
k
ki
a
c gi l cc phn t nh du ca ma trn A. Cc ct cha cc phn t
c nh du
1 2
{ , ,..., }
r
i i i
gi l ct nh du ca ma trn A.
iu kin (2) c th pht biu li: Nu i t trn xung th cc phn t c nh du phi
li dn v bn phi. Do , ma trn bc thang c dng nh sau:
1
2
1
2
0...0 ... .... ... ....
0...0 0...0 ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ....
... ... ... ... ...
0...0 0..0 0...0 ... 0...0 0...0
... ... ... ... ... ...
0...0 0..0 0..0 0..0 0...0 0...0
r
i
i
ri
a
a
A
a
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(


4.2.2 Nhn xt:
Nu A l ma trn bc thang th s r cc dng khc 0 trong nh ngha chnh l rankA. Hay
rankA = r.
Tht vy ch c nh thc con cp r ca A khc 0 chnh l nh thc
r
D
to ra bi r dng u
v r ct nh du bi cc ct
1 2
{ , ,..., }
r
i i i
.
Ngoi ra, cc nh thc con cp r +1 ca A u to bi r + 1 dng no nn c t nht mt
dng bng khng. Do , chng u bng 0.
4.2.3 V d: Cc ma trn bc thang
1 3 2 8
0 3 8 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
A
(
(
(
=
(
(

Khi rankA = 3 (bng s dng khc 0 ca A)
1 1 2 3 4 0
0 1 8 0 0 7
0 0 0 3 0 6
0 0 0 0 0 7
0 0 0 0 0 0
B
(
(
(
( =
(
(
(

. Khi rank B = 4 (Bng s dng khc 0 ca B).
4.2.4 Nhc li cc php bin i s cp trn ma trn
Ba php bin i sau y c gi l php bin i s cp trn dng ca ma trn:
i ch hai dng cho nhau;
Nhn mt dng cho mt s khc 0;
Nhn mt dng cho mt s bt k ri cng vo dng khc.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

47
Nu thay t dng bng t ct, ta c cc php bin i s cp trn ct.
4.2. 5 Tm hng ca ma trn bng phng php s dng cc php bin i s cp
Ni dung ca phng php ny c da trn 2 nhn xt sau:
Cc php bin i s cp khng lm thay i hng ca ma trn;
Mt ma trn khc ma trn 0 bt k u c th a v dng ma trn bc thang sau mt s
hu hn php bin i s cp trn dng.
Vy mun tm hng ca ma trn A, ta s dng cc php bin i s cp a ma trn A v
dng bc thang, t suy ra hng ca ma trn A bng hng ca ma trn bc thang v bng ng
s dng khc 0 ca n.
4.2.6 Thut ton a ma trn khc 0 bt k v dng ma trn bc thang bng cc
php bin i s cp:
a) Thut ton:
Xt ma trn
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
m m mn
a a a
a a a
A
a a a
(
(
(
=
(
(


Bc 1:
Bng cch i ch hai dng cho nhau nu cn
11
0 a =
.
Ta nhn dng (1) vi
21
11
a
a

ri cng vo dng (2).

Ta nhn dng (1) vi
31
11
a
a

ri cng vo dng (3).

Ta nhn dng (1) vi
1
11
m
a
a

ri cng vo dng (m).

Khi ta nhn c ma trn
11 12 1
22 2
1 32 3
2
... ...
0 ... ...
0 ... ...
0 ... ...
n
n
n
m mn
a a a
b b
A b b
b b
(
(
(
( =
(
(
(


Nhn xt: ma trn
1
A
th ch c gi tr
11
0 a =
cn tt c cc phn t khc ca ct 1 u
bng 0.
Ch : Nu ma trn A ban u mi phn t ct 1 u bng 0 th ta c th b qua ct 1
m thc hin bc 1 i vi ct k tip.
Bc 2: Xt ma trn
22 23 2
32 33 3
2 3
...
...
...
n
n
m m mn
b b b
b b b
B
b b b
(
(
(
=
(
(


Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

48
Nu ma trn B c dng bc thang, hoc ma trn B = 0 th suy ra ma trn A
1
c dng bc
thang v thut ton kt thc. Trong trng hp ngc li, th thc hin bc 1 cho ma trn B.
V ma trn B c t hn ma trn A
1
dng v 1 ct, nn thut ton s kt thc sau mt s hu hn
cc bc lp.
b) V d:
Tnh hng ca ma trn
0 1 3 4 6
1 3 4 5 2
3 5 2 3 4
2 3 5 6 4
A
(
(

(
=
(
(

Gii:
3 1 3 1 2
4 1 4
3
2
1 3 4 5 2 1 3 4 5 2
0 1 3 4 6 0 1 3 4 6
3 5 2 3 4 0 4 10 12 2
2 3 5 6 4 0 3 13 16 8
d d d d d
d d d
A
+
+
( (
( (
( (

( (
( (



3 2 3 4 4 3
4 2 4
4
3
1 3 4 5 2 1 3 4 5 2
0 1 3 4 6 0 1 3 4 6
0 0 22 28 26 0 0 22 28 26
0 0 22 28 26 0 0 0 0 0
d d d d d d
d d d
+
+
( (
( (
( (

( (
( (


Vy rankA = 3
V d 2: Tnh hng ca ma trn sau:
1 1 ... 1
1 1 ... 1
1 1 1 ...
a
a
B
a
(
(
(
=
(
(


Gii:
2 2 1
1 2 3 3 3 1
1
...
...
( 1) 1 1 ... 1 ( 1) 1 1 ... 1
( 1) 1 ... 1 0 1 0 ... 0
( 1) 1 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1
n
n n
d d d
c c c c d d d
d d d
a n a n
a n a a
B C
a n a a

+ + +

+ + ( (
( (
+
( (
=
( (
( (
+


Nu
(1 ), 1 a n a = =
th ma trn C l ma trn bc thang cp n. Khi , rankB = rankC = n.
Nu a = 1 th ma trn C l ma trn bc thang. Khi rank B = rankC = 1.
Nu a = 1 n th khi
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

49
0 1 1 ... 1
0 0 ... 0
0 0 0 ...
n
C
n
(
(

(
=
(
(

. Khi C l ma trn bc thang c nh thc cp n 1 khc 0, l
nh thc
1
0 0 0
0 0 0
( ) 0
0 0 0
n
n
n
n
n

= =

v det C = 0.
Do , rankB = rank C = n 1.
V d 3
Tm iu kin ca m hng ma trn sau bng 1.
1 3 4
2 6
3 9 12
A m
(
(
=
(
(


Gii
Nhn thy ma trn A c hai dng 1 v 3 t l vi nhau, do ma trn c hng bng 1 th
m = 8.
Nhn xt: Do
( ) ( )
T
rank A rank A =
nn ta c th thay th cc php bin i trn dng bi cc
php bin i trn ct a ma trn A v dng bc thang t suy ra hng ca ma trn A.




















Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

50
Bi 4: Ma trn nghch o
______________________
1. Cc khi nim:
Cho
( )
n
A M K e
, ma trn A c gi l kh nghch tri nu tn ti ma trn
( )
n
B M K e
sao
cho
.
n
B A I =
.
Tng t ma trn A c gi l kh nghch phi nu tn ti ma trn
( )
n
C M K e
sao cho
.
n
AC I =
.
Ma trn A c gi l ma trn kh nghch nu A l ma trn kh nghch tri v kh nghch
phi tc l tn ti ma trn B vung cp n sao cho AB = BA = I
n
(1), vi I
n
l ma trn n v.
Nu A l ma trn kh nghch th ma trn B tha iu kin (1) l duy nht v ma trn B c
gi l ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A, k hiu A
-1
.
Vy
1 1
n
AA A A I

= =
.
2. V d:
Cho ma trn
3 4 6
0 1 1
2 3 4
A
| |
|
=
|
|

\ .
v
1 2 2
2 0 3
2 1 3
B
(
(
=
(
(


Ta c th kim tra c
n
AB BA I = =
. Do ma trn A kh nghch v ma trn nghch o
ca n l ma trn B.
3. Cc tnh cht:
- A kh nghch

