DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA

By Alexis De Tocqueville
Translated by Henry Reeve
Boo One
Introduction
!"ecial Introduction By Hon# $o%n T# Mor&an
In t%e eleven years t%at se"arated t%e Declaration o' t%e Inde"endence o' t%e (nited !tates 'ro) t%e co)"letion
o' t%at act in t%e ordination o' our *ritten Constitution+ t%e &reat )inds o' A)erica *ere bent u"on t%e study o'
t%e "rinci"les o' &overn)ent t%at *ere essential to t%e "reservation o' t%e liberties *%ic% %ad been *on at &reat
cost and *it% %eroic labors and sacri'ices# T%eir studies *ere conducted in vie* o' t%e i)"er'ections t%at
ex"erience %ad develo"ed in t%e &overn)ent o' t%e Con'ederation+ and t%ey *ere+ t%ere'ore+ "ractical and
t%orou&%#
,%en t%e Constitution *as t%us "er'ected and establis%ed+ a ne* 'or) o' &overn)ent *as created+ but it *as
neit%er s"eculative nor ex"eri)ental as to t%e "rinci"les on *%ic% it *as based# I' t%ey *ere true "rinci"les+ as
t%ey *ere+ t%e &overn)ent 'ounded u"on t%e) *as destined to a li'e and an in'luence t%at *ould continue *%ile
t%e liberties it *as intended to "reserve s%ould be valued by t%e %u)an 'a)ily# T%ose liberties %ad been *run&
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'ro) reluctant )onarc%s in )any contests+ in )any countries+ and *ere &rou"ed into creeds and establis%ed in
ordinances sealed *it% blood+ in )any &reat stru&&les o' t%e "eo"le# T%ey *ere not ne* to t%e "eo"le# T%ey *ere
consecrated t%eories+ but no &overn)ent %ad been "reviously establis%ed 'or t%e &reat "ur"ose o' t%eir
"reservation and en'orce)ent# T%at *%ic% *as ex"eri)ental in our "lan o' &overn)ent *as t%e question *%et%er
de)ocratic rule could be so or&ani-ed and conducted t%at it *ould not de&enerate into license and result in t%e
tyranny o' absolutis)+ *it%out savin& to t%e "eo"le t%e "o*er so o'ten 'ound necessary o' re"ressin& or
destroyin& t%eir ene)y+ *%en %e *as 'ound in t%e "erson o' a sin&le des"ot#
,%en+ in ./0.+ Alexis de Tocqueville ca)e to study De)ocracy in A)erica+ t%e trial o' nearly a %al'1century o'
t%e *orin& o' our syste) %ad been )ade+ and it %ad been "roved+ by )any crucial tests+ to be a &overn)ent o'
2liberty re&ulated by la*+2 *it% suc% results in t%e develo")ent o' stren&t%+ in "o"ulation+ *ealt%+ and )ilitary
and co))ercial "o*er+ as no a&e %ad ever *itnessed#
3!ee Alexis De Tocqueville4
De Tocqueville %ad a s"ecial inquiry to "rosecute+ in %is visit to A)erica+ in *%ic% %is &enerous and 'ait%'ul soul
and t%e "o*ers o' %is &reat intellect *ere en&a&ed in t%e "atriotic e''ort to secure to t%e "eo"le o' 5rance t%e
blessin&s t%at De)ocracy in A)erica %ad ordained and establis%ed t%rou&%out nearly t%e entire ,estern
He)is"%ere# He %ad read t%e story o' t%e 5renc% Revolution+ )uc% o' *%ic% %ad been recently *ritten in t%e
blood o' )en and *o)en o' &reat distinction *%o *ere %is "ro&enitors6 and %ad *itnessed t%e a&itations and
terrors o' t%e Restoration and o' t%e !econd Re"ublic+ 'ruit'ul in cri)e and sacri'ice+ and barren o' any &ood to
)anind#
He %ad 7ust *itnessed t%e s"read o' re"ublican &overn)ent t%rou&% all t%e vast continental "ossessions o' !"ain
in A)erica+ and t%e loss o' %er &reat colonies# He %ad seen t%at t%ese revolutions *ere acco)"lis%ed al)ost
*it%out t%e s%eddin& o' blood+ and %e *as 'illed *it% anxiety to learn t%e causes t%at %ad "laced re"ublican
&overn)ent+ in 5rance+ in suc% contrast *it% De)ocracy in A)erica#
De Tocqueville *as scarcely t%irty years old *%en %e be&an %is studies o' De)ocracy in A)erica# It *as a bold
e''ort 'or one *%o %ad no s"ecial trainin& in &overn)ent+ or in t%e study o' "olitical econo)y+ but %e %ad t%e
exa)"le o' 8a'ayette in establis%in& t%e )ilitary 'oundation o' t%ese liberties+ and o' ,as%in&ton+ $e''erson+
Madison+ and Ha)ilton+ all o' *%o) *ere youn& )en+ in buildin& u"on t%e Inde"endence o' t%e (nited !tates
t%at *isest and best "lan o' &eneral &overn)ent t%at *as ever devised 'or a 'ree "eo"le#
He 'ound t%at t%e A)erican "eo"le+ t%rou&% t%eir c%osen re"resentatives *%o *ere instructed by t%eir *isdo)
and ex"erience and *ere su""orted by t%eir virtues11cultivated+ "uri'ied and ennobled by sel'1reliance and t%e
love o' 9od11%ad )atured+ in t%e excellent *isdo) o' t%eir counsels+ a ne* "lan o' &overn)ent+ *%ic% e)braced
every security 'or t%eir liberties and equal ri&%ts and "rivile&es to all in t%e "ursuit o' %a""iness# He ca)e as an
%onest and i)"artial student and %is &reat co))entary+ lie t%ose o' :aul+ *as *ritten 'or t%e bene'it o' all
nations and "eo"le and in vindication o' trut%s t%at *ill stand 'or t%eir deliverance 'ro) )onarc%ical rule+ *%ile
ti)e s%all last#
A 5renc% aristocrat o' t%e "urest strain o' blood and o' t%e )ost %onorable linea&e+ *%ose 'a)ily in'luence *as
coveted by cro*ned %eads6 *%o %ad no quarrel *it% t%e rulers o' t%e nation+ and *as secure a&ainst *ant by %is
in%erited estates6 *as )oved by t%e a&itations t%at co)"elled 5rance to atte)"t to &ras" suddenly t%e liberties
and %a""iness *e %ad &ained in our revolution and+ by %is devout love o' 5rance+ to searc% out and sub7ect to t%e
test o' reason t%e basic "rinci"les o' 'ree &overn)ent t%at %ad been e)bodied in our Constitution# T%is *as t%e
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)ission o' De Tocqueville+ and no )ission *as ever )ore %onorably or 7ustly conducted+ or concluded *it%
&reater eclat+ or better results 'or t%e *el'are o' )anind#
His researc%es *ere lo&ical and ex%austive# T%ey included every "%ase o' every question t%at t%en see)ed to be
a""osite to t%e &reat inquiry %e *as )ain&#
T%e 7ud&)ent o' all *%o %ave studied %is co))entaries see)s to %ave been unani)ous+ t%at %is talents and
learnin& *ere 'ully equal to %is tas# He be&an *it% t%e "%ysical &eo&ra"%y o' t%is country+ and exa)ined t%e
c%aracteristics o' t%e "eo"le+ o' all races and conditions+ t%eir social and reli&ious senti)ents+ t%eir education and
tastes6 t%eir industries+ t%eir co))erce+ t%eir local &overn)ents+ t%eir "assions and "re7udices+ and t%eir et%ics
and literature6 leavin& not%in& unnoticed t%at )i&%t a''ord an ar&u)ent to "rove t%at our "lan and 'or) o'
&overn)ent *as or *as not ada"ted es"ecially to a "eculiar "eo"le+ or t%at it *ould be i)"racticable in any
di''erent country+ or a)on& any di''erent "eo"le#
T%e "ride and co)'ort t%at t%e A)erican "eo"le en7oy in t%e &reat co))entaries o' De Tocqueville are 'ar
re)oved 'ro) t%e sel'is% adulation t%at co)es 'ro) a &reat and sin&ular success# It is t%e consciousness o'
victory over a 'alse t%eory o' &overn)ent *%ic% %as a''licted )anind 'or )any a&es+ t%at &ives 7oy to t%e true
A)erican+ as it did to De Tocqueville in %is &reat triu)"%#
,%en De Tocqueville *rote+ *e %ad lived less t%an 'i'ty years under our Constitution# In t%at ti)e no &reat
national co))otion %ad occurred t%at tested its stren&t%+ or its "o*er o' resistance to internal stri'e+ suc% as %ad
converted %is beloved 5rance into 'ields o' slau&%ter torn by te)"ests o' *rat%#
He %ad a stron& conviction t%at no &overn)ent could be ordained t%at could resist t%ese internal 'orces+ *%en+
t%ey are directed to its destruction by bad )en+ or unreasonin& )obs+ and )any t%en believed+ as so)e yet
believe+ t%at our &overn)ent is unequal to suc% "ressure+ *%en t%e assault is t%orou&%ly des"erate#
Had De Tocqueville lived to exa)ine t%e %istory o' t%e (nited !tates 'ro) ./;< to ./=<+ %is )is&ivin&s as to
t%is "o*er o' sel'1"reservation *ould+ "robably+ %ave been cleared o''# He *ould %ave seen t%at+ at t%e end o' t%e
)ost destructive civil *ar t%at ever occurred+ *%en ani)osities o' t%e bitterest sort %ad banis%ed all &ood 'eelin&
'ro) t%e %earts o' our "eo"le+ t%e !tates o' t%e A)erican (nion+ still in co)"lete or&ani-ation and equi""ed *it%
all t%eir o''icial entoura&e+ ali&ned t%e)selves in t%eir "laces and too u" t%e "o*ers and duties o' local
&overn)ent in "er'ect order and *it%out e)barrass)ent# T%is *ould %ave dis"elled %is a""re%ensions+ i' %e %ad
any+ about t%e "o*er o' t%e (nited !tates to *it%stand t%e severest s%ocs o' civil *ar# Could %e %ave traced t%e
'urt%er course o' events until t%ey o"en t%e "ortals o' t%e t*entiet% century+ %e *ould %ave cast a*ay %is 'ears o'
our ability to restore "eace+ order+ and "ros"erity+ in t%e 'ace o' any di''iculties+ and *ould %ave re7oiced to 'ind
in t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates t%e re)edy t%at is "rovided 'or t%e %ealin& o' t%e nation#
De Tocqueville exa)ined+ *it% t%e care t%at is *ort%y t%e i)"ortance o' t%e sub7ect+ t%e nature and value o' t%e
syste) o' 2local sel'1&overn)ent+2 as *e style t%is )ost i)"ortant 'eature o' our "lan+ and >as %as o'ten
%a""ened? *%en t%is or any sub7ect %as beco)e a )atter o' anxious concern+ %is treat)ent o' t%e questions is
'ound to %ave been )asterly and %is "reconce"tions al)ost "ro"%etic#
,e are 'requently indebted to %i) 'or able ex"ositions and true doctrines relatin& to sub7ects t%at %ave slu)bered
in t%e )inds o' t%e "eo"le until t%ey *ere suddenly 'orced on our attention by unex"ected events#
In %is introductory c%a"ter+ M# De Tocqueville says@ 2A)on&st t%e novel ob7ects t%at attracted )y attention
durin& )y stay in t%e (nited !tates+ not%in& struc )e )ore 'orcibly t%an t%e &eneral equality o' conditions#2 He
re'erred+ doubtless+ to social and "olitical conditions a)on& t%e "eo"le o' t%e *%ite race+ *%o are described as
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2,e+ t%e "eo"le+2 in t%e o"enin& sentence o' t%e Constitution# T%e last t%ree a)end)ents o' t%e Constitution
%ave so c%an&ed t%is+ t%at t%ose *%o *ere t%en ne&ro slaves are clot%ed *it% t%e ri&%ts o' citi-ens%i"+ includin&
t%e ri&%t o' su''ra&e# T%is *as a "olitical "arty )ove)ent+ intended to be radical and revolutionary+ but it *ill+
ulti)ately+ react because it %as not t%e sanction o' "ublic o"inion#
I' M# De Tocqueville could no* searc% 'or a la* t%at *ould ne&ative t%is "rovision in its e''ect u"on social
equality+ %e *ould 'ail to 'ind it# But %e *ould 'ind it in t%e un*ritten la* o' t%e natural aversion o' t%e races# He
*ould 'ind it in "ublic o"inion+ *%ic% is t%e vital 'orce in every la* in a 'ree &overn)ent# T%is is a sub7ect t%at
our Constitution 'ailed to re&ulate+ because it *as not conte)"lated by its aut%ors# It is a question t%at *ill settle
itsel'+ *it%out serious di''iculty# T%e equality in t%e su''ra&e+ t%us &uaranteed to t%e ne&ro race+ alone11'or it *as
not intended to include ot%er colored races11creates a ne* "%ase o' "olitical conditions t%at M# De Tocqueville
could not 'oresee# Yet+ in %is co))endation o' t%e local to*n and county &overn)ents+ %e a""lauds and sustains
t%at ele)entary 'eature o' our "olitical or&ani-ation *%ic%+ in t%e end+ *ill render %ar)less t%is *ide de"arture
'ro) t%e ori&inal "lan and "ur"ose o' A)erican De)ocracy# 28ocal !el'19overn)ent+2 inde"endent o' &eneral
control+ exce"t 'or &eneral "ur"oses+ is t%e root and ori&in o' all 'ree re"ublican &overn)ent+ and is t%e
anta&onist o' all &reat "olitical co)binations t%at t%reaten t%e ri&%ts o' )inorities# It is t%e "ublic o"inion 'or)ed
in t%e inde"endent ex"ressions o' to*ns and ot%er s)all civil districts t%at is t%e real conservatis) o' 'ree
&overn)ent# It is equally t%e ene)y o' t%at dan&erous evil+ t%e corru"tion o' t%e ballot1box+ 'ro) *%ic% it is no*
a""re%ended t%at one o' our &reatest troubles is to arise#
T%e voter is selected+ under our la*s+ because %e %as certain "%ysical quali'ications11a&e and sex# His
disquali'ications+ *%en any are i)"osed+ relate to %is education or "ro"erty+ and to t%e 'act t%at %e %as not been
convicted o' cri)e# O' all )en %e s%ould be )ost directly a)enable to "ublic o"inion#
T%e test o' )oral c%aracter and devotion to t%e duties o' &ood citi-ens%i" are i&nored in t%e la*s+ because t%e
courts can seldo) deal *it% suc% questions in a uni'or) and satis'actory *ay+ under rules t%at a""ly alie to all#
T%us t%e voter+ selected by la* to re"resent %i)sel' and 'our ot%er non1votin& citi-ens+ is o'ten a "erson *%o is
un'it 'or any "ublic duty or trust# In a to*n &overn)ent+ %avin& a s)all area o' 7urisdiction+ *%ere t%e voice o'
t%e )a7ority o' quali'ied voters is conclusive+ t%e 'itness o' t%e "erson *%o is to exercise t%at %i&% re"resentative
"rivile&e can be deter)ined by %is nei&%bors and acquaintances+ and+ in t%e &reat )a7ority o' cases+ it *ill be
decided %onestly and 'or t%e &ood o' t%e country# In suc% )eetin&s+ t%ere is al*ays a s"irit o' loyalty to t%e !tate+
because t%at is loyalty to t%e "eo"le+ and a reverence 'or 9od t%at &ives *ei&%t to t%e duties and res"onsibilities
o' citi-ens%i"#
M# De Tocqueville 'ound in t%ese )inor local 7urisdictions t%e t%eoretical conservatis) *%ic%+ in t%e a&&re&ate+
is t%e sa'est reliance o' t%e !tate# !o *e %ave 'ound t%e)+ in "ractice+ t%e true "rotectors o' t%e "urity o' t%e
ballot+ *it%out *%ic% all 'ree &overn)ent *ill de&enerate into absolutis)#
In t%e 'uture o' t%e Re"ublic+ *e )ust encounter )any di''icult and dan&erous situations+ but t%e "rinci"les
establis%ed in t%e Constitution and t%e c%ec u"on %asty or inconsiderate le&islation+ and u"on executive action+
and t%e su"re)e arbitra)ent o' t%e courts+ *ill be 'ound su''icient 'or t%e sa'ety o' "ersonal ri&%ts+ and 'or t%e
sa'ety o' t%e &overn)ent+ and t%e "ro"%etic outloo o' M# De Tocqueville *ill be 'ully reali-ed t%rou&% t%e
in'luence o' De)ocracy in A)erica# Eac% succeedin& &eneration o' A)ericans *ill 'ind in t%e "ure and
i)"artial re'lections o' De Tocqueville a ne* source o' "ride in our institutions o' &overn)ent+ and sound
reasons 'or "atriotic e''ort to "reserve t%e) and to inculcate t%eir teac%in&s# T%ey %ave )astered t%e "o*er o'
)onarc%ical rule in t%e A)erican He)is"%ere+ 'reein& reli&ion 'ro) all s%acles+ and *ill s"read+ by a quiet but
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resistless in'luence+ t%rou&% t%e islands o' t%e seas to ot%er lands+ *%ere t%e a""eals o' De Tocqueville 'or
%u)an ri&%ts and liberties %ave already ins"ired t%e souls o' t%e "eo"le#
Hon# $o%n T# Mor&an
!"ecial Introduction By Hon# $o%n $# In&alls
Nearly t*o1t%irds o' a century %as ela"sed since t%e a""earance o' 2De)ocracy in A)erica+2 by Alexis C%arles
Henri Clerel de Tocqueville+ a 5renc% noble)an+ born at :aris+ $uly AB+ ./<C#
Bred to t%e la*+ %e ex%ibited an early "redilection 'or "%iloso"%y and "olitical econo)y+ and at t*enty1t*o *as
a""ointed 7ud&e1auditor at t%e tribunal o' Dersailles#
In ./0.+ co))issioned ostensibly to investi&ate t%e "enitentiary syste) o' t%e (nited !tates+ %e visited t%is
country+ *it% %is 'riend+ 9ustave de Beau)ont+ travellin& extensively t%rou&% t%ose "arts o' t%e Re"ublic t%en
subdued to settle)ent+ studyin& t%e )et%ods o' local+ !tate+ and national ad)inistration+ and observin& t%e
)anners and %abits+ t%e daily li'e+ t%e business+ t%e industries and occu"ations o' t%e "eo"le#
2De)ocracy in A)erica+2 t%e 'irst o' 'our volu)es u"on 2A)erican Institutions and t%eir In'luence+2 *as
"ublis%ed in ./0C# It *as received at once by t%e sc%olars and t%iners o' Euro"e as a "ro'ound+ i)"artial+ and
entertainin& ex"osition o' t%e "rinci"les o' "o"ular+ re"resentative sel'1&overn)ent#
Na"oleon+ 2T%e )i&%ty so)na)bulist o' a vanis%ed drea)+2 %ad abolis%ed 'eudalis) and absolutis)+ )ade
)onarc%s and dynasties obsolete+ and substituted 'or t%e divine ri&%t o' in&s t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le#
Alt%ou&% by birt% and sy)"at%ies an aristocrat+ M# de Tocqueville sa* t%at t%e rei&n o' tradition and "rivile&e at
last *as ended# He "erceived t%at civili-ation+ a'ter )any bloody centuries+ %ad entered a ne* e"oc%# He be%eld+
and de"lored+ t%e excesses t%at %ad attended t%e &enesis o' t%e de)ocratic s"irit in 5rance+ and *%ile %e loved
liberty+ %e detested t%e cri)es t%at %ad been co))itted in its na)e# Belon&in& neit%er to t%e class *%ic%
re&arded t%e social revolution as an innovation to be resisted+ nor to t%at *%ic% considered "olitical equality t%e
universal "anacea 'or t%e evils o' %u)anity+ %e resolved by "ersonal observation o' t%e results o' de)ocracy in
t%e Ne* ,orld to ascertain its natural consequences+ and to learn *%at t%e nations o' Euro"e %ad to %o"e or 'ear
'ro) its 'inal su"re)acy#
T%at a yout% o' t*enty1six s%ould entertain a desi&n so broad and bold i)"lies sin&ular intellectual intre"idity#
He %ad neit%er )odel nor "recedent# T%e vastness and novelty o' t%e undertain& increase ad)iration 'or t%e
re)arable ability *it% *%ic% t%e tas *as "er'or)ed#
,ere literary excellence t%e sole clai) o' 2De)ocracy in A)erica2 to distinction+ t%e s"lendor o' its
co)"osition alone *ould entitle it to %i&% "lace a)on& t%e )aster"ieces o' t%e century# T%e 'irst c%a"ter+ u"on
t%e exterior 'or) o' Nort% A)erica+ as t%e t%eatre u"on *%ic% t%e &reat dra)a is to be enacted+ 'or &ra"%ic and
"icturesque descri"tion o' t%e "%ysical c%aracteristics o' t%e continent is not sur"assed in literature@ nor is t%ere
any subdivision o' t%e *or in *%ic% t%e severest "%iloso"%y is not invested *it% t%e &race o' "oetry+ and t%e
driest statistics *it% t%e c%ar) o' ro)ance# ,estern e)i&ration see)ed co))on"lace and "rosaic till M# de
Tocqueville said+ 2T%is &radual and continuous "ro&ress o' t%e Euro"ean race to*ard t%e Rocy Mountains %as
t%e sole)nity o' a "rovidential event6 it is lie a delu&e o' )en risin& unabatedly+ and daily driven on*ard by t%e
%and o' 9odE2
T%e )ind o' M# de Tocqueville %ad t%e candor o' t%e "%oto&ra"%ic ca)era# It recorded i)"ressions *it% t%e
i)"artiality o' nature# T%e i)a&e *as so)eti)es distorted+ and t%e "ers"ective *as not al*ays true+ but %e *as
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neit%er a "ane&yrist+ nor an advocate+ nor a critic# He observed A)erican "%eno)ena as illustrations+ not as
"roo' nor ar&u)ents6 and alt%ou&% it is a""arent t%at t%e tendency o' %is )ind *as not *%olly 'avorable to t%e
de)ocratic "rinci"le+ yet t%ose *%o dissent 'ro) %is conclusions )ust co))end t%e ability and coura&e *it%
*%ic% t%ey are ex"ressed#
T%ou&% not ori&inally *ritten 'or A)ericans+ 2De)ocracy in A)erica2 )ust al*ays re)ain a *or o' en&rossin&
and constantly increasin& interest to citi-ens o' t%e (nited !tates as t%e 'irst "%iloso"%ic and co)"re%ensive vie*
o' our society+ institutions+ and destiny# No one can rise even 'ro) t%e )ost cursory "erusal *it%out clearer
insi&%t and )ore "atriotic a""reciation o' t%e blessin&s o' liberty "rotected by la*+ nor *it%out encoura&e)ent
'or t%e stability and "er"etuity o' t%e Re"ublic# T%e causes *%ic% a""eared to M# de Tocqueville to )enace bot%+
%ave &one# T%e des"otis) o' "ublic o"inion+ t%e tyranny o' )a7orities+ t%e absence o' intellectual 'reedo) *%ic%
see)ed to %i) to de&rade ad)inistration and brin& states)ans%i"+ learnin&+ and literature to t%e level o' t%e
lo*est+ are no lon&er considered# T%e violence o' "arty s"irit %as been )iti&ated+ and t%e 7ud&)ent o' t%e *ise is
not subordinated to t%e "re7udices o' t%e i&norant#
Ot%er dan&ers %ave co)e# Equality o' conditions no lon&er exists# :ro"%ets o' evil "redict t%e do*n'all o'
de)ocracy+ but t%e student o' M# de Tocqueville *ill 'ind consolation and encoura&e)ent in t%e re'lection t%at
t%e sa)e s"irit *%ic% %as vanquis%ed t%e "erils o' t%e "ast+ *%ic% %e 'oresa*+ *ill be equally "re"ared 'or t%e
res"onsibilities o' t%e "resent and t%e 'uture#
T%e last o' t%e 'our volu)es o' M# de TocquevilleFs *or u"on A)erican institutions a""eared in ./G<#
In ./0/ %e *as c%osen )e)ber o' t%e Acade)y o' Moral and :olitical !ciences# In ./0B %e *as elected to t%e
C%a)ber o' De"uties# He beca)e a )e)ber o' t%e 5renc% Acade)y in ./G.# In ./G/ %e *as in t%e Asse)bly+
and 'ro) $une And to October 0.st %e *as Minister o' 5orei&n A''airs# T%e cou" dFetat o' Dece)ber A+ ./C.
drove %i) 'ro) t%e "ublic service# In ./C; %e "ublis%ed 2T%e Old Re&i)e and t%e Revolution#2 He died at
Cannes+ A"ril .C+ ./CB+ at t%e a&e o' 'i'ty1'our#
Hon# $o%n $# In&alls
Introductory C%a"ter
A)on&st t%e novel ob7ects t%at attracted )y attention durin& )y stay in t%e (nited !tates+ not%in& struc )e
)ore 'orcibly t%an t%e &eneral equality o' conditions# I readily discovered t%e "rodi&ious in'luence *%ic% t%is
"ri)ary 'act exercises on t%e *%ole course o' society+ by &ivin& a certain direction to "ublic o"inion+ and a
certain tenor to t%e la*s6 by i)"artin& ne* )axi)s to t%e &overnin& "o*ers+ and "eculiar %abits to t%e &overned#
I s"eedily "erceived t%at t%e in'luence o' t%is 'act extends 'ar beyond t%e "olitical c%aracter and t%e la*s o' t%e
country+ and t%at it %as no less e)"ire over civil society t%an over t%e 9overn)ent6 it creates o"inions+ en&enders
senti)ents+ su&&ests t%e ordinary "ractices o' li'e+ and )odi'ies *%atever it does not "roduce# T%e )ore I
advanced in t%e study o' A)erican society+ t%e )ore I "erceived t%at t%e equality o' conditions is t%e
'unda)ental 'act 'ro) *%ic% all ot%ers see) to be derived+ and t%e central "oint at *%ic% all )y observations
constantly ter)inated#
I t%en turned )y t%ou&%ts to our o*n %e)is"%ere+ *%ere I i)a&ined t%at I discerned so)et%in& analo&ous to t%e
s"ectacle *%ic% t%e Ne* ,orld "resented to )e# I observed t%at t%e equality o' conditions is daily "ro&ressin&
to*ards t%ose extre)e li)its *%ic% it see)s to %ave reac%ed in t%e (nited !tates+ and t%at t%e de)ocracy *%ic%
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&overns t%e A)erican co))unities a""ears to be ra"idly risin& into "o*er in Euro"e# I %ence conceived t%e idea
o' t%e boo *%ic% is no* be'ore t%e reader#
It is evident to all alie t%at a &reat de)ocratic revolution is &oin& on a)on&st us6 but t%ere are t*o o"inions as
to its nature and consequences# To so)e it a""ears to be a novel accident+ *%ic% as suc% )ay still be c%eced6 to
ot%ers it see)s irresistible+ because it is t%e )ost uni'or)+ t%e )ost ancient+ and t%e )ost "er)anent tendency
*%ic% is to be 'ound in %istory# 8et us recollect t%e situation o' 5rance seven %undred years a&o+ *%en t%e
territory *as divided a)on&st a s)all nu)ber o' 'a)ilies+ *%o *ere t%e o*ners o' t%e soil and t%e rulers o' t%e
in%abitants6 t%e ri&%t o' &overnin& descended *it% t%e 'a)ily in%eritance 'ro) &eneration to &eneration6 'orce
*as t%e only )eans by *%ic% )an could act on )an+ and landed "ro"erty *as t%e sole source o' "o*er# !oon+
%o*ever+ t%e "olitical "o*er o' t%e cler&y *as 'ounded+ and be&an to exert itsel'@ t%e cler&y o"ened its rans to
all classes+ to t%e "oor and t%e ric%+ t%e villein and t%e lord6 equality "enetrated into t%e 9overn)ent t%rou&% t%e
C%urc%+ and t%e bein& *%o as a ser' )ust %ave ve&etated in "er"etual bonda&e too %is "lace as a "riest in t%e
)idst o' nobles+ and not in'requently above t%e %eads o' in&s#
T%e di''erent relations o' )en beca)e )ore co)"licated and )ore nu)erous as society &radually beca)e )ore
stable and )ore civili-ed# T%ence t%e *ant o' civil la*s *as 'elt6 and t%e order o' le&al 'unctionaries soon rose
'ro) t%e obscurity o' t%e tribunals and t%eir dusty c%a)bers+ to a""ear at t%e court o' t%e )onarc%+ by t%e side o'
t%e 'eudal barons in t%eir er)ine and t%eir )ail# ,%ilst t%e in&s *ere ruinin& t%e)selves by t%eir &reat
enter"rises+ and t%e nobles ex%austin& t%eir resources by "rivate *ars+ t%e lo*er orders *ere enric%in&
t%e)selves by co))erce# T%e in'luence o' )oney be&an to be "erce"tible in !tate a''airs# T%e transactions o'
business o"ened a ne* road to "o*er+ and t%e 'inancier rose to a station o' "olitical in'luence in *%ic% %e *as at
once 'lattered and des"ised# 9radually t%e s"read o' )ental acquire)ents+ and t%e increasin& taste 'or literature
and art+ o"ened c%ances o' success to talent6 science beca)e a )eans o' &overn)ent+ intelli&ence led to social
"o*er+ and t%e )an o' letters too a "art in t%e a''airs o' t%e !tate# T%e value attac%ed to t%e "rivile&es o' birt%
decreased in t%e exact "ro"ortion in *%ic% ne* "at%s *ere struc out to advance)ent# In t%e elevent% century
nobility *as beyond all "rice6 in t%e t%irteent% it )i&%t be "urc%ased6 it *as con'erred 'or t%e 'irst ti)e in .A=<6
and equality *as t%us introduced into t%e 9overn)ent by t%e aristocracy itsel'#
In t%e course o' t%ese seven %undred years it so)eti)es %a""ened t%at in order to resist t%e aut%ority o' t%e
Cro*n+ or to di)inis% t%e "o*er o' t%eir rivals+ t%e nobles &ranted a certain s%are o' "olitical ri&%ts to t%e "eo"le#
Or+ )ore 'requently+ t%e in& "er)itted t%e lo*er orders to en7oy a de&ree o' "o*er+ *it% t%e intention o'
re"ressin& t%e aristocracy# In 5rance t%e in&s %ave al*ays been t%e )ost active and t%e )ost constant o'
levellers# ,%en t%ey *ere stron& and a)bitious t%ey s"ared no "ains to raise t%e "eo"le to t%e level o' t%e
nobles6 *%en t%ey *ere te)"erate or *ea t%ey allo*ed t%e "eo"le to rise above t%e)selves# !o)e assisted t%e
de)ocracy by t%eir talents+ ot%ers by t%eir vices# 8ouis HI and 8ouis HID reduced every ran beneat% t%e t%rone
to t%e sa)e sub7ection6 8ouis HD descended+ %i)sel' and all %is Court+ into t%e dust#
As soon as land *as %eld on any ot%er t%an a 'eudal tenure+ and "ersonal "ro"erty be&an in its turn to con'er
in'luence and "o*er+ every i)"rove)ent *%ic% *as introduced in co))erce or )anu'acture *as a 'res% ele)ent
o' t%e equality o' conditions# Hence'or*ard every ne* discovery+ every ne* *ant *%ic% it en&endered+ and
every ne* desire *%ic% craved satis'action+ *as a ste" to*ards t%e universal level# T%e taste 'or luxury+ t%e love
o' *ar+ t%e s*ay o' 'as%ion+ and t%e )ost su"er'icial as *ell as t%e dee"est "assions o' t%e %u)an %eart+ co1
o"erated to enric% t%e "oor and to i)"overis% t%e ric%#
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5ro) t%e ti)e *%en t%e exercise o' t%e intellect beca)e t%e source o' stren&t% and o' *ealt%+ it is i)"ossible not
to consider every addition to science+ every 'res% trut%+ and every ne* idea as a &er) o' "o*er "laced *it%in t%e
reac% o' t%e "eo"le# :oetry+ eloquence+ and )e)ory+ t%e &race o' *it+ t%e &lo* o' i)a&ination+ t%e de"t% o'
t%ou&%t+ and all t%e &i'ts *%ic% are besto*ed by :rovidence *it% an equal %and+ turned to t%e advanta&e o' t%e
de)ocracy6 and even *%en t%ey *ere in t%e "ossession o' its adversaries t%ey still served its cause by t%ro*in&
into relie' t%e natural &reatness o' )an6 its conquests s"read+ t%ere'ore+ *it% t%ose o' civili-ation and no*led&e+
and literature beca)e an arsenal *%ere t%e "oorest and t%e *eaest could al*ays 'ind *ea"ons to t%eir %and#
In "erusin& t%e "a&es o' our %istory+ *e s%all scarcely )eet *it% a sin&le &reat event+ in t%e la"se o' seven
%undred years+ *%ic% %as not turned to t%e advanta&e o' equality# T%e Crusades and t%e *ars o' t%e En&lis%
deci)ated t%e nobles and divided t%eir "ossessions6 t%e erection o' co))unities introduced an ele)ent o'
de)ocratic liberty into t%e boso) o' 'eudal )onarc%y6 t%e invention o' 'ire1ar)s equali-ed t%e villein and t%e
noble on t%e 'ield o' battle6 "rintin& o"ened t%e sa)e resources to t%e )inds o' all classes6 t%e "ost *as
or&ani-ed so as to brin& t%e sa)e in'or)ation to t%e door o' t%e "oor )anFs cotta&e and to t%e &ate o' t%e "alace6