A l ma trn khng suy bin, tc l

det 0. A=

- Nu A v B l hai ma trn kh nghch th tch AB cng l ma trn kh nghch v
1 1 1
( ) AB B A

=
.
Nhn xt: Cho
( )
n
A M K e
khi ,
i) A kh nghch tri

A kh nghch phi

A kh nghch.
ii) Nu A kh nghch th
1 1
| | | | A A

=

iii) Nu A c 1 dng (hoc 1 ct ) bng 0 th A khng kh nghch.
iv) Nu A kh nghch th
1
, , ( , 0)
T
A A A K o o o

e =
cng kh nghch v

( ) ( )
1
1 1 1 1 1
1
; ( ) ; ( )
T
T
A A A A A A o
o

= = =

4. nh l:
Nu
1 2
, ,..., ( )
k n
A A A M K e
kh nghch th tch
1 2
...
k
A A A
cng kh nghch v
1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1
( .... ) . ... .
k k k
A A A A A A A

=

5 Cc phng php tm ma trn nghch o
5.1 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o bng cch s dng nh thc
5.1.1 Phn b i s - Ma trn ph hp ca ma trn
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, nu ta b i dng i v ct j ca ma trn A ta c ma trn
con cp n-1 ca ma trn A k hiu
ij
M
. Khi ,
( 1) det( )
i j
ij ij
A M
+
=
c gi l phn b i s
ca phn t nm dng i v ct j ca ma trn A.
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

51
Ma trn
11 21 1 11 12 1
12 22 2 21 22 2
1 2 1 2
... ...
... ...
... ...
T
n n
n n
A
n n nn n n nn
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
P
A A A A A A
( (
( (
( (
= =
( (
( (

c gi l ma trn ph hp ca
ma trn A.
V d:
Cho
1 1 1
1 2 3
1 4 9
A
(
(
=
(
(

khi
1 1
11
2 3
( 1) 6
4 9
A
+
= =
;
1 2
12
1 3
( 1) 6
1 9
A
+
= =
;
1 3
13
1 2
( 1) 2
1 4
A
+
= =

2 1
21
1 1
( 1) 5
4 9
A
+
= =
;
2 2
22
1 1
( 1) 8
1 9
A
+
= =
;
2 3
23
1 1
( 1) 3
1 4
A
+
= =

3 1
31
1 1
( 1) 1
2 3
A
+
= =
;
3 2
32
1 1
( 1) 2
1 3
A
+
= =
;
3 3
33
1 1
( 1) 1
1 2
A
+
= =

Suy ra ma trn ph hp
6 5 1
6 8 2
2 3 1
A
P
(
(
=
(
(


5.1.2Thut ton tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A:
Nu det A = 0 th A khng kh nghch, tc l A s khng c ma trn nghch o.
Nu
det 0 A=
th A kh nghch v
1
1
det
A
A P
A

=
.
5.1.3 V d:
a) Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn sau:
1 2 1
0 1 1
1 2 3
A
(
(
=
(
(


Gii:
Ta c detA = 2. Vy A kh nghch.
Tm ma trn ph hp P
A
ca A.
1 1
11
1 1
( 1) 1
2 3
A
+
= =
,
1 2
12
0 1
( 1) 1
1 3
A
+
= =
,
1 3
13
0 1
( 1) 1
1 2
A
+
= =
,