and :rotestantis) "roclai)ed t%at all )en are alie able to 'ind t%e road to %eaven# T%e discovery o' A)erica
o''ered a t%ousand ne* "at%s to 'ortune+ and "laced ric%es and "o*er *it%in t%e reac% o' t%e adventurous and t%e
obscure# I' *e exa)ine *%at %as %a""ened in 5rance at intervals o' 'i'ty years+ be&innin& *it% t%e elevent%
century+ *e s%all invariably "erceive t%at a t*o'old revolution %as taen "lace in t%e state o' society# T%e noble
%as &one do*n on t%e social ladder+ and t%e roturier %as &one u"6 t%e one descends as t%e ot%er rises# Every %al'
century brin&s t%e) nearer to eac% ot%er+ and t%ey *ill very s%ortly )eet#
Nor is t%is "%eno)enon at all "eculiar to 5rance# ,%it%ersoever *e turn our eyes *e s%all *itness t%e sa)e
continual revolution t%rou&%out t%e *%ole o' C%ristendo)# T%e various occurrences o' national existence %ave
every*%ere turned to t%e advanta&e o' de)ocracy6 all )en %ave aided it by t%eir exertions@ t%ose *%o %ave
intentionally labored in its cause+ and t%ose *%o %ave served it un*ittin&ly6 t%ose *%o %ave 'ou&%t 'or it and
t%ose *%o %ave declared t%e)selves its o""onents+ %ave all been driven alon& in t%e sa)e trac+ %ave all labored
to one end+ so)e i&norantly and so)e un*illin&ly6 all %ave been blind instru)ents in t%e %ands o' 9od#
T%e &radual develo")ent o' t%e equality o' conditions is t%ere'ore a "rovidential 'act+ and it "ossesses all t%e
c%aracteristics o' a divine decree@ it is universal+ it is durable+ it constantly eludes all %u)an inter'erence+ and all
events as *ell as all )en contribute to its "ro&ress# ,ould it+ t%en+ be *ise to i)a&ine t%at a social i)"ulse
*%ic% dates 'ro) so 'ar bac can be c%eced by t%e e''orts o' a &enerationI Is it credible t%at t%e de)ocracy
*%ic% %as anni%ilated t%e 'eudal syste) and vanquis%ed in&s *ill res"ect t%e citi-en and t%e ca"italistI ,ill it
sto" no* t%at it %as &ro*n so stron& and its adversaries so *eaI None can say *%ic% *ay *e are &oin&+ 'or all
ter)s o' co)"arison are *antin&@ t%e equality o' conditions is )ore co)"lete in t%e C%ristian countries o' t%e
"resent day t%an it %as been at any ti)e or in any "art o' t%e *orld6 so t%at t%e extent o' *%at already exists
"revents us 'ro) 'oreseein& *%at )ay be yet to co)e#
T%e *%ole boo *%ic% is %ere o''ered to t%e "ublic %as been *ritten under t%e i)"ression o' a ind o' reli&ious
dread "roduced in t%e aut%orFs )ind by t%e conte)"lation o' so irresistible a revolution+ *%ic% %as advanced 'or
centuries in s"ite o' suc% a)a-in& obstacles+ and *%ic% is still "roceedin& in t%e )idst o' t%e ruins it %as )ade# It
is not necessary t%at 9od %i)sel' s%ould s"ea in order to disclose to us t%e unquestionable si&ns o' His *ill6 *e
can discern t%e) in t%e %abitual course o' nature+ and in t%e invariable tendency o' events@ I no*+ *it%out a
s"ecial revelation+ t%at t%e "lanets )ove in t%e orbits traced by t%e CreatorFs 'in&er# I' t%e )en o' our ti)e *ere
led by attentive observation and by sincere re'lection to acno*led&e t%at t%e &radual and "ro&ressive
develo")ent o' social equality is at once t%e "ast and 'uture o' t%eir %istory+ t%is solitary trut% *ould con'er t%e
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sacred c%aracter o' a Divine decree u"on t%e c%an&e# To atte)"t to c%ec de)ocracy *ould be in t%at case to
resist t%e *ill o' 9od6 and t%e nations *ould t%en be constrained to )ae t%e best o' t%e social lot a*arded to
t%e) by :rovidence#
T%e C%ristian nations o' our a&e see) to )e to "resent a )ost alar)in& s"ectacle6 t%e i)"ulse *%ic% is bearin&
t%e) alon& is so stron& t%at it cannot be sto""ed+ but it is not yet so ra"id t%at it cannot be &uided@ t%eir 'ate is in
t%eir %ands6 yet a little *%ile and it )ay be so no lon&er# T%e 'irst duty *%ic% is at t%is ti)e i)"osed u"on t%ose
*%o direct our a''airs is to educate t%e de)ocracy6 to *ar) its 'ait%+ i' t%at be "ossible6 to "uri'y its )orals6 to
direct its ener&ies6 to substitute a no*led&e o' business 'or its inex"erience+ and an acquaintance *it% its true
interests 'or its blind "ro"ensities6 to ada"t its &overn)ent to ti)e and "lace+ and to )odi'y it in co)"liance *it%
t%e occurrences and t%e actors o' t%e a&e# A ne* science o' "olitics is indis"ensable to a ne* *orld# T%is+
%o*ever+ is *%at *e t%in o' least6 launc%ed in t%e )iddle o' a ra"id strea)+ *e obstinately 'ix our eyes on t%e
ruins *%ic% )ay still be described u"on t%e s%ore *e %ave le't+ *%ilst t%e current s*ee"s us alon&+ and drives us
bac*ards to*ards t%e &ul'#
In no country in Euro"e %as t%e &reat social revolution *%ic% I %ave been describin& )ade suc% ra"id "ro&ress as
in 5rance6 but it %as al*ays been borne on by c%ance# T%e %eads o' t%e !tate %ave never %ad any 'oret%ou&%t 'or
its exi&encies+ and its victories %ave been obtained *it%out t%eir consent or *it%out t%eir no*led&e# T%e )ost
"o*er'ul+ t%e )ost intelli&ent+ and t%e )ost )oral classes o' t%e nation %ave never atte)"ted to connect
t%e)selves *it% it in order to &uide it# T%e "eo"le %as consequently been abandoned to its *ild "ro"ensities+ and
it %as &ro*n u" lie t%ose outcasts *%o receive t%eir education in t%e "ublic streets+ and *%o are unacquainted
*it% au&%t but t%e vices and *retc%edness o' society# T%e existence o' a de)ocracy *as see)in&ly unno*n+
*%en on a sudden it too "ossession o' t%e su"re)e "o*er# Everyt%in& *as t%en sub)itted to its ca"rices6 it *as
*ors%i""ed as t%e idol o' stren&t%6 until+ *%en it *as en'eebled by its o*n excesses+ t%e le&islator conceived t%e
ras% "ro7ect o' anni%ilatin& its "o*er+ instead o' instructin& it and correctin& its vices6 no atte)"t *as )ade to 'it
it to &overn+ but all *ere bent on excludin& it 'ro) t%e &overn)ent#
T%e consequence o' t%is %as been t%at t%e de)ocratic revolution %as been e''ected only in t%e )aterial "arts o'
society+ *it%out t%at conco)itant c%an&e in la*s+ ideas+ custo)s+ and )anners *%ic% *as necessary to render
suc% a revolution bene'icial# ,e %ave &otten a de)ocracy+ but *it%out t%e conditions *%ic% lessen its vices and
render its natural advanta&es )ore "ro)inent6 and alt%ou&% *e already "erceive t%e evils it brin&s+ *e are
i&norant o' t%e bene'its it )ay con'er#
,%ile t%e "o*er o' t%e Cro*n+ su""orted by t%e aristocracy+ "eaceably &overned t%e nations o' Euro"e+ society
"ossessed+ in t%e )idst o' its *retc%edness+ several di''erent advanta&es *%ic% can no* scarcely be a""reciated
or conceived# T%e "o*er o' a "art o' %is sub7ects *as an insur)ountable barrier to t%e tyranny o' t%e "rince6 and
t%e )onarc%+ *%o 'elt t%e al)ost divine c%aracter *%ic% %e en7oyed in t%e eyes o' t%e )ultitude+ derived a
)otive 'or t%e 7ust use o' %is "o*er 'ro) t%e res"ect *%ic% %e ins"ired# Hi&% as t%ey *ere "laced above t%e
"eo"le+ t%e nobles could not but tae t%at cal) and benevolent interest in its 'ate *%ic% t%e s%e"%erd 'eels
to*ards %is 'loc6 and *it%out acno*led&in& t%e "oor as t%eir equals+ t%ey *atc%ed over t%e destiny o' t%ose
*%ose *el'are :rovidence %ad entrusted to t%eir care# T%e "eo"le never %avin& conceived t%e idea o' a social
condition di''erent 'ro) its o*n+ and entertainin& no ex"ectation o' ever ranin& *it% its c%ie's+ received
bene'its 'ro) t%e) *it%out discussin& t%eir ri&%ts# It &re* attac%ed to t%e) *%en t%ey *ere cle)ent and 7ust+
and it sub)itted *it%out resistance or servility to t%eir exactions+ as to t%e inevitable visitations o' t%e ar) o'
9od# Custo)+ and t%e )anners o' t%e ti)e+ %ad )oreover created a s"ecies o' la* in t%e )idst o' violence+ and
establis%ed certain li)its to o""ression# As t%e noble never sus"ected t%at anyone *ould atte)"t to de"rive %i)
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o' t%e "rivile&es *%ic% %e believed to be le&iti)ate+ and as t%e ser' looed u"on %is o*n in'eriority as a
consequence o' t%e i))utable order o' nature+ it is easy to i)a&ine t%at a )utual exc%an&e o' &ood1*ill too
"lace bet*een t*o classes so di''erently &i'ted by 'ate# Inequality and *retc%edness *ere t%en to be 'ound in
society6 but t%e souls o' neit%er ran o' )en *ere de&raded# Men are not corru"ted by t%e exercise o' "o*er or
debased by t%e %abit o' obedience+ but by t%e exercise o' a "o*er *%ic% t%ey believe to be ille&al and by
obedience to a rule *%ic% t%ey consider to be usur"ed and o""ressive# On one side *as *ealt%+ stren&t%+ and
leisure+ acco)"anied by t%e re'ine)ents o' luxury+ t%e ele&ance o' taste+ t%e "leasures o' *it+ and t%e reli&ion o'
art# On t%e ot%er *as labor and a rude i&norance6 but in t%e )idst o' t%is coarse and i&norant )ultitude it *as not
unco))on to )eet *it% ener&etic "assions+ &enerous senti)ents+ "ro'ound reli&ious convictions+ and
inde"endent virtues# T%e body o' a !tate t%us or&ani-ed )i&%t boast o' its stability+ its "o*er+ and+ above all+ o'
its &lory#
But t%e scene is no* c%an&ed+ and &radually t%e t*o rans )in&le6 t%e divisions *%ic% once severed )anind
are lo*ered+ "ro"erty is divided+ "o*er is %eld in co))on+ t%e li&%t o' intelli&ence s"reads+ and t%e ca"acities o'
all classes are equally cultivated6 t%e !tate beco)es de)ocratic+ and t%e e)"ire o' de)ocracy is slo*ly and
"eaceably introduced into t%e institutions and t%e )anners o' t%e nation# I can conceive a society in *%ic% all
)en *ould "ro'ess an equal attac%)ent and res"ect 'or t%e la*s o' *%ic% t%ey are t%e co))on aut%ors6 in *%ic%
t%e aut%ority o' t%e !tate *ould be res"ected as necessary+ t%ou&% not as divine6 and t%e loyalty o' t%e sub7ect to
its c%ie' )a&istrate *ould not be a "assion+ but a quiet and rational "ersuasion# Every individual bein& in t%e
"ossession o' ri&%ts *%ic% %e is sure to retain+ a ind o' )anly reliance and reci"rocal courtesy *ould arise
bet*een all classes+ alie re)oved 'ro) "ride and )eanness# T%e "eo"le+ *ell acquainted *it% its true interests+
*ould allo* t%at in order to "ro'it by t%e advanta&es o' society it is necessary to satis'y its de)ands# In t%is state
o' t%in&s t%e voluntary association o' t%e citi-ens )i&%t su""ly t%e individual exertions o' t%e nobles+ and t%e
co))unity *ould be alie "rotected 'ro) anarc%y and 'ro) o""ression#
I ad)it t%at+ in a de)ocratic !tate t%us constituted+ society *ill not be stationary6 but t%e i)"ulses o' t%e social
body )ay be re&ulated and directed 'or*ards6 i' t%ere be less s"lendor t%an in t%e %alls o' an aristocracy+ t%e
contrast o' )isery *ill be less 'requent also6 t%e "leasures o' en7oy)ent )ay be less excessive+ but t%ose o'
co)'ort *ill be )ore &eneral6 t%e sciences )ay be less "er'ectly cultivated+ but i&norance *ill be less co))on6
t%e i)"etuosity o' t%e 'eelin&s *ill be re"ressed+ and t%e %abits o' t%e nation so'tened6 t%ere *ill be )ore vices
and 'e*er cri)es# In t%e absence o' ent%usias) and o' an ardent 'ait%+ &reat sacri'ices )ay be obtained 'ro) t%e
)e)bers o' a co))on*ealt% by an a""eal to t%eir understandin&s and t%eir ex"erience6 eac% individual *ill 'eel
t%e sa)e necessity 'or unitin& *it% %is 'ello*1citi-ens to "rotect %is o*n *eaness6 and as %e no*s t%at i' t%ey
are to assist %e )ust co1o"erate+ %e *ill readily "erceive t%at %is "ersonal interest is identi'ied *it% t%e interest o'
t%e co))unity# T%e nation+ taen as a *%ole+ *ill be less brilliant+ less &lorious+ and "er%a"s less stron&6 but t%e
)a7ority o' t%e citi-ens *ill en7oy a &reater de&ree o' "ros"erity+ and t%e "eo"le *ill re)ain quiet+ not because it
des"airs o' a)elioration+ but because it is conscious o' t%e advanta&es o' its condition# I' all t%e consequences o'
t%is state o' t%in&s *ere not &ood or use'ul+ society *ould at least %ave a""ro"riated all suc% as *ere use'ul and
&ood6 and %avin& once and 'or ever renounced t%e social advanta&es o' aristocracy+ )anind *ould enter into
"ossession o' all t%e bene'its *%ic% de)ocracy can a''ord#
But %ere it )ay be ased *%at *e %ave ado"ted in t%e "lace o' t%ose institutions+ t%ose ideas+ and t%ose custo)s
o' our 'ore'at%ers *%ic% *e %ave abandoned# T%e s"ell o' royalty is broen+ but it %as not been succeeded by t%e
)a7esty o' t%e la*s6 t%e "eo"le %as learned to des"ise all aut%ority+ but 'ear no* extorts a lar&er tribute o'
obedience t%an t%at *%ic% *as 'or)erly "aid by reverence and by love#
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I "erceive t%at *e %ave destroyed t%ose inde"endent bein&s *%ic% *ere able to co"e *it% tyranny sin&le1%anded6
but it is t%e 9overn)ent t%at %as in%erited t%e "rivile&es o' *%ic% 'a)ilies+ cor"orations+ and individuals %ave
been de"rived6 t%e *eaness o' t%e *%ole co))unity %as t%ere'ore succeeded t%at in'luence o' a s)all body o'
citi-ens+ *%ic%+ i' it *as so)eti)es o""ressive+ *as o'ten conservative# T%e division o' "ro"erty %as lessened t%e
distance *%ic% se"arated t%e ric% 'ro) t%e "oor6 but it *ould see) t%at t%e nearer t%ey dra* to eac% ot%er+ t%e
&reater is t%eir )utual %atred+ and t%e )ore ve%e)ent t%e envy and t%e dread *it% *%ic% t%ey resist eac% ot%erFs
clai)s to "o*er6 t%e notion o' Ri&%t is alie insensible to bot% classes+ and 5orce a''ords to bot% t%e only
ar&u)ent 'or t%e "resent+ and t%e only &uarantee 'or t%e 'uture# T%e "oor )an retains t%e "re7udices o' %is
'ore'at%ers *it%out t%eir 'ait%+ and t%eir i&norance *it%out t%eir virtues6 %e %as ado"ted t%e doctrine o' sel'1
interest as t%e rule o' %is actions+ *it%out understandin& t%e science *%ic% controls it+ and %is e&otis) is no less
blind t%an %is devotedness *as 'or)erly# I' society is tranquil+ it is not because it relies u"on its stren&t% and its
*ell1bein&+ but because it no*s its *eaness and its in'ir)ities6 a sin&le e''ort )ay cost it its li'e6 everybody
'eels t%e evil+ but no one %as coura&e or ener&y enou&% to see t%e cure6 t%e desires+ t%e re&ret+ t%e sorro*s+ and
t%e 7oys o' t%e ti)e "roduce not%in& t%at is visible or "er)anent+ lie t%e "assions o' old )en *%ic% ter)inate in
i)"otence#
,e %ave+ t%en+ abandoned *%atever advanta&es t%e old state o' t%in&s a''orded+ *it%out receivin& any
co)"ensation 'ro) our "resent condition6 *e %ave destroyed an aristocracy+ and *e see) inclined to survey its
ruins *it% co)"lacency+ and to 'ix our abode in t%e )idst o' t%e)#
T%e "%eno)ena *%ic% t%e intellectual *orld "resents are not less de"lorable# T%e de)ocracy o' 5rance+ c%eced
in its course or abandoned to its la*less "assions+ %as overt%ro*n *%atever crossed its "at%+ and %as s%aen all
t%at it %as not destroyed# Its e)"ire on society %as not been &radually introduced or "eaceably establis%ed+ but it
%as constantly advanced in t%e )idst o' disorder and t%e a&itation o' a con'lict# In t%e %eat o' t%e stru&&le eac%
"artisan is %urried beyond t%e li)its o' %is o"inions by t%e o"inions and t%e excesses o' %is o""onents+ until %e
loses si&%t o' t%e end o' %is exertions+ and %olds a lan&ua&e *%ic% dis&uises %is real senti)ents or secret
instincts# Hence arises t%e stran&e con'usion *%ic% *e are *itnessin&# I cannot recall to )y )ind a "assa&e in
%istory )ore *ort%y o' sorro* and o' "ity t%an t%e scenes *%ic% are %a""enin& under our eyes6 it is as i' t%e
natural bond *%ic% unites t%e o"inions o' )an to %is tastes and %is actions to %is "rinci"les *as no* broen6 t%e
sy)"at%y *%ic% %as al*ays been acno*led&ed bet*een t%e 'eelin&s and t%e ideas o' )anind a""ears to be
dissolved+ and all t%e la*s o' )oral analo&y to be dissolved+ and all t%e la*s o' )oral analo&y to be abolis%ed#
Jealous C%ristians )ay be 'ound a)on&st us *%ose )inds are nurtured in t%e love and no*led&e o' a 'uture
li'e+ and *%o readily es"ouse t%e cause o' %u)an liberty as t%e source o' all )oral &reatness# C%ristianity+ *%ic%
%as declared t%at all )en are equal in t%e si&%t o' 9od+ *ill not re'use to acno*led&e t%at all citi-ens are equal
in t%e eye o' t%e la*# But+ by a sin&ular concourse o' events+ reli&ion is entan&led in t%ose institutions *%ic%
de)ocracy assails+ and it is not un'requently brou&%t to re7ect t%e equality it loves+ and to curse t%at cause o'
liberty as a 'oe *%ic% it )i&%t %allo* by its alliance#
By t%e side o' t%ese reli&ious )en I discern ot%ers *%ose loos are turned to t%e eart% )ore t%an to Heaven6 t%ey
are t%e "artisans o' liberty+ not only as t%e source o' t%e noblest virtues+ but )ore es"ecially as t%e root o' all
solid advanta&es6 and t%ey sincerely desire to extend its s*ay+ and to i)"art its blessin&s to )anind# It is natural
t%at t%ey s%ould %asten to invoe t%e assistance o' reli&ion+ 'or t%ey )ust no* t%at liberty cannot be establis%ed
*it%out )orality+ nor )orality *it%out 'ait%6 but t%ey %ave seen reli&ion in t%e rans o' t%eir adversaries+ and
t%ey inquire no 'urt%er6 so)e o' t%e) attac it o"enly+ and t%e re)ainder are a'raid to de'end it#
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In 'or)er a&es slavery %as been advocated by t%e venal and slavis%1)inded+ *%ilst t%e inde"endent and t%e
*ar)1%earted *ere stru&&lin& *it%out %o"e to save t%e liberties o' )anind# But )en o' %i&% and &enerous
c%aracters are no* to be )et *it%+ *%ose o"inions are at variance *it% t%eir inclinations+ and *%o "raise t%at
servility *%ic% t%ey %ave t%e)selves never no*n# Ot%ers+ on t%e contrary+ s"ea in t%e na)e o' liberty+ as i'
t%ey *ere able to 'eel its sanctity and its )a7esty+ and loudly clai) 'or %u)anity t%ose ri&%ts *%ic% t%ey %ave
al*ays diso*ned# T%ere are virtuous and "eace'ul individuals *%ose "ure )orality+ quiet %abits+ a''luence+ and
talents 'it t%e) to be t%e leaders o' t%e surroundin& "o"ulation6 t%eir love o' t%eir country is sincere+ and t%ey are
"re"ared to )ae t%e &reatest sacri'ices to its *el'are+ but t%ey con'ound t%e abuses o' civili-ation *it% its
bene'its+ and t%e idea o' evil is inse"arable in t%eir )inds 'ro) t%at o' novelty#
Not 'ar 'ro) t%is class is anot%er "arty+ *%ose ob7ect is to )ateriali-e )anind+ to %it u"on *%at is ex"edient
*it%out %eedin& *%at is 7ust+ to acquire no*led&e *it%out 'ait%+ and "ros"erity a"art 'ro) virtue6 assu)in& t%e
title o' t%e c%a)"ions o' )odern civili-ation+ and "lacin& t%e)selves in a station *%ic% t%ey usur" *it%
insolence+ and 'ro) *%ic% t%ey are driven by t%eir o*n un*ort%iness# ,%ere are *e t%enI T%e reli&ionists are
t%e ene)ies o' liberty+ and t%e 'riends o' liberty attac reli&ion6 t%e %i&%1)inded and t%e noble advocate
sub7ection+ and t%e )eanest and )ost servile )inds "reac% inde"endence6 %onest and enli&%tened citi-ens are
o""osed to all "ro&ress+ *%ilst )en *it%out "atriotis) and *it%out "rinci"les are t%e a"ostles o' civili-ation and
o' intelli&ence# Has suc% been t%e 'ate o' t%e centuries *%ic% %ave "receded our o*nI and %as )an al*ays
in%abited a *orld lie t%e "resent+ *%ere not%in& is lined to&et%er+ *%ere virtue is *it%out &enius+ and &enius
*it%out %onor6 *%ere t%e love o' order is con'ounded *it% a taste 'or o""ression+ and t%e %oly rites o' 'reedo)
*it% a conte)"t o' la*6 *%ere t%e li&%t t%ro*n by conscience on %u)an actions is di)+ and *%ere not%in& see)s
to be any lon&er 'orbidden or allo*ed+ %onorable or s%a)e'ul+ 'alse or trueI I cannot+ %o*ever+ believe t%at t%e
Creator )ade )an to leave %i) in an endless stru&&le *it% t%e intellectual )iseries *%ic% surround us@ 9od
destines a cal)er and a )ore certain 'uture to t%e co))unities o' Euro"e6 I a) unacquainted *it% His desi&ns+
but I s%all not cease to believe in t%e) because I cannot 'at%o) t%e)+ and I %ad rat%er )istrust )y o*n ca"acity
t%an His 7ustice#
T%ere is a country in t%e *orld *%ere t%e &reat revolution *%ic% I a) s"eain& o' see)s nearly to %ave reac%ed
its natural li)its6 it %as been e''ected *it% ease and si)"licity+ say rat%er t%at t%is country %as attained t%e
consequences o' t%e de)ocratic revolution *%ic% *e are under&oin& *it%out %avin& ex"erienced t%e revolution
itsel'# T%e e)i&rants *%o 'ixed t%e)selves on t%e s%ores o' A)erica in t%e be&innin& o' t%e seventeent% century
severed t%e de)ocratic "rinci"le 'ro) all t%e "rinci"les *%ic% re"ressed it in t%e old co))unities o' Euro"e+ and
trans"lanted it unalloyed to t%e Ne* ,orld# It %as t%ere been allo*ed to s"read in "er'ect 'reedo)+ and to "ut
'ort% its consequences in t%e la*s by in'luencin& t%e )anners o' t%e country#
It a""ears to )e beyond a doubt t%at sooner or later *e s%all arrive+ lie t%e A)ericans+ at an al)ost co)"lete
equality o' conditions# But I do not conclude 'ro) t%is t%at *e s%all ever be necessarily led to dra* t%e sa)e
"olitical consequences *%ic% t%e A)ericans %ave derived 'ro) a si)ilar social or&ani-ation# I a) 'ar 'ro)
su""osin& t%at t%ey %ave c%osen t%e only 'or) o' &overn)ent *%ic% a de)ocracy )ay ado"t6 but t%e identity o'
t%e e''icient cause o' la*s and )anners in t%e t*o countries is su''icient to account 'or t%e i))ense interest *e
%ave in beco)in& acquainted *it% its e''ects in eac% o' t%e)#
It is not+ t%en+ )erely to satis'y a le&iti)ate curiosity t%at I %ave exa)ined A)erica6 )y *is% %as been to 'ind
instruction by *%ic% *e )ay ourselves "ro'it# ,%oever s%ould i)a&ine t%at I %ave intended to *rite a "ane&yric
*ill "erceive t%at suc% *as not )y desi&n6 nor %as it been )y ob7ect to advocate any 'or) o' &overn)ent in
"articular+ 'or I a) o' o"inion t%at absolute excellence is rarely to be 'ound in any le&islation6 I %ave not even
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a''ected to discuss *%et%er t%e social revolution+ *%ic% I believe to be irresistible+ is advanta&eous or "re7udicial
to )anind6 I %ave acno*led&ed t%is revolution as a 'act already acco)"lis%ed or on t%e eve o' its
acco)"lis%)ent6 and I %ave selected t%e nation+ 'ro) a)on&st t%ose *%ic% %ave under&one it+ in *%ic% its
develo")ent %as been t%e )ost "eace'ul and t%e )ost co)"lete+ in order to discern its natural consequences+ and+
i' it be "ossible+ to distin&uis% t%e )eans by *%ic% it )ay be rendered "ro'itable# I con'ess t%at in A)erica I sa*
)ore t%an A)erica6 I sou&%t t%e i)a&e o' de)ocracy itsel'+ *it% its inclinations+ its c%aracter+ its "re7udices+ and
its "assions+ in order to learn *%at *e %ave to 'ear or to %o"e 'ro) its "ro&ress#
In t%e 'irst "art o' t%is *or I %ave atte)"ted to s%o* t%e tendency &iven to t%e la*s by t%e de)ocracy o'
A)erica+ *%ic% is abandoned al)ost *it%out restraint to its instinctive "ro"ensities+ and to ex%ibit t%e course it
"rescribes to t%e 9overn)ent and t%e in'luence it exercises on a''airs# I %ave sou&%t to discover t%e evils and t%e
advanta&es *%ic% it "roduces# I %ave exa)ined t%e "recautions used by t%e A)ericans to direct it+ as *ell as
t%ose *%ic% t%ey %ave not ado"ted+ and I %ave undertaen to "oint out t%e causes *%ic% enable it to &overn
society# I do not no* *%et%er I %ave succeeded in )ain& no*n *%at I sa* in A)erica+ but I a) certain t%at
suc% %as been )y sincere desire+ and t%at I %ave never+ no*in&ly+ )oulded 'acts to ideas+ instead o' ideas to
'acts#
,%enever a "oint could be establis%ed by t%e aid o' *ritten docu)ents+ I %ave %ad recourse to t%e ori&inal text+
and to t%e )ost aut%entic and a""roved *ors# I %ave cited )y aut%orities in t%e notes+ and anyone )ay re'er to
t%e)# ,%enever an o"inion+ a "olitical custo)+ or a re)ar on t%e )anners o' t%e country *as concerned+ I
endeavored to consult t%e )ost enli&%tened )en I )et *it%# I' t%e "oint in question *as i)"ortant or doubt'ul+ I
*as not satis'ied *it% one testi)ony+ but I 'or)ed )y o"inion on t%e evidence o' several *itnesses# Here t%e
reader )ust necessarily believe )e u"on )y *ord# I could 'requently %ave quoted na)es *%ic% are eit%er no*n
to %i)+ or *%ic% deserve to be so+ in "roo' o' *%at I advance6 but I %ave care'ully abstained 'ro) t%is "ractice# A
stran&er 'requently %ears i)"ortant trut%s at t%e 'ire1side o' %is %ost+ *%ic% t%e latter *ould "er%a"s conceal 'ro)
t%e ear o' 'riends%i"6 %e consoles %i)sel' *it% %is &uest 'or t%e silence to *%ic% %e is restricted+ and t%e s%ortness
o' t%e travellerFs stay taes a*ay all 'ear o' %is indiscretion# I care'ully noted every conversation o' t%is nature as
soon as it occurred+ but t%ese notes *ill never leave )y *ritin&1case6 I %ad rat%er in7ure t%e success o' )y
state)ents t%an add )y na)e to t%e list o' t%ose stran&ers *%o re"ay t%e &enerous %os"itality t%ey %ave received
by subsequent c%a&rin and annoyance#
I a) a*are t%at+ not*it%standin& )y care+ not%in& *ill be easier t%an to criticise t%is boo+ i' anyone ever
c%ooses to criticise it# T%ose readers *%o )ay exa)ine it closely *ill discover t%e 'unda)ental idea *%ic%
connects t%e several "arts to&et%er# But t%e diversity o' t%e sub7ects I %ave %ad to treat is exceedin&ly &reat+ and
it *ill not be di''icult to o""ose an isolated 'act to t%e body o' 'acts *%ic% I quote+ or an isolated idea to t%e body
o' ideas I "ut 'ort%# I %o"e to be read in t%e s"irit *%ic% %as &uided )y labors+ and t%at )y boo )ay be 7ud&ed
by t%e &eneral i)"ression it leaves+ as I %ave 'or)ed )y o*n 7ud&)ent not on any sin&le reason+ but u"on t%e
)ass o' evidence# It )ust not be 'or&otten t%at t%e aut%or *%o *is%es to be understood is obli&ed to "us% all %is
ideas to t%eir ut)ost t%eoretical consequences+ and o'ten to t%e ver&e o' *%at is 'alse or i)"racticable6 'or i' it be
necessary so)eti)es to quit t%e rules o' lo&ic in active li'e+ suc% is not t%e case in discourse+ and a )an 'inds t%at
al)ost as )any di''iculties s"rin& 'ro) inconsistency o' lan&ua&e as usually arise 'ro) inconsistency o' conduct#
I conclude by "ointin& out )ysel' *%at )any readers *ill consider t%e "rinci"al de'ect o' t%e *or# T%is boo is
*ritten to 'avor no "articular vie*s+ and in co)"osin& it I %ave entertained no desi&ns o' servin& or attacin&
any "arty6 I %ave undertaen not to see di''erently+ but to loo 'urt%er t%an "arties+ and *%ilst t%ey are busied 'or
t%e )orro* I %ave turned )y t%ou&%ts to t%e 5uture#
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Chapter I
@ Exterior 5or) O' Nort% A)erica
Chapter Summary
Nort% A)erica divided into t*o vast re&ions+ one inclinin& to*ards t%e :ole+ t%e ot%er to*ards t%e Equator11
Dalley o' t%e Mississi""i11Traces o' t%e Revolutions o' t%e 9lobe11!%ore o' t%e Atlantic Ocean *%ere t%e
En&lis% Colonies *ere 'ounded11Di''erence in t%e a""earance o' Nort% and o' !out% A)erica at t%e ti)e o' t%eir
Discovery115orests o' Nort% A)erica11:rairies11,anderin& Tribes o' Natives11T%eir out*ard a""earance+
)anners+ and lan&ua&e11Traces o' an unno*n "eo"le#
Exterior 5or) O' Nort% A)erica
Nort% A)erica "resents in its external 'or) certain &eneral 'eatures *%ic% it is easy to discri)inate at t%e 'irst
&lance# A sort o' )et%odical order see)s to %ave re&ulated t%e se"aration o' land and *ater+ )ountains and
valleys# A si)"le+ but &rand+ arran&e)ent is discoverable a)idst t%e con'usion o' ob7ects and t%e "rodi&ious
variety o' scenes# T%is continent is divided+ al)ost equally+ into t*o vast re&ions+ one o' *%ic% is bounded on t%e
nort% by t%e Arctic :ole+ and by t%e t*o &reat oceans on t%e east and *est# It stretc%es to*ards t%e sout%+
'or)in& a trian&le *%ose irre&ular sides )eet at len&t% belo* t%e &reat laes o' Canada# T%e second re&ion
be&ins *%ere t%e ot%er ter)inates+ and includes all t%e re)ainder o' t%e continent# T%e one slo"es &ently to*ards
t%e :ole+ t%e ot%er to*ards t%e Equator#