2 1
21
2 1
( 1) 4
2 3
A
+
= =
,
2 2
22
1 1
( 1) 2
1 3
A
+
= =
,
2 3
23
1 2
( 1) 0
1 2
A
+
= =

3 1
31
2 1
( 1) 1
1 1
A
+
= =
,
3 2
32
1 1
( 1) 1
0 1
A
+
= =
,
3 3
33
1 2
( 1) 1
0 1
A
+
= =

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

52
Suy ra,
1 4 1
1 2 1
1 0 1
A
P
(
(
=
(
(

. Do ,
1
1 4 1 1/ 2 2 1/ 2
1
1 2 1 1/ 2 1 1/ 2
2
1 0 1 1/ 2 0 1/ 2
A

( (
( (
= =
( (
( (

b) Cho ma trn
1 2 2
2 2 5
1 1
A m m
m m
(
(
=
(
( +

. Tm iu kin ca m A kh nghch.
Gii:
A kh nghch th
det 0 ( 1)( 3) 0 A m m = =
. Vy A kh nghch khi v ch khi
1 m=
v
3 m=
.
Nhn xt:
i vi vic tm ma trn nghch o ca mt nh thc A c cp n > 3 ta s phi tnh mt
nh thc cp n v
2
n
nh thc cp n 1. Do , phng php ny khng hiu qu i vi
nhng nh thc cp ln. Do vi nhng nh thc cp n >3 ta thng s dng phng php
sau:
5.2 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o da vo cc php bin i s cp (pp Gauss)
tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn vung A cp n ta lp ma trn c cp nx2n sau y:
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
... 1 0 ... 0
... 0 1 ... 0
... 0 0 ... 1
n
n
n
n n nn
a a a
a a a
A I
a a a
(
(
(
( =

(
(
(


Sau ta s dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng a ma trn
| |
|
n
A I
v dng
| |
|
n
I B
.
Khi , ma trn B chnh l ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A.
Ch : Nu trong qu trnh bin i nu v bn tri ca ma trn xut hin ton s 0 th ma
trn A khng kh nghch.
V d: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn sau:
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
A
(
(
(
=
(
(


Gii:
Xt ma trn sau:
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

53
1 1
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 1
3 3 1
4 4
1
3
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
d d
d d d d d
d d d
d d d
d d

= + + +



( ( (
( ( (
( ( (

( ( (
( ( (
( ( (

1 1 2 3 4
1
1 1 1 1 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1 0 0 0 2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
0 1 0 0 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 0 1 0 0 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
0 0 1 0 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 0 0 1 0 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3
0 0 0 1 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 0 0 0 1 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3
d d d d d
d
+ + +
(
(

(

(

(

(

2 2
3 3
4 4
1 0 0 0 2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
0 1 0 0 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
0 0 1 0 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3
0 0 0 1 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3
d d
d d
d d

(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(

(


Vy ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A l
1
2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3
A

(
(

(
=
(
(

(Sinh vin c th dng phng php 1 tnh li ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A).
4.3 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o bng cch gii h phng trnh
Cho ma trn vung A cp n ta c:
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
n n nn
a a a
a a a
A
a a a
(
(
(
=
(
(


tm ma trn nghch o
1
A

, ta lp h phng trnh
11 1 12 2 1 1
21 1 22 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
...
...
(1)
...
n n
n n
n n nn n n
a x a x a x y
a x a x a x y
a x a x a x y
+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + + =

Trong
1 2
, ,...,
n
x x x
l cc bin v
1 2
, ,...,
n
y y y
l cc tham s.
- Nu vi mi tham s
1 2
, ,...,
n
y y y
th h (1) lun c nghim duy nht
1 11 1 12 2 1
2 21 1 22 2 2
1 1 2 2
...
...
...
n n
n n
n n n nn n
x b y b y b y
x b y b y b y
x b y b y b y
= + + +

= + + +

= + + +

Khi ,
11 12 1
21 22 2 1
1 2
...
...
...
n
n
n n nn
b b b
b b b
A
b b b

(
(
(
=
(
(


Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

54
- Nu tn ti
1 2
, ,...,
n
y y y
h (1) v nghim hay c v s nghim th ma trn A khng kh
nghch.
V d: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
a
a
A
a
a
(
(
(
=
(
(


Gii
Ta lp h phng trnh sau:
1 2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4 2
1 2 3 4 3
1 2 3 4 4
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)
ax x x x y
x ax x x y
x x ax x y
x x x ax y
+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + + =

Cng hai v ca h phng trnh ta c
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
( 3)( ) ( ) a x x x x y y y y + + + + = + + +
(*)
Nu a = -3 ta c th chn cc tham s
1 2 3 4
, , , y y y y
sao cho
1 2 3 4
0 y y y y + + + =
. Khi (*) v
nghim nn h phng trnh trn v nghim suy ra ma trn A khng kh nghch.
Nu
3 a =
th t (*) ta c
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1
( 3)
x x x x y y y y
a
+ + + = + + +

(**).
Ta ln lt ly cc dng (1), (2), (3), (4) tr cho (**) th
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 3 4
3 1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3 4
1
( 1) ( 2)
3
1
( 1) ( 2)
3
1
( 1) ( 2)
3
1
( 1) ( 2)
3
a x a y y y y
a
a x y a y y y
a
a x y y a y y
a
a x y y y a y
a
= +
+
= + +
+
= + +
+
= + +
+

Nhn xt:
- Nu a = 1 ta c th chn cc gi tr ca cc tham s
1 2 3 4
, , , y y y y
sao cho
1 2 3 4
( 2) 0 a y y y y + =
khi h phng trnh v nghim do A khng kh nghch.
- Nu
1 a =
th
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 3 4
3 1 2 3 4
4 1 2 3 4
1
( 2)
( 1)( 3)
1
( 2)
( 1)( 3)
1
( 2)
( 1)( 3)
1
( 2)
( 1)( 3)
x a y y y y
a a
x y a y y y
a a
x y y a y y
a a
x y y y a y
a a
= +
+
= + +
+
= + +
+
= + +
+

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

55
Khi , chn cc gi tr cho cc tham s
1 2 3 4
, , , y y y y
l 1 ta c ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
A l:
1
( 2) 1 1 1
1 ( 2) 1 1
1
1 1 ( 2) 1 ( 1)( 3)
1 1 1 ( 2)
a
a
A
a a a
a

+ (
(
+
(
=
( + +
(
+


Kt lun:
Nu a = -3, a = 1 th ma trn A khng kh nghch.
Nu
1, 3 a a = =
th ma trn A kh nghch v ma trn nghch o ca A c xc nh bi cng
thc
1
( 2) 1 1 1
1 ( 2) 1 1
1
1 1 ( 2) 1 ( 1)( 3)
1 1 1 ( 2)
a
a
A
a a a
a

+ (
(
+
(
=
( + +
(
+


6. ng dng vn dng ma trn nghch o gii mt phng trnh ma trn:
Xt phng trnh ma trn AX = B.
Nu A kh nghch th
1
X A B

=

V d 1:
Cho ma trn
1 2
3 4
2 1 1 2
; ;
5 3 3 4
x x
A X B
x x
( ( (
= = =
( ( (

. Hy gii pt
AX B =

Gii
V
det 0 A=
nn A kh nghch v
1
3 1
5 2
A

(
=
(

1
0 2
1 2
X A B

(
= =
(

V d 2:
Gii phng trnh ma trn sau:
1 2 2 7 3 0
3 2 4 6 8 4
2 1 0 1 0 5
X
( (
( (
=
( (
( (


Sinh vin t lm nh bi tp nh.







Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

56
Tm tt Chng
Trong chng ny, chng ta lm quen vi mt s khi nim mi trong i s tuyn tnh,
l ma trn, nh thc v nhng kin thc lin quan nh: hng ma trn, ma trn nghch o. y
l ni dung c bn lm nn tng hc tt cc chng sau nh: gii h phng trnh tuyn
tnh, khng gian vector.
Hc xong chng ny, sinh vin cn tr li c cc cu hi sau:
1. Ma trn l g? N khc vi mt s nh th no? C nhng php bin i no trn ma
trn? Nhng php ton trn ma trn nh: php cng hai ma trn, php nhn ma trn vi mt s,
php nhn hai ma trn c thc hin nh th no?
2. nh thc l g? C nhng tnh cht g? Cch tnh nh thc cp n?
3. Hng ca ma trn l g? Cc phng php tm hng ca ma trn?
4. Ma trn nghch o l g? iu kin mt ma trn c ma trn nghch o? Cc phng
php tm ma trn nghch o?