T%e territory co)"re%ended in t%e 'irst re&ion descends to*ards t%e nort% *it% so i)"erce"tible a slo"e t%at it
)ay al)ost be said to 'or) a level "lain# ,it%in t%e bounds o' t%is i))ense tract o' country t%ere are neit%er
%i&% )ountains nor dee" valleys# !trea)s )eander t%rou&% it irre&ularly@ &reat rivers )ix t%eir currents+ se"arate
and )eet a&ain+ dis"erse and 'or) vast )ars%es+ losin& all trace o' t%eir c%annels in t%e labyrint% o' *aters t%ey
%ave t%e)selves created6 and t%us+ at len&t%+ a'ter innu)erable *indin&s+ 'all into t%e :olar !eas# T%e &reat laes
*%ic% bound t%is 'irst re&ion are not *alled in+ lie )ost o' t%ose in t%e Old ,orld+ bet*een %ills and rocs#
T%eir bans are 'lat+ and rise but a 'e* 'eet above t%e level o' t%eir *aters6 eac% o' t%e) t%us 'or)in& a vast bo*l
'illed to t%e bri)# T%e sli&%test c%an&e in t%e structure o' t%e &lobe *ould cause t%eir *aters to rus% eit%er
to*ards t%e :ole or to t%e tro"ical sea#
T%e second re&ion is )ore varied on its sur'ace+ and better suited 'or t%e %abitation o' )an# T*o lon& c%ains o'
)ountains divide it 'ro) one extre)e to t%e ot%er6 t%e Alle&%any rid&e taes t%e 'or) o' t%e s%ores o' t%e
Atlantic Ocean6 t%e ot%er is "arallel *it% t%e :aci'ic# T%e s"ace *%ic% lies bet*een t%ese t*o c%ains o'
)ountains contains .+0G.+;GB square )iles# Ka Its sur'ace is t%ere'ore about six ti)es as &reat as t%at o' 5rance#
T%is vast territory+ %o*ever+ 'or)s a sin&le valley+ one side o' *%ic% descends &radually 'ro) t%e rounded
su))its o' t%e Alle&%anies+ *%ile t%e ot%er rises in an uninterru"ted course to*ards t%e to"s o' t%e Rocy
Mountains# At t%e botto) o' t%e valley 'lo*s an i))ense river+ into *%ic% t%e various strea)s issuin& 'ro) t%e
)ountains 'all 'ro) all "arts# In )e)ory o' t%eir native land+ t%e 5renc% 'or)erly called t%is river t%e !t# 8ouis#
T%e Indians+ in t%eir "o)"ous lan&ua&e+ %ave na)ed it t%e 5at%er o' ,aters+ or t%e Mississi""i#
35ootnote a@ DarbyFs 2Die* o' t%e (nited !tates#24
T%e Mississi""i taes its source above t%e li)it o' t%e t*o &reat re&ions o' *%ic% I %ave s"oen+ not 'ar 'ro) t%e
%i&%est "oint o' t%e table1land *%ere t%ey unite# Near t%e sa)e s"ot rises anot%er river+ Kb *%ic% e)"ties itsel'
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into t%e :olar seas# T%e course o' t%e Mississi""i is at 'irst dubious@ it *inds several ti)es to*ards t%e nort%+
'ro) *%ence it rose6 and at len&t%+ a'ter %avin& been delayed in laes and )ars%es+ it 'lo*s slo*ly on*ards to
t%e sout%# !o)eti)es quietly &lidin& alon& t%e ar&illaceous bed *%ic% nature %as assi&ned to it+ so)eti)es
s*ollen by stor)s+ t%e Mississi""i *aters A+C<< )iles in its course# Kc At t%e distance o' .+0;G )iles 'ro) its
)out% t%is river attains an avera&e de"t% o' 'i'teen 'eet6 and it is navi&ated by vessels o' 0<< tons burden 'or a
course o' nearly C<< )iles# 5i'ty1seven lar&e navi&able rivers contribute to s*ell t%e *aters o' t%e Mississi""i6
a)on&st ot%ers+ t%e Missouri+ *%ic% traverses a s"ace o' A+C<< )iles6 t%e Aransas o' .+0<< )iles+ t%e Red River
.+<<< )iles+ 'our *%ose course is 'ro) /<< to .+<<< )iles in len&t%+ vi-#+ t%e Illinois+ t%e !t# :eterFs+ t%e !t#
5rancis+ and t%e Moin&ona6 besides a countless )ultitude o' rivulets *%ic% unite 'ro) all "arts t%eir tributary
strea)s#
35ootnote b@ T%e Red River#4
35ootnote c@ ,ardenFs 2Descri"tion o' t%e (nited !tates#24
T%e valley *%ic% is *atered by t%e Mississi""i see)s 'or)ed to be t%e bed o' t%is )i&%ty river+ *%ic%+ lie a &od
o' antiquity+ dis"enses bot% &ood and evil in its course# On t%e s%ores o' t%e strea) nature dis"lays an
inex%austible 'ertility6 in "ro"ortion as you recede 'ro) its bans+ t%e "o*ers o' ve&etation lan&uis%+ t%e soil
beco)es "oor+ and t%e "lants t%at survive %ave a sicly &ro*t%# No*%ere %ave t%e &reat convulsions o' t%e &lobe
le't )ore evident traces t%an in t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i6 t%e *%ole as"ect o' t%e country s%o*s t%e "o*er'ul
e''ects o' *ater+ bot% by its 'ertility and by its barrenness# T%e *aters o' t%e "ri)eval ocean accu)ulated
enor)ous beds o' ve&etable )ould in t%e valley+ *%ic% t%ey levelled as t%ey retired# ("on t%e ri&%t s%ore o' t%e
river are seen i))ense "lains+ as s)oot% as i' t%e %usband)an %ad "assed over t%e) *it% %is roller# As you
a""roac% t%e )ountains t%e soil beco)es )ore and )ore unequal and sterile6 t%e &round is+ as it *ere+ "ierced in
a t%ousand "laces by "ri)itive rocs+ *%ic% a""ear lie t%e bones o' a seleton *%ose 'les% is "artly consu)ed#
T%e sur'ace o' t%e eart% is covered *it% a &ranite sand and %u&e irre&ular )asses o' stone+ a)on& *%ic% a 'e*
"lants 'orce t%eir &ro*t%+ and &ive t%e a""earance o' a &reen 'ield covered *it% t%e ruins o' a vast edi'ice# T%ese
stones and t%is sand discover+ on exa)ination+ a "er'ect analo&y *it% t%ose *%ic% co)"ose t%e arid and broen
su))its o' t%e Rocy Mountains# T%e 'lood o' *aters *%ic% *as%ed t%e soil to t%e botto) o' t%e valley
a'ter*ards carried a*ay "ortions o' t%e rocs t%e)selves6 and t%ese+ das%ed and bruised a&ainst t%e nei&%borin&
cli''s+ *ere le't scattered lie *recs at t%eir 'eet# Kd T%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i is+ u"on t%e *%ole+ t%e )ost
)a&ni'icent d*ellin&1"lace "re"ared by 9od 'or )anFs abode6 and yet it )ay be said t%at at "resent it is but a
)i&%ty desert#
35ootnote d@ !ee A""endix+ A#4
On t%e eastern side o' t%e Alle&%anies+ bet*een t%e base o' t%ese )ountains and t%e Atlantic Ocean+ t%ere lies a
lon& rid&e o' rocs and sand+ *%ic% t%e sea a""ears to %ave le't be%ind as it retired# T%e )ean breadt% o' t%is
territory does not exceed one %undred )iles6 but it is about nine %undred )iles in len&t%# T%is "art o' t%e
A)erican continent %as a soil *%ic% o''ers every obstacle to t%e %usband)an+ and its ve&etation is scanty and
unvaried#
("on t%is in%os"itable coast t%e 'irst united e''orts o' %u)an industry *ere )ade# T%e ton&ue o' arid land *as
t%e cradle o' t%ose En&lis% colonies *%ic% *ere destined one day to beco)e t%e (nited !tates o' A)erica# T%e
centre o' "o*er still re)ains %ere6 *%ilst in t%e bac*oods t%e true ele)ents o' t%e &reat "eo"le to *%o) t%e
'uture control o' t%e continent belon&s are &at%erin& al)ost in secrecy to&et%er#
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,%en t%e Euro"eans 'irst landed on t%e s%ores o' t%e ,est Indies+ and a'ter*ards on t%e coast o' !out% A)erica+
t%ey t%ou&%t t%e)selves trans"orted into t%ose 'abulous re&ions o' *%ic% "oets %ad sun&# T%e sea s"arled *it%
"%os"%oric li&%t+ and t%e extraordinary trans"arency o' its *aters discovered to t%e vie* o' t%e navi&ator all t%at
%ad %it%erto been %idden in t%e dee" abyss# Ke Here and t%ere a""eared little islands "er'u)ed *it% odori'erous
"lants+ and rese)blin& basets o' 'lo*ers 'loatin& on t%e tranquil sur'ace o' t%e ocean# Every ob7ect *%ic% )et
t%e si&%t+ in t%is enc%antin& re&ion+ see)ed "re"ared to satis'y t%e *ants or contribute to t%e "leasures o' )an#
Al)ost all t%e trees *ere loaded *it% nouris%in& 'ruits+ and t%ose *%ic% *ere useless as 'ood deli&%ted t%e eye
by t%e brilliancy and variety o' t%eir colors# In &roves o' 'ra&rant le)on1trees+ *ild 'i&s+ 'lo*erin& )yrtles+
acacias+ and oleanders+ *%ic% *ere %un& *it% 'estoons o' various cli)bin& "lants+ covered *it% 'lo*ers+ a
)ultitude o' birds unno*n in Euro"e dis"layed t%eir bri&%t "lu)a&e+ &litterin& *it% "ur"le and a-ure+ and
)in&led t%eir *arblin& *it% t%e %ar)ony o' a *orld tee)in& *it% li'e and )otion# K' (nderneat% t%is brilliant
exterior deat% *as concealed# But t%e air o' t%ese cli)ates %ad so enervatin& an in'luence t%at )an+ absorbed by
"resent en7oy)ent+ *as rendered re&ardless o' t%e 'uture#
35ootnote e@ Malte Brun tells us >vol# v# "# =A;? t%at t%e *ater o' t%e Caribbean !ea is so trans"arent t%at corals
and 'is% are discernible at a de"t% o' sixty 'at%o)s# T%e s%i" see)ed to 'loat in air+ t%e navi&ator beca)e &iddy
as %is eye "enetrated t%rou&% t%e crystal 'lood+ and be%eld sub)arine &ardens+ or beds o' s%ells+ or &ilded 'is%es
&lidin& a)on& tu'ts and t%icets o' sea*eed#4
35ootnote '@ !ee A""endix+ B#4
Nort% A)erica a""eared under a very di''erent as"ect6 t%ere everyt%in& *as &rave+ serious+ and sole)n@ it
see)ed created to be t%e do)ain o' intelli&ence+ as t%e !out% *as t%at o' sensual deli&%t# A turbulent and 'o&&y
ocean *as%ed its s%ores# It *as &irt round by a belt o' &ranite rocs+ or by *ide tracts o' sand# T%e 'olia&e o' its
*oods *as dar and &loo)y+ 'or t%ey *ere co)"osed o' 'irs+ larc%es+ ever&reen oas+ *ild olive1trees+ and
laurels# Beyond t%is outer belt lay t%e t%ic s%ades o' t%e central 'orest+ *%ere t%e lar&est trees *%ic% are
"roduced in t%e t*o %e)is"%eres &ro* side by side# T%e "lane+ t%e catal"a+ t%e su&ar1)a"le+ and t%e Dir&inian
"o"lar )in&led t%eir branc%es *it% t%ose o' t%e oa+ t%e beec%+ and t%e li)e# In t%ese+ as in t%e 'orests o' t%e Old
,orld+ destruction *as "er"etually &oin& on# T%e ruins o' ve&etation *ere %ea"ed u"on eac% ot%er6 but t%ere *as
no laborin& %and to re)ove t%e)+ and t%eir decay *as not ra"id enou&% to )ae roo) 'or t%e continual *or o'
re"roduction# Cli)bin& "lants+ &rasses+ and ot%er %erbs 'orced t%eir *ay t%rou&% t%e )ass o' dyin& trees6 t%ey
cre"t alon& t%eir bendin& truns+ 'ound nouris%)ent in t%eir dusty cavities+ and a "assa&e beneat% t%e li'eless
bar# T%us decay &ave its assistance to li'e+ and t%eir res"ective "roductions *ere )in&led to&et%er# T%e de"t%s
o' t%ese 'orests *ere &loo)y and obscure+ and a t%ousand rivulets+ undirected in t%eir course by %u)an industry+
"reserved in t%e) a constant )oisture# It *as rare to )eet *it% 'lo*ers+ *ild 'ruits+ or birds beneat% t%eir s%ades#
T%e 'all o' a tree overt%ro*n by a&e+ t%e rus%in& torrent o' a cataract+ t%e lo*in& o' t%e bu''alo+ and t%e %o*lin&
o' t%e *ind *ere t%e only sounds *%ic% broe t%e silence o' nature#
To t%e east o' t%e &reat river+ t%e *oods al)ost disa""eared6 in t%eir stead *ere seen "rairies o' i))ense extent#
,%et%er Nature in %er in'inite variety %ad denied t%e &er)s o' trees to t%ese 'ertile "lains+ or *%et%er t%ey %ad
once been covered *it% 'orests+ subsequently destroyed by t%e %and o' )an+ is a question *%ic% neit%er tradition
nor scienti'ic researc% %as been able to resolve#
T%ese i))ense deserts *ere not+ %o*ever+ devoid o' %u)an in%abitants# !o)e *anderin& tribes %ad been 'or
a&es scattered a)on& t%e 'orest s%ades or t%e &reen "astures o' t%e "rairie# 5ro) t%e )out% o' t%e !t# 8a*rence
to t%e delta o' t%e Mississi""i+ and 'ro) t%e Atlantic to t%e :aci'ic Ocean+ t%ese sava&es "ossessed certain "oints
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o' rese)blance *%ic% bore *itness o' t%eir co))on ori&in6 but at t%e sa)e ti)e t%ey di''ered 'ro) all ot%er
no*n races o' )en@ K& t%ey *ere neit%er *%ite lie t%e Euro"eans+ nor yello* lie )ost o' t%e Asiatics+ nor
blac lie t%e ne&roes# T%eir sin *as reddis% bro*n+ t%eir %air lon& and s%inin&+ t%eir li"s t%in+ and t%eir
c%eebones very "ro)inent# T%e lan&ua&es s"oen by t%e Nort% A)erican tribes are various as 'ar as re&arded
t%eir *ords+ but t%ey *ere sub7ect to t%e sa)e &ra))atical rules# T%ese rules di''ered in several "oints 'ro) suc%
as %ad been observed to &overn t%e ori&in o' lan&ua&e# T%e idio) o' t%e A)ericans see)ed to be t%e "roduct o'
ne* co)binations+ and bes"oe an e''ort o' t%e understandin& o' *%ic% t%e Indians o' our days *ould be
inca"able# K%
35ootnote &@ ,it% t%e "ro&ress o' discovery so)e rese)blance %as been 'ound to exist bet*een t%e "%ysical
con'or)ation+ t%e lan&ua&e+ and t%e %abits o' t%e Indians o' Nort% A)erica+ and t%ose o' t%e Ton&ous+
Mantc%ous+ Mon&ols+ Tartars+ and ot%er *anderin& tribes o' Asia# T%e land occu"ied by t%ese tribes is not very
distant 'ro) Be%rin&Fs !trait+ *%ic% allo*s o' t%e su""osition+ t%at at a re)ote "eriod t%ey &ave in%abitants to t%e
desert continent o' A)erica# But t%is is a "oint *%ic% %as not yet been clearly elucidated by science# !ee Malte
Brun+ vol# v#6 t%e *ors o' Hu)boldt6 5isc%er+ 2Con7ecture sur lFOri&ine des A)ericains26 Adair+ 2History o' t%e
A)erican Indians#24
35ootnote %@ !ee A""endix+ C#4
T%e social state o' t%ese tribes di''ered also in )any res"ects 'ro) all t%at *as seen in t%e Old ,orld# T%ey
see)ed to %ave )ulti"lied 'reely in t%e )idst o' t%eir deserts *it%out co)in& in contact *it% ot%er races )ore
civili-ed t%an t%eir o*n# Accordin&ly+ t%ey ex%ibited none o' t%ose indistinct+ inco%erent notions o' ri&%t and
*ron&+ none o' t%at dee" corru"tion o' )anners+ *%ic% is usually 7oined *it% i&norance and rudeness a)on&
nations *%ic%+ a'ter advancin& to civili-ation+ %ave rela"sed into a state o' barbaris)# T%e Indian *as indebted to
no one but %i)sel'6 %is virtues+ %is vices+ and %is "re7udices *ere %is o*n *or6 %e %ad &ro*n u" in t%e *ild
inde"endence o' %is nature#
I'+ in "olis%ed countries+ t%e lo*est o' t%e "eo"le are rude and uncivil+ it is not )erely because t%ey are "oor and
i&norant+ but t%at+ bein& so+ t%ey are in daily contact *it% ric% and enli&%tened )en# T%e si&%t o' t%eir o*n %ard
lot and o' t%eir *eaness+ *%ic% is daily contrasted *it% t%e %a""iness and "o*er o' so)e o' t%eir 'ello*1
creatures+ excites in t%eir %earts at t%e sa)e ti)e t%e senti)ents o' an&er and o' 'ear@ t%e consciousness o' t%eir
in'eriority and o' t%eir de"endence irritates *%ile it %u)iliates t%e)# T%is state o' )ind dis"lays itsel' in t%eir
)anners and lan&ua&e6 t%ey are at once insolent and servile# T%e trut% o' t%is is easily "roved by observation6 t%e
"eo"le are )ore rude in aristocratic countries t%an else*%ere+ in o"ulent cities t%an in rural districts# In t%ose
"laces *%ere t%e ric% and "o*er'ul are asse)bled to&et%er t%e *ea and t%e indi&ent 'eel t%e)selves o""ressed
by t%eir in'erior condition# (nable to "erceive a sin&le c%ance o' re&ainin& t%eir equality+ t%ey &ive u" to des"air+
and allo* t%e)selves to 'all belo* t%e di&nity o' %u)an nature#
T%is un'ortunate e''ect o' t%e dis"arity o' conditions is not observable in sava&e li'e@ t%e Indians+ alt%ou&% t%ey
are i&norant and "oor+ are equal and 'ree# At t%e "eriod *%en Euro"eans 'irst ca)e a)on& t%e) t%e natives o'
Nort% A)erica *ere i&norant o' t%e value o' ric%es+ and indi''erent to t%e en7oy)ents *%ic% civili-ed )an
"rocures to %i)sel' by t%eir )eans# Nevert%eless t%ere *as not%in& coarse in t%eir de)eanor6 t%ey "ractised an
%abitual reserve and a ind o' aristocratic "oliteness# Mild and %os"itable *%en at "eace+ t%ou&% )erciless in *ar
beyond any no*n de&ree o' %u)an 'erocity+ t%e Indian *ould ex"ose %i)sel' to die o' %un&er in order to succor
t%e stran&er *%o ased ad)ittance by ni&%t at t%e door o' %is %ut6 yet %e could tear in "ieces *it% %is %ands t%e
still quiverin& li)bs o' %is "risoner# T%e 'a)ous re"ublics o' antiquity never &ave exa)"les o' )ore uns%aen
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coura&e+ )ore %au&%ty s"irits+ or )ore intractable love o' inde"endence t%an *ere %idden in 'or)er ti)es a)on&
t%e *ild 'orests o' t%e Ne* ,orld# Ki T%e Euro"eans "roduced no &reat i)"ression *%en t%ey landed u"on t%e
s%ores o' Nort% A)erica6 t%eir "resence en&endered neit%er envy nor 'ear# ,%at in'luence could t%ey "ossess
over suc% )en as *e %ave describedI T%e Indian could live *it%out *ants+ su''er *it%out co)"laint+ and "our
out %is deat%1son& at t%e stae# K7 8ie all t%e ot%er )e)bers o' t%e &reat %u)an 'a)ily+ t%ese sava&es believed
in t%e existence o' a better *orld+ and adored under di''erent na)es+ 9od+ t%e creator o' t%e universe# T%eir
notions on t%e &reat intellectual trut%s *ere in &eneral si)"le and "%iloso"%ical# K
35ootnote i@ ,e learn 'ro) :resident $e''ersonFs 2Notes u"on Dir&inia+2 "# .G/+ t%at a)on& t%e Iroquois+ *%en
attaced by a su"erior 'orce+ a&ed )en re'used to 'ly or to survive t%e destruction o' t%eir country6 and t%ey
braved deat% lie t%e ancient Ro)ans *%en t%eir ca"ital *as saced by t%e 9auls# 5urt%er on+ "# .C<+ %e tells us
t%at t%ere is no exa)"le o' an Indian *%o+ %avin& 'allen into t%e %ands o' %is ene)ies+ be&&ed 'or %is li'e6 on t%e
contrary+ t%e ca"tive sou&%t to obtain deat% at t%e %ands o' %is conquerors by t%e use o' insult and "rovocation#4
35ootnote 7@ !ee 2Histoire de la 8ouisiane+2 by 8e"a&e Du"rat-6 C%arlevoix+ 2Histoire de la Nouvelle 5rance26
28ettres du Rev# 9# Hec*elder62 2Transactions o' t%e A)erican :%iloso"%ical !ociety+2 v# I6 $e''ersonFs 2Notes
on Dir&inia+2 ""# .0C1.B<# ,%at is said by $e''erson is o' es"ecial *ei&%t+ on account o' t%e "ersonal )erit o' t%e
*riter+ o' %is "eculiar "osition+ and o' t%e )atter1o'1'act a&e in *%ic% %e lived#4
35ootnote @ !ee A""endix+ D#4
Alt%ou&% *e %ave %ere traced t%e c%aracter o' a "ri)itive "eo"le+ yet it cannot be doubted t%at anot%er "eo"le+
)ore civili-ed and )ore advanced in all res"ects+ %ad "receded it in t%e sa)e re&ions#
An obscure tradition *%ic% "revailed a)on& t%e Indians to t%e nort% o' t%e Atlantic in'or)s us t%at t%ese very
tribes 'or)erly d*elt on t%e *est side o' t%e Mississi""i# Alon& t%e bans o' t%e O%io+ and t%rou&%out t%e central
valley+ t%ere are 'requently 'ound+ at t%is day+ tu)uli raised by t%e %ands o' )en# On ex"lorin& t%ese %ea"s o'
eart% to t%eir centre+ it is usual to )eet *it% %u)an bones+ stran&e instru)ents+ ar)s and utensils o' all inds+
)ade o' )etal+ or destined 'or "ur"oses unno*n to t%e "resent race# T%e Indians o' our ti)e are unable to &ive
any in'or)ation relative to t%e %istory o' t%is unno*n "eo"le# Neit%er did t%ose *%o lived t%ree %undred years
a&o+ *%en A)erica *as 'irst discovered+ leave any accounts 'ro) *%ic% even an %y"ot%esis could be 'or)ed#
Tradition11t%at "eris%able+ yet ever rene*ed )onu)ent o' t%e "ristine *orld11t%ro*s no li&%t u"on t%e sub7ect# It
is an undoubted 'act+ %o*ever+ t%at in t%is "art o' t%e &lobe t%ousands o' our 'ello*1bein&s %ad lived# ,%en t%ey
ca)e %it%er+ *%at *as t%eir ori&in+ t%eir destiny+ t%eir %istory+ and %o* t%ey "eris%ed+ no one can tell# Ho*
stran&e does it a""ear t%at nations %ave existed+ and a'ter*ards so co)"letely disa""eared 'ro) t%e eart% t%at t%e
re)e)brance o' t%eir very na)es is e''aced6 t%eir lan&ua&es are lost6 t%eir &lory is vanis%ed lie a sound *it%out
an ec%o6 t%ou&% "er%a"s t%ere is not one *%ic% %as not le't be%ind it so)e to)b in )e)ory o' its "assa&eE T%e
)ost durable )onu)ent o' %u)an labor is t%at *%ic% recalls t%e *retc%edness and not%in&ness o' )an#
Alt%ou&% t%e vast country *%ic% *e %ave been describin& *as in%abited by )any indi&enous tribes+ it )ay 7ustly
be said at t%e ti)e o' its discovery by Euro"eans to %ave 'or)ed one &reat desert# T%e Indians occu"ied *it%out
"ossessin& it# It is by a&ricultural labor t%at )an a""ro"riates t%e soil+ and t%e early in%abitants o' Nort% A)erica
lived by t%e "roduce o' t%e c%ase# T%eir i)"lacable "re7udices+ t%eir uncontrolled "assions+ t%eir vices+ and still
)ore "er%a"s t%eir sava&e virtues+ consi&ned t%e) to inevitable destruction# T%e ruin o' t%ese nations be&an
'ro) t%e day *%en Euro"eans landed on t%eir s%ores6 it %as "roceeded ever since+ and *e are no* *itnessin& t%e
co)"letion o' it# T%ey see) to %ave been "laced by :rovidence a)idst t%e ric%es o' t%e Ne* ,orld to en7oy
t%e) 'or a season+ and t%en surrender t%e)# T%ose coasts+ so ad)irably ada"ted 'or co))erce and industry6
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t%ose *ide and dee" rivers6 t%at inex%austible valley o' t%e Mississi""i6 t%e *%ole continent+ in s%ort+ see)ed
"re"ared to be t%e abode o' a &reat nation+ yet unborn#
In t%at land t%e &reat ex"eri)ent *as to be )ade+ by civili-ed )an+ o' t%e atte)"t to construct society u"on a
ne* basis6 and it *as t%ere+ 'or t%e 'irst ti)e+ t%at t%eories %it%erto unno*n+ or dee)ed i)"racticable+ *ere to
ex%ibit a s"ectacle 'or *%ic% t%e *orld %ad not been "re"ared by t%e %istory o' t%e "ast#
Chapter II
@ Ori&in O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans11:art I
Chapter Summary
(tility o' no*in& t%e ori&in o' nations in order to understand t%eir social condition and t%eir la*s11A)erica t%e
only country in *%ic% t%e startin&1"oint o' a &reat "eo"le %as been clearly observable11In *%at res"ects all *%o
e)i&rated to Britis% A)erica *ere si)ilar11In *%at t%ey di''ered11Re)ar a""licable to all Euro"eans *%o
establis%ed t%e)selves on t%e s%ores o' t%e Ne* ,orld11Coloni-ation o' Dir&inia11Coloni-ation o' Ne*
En&land11Ori&inal c%aracter o' t%e 'irst in%abitants o' Ne* En&land11T%eir arrival11T%eir 'irst la*s11T%eir social
contract11:enal code borro*ed 'ro) t%e Hebre* le&islation11Reli&ious 'ervor11Re"ublican s"irit11Inti)ate union
o' t%e s"irit o' reli&ion *it% t%e s"irit o' liberty#
Ori&in O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans+ And Its I)"ortance In Relation To T%eir 5uture Condition#
A'ter t%e birt% o' a %u)an bein& %is early years are obscurely s"ent in t%e toils or "leasures o' c%ild%ood# As %e
&ro*s u" t%e *orld receives %i)+ *%en %is )an%ood be&ins+ and %e enters into contact *it% %is 'ello*s# He is
t%en studied 'or t%e 'irst ti)e+ and it is i)a&ined t%at t%e &er) o' t%e vices and t%e virtues o' %is )aturer years is
t%en 'or)ed# T%is+ i' I a) not )istaen+ is a &reat error# ,e )ust be&in %i&%er u"6 *e )ust *atc% t%e in'ant in its
)ot%erFs ar)s6 *e )ust see t%e 'irst i)a&es *%ic% t%e external *orld casts u"on t%e dar )irror o' %is )ind6 t%e
'irst occurrences *%ic% %e *itnesses6 *e )ust %ear t%e 'irst *ords *%ic% a*aen t%e slee"in& "o*ers o' t%ou&%t+
and stand by %is earliest e''orts+ i' *e *ould understand t%e "re7udices+ t%e %abits+ and t%e "assions *%ic% *ill
rule %is li'e# T%e entire )an is+ so to s"ea+ to be seen in t%e cradle o' t%e c%ild#
T%e &ro*t% o' nations "resents so)et%in& analo&ous to t%is@ t%ey all bear so)e )ars o' t%eir ori&in6 and t%e
circu)stances *%ic% acco)"anied t%eir birt% and contributed to t%eir rise a''ect t%e *%ole ter) o' t%eir bein&# I'
*e *ere able to &o bac to t%e ele)ents o' states+ and to exa)ine t%e oldest )onu)ents o' t%eir %istory+ I doubt
not t%at *e s%ould discover t%e "ri)al cause o' t%e "re7udices+ t%e %abits+ t%e rulin& "assions+ and+ in s%ort+ o' all
t%at constitutes *%at is called t%e national c%aracter6 *e s%ould t%en 'ind t%e ex"lanation o' certain custo)s
*%ic% no* see) at variance *it% t%e "revailin& )anners6 o' suc% la*s as con'lict *it% establis%ed "rinci"les6
and o' suc% inco%erent o"inions as are %ere and t%ere to be )et *it% in society+ lie t%ose 'ra&)ents o' broen
c%ains *%ic% *e so)eti)es see %an&in& 'ro) t%e vault o' an edi'ice+ and su""ortin& not%in&# T%is )i&%t ex"lain
t%e destinies o' certain nations+ *%ic% see) borne on by an unno*n 'orce to ends o' *%ic% t%ey t%e)selves are
i&norant# But %it%erto 'acts %ave been *antin& to researc%es o' t%is ind@ t%e s"irit o' inquiry %as only co)e u"on
co))unities in t%eir latter days6 and *%en t%ey at len&t% conte)"lated t%eir ori&in+ ti)e %ad already obscured it+
or i&norance and "ride adorned it *it% trut%1concealin& 'ables#
A)erica is t%e only country in *%ic% it %as been "ossible to *itness t%e natural and tranquil &ro*t% o' society+
and *%ere t%e in'luences exercised on t%e 'uture condition o' states by t%eir ori&in is clearly distin&uis%able# At
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t%e "eriod *%en t%e "eo"les o' Euro"e landed in t%e Ne* ,orld t%eir national c%aracteristics *ere already
co)"letely 'or)ed6 eac% o' t%e) %ad a "%ysio&no)y o' its o*n6 and as t%ey %ad already attained t%at sta&e o'
civili-ation at *%ic% )en are led to study t%e)selves+ t%ey %ave trans)itted to us a 'ait%'ul "icture o' t%eir
o"inions+ t%eir )anners+ and t%eir la*s# T%e )en o' t%e sixteent% century are al)ost as *ell no*n to us as our
conte)"oraries# A)erica+ consequently+ ex%ibits in t%e broad li&%t o' day t%e "%eno)ena *%ic% t%e i&norance or
rudeness o' earlier a&es conceals 'ro) our researc%es# Near enou&% to t%e ti)e *%en t%e states o' A)erica *ere
'ounded+ to be accurately acquainted *it% t%eir ele)ents+ and su''iciently re)oved 'ro) t%at "eriod to 7ud&e o'
so)e o' t%eir results+ t%e )en o' our o*n day see) destined to see 'urt%er t%an t%eir "redecessors into t%e series
o' %u)an events# :rovidence %as &iven us a torc% *%ic% our 'ore'at%ers did not "ossess+ and %as allo*ed us to
discern 'unda)ental causes in t%e %istory o' t%e *orld *%ic% t%e obscurity o' t%e "ast concealed 'ro) t%e)# I'
*e care'ully exa)ine t%e social and "olitical state o' A)erica+ a'ter %avin& studied its %istory+ *e s%all re)ain
"er'ectly convinced t%at not an o"inion+ not a custo)+ not a la*+ I )ay even say not an event+ is u"on record
*%ic% t%e ori&in o' t%at "eo"le *ill not ex"lain# T%e readers o' t%is boo *ill 'ind t%e &er) o' all t%at is to 'ollo*
in t%e "resent c%a"ter+ and t%e ey to al)ost t%e *%ole *or#
T%e e)i&rants *%o ca)e+ at di''erent "eriods to occu"y t%e territory no* covered by t%e A)erican (nion
di''ered 'ro) eac% ot%er in )any res"ects6 t%eir ai) *as not t%e sa)e+ and t%ey &overned t%e)selves on
di''erent "rinci"les# T%ese )en %ad+ %o*ever+ certain 'eatures in co))on+ and t%ey *ere all "laced in an
analo&ous situation# T%e tie o' lan&ua&e is "er%a"s t%e stron&est and t%e )ost durable t%at can unite )anind# All
t%e e)i&rants s"oe t%e sa)e ton&ue6 t%ey *ere all o''sets 'ro) t%e sa)e "eo"le# Born in a country *%ic% %ad
been a&itated 'or centuries by t%e stru&&les o' 'action+ and in *%ic% all "arties %ad been obli&ed in t%eir turn to
"lace t%e)selves under t%e "rotection o' t%e la*s+ t%eir "olitical education %ad been "er'ected in t%is rude sc%ool+
and t%ey *ere )ore conversant *it% t%e notions o' ri&%t and t%e "rinci"les o' true 'reedo) t%an t%e &reater "art
o' t%eir Euro"ean conte)"oraries# At t%e "eriod o' t%eir 'irst e)i&rations t%e "aris% syste)+ t%at 'ruit'ul &er) o'
'ree institutions+ *as dee"ly rooted in t%e %abits o' t%e En&lis%6 and *it% it t%e doctrine o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e
"eo"le %ad been introduced into t%e boso) o' t%e )onarc%y o' t%e House o' Tudor#
T%e reli&ious quarrels *%ic% %ave a&itated t%e C%ristian *orld *ere t%en ri'e# En&land %ad "lun&ed into t%e ne*
order o' t%in&s *it% %eadlon& ve%e)ence# T%e c%aracter o' its in%abitants+ *%ic% %ad al*ays been sedate and
re'lective+ beca)e ar&u)entative and austere# 9eneral in'or)ation %ad been increased by intellectual debate+ and
t%e )ind %ad received a dee"er cultivation# ,%ilst reli&ion *as t%e to"ic o' discussion+ t%e )orals o' t%e "eo"le
*ere re'or)ed# All t%ese national 'eatures are )ore or less discoverable in t%e "%ysio&no)y o' t%ose adventurers
*%o ca)e to see a ne* %o)e on t%e o""osite s%ores o' t%e Atlantic#
Anot%er re)ar+ to *%ic% *e s%all %erea'ter %ave occasion to recur+ is a""licable not only to t%e En&lis%+ but to
t%e 5renc%+ t%e !"aniards+ and all t%e Euro"eans *%o successively establis%ed t%e)selves in t%e Ne* ,orld# All
t%ese Euro"ean colonies contained t%e ele)ents+ i' not t%e develo")ent+ o' a co)"lete de)ocracy# T*o causes
led to t%is result# It )ay sa'ely be advanced+ t%at on leavin& t%e )ot%er1country t%e e)i&rants %ad in &eneral no
notion o' su"eriority over one anot%er# T%e %a""y and t%e "o*er'ul do not &o into exile+ and t%ere are no surer