BI TP
1. Cho cc ma trn
2 1 1
0 1 4
A
(
=
(

v
2 1 0
3 2 2
B
(
=
(

. Tnh
a) 3A + 2B;
b) 4A 3B;
c)
T
A
;
d)
,
T T
A A AA
.
2. Tnh cc tch ca cc ma trn sau:
a)
1 3 2 1 4 5
3 4 1 0 2 7
2 5 3 3 2 1
( (
( (

( (
( (

; b)
7
5 0 2 3
3
4 1 5 3
2
3 1 1 2
1
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(


; c)
0 0 1
1 2
1 2 3
2 2
2 2 3 7
1
3 3 4
i
i
i
i
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(



4. Tnh
,
k
A k e
vi A l cc ma trn sau:
a)
2 1
3 2
A
(
=
(

; b)
1
0 1
A
o (
=
(

; c)
0
A
o |
o
(
=
(

; d)
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
A
(
(
=
(
(

;
e)
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
A
(
(
=
(
(

; f)
0 0
0 0
0 0
A
o
|

(
(
=
(
(

g)
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
A
(
(
=
(
(


5. Cho
3
( ) 7 5 f x x x = +
v
2
( ) 2 3 4 g x x x = +
. Hy tnh f(A), g(A) v f(A).g(A) vi A l cc
ma trn trong bi tp 4.
6. Tnh AB BA trong cc trng hp sau:
a)
1 2 2 3
;
4 1 4 1
A B
( (
= =
( (



Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

57
b)
2 3 1 1 2 2 1
3 1 0 ; 0 1 2
1 2 1 3 1 1
i i
A i B
i i
+ ( (
( (
= =
( (
( ( +


c)
1 1 1 7 5 3
0 1 1 , 0 7 5
0 0 1 0 0 7
A B
( (
( (
= =
( (
( (


7. a) Tm tt c cc ma trn vung cp 2 giao hon vi ma trn
1 2
0 1
A
(
=
(

;
b) Tm tt c cc ma trn vung cp 3 giao hon vi ma trn
1 0 1
0 1 2
0 0 2
B
(
(
=
(
(

.
8. Cho
( ; ) A M n K e
ta gi tng
1
n
ii
i
a
=
l vt ca ma trn A, k hiu Tr(A). Chng minh rng
, ( ; ) A B M n K e
th
a) Tr(A + B) = Tr(A) + Tr(B);
b) Tr(AB) = Tr(BA).
T suy ra khng tn ti
, ( ; ) A B M n K e
sao cho AB BA = I
n
.
9. Cho
( ; ) A M n K e
sao cho
2
0 A =
, t
n
B A I = +
. Vi
k e
, tnh cc biu thc sau theo A v
I
n
.
a)
;
k
B

b)
2
... ;
k
k n
S I B B B = + + + +

c) Tnh
k
S
khi
7 4
9 5
B
(
=
(

.
10. Tnh cc nh thc sau:
a)
2 3 2
0 3 9
3 1 7
; b)
1 1 3
2 4 5
0 3 7

; c)
2 3 4
5 6 7
8 9 1
i i i
i i i
i i i
+ + + (
(
+ + +
(
( + + +

; d)
2 3 4
0 3 1
1 2 0
i i i
i
i
+ +
+

.
11. Tnh
o |
| o
o |
trong
, , o |
l cc nghim ca phng trnh
3
0 x px q + + =
.
12. Tnh cc nh thc sau:
a)
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
1 1 1
x
y
z
t
b)
1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
1 3 5 7
1 4 10 20
c)
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
a
a
a
a

d)
0 1 1 1
1 0
1 0
1 0
a b
a c
b c

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

58
e)
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
f)
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
3 4 1 2
4 1 2 3
g)
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
h)
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
a b
a b
a b
b a

13. Gii phng trnh
2 3
1
1 2 4 8
0
1 3 9 27
1 4 16 64
x x x
=
.
14. A. Chng minh rng cc nh thc sau bng 0.
a)
1
1
1
a b c
b c a
c a b
+
+
+
b)
sin cos sin( )
sin cos sin( )
sin cos sin( )
o o o u
| | | u
o u
+
+
+
c)
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
( )
( )
( )
ab a b a b
bc b c b c
ac c a c a
+ +
+ +
+ +

d)
1 2 2
1 2 3
1 2 4
1 2 6
a a x
b b x
c c x
d d x
+
+
+
+
e)
x p ax bp
y q ay bq
z r az br
+
+
+
f)
1
1
1
2
a b c
b c a
c a b
c b b a a c + + +

h)
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
a a a a
b b b b
c c c c
d d d d
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