&uarantees o' equality a)on& )en t%an "overty and )is'ortune# It %a""ened+ %o*ever+ on several occasions+ t%at
"ersons o' ran *ere driven to A)erica by "olitical and reli&ious quarrels# 8a*s *ere )ade to establis% a
&radation o' rans6 but it *as soon 'ound t%at t%e soil o' A)erica *as o""osed to a territorial aristocracy# To
brin& t%at re'ractory land into cultivation+ t%e constant and interested exertions o' t%e o*ner %i)sel' *ere
necessary6 and *%en t%e &round *as "re"ared+ its "roduce *as 'ound to be insu''icient to enric% a )aster and a
'ar)er at t%e sa)e ti)e# T%e land *as t%en naturally broen u" into s)all "ortions+ *%ic% t%e "ro"rietor
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cultivated 'or %i)sel'# 8and is t%e basis o' an aristocracy+ *%ic% clin&s to t%e soil t%at su""orts it6 'or it is not by
"rivile&es alone+ nor by birt%+ but by landed "ro"erty %anded do*n 'ro) &eneration to &eneration+ t%at an
aristocracy is constituted# A nation )ay "resent i))ense 'ortunes and extre)e *retc%edness+ but unless t%ose
'ortunes are territorial t%ere is no aristocracy+ but si)"ly t%e class o' t%e ric% and t%at o' t%e "oor#
All t%e Britis% colonies %ad t%en a &reat de&ree o' si)ilarity at t%e e"oc% o' t%eir settle)ent# All o' t%e)+ 'ro)
t%eir 'irst be&innin&+ see)ed destined to *itness t%e &ro*t%+ not o' t%e aristocratic liberty o' t%eir )ot%er1
country+ but o' t%at 'reedo) o' t%e )iddle and lo*er orders o' *%ic% t%e %istory o' t%e *orld %ad as yet
'urnis%ed no co)"lete exa)"le#
In t%is &eneral uni'or)ity several striin& di''erences *ere %o*ever discernible+ *%ic% it is necessary to "oint
out# T*o branc%es )ay be distin&uis%ed in t%e An&lo1A)erican 'a)ily+ *%ic% %ave %it%erto &ro*n u" *it%out
entirely co))in&lin&6 t%e one in t%e !out%+ t%e ot%er in t%e Nort%#
Dir&inia received t%e 'irst En&lis% colony6 t%e e)i&rants too "ossession o' it in .;<=# T%e idea t%at )ines o'
&old and silver are t%e sources o' national *ealt% *as at t%at ti)e sin&ularly "revalent in Euro"e6 a 'atal
delusion+ *%ic% %as done )ore to i)"overis% t%e nations *%ic% ado"ted it+ and %as cost )ore lives in A)erica+
t%an t%e united in'luence o' *ar and bad la*s# T%e )en sent to Dir&inia Ka *ere seeers o' &old+ adventurers+
*it%out resources and *it%out c%aracter+ *%ose turbulent and restless s"irit endan&ered t%e in'ant colony+ Kb and
rendered its "ro&ress uncertain# T%e artisans and a&riculturists arrived a'ter*ards6 and+ alt%ou&% t%ey *ere a
)ore )oral and orderly race o' )en+ t%ey *ere in no*ise above t%e level o' t%e in'erior classes in En&land# Kc
No lo'ty conce"tions+ no intellectual syste)+ directed t%e 'oundation o' t%ese ne* settle)ents# T%e colony *as
scarcely establis%ed *%en slavery *as introduced+ Kd and t%is *as t%e )ain circu)stance *%ic% %as exercised so
"rodi&ious an in'luence on t%e c%aracter+ t%e la*s+ and all t%e 'uture "ros"ects o' t%e !out%# !lavery+ as *e s%all
a'ter*ards s%o*+ dis%onors labor6 it introduces idleness into society+ and *it% idleness+ i&norance and "ride+
luxury and distress# It enervates t%e "o*ers o' t%e )ind+ and benu)bs t%e activity o' )an# T%e in'luence o'
slavery+ united to t%e En&lis% c%aracter+ ex"lains t%e )anners and t%e social condition o' t%e !out%ern !tates#
35ootnote a@ T%e c%arter &ranted by t%e Cro*n o' En&land in .;<B sti"ulated+ a)on&st ot%er conditions+ t%at t%e
adventurers s%ould "ay to t%e Cro*n a 'i't% o' t%e "roduce o' all &old and silver )ines# !ee Mars%allFs 28i'e o'
,as%in&ton+2 vol# i# ""# ./1;;#4 35ootnote b@ A lar&e "ortion o' t%e adventurers+ says !tit% >2History o'
Dir&inia2?+ *ere un"rinci"led youn& )en o' 'a)ily+ *%o) t%eir "arents *ere &lad to s%i" o''+ disc%ar&ed
servants+ 'raudulent banru"ts+ or debauc%ees6 and ot%ers o' t%e sa)e class+ "eo"le )ore a"t to "illa&e and
destroy t%an to assist t%e settle)ent+ *ere t%e seditious c%ie's+ *%o easily led t%is band into every ind o'
extrava&ance and excess# !ee 'or t%e %istory o' Dir&inia t%e 'ollo*in& *ors@11
2History o' Dir&inia+ 'ro) t%e 5irst !ettle)ents in t%e year .;AG+2 by !)it%#
2History o' Dir&inia+2 by ,illia) !tit%#
2History o' Dir&inia+ 'ro) t%e Earliest :eriod+2 by Beverley#4
35ootnote c@ It *as not till so)e ti)e later t%at a certain nu)ber o' ric% En&lis% ca"italists ca)e to 'ix t%e)selves
in t%e colony#4
35ootnote d@ !lavery *as introduced about t%e year .;A< by a Dutc% vessel *%ic% landed t*enty ne&roes on t%e
bans o' t%e river $a)es# !ee C%al)er#4
In t%e Nort%+ t%e sa)e En&lis% 'oundation *as )odi'ied by t%e )ost o""osite s%ades o' c%aracter6 and %ere I
)ay be allo*ed to enter into so)e details# T%e t*o or t%ree )ain ideas *%ic% constitute t%e basis o' t%e social
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t%eory o' t%e (nited !tates *ere 'irst co)bined in t%e Nort%ern En&lis% colonies+ )ore &enerally deno)inated
t%e !tates o' Ne* En&land# Ke T%e "rinci"les o' Ne* En&land s"read at 'irst to t%e nei&%borin& states6 t%ey t%en
"assed successively to t%e )ore distant ones6 and at len&t% t%ey i)bued t%e *%ole Con'ederation# T%ey no*
extend t%eir in'luence beyond its li)its over t%e *%ole A)erican *orld# T%e civili-ation o' Ne* En&land %as
been lie a beacon lit u"on a %ill+ *%ic%+ a'ter it %as di''used its *ar)t% around+ tin&es t%e distant %ori-on *it%
its &lo*#
35ootnote e@ T%e !tates o' Ne* En&land are t%ose situated to t%e east o' t%e Hudson6 t%ey are no* six in nu)ber@
.+ Connecticut6 A+ R%ode Island6 0+ Massac%usetts6 G+ Der)ont6 C+ Ne* Ha)"s%ire6 ;+ Maine#4
T%e 'oundation o' Ne* En&land *as a novel s"ectacle+ and all t%e circu)stances attendin& it *ere sin&ular and
ori&inal# T%e lar&e )a7ority o' colonies %ave been 'irst in%abited eit%er by )en *it%out education and *it%out
resources+ driven by t%eir "overty and t%eir )isconduct 'ro) t%e land *%ic% &ave t%e) birt%+ or by s"eculators
and adventurers &reedy o' &ain# !o)e settle)ents cannot even boast so %onorable an ori&in6 !t# Do)in&o *as
'ounded by buccaneers6 and t%e cri)inal courts o' En&land ori&inally su""lied t%e "o"ulation o' Australia#
T%e settlers *%o establis%ed t%e)selves on t%e s%ores o' Ne* En&land all belon&ed to t%e )ore inde"endent
classes o' t%eir native country# T%eir union on t%e soil o' A)erica at once "resented t%e sin&ular "%eno)enon o'
a society containin& neit%er lords nor co))on "eo"le+ neit%er ric% nor "oor# T%ese )en "ossessed+ in "ro"ortion
to t%eir nu)ber+ a &reater )ass o' intelli&ence t%an is to be 'ound in any Euro"ean nation o' our o*n ti)e# All+
*it%out a sin&le exce"tion+ %ad received a &ood education+ and )any o' t%e) *ere no*n in Euro"e 'or t%eir
talents and t%eir acquire)ents# T%e ot%er colonies %ad been 'ounded by adventurers *it%out 'a)ily6 t%e
e)i&rants o' Ne* En&land brou&%t *it% t%e) t%e best ele)ents o' order and )orality11t%ey landed in t%e desert
acco)"anied by t%eir *ives and c%ildren# But *%at )ost es"ecially distin&uis%ed t%e) *as t%e ai) o' t%eir
undertain&# T%ey %ad not been obli&ed by necessity to leave t%eir country6 t%e social "osition t%ey abandoned
*as one to be re&retted+ and t%eir )eans o' subsistence *ere certain# Nor did t%ey cross t%e Atlantic to i)"rove
t%eir situation or to increase t%eir *ealt%6 t%e call *%ic% su))oned t%e) 'ro) t%e co)'orts o' t%eir %o)es *as
"urely intellectual6 and in 'acin& t%e inevitable su''erin&s o' exile t%eir ob7ect *as t%e triu)"% o' an idea#
T%e e)i&rants+ or+ as t%ey deservedly styled t%e)selves+ t%e :il&ri)s+ belon&ed to t%at En&lis% sect t%e austerity
o' *%ose "rinci"les %ad acquired 'or t%e) t%e na)e o' :uritans# :uritanis) *as not )erely a reli&ious doctrine+
but it corres"onded in )any "oints *it% t%e )ost absolute de)ocratic and re"ublican t%eories# It *as t%is
tendency *%ic% %ad aroused its )ost dan&erous adversaries# :ersecuted by t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e )ot%er1
country+ and dis&usted by t%e %abits o' a society o""osed to t%e ri&or o' t%eir o*n "rinci"les+ t%e :uritans *ent
'ort% to see so)e rude and un'requented "art o' t%e *orld+ *%ere t%ey could live accordin& to t%eir o*n
o"inions+ and *ors%i" 9od in 'reedo)#
A 'e* quotations *ill t%ro* )ore li&%t u"on t%e s"irit o' t%ese "ious adventures t%an all *e can say o' t%e)#
Nat%aniel Morton+ K' t%e %istorian o' t%e 'irst years o' t%e settle)ent+ t%us o"ens %is sub7ect@
35ootnote '@ 2Ne* En&landFs Me)orial+2 "# .06 Boston+ ./A;# !ee also 2Hutc%insonFs History+2 vol# ii# "# GG<#4
29entle Reader+11I %ave 'or so)e len&t% o' ti)e looed u"on it as a duty incu)bent+ es"ecially on t%e i))ediate
successors o' t%ose t%at %ave %ad so lar&e ex"erience o' t%ose )any )e)orable and si&nal de)onstrations o'
9odFs &oodness+ vi-#+ t%e 'irst be&inners o' t%is :lantation in Ne* En&land+ to co))it to *ritin& %is &racious
dis"ensations on t%at be%al'6 %avin& so )any induce)ents t%ereunto+ not onely ot%er*ise but so "lenti'ully in t%e
!acred !cri"tures@ t%at so+ *%at *e %ave seen+ and *%at our 'at%ers %ave told us >:sal) lxxviii# 0+ G?+ *e )ay not
%ide 'ro) our c%ildren+ s%o*in& to t%e &enerations to co)e t%e "raises o' t%e 8ord6 t%at es"ecially t%e seed o'
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Abra%a) %is servant+ and t%e c%ildren o' $acob %is c%osen >:sal) cv# C+ ;?+ )ay re)e)ber %is )arvellous *ors
in t%e be&innin& and "ro&ress o' t%e "lantin& o' Ne* En&land+ %is *onders and t%e 7ud&)ents o' %is )out%6 %o*
t%at 9od brou&%t a vine into t%is *ilderness6 t%at %e cast out t%e %eat%en+ and "lanted it6 t%at %e )ade roo) 'or it
and caused it to tae dee" root6 and it 'illed t%e land >:sal) lxxx# /+ B?# And not onely so+ but also t%at %e %at%
&uided %is "eo"le by %is stren&t% to %is %oly %abitation and "lanted t%e) in t%e )ountain o' %is in%eritance in
res"ect o' "recious 9os"el en7oy)ents@ and t%at as es"ecially 9od )ay %ave t%e &lory o' all unto *%o) it is
)ost due6 so also so)e rays o' &lory )ay reac% t%e na)es o' t%ose blessed !aints t%at *ere t%e )ain instru)ents
and t%e be&innin& o' t%is %a""y enter"rise#2
It is i)"ossible to read t%is o"enin& "ara&ra"% *it%out an involuntary 'eelin& o' reli&ious a*e6 it breat%es t%e
very savor o' 9os"el antiquity# T%e sincerity o' t%e aut%or %ei&%tens %is "o*er o' lan&ua&e# T%e band *%ic% to
%is eyes *as a )ere "arty o' adventurers &one 'ort% to see t%eir 'ortune beyond seas a""ears to t%e reader as t%e
&er) o' a &reat nation *a'ted by :rovidence to a "redestined s%ore#
T%e aut%or t%us continues %is narrative o' t%e de"arture o' t%e 'irst "il&ri)s@11
2!o t%ey le't t%at &oodly and "leasant city o' 8eyden+ K& *%ic% %ad been t%eir restin&1"lace 'or above eleven
years6 but t%ey ne* t%at t%ey *ere "il&ri)s and stran&ers %ere belo*+ and looed not )uc% on t%ese t%in&s+ but
li'ted u" t%eir eyes to Heaven+ t%eir dearest country+ *%ere 9od %at% "re"ared 'or t%e) a city >Heb# xi# .;?+ and
t%erein quieted t%eir s"irits# ,%en t%ey ca)e to Del's1Haven t%ey 'ound t%e s%i" and all t%in&s ready6 and suc%
o' t%eir 'riends as could not co)e *it% t%e) 'ollo*ed a'ter t%e)+ and sundry ca)e 'ro) A)sterda) to see t%e)
s%i"t+ and to tae t%eir leaves o' t%e)# One ni&%t *as s"ent *it% little slee" *it% t%e )ost+ but *it% 'riendly
entertain)ent and C%ristian discourse+ and ot%er real ex"ressions o' true C%ristian love# T%e next day t%ey *ent
on board+ and t%eir 'riends *it% t%e)+ *%ere truly dole'ul *as t%e si&%t o' t%at sad and )ourn'ul "artin&+ to %ear
*%at si&%s and sobs and "rayers did sound a)on&st t%e)6 *%at tears did &us% 'ro) every eye+ and "it%y
s"eec%es "ierced eac% ot%erFs %eart+ t%at sundry o' t%e Dutc% stran&ers t%at stood on t%e Ley as s"ectators could
not re'rain 'ro) tears# But t%e tide >*%ic% stays 'or no )an? callin& t%e) a*ay+ t%at *ere t%us lot% to de"art+
t%eir Reverend :astor 'allin& do*n on %is nees+ and t%ey all *it% %i)+ *it% *atery c%ees co))ended t%e)
*it% )ost 'ervent "rayers unto t%e 8ord and %is blessin&6 and t%en+ *it% )utual e)braces and )any tears t%ey
too t%eir leaves one o' anot%er+ *%ic% "roved to be t%e last leave to )any o' t%e)#2
35ootnote &@ T%e e)i&rants *ere+ 'or t%e )ost "art+ &odly C%ristians 'ro) t%e Nort% o' En&land+ *%o %ad quitted
t%eir native country because t%ey *ere 2studious o' re'or)ation+ and entered into covenant to *al *it% one
anot%er accordin& to t%e "ri)itive "attern o' t%e ,ord o' 9od#2 T%ey e)i&rated to Holland+ and settled in t%e
city o' 8eyden in .;.<+ *%ere t%ey abode+ bein& lovin&ly res"ected by t%e Dutc%+ 'or )any years@ t%ey le't it in
.;A< 'or several reasons+ t%e last o' *%ic% *as+ t%at t%eir "osterity *ould in a 'e* &enerations beco)e Dutc%+
and so lose t%eir interest in t%e En&lis% nation6 t%ey bein& desirous rat%er to enlar&e His Ma7estyFs do)inions+
and to live under t%eir natural "rince#11TranslatorFs Note#4
T%e e)i&rants *ere about .C< in nu)ber+ includin& t%e *o)en and t%e c%ildren# T%eir ob7ect *as to "lant a
colony on t%e s%ores o' t%e Hudson6 but a'ter %avin& been driven about 'or so)e ti)e in t%e Atlantic Ocean+ t%ey
*ere 'orced to land on t%at arid coast o' Ne* En&land *%ic% is no* t%e site o' t%e to*n o' :ly)out%# T%e roc is
still s%o*n on *%ic% t%e "il&ri)s dise)bared# K%
35ootnote %@ T%is roc is beco)e an ob7ect o' veneration in t%e (nited !tates# I %ave seen bits o' it care'ully
"reserved in several to*ns o' t%e (nion# Does not t%is su''iciently s%o* %o* entirely all %u)an "o*er and
&reatness is in t%e soul o' )anI Here is a stone *%ic% t%e 'eet o' a 'e* outcasts "ressed 'or an instant+ and t%is
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stone beco)es 'a)ous6 it is treasured by a &reat nation+ its very dust is s%ared as a relic@ and *%at is beco)e o'
t%e &ate*ays o' a t%ousand "alacesI4
2But be'ore *e "ass on+2 continues our %istorian+ 2let t%e reader *it% )e )ae a "ause and seriously consider
t%is "oor "eo"leFs "resent condition+ t%e )ore to be raised u" to ad)iration o' 9odFs &oodness to*ards t%e) in
t%eir "reservation@ 'or bein& no* "assed t%e vast ocean+ and a sea o' troubles be'ore t%e) in ex"ectation+ t%ey
%ad no* no 'riends to *elco)e t%e)+ no inns to entertain or re'res% t%e)+ no %ouses+ or )uc% less to*ns to
re"air unto to see 'or succour@ and 'or t%e season it *as *inter+ and t%ey t%at no* t%e *inters o' t%e country
no* t%e) to be s%ar" and violent+ sub7ect to cruel and 'ierce stor)s+ dan&erous to travel to no*n "laces+ )uc%
)ore to searc% unno*n coasts# Besides+ *%at could t%ey see but a %ideous and desolate *ilderness+ 'ull o' *ilde
beasts+ and *ilde )enI and *%at )ultitudes o' t%e) t%ere *ere+ t%ey t%en ne* not@ 'or *%ic% *ay soever t%ey
turned t%eir eyes >save u"*ard to Heaven? t%ey could %ave but little solace or content in res"ect o' any out*ard
ob7ect6 'or su))er bein& ended+ all t%in&s stand in a""earance *it% a *eat%er1beaten 'ace+ and t%e *%ole
country 'ull o' *oods and t%icets+ re"resented a *ild and sava&e %e*6 i' t%ey looed be%ind t%e)+ t%ere *as t%e
)i&%ty ocean *%ic% t%ey %ad "assed+ and *as no* as a )ain bar or &ul"% to se"arate t%e) 'ro) all t%e civil
"arts o' t%e *orld#2
It )ust not be i)a&ined t%at t%e "iety o' t%e :uritans *as o' a )erely s"eculative ind+ or t%at it too no
co&ni-ance o' t%e course o' *orldly a''airs# :uritanis)+ as I %ave already re)ared+ *as scarcely less a "olitical
t%an a reli&ious doctrine# No sooner %ad t%e e)i&rants landed on t%e barren coast described by Nat%aniel Morton
t%an it *as t%eir 'irst care to constitute a society+ by "assin& t%e 'ollo*in& Act@
2In t%e na)e o' 9od# A)en# ,e+ *%ose na)es are under*ritten+ t%e loyal sub7ects o' our dread !overei&n 8ord
Lin& $a)es+ etc#+ etc#+ Havin& undertaen 'or t%e &lory o' 9od+ and advance)ent o' t%e C%ristian 5ait%+ and t%e
%onour o' our Lin& and country+ a voya&e to "lant t%e 'irst colony in t%e nort%ern "arts o' Dir&inia6 Do by t%ese
"resents sole)nly and )utually+ in t%e "resence o' 9od and one anot%er+ covenant and co)bine ourselves
to&et%er into a civil body "olitic+ 'or our better orderin& and "reservation+ and 'urt%erance o' t%e ends a'oresaid@
and by virtue %ereo' do enact+ constitute and 'ra)e suc% 7ust and equal la*s+ ordinances+ acts+ constitutions+ and
o''icers+ 'ro) ti)e to ti)e+ as s%all be t%ou&%t )ost )eet and convenient 'or t%e &eneral &ood o' t%e Colony@
unto *%ic% *e "ro)ise all due sub)ission and obedience+2 etc# Ki
35ootnote i@ T%e e)i&rants *%o 'ounded t%e !tate o' R%ode Island in .;0/+ t%ose *%o landed at Ne* Haven in
.;0=+ t%e 'irst settlers in Connecticut in .;0B+ and t%e 'ounders o' :rovidence in .;G<+ be&an in lie )anner by
dra*in& u" a social contract+ *%ic% *as acceded to by all t%e interested "arties# !ee 2:itinFs History+2 ""# GA
and G=#4
T%is %a""ened in .;A<+ and 'ro) t%at ti)e 'or*ards t%e e)i&ration *ent on# T%e reli&ious and "olitical "assions
*%ic% rava&ed t%e Britis% E)"ire durin& t%e *%ole rei&n o' C%arles I drove 'res% cro*ds o' sectarians every
year to t%e s%ores o' A)erica# In En&land t%e stron&%old o' :uritanis) *as in t%e )iddle classes+ and it *as
'ro) t%e )iddle classes t%at t%e )a7ority o' t%e e)i&rants ca)e# T%e "o"ulation o' Ne* En&land increased
ra"idly6 and *%ilst t%e %ierarc%y o' ran des"otically classed t%e in%abitants o' t%e )ot%er1country+ t%e colony
continued to "resent t%e novel s"ectacle o' a co))unity %o)o&eneous in all its "arts# A de)ocracy+ )ore
"er'ect t%an any *%ic% antiquity %ad drea)t o'+ started in 'ull si-e and "ano"ly 'ro) t%e )idst o' an ancient
'eudal society#
Chapter II
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@ Ori&in O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans11:art II
T%e En&lis% 9overn)ent *as not dissatis'ied *it% an e)i&ration *%ic% re)oved t%e ele)ents o' 'res% discord
and o' 'urt%er revolutions# On t%e contrary+ everyt%in& *as done to encoura&e it+ and &reat exertions *ere )ade
to )iti&ate t%e %ards%i"s o' t%ose *%o sou&%t a s%elter 'ro) t%e ri&or o' t%eir countryFs la*s on t%e soil o'
A)erica# It see)ed as i' Ne* En&land *as a re&ion &iven u" to t%e drea)s o' 'ancy and t%e unrestrained
ex"eri)ents o' innovators#
T%e En&lis% colonies >and t%is is one o' t%e )ain causes o' t%eir "ros"erity? %ave al*ays en7oyed )ore internal
'reedo) and )ore "olitical inde"endence t%an t%e colonies o' ot%er nations6 but t%is "rinci"le o' liberty *as
no*%ere )ore extensively a""lied t%an in t%e !tates o' Ne* En&land#
It *as &enerally allo*ed at t%at "eriod t%at t%e territories o' t%e Ne* ,orld belon&ed to t%at Euro"ean nation
*%ic% %ad been t%e 'irst to discover t%e)# Nearly t%e *%ole coast o' Nort% A)erica t%us beca)e a Britis%
"ossession to*ards t%e end o' t%e sixteent% century# T%e )eans used by t%e En&lis% 9overn)ent to "eo"le t%ese
ne* do)ains *ere o' several inds6 t%e Lin& so)eti)es a""ointed a &overnor o' %is o*n c%oice+ *%o ruled a
"ortion o' t%e Ne* ,orld in t%e na)e and under t%e i))ediate orders o' t%e Cro*n6 K7 t%is is t%e colonial
syste) ado"ted by ot%er countries o' Euro"e# !o)eti)es &rants o' certain tracts *ere )ade by t%e Cro*n to an
individual or to a co)"any+ K in *%ic% case all t%e civil and "olitical "o*er 'ell into t%e %ands o' one or )ore
"ersons+ *%o+ under t%e ins"ection and control o' t%e Cro*n+ sold t%e lands and &overned t%e in%abitants# 8astly+
a t%ird syste) consisted in allo*in& a certain nu)ber o' e)i&rants to constitute a "olitical society under t%e
"rotection o' t%e )ot%er1country+ and to &overn t%e)selves in *%atever *as not contrary to %er la*s# T%is )ode
o' coloni-ation+ so re)arably 'avorable to liberty+ *as only ado"ted in Ne* En&land# Kl
35ootnote 7@ T%is *as t%e case in t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor#4
35ootnote @ Maryland+ t%e Carolinas+ :ennsylvania+ and Ne* $ersey *ere in t%is situation# !ee 2:itinFs
History+2 vol# i# ""# ..10.#4
35ootnote l@ !ee t%e *or entitled 2Historical Collection o' !tate :a"ers and ot%er aut%entic Docu)ents intended
as )aterials 'or a History o' t%e (nited !tates o' A)erica+ by Ebene-er Hasard# :%iladel"%ia+ .=BA+2 'or a &reat
nu)ber o' docu)ents relatin& to t%e co))ence)ent o' t%e colonies+ *%ic% are valuable 'ro) t%eir contents and
t%eir aut%enticity@ a)on&st t%e) are t%e various c%arters &ranted by t%e Lin& o' En&land+ and t%e 'irst acts o' t%e
local &overn)ents#
!ee also t%e analysis o' all t%ese c%arters &iven by Mr# !tory+ $ud&e o' t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e (nited !tates+ in
t%e Introduction to %is 2Co))entary on t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates#2 It results 'ro) t%ese docu)ents
t%at t%e "rinci"les o' re"resentative &overn)ent and t%e external 'or)s o' "olitical liberty *ere introduced into
all t%e colonies at t%eir ori&in# T%ese "rinci"les *ere )ore 'ully acted u"on in t%e Nort% t%an in t%e !out%+ but
t%ey existed every*%ere#4
In .;A/ K) a c%arter o' t%is ind *as &ranted by C%arles I to t%e e)i&rants *%o *ent to 'or) t%e colony o'
Massac%usetts# But+ in &eneral+ c%arters *ere not &iven to t%e colonies o' Ne* En&land till t%ey %ad acquired a
certain existence# :ly)out%+ :rovidence+ Ne* Haven+ t%e !tate o' Connecticut+ and t%at o' R%ode Island Kn *ere
'ounded *it%out t%e co1o"eration and al)ost *it%out t%e no*led&e o' t%e )ot%er1country# T%e ne* settlers did
not derive t%eir incor"oration 'ro) t%e seat o' t%e e)"ire+ alt%ou&% t%ey did not deny its su"re)acy6 t%ey
constituted a society o' t%eir o*n accord+ and it *as not till t%irty or 'orty years a'ter*ards+ under C%arles II# t%at
t%eir existence *as le&ally reco&ni-ed by a royal c%arter#
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35ootnote )@ !ee 2:itinFs History+2 "+ 0C# !ee t%e 2History o' t%e Colony o' Massac%usetts Bay+2 by
Hutc%inson+ vol# i# "# B#4 35ootnote n@ !ee 2:itinFs History+2 ""# GA+ G=#4
T%is 'requently renders its it di''icult to detect t%e lin *%ic% connected t%e e)i&rants *it% t%e land o' t%eir
'ore'at%ers in studyin& t%e earliest %istorical and le&islative records o' Ne* En&land# T%ey exercised t%e ri&%ts o'
soverei&nty6 t%ey na)ed t%eir )a&istrates+ concluded "eace or declared *ar+ )ade "olice re&ulations+ and
enacted la*s as i' t%eir alle&iance *as due only to 9od# Ko Not%in& can be )ore curious and+ at t%e sa)e ti)e
)ore instructive+ t%an t%e le&islation o' t%at "eriod6 it is t%ere t%at t%e solution o' t%e &reat social "roble) *%ic%
t%e (nited !tates no* "resent to t%e *orld is to be 'ound#
35ootnote o@ T%e in%abitants o' Massac%usetts %ad deviated 'ro) t%e 'or)s *%ic% are "reserved in t%e cri)inal
and civil "rocedure o' En&land6 in .;C< t%e decrees o' 7ustice *ere not yet %eaded by t%e royal style# !ee
Hutc%inson+ vol# i# "# GCA#4
A)on&st t%ese docu)ents *e s%all notice+ as es"ecially c%aracteristic+ t%e code o' la*s "ro)ul&ated by t%e little
!tate o' Connecticut in .;C<# K" T%e le&islators o' Connecticut Kq be&in *it% t%e "enal la*s+ and+ stran&e to say+
t%ey borro* t%eir "rovisions 'ro) t%e text o' Holy ,rit# 2,%osoever s%all *ors%i" any ot%er 9od t%an t%e
8ord+2 says t%e "rea)ble o' t%e Code+ 2s%all surely be "ut to deat%#2 T%is is 'ollo*ed by ten or t*elve
enact)ents o' t%e sa)e ind+ co"ied verbati) 'ro) t%e boos o' Exodus+ 8eviticus+ and Deuterono)y#
Blas"%e)y+ sorcery+ adultery+ Kr and ra"e *ere "unis%ed *it% deat%6 an outra&e o''ered by a son to %is "arents
*as to be ex"iated by t%e sa)e "enalty# T%e le&islation o' a rude and %al'1civili-ed "eo"le *as t%us a""lied to an
enli&%tened and )oral co))unity# T%e consequence *as t%at t%e "unis%)ent o' deat% *as never )ore
'requently "rescribed by t%e statute+ and never )ore rarely en'orced to*ards t%e &uilty#
35ootnote "@ Code o' .;C<+ "# A/6 Hart'ord+ ./0<#4
35ootnote q@ !ee also in 2Hutc%insonFs History+2 vol# i# ""# G0C+ GC;+ t%e analysis o' t%e "enal code ado"ted in
.;G/ by t%e Colony o' Massac%usetts@ t%is code is dra*n u" on t%e sa)e "rinci"les as t%at o' Connecticut#4
35ootnote r@ Adultery *as also "unis%ed *it% deat% by t%e la* o' Massac%usetts@ and Hutc%inson+ vol# i# "# GG.+
says t%at several "ersons actually su''ered 'or t%is cri)e# He quotes a curious anecdote on t%is sub7ect+ *%ic%
occurred in t%e year .;;0# A )arried *o)an %ad %ad cri)inal intercourse *it% a youn& )an6 %er %usband died+
and s%e )arried t%e lover# !everal years %ad ela"sed+ *%en t%e "ublic be&an to sus"ect t%e "revious intercourse
o' t%is cou"le@ t%ey *ere t%ro*n into "rison+ "ut u"on trial+ and very narro*ly esca"ed ca"ital "unis%)ent#4
T%e c%ie' care o' t%e le&islators+ in t%is body o' "enal la*s+ *as t%e )aintenance o' orderly conduct and &ood
)orals in t%e co))unity@ t%ey constantly invaded t%e do)ain o' conscience+ and t%ere *as scarcely a sin *%ic%
*as not sub7ect to )a&isterial censure# T%e reader is a*are o' t%e ri&or *it% *%ic% t%ese la*s "unis%ed ra"e and
adultery6 intercourse bet*een un)arried "ersons *as lie*ise severely re"ressed# T%e 7ud&e *as e)"o*ered to
in'lict a "ecuniary "enalty+ a *%i""in&+ or )arria&e Ks on t%e )isde)eanants6 and i' t%e records o' t%e old courts
o' Ne* Haven )ay be believed+ "rosecutions o' t%is ind *ere not un'requent# ,e 'ind a sentence bearin& date
t%e 'irst o' May+ .;;<+ in'lictin& a 'ine and re"ri)and on a youn& *o)an *%o *as accused o' usin& i)"ro"er
lan&ua&e+ and o' allo*in& %ersel' to be issed# Kt T%e Code o' .;C< abounds in "reventive )easures# It "unis%es
idleness and drunenness *it% severity# Ku Innee"ers are 'orbidden to 'urnis% )ore t%an a certain quantity o'
liquor to eac% consu)er6 and si)"le lyin&+ *%enever it )ay be in7urious+ Kv is c%eced by a 'ine or a 'lo&&in&#
In ot%er "laces+ t%e le&islator+ entirely 'or&ettin& t%e &reat "rinci"les o' reli&ious toleration *%ic% %e %ad %i)sel'
u"%eld in Euro"e+ renders attendance on divine service co)"ulsory+ K* and &oes so 'ar as to visit *it% severe
"unis%)ent+ KK and even *it% deat%+ t%e C%ristians *%o c%ose to *ors%i" 9od accordin& to a ritual di''erin&
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'ro) %is o*n# Kx !o)eti)es indeed t%e -eal o' %is enact)ents induces %i) to descend to t%e )ost 'rivolous
"articulars@ t%us a la* is to be 'ound in t%e sa)e Code *%ic% "ro%ibits t%e use o' tobacco# Ky It )ust not be
'or&otten t%at t%ese 'antastical and vexatious la*s *ere not i)"osed by aut%ority+ but t%at t%ey *ere 'reely voted
by all t%e "ersons interested+ and t%at t%e )anners o' t%e co))unity *ere even )ore austere and )ore
"uritanical t%an t%e la*s# In .;GB a sole)n association *as 'or)ed in Boston to c%ec t%e *orldly luxury o' lon&
%air# K-
35ootnote s@ Code o' .;C<+ "# G/# It see)s so)eti)es to %ave %a""ened t%at t%e 7ud&es su"eradded t%ese
"unis%)ents to eac% ot%er+ as is seen in a sentence "ronounced in .;G0 >"# ..G+ 2Ne* Haven Antiquities2?+ by
*%ic% Mar&aret Bed'ord+ convicted o' loose conduct+ *as conde)ned to be *%i""ed+ and a'ter*ards to )arry
Nic%olas $e))in&s+ %er acco)"lice#4
35ootnote t@ 2Ne* Haven Antiquities+2 "# .<G# !ee also 2Hutc%insonFs History+2 'or several causes equally
extraordinary#4
35ootnote u@ Code o' .;C<+ ""# C<+ C=#4
35ootnote v@ Ibid#+ "# ;G#4
35ootnote *@ Ibid#+ "# GG#4
35ootnote K@ T%is *as not "eculiar to Connecticut# !ee+ 'or instance+ t%e la* *%ic%+ on !e"te)ber .0+ .;GG+
banis%ed t%e Anaba"tists 'ro) t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts# >2Historical Collection o' !tate :a"ers+2 vol# i# "# C0/#?
!ee also t%e la* a&ainst t%e Muaers+ "assed on October .G+ .;C;@ 2,%ereas+2 says t%e "rea)ble+ 2an accursed
race o' %eretics called Muaers %as s"run& u"+2 etc# T%e clauses o' t%e statute in'lict a %eavy 'ine on all ca"tains
o' s%i"s *%o s%ould i)"ort Muaers into t%e country# T%e Muaers *%o )ay be 'ound t%ere s%all be *%i""ed
and i)"risoned *it% %ard labor# T%ose )e)bers o' t%e sect *%o s%ould de'end t%eir o"inions s%all be 'irst 'ined+
t%en i)"risoned+ and 'inally driven out o' t%e "rovince#112Historical Collection o' !tate :a"ers+2 vol# i# "# ;0<#4
35ootnote x@ By t%e "enal la* o' Massac%usetts+ any Cat%olic "riest *%o s%ould set 'oot in t%e colony a'ter
%avin& been once driven out o' it *as liable to ca"ital "unis%)ent#4
35ootnote y@ Code o' .;C<+ "# B;#4
35ootnote -@ 2Ne* En&landFs Me)orial+2 "# 0.;# !ee A""endix+ E#4
T%ese errors are no doubt discreditable to %u)an reason6 t%ey attest t%e in'eriority o' our nature+ *%ic% is
inca"able o' layin& 'ir) %old u"on *%at is true and 7ust+ and is o'ten reduced to t%e alternative o' t*o excesses#
In strict connection *it% t%is "enal le&islation+ *%ic% bears suc% striin& )ars o' a narro* sectarian s"irit+ and
o' t%ose reli&ious "assions *%ic% %ad been *ar)ed by "ersecution and *ere still 'er)entin& a)on& t%e "eo"le+ a
body o' "olitical la*s is to be 'ound+ *%ic%+ t%ou&% *ritten t*o %undred years a&o+ is still a%ead o' t%e liberties
o' our a&e# T%e &eneral "rinci"les *%ic% are t%e &round*or o' )odern constitutions11"rinci"les *%ic% *ere
i)"er'ectly no*n in Euro"e+ and not co)"letely triu)"%ant even in 9reat Britain+ in t%e seventeent% century11
*ere all reco&ni-ed and deter)ined by t%e la*s o' Ne* En&land@ t%e intervention o' t%e "eo"le in "ublic a''airs+
t%e 'ree votin& o' taxes+ t%e res"onsibility o' aut%orities+ "ersonal liberty+ and trial by 7ury+ *ere all "ositively
establis%ed *it%out discussion# 5ro) t%ese 'ruit'ul "rinci"les consequences %ave been derived and a""lications
%ave been )ade suc% as no nation in Euro"e %as yet ventured to atte)"t#
In Connecticut t%e electoral body consisted+ 'ro) its ori&in+ o' t%e *%ole nu)ber o' citi-ens6 and t%is is readily to
be understood+ Ka *%en *e recollect t%at t%is "eo"le en7oyed an al)ost "er'ect equality o' 'ortune+ and a still
&reater uni'or)ity o' o"inions# Kb In Connecticut+ at t%is "eriod+ all t%e executive 'unctionaries *ere elected+
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includin& t%e 9overnor o' t%e !tate# Kc T%e citi-ens above t%e a&e o' sixteen *ere obli&ed to bear ar)s6 t%ey
'or)ed a national )ilitia+ *%ic% a""ointed its o*n o''icers+ and *as to %old itsel' at all ti)es in readiness to
)arc% 'or t%e de'ence o' t%e country# Kd
35ootnote a@ Constitution o' .;0/+ "# .=#4
35ootnote b@ In .;G. t%e 9eneral Asse)bly o' R%ode Island unani)ously declared t%at t%e &overn)ent o' t%e
!tate *as a de)ocracy+ and t%at t%e "o*er *as vested in t%e body o' 'ree citi-ens+ *%o alone %ad t%e ri&%t to
)ae t%e la*s and to *atc% t%eir execution#11Code o' .;C<+ "# =<#4
35ootnote c@ 2:itinFs History+2 "# G=#4
35ootnote d@ Constitution o' .;0/+ "# .A#4
In t%e la*s o' Connecticut+ as *ell as in all t%ose o' Ne* En&land+ *e 'ind t%e &er) and &radual develo")ent o'
t%at to*ns%i" inde"endence *%ic% is t%e li'e and )ains"rin& o' A)erican liberty at t%e "resent day# T%e "olitical
existence o' t%e )a7ority o' t%e nations o' Euro"e co))enced in t%e su"erior rans o' society+ and *as &radually
and i)"er'ectly co))unicated to t%e di''erent )e)bers o' t%e social body# In A)erica+ on t%e ot%er %and+ it
)ay be said t%at t%e to*ns%i" *as or&ani-ed be'ore t%e county+ t%e county be'ore t%e !tate+ t%e !tate be'ore t%e
(nion# In Ne* En&land to*ns%i"s *ere co)"letely and de'initively constituted as early as .;C<# T%e
inde"endence o' t%e to*ns%i" *as t%e nucleus round *%ic% t%e local interests+ "assions+ ri&%ts+ and duties
collected and clun&# It &ave sco"e to t%e activity o' a real "olitical li'e )ost t%orou&%ly de)ocratic and
re"ublican# T%e colonies still reco&ni-ed t%e su"re)acy o' t%e )ot%er1country6 )onarc%y *as still t%e la* o' t%e
!tate6 but t%e re"ublic *as already establis%ed in every to*ns%i"# T%e to*ns na)ed t%eir o*n )a&istrates o'
every ind+ rated t%e)selves+ and levied t%eir o*n taxes# Ke In t%e "aris% o' Ne* En&land t%e la* o'
re"resentation *as not ado"ted+ but t%e a''airs o' t%e co))unity *ere discussed+ as at At%ens+ in t%e )aret1
"lace+ by a &eneral asse)bly o' t%e citi-ens#
35ootnote e@ Code o' .;C<+ "# /<#4
In studyin& t%e la*s *%ic% *ere "ro)ul&ated at t%is 'irst era o' t%e A)erican re"ublics+ it is i)"ossible not to be
struc by t%e re)arable acquaintance *it% t%e science o' &overn)ent and t%e advanced t%eory o' le&islation
*%ic% t%ey dis"lay# T%e ideas t%ere 'or)ed o' t%e duties o' society to*ards its )e)bers are evidently )uc%
lo'tier and )ore co)"re%ensive t%an t%ose o' t%e Euro"ean le&islators at t%at ti)e@ obli&ations *ere t%ere
i)"osed *%ic% *ere else*%ere sli&%ted# In t%e !tates o' Ne* En&land+ 'ro) t%e 'irst+ t%e condition o' t%e "oor
*as "rovided 'or6 K' strict )easures *ere taen 'or t%e )aintenance o' roads+ and surveyors *ere a""ointed to
attend to t%e)6 K& re&isters *ere establis%ed in every "aris%+ in *%ic% t%e results o' "ublic deliberations+ and t%e
birt%s+ deat%s+ and )arria&es o' t%e citi-ens *ere entered6 K% clers *ere directed to ee" t%ese re&isters6 Ki
o''icers *ere c%ar&ed *it% t%e ad)inistration o' vacant in%eritances+ and *it% t%e arbitration o' liti&ated
land)ars6 and )any ot%ers *ere created *%ose c%ie' 'unctions *ere t%e )aintenance o' "ublic order in t%e
co))unity# K7 T%e la* enters into a t%ousand use'ul "rovisions 'or a nu)ber o' social *ants *%ic% are at "resent
very inadequately 'elt in 5rance# 35ootnote '@ Ibid#+ "# =/#4
35ootnote &@ Ibid#+ "# GB#4
35ootnote %@ !ee 2Hutc%insonFs History+2 vol# i# "# GCC#4
35ootnote i@ Code o' .;C<+ "# /;#4
35ootnote 7@ Ibid#+ "# G<#4
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But it is by t%e attention it "ays to :ublic Education t%at t%e ori&inal c%aracter o' A)erican civili-ation is at once
"laced in t%e clearest li&%t# 2It bein&+2 says t%e la*+ 2one c%ie' "ro7ect o' !atan to ee" )en 'ro) t%e no*led&e
o' t%e !cri"ture by "ersuadin& 'ro) t%e use o' ton&ues+ to t%e end t%at learnin& )ay not be buried in t%e &raves
o' our 'ore'at%ers+ in c%urc% and co))on*ealt%+ t%e 8ord assistin& our endeavors# # # #2 K Here 'ollo* clauses
establis%in& sc%ools in every to*ns%i"+ and obli&in& t%e in%abitants+ under "ain o' %eavy 'ines+ to su""ort t%e)#
!c%ools o' a su"erior ind *ere 'ounded in t%e sa)e )anner in t%e )ore "o"ulous districts# T%e )unici"al
aut%orities *ere bound to en'orce t%e sendin& o' c%ildren to sc%ool by t%eir "arents6 t%ey *ere e)"o*ered to
in'lict 'ines u"on all *%o re'used co)"liance6 and in case o' continued resistance society assu)ed t%e "lace o'
t%e "arent+ too "ossession o' t%e c%ild+ and de"rived t%e 'at%er o' t%ose natural ri&%ts *%ic% %e used to so bad a
"ur"ose# T%e reader *ill undoubtedly %ave re)ared t%e "rea)ble o' t%ese enact)ents@ in A)erica reli&ion is
t%e road to no*led&e+ and t%e observance o' t%e divine la*s leads )an to civil 'reedo)#
35ootnote @ Ibid#+ "# B<#4
I'+ a'ter %avin& cast a ra"id &lance over t%e state o' A)erican society in .;C<+ *e turn to t%e condition o' Euro"e+
and )ore es"ecially to t%at o' t%e Continent+ at t%e sa)e "eriod+ *e cannot 'ail to be struc *it% astonis%)ent#
On t%e Continent o' Euro"e+ at t%e be&innin& o' t%e seventeent% century+ absolute )onarc%y %ad every*%ere
triu)"%ed over t%e ruins o' t%e oli&arc%ical and 'eudal liberties o' t%e Middle A&es# Never *ere t%e notions o'
ri&%t )ore co)"letely con'ounded t%an in t%e )idst o' t%e s"lendor and literature o' Euro"e6 never *as t%ere less
"olitical activity a)on& t%e "eo"le6 never *ere t%e "rinci"les o' true 'reedo) less *idely circulated6 and at t%at
very ti)e t%ose "rinci"les+ *%ic% *ere scorned or unno*n by t%e nations o' Euro"e+ *ere "roclai)ed in t%e
deserts o' t%e Ne* ,orld+ and *ere acce"ted as t%e 'uture creed o' a &reat "eo"le# T%e boldest t%eories o' t%e
%u)an reason *ere "ut into "ractice by a co))unity so %u)ble t%at not a states)an condescended to attend to
it6 and a le&islation *it%out a "recedent *as "roduced o''%and by t%e i)a&ination o' t%e citi-ens# In t%e boso) o'
t%is obscure de)ocracy+ *%ic% %ad as yet brou&%t 'ort% neit%er &enerals+ nor "%iloso"%ers+ nor aut%ors+ a )an
)i&%t stand u" in t%e 'ace o' a 'ree "eo"le and "ronounce t%e 'ollo*in& 'ine de'inition o' liberty# Kl
35ootnote l@ Mat%erFs 2Ma&nalia C%risti A)ericana+2 vol# ii# "# .0# T%is s"eec% *as )ade by ,int%ro"6 %e *as
accused o' %avin& co))itted arbitrary actions durin& %is )a&istracy+ but a'ter %avin& )ade t%e s"eec% o' *%ic%
t%e above is a 'ra&)ent+ %e *as acquitted by accla)ation+ and 'ro) t%at ti)e 'or*ards %e *as al*ays re1elected
&overnor o' t%e !tate# !ee Mars%al+ vol# i# "# .;;#4
2Nor *ould I %ave you to )istae in t%e "oint o' your o*n liberty# T%ere is a liberty o' a corru"t nature *%ic% is
e''ected bot% by )en and beasts to do *%at t%ey list+ and t%is liberty is inconsistent *it% aut%ority+ i)"atient o'
all restraint6 by t%is liberty Fsu)us o)nes deterioresF@ Ftis t%e &rand ene)y o' trut% and "eace+ and all t%e
ordinances o' 9od are bent a&ainst it# But t%ere is a civil+ a )oral+ a 'ederal liberty *%ic% is t%e "ro"er end and
ob7ect o' aut%ority6 it is a liberty 'or t%at only *%ic% is 7ust and &ood@ 'or t%is liberty you are to stand *it% t%e
%a-ard o' your very lives and *%atsoever crosses it is not aut%ority+ but a diste)"er t%ereo'# T%is liberty is
)aintained in a *ay o' sub7ection to aut%ority6 and t%e aut%ority set over you *ill+ in all ad)inistrations 'or your
&ood+ be quietly sub)itted unto by all but suc% as %ave a dis"osition to s%ae o'' t%e yoe and lose t%eir true
liberty+ by t%eir )ur)urin& at t%e %onor and "o*er o' aut%ority#2
T%e re)ars I %ave )ade *ill su''ice to dis"lay t%e c%aracter o' An&lo1A)erican civili-ation in its true li&%t# It
is t%e result >and t%is s%ould be constantly "resent to t%e )ind o' t*o distinct ele)ents?+ *%ic% in ot%er "laces
%ave been in 'requent %ostility+ but *%ic% in A)erica %ave been ad)irably incor"orated and co)bined *it% one
anot%er# I allude to t%e s"irit o' Reli&ion and t%e s"irit o' 8iberty#
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T%e settlers o' Ne* En&land *ere at t%e sa)e ti)e ardent sectarians and darin& innovators# Narro* as t%e li)its
o' so)e o' t%eir reli&ious o"inions *ere+ t%ey *ere entirely 'ree 'ro) "olitical "re7udices# Hence arose t*o
tendencies+ distinct but not o""osite+ *%ic% are constantly discernible in t%e )anners as *ell as in t%e la*s o' t%e
country#
It )i&%t be i)a&ined t%at )en *%o sacri'iced t%eir 'riends+ t%eir 'a)ily+ and t%eir native land to a reli&ious
conviction *ere absorbed in t%e "ursuit o' t%e intellectual advanta&es *%ic% t%ey "urc%ased at so dear a rate# T%e
ener&y+ %o*ever+ *it% *%ic% t%ey strove 'or t%e acquire)ent o' *ealt%+ )oral en7oy)ent+ and t%e co)'orts as
*ell as liberties o' t%e *orld+ is scarcely in'erior to t%at *it% *%ic% t%ey devoted t%e)selves to Heaven#
:olitical "rinci"les and all %u)an la*s and institutions *ere )oulded and altered at t%eir "leasure6 t%e barriers o'
t%e society in *%ic% t%ey *ere born *ere broen do*n be'ore t%e)6 t%e old "rinci"les *%ic% %ad &overned t%e
*orld 'or a&es *ere no )ore6 a "at% *it%out a turn and a 'ield *it%out an %ori-on *ere o"ened to t%e ex"lorin&
and ardent curiosity o' )an@ but at t%e li)its o' t%e "olitical *orld %e c%ecs %is researc%es+ %e discreetly lays
aside t%e use o' %is )ost 'or)idable 'aculties+ %e no lon&er consents to doubt or to innovate+ but care'ully
abstainin& 'ro) raisin& t%e curtain o' t%e sanctuary+ %e yields *it% sub)issive res"ect to trut%s *%ic% %e *ill not
discuss# T%us+ in t%e )oral *orld everyt%in& is classed+ ada"ted+ decided+ and 'oreseen6 in t%e "olitical *orld
everyt%in& is a&itated+ uncertain+ and dis"uted@ in t%e one is a "assive+ t%ou&% a voluntary+ obedience6 in t%e ot%er
an inde"endence scorn'ul o' ex"erience and 7ealous o' aut%ority#
T%ese t*o tendencies+ a""arently so discre"ant+ are 'ar 'ro) con'lictin&6 t%ey advance to&et%er+ and )utually
su""ort eac% ot%er# Reli&ion "erceives t%at civil liberty a''ords a noble exercise to t%e 'aculties o' )an+ and t%at
t%e "olitical *orld is a 'ield "re"ared by t%e Creator 'or t%e e''orts o' t%e intelli&ence# Contented *it% t%e
'reedo) and t%e "o*er *%ic% it en7oys in its o*n s"%ere+ and *it% t%e "lace *%ic% it occu"ies+ t%e e)"ire o'
reli&ion is never )ore surely establis%ed t%an *%en it rei&ns in t%e %earts o' )en unsu""orted by au&%t beside its
native stren&t%# Reli&ion is no less t%e co)"anion o' liberty in all its battles and its triu)"%s6 t%e cradle o' its
in'ancy+ and t%e divine source o' its clai)s# T%e sa'e&uard o' )orality is reli&ion+ and )orality is t%e best
security o' la* and t%e surest "led&e o' 'reedo)# K)
35ootnote )@ !ee A""endix+ 5#4
Reasons O' Certain Ano)alies ,%ic% T%e 8a*s And Custo)s O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans :resent
Re)ains o' aristocratic institutions in t%e )idst o' a co)"lete de)ocracy11,%yI11Distinction care'ully to be
dra*n bet*een *%at is o' :uritanical and *%at is o' En&lis% ori&in#
T%e reader is cautioned not to dra* too &eneral or too absolute an in'erence 'ro) *%at %as been said# T%e social
condition+ t%e reli&ion+ and t%e )anners o' t%e 'irst e)i&rants undoubtedly exercised an i))ense in'luence on
t%e destiny o' t%eir ne* country# Nevert%eless t%ey *ere not in a situation to 'ound a state o' t%in&s solely
de"endent on t%e)selves@ no )an can entirely s%ae o'' t%e in'luence o' t%e "ast+ and t%e settlers+ intentionally or
involuntarily+ )in&led %abits and notions derived 'ro) t%eir education and 'ro) t%e traditions o' t%eir country
*it% t%ose %abits and notions *%ic% *ere exclusively t%eir o*n# To 'or) a 7ud&)ent on t%e An&lo1A)ericans o'
t%e "resent day it is t%ere'ore necessary to distin&uis% *%at is o' :uritanical and *%at is o' En&lis% ori&in#
8a*s and custo)s are 'requently to be )et *it% in t%e (nited !tates *%ic% contrast stron&ly *it% all t%at
surrounds t%e)# T%ese la*s see) to be dra*n u" in a s"irit contrary to t%e "revailin& tenor o' t%e A)erican
le&islation6 and t%ese custo)s are no less o""osed to t%e tone o' society# I' t%e En&lis% colonies %ad been
'ounded in an a&e o' darness+ or i' t%eir ori&in *as already lost in t%e la"se o' years+ t%e "roble) *ould be
insoluble#
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I s%all quote a sin&le exa)"le to illustrate *%at I advance# T%e civil and cri)inal "rocedure o' t%e A)ericans %as
only t*o )eans o' action11co))ittal and bail# T%e 'irst )easure taen by t%e )a&istrate is to exact security 'ro)
t%e de'endant+ or+ in case o' re'usal+ to incarcerate %i)@ t%e &round o' t%e accusation and t%e i)"ortance o' t%e
c%ar&es a&ainst %i) are t%en discussed# It is evident t%at a le&islation o' t%is ind is %ostile to t%e "oor )an+ and
'avorable only to t%e ric%# T%e "oor )an %as not al*ays a security to "roduce+ even in a civil cause6 and i' %e is
obli&ed to *ait 'or 7ustice in "rison+ %e is s"eedily reduced to distress# T%e *ealt%y individual+ on t%e contrary+
al*ays esca"es i)"rison)ent in civil causes6 nay+ )ore+ %e )ay readily elude t%e "unis%)ent *%ic% a*aits %i)
'or a delinquency by breain& %is bail# !o t%at all t%e "enalties o' t%e la* are+ 'or %i)+ reducible to 'ines# Kn
Not%in& can be )ore aristocratic t%an t%is syste) o' le&islation# Yet in A)erica it is t%e "oor *%o )ae t%e la*+
and t%ey usually reserve t%e &reatest social advanta&es to t%e)selves# T%e ex"lanation o' t%e "%eno)enon is to
be 'ound in En&land6 t%e la*s o' *%ic% I s"ea are En&lis%+ Ko and t%e A)ericans %ave retained t%e)+ %o*ever
re"u&nant t%ey )ay be to t%e tenor o' t%eir le&islation and t%e )ass o' t%eir ideas# Next to its %abits+ t%e t%in&
*%ic% a nation is least a"t to c%an&e is its civil le&islation# Civil la*s are only 'a)iliarly no*n to le&al )en+
*%ose direct interest it is to )aintain t%e) as t%ey are+ *%et%er &ood or bad+ si)"ly because t%ey t%e)selves are
conversant *it% t%e)# T%e body o' t%e nation is scarcely acquainted *it% t%e)6 it )erely "erceives t%eir action
in "articular cases6 but it %as so)e di''iculty in sei-in& t%eir tendency+ and obeys t%e) *it%out "re)editation# I
%ave quoted one instance *%ere it *ould %ave been easy to adduce a &reat nu)ber o' ot%ers# T%e sur'ace o'
A)erican society is+ i' I )ay use t%e ex"ression+ covered *it% a layer o' de)ocracy+ 'ro) beneat% *%ic% t%e old
aristocratic colors so)eti)es "ee"#
35ootnote n@ Cri)es no doubt exist 'or *%ic% bail is inad)issible+ but t%ey are 'e* in nu)ber#4
35ootnote o@ !ee Blacstone6 and Delol)e+ boo I c%a"# x#4
Chapter III
@ !ocial Conditions O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans
Chapter Summary
A !ocial condition is co))only t%e result o' circu)stances+ so)eti)es o' la*s+ o'tener still o' t%ese t*o causes
united6 but *%erever it exists+ it )ay 7ustly be considered as t%e source o' al)ost all t%e la*s+ t%e usa&es+ and t%e
ideas *%ic% re&ulate t%e conduct o' nations6 *%atever it does not "roduce it )odi'ies# It is t%ere'ore necessary+ i'
*e *ould beco)e acquainted *it% t%e le&islation and t%e )anners o' a nation+ to be&in by t%e study o' its social
condition#
T%e !triin& C%aracteristic O' T%e !ocial Condition O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans In Its Essential De)ocracy#
T%e 'irst e)i&rants o' Ne* En&land11T%eir equality11Aristocratic la*s introduced in t%e !out%11:eriod o' t%e
Revolution11C%an&e in t%e la* o' descent11E''ects "roduced by t%is c%an&e11De)ocracy carried to its ut)ost
li)its in t%e ne* !tates o' t%e ,est11Equality o' education#
Many i)"ortant observations su&&est t%e)selves u"on t%e social condition o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ but t%ere is
one *%ic% taes "recedence o' all t%e rest# T%e social condition o' t%e A)ericans is e)inently de)ocratic6 t%is
*as its c%aracter at t%e 'oundation o' t%e Colonies+ and is still )ore stron&ly )ared at t%e "resent day# I %ave
stated in t%e "recedin& c%a"ter t%at &reat equality existed a)on& t%e e)i&rants *%o settled on t%e s%ores o' Ne*
En&land# T%e &er) o' aristocracy *as never "lanted in t%at "art o' t%e (nion# T%e only in'luence *%ic% obtained
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t%ere *as t%at o' intellect6 t%e "eo"le *ere used to reverence certain na)es as t%e e)ble)s o' no*led&e and
virtue# !o)e o' t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens acquired a "o*er over t%e rest *%ic% )i&%t truly %ave been called
aristocratic+ i' it %ad been ca"able o' trans)ission 'ro) 'at%er to son#
T%is *as t%e state o' t%in&s to t%e east o' t%e Hudson@ to t%e sout%1*est o' t%at river+ and in t%e direction o' t%e
5loridas+ t%e case *as di''erent# In )ost o' t%e !tates situated to t%e sout%1*est o' t%e Hudson so)e &reat
En&lis% "ro"rietors %ad settled+ *%o %ad i)"orted *it% t%e) aristocratic "rinci"les and t%e En&lis% la* o'
descent# I %ave ex"lained t%e reasons *%y it *as i)"ossible ever to establis% a "o*er'ul aristocracy in A)erica6
t%ese reasons existed *it% less 'orce to t%e sout%1*est o' t%e Hudson# In t%e !out%+ one )an+ aided by slaves+
could cultivate a &reat extent o' country@ it *as t%ere'ore co))on to see ric% landed "ro"rietors# But t%eir
in'luence *as not alto&et%er aristocratic as t%at ter) is understood in Euro"e+ since t%ey "ossessed no "rivile&es6
and t%e cultivation o' t%eir estates bein& carried on by slaves+ t%ey %ad no tenants de"endin& on t%e)+ and
consequently no "atrona&e# !till+ t%e &reat "ro"rietors sout% o' t%e Hudson constituted a su"erior class+ %avin&
ideas and tastes o' its o*n+ and 'or)in& t%e centre o' "olitical action# T%is ind o' aristocracy sy)"at%i-ed *it%
t%e body o' t%e "eo"le+ *%ose "assions and interests it easily e)braced6 but it *as too *ea and too s%ort1lived
to excite eit%er love or %atred 'or itsel'# T%is *as t%e class *%ic% %eaded t%e insurrection in t%e !out%+ and
'urnis%ed t%e best leaders o' t%e A)erican revolution#
At t%e "eriod o' *%ic% *e are no* s"eain& society *as s%aen to its centre@ t%e "eo"le+ in *%ose na)e t%e
stru&&le %ad taen "lace+ conceived t%e desire o' exercisin& t%e aut%ority *%ic% it %ad acquired6 its de)ocratic
tendencies *ere a*aened6 and %avin& t%ro*n o'' t%e yoe o' t%e )ot%er1country+ it as"ired to inde"endence o'
every ind# T%e in'luence o' individuals &radually ceased to be 'elt+ and custo) and la* united to&et%er to
"roduce t%e sa)e result#
But t%e la* o' descent *as t%e last ste" to equality# I a) sur"rised t%at ancient and )odern 7urists %ave not
attributed to t%is la* a &reater in'luence on %u)an a''airs# Ka It is true t%at t%ese la*s belon& to civil a''airs6 but
t%ey ou&%t nevert%eless to be "laced at t%e %ead o' all "olitical institutions6 'or+ *%ilst "olitical la*s are only t%e
sy)bol o' a nationFs condition+ t%ey exercise an incredible in'luence u"on its social state# T%ey %ave+ )oreover+ a
sure and uni'or) )anner o' o"eratin& u"on society+ a''ectin&+ as it *ere+ &enerations yet unborn#
35ootnote a@ I understand by t%e la* o' descent all t%ose la*s *%ose "rinci"al ob7ect is to re&ulate t%e
distribution o' "ro"erty a'ter t%e deat% o' its o*ner# T%e la* o' entail is o' t%is nu)ber6 it certainly "revents t%e
o*ner 'ro) dis"osin& o' %is "ossessions be'ore %is deat%6 but t%is is solely *it% t%e vie* o' "reservin& t%e)
entire 'or t%e %eir# T%e "rinci"al ob7ect+ t%ere'ore+ o' t%e la* o' entail is to re&ulate t%e descent o' "ro"erty a'ter
t%e deat% o' its o*ner@ its ot%er "rovisions are )erely )eans to t%is end#4
T%rou&% t%eir )eans )an acquires a ind o' "reternatural "o*er over t%e 'uture lot o' %is 'ello*1creatures# ,%en
t%e le&islator %as re&ulated t%e la* o' in%eritance+ %e )ay rest 'ro) %is labor# T%e )ac%ine once "ut in )otion
*ill &o on 'or a&es+ and advance+ as i' sel'1&uided+ to*ards a &iven "oint# ,%en 'ra)ed in a "articular )anner+
t%is la* unites+ dra*s to&et%er+ and vests "ro"erty and "o*er in a 'e* %ands@ its tendency is clearly aristocratic#
On o""osite "rinci"les its action is still )ore ra"id6 it divides+ distributes+ and dis"erses bot% "ro"erty and "o*er#
Alar)ed by t%e ra"idity o' its "ro&ress+ t%ose *%o des"air o' arrestin& its )otion endeavor to obstruct it by
di''iculties and i)"edi)ents6 t%ey vainly see to counteract its e''ect by contrary e''orts6 but it &radually reduces
or destroys every obstacle+ until by its incessant activity t%e bul*ars o' t%e in'luence o' *ealt% are &round do*n
to t%e 'ine and s%i'tin& sand *%ic% is t%e basis o' de)ocracy# ,%en t%e la* o' in%eritance "er)its+ still )ore
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*%en it decrees+ t%e equal division o' a 'at%erFs "ro"erty a)on&st all %is c%ildren+ its e''ects are o' t*o inds@ it is
i)"ortant to distin&uis% t%e) 'ro) eac% ot%er+ alt%ou&% t%ey tend to t%e sa)e end#
In virtue o' t%e la* o' "artible in%eritance+ t%e deat% o' every "ro"rietor brin&s about a ind o' revolution in
"ro"erty6 not only do %is "ossessions c%an&e %ands+ but t%eir very nature is altered+ since t%ey are "arcelled into
s%ares+ *%ic% beco)e s)aller and s)aller at eac% division# T%is is t%e direct and+ as it *ere+ t%e "%ysical e''ect
o' t%e la*# It 'ollo*s+ t%en+ t%at in countries *%ere equality o' in%eritance is establis%ed by la*+ "ro"erty+ and
es"ecially landed "ro"erty+ )ust %ave a tendency to "er"etual di)inution# T%e e''ects+ %o*ever+ o' suc%
le&islation *ould only be "erce"tible a'ter a la"se o' ti)e+ i' t%e la* *as abandoned to its o*n *orin&6 'or
su""osin& t%e 'a)ily to consist o' t*o c%ildren >and in a country "eo"le as 5rance is t%e avera&e nu)ber is not
above t%ree?+ t%ese c%ildren+ s%arin& a)on&st t%e) t%e 'ortune o' bot% "arents+ *ould not be "oorer t%an t%eir
'at%er or )ot%er#
But t%e la* o' equal division exercises its in'luence not )erely u"on t%e "ro"erty itsel'+ but it a''ects t%e )inds
o' t%e %eirs+ and brin&s t%eir "assions into "lay# T%ese indirect consequences tend "o*er'ully to t%e destruction
o' lar&e 'ortunes+ and es"ecially o' lar&e do)ains# A)on& nations *%ose la* o' descent is 'ounded u"on t%e
ri&%t o' "ri)o&eniture landed estates o'ten "ass 'ro) &eneration to &eneration *it%out under&oin& division+ t%e
consequence o' *%ic% is t%at 'a)ily 'eelin& is to a certain de&ree incor"orated *it% t%e estate# T%e 'a)ily
re"resents t%e estate+ t%e estate t%e 'a)ily6 *%ose na)e+ to&et%er *it% its ori&in+ its &lory+ its "o*er+ and its
virtues+ is t%us "er"etuated in an i)"eris%able )e)orial o' t%e "ast and a sure "led&e o' t%e 'uture#
,%en t%e equal "artition o' "ro"erty is establis%ed by la*+ t%e inti)ate connection is destroyed bet*een 'a)ily
'eelin& and t%e "reservation o' t%e "aternal estate6 t%e "ro"erty ceases to re"resent t%e 'a)ily6 'or as it )ust
inevitably be divided a'ter one or t*o &enerations+ it %as evidently a constant tendency to di)inis%+ and )ust in
t%e end be co)"letely dis"ersed# T%e sons o' t%e &reat landed "ro"rietor+ i' t%ey are 'e* in nu)ber+ or i' 'ortune
be'riends t%e)+ )ay indeed entertain t%e %o"e o' bein& as *ealt%y as t%eir 'at%er+ but not t%at o' "ossessin& t%e
sa)e "ro"erty as %e did6 t%e ric%es )ust necessarily be co)"osed o' ele)ents di''erent 'ro) %is#
No*+ 'ro) t%e )o)ent t%at you divest t%e lando*ner o' t%at interest in t%e "reservation o' %is estate *%ic% %e
derives 'ro) association+ 'ro) tradition+ and 'ro) 'a)ily "ride+ you )ay be certain t%at sooner or later %e *ill
dis"ose o' it6 'or t%ere is a stron& "ecuniary interest in 'avor o' sellin&+ as 'loatin& ca"ital "roduces %i&%er
interest t%an real "ro"erty+ and is )ore readily available to &rati'y t%e "assions o' t%e )o)ent#
9reat landed estates *%ic% %ave once been divided never co)e to&et%er a&ain6 'or t%e s)all "ro"rietor dra*s
'ro) %is land a better revenue+ in "ro"ortion+ t%an t%e lar&e o*ner does 'ro) %is+ and o' course %e sells it at a
%i&%er rate# Kb T%e calculations o' &ain+ t%ere'ore+ *%ic% decide t%e ric% )an to sell %is do)ain *ill still )ore
"o*er'ully in'luence %i) a&ainst buyin& s)all estates to unite t%e) into a lar&e one#
35ootnote b@ I do not )ean to say t%at t%e s)all "ro"rietor cultivates %is land better+ but %e cultivates it *it% )ore
ardor and care6 so t%at %e )aes u" by %is labor 'or %is *ant o' sill#4
,%at is called 'a)ily "ride is o'ten 'ounded u"on an illusion o' sel'1love# A )an *is%es to "er"etuate and
i))ortali-e %i)sel'+ as it *ere+ in %is &reat1&randc%ildren# ,%ere t%e es"rit de 'a)ille ceases to act individual
sel'is%ness co)es into "lay# ,%en t%e idea o' 'a)ily beco)es va&ue+ indeter)inate+ and uncertain+ a )an t%ins
o' %is "resent convenience6 %e "rovides 'or t%e establis%)ent o' %is succeedin& &eneration+ and no )ore# Eit%er a
)an &ives u" t%e idea o' "er"etuatin& %is 'a)ily+ or at any rate %e sees to acco)"lis% it by ot%er )eans t%an t%at
o' a landed estate# T%us not only does t%e la* o' "artible in%eritance render it di''icult 'or 'a)ilies to "reserve
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t%eir ancestral do)ains entire+ but it de"rives t%e) o' t%e inclination to atte)"t it+ and co)"els t%e) in so)e
)easure to co1o"erate *it% t%e la* in t%eir o*n extinction#
T%e la* o' equal distribution "roceeds by t*o )et%ods@ by actin& u"on t%in&s+ it acts u"on "ersons6 by
in'luencin& "ersons+ it a''ects t%in&s# By t%ese )eans t%e la* succeeds in striin& at t%e root o' landed "ro"erty+
and dis"ersin& ra"idly bot% 'a)ilies and 'ortunes# Kc
35ootnote c@ 8and bein& t%e )ost stable ind o' "ro"erty+ *e 'ind+ 'ro) ti)e to ti)e+ ric% individuals *%o are
dis"osed to )ae &reat sacri'ices in order to obtain it+ and *%o *illin&ly 'or'eit a considerable "art o' t%eir
inco)e to )ae sure o' t%e rest# But t%ese are accidental cases# T%e "re'erence 'or landed "ro"erty is no lon&er
'ound %abitually in any class but a)on& t%e "oor# T%e s)all lando*ner+ *%o %as less in'or)ation+ less
i)a&ination+ and 'e*er "assions t%an t%e &reat one+ is &enerally occu"ied *it% t%e desire o' increasin& %is estate@
and it o'ten %a""ens t%at by in%eritance+ by )arria&e+ or by t%e c%ances o' trade+ %e is &radually 'urnis%ed *it%
t%e )eans# T%us+ to balance t%e tendency *%ic% leads )en to divide t%eir estates+ t%ere exists anot%er+ *%ic%
incites t%e) to add to t%e)# T%is tendency+ *%ic% is su''icient to "revent estates 'ro) bein& divided ad in'initu)+
is not stron& enou&% to create &reat territorial "ossessions+ certainly not to ee" t%e) u" in t%e sa)e 'a)ily#4
Most certainly it is not 'or us 5renc%)en o' t%e nineteent% century+ *%o daily *itness t%e "olitical and social
c%an&es *%ic% t%e la* o' "artition is brin&in& to "ass+ to question its in'luence# It is "er"etually cons"icuous in
our country+ overt%ro*in& t%e *alls o' our d*ellin&s and re)ovin& t%e land)ars o' our 'ields# But alt%ou&% it
%as "roduced &reat e''ects in 5rance+ )uc% still re)ains 'or it to do# Our recollections+ o"inions+ and %abits
"resent "o*er'ul obstacles to its "ro&ress#
In t%e (nited !tates it %as nearly co)"leted its *or o' destruction+ and t%ere *e can best study its results# T%e
En&lis% la*s concernin& t%e trans)ission o' "ro"erty *ere abolis%ed in al)ost all t%e !tates at t%e ti)e o' t%e
Revolution# T%e la* o' entail *as so )odi'ied as not to interru"t t%e 'ree circulation o' "ro"erty# Kd T%e 'irst
&eneration %avin& "assed a*ay+ estates be&an to be "arcelled out+ and t%e c%an&e beca)e )ore and )ore ra"id
*it% t%e "ro&ress o' ti)e# At t%is )o)ent+ a'ter a la"se o' a little )ore t%an sixty years+ t%e as"ect o' society is
totally altered6 t%e 'a)ilies o' t%e &reat landed "ro"rietors are al)ost all co))in&led *it% t%e &eneral )ass# In
t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor+ *%ic% 'or)erly contained )any o' t%ese+ t%ere are but t*o *%o still ee" t%eir %eads
above t%e strea)+ and t%ey )ust s%ortly disa""ear# T%e sons o' t%ese o"ulent citi-ens are beco)e )erc%ants+
la*yers+ or "%ysicians# Most o' t%e) %ave la"sed into obscurity# T%e last trace o' %ereditary rans and
distinctions is destroyed11t%e la* o' "artition %as reduced all to one level# 35ootnote d@ !ee A""endix+ 9#4
I do not )ean t%at t%ere is any de'iciency o' *ealt%y individuals in t%e (nited !tates6 I no* o' no country+
indeed+ *%ere t%e love o' )oney %as taen stron&er %old on t%e a''ections o' )en+ and *%ere t%e "ro'ounder