B. Chng minh
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2
a b b c c a a b c
a b b c c a a b c
a b b c c a a b c
+ + +
+ + + =
+ + +

15. Cho
( ; ) A M n K e
, n l. Chng minh rng nu A l ma trn phn xng th detA = 0.
16. Chng minh:
3
2 2
) 2 2 ( )
2 2
a b c a a
a b b c a b a b c
c c c a b

= + +


b)
2 2 2
2 2 2 3
2 2 2
( )
( ) 2 ( )
( )
b c b c
a c a c abc a b c
a b a b
+
+ = + +
+

17. Tnh nh thc sau:
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

59
a)
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 ...
1 ...
1 ...
... 1
n
n
n
n
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
+
+
+
+
b)
0 1 1 ... 1
1 0 ...
1 0 ...
1 ... 0
x x
x x
x x
c)
1 2 3 ...
1 0 3 ...
1 2 0 ...
... ... ... ... ....
1 2 3 ... 0
n
n
n

d)
5 3 0 0 ... 0 0
2 5 3 0 ... 0 0
0 2 5 3 ... 0 0
.... .... .... ... .... ... ...
.... .... .... .... ... .... ....
0 0 0 0 ... 5 3
0 0 0 0 ... 2 5
e)
1
2
...
...
...
n
a x x
x a x
x x a

f)
1 1 1 2 1
2 1 2 2 2
1 2
cos( ) cos( ) ... cos( )
cos( ) cos( ) ... cos( )
cos( ) cos( ) ... cos( )
n
n
n n n n
o | o | o |
o | o | o |
o | o | o |




1 2
2 2 2
1 2
1 1 1
1 2
1 1 ... 1
...
) ...
...
n
n
n n n
n
x x x
i x x x
x x x


1 1 0 0 ... 0 0
1 1 1 0 ... 0 0
) 0 1 1 1 ... 0 0
0 0 0 0 ... 1 1
k

3 4 0 ... 0
1 3 4 ... 0
) 0 1 3 ... 0
... .... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... 3
l

1 2 3 ... 1
2 3 4 ... 1
3 4 5 ... 1 2
)
... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... .... .... ...
1 2 ... 2 1
n n
n
m
n n n

18. Tnh nh thc cp 2n sau y
0 ... 0 0 0 ...
0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 0 ... 0
)
0 0 ... 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 ... 0 0 0 ...
a b
a
a b
a
b a
a
b a

Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

60
Ch : tt c cc phn t trn ng cho chnh l a, tt c cc phn t trn ng cho ph l
b cn tt c cc phn t cn li l bng 0.
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
0 ... 0 0 ... 0
0 ... 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 0 0 ...
)
0 ... 0 0 ... 0
0 ... 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... 0 0 ...
n n
n n
a b
a b
a b
b
c d
c d
c d

19) Tm hng ca cc ma trn sau:
4 3 5 2 3
8 6 7 4 2
)
4 3 8 2 7
8 6 1 4 6
a
(
(

(
(
(



3 1 3 2 5
5 3 2 3 4
)
1 3 5 0 7
7 5 1 4 1
b
(
(

(
(
(

2 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
)
3 4 3 4 3 4
5 5 6 7 5 5
c
(
(
(
(
(


2 1 1 1
1 3 1 1
1 1 4 1
)
1 1 1 5
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
d
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(


3 1 1 4
4 10 1
)
1 7 17 3
2 2 4 3
a
e
(
(
(
(
(


1 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
)
1 0 1 1
1 2 2 1 1
a
f
a
(
(

(
(
(

2 1 11 2
1 0 4 1
)
11 4 56 5
2 1 5 6
g
(
(

(
(
(

0 4 10 1
4 8 18 7
)
10 18 40 17
1 7 17 3
h
(
(
(
(
(


1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
k
(
(

(
(
(

2 0 3 1
1 2 2 3
)
3 2 5 4
5 2 8 5
l
(
(

(
(
(



20) Tm hng ca cc ma trn vung cp n sau y:
1 ...
1 ...
)
... ... ... ...
.... 1
a a a
a a a
a
a a a
+ (
(
+
(
(
(
+