conte)"t is ex"ressed 'or t%e t%eory o' t%e "er)anent equality o' "ro"erty# But *ealt% circulates *it%
inconceivable ra"idity+ and ex"erience s%o*s t%at it is rare to 'ind t*o succeedin& &enerations in t%e 'ull
en7oy)ent o' it#
T%is "icture+ *%ic% )ay "er%a"s be t%ou&%t to be overc%ar&ed+ still &ives a very i)"er'ect idea o' *%at is tain&
"lace in t%e ne* !tates o' t%e ,est and !out%1*est# At t%e end o' t%e last century a 'e* bold adventurers be&an
to "enetrate into t%e valleys o' t%e Mississi""i+ and t%e )ass o' t%e "o"ulation very soon be&an to )ove in t%at
direction@ co))unities un%eard o' till t%en *ere seen to e)er&e 'ro) t%e *ilds@ !tates *%ose na)es *ere not in
existence a 'e* years be'ore clai)ed t%eir "lace in t%e A)erican (nion6 and in t%e ,estern settle)ents *e )ay
be%old de)ocracy arrived at its ut)ost extre)e# In t%ese !tates+ 'ounded o''1%and+ and+ as it *ere+ by c%ance+ t%e
in%abitants are but o' yesterday# !carcely no*n to one anot%er+ t%e nearest nei&%bors are i&norant o' eac%
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ot%erFs %istory# In t%is "art o' t%e A)erican continent+ t%ere'ore+ t%e "o"ulation %as not ex"erienced t%e in'luence
o' &reat na)es and &reat *ealt%+ nor even t%at o' t%e natural aristocracy o' no*led&e and virtue# None are t%ere
to *ield t%at res"ectable "o*er *%ic% )en *illin&ly &rant to t%e re)e)brance o' a li'e s"ent in doin& &ood
be'ore t%eir eyes# T%e ne* !tates o' t%e ,est are already in%abited+ but society %as no existence a)on& t%e)# Ke
35ootnote e@ T%is )ay %ave been true in ./0A+ but is not so in ./=G+ *%en &reat cities lie C%ica&o and !an
5rancisco %ave s"run& u" in t%e ,estern !tates# But as yet t%e ,estern !tates exert no "o*er'ul in'luence on
A)erican society#111TranslatorFs Note#4
It is not only t%e 'ortunes o' )en *%ic% are equal in A)erica6 even t%eir require)ents "artae in so)e de&ree o'
t%e sa)e uni'or)ity# I do not believe t%at t%ere is a country in t%e *orld *%ere+ in "ro"ortion to t%e "o"ulation+
t%ere are so 'e* uninstructed and at t%e sa)e ti)e so 'e* learned individuals# :ri)ary instruction is *it%in t%e
reac% o' everybody6 su"erior instruction is scarcely to be obtained by any# T%is is not sur"risin&6 it is in 'act t%e
necessary consequence o' *%at *e %ave advanced above# Al)ost all t%e A)ericans are in easy circu)stances+
and can t%ere'ore obtain t%e 'irst ele)ents o' %u)an no*led&e#
In A)erica t%ere are co)"aratively 'e* *%o are ric% enou&% to live *it%out a "ro'ession# Every "ro'ession
requires an a""rentices%i"+ *%ic% li)its t%e ti)e o' instruction to t%e early years o' li'e# At 'i'teen t%ey enter
u"on t%eir callin&+ and t%us t%eir education ends at t%e a&e *%en ours be&ins# ,%atever is done a'ter*ards is
*it% a vie* to so)e s"ecial and lucrative ob7ect6 a science is taen u" as a )atter o' business+ and t%e only
branc% o' it *%ic% is attended to is suc% as ad)its o' an i))ediate "ractical a""lication# In A)erica )ost o' t%e
ric% )en *ere 'or)erly "oor6 )ost o' t%ose *%o no* en7oy leisure *ere absorbed in business durin& t%eir yout%6
t%e consequence o' *%ic% is+ t%at *%en t%ey )i&%t %ave %ad a taste 'or study t%ey %ad no ti)e 'or it+ and *%en
ti)e is at t%eir dis"osal t%ey %ave no lon&er t%e inclination#
T%ere is no class+ t%en+ in A)erica+ in *%ic% t%e taste 'or intellectual "leasures is trans)itted *it% %ereditary
'ortune and leisure+ and by *%ic% t%e labors o' t%e intellect are %eld in %onor# Accordin&ly t%ere is an equal *ant
o' t%e desire and t%e "o*er o' a""lication to t%ese ob7ects#
A )iddle standard is 'ixed in A)erica 'or %u)an no*led&e# All a""roac% as near to it as t%ey can6 so)e as t%ey
rise+ ot%ers as t%ey descend# O' course+ an i))ense )ultitude o' "ersons are to be 'ound *%o entertain t%e sa)e
nu)ber o' ideas on reli&ion+ %istory+ science+ "olitical econo)y+ le&islation+ and &overn)ent# T%e &i'ts o'
intellect "roceed directly 'ro) 9od+ and )an cannot "revent t%eir unequal distribution# But in consequence o'
t%e state o' t%in&s *%ic% *e %ave %ere re"resented it %a""ens t%at+ alt%ou&% t%e ca"acities o' )en are *idely
di''erent+ as t%e Creator %as doubtless intended t%ey s%ould be+ t%ey are sub)itted to t%e sa)e )et%od o'
treat)ent#
In A)erica t%e aristocratic ele)ent %as al*ays been 'eeble 'ro) its birt%6 and i' at t%e "resent day it is not
actually destroyed+ it is at any rate so co)"letely disabled t%at *e can scarcely assi&n to it any de&ree o'
in'luence in t%e course o' a''airs# T%e de)ocratic "rinci"le+ on t%e contrary+ %as &ained so )uc% stren&t% by ti)e+
by events+ and by le&islation+ as to %ave beco)e not only "redo)inant but all1"o*er'ul# T%ere is no 'a)ily or
cor"orate aut%ority+ and it is rare to 'ind even t%e in'luence o' individual c%aracter en7oy any durability#
A)erica+ t%en+ ex%ibits in %er social state a )ost extraordinary "%eno)enon# Men are t%ere seen on a &reater
equality in "oint o' 'ortune and intellect+ or+ in ot%er *ords+ )ore equal in t%eir stren&t%+ t%an in any ot%er
country o' t%e *orld+ or in any a&e o' *%ic% %istory %as "reserved t%e re)e)brance#
:olitical Consequences O' T%e !ocial Condition O' T%e An&lo1A)ericans
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T%e "olitical consequences o' suc% a social condition as t%is are easily deducible# It is i)"ossible to believe t%at
equality *ill not eventually 'ind its *ay into t%e "olitical *orld as it does every*%ere else# To conceive o' )en
re)ainin& 'orever unequal u"on one sin&le "oint+ yet equal on all ot%ers+ is i)"ossible6 t%ey )ust co)e in t%e
end to be equal u"on all# No* I no* o' only t*o )et%ods o' establis%in& equality in t%e "olitical *orld6 every
citi-en )ust be "ut in "ossession o' %is ri&%ts+ or ri&%ts )ust be &ranted to no one# 5or nations *%ic% are arrived
at t%e sa)e sta&e o' social existence as t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ it is t%ere'ore very di''icult to discover a )ediu)
bet*een t%e soverei&nty o' all and t%e absolute "o*er o' one )an@ and it *ould be vain to deny t%at t%e social
condition *%ic% I %ave been describin& is equally liable to eac% o' t%ese consequences#
T%ere is+ in 'act+ a )anly and la*'ul "assion 'or equality *%ic% excites )en to *is% all to be "o*er'ul and
%onored# T%is "assion tends to elevate t%e %u)ble to t%e ran o' t%e &reat6 but t%ere exists also in t%e %u)an
%eart a de"raved taste 'or equality+ *%ic% i)"els t%e *ea to atte)"t to lo*er t%e "o*er'ul to t%eir o*n level+
and reduces )en to "re'er equality in slavery to inequality *it% 'reedo)# Not t%at t%ose nations *%ose social
condition is de)ocratic naturally des"ise liberty6 on t%e contrary+ t%ey %ave an instinctive love o' it# But liberty is
not t%e c%ie' and constant ob7ect o' t%eir desires6 equality is t%eir idol@ t%ey )ae ra"id and sudden e''orts to
obtain liberty+ and i' t%ey )iss t%eir ai) resi&n t%e)selves to t%eir disa""oint)ent6 but not%in& can satis'y t%e)
exce"t equality+ and rat%er t%an lose it t%ey resolve to "eris%#
On t%e ot%er %and+ in a !tate *%ere t%e citi-ens are nearly on an equality+ it beco)es di''icult 'or t%e) to
"reserve t%eir inde"endence a&ainst t%e a&&ressions o' "o*er# No one a)on& t%e) bein& stron& enou&% to
en&a&e in t%e stru&&le *it% advanta&e+ not%in& but a &eneral co)bination can "rotect t%eir liberty# And suc% a
union is not al*ays to be 'ound#
5ro) t%e sa)e social "osition+ t%en+ nations )ay derive one or t%e ot%er o' t*o &reat "olitical results6 t%ese
results are extre)ely di''erent 'ro) eac% ot%er+ but t%ey )ay bot% "roceed 'ro) t%e sa)e cause#
T%e An&lo1A)ericans are t%e 'irst nations *%o+ %avin& been ex"osed to t%is 'or)idable alternative+ %ave been
%a""y enou&% to esca"e t%e do)inion o' absolute "o*er# T%ey %ave been allo*ed by t%eir circu)stances+ t%eir
ori&in+ t%eir intelli&ence+ and es"ecially by t%eir )oral 'eelin&+ to establis% and )aintain t%e soverei&nty o' t%e
"eo"le#
Chapter IV
@ T%e :rinci"le O' T%e !overei&nty O' T%e :eo"le In A)erica
Chapter Summary
It "redo)inates over t%e *%ole o' society in A)erica11A""lication )ade o' t%is "rinci"le by t%e A)ericans even
be'ore t%eir Revolution11Develo")ent &iven to it by t%at Revolution119radual and irresistible extension o' t%e
elective quali'ication#
T%e :rinci"le O' T%e !overei&nty O' T%e :eo"le In A)erica
,%enever t%e "olitical la*s o' t%e (nited !tates are to be discussed+ it is *it% t%e doctrine o' t%e soverei&nty o'
t%e "eo"le t%at *e )ust be&in# T%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le+ *%ic% is to be 'ound+ )ore or less+
at t%e botto) o' al)ost all %u)an institutions+ &enerally re)ains concealed 'ro) vie*# It is obeyed *it%out bein&
reco&ni-ed+ or i' 'or a )o)ent it be brou&%t to li&%t+ it is %astily cast bac into t%e &loo) o' t%e sanctuary# 2T%e
*ill o' t%e nation2 is one o' t%ose ex"ressions *%ic% %ave been )ost "ro'usely abused by t%e *ily and t%e
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des"otic o' every a&e# To t%e eyes o' so)e it %as been re"resented by t%e venal su''ra&es o' a 'e* o' t%e satellites
o' "o*er6 to ot%ers by t%e votes o' a ti)id or an interested )inority6 and so)e %ave even discovered it in t%e
silence o' a "eo"le+ on t%e su""osition t%at t%e 'act o' sub)ission establis%ed t%e ri&%t o' co))and#
In A)erica t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le is not eit%er barren or concealed+ as it is *it% so)e
ot%er nations6 it is reco&ni-ed by t%e custo)s and "roclai)ed by t%e la*s6 it s"reads 'reely+ and arrives *it%out
i)"edi)ent at its )ost re)ote consequences# I' t%ere be a country in t%e *orld *%ere t%e doctrine o' t%e
soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le can be 'airly a""reciated+ *%ere it can be studied in its a""lication to t%e a''airs o'
society+ and *%ere its dan&ers and its advanta&es )ay be 'oreseen+ t%at country is assuredly A)erica#
I %ave already observed t%at+ 'ro) t%eir ori&in+ t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le *as t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"le o'
t%e &reater nu)ber o' Britis% colonies in A)erica# It *as 'ar+ %o*ever+ 'ro) t%en exercisin& as )uc% in'luence
on t%e &overn)ent o' society as it no* does# T*o obstacles+ t%e one external+ t%e ot%er internal+ c%eced its
invasive "ro&ress# It could not ostensibly disclose itsel' in t%e la*s o' colonies *%ic% *ere still constrained to
obey t%e )ot%er1country@ it *as t%ere'ore obli&ed to s"read secretly+ and to &ain &round in t%e "rovincial
asse)blies+ and es"ecially in t%e to*ns%i"s#
A)erican society *as not yet "re"ared to ado"t it *it% all its consequences# T%e intelli&ence o' Ne* En&land+
and t%e *ealt% o' t%e country to t%e sout% o' t%e Hudson >as I %ave s%o*n in t%e "recedin& c%a"ter?+ lon&
exercised a sort o' aristocratic in'luence+ *%ic% tended to retain t%e exercise o' social aut%ority in t%e %ands o' a
'e*# T%e "ublic 'unctionaries *ere not universally elected+ and t%e citi-ens *ere not all o' t%e) electors# T%e
electoral 'ranc%ise *as every*%ere "laced *it%in certain li)its+ and )ade de"endent on a certain quali'ication+
*%ic% *as exceedin&ly lo* in t%e Nort% and )ore considerable in t%e !out%#
T%e A)erican revolution broe out+ and t%e doctrine o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le+ *%ic% %ad been nurtured
in t%e to*ns%i"s and )unici"alities+ too "ossession o' t%e !tate@ every class *as enlisted in its cause6 battles
*ere 'ou&%t+ and victories obtained 'or it+ until it beca)e t%e la* o' la*s#
A no less ra"id c%an&e *as e''ected in t%e interior o' society+ *%ere t%e la* o' descent co)"leted t%e abolition
o' local in'luences#
At t%e very ti)e *%en t%is consequence o' t%e la*s and o' t%e revolution *as a""arent to every eye+ victory *as
irrevocably "ronounced in 'avor o' t%e de)ocratic cause# All "o*er *as+ in 'act+ in its %ands+ and resistance *as
no lon&er "ossible# T%e %i&%er orders sub)itted *it%out a )ur)ur and *it%out a stru&&le to an evil *%ic% *as
t%ence'ort% inevitable# T%e ordinary 'ate o' 'allin& "o*ers a*aited t%e)6 eac% o' t%eir several )e)bers 'ollo*ed
%is o*n interests6 and as it *as i)"ossible to *rin& t%e "o*er 'ro) t%e %ands o' a "eo"le *%ic% t%ey did not
detest su''iciently to brave+ t%eir only ai) *as to secure its &ood1*ill at any "rice# T%e )ost de)ocratic la*s
*ere consequently voted by t%e very )en *%ose interests t%ey i)"aired6 and t%us+ alt%ou&% t%e %i&%er classes
did not excite t%e "assions o' t%e "eo"le a&ainst t%eir order+ t%ey accelerated t%e triu)"% o' t%e ne* state o'
t%in&s6 so t%at by a sin&ular c%an&e t%e de)ocratic i)"ulse *as 'ound to be )ost irresistible in t%e very !tates
*%ere t%e aristocracy %ad t%e 'ir)est %old# T%e !tate o' Maryland+ *%ic% %ad been 'ounded by )en o' ran+ *as
t%e 'irst to "roclai) universal su''ra&e+ and to introduce t%e )ost de)ocratic 'or)s into t%e conduct o' its
&overn)ent#
,%en a nation )odi'ies t%e elective quali'ication+ it )ay easily be 'oreseen t%at sooner or later t%at quali'ication
*ill be entirely abolis%ed# T%ere is no )ore invariable rule in t%e %istory o' society@ t%e 'urt%er electoral ri&%ts
are extended+ t%e &reater is t%e need o' extendin& t%e)6 'or a'ter eac% concession t%e stren&t% o' t%e de)ocracy
increases+ and its de)ands increase *it% its stren&t%# T%e a)bition o' t%ose *%o are belo* t%e a""ointed rate is
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irritated in exact "ro"ortion to t%e &reat nu)ber o' t%ose *%o are above it# T%e exce"tion at last beco)es t%e
rule+ concession 'ollo*s concession+ and no sto" can be )ade s%ort o' universal su''ra&e#
At t%e "resent day t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le %as acquired+ in t%e (nited !tates+ all t%e
"ractical develo")ent *%ic% t%e i)a&ination can conceive# It is unencu)bered by t%ose 'ictions *%ic% %ave
been t%ro*n over it in ot%er countries+ and it a""ears in every "ossible 'or) accordin& to t%e exi&ency o' t%e
occasion# !o)eti)es t%e la*s are )ade by t%e "eo"le in a body+ as at At%ens6 and so)eti)es its re"resentatives+
c%osen by universal su''ra&e+ transact business in its na)e+ and al)ost under its i))ediate control#
In so)e countries a "o*er exists *%ic%+ t%ou&% it is in a de&ree 'orei&n to t%e social body+ directs it+ and 'orces it
to "ursue a certain trac# In ot%ers t%e rulin& 'orce is divided+ bein& "artly *it%in and "artly *it%out t%e rans o'
t%e "eo"le# But not%in& o' t%e ind is to be seen in t%e (nited !tates6 t%ere society &overns itsel' 'or itsel'# All
"o*er centres in its boso)6 and scarcely an individual is to be )eet *it% *%o *ould venture to conceive+ or+ still
less+ to ex"ress+ t%e idea o' seein& it else*%ere# T%e nation "artici"ates in t%e )ain& o' its la*s by t%e c%oice
o' its le&islators+ and in t%e execution o' t%e) by t%e c%oice o' t%e a&ents o' t%e executive &overn)ent6 it )ay
al)ost be said to &overn itsel'+ so 'eeble and so restricted is t%e s%are le't to t%e ad)inistration+ so little do t%e
aut%orities 'or&et t%eir "o"ular ori&in and t%e "o*er 'ro) *%ic% t%ey e)anate# Ka 35ootnote a@ !ee A""endix+
H#4
Chapter V
@ Necessity O' Exa)inin& T%e Condition O' T%e !tates11:art I
Necessity O' Exa)inin& T%e Condition O' T%e !tates Be'ore T%at O' T%e (nion At 8ar&e#
It is "ro"osed to exa)ine in t%e 'ollo*in& c%a"ter *%at is t%e 'or) o' &overn)ent establis%ed in A)erica on t%e
"rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le6 *%at are its resources+ its %indrances+ its advanta&es+ and its dan&ers#
T%e 'irst di''iculty *%ic% "resents itsel' arises 'ro) t%e co)"lex nature o' t%e constitution o' t%e (nited !tates+
*%ic% consists o' t*o distinct social structures+ connected and+ as it *ere+ encased one *it%in t%e ot%er6 t*o
&overn)ents+ co)"letely se"arate and al)ost inde"endent+ t%e one 'ul'illin& t%e ordinary duties and res"ondin&
to t%e daily and inde'inite calls o' a co))unity+ t%e ot%er circu)scribed *it%in certain li)its+ and only
exercisin& an exce"tional aut%ority over t%e &eneral interests o' t%e country# In s%ort+ t%ere are t*enty1'our s)all
soverei&n nations+ *%ose a&&lo)eration constitutes t%e body o' t%e (nion# To exa)ine t%e (nion be'ore *e
%ave studied t%e !tates *ould be to ado"t a )et%od 'illed *it% obstacles# T%e 'or) o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent o'
t%e (nited !tates *as t%e last *%ic% *as ado"ted6 and it is in 'act not%in& )ore t%an a )odi'ication or a
su))ary o' t%ose re"ublican "rinci"les *%ic% *ere current in t%e *%ole co))unity be'ore it existed+ and
inde"endently o' its existence# Moreover+ t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent is+ as I %ave 7ust observed+ t%e exce"tion6 t%e
9overn)ent o' t%e !tates is t%e rule# T%e aut%or *%o s%ould atte)"t to ex%ibit t%e "icture as a *%ole be'ore %e
%ad ex"lained its details *ould necessarily 'all into obscurity and re"etition#
T%e &reat "olitical "rinci"les *%ic% &overn A)erican society at t%is day undoubtedly too t%eir ori&in and t%eir
&ro*t% in t%e !tate# It is t%ere'ore necessary to beco)e acquainted *it% t%e !tate in order to "ossess a clue to t%e
re)ainder# T%e !tates *%ic% at "resent co)"ose t%e A)erican (nion all "resent t%e sa)e 'eatures+ as 'ar as
re&ards t%e external as"ect o' t%eir institutions# T%eir "olitical or ad)inistrative existence is centred in t%ree
'ocuses o' action+ *%ic% )ay not ina"tly be co)"ared to t%e di''erent nervous centres *%ic% convey )otion to
t%e %u)an body# T%e to*ns%i" is t%e lo*est in order+ t%en t%e county+ and lastly t%e !tate6 and I "ro"ose to
devote t%e 'ollo*in& c%a"ter to t%e exa)ination o' t%ese t%ree divisions#
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T%e A)erican !yste) O' To*ns%i"s And Munici"al Bodies
,%y t%e Aut%or be&ins t%e exa)ination o' t%e "olitical institutions *it% t%e to*ns%i"11Its existence in all
nations11Di''iculty o' establis%in& and "reservin& )unici"al inde"endence11Its i)"ortance11,%y t%e Aut%or %as
selected t%e to*ns%i" syste) o' Ne* En&land as t%e )ain to"ic o' %is discussion#
It is not undesi&nedly t%at I be&in t%is sub7ect *it% t%e To*ns%i"# T%e villa&e or to*ns%i" is t%e only association
*%ic% is so "er'ectly natural t%at *%erever a nu)ber o' )en are collected it see)s to constitute itsel'#
T%e to*n+ or tit%in&+ as t%e s)allest division o' a co))unity+ )ust necessarily exist in all nations+ *%atever t%eir
la*s and custo)s )ay be@ i' )an )aes )onarc%ies and establis%es re"ublics+ t%e 'irst association o' )anind
see)s constituted by t%e %and o' 9od# But alt%ou&% t%e existence o' t%e to*ns%i" is coeval *it% t%at o' )an+ its
liberties are not t%e less rarely res"ected and easily destroyed# A nation is al*ays able to establis% &reat "olitical
asse)blies+ because it %abitually contains a certain nu)ber o' individuals 'itted by t%eir talents+ i' not by t%eir
%abits+ 'or t%e direction o' a''airs# T%e to*ns%i" is+ on t%e contrary+ co)"osed o' coarser )aterials+ *%ic% are
less easily 'as%ioned by t%e le&islator# T%e di''iculties *%ic% attend t%e consolidation o' its inde"endence rat%er
au&)ent t%an di)inis% *it% t%e increasin& enli&%ten)ent o' t%e "eo"le# A %i&%ly civili-ed co))unity s"urns t%e
atte)"ts o' a local inde"endence+ is dis&usted at its nu)erous blunders+ and is a"t to des"air o' success be'ore
t%e ex"eri)ent is co)"leted# A&ain+ no i))unities are so ill "rotected 'ro) t%e encroac%)ents o' t%e su"re)e
"o*er as t%ose o' )unici"al bodies in &eneral@ t%ey are unable to stru&&le+ sin&le1%anded+ a&ainst a stron& or an
enter"risin& &overn)ent+ and t%ey cannot de'end t%eir cause *it% success unless it be identi'ied *it% t%e custo)s
o' t%e nation and su""orted by "ublic o"inion# T%us until t%e inde"endence o' to*ns%i"s is a)al&a)ated *it%
t%e )anners o' a "eo"le it is easily destroyed+ and it is only a'ter a lon& existence in t%e la*s t%at it can be t%us
a)al&a)ated# Munici"al 'reedo) is not t%e 'ruit o' %u)an device6 it is rarely created6 but it is+ as it *ere+
secretly and s"ontaneously en&endered in t%e )idst o' a se)i1barbarous state o' society# T%e constant action o'
t%e la*s and t%e national %abits+ "eculiar circu)stances+ and above all ti)e+ )ay consolidate it6 but t%ere is
certainly no nation on t%e continent o' Euro"e *%ic% %as ex"erienced its advanta&es# Nevert%eless local
asse)blies o' citi-ens constitute t%e stren&t% o' 'ree nations# To*n1)eetin&s are to liberty *%at "ri)ary sc%ools
are to science6 t%ey brin& it *it%in t%e "eo"leFs reac%+ t%ey teac% )en %o* to use and %o* to en7oy it# A nation
)ay establis% a syste) o' 'ree &overn)ent+ but *it%out t%e s"irit o' )unici"al institutions it cannot %ave t%e
s"irit o' liberty# T%e transient "assions and t%e interests o' an %our+ or t%e c%ance o' circu)stances+ )ay %ave
created t%e external 'or)s o' inde"endence6 but t%e des"otic tendency *%ic% %as been re"elled *ill+ sooner or
later+ inevitably rea""ear on t%e sur'ace#
In order to ex"lain to t%e reader t%e &eneral "rinci"les on *%ic% t%e "olitical or&ani-ation o' t%e counties and
to*ns%i"s o' t%e (nited !tates rests+ I %ave t%ou&%t it ex"edient to c%oose one o' t%e !tates o' Ne* En&land as
an exa)"le+ to exa)ine t%e )ec%anis) o' its constitution+ and t%en to cast a &eneral &lance over t%e country# T%e
to*ns%i" and t%e county are not or&ani-ed in t%e sa)e )anner in every "art o' t%e (nion6 it is+ %o*ever+ easy to
"erceive t%at t%e sa)e "rinci"les %ave &uided t%e 'or)ation o' bot% o' t%e) t%rou&%out t%e (nion# I a) inclined
to believe t%at t%ese "rinci"les %ave been carried 'urt%er in Ne* En&land t%an else*%ere+ and consequently t%at
t%ey o''er &reater 'acilities to t%e observations o' a stran&er# T%e institutions o' Ne* En&land 'or) a co)"lete
and re&ular *%ole6 t%ey %ave received t%e sanction o' ti)e+ t%ey %ave t%e su""ort o' t%e la*s+ and t%e still
stron&er su""ort o' t%e )anners o' t%e co))unity+ over *%ic% t%ey exercise t%e )ost "rodi&ious in'luence6 t%ey
consequently deserve our attention on every account#
8i)its O' T%e To*ns%i"
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T%e to*ns%i" o' Ne* En&land is a division *%ic% stands bet*een t%e co))une and t%e canton o' 5rance+ and
*%ic% corres"onds in &eneral to t%e En&lis% tit%in&+ or to*n# Its avera&e "o"ulation is 'ro) t*o to t%ree
t%ousand6 Ka so t%at+ on t%e one %and+ t%e interests o' its in%abitants are not liely to con'lict+ and+ on t%e ot%er+
)en ca"able o' conductin& its a''airs are al*ays to be 'ound a)on& its citi-ens#
35ootnote a@ In ./0< t%ere *ere 0<C to*ns%i"s in t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts+ and ;.<+<.G in%abitants+ *%ic%
&ives an avera&e o' about A+<<< in%abitants to eac% to*ns%i"#4
Aut%orities O' T%e To*ns%i" In Ne* En&land
T%e "eo"le t%e source o' all "o*er %ere as else*%ere11Mana&es its o*n a''airs11No cor"oration11T%e &reater "art
o' t%e aut%ority vested in t%e %ands o' t%e !elect)en11Ho* t%e !elect)en act11To*n1)eetin&11Enu)eration o'
t%e "ublic o''icers o' t%e to*ns%i"11Obli&atory and re)unerated 'unctions#
In t%e to*ns%i"+ as *ell as every*%ere else+ t%e "eo"le is t%e only source o' "o*er6 but in no sta&e o'
&overn)ent does t%e body o' citi-ens exercise a )ore i))ediate in'luence# In A)erica t%e "eo"le is a )aster
*%ose exi&encies de)and obedience to t%e ut)ost li)its o' "ossibility#
In Ne* En&land t%e )a7ority acts by re"resentatives in t%e conduct o' t%e "ublic business o' t%e !tate6 but i' suc%
an arran&e)ent be necessary in &eneral a''airs+ in t%e to*ns%i"s+ *%ere t%e le&islative and ad)inistrative action
o' t%e &overn)ent is in )ore i))ediate contact *it% t%e sub7ect+ t%e syste) o' re"resentation is not ado"ted#
T%ere is no cor"oration6 but t%e body o' electors+ a'ter %avin& desi&nated its )a&istrates+ directs t%e) in
everyt%in& t%at exceeds t%e si)"le and ordinary executive business o' t%e !tate# Kb
35ootnote b@ T%e sa)e rules are not a""licable to t%e &reat to*ns+ *%ic% &enerally %ave a )ayor+ and a
cor"oration divided into t*o bodies6 t%is+ %o*ever+ is an exce"tion *%ic% requires t%e sanction o' a la*#11!ee t%e
Act o' 5ebruary AA+ ./AA+ 'or a""ointin& t%e aut%orities o' t%e city o' Boston# It 'requently %a""ens t%at s)all
to*ns as *ell as cities are sub7ect to a "eculiar ad)inistration# In ./0A+ .<G to*ns%i"s in t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor
*ere &overned in t%is )anner#11,illia)sF Re&ister#4
T%is state o' t%in&s is so contrary to our ideas+ and so di''erent 'ro) our custo)s+ t%at it is necessary 'or )e to
adduce so)e exa)"les to ex"lain it t%orou&%ly#
T%e "ublic duties in t%e to*ns%i" are extre)ely nu)erous and )inutely divided+ as *e s%all see 'urt%er on6 but
t%e lar&er "ro"ortion o' ad)inistrative "o*er is vested in t%e %ands o' a s)all nu)ber o' individuals+ called 2t%e
!elect)en#2 Kc T%e &eneral la*s o' t%e !tate i)"ose a certain nu)ber o' obli&ations on t%e select)en+ *%ic%
t%ey )ay 'ul'il *it%out t%e aut%ori-ation o' t%e body t%ey re"resent+ but *%ic% t%ey can only ne&lect on t%eir
o*n res"onsibility# T%e la* o' t%e !tate obli&es t%e)+ 'or instance+ to dra* u" t%e list o' electors in t%eir
to*ns%i"s6 and i' t%ey o)it t%is "art o' t%eir 'unctions+ t%ey are &uilty o' a )isde)eanor# In all t%e a''airs+
%o*ever+ *%ic% are deter)ined by t%e to*n1)eetin&+ t%e select)en are t%e or&ans o' t%e "o"ular )andate+ as in
5rance t%e Maire executes t%e decree o' t%e )unici"al council# T%ey usually act u"on t%eir o*n res"onsibility+
and )erely "ut in "ractice "rinci"les *%ic% %ave been "reviously reco&ni-ed by t%e )a7ority# But i' any c%an&e
is to be introduced in t%e existin& state o' t%in&s+ or i' t%ey *is% to undertae any ne* enter"rise+ t%ey are
obli&ed to re'er to t%e source o' t%eir "o*er# I'+ 'or instance+ a sc%ool is to be establis%ed+ t%e select)en convoe
t%e *%ole body o' t%e electors on a certain day at an a""ointed "lace6 t%ey ex"lain t%e ur&ency o' t%e case6 t%ey
&ive t%eir o"inion on t%e )eans o' satis'yin& it+ on t%e "robable ex"ense+ and t%e site *%ic% see)s to be )ost
'avorable# T%e )eetin& is consulted on t%ese several "oints6 it ado"ts t%e "rinci"le+ )ars out t%e site+ votes t%e
rate+ and con'ides t%e execution o' its resolution to t%e select)en#
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35ootnote c@ T%ree select)en are a""ointed in t%e s)all to*ns%i"s+ and nine in t%e lar&e ones# !ee 2T%e To*n1
O''icer+2 "# ./;# !ee also t%e "rinci"al la*s o' t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts relative to t%e select)en@
Act o' 5ebruary A<+ .=/;+ vol# i# "# A.B6 5ebruary AG+ .=B;+ vol# i# "# G//6 Marc% =+ ./<.+ vol# ii# "# GC6 $une .;+
.=BC+ vol# i# "# G=C6 Marc% .A+ ./</+ vol# ii# "# ./;6 5ebruary A/+ .=/=+ vol# i# "# 0<A6 $une AA+ .=B=+ vol# i# "#
C0B#4
T%e select)en %ave alone t%e ri&%t o' callin& a to*n1)eetin&+ but t%ey )ay be requested to do so@ i' ten citi-ens
are desirous o' sub)ittin& a ne* "ro7ect to t%e assent o' t%e to*ns%i"+ t%ey )ay de)and a &eneral convocation
o' t%e in%abitants6 t%e select)en are obli&ed to co)"ly+ but t%ey %ave only t%e ri&%t o' "residin& at t%e )eetin&#
Kd
35ootnote d@ !ee 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# i# "# .C<+ Act o' Marc% AC+ .=/;#4
T%e select)en are elected every year in t%e )ont% o' A"ril or o' May# T%e to*n1)eetin& c%ooses at t%e sa)e
ti)e a nu)ber o' ot%er )unici"al )a&istrates+ *%o are entrusted *it% i)"ortant ad)inistrative 'unctions# T%e
assessors rate t%e to*ns%i"6 t%e collectors receive t%e rate# A constable is a""ointed to ee" t%e "eace+ to *atc%
t%e streets+ and to 'or*ard t%e execution o' t%e la*s6 t%e to*n1cler records all t%e to*n votes+ orders+ &rants+
birt%s+ deat%s+ and )arria&es6 t%e treasurer ee"s t%e 'unds6 t%e overseer o' t%e "oor "er'or)s t%e di''icult tas o'
su"erintendin& t%e action o' t%e "oor1la*s6 co))ittee1)en are a""ointed to attend to t%e sc%ools and to "ublic
instruction6 and t%e road1surveyors+ *%o tae care o' t%e &reater and lesser t%orou&%'ares o' t%e to*ns%i"+
co)"lete t%e list o' t%e "rinci"al 'unctionaries# T%ey are+ %o*ever+ still 'urt%er subdivided6 and a)on&st t%e
)unici"al o''icers are to be 'ound "aris% co))issioners+ *%o audit t%e ex"enses o' "ublic *ors%i"6 di''erent
classes o' ins"ectors+ so)e o' *%o) are to direct t%e citi-ens in case o' 'ire6 tit%in&1)en+ listers+ %ay*ards+
c%i)ney1vie*ers+ 'ence1vie*ers to )aintain t%e bounds o' "ro"erty+ ti)ber1)easurers+ and sealers o' *ei&%ts
and )easures# Ke
35ootnote e@ All t%ese )a&istrates actually exist6 t%eir di''erent 'unctions are all detailed in a boo called 2T%e
To*n1O''icer+2 by Isaac 9ood*in+ ,orcester+ ./A=6 and in t%e 2Collection o' t%e 9eneral 8a*s o'
Massac%usetts+2 0 vols#+ Boston+ ./A0#4
T%ere are nineteen "rinci"al o''icers in a to*ns%i"# Every in%abitant is constrained+ on t%e "ain o' bein& 'ined+ to
undertae t%ese di''erent 'unctions6 *%ic%+ %o*ever+ are al)ost all "aid+ in order t%at t%e "oorer citi-ens )ay be
able to &ive u" t%eir ti)e *it%out loss# In &eneral t%e A)erican syste) is not to &rant a 'ixed salary to its
'unctionaries# Every service %as its "rice+ and t%ey are re)unerated in "ro"ortion to *%at t%ey %ave done#
Existence O' T%e To*ns%i"
Every one t%e best 7ud&e o' %is o*n interest11Corollary o' t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le11
A""lication o' t%ose doctrines in t%e to*ns%i"s o' A)erica11T%e to*ns%i" o' Ne* En&land is soverei&n in all
t%at concerns itsel' alone@ sub7ect to t%e !tate in all ot%er )atters11Bond o' t%e to*ns%i" and t%e !tate11In 5rance
t%e 9overn)ent lends its a&ent to t%e Co))une11In A)erica t%e reverse occurs#
I %ave already observed t%at t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le &overns t%e *%ole "olitical syste) o'
t%e An&lo1A)ericans# Every "a&e o' t%is boo *ill a''ord ne* instances o' t%e sa)e doctrine# In t%e nations by
*%ic% t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le is reco&ni-ed every individual "ossesses an equal s%are o' "o*er+ and
"artici"ates alie in t%e &overn)ent o' t%e !tate# Every individual is+ t%ere'ore+ su""osed to be as *ell in'or)ed+
as virtuous+ and as stron& as any o' %is 'ello*1citi-ens# He obeys t%e &overn)ent+ not because %e is in'erior to t%e
aut%orities *%ic% conduct it+ or t%at %e is less ca"able t%an %is nei&%bor o' &overnin& %i)sel'+ but because %e
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acno*led&es t%e utility o' an association *it% %is 'ello*1)en+ and because %e no*s t%at no suc% association
can exist *it%out a re&ulatin& 'orce# I' %e be a sub7ect in all t%at concerns t%e )utual relations o' citi-ens+ %e is
'ree and res"onsible to 9od alone 'or all t%at concerns %i)sel'# Hence arises t%e )axi) t%at every one is t%e best
and t%e sole 7ud&e o' %is o*n "rivate interest+ and t%at society %as no ri&%t to control a )anFs actions+ unless t%ey
are "re7udicial to t%e co))on *eal+ or unless t%e co))on *eal de)ands %is co1o"eration# T%is doctrine is
universally ad)itted in t%e (nited !tates# I s%all %erea'ter exa)ine t%e &eneral in'luence *%ic% it exercises on
t%e ordinary actions o' li'e6 I a) no* s"eain& o' t%e nature o' )unici"al bodies#
T%e to*ns%i"+ taen as a *%ole+ and in relation to t%e &overn)ent o' t%e country+ )ay be looed u"on as an
individual to *%o) t%e t%eory I %ave 7ust alluded to is a""lied# Munici"al inde"endence is t%ere'ore a natural
consequence o' t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le in t%e (nited !tates@ all t%e A)erican re"ublics
reco&ni-e it )ore or less6 but circu)stances %ave "eculiarly 'avored its &ro*t% in Ne* En&land#
In t%is "art o' t%e (nion t%e i)"ulsion o' "olitical activity *as &iven in t%e to*ns%i"s6 and it )ay al)ost be said
t%at eac% o' t%e) ori&inally 'or)ed an inde"endent nation# ,%en t%e Lin&s o' En&land asserted t%eir su"re)acy+
t%ey *ere contented to assu)e t%e central "o*er o' t%e !tate# T%e to*ns%i"s o' Ne* En&land re)ained as t%ey
*ere be'ore6 and alt%ou&% t%ey are no* sub7ect to t%e !tate+ t%ey *ere at 'irst scarcely de"endent u"on it# It is
i)"ortant to re)e)ber t%at t%ey %ave not been invested *it% "rivile&es+ but t%at t%ey %ave+ on t%e contrary+
'or'eited a "ortion o' t%eir inde"endence to t%e !tate# T%e to*ns%i"s are only subordinate to t%e !tate in t%ose
interests *%ic% I s%all ter) social+ as t%ey are co))on to all t%e citi-ens# T%ey are inde"endent in all t%at
concerns t%e)selves6 and a)on&st t%e in%abitants o' Ne* En&land I believe t%at not a )an is to be 'ound *%o
*ould acno*led&e t%at t%e !tate %as any ri&%t to inter'ere in t%eir local interests# T%e to*ns o' Ne* En&land
buy and sell+ sue or are sued+ au&)ent or di)inis% t%eir rates+ *it%out t%e sli&%test o""osition on t%e "art o' t%e
ad)inistrative aut%ority o' t%e !tate#
T%ey are bound+ %o*ever+ to co)"ly *it% t%e de)ands o' t%e co))unity# I' t%e !tate is in need o' )oney+ a
to*n can neit%er &ive nor *it%%old t%e su""lies# I' t%e !tate "ro7ects a road+ t%e to*ns%i" cannot re'use to let it
cross its territory6 i' a "olice re&ulation is )ade by t%e !tate+ it )ust be en'orced by t%e to*n# A uni'or) syste)
o' instruction is or&ani-ed all over t%e country+ and every to*n is bound to establis% t%e sc%ools *%ic% t%e la*
ordains# In s"eain& o' t%e ad)inistration o' t%e (nited !tates I s%all %ave occasion to "oint out t%e )eans by
*%ic% t%e to*ns%i"s are co)"elled to obey in t%ese di''erent cases@ I %ere )erely s%o* t%e existence o' t%e
obli&ation# !trict as t%is obli&ation is+ t%e &overn)ent o' t%e !tate i)"oses it in "rinci"le only+ and in its
"er'or)ance t%e to*ns%i" resu)es all its inde"endent ri&%ts# T%us+ taxes are voted by t%e !tate+ but t%ey are
levied and collected by t%e to*ns%i"6 t%e existence o' a sc%ool is obli&atory+ but t%e to*ns%i" builds+ "ays+ and
su"erintends it# In 5rance t%e !tate1collector receives t%e local i)"osts6 in A)erica t%e to*n1collector receives
t%e taxes o' t%e !tate# T%us t%e 5renc% 9overn)ent lends its a&ents to t%e co))une6 in A)erica t%e to*ns%i" is
t%e a&ent o' t%e 9overn)ent# T%is 'act alone s%o*s t%e extent o' t%e di''erences *%ic% exist bet*een t%e t*o
nations#
:ublic !"irit O' T%e To*ns%i"s O' Ne* En&land
Ho* t%e to*ns%i" o' Ne* En&land *ins t%e a''ections o' its in%abitants11Di''iculty o' creatin& local "ublic s"irit
in Euro"e11T%e ri&%ts and duties o' t%e A)erican to*ns%i" 'avorable to it11C%aracteristics o' %o)e in t%e (nited
!tates11Mani'estations o' "ublic s"irit in Ne* En&land11Its %a""y e''ects#
In A)erica+ not only do )unici"al bodies exist+ but t%ey are e"t alive and su""orted by "ublic s"irit# T%e
to*ns%i" o' Ne* En&land "ossesses t*o advanta&es *%ic% in'allibly secure t%e attentive interest o' )anind+
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na)ely+ inde"endence and aut%ority# Its s"%ere is indeed s)all and li)ited+ but *it%in t%at s"%ere its action is
unrestrained6 and its inde"endence &ives to it a real i)"ortance *%ic% its extent and "o"ulation )ay not al*ays
ensure#
It is to be re)e)bered t%at t%e a''ections o' )en &enerally lie on t%e side o' aut%ority# :atriotis) is not durable
in a conquered nation# T%e Ne* En&lander is attac%ed to %is to*ns%i"+ not only because %e *as born in it+ but
because it constitutes a social body o' *%ic% %e is a )e)ber+ and *%ose &overn)ent clai)s and deserves t%e
exercise o' %is sa&acity# In Euro"e t%e absence o' local "ublic s"irit is a 'requent sub7ect o' re&ret to t%ose *%o
are in "o*er6 everyone a&rees t%at t%ere is no surer &uarantee o' order and tranquility+ and yet not%in& is )ore
di''icult to create# I' t%e )unici"al bodies *ere )ade "o*er'ul and inde"endent+ t%e aut%orities o' t%e nation
)i&%t be disunited and t%e "eace o' t%e country endan&ered# Yet+ *it%out "o*er and inde"endence+ a to*n )ay
contain &ood sub7ects+ but it can %ave no active citi-ens# Anot%er i)"ortant 'act is t%at t%e to*ns%i" o' Ne*
En&land is so constituted as to excite t%e *ar)est o' %u)an a''ections+ *it%out arousin& t%e a)bitious "assions
o' t%e %eart o' )an# T%e o''icers o' t%e country are not elected+ and t%eir aut%ority is very li)ited# Even t%e !tate
is only a second1rate co))unity+ *%ose tranquil and obscure ad)inistration o''ers no induce)ent su''icient to
dra* )en a*ay 'ro) t%e circle o' t%eir interests into t%e tur)oil o' "ublic a''airs# T%e 'ederal &overn)ent
con'ers "o*er and %onor on t%e )en *%o conduct it6 but t%ese individuals can never be very nu)erous# T%e %i&%
station o' t%e :residency can only be reac%ed at an advanced "eriod o' li'e+ and t%e ot%er 'ederal 'unctionaries are
&enerally )en *%o %ave been 'avored by 'ortune+ or distin&uis%ed in so)e ot%er career# !uc% cannot be t%e
"er)anent ai) o' t%e a)bitious# But t%e to*ns%i" serves as a centre 'or t%e desire o' "ublic estee)+ t%e *ant o'
excitin& interests+ and t%e taste 'or aut%ority and "o"ularity+ in t%e )idst o' t%e ordinary relations o' li'e6 and t%e
"assions *%ic% co))only e)broil society c%an&e t%eir c%aracter *%en t%ey 'ind a vent so near t%e do)estic
%eart% and t%e 'a)ily circle#
In t%e A)erican !tates "o*er %as been disse)inated *it% ad)irable sill 'or t%e "ur"ose o' interestin& t%e
&reatest "ossible nu)ber o' "ersons in t%e co))on *eal# Inde"endently o' t%e electors *%o are 'ro) ti)e to
ti)e called into action+ t%e body "olitic is divided into innu)erable 'unctionaries and o''icers+ *%o all+ in t%eir
several s"%eres+ re"resent t%e sa)e "o*er'ul *%ole in *%ose na)e t%ey act# T%e local ad)inistration t%us
a''ords an un'ailin& source o' "ro'it and interest to a vast nu)ber o' individuals#
T%e A)erican syste)+ *%ic% divides t%e local aut%ority a)on& so )any citi-ens+ does not scru"le to )ulti"ly t%e
'unctions o' t%e to*n o''icers# 5or in t%e (nited !tates it is believed+ and *it% trut%+ t%at "atriotis) is a ind o'
devotion *%ic% is stren&t%ened by ritual observance# In t%is )anner t%e activity o' t%e to*ns%i" is continually
"erce"tible6 it is daily )ani'ested in t%e 'ul'il)ent o' a duty or t%e exercise o' a ri&%t+ and a constant t%ou&%
&entle )otion is t%us e"t u" in society *%ic% ani)ates *it%out disturbin& it#
T%e A)erican attac%es %i)sel' to %is %o)e as t%e )ountaineer clin&s to %is %ills+ because t%e c%aracteristic
'eatures o' %is country are t%ere )ore distinctly )ared t%an else*%ere# T%e existence o' t%e to*ns%i"s o' Ne*
En&land is in &eneral a %a""y one# T%eir &overn)ent is suited to t%eir tastes+ and c%osen by t%e)selves# In t%e
)idst o' t%e "ro'ound "eace and &eneral co)'ort *%ic% rei&n in A)erica t%e co))otions o' )unici"al discord
are un'requent# T%e conduct o' local business is easy# T%e "olitical education o' t%e "eo"le %as lon& been
co)"lete6 say rat%er t%at it *as co)"lete *%en t%e "eo"le 'irst set 'oot u"on t%e soil# In Ne* En&land no
tradition exists o' a distinction o' rans6 no "ortion o' t%e co))unity is te)"ted to o""ress t%e re)ainder6 and
t%e abuses *%ic% )ay in7ure isolated individuals are 'or&otten in t%e &eneral content)ent *%ic% "revails# I' t%e
&overn)ent is de'ective >and it *ould no doubt be easy to "oint out its de'iciencies?+ t%e 'act t%at it really
e)anates 'ro) t%ose it &overns+ and t%at it acts+ eit%er ill or *ell+ casts t%e "rotectin& s"ell o' a "arental "ride
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over its 'aults# No ter) o' co)"arison disturbs t%e satis'action o' t%e citi-en@ En&land 'or)erly &overned t%e
)ass o' t%e colonies+ but t%e "eo"le *as al*ays soverei&n in t%e to*ns%i" *%ere its rule is not only an ancient
but a "ri)itive state#
T%e native o' Ne* En&land is attac%ed to %is to*ns%i" because it is inde"endent and 'ree@ %is co1o"eration in its
a''airs ensures %is attac%)ent to its interest6 t%e *ell1bein& it a''ords %i) secures %is a''ection6 and its *el'are is
t%e ai) o' %is a)bition and o' %is 'uture exertions@ %e taes a "art in every occurrence in t%e "lace6 %e "ractises
t%e art o' &overn)ent in t%e s)all s"%ere *it%in %is reac%6 %e accusto)s %i)sel' to t%ose 'or)s *%ic% can alone
ensure t%e steady "ro&ress o' liberty6 %e i)bibes t%eir s"irit6 %e acquires a taste 'or order+ co)"re%ends t%e union
or t%e balance o' "o*ers+ and collects clear "ractical notions on t%e nature o' %is duties and t%e extent o' %is
ri&%ts#
T%e Counties O' Ne* En&land
T%e division o' t%e countries in A)erica %as considerable analo&y *it% t%at o' t%e arrondisse)ents o' 5rance#
T%e li)its o' t%e counties are arbitrarily laid do*n+ and t%e various districts *%ic% t%ey contain %ave no
necessary connection+ no co))on tradition or natural sy)"at%y6 t%eir ob7ect is si)"ly to 'acilitate t%e
ad)inistration o' 7ustice#
T%e extent o' t%e to*ns%i" *as too s)all to contain a syste) o' 7udicial institutions6 eac% county %as+ %o*ever+ a
court o' 7ustice+ K' a s%eri'' to execute its decrees+ and a "rison 'or cri)inals# T%ere are certain *ants *%ic% are
'elt alie by all t%e to*ns%i"s o' a county6 it is t%ere'ore natural t%at t%ey s%ould be satis'ied by a central
aut%ority# In t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts t%is aut%ority is vested in t%e %ands o' several )a&istrates+ *%o are
a""ointed by t%e 9overnor o' t%e !tate+ *it% t%e advice K& o' %is council# K% T%e o''icers o' t%e county %ave only
a li)ited and occasional aut%ority+ *%ic% is a""licable to certain "redeter)ined cases# T%e !tate and t%e
to*ns%i"s "ossess all t%e "o*er requisite to conduct "ublic business# T%e bud&et o' t%e county is dra*n u" by its
o''icers+ and is voted by t%e le&islature+ but t%ere is no asse)bly *%ic% directly or indirectly re"resents t%e
county# It %as+ t%ere'ore+ "ro"erly s"eain&+ no "olitical existence#
35ootnote '@ !ee t%e Act o' 5ebruary .G+ ./A.+ 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# i# "# CC.#4
35ootnote &@ !ee t%e Act o' 5ebruary A<+ ./.B+ 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# ii# "# GBG#4
35ootnote %@ T%e council o' t%e 9overnor is an elective body#4 A t*o'old tendency )ay be discerned in t%e
A)erican constitutions+ *%ic% i)"els t%e le&islator to centrali-e t%e le&islative and to dis"erse t%e executive
"o*er# T%e to*ns%i" o' Ne* En&land %as in itsel' an indestructible ele)ent o' inde"endence6 and t%is distinct
existence could only be 'ictitiously introduced into t%e county+ *%ere its utility %as not been 'elt# But all t%e
to*ns%i"s united %ave but one re"resentation+ *%ic% is t%e !tate+ t%e centre o' t%e national aut%ority@ beyond t%e
action o' t%e to*ns%i" and t%at o' t%e nation+ not%in& can be said to exist but t%e in'luence o' individual exertion#
Ad)inistration In Ne* En&land
Ad)inistration not "erceived in A)erica11,%yI11T%e Euro"eans believe t%at liberty is "ro)oted by de"rivin&
t%e social aut%ority o' so)e o' its ri&%ts6 t%e A)ericans+ by dividin& its exercise11Al)ost all t%e ad)inistration
con'ined to t%e to*ns%i"+ and divided a)on&st t%e to*n1o''icers11No trace o' an ad)inistrative body to be
"erceived+ eit%er in t%e to*ns%i" or above it11T%e reason o' t%is11Ho* it %a""ens t%at t%e ad)inistration o' t%e
!tate is uni'or)11,%o is e)"o*ered to en'orce t%e obedience o' t%e to*ns%i" and t%e county to t%e la*11T%e
introduction o' 7udicial "o*er into t%e ad)inistration11Consequence o' t%e extension o' t%e elective "rinci"le to
all 'unctionaries11T%e $ustice o' t%e :eace in Ne* En&land11By *%o) a""ointed11County o''icer@ ensures t%e
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ad)inistration o' t%e to*ns%i"s11Court o' !essions11Its action11Ri&%t o' ins"ection and indict)ent disse)inated
lie t%e ot%er ad)inistrative 'unctions11In'or)ers encoura&ed by t%e division o' 'ines#
Not%in& is )ore striin& to an Euro"ean traveller in t%e (nited !tates t%an t%e absence o' *%at *e ter) t%e
9overn)ent+ or t%e Ad)inistration# ,ritten la*s exist in A)erica+ and one sees t%at t%ey are daily executed6 but
alt%ou&% everyt%in& is in )otion+ t%e %and *%ic% &ives t%e i)"ulse to t%e social )ac%ine can no*%ere be
discovered# Nevert%eless+ as all "eo"les are obli&ed to %ave recourse to certain &ra))atical 'or)s+ *%ic% are t%e
'oundation o' %u)an lan&ua&e+ in order to ex"ress t%eir t%ou&%ts6 so all co))unities are obli&ed to secure t%eir
existence by sub)ittin& to a certain dose o' aut%ority+ *it%out *%ic% t%ey 'all a "rey to anarc%y# T%is aut%ority
)ay be distributed in several *ays+ but it )ust al*ays exist so)e*%ere#
T%ere are t*o )et%ods o' di)inis%in& t%e 'orce o' aut%ority in a nation@ T%e 'irst is to *eaen t%e su"re)e
"o*er in its very "rinci"le+ by 'orbiddin& or "reventin& society 'ro) actin& in its o*n de'ence under certain
circu)stances# To *eaen aut%ority in t%is )anner is *%at is &enerally ter)ed in Euro"e to lay t%e 'oundations
o' 'reedo)# T%e second )anner o' di)inis%in& t%e in'luence o' aut%ority does not consist in stri""in& society o'
any o' its ri&%ts+ nor in "araly-in& its e''orts+ but in distributin& t%e exercise o' its "rivile&es in various %ands+
and in )ulti"lyin& 'unctionaries+ to eac% o' *%o) t%e de&ree o' "o*er necessary 'or %i) to "er'or) %is duty is
entrusted# T%ere )ay be nations *%o) t%is distribution o' social "o*ers )i&%t lead to anarc%y6 but in itsel' it is
not anarc%ical# T%e action o' aut%ority is indeed t%us rendered less irresistible and less "erilous+ but it is not
totally su""ressed#
T%e revolution o' t%e (nited !tates *as t%e result o' a )ature and di&ni'ied taste 'or 'reedo)+ and not o' a va&ue
or ill1de'ined cravin& 'or inde"endence# It contracted no alliance *it% t%e turbulent "assions o' anarc%y6 but its
course *as )ared+ on t%e contrary+ by an attac%)ent to *%atever *as la*'ul and orderly#
It *as never assu)ed in t%e (nited !tates t%at t%e citi-en o' a 'ree country %as a ri&%t to do *%atever %e "leases6
on t%e contrary+ social obli&ations *ere t%ere i)"osed u"on %i) )ore various t%an any*%ere else# No idea *as
ever entertained o' attacin& t%e "rinci"les or o' contestin& t%e ri&%ts o' society6 but t%e exercise o' its aut%ority
*as divided+ to t%e end t%at t%e o''ice )i&%t be "o*er'ul and t%e o''icer insi&ni'icant+ and t%at t%e co))unity
s%ould be at once re&ulated and 'ree# In no country in t%e *orld does t%e la* %old so absolute a lan&ua&e as in
A)erica+ and in no country is t%e ri&%t o' a""lyin& it vested in so )any %ands# T%e ad)inistrative "o*er in t%e
(nited !tates "resents not%in& eit%er central or %ierarc%ical in its constitution+ *%ic% accounts 'or its "assin&+
un"erceived# T%e "o*er exists+ but its re"resentative is not to be "erceived#
,e %ave already seen t%at t%e inde"endent to*ns%i"s o' Ne* En&land "rotect t%eir o*n "rivate interests6 and t%e
)unici"al )a&istrates are t%e "ersons to *%o) t%e execution o' t%e la*s o' t%e !tate is )ost 'requently
entrusted# Ki Besides t%e &eneral la*s+ t%e !tate so)eti)es "asses &eneral "olice re&ulations6 but )ore
co))only t%e to*ns%i"s and to*n o''icers+ con7ointly *it% 7ustices o' t%e "eace+ re&ulate t%e )inor details o'
social li'e+ accordin& to t%e necessities o' t%e di''erent localities+ and "ro)ul&ate suc% enact)ents as concern t%e
%ealt% o' t%e co))unity+ and t%e "eace as *ell as )orality o' t%e citi-ens# K7 8astly+ t%ese )unici"al )a&istrates
"rovide+ o' t%eir o*n accord and *it%out any dele&ated "o*ers+ 'or t%ose un'oreseen e)er&encies *%ic%
'requently occur in society# K
35ootnote i@ !ee 2T%e To*n1O''icer+2 es"ecially at t%e *ords !elect)en+ Assessors+ Collectors+ !c%ools+
!urveyors o' Hi&%*ays# I tae one exa)"le in a t%ousand@ t%e !tate "ro%ibits travellin& on t%e !unday6 t%e
tyt%in&1)en+ *%o are to*n1o''icers+ are s"ecially c%ar&ed to ee" *atc% and to execute t%e la*# !ee t%e 8a*s o'
Massac%usetts+ vol# i# "# G.<#
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T%e select)en dra* u" t%e lists o' electors 'or t%e election o' t%e 9overnor+ and trans)it t%e result o' t%e ballot
to t%e !ecretary o' t%e !tate# !ee Act o' 5ebruary AG+ .=B;@ Id#+ vol# i# "# G//#4
35ootnote 7@ T%us+ 'or instance+ t%e select)en aut%ori-e t%e construction o' drains+ "oint out t%e "ro"er sites 'or
slau&%ter1%ouses and ot%er trades *%ic% are a nuisance to t%e nei&%bor%ood# !ee t%e Act o' $une =+ .=/C@ Id#+
vol# i# "# .B0#4
35ootnote @ T%e select)en tae )easures 'or t%e security o' t%e "ublic in case o' conta&ious diseases+ con7ointly
*it% t%e 7ustices o' t%e "eace# !ee Act o' $une AA+ .=B=+ vol# i# "# C0B#4
It results 'ro) *%at *e %ave said t%at in t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts t%e ad)inistrative aut%ority is al)ost entirely
restricted to t%e to*ns%i"+ Kl but t%at it is distributed a)on& a &reat nu)ber o' individuals# In t%e 5renc%
co))une t%ere is "ro"erly but one o''icial 'unctionary+ na)ely+ t%e Maire6 and in Ne* En&land *e %ave seen
t%at t%ere are nineteen# T%ese nineteen 'unctionaries do not in &eneral de"end u"on one anot%er# T%e la*
care'ully "rescribes a circle o' action to eac% o' t%ese )a&istrates6 and *it%in t%at circle t%ey %ave an entire ri&%t
to "er'or) t%eir 'unctions inde"endently o' any ot%er aut%ority# Above t%e to*ns%i" scarcely any trace o' a
series o' o''icial di&nitaries is to be 'ound# It so)eti)es %a""ens t%at t%e county o''icers alter a decision o' t%e
to*ns%i"s or to*n )a&istrates+ K) but in &eneral t%e aut%orities o' t%e county %ave no ri&%t to inter'ere *it% t%e
aut%orities o' t%e to*ns%i"+ Kn exce"t in suc% )atters as concern t%e county#
35ootnote l@ I say al)ost+ 'or t%ere are various circu)stances in t%e annals o' a to*ns%i" *%ic% are re&ulated by
t%e 7ustice o' t%e "eace in %is individual ca"acity+ or by t%e 7ustices o' t%e "eace asse)bled in t%e c%ie' to*n o'
t%e county6 t%us licenses are &ranted by t%e 7ustices# !ee t%e Act o' 5ebruary A/+ .=/=+ vol# i# "# AB=#4
35ootnote )@ T%us licenses are only &ranted to suc% "ersons as can "roduce a certi'icate o' &ood conduct 'ro)
t%e select)en# I' t%e select)en re'use to &ive t%e certi'icate+ t%e "arty )ay a""eal to t%e 7ustices asse)bled in t%e
Court o' !essions+ and t%ey )ay &rant t%e license# !ee Act o' Marc% .A+ ./</+ vol# ii# "# ./;#
T%e to*ns%i"s %ave t%e ri&%t to )ae by1la*s+ and to en'orce t%e) by 'ines *%ic% are 'ixed by la*6 but t%ese
by1la*s )ust be a""roved by t%e Court o' !essions# !ee Act o' Marc% A0+ .=/;+ vol# i# "# ACG#4
35ootnote n@ In Massac%usetts t%e county )a&istrates are 'requently called u"on to investi&ate t%e acts o' t%e
to*n )a&istrates6 but it *ill be s%o*n 'urt%er on t%at t%is investi&ation is a consequence+ not o' t%eir
ad)inistrative+ but o' t%eir 7udicial "o*er#4
T%e )a&istrates o' t%e to*ns%i"+ as *ell as t%ose o' t%e county+ are bound to co))unicate t%eir acts to t%e
central &overn)ent in a very s)all nu)ber o' "redeter)ined cases# Ko But t%e central &overn)ent is not
re"resented by an individual *%ose business it is to "ublis% "olice re&ulations and ordinances en'orcin& t%e
execution o' t%e la*s6 to ee" u" a re&ular co))unication *it% t%e o''icers o' t%e to*ns%i" and t%e county6 to
ins"ect t%eir conduct+ to direct t%eir actions+ or to re"ri)and t%eir 'aults# T%ere is no "oint *%ic% serves as a
centre to t%e radii o' t%e ad)inistration#
35ootnote o@ T%e to*n co))ittees o' sc%ools are obli&ed to )ae an annual re"ort to t%e !ecretary o' t%e !tate
on t%e condition o' t%e sc%ool# !ee Act o' Marc% .<+ ./A=+ vol# iii# "# ./0#4
Chapter V
@ Necessity O' Exa)inin& T%e Condition O' T%e !tates11:art II
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,%at+ t%en+ is t%e uni'or) "lan on *%ic% t%e &overn)ent is conducted+ and %o* is t%e co)"liance o' t%e
counties and t%eir )a&istrates or t%e to*ns%i"s and t%eir o''icers en'orcedI In t%e !tates o' Ne* En&land t%e
le&islative aut%ority e)braces )ore sub7ects t%an it does in 5rance6 t%e le&islator "enetrates to t%e very core o'
t%e ad)inistration6 t%e la* descends to t%e )ost )inute details6 t%e sa)e enact)ent "rescribes t%e "rinci"le and
t%e )et%od o' its a""lication+ and t%us i)"oses a )ultitude o' strict and ri&orously de'ined obli&ations on t%e
secondary 'unctionaries o' t%e !tate# T%e consequence o' t%is is t%at i' all t%e secondary 'unctionaries o' t%e
ad)inistration con'or) to t%e la*+ society in all its branc%es "roceeds *it% t%e &reatest uni'or)ity@ t%e di''iculty
re)ains o' co)"ellin& t%e secondary 'unctionaries o' t%e ad)inistration to con'or) to t%e la*# It )ay be
a''ir)ed t%at+ in &eneral+ society %as only t*o )et%ods o' en'orcin& t%e execution o' t%e la*s at its dis"osal@ a
discretionary "o*er )ay be entrusted to a su"erior 'unctionary o' directin& all t%e ot%ers+ and o' cas%ierin& t%e)
in case o' disobedience6 or t%e courts o' 7ustice )ay be aut%ori-ed to in'lict 7udicial "enalties on t%e o''ender@ but
t%ese t*o )et%ods are not al*ays available#
T%e ri&%t o' directin& a civil o''icer "resu""oses t%at o' cas%ierin& %i) i' %e does not obey orders+ and o'
re*ardin& %i) by "ro)otion i' %e 'ul'ils %is duties *it% "ro"riety# But an elected )a&istrate can neit%er be
cas%iered nor "ro)oted# All elective 'unctions are inalienable until t%eir ter) is ex"ired# In 'act+ t%e elected
)a&istrate %as not%in& eit%er to ex"ect or to 'ear 'ro) %is constituents6 and *%en all "ublic o''ices are 'illed by
ballot t%ere can be no series o' o''icial di&nities+ because t%e double ri&%t o' co))andin& and o' en'orcin&
obedience can never be vested in t%e sa)e individual+ and because t%e "o*er o' issuin& an order can never be
7oined to t%at o' in'lictin& a "unis%)ent or besto*in& a re*ard#
T%e co))unities t%ere'ore in *%ic% t%e secondary 'unctionaries o' t%e &overn)ent are elected are "er'orce
obli&ed to )ae &reat use o' 7udicial "enalties as a )eans o' ad)inistration# T%is is not evident at 'irst si&%t6 'or
t%ose in "o*er are a"t to loo u"on t%e institution o' elective 'unctionaries as one concession+ and t%e sub7ection
o' t%e elected )a&istrate to t%e 7ud&es o' t%e land as anot%er# T%ey are equally averse to bot% t%ese innovations6
and as t%ey are )ore "ressin&ly solicited to &rant t%e 'or)er t%an t%e latter+ t%ey accede to t%e election o' t%e
)a&istrate+ and leave %i) inde"endent o' t%e 7udicial "o*er# Nevert%eless+ t%e second o' t%ese )easures is t%e
only t%in& t%at can "ossibly counterbalance t%e 'irst6 and it *ill be 'ound t%at an elective aut%ority *%ic% is not
sub7ect to 7udicial "o*er *ill+ sooner or later+ eit%er elude all control or be destroyed# T%e courts o' 7ustice are
t%e only "ossible )ediu) bet*een t%e central "o*er and t%e ad)inistrative bodies6 t%ey alone can co)"el t%e
elected 'unctionary to obey+ *it%out violatin& t%e ri&%ts o' t%e elector# T%e extension o' 7udicial "o*er in t%e
"olitical *orld ou&%t t%ere'ore to be in t%e exact ratio o' t%e extension o' elective o''ices@ i' t%ese t*o institutions
do not &o %and in %and+ t%e !tate )ust 'all into anarc%y or into sub7ection#
It %as al*ays been re)ared t%at %abits o' le&al business do not render )en a"t to t%e exercise o' ad)inistrative
aut%ority# T%e A)ericans %ave borro*ed 'ro) t%e En&lis%+ t%eir 'at%ers+ t%e idea o' an institution *%ic% is
unno*n u"on t%e continent o' Euro"e@ I allude to t%at o' t%e $ustices o' t%e :eace# T%e $ustice o' t%e :eace is a
sort o' )e--o ter)ine bet*een t%e )a&istrate and t%e )an o' t%e *orld+ bet*een t%e civil o''icer and t%e 7ud&e#
A 7ustice o' t%e "eace is a *ell1in'or)ed citi-en+ t%ou&% %e is not necessarily versed in t%e no*led&e o' t%e
la*s# His o''ice si)"ly obli&es %i) to execute t%e "olice re&ulations o' society6 a tas in *%ic% &ood sense and
inte&rity are o' )ore avail t%an le&al science# T%e 7ustice introduces into t%e ad)inistration a certain taste 'or
establis%ed 'or)s and "ublicity+ *%ic% renders %i) a )ost unserviceable instru)ent o' des"otis)6 and+ on t%e
ot%er %and+ %e is not blinded by t%ose su"erstitions *%ic% render le&al o''icers un'it )e)bers o' a &overn)ent#
T%e A)ericans %ave ado"ted t%e syste) o' t%e En&lis% 7ustices o' t%e "eace+ but t%ey %ave de"rived it o' t%at
aristocratic c%aracter *%ic% is discernible in t%e )ot%er1country# T%e 9overnor o' Massac%usetts K" a""oints a
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certain nu)ber o' 7ustices o' t%e "eace in every county+ *%ose 'unctions last seven years# Kq He 'urt%er
desi&nates t%ree individuals 'ro) a)on&st t%e *%ole body o' 7ustices *%o 'or) in eac% county *%at is called t%e
Court o' !essions# T%e 7ustices tae a "ersonal s%are in "ublic business6 t%ey are so)eti)es entrusted *it%
ad)inistrative 'unctions in con7unction *it% elected o''icers+ Kr t%ey so)eti)es constitute a tribunal+ be'ore
*%ic% t%e )a&istrates su))arily "rosecute a re'ractory citi-en+ or t%e citi-ens in'or) a&ainst t%e abuses o' t%e
)a&istrate# But it is in t%e Court o' !essions t%at t%ey exercise t%eir )ost i)"ortant 'unctions# T%is court )eets
t*ice a year in t%e county to*n6 in Massac%usetts it is e)"o*ered to en'orce t%e obedience o' t%e &reater
nu)ber Ks o' "ublic o''icers# Kt It )ust be observed+ t%at in t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts t%e Court o' !essions is at
t%e sa)e ti)e an ad)inistrative body+ "ro"erly so called+ and a "olitical tribunal# It %as been asserted t%at t%e
county is a "urely ad)inistrative division# T%e Court o' !essions "resides over t%at s)all nu)ber o' a''airs
*%ic%+ as t%ey concern several to*ns%i"s+ or all t%e to*ns%i"s o' t%e county in co))on+ cannot be entrusted to
any one o' t%e) in "articular# Ku In all t%at concerns county business t%e duties o' t%e Court o' !essions are
"urely ad)inistrative6 and i' in its investi&ations it occasionally borro*s t%e 'or)s o' 7udicial "rocedure+ it is
only *it% a vie* to its o*n in'or)ation+ Kv or as a &uarantee to t%e co))unity over *%ic% it "resides# But *%en
t%e ad)inistration o' t%e to*ns%i" is brou&%t be'ore it+ it al*ays acts as a 7udicial body+ and in so)e 'e* cases as
an o''icial asse)bly#
35ootnote "@ ,e s%all %erea'ter learn *%at a 9overnor is@ I s%all content )ysel' *it% re)arin& in t%is "lace t%at
%e re"resents t%e executive "o*er o' t%e *%ole !tate#4
35ootnote q@ !ee t%e Constitution o' Massac%usetts+ c%a"# II# sect# .# !ection B6 c%a"# III# !ection 0#4
35ootnote r@ T%us+ 'or exa)"le+ a stran&er arrives in a to*ns%i" 'ro) a country *%ere a conta&ious disease
"revails+ and %e 'alls ill# T*o 7ustices o' t%e "eace can+ *it% t%e assent o' t%e select)en+ order t%e s%eri'' o' t%e
county to re)ove and tae care o' %i)#11Act o' $une AA+ .=B=+ vol# i# "# CG<#
In &eneral t%e 7ustices inter'ere in all t%e i)"ortant acts o' t%e ad)inistration+ and &ive t%e) a se)i17udicial
c%aracter#4 35ootnote s@ I say t%e &reater nu)ber+ because certain ad)inistrative )isde)eanors are brou&%t
be'ore ordinary tribunals# I'+ 'or instance+ a to*ns%i" re'uses to )ae t%e necessary ex"enditure 'or its sc%ools or
to na)e a sc%ool1co))ittee+ it is liable to a %eavy 'ine# But t%is "enalty is "ronounced by t%e !u"re)e $udicial
Court or t%e Court o' Co))on :leas# !ee Act o' Marc% .<+ ./A=+ 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# iii# "# .B<# Or
*%en a to*ns%i" ne&lects to "rovide t%e necessary *ar1stores#11Act o' 5ebruary A.+ ./AA@ Id#+ vol# ii# "# C=<#4
35ootnote t@ In t%eir individual ca"acity t%e 7ustices o' t%e "eace tae a "art in t%e business o' t%e counties and
to*ns%i"s#4 35ootnote u@ T%ese a''airs )ay be brou&%t under t%e 'ollo*in& %eads@11.# T%e erection o' "risons and
courts o' 7ustice# A# T%e county bud&et+ *%ic% is a'ter*ards voted by t%e !tate# 0# T%e distribution o' t%e taxes so
voted# G# 9rants o' certain "atents# C# T%e layin& do*n and re"airs o' t%e country roads#4
35ootnote v@ T%us+ *%en a road is under consideration+ al)ost all di''iculties are dis"osed o' by t%e aid o' t%e
7ury#4
T%e 'irst di''iculty is to "rocure t%e obedience o' an aut%ority as entirely inde"endent o' t%e &eneral la*s o' t%e
!tate as t%e to*ns%i" is# ,e %ave stated t%at assessors are annually na)ed by t%e to*n1)eetin&s to levy t%e
taxes# I' a to*ns%i" atte)"ts to evade t%e "ay)ent o' t%e taxes by ne&lectin& to na)e its assessors+ t%e Court o'
!essions conde)ns it to a %eavy "enalty# K* T%e 'ine is levied on eac% o' t%e in%abitants6 and t%e s%eri'' o' t%e
county+ *%o is t%e o''icer o' 7ustice+ executes t%e )andate# T%us it is t%at in t%e (nited !tates t%e aut%ority o' t%e
9overn)ent is )ysteriously concealed under t%e 'or)s o' a 7udicial sentence6 and its in'luence is at t%e sa)e
ti)e 'orti'ied by t%at irresistible "o*er *it% *%ic% )en %ave invested t%e 'or)alities o' la*#
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35ootnote *@ !ee Act o' 5ebruary A<+ .=/;+ 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# i# "# A.=#4
T%ese "roceedin&s are easy to 'ollo* and to understand# T%e de)ands )ade u"on a to*ns%i" are in &eneral "lain
and accurately de'ined6 t%ey consist in a si)"le 'act *it%out any co)"lication+ or in a "rinci"le *it%out its
a""lication in detail# Kx But t%e di''iculty increases *%en it is not t%e obedience o' t%e to*ns%i"+ but t%at o' t%e
to*n o''icers *%ic% is to be en'orced# All t%e re"re%ensible actions o' *%ic% a "ublic 'unctionary )ay be &uilty
are reducible to t%e 'ollo*in& %eads@
35ootnote x@ T%ere is an indirect )et%od o' en'orcin& t%e obedience o' a to*ns%i"# !u""ose t%at t%e 'unds *%ic%
t%e la* de)ands 'or t%e )aintenance o' t%e roads %ave not been voted+ t%e to*n surveyor is t%en aut%ori-ed+ ex
o''icio+ to levy t%e su""lies# As %e is "ersonally res"onsible to "rivate individuals 'or t%e state o' t%e roads+ and
indictable be'ore t%e Court o' !essions+ %e is sure to e)"loy t%e extraordinary ri&%t *%ic% t%e la* &ives %i)
a&ainst t%e to*ns%i"# T%us by t%reatenin& t%e o''icer t%e Court o' !essions exacts co)"liance 'ro) t%e to*n# !ee
Act o' Marc% C+ .=/=+ Id#+ vol# i# "# 0<C#4
He )ay execute t%e la* *it%out ener&y or -eal6
He )ay ne&lect to execute t%e la*6
He )ay do *%at t%e la* en7oins %i) not to do#
T%e last t*o violations o' duty can alone co)e under t%e co&ni-ance o' a tribunal6 a "ositive and a""reciable 'act
is t%e indis"ensable 'oundation o' an action at la*# T%us+ i' t%e select)en o)it to 'ul'il t%e le&al 'or)alities usual
at to*n elections+ t%ey )ay be conde)ned to "ay a 'ine6 Ky but *%en t%e "ublic o''icer "er'or)s %is duty
*it%out ability+ and *%en %e obeys t%e letter o' t%e la* *it%out -eal or ener&y+ %e is at least beyond t%e reac% o'
7udicial inter'erence# T%e Court o' !essions+ even *%en it is invested *it% its o''icial "o*ers+ is in t%is case
unable to co)"el %i) to a )ore satis'actory obedience# T%e 'ear o' re)oval is t%e only c%ec to t%ese quasi1
o''ences6 and as t%e Court o' !essions does not ori&inate t%e to*n aut%orities+ it cannot re)ove 'unctionaries
*%o) it does not a""oint# Moreover+ a "er"etual investi&ation *ould be necessary to convict t%e o''icer o'
ne&li&ence or lue*ar)ness6 and t%e Court o' !essions sits but t*ice a year and t%en only 7ud&es suc% o''ences
as are brou&%t be'ore its notice# T%e only security o' t%at active and enli&%tened obedience *%ic% a court o'
7ustice cannot i)"ose u"on "ublic o''icers lies in t%e "ossibility o' t%eir arbitrary re)oval# In 5rance t%is security
is sou&%t 'or in "o*ers exercised by t%e %eads o' t%e ad)inistration6 in A)erica it is sou&%t 'or in t%e "rinci"le
o' election#
35ootnote y@ 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# ii# "# GC#4
T%us+ to reca"itulate in a 'e* *ords *%at I %ave been s%o*in&@ I' a "ublic o''icer in Ne* En&land co))its a
cri)e in t%e exercise o' %is 'unctions+ t%e ordinary courts o' 7ustice are al*ays called u"on to "ass sentence u"on
%i)# I' %e co))its a 'ault in %is o''icial ca"acity+ a "urely ad)inistrative tribunal is e)"o*ered to "unis% %i)6
and+ i' t%e a''air is i)"ortant or ur&ent+ t%e 7ud&e su""lies t%e o)ission o' t%e 'unctionary# K- 8astly+ i' t%e sa)e
individual is &uilty o' one o' t%ose intan&ible o''ences o' *%ic% %u)an 7ustice %as no co&ni-ance+ %e annually
a""ears be'ore a tribunal 'ro) *%ic% t%ere is no a""eal+ *%ic% can at once reduce %i) to insi&ni'icance and
de"rive %i) o' %is c%ar&e# T%is syste) undoubtedly "ossesses &reat advanta&es+ but its execution is attended
*it% a "ractical di''iculty *%ic% it is i)"ortant to "oint out#
35ootnote -@ I'+ 'or instance+ a to*ns%i" "ersists in re'usin& to na)e its assessors+ t%e Court o' !essions
no)inates t%e)6 and t%e )a&istrates t%us a""ointed are invested *it% t%e sa)e aut%ority as elected o''icers# !ee
t%e Act quoted above+ 5ebruary A<+ .=/=#4
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I %ave already observed t%at t%e ad)inistrative tribunal+ *%ic% is called t%e Court o' !essions+ %as no ri&%t o'
ins"ection over t%e to*n o''icers# It can only inter'ere *%en t%e conduct o' a )a&istrate is s"ecially brou&%t
under its notice6 and t%is is t%e delicate "art o' t%e syste)# T%e A)ericans o' Ne* En&land are unacquainted
*it% t%e o''ice o' "ublic "rosecutor in t%e Court o' !essions+ Ka and it )ay readily be "erceived t%at it could not
%ave been establis%ed *it%out di''iculty# I' an accusin& )a&istrate %ad )erely been a""ointed in t%e c%ie' to*n
o' eac% county+ and i' %e %ad been unassisted by a&ents in t%e to*ns%i"s+ %e *ould not %ave been better
acquainted *it% *%at *as &oin& on in t%e county t%an t%e )e)bers o' t%e Court o' !essions# But to a""oint
a&ents in eac% to*ns%i" *ould %ave been to centre in %is "erson t%e )ost 'or)idable o' "o*ers+ t%at o' a 7udicial
ad)inistration# Moreover+ la*s are t%e c%ildren o' %abit+ and not%in& o' t%e ind exists in t%e le&islation o'
En&land# T%e A)ericans %ave t%ere'ore divided t%e o''ices o' ins"ection and o' "rosecution+ as *ell as all t%e
ot%er 'unctions o' t%e ad)inistration# 9rand 7urors are bound by t%e la* to a""rise t%e court to *%ic% t%ey
belon& o' all t%e )isde)eanors *%ic% )ay %ave been co))itted in t%eir county# Kb T%ere are certain &reat
o''ences *%ic% are o''icially "rosecuted by t%e !tates6 Kc but )ore 'requently t%e tas o' "unis%in& delinquents
devolves u"on t%e 'iscal o''icer+ *%ose "rovince it is to receive t%e 'ine@ t%us t%e treasurer o' t%e to*ns%i" is
c%ar&ed *it% t%e "rosecution o' suc% ad)inistrative o''ences as 'all under %is notice# But a )ore s"ecial a""eal is
)ade by A)erican le&islation to t%e "rivate interest o' t%e citi-en6 Kd and t%is &reat "rinci"le is constantly to be
)et *it% in studyin& t%e la*s o' t%e (nited !tates# A)erican le&islators are )ore a"t to &ive )en credit 'or
intelli&ence t%an 'or %onesty+ and t%ey rely not a little on "ersonal cu"idity 'or t%e execution o' t%e la*s# ,%en
an individual is really and sensibly in7ured by an ad)inistrative abuse+ it is natural t%at %is "ersonal interest
s%ould induce %i) to "rosecute# But i' a le&al 'or)ality be required+ *%ic%+ %o*ever advanta&eous to t%e
co))unity+ is o' s)all i)"ortance to individuals+ "lainti''s )ay be less easily 'ound6 and t%us+ by a tacit
a&ree)ent+ t%e la*s )ay 'all into disuse# Reduced by t%eir syste) to t%is extre)ity+ t%e A)ericans are obli&ed to
encoura&e in'or)ers by besto*in& on t%e) a "ortion o' t%e "enalty in certain cases+ Ke and to insure t%e
execution o' t%e la*s by t%e dan&erous ex"edient o' de&radin& t%e )orals o' t%e "eo"le# T%e only ad)inistrative
aut%ority above t%e county )a&istrates is+ "ro"erly s"eain&+ t%at o' t%e 9overn)ent#
35ootnote a@ I say t%e Court o' !essions+ because in co))on courts t%ere is a )a&istrate *%o exercises so)e o'
t%e 'unctions o' a "ublic "rosecutor#4
35ootnote b@ T%e &rand17urors are+ 'or instance+ bound to in'or) t%e court o' t%e bad state o' t%e roads#118a*s o'
Massac%usetts+ vol# i# "# 0</#4
35ootnote c@ I'+ 'or instance+ t%e treasurer o' t%e county %olds bac %is accounts#118a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# i#
"# G<;#4 35ootnote d@ T%us+ i' a "rivate individual breas do*n or is *ounded in consequence o' t%e badness o' a
road+ %e can sue t%e to*ns%i" or t%e county 'or da)a&es at t%e sessions#118a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol# i# "# 0<B#4
35ootnote e@ In cases o' invasion or insurrection+ i' t%e to*n1o''icers ne&lect to 'urnis% t%e necessary stores and
a))unition 'or t%e )ilitia+ t%e to*ns%i" )ay be conde)ned to a 'ine o' 'ro) NA<< to NC<<# It )ay readily be
i)a&ined t%at in suc% a case it )i&%t %a""en t%at no one cared to "rosecute6 %ence t%e la* adds t%at all t%e
citi-ens )ay indict o''ences o' t%is ind+ and t%at %al' o' t%e 'ine s%all belon& to t%e "lainti''# !ee Act o' Marc%
;+ ./.<+ vol# ii# "# A0;# T%e sa)e clause is 'requently to be )et *it% in t%e la* o' Massac%usetts# Not only are
"rivate individuals t%us incited to "rosecute t%e "ublic o''icers+ but t%e "ublic o''icers are encoura&ed in t%e
sa)e )anner to brin& t%e disobedience o' "rivate individuals to 7ustice# I' a citi-en re'uses to "er'or) t%e *or
*%ic% %as been assi&ned to %i) u"on a road+ t%e road surveyor )ay "rosecute %i)+ and %e receives %al' t%e
"enalty 'or %i)sel'# !ee t%e 8a*s above quoted+ vol# i# "# 0</#4
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9eneral Re)ars On T%e Ad)inistration O' T%e (nited !tates Di''erences o' t%e !tates o' t%e (nion in t%eir
syste) o' ad)inistration11Activity and "er'ection o' t%e local aut%orities decrease to*ards t%e !out%11:o*er o'
t%e )a&istrate increases6 t%at o' t%e elector di)inis%es11Ad)inistration "asses 'ro) t%e to*ns%i" to t%e county11
!tates o' Ne* Yor+ O%io+ :ennsylvania11:rinci"les o' ad)inistration a""licable to t%e *%ole (nion11Election o'
"ublic o''icers+ and inalienability o' t%eir 'unctions11Absence o' &radation o' rans11Introduction o' 7udicial
resources into t%e ad)inistration#
I %ave already "re)ised t%at+ a'ter %avin& exa)ined t%e constitution o' t%e to*ns%i" and t%e county o' Ne*
En&land in detail+ I s%ould tae a &eneral vie* o' t%e re)ainder o' t%e (nion# To*ns%i"s and a local activity
exist in every !tate6 but in no "art o' t%e con'ederation is a to*ns%i" to be )et *it% "recisely si)ilar to t%ose o'
Ne* En&land# T%e )ore *e descend to*ards t%e !out%+ t%e less active does t%e business o' t%e to*ns%i" or
"aris% beco)e6 t%e nu)ber o' )a&istrates+ o' 'unctions+ and o' ri&%ts decreases6 t%e "o"ulation exercises a less
i))ediate in'luence on a''airs6 to*n )eetin&s are less 'requent+ and t%e sub7ects o' debate less nu)erous# T%e
"o*er o' t%e elected )a&istrate is au&)ented and t%at o' t%e elector di)inis%ed+ *%ilst t%e "ublic s"irit o' t%e
local co))unities is less a*aened and less in'luential# K' T%ese di''erences )ay be "erceived to a certain extent
in t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor6 t%ey are very sensible in :ennsylvania6 but t%ey beco)e less striin& as *e advance to
t%e nort%*est# T%e )a7ority o' t%e e)i&rants *%o settle in t%e nort%*estern !tates are natives o' Ne* En&land+
and t%ey carry t%e %abits o' t%eir )ot%er country *it% t%e) into t%at *%ic% t%ey ado"t# A to*ns%i" in O%io is by
no )eans dissi)ilar 'ro) a to*ns%i" in Massac%usetts#
35ootnote '@ 5or details see t%e Revised !tatutes o' t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor+ "art i# c%a"# xi# vol# i# ""# 00;10;G+
entitled+ 2O' t%e :o*ers+ Duties+ and :rivile&es o' To*ns#2
!ee in t%e Di&est o' t%e 8a*s o' :ennsylvania+ t%e *ords Assessors+ Collector+ Constables+ Overseer o' t%e :oor+
!u"ervisors o' Hi&%*ays6 and in t%e Acts o' a &eneral nature o' t%e !tate o' O%io+ t%e Act o' 5ebruary AC+ ./0G+
relatin& to to*ns%i"s+ "# G.A6 besides t%e "eculiar dis"ositions relatin& to divers to*n1o''icers+ suc% as
To*ns%i"Fs Cler+ Trustees+ Overseers o' t%e :oor+ 5ence Die*ers+ A""raisers o' :ro"erty+ To*ns%i"Fs
Treasurer+ Constables+ !u"ervisors o' Hi&%*ays#4
,e %ave seen t%at in Massac%usetts t%e )ains"rin& o' "ublic ad)inistration lies in t%e to*ns%i"# It 'or)s t%e
co))on centre o' t%e interests and a''ections o' t%e citi-ens# But t%is ceases to be t%e case as *e descend to
!tates in *%ic% no*led&e is less &enerally di''used+ and *%ere t%e to*ns%i" consequently o''ers 'e*er
&uarantees o' a *ise and active ad)inistration# As *e leave Ne* En&land+ t%ere'ore+ *e 'ind t%at t%e i)"ortance
o' t%e to*n is &radually trans'erred to t%e county+ *%ic% beco)es t%e centre o' ad)inistration+ and t%e
inter)ediate "o*er bet*een t%e 9overn)ent and t%e citi-en# In Massac%usetts t%e business o' t%e county is
conducted by t%e Court o' !essions+ *%ic% is co)"osed o' a quoru) na)ed by t%e 9overnor and %is council6 but
t%e county %as no re"resentative asse)bly+ and its ex"enditure is voted by t%e national le&islature# In t%e &reat
!tate o' Ne* Yor+ on t%e contrary+ and in t%ose o' O%io and :ennsylvania+ t%e in%abitants o' eac% county
c%oose a certain nu)ber o' re"resentatives+ *%o constitute t%e asse)bly o' t%e county# K& T%e county asse)bly
%as t%e ri&%t o' taxin& t%e in%abitants to a certain extent6 and in t%is res"ect it en7oys t%e "rivile&es o' a real
le&islative body@ at t%e sa)e ti)e it exercises an executive "o*er in t%e county+ 'requently directs t%e
ad)inistration o' t%e to*ns%i"s+ and restricts t%eir aut%ority *it%in )uc% narro*er bounds t%an in
Massac%usetts#
35ootnote &@ !ee t%e Revised !tatutes o' t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor+ "art i# c%a"# xi# vol# i# "# 0G<# Id# c%a"# xii# "#
0;;6 also in t%e Acts o' t%e !tate o' O%io+ an act relatin& to county co))issioners+ 5ebruary AC+ ./AG+ "# A;0#
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!ee t%e Di&est o' t%e 8a*s o' :ennsylvania+ at t%e *ords County1rates and 8evies+ "# .=<# In t%e !tate o' Ne*
Yor eac% to*ns%i" elects a re"resentative+ *%o %as a s%are in t%e ad)inistration o' t%e county as *ell as in t%at
o' t%e to*ns%i"#4
!uc% are t%e "rinci"al di''erences *%ic% t%e syste)s o' county and to*n ad)inistration "resent in t%e 5ederal
!tates# ,ere it )y intention to exa)ine t%e "rovisions o' A)erican la* )inutely+ I s%ould %ave to "oint out still
'urt%er di''erences in t%e executive details o' t%e several co))unities# But *%at I %ave already said )ay su''ice
to s%o* t%e &eneral "rinci"les on *%ic% t%e ad)inistration o' t%e (nited !tates rests# T%ese "rinci"les are
di''erently a""lied6 t%eir consequences are )ore or less nu)erous in various localities6 but t%ey are al*ays
substantially t%e sa)e# T%e la*s di''er+ and t%eir out*ard 'eatures c%an&e+ but t%eir c%aracter does not vary# I'
t%e to*ns%i" and t%e county are not every*%ere constituted in t%e sa)e )anner+ it is at least true t%at in t%e
(nited !tates t%e county and t%e to*ns%i" are al*ays based u"on t%e sa)e "rinci"le+ na)ely+ t%at everyone is
t%e best 7ud&e o' *%at concerns %i)sel' alone+ and t%e )ost "ro"er "erson to su""ly %is "rivate *ants# T%e
to*ns%i" and t%e county are t%ere'ore bound to tae care o' t%eir s"ecial interests@ t%e !tate &overns+ but it does
not inter'ere *it% t%eir ad)inistration# Exce"tions to t%is rule )ay be )et *it%+ but not a contrary "rinci"le#
T%e 'irst consequence o' t%is doctrine %as been to cause all t%e )a&istrates to be c%osen eit%er by or at least 'ro)
a)on&st t%e citi-ens# As t%e o''icers are every*%ere elected or a""ointed 'or a certain "eriod+ it %as been
i)"ossible to establis% t%e rules o' a de"endent series o' aut%orities6 t%ere are al)ost as )any inde"endent
'unctionaries as t%ere are 'unctions+ and t%e executive "o*er is disse)inated in a )ultitude o' %ands# Hence
arose t%e indis"ensable necessity o' introducin& t%e control o' t%e courts o' 7ustice over t%e ad)inistration+ and
t%e syste) o' "ecuniary "enalties+ by *%ic% t%e secondary bodies and t%eir re"resentatives are constrained to
obey t%e la*s# T%is syste) obtains 'ro) one end o' t%e (nion to t%e ot%er# T%e "o*er o' "unis%in& t%e
)isconduct o' "ublic o''icers+ or o' "er'or)in& t%e "art o' t%e executive in ur&ent cases+ %as not+ %o*ever+ been
besto*ed on t%e sa)e 7ud&es in all t%e !tates# T%e An&lo1A)ericans derived t%e institution o' 7ustices o' t%e
"eace 'ro) a co))on source6 but alt%ou&% it exists in all t%e !tates+ it is not al*ays turned to t%e sa)e use# T%e
7ustices o' t%e "eace every*%ere "artici"ate in t%e ad)inistration o' t%e to*ns%i"s and t%e counties+ K% eit%er as
"ublic o''icers or as t%e 7ud&es o' "ublic )isde)eanors+ but in )ost o' t%e !tates t%e )ore i)"ortant classes o'
"ublic o''ences co)e under t%e co&ni-ance o' t%e ordinary tribunals#
35ootnote %@ In so)e o' t%e !out%ern !tates t%e county courts are c%ar&ed *it% all t%e details o' t%e
ad)inistration# !ee t%e !tatutes o' t%e !tate o' Tennessee+ arts# $udiciary+ Taxes+ etc#4
T%e election o' "ublic o''icers+ or t%e inalienability o' t%eir 'unctions+ t%e absence o' a &radation o' "o*ers+ and
t%e introduction o' a 7udicial control over t%e secondary branc%es o' t%e ad)inistration+ are t%e universal
c%aracteristics o' t%e A)erican syste) 'ro) Maine to t%e 5loridas# In so)e !tates >and t%at o' Ne* Yor %as
advanced )ost in t%is direction? traces o' a centrali-ed ad)inistration be&in to be discernible# In t%e !tate o'
Ne* Yor t%e o''icers o' t%e central &overn)ent exercise+ in certain cases+ a sort o' ins"ection or control over
t%e secondary bodies# Ki
35ootnote i@ 5or instance+ t%e direction o' "ublic instruction centres in t%e %ands o' t%e 9overn)ent# T%e
le&islature na)es t%e )e)bers o' t%e (niversity+ *%o are deno)inated Re&ents6 t%e 9overnor and 8ieutentant1
9overnor o' t%e !tate are necessarily o' t%e nu)ber#11Revised !tatutes+ vol# i# "# GCC# T%e Re&ents o' t%e
(niversity annually visit t%e colle&es and acade)ies+ and )ae t%eir re"ort to t%e le&islature# T%eir
su"erintendence is not ine''icient+ 'or several reasons@ t%e colle&es in order to beco)e cor"orations stand in need
o' a c%arter+ *%ic% is only &ranted on t%e reco))endation o' t%e Re&ents6 every year 'unds are distributed by t%e
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!tate 'or t%e encoura&e)ent o' learnin&+ and t%e Re&ents are t%e distributors o' t%is )oney# !ee c%a"# xv#
2Instruction+2 Revised !tatutes+ vol# i# "# GCC#
T%e sc%ool1co))issioners are obli&ed to send an annual re"ort to t%e !u"erintendent o' t%e Re"ublic#11Id# "#
G//#
A si)ilar re"ort is annually )ade to t%e sa)e "erson on t%e nu)ber and condition o' t%e "oor#11Id# "# ;0.#4
At ot%er ti)es t%ey constitute a court o' a""eal 'or t%e decision o' a''airs# K7 In t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor 7udicial
"enalties are less used t%an in ot%er "arts as a )eans o' ad)inistration+ and t%e ri&%t o' "rosecutin& t%e o''ences
o' "ublic o''icers is vested in 'e*er %ands# K T%e sa)e tendency is 'aintly observable in so)e ot%er !tates6 Kl
but in &eneral t%e "ro)inent 'eature o' t%e ad)inistration in t%e (nited !tates is its excessive local inde"endence#
35ootnote 7@ I' any one conceives %i)sel' to be *ron&ed by t%e sc%ool1co))issioners >*%o are to*n1o''icers?+
%e can a""eal to t%e su"erintendent o' t%e "ri)ary sc%ools+ *%ose decision is 'inal#11Revised !tatutes+ vol# i# "#
G/=#
:rovisions si)ilar to t%ose above cited are to be )et *it% 'ro) ti)e to ti)e in t%e la*s o' t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor6
but in &eneral t%ese atte)"ts at centrali-ation are *ea and un"roductive# T%e &reat aut%orities o' t%e !tate %ave
t%e ri&%t o' *atc%in& and controllin& t%e subordinate a&ents+ *it%out t%at o' re*ardin& or "unis%in& t%e)# T%e
sa)e individual is never e)"o*ered to &ive an order and to "unis% disobedience6 %e %as t%ere'ore t%e ri&%t o'
co))andin&+ *it%out t%e )eans o' exactin& co)"liance# In ./0< t%e !u"erintendent o' !c%ools co)"lained in
%is Annual Re"ort addressed to t%e le&islature t%at several sc%ool1co))issioners %ad ne&lected+ not*it%standin&
%is a""lication+ to 'urnis% %i) *it% t%e accounts *%ic% *ere due# He added t%at i' t%is o)ission continued %e
s%ould be obli&ed to "rosecute t%e)+ as t%e la* directs+ be'ore t%e "ro"er tribunals#4
35ootnote @ T%us t%e district1attorney is directed to recover all 'ines belo* t%e su) o' 'i'ty dollars+ unless suc% a
ri&%t %as been s"ecially a*arded to anot%er )a&istrate#11Revised !tatutes+ vol# i# "# 0/0#4
35ootnote l@ !everal traces o' centrali-ation )ay be discovered in Massac%usetts6 'or instance+ t%e co))ittees o'
t%e to*n1sc%ools are directed to )ae an annual re"ort to t%e !ecretary o' !tate# !ee 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+ vol#
i# "# 0;=#4
O' T%e !tate
I %ave described t%e to*ns%i"s and t%e ad)inistration6 it no* re)ains 'or )e to s"ea o' t%e !tate and t%e
9overn)ent# T%is is &round I )ay "ass over ra"idly+ *it%out 'ear o' bein& )isunderstood6 'or all I %ave to say is
to be 'ound in *ritten 'or)s o' t%e various constitutions+ *%ic% are easily to be "rocured# T%ese constitutions rest
u"on a si)"le and rational t%eory6 t%eir 'or)s %ave been ado"ted by all constitutional nations+ and are beco)e
'a)iliar to us# In t%is "lace+ t%ere'ore+ it is only necessary 'or )e to &ive a s%ort analysis6 I s%all endeavor
a'ter*ards to "ass 7ud&)ent u"on *%at I no* describe#
Chapter V
@ Necessity O' Exa)inin& T%e Condition O' T%e !tates11:art III
8e&islative :o*er O' T%e !tate
Division o' t%e 8e&islative Body into t*o Houses11!enate11House o' Re"resentatives11Di''erent 'unctions o'
t%ese t*o Bodies#
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T%e le&islative "o*er o' t%e !tate is vested in t*o asse)blies+ t%e 'irst o' *%ic% &enerally bears t%e na)e o' t%e
!enate# T%e !enate is co))only a le&islative body6 but it so)eti)es beco)es an executive and 7udicial one# It
taes a "art in t%e &overn)ent in several *ays+ accordin& to t%e constitution o' t%e di''erent !tates6 K) but it is in
t%e no)ination o' "ublic 'unctionaries t%at it )ost co))only assu)es an executive "o*er# It "artaes o' 7udicial
"o*er in t%e trial o' certain "olitical o''ences+ and so)eti)es also in t%e decision o' certain civil cases# Kn T%e
nu)ber o' its )e)bers is al*ays s)all# T%e ot%er branc% o' t%e le&islature+ *%ic% is usually called t%e House o'
Re"resentatives+ %as no s%are *%atever in t%e ad)inistration+ and only taes a "art in t%e 7udicial "o*er
inas)uc% as it i)"eac%es "ublic 'unctionaries be'ore t%e !enate# T%e )e)bers o' t%e t*o Houses are nearly
every*%ere sub7ect to t%e sa)e conditions o' election# T%ey are c%osen in t%e sa)e )anner+ and by t%e sa)e
citi-ens# T%e only di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een t%e) is+ t%at t%e ter) 'or *%ic% t%e !enate is c%osen is in
&eneral lon&er t%an t%at o' t%e House o' Re"resentatives# T%e latter seldo) re)ain in o''ice lon&er t%an a year6
t%e 'or)er usually sit t*o or t%ree years# By &rantin& to t%e senators t%e "rivile&e o' bein& c%osen 'or several
years+ and bein& rene*ed seriati)+ t%e la* taes care to "reserve in t%e le&islative body a nucleus o' )en already
accusto)ed to "ublic business+ and ca"able o' exercisin& a salutary in'luence u"on t%e 7unior )e)bers#
35ootnote )@ In Massac%usetts t%e !enate is not invested *it% any ad)inistrative 'unctions#4
35ootnote n@ As in t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor#4
T%e A)ericans+ "lainly+ did not desire+ by t%is se"aration o' t%e le&islative body into t*o branc%es+ to )ae one
%ouse %ereditary and t%e ot%er elective6 one aristocratic and t%e ot%er de)ocratic# It *as not t%eir ob7ect to create
in t%e one a bul*ar to "o*er+ *%ilst t%e ot%er re"resented t%e interests and "assions o' t%e "eo"le# T%e only
advanta&es *%ic% result 'ro) t%e "resent constitution o' t%e (nited !tates are t%e division o' t%e le&islative
"o*er and t%e consequent c%ec u"on "olitical asse)blies6 *it% t%e creation o' a tribunal o' a""eal 'or t%e
revision o' t%e la*s#
Ti)e and ex"erience+ %o*ever+ %ave convinced t%e A)ericans t%at i' t%ese are its only advanta&es+ t%e division
o' t%e le&islative "o*er is still a "rinci"le o' t%e &reatest necessity# :ennsylvania *as t%e only one o' t%e (nited
!tates *%ic% at 'irst atte)"ted to establis% a sin&le House o' Asse)bly+ and 5ranlin %i)sel' *as so 'ar carried
a*ay by t%e necessary consequences o' t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le as to %ave concurred in t%e
)easure6 but t%e :ennsylvanians *ere soon obli&ed to c%an&e t%e la*+ and to create t*o Houses# T%us t%e
"rinci"le o' t%e division o' t%e le&islative "o*er *as 'inally establis%ed+ and its necessity )ay %ence'or*ard be
re&arded as a de)onstrated trut%# T%is t%eory+ *%ic% *as nearly unno*n to t%e re"ublics o' antiquity11*%ic%
*as introduced into t%e *orld al)ost by accident+ lie so )any ot%er &reat trut%s11and )isunderstood by several
)odern nations+ is at len&t% beco)e an axio) in t%e "olitical science o' t%e "resent a&e#
3!ee Ben7a)in 5ranlin4
T%e Executive :o*er O' T%e !tate
O''ice o' 9overnor in an A)erican !tate11T%e "lace %e occu"ies in relation to t%e 8e&islature11His ri&%ts and %is
duties11His de"endence on t%e "eo"le#
T%e executive "o*er o' t%e !tate )ay *it% trut% be said to be re"resented by t%e 9overnor+ alt%ou&% %e en7oys
but a "ortion o' its ri&%ts# T%e su"re)e )a&istrate+ under t%e title o' 9overnor+ is t%e o''icial )oderator and
counsellor o' t%e le&islature# He is ar)ed *it% a veto or sus"ensive "o*er+ *%ic% allo*s %i) to sto"+ or at least
to retard+ its )ove)ents at "leasure# He lays t%e *ants o' t%e country be'ore t%e le&islative body+ and "oints out
t%e )eans *%ic% %e t%ins )ay be use'ully e)"loyed in "rovidin& 'or t%e)6 %e is t%e natural executor o' its
decrees in all t%e undertain&s *%ic% interest t%e nation at lar&e# Ko In t%e absence o' t%e le&islature+ t%e
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9overnor is bound to tae all necessary ste"s to &uard t%e !tate a&ainst violent s%ocs and un'oreseen dan&ers#
T%e *%ole )ilitary "o*er o' t%e !tate is at t%e dis"osal o' t%e 9overnor# He is t%e co))ander o' t%e )ilitia+ and
%ead o' t%e ar)ed 'orce# ,%en t%e aut%ority+ *%ic% is by &eneral consent a*arded to t%e la*s+ is disre&arded+ t%e
9overnor "uts %i)sel' at t%e %ead o' t%e ar)ed 'orce o' t%e !tate+ to quell resistance+ and to restore order# 8astly+
t%e 9overnor taes no s%are in t%e ad)inistration o' to*ns%i"s and counties+ exce"t it be indirectly in t%e
no)ination o' $ustices o' t%e :eace+ *%ic% no)ination %e %as not t%e "o*er to cancel# K" T%e 9overnor is an
elected )a&istrate+ and is &enerally c%osen 'or one or t*o years only6 so t%at %e al*ays continues to be strictly
de"endent u"on t%e )a7ority *%o returned %i)#
35ootnote o@ :ractically s"eain&+ it is not al*ays t%e 9overnor *%o executes t%e "lans o' t%e 8e&islature6 it
o'ten %a""ens t%at t%e latter+ in votin& a )easure+ na)es s"ecial a&ents to su"erintend t%e execution o' it#4
35ootnote "@ In so)e o' t%e !tates t%e 7ustices o' t%e "eace are not elected by t%e 9overnor#4
:olitical E''ects O' T%e !yste) O' 8ocal Ad)inistration In T%e (nited !tates
Necessary distinction bet*een t%e &eneral centrali-ation o' 9overn)ent and t%e centrali-ation o' t%e local
ad)inistration118ocal ad)inistration not centrali-ed in t%e (nited !tates@ &reat &eneral centrali-ation o' t%e
9overn)ent11!o)e bad consequences resultin& to t%e (nited !tates 'ro) t%e local ad)inistration11
Ad)inistrative advanta&es attendin& t%is order o' t%in&s11T%e "o*er *%ic% conducts t%e 9overn)ent is less
re&ular+ less enli&%tened+ less learned+ but )uc% &reater t%an in Euro"e11:olitical advanta&es o' t%is order o'
t%in&s11In t%e (nited !tates t%e interests o' t%e country are every*%ere e"t in vie*11!u""ort &iven to t%e
9overn)ent by t%e co))unity11:rovincial institutions )ore necessary in "ro"ortion as t%e social condition
beco)es )ore de)ocratic11Reason o' t%is#
Centrali-ation is beco)e a *ord o' &eneral and daily use+ *it%out any "recise )eanin& bein& attac%ed to it#
Nevert%eless+ t%ere exist t*o distinct inds o' centrali-ation+ *%ic% it is necessary to discri)inate *it% accuracy#
Certain interests are co))on to all "arts o' a nation+ suc% as t%e enact)ent o' its &eneral la*s and t%e
)aintenance o' its 'orei&n relations# Ot%er interests are "eculiar to certain "arts o' t%e nation6 suc%+ 'or instance+
as t%e business o' di''erent to*ns%i"s# ,%en t%e "o*er *%ic% directs t%e &eneral interests is centred in one
"lace+ or vested in t%e sa)e "ersons+ it constitutes a central &overn)ent# In lie )anner t%e "o*er o' directin&
"artial or local interests+ *%en brou&%t to&et%er into one "lace+ constitutes *%at )ay be ter)ed a central
ad)inistration#
("on so)e "oints t%ese t*o inds o' centrali-ation coalesce6 but by classi'yin& t%e ob7ects *%ic% 'all )ore
"articularly *it%in t%e "rovince o' eac% o' t%e)+ t%ey )ay easily be distin&uis%ed# It is evident t%at a central
&overn)ent acquires i))ense "o*er *%en united to ad)inistrative centrali-ation# T%us co)bined+ it accusto)s
)en to set t%eir o*n *ill %abitually and co)"letely aside6 to sub)it+ not only 'or once+ or u"on one "oint+ but in
every res"ect+ and at all ti)es# Not only+ t%ere'ore+ does t%is union o' "o*er subdue t%e) co)"ulsorily+ but it
a''ects t%e) in t%e ordinary %abits o' li'e+ and in'luences eac% individual+ 'irst se"arately and t%en collectively#
T%ese t*o inds o' centrali-ation )utually assist and attract eac% ot%er6 but t%ey )ust not be su""osed to be
inse"arable# It is i)"ossible to i)a&ine a )ore co)"letely central &overn)ent t%an t%at *%ic% existed in 5rance
under 8ouis HID#6 *%en t%e sa)e individual *as t%e aut%or and t%e inter"reter o' t%e la*s+ and t%e
re"resentative o' 5rance at %o)e and abroad+ %e *as 7usti'ied in assertin& t%at t%e !tate *as identi'ied *it% %is
"erson# Nevert%eless+ t%e ad)inistration *as )uc% less centrali-ed under 8ouis HID# t%an it is at t%e "resent day#
In En&land t%e centrali-ation o' t%e &overn)ent is carried to &reat "er'ection6 t%e !tate %as t%e co)"act vi&or o'
a )an+ and by t%e sole act o' its *ill it "uts i))ense en&ines in )otion+ and *ields or collects t%e e''orts o' its
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aut%ority# Indeed+ I cannot conceive t%at a nation can en7oy a secure or "ros"erous existence *it%out a "o*er'ul
centrali-ation o' &overn)ent# But I a) o' o"inion t%at a central ad)inistration enervates t%e nations in *%ic% it
exists by incessantly di)inis%in& t%eir "ublic s"irit# I' suc% an ad)inistration succeeds in condensin& at a &iven
)o)ent+ on a &iven "oint+ all t%e dis"osable resources o' a "eo"le+ it i)"airs at least t%e rene*al o' t%ose
resources# It )ay ensure a victory in t%e %our o' stri'e+ but it &radually relaxes t%e sine*s o' stren&t%# It )ay
contribute ad)irably to t%e transient &reatness o' a )an+ but it cannot ensure t%e durable "ros"erity o' a nation#
I' *e "ay "ro"er attention+ *e s%all 'ind t%at *%enever it is said t%at a !tate cannot act because it %as no central
"oint+ it is t%e centrali-ation o' t%e &overn)ent in *%ic% it is de'icient# It is 'requently asserted+ and *e are
"re"ared to assent to t%e "ro"osition+ t%at t%e 9er)an e)"ire *as never able to brin& all its "o*ers into action#
But t%e reason *as+ t%at t%e !tate *as never able to en'orce obedience to its &eneral la*s+ because t%e several
)e)bers o' t%at &reat body al*ays clai)ed t%e ri&%t+ or 'ound t%e )eans+ o' re'usin& t%eir co1o"eration to t%e
re"resentatives o' t%e co))on aut%ority+ even in t%e a''airs *%ic% concerned t%e )ass o' t%e "eo"le6 in ot%er
*ords+ because t%ere *as no centrali-ation o' &overn)ent# T%e sa)e re)ar is a""licable to t%e Middle A&es6
t%e cause o' all t%e con'usion o' 'eudal society *as t%at t%e control+ not only o' local but o' &eneral interests+ *as
divided a)on&st a t%ousand %ands+ and broen u" in a t%ousand di''erent *ays6 t%e absence o' a central
&overn)ent "revented t%e nations o' Euro"e 'ro) advancin& *it% ener&y in any strai&%t'or*ard course#
,e %ave s%o*n t%at in t%e (nited !tates no central ad)inistration and no de"endent series o' "ublic
'unctionaries exist# 8ocal aut%ority %as been carried to len&t%s *%ic% no Euro"ean nation could endure *it%out
&reat inconvenience+ and *%ic% %as even "roduced so)e disadvanta&eous consequences in A)erica# But in t%e
(nited !tates t%e centrali