0 1 1 ... 1
1 0 ...
) 1 0 ...
1 ... 0
x x
b x x
x x
(
(
(
(
(
(
(


...
...
)
... ... ... ...
...
a b b
b a b
c
b b a
(
(
(
(
(


21) Vi gi tr no ca e th hng cc ma trn sau bng 1:
a)
1 2 1
2 2
3 6 3

(
(

(
(

b)
1 2 3
3 6 9
4 8 12

(
(

(
(

c)
1 3 5
4 12 5
5 15 10

(
(
+
(
( +


Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

61
22) Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau bng nhiu cch:
3 5
)
2 3
a
(
(

b)
1 0 3
2 1 1
3 2 2
(
(
(
(

c)
1 3 2
3 2 1
2 1 3
(
(
(
(

d)
1 0 2
2 1 3
4 1 8
(
(

(
(


e)
1 2 2
2 3 6
1 1 7
(
(

(
(

f)
2 5 7
6 3 4
5 2 3
(
(
(
(

g)
5 3 2
1 2 4
7 2 6
(
(

(
(

h)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
(
(

(
(
(

k)
0 0 1 1
0 3 1 4
2 7 6 1
1 2 2 1
(
(
(
(
(

l)
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
(
(

(
(
(


m)
0 0 1 1
0 3 1 4
2 7 6 1
1 2 2 1
(
(
(
(
(

n)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
(
(

(
(
(

o)
sin cos
cos sin
o o
o o
(
(

p)
1 1 1 3
0 1 0 0
1 1 2 3
2 2 4 5
(
(
(
(
(

23) Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn vung cp n sau:
a)
1 ...
1 ...
... ... ... ...
... 1
a a a
a a a
a a a
+ (
(
+
(
(
(
+

b)
0 1 1 ... 1
1 0 ...
1 0 ...
1 ... 0
x x
x x
x x
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(vi 2 n > ) c)
...
...
...
... ... ... ... ...
...
a b b b
b a b b
b b a b
b b b a
(
(
(
(
(
(
(


d)
1 1 1 ... 1
1 1 1 ... 1
1 1 1 ... 1
1 1 1 ... 1
a
a
a
a
+ (
(
+
(
( +
(
(
(
+

e)
1 2 3 ... 1
0 1 2 ... 2 1
0 0 0 ... 0 1
n n
n n
(
(

(
(
(

f)
1 1 1 ... 1
1 0 1 ... 1
1 1 0 ... 1
1 1 1 ... 0
(
(
(
(
(
(
(


24) Tm iu kin ca tham s cc ma trn sau kh nghch, sau tm ma trn nghch o
tng ng:
1
) 1 ;
1
a bc
a b ca
c ab
(
(
(
(

b)
1 3 2
3 7 5 ;
2 1
m
m m
(
(
+
(
(

c)
1
1 1
1
a b
ab
b a
(
(
(
(

; d)
1 3 5
2 1 1 2 2
3 3 4 3
i i i m
i i i
m i m i i
+ (
(
+ +
(
( + +


25) Cho
1 1
0 1
A
(
=
(

v
2 1
3 2
B
(
=
(

. Tnh
( )
1
,
k
B AB k

e
26) Chng minh nu f l mt a thc trn K v ( ; ) B M n K e l mt ma trn kh nghch th vi
mi ( ; ) A M n K e ta c
1 1
( ) ( ) f B AB B f A B

=
T suy ra, cch tnh ly tha mt ma trn vung?
Chng 2. Ma trn nh thc

i s tuyn tnh 1

62
27) Cho ( ; ) A M n K e l mt ma trn ly linh, chng t rng
n
I A v
n
I A + l cc ma trn kh
nghch. Hy tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn trn.
28) Ma trn nghch o
1
A

s thay i th no nu
a) Hon v hai dng ca A.
b) Nhn mt dng vi mt hng s khc 0.
c) Thm vo dng th i tch ca dng j i = vi mt hng s o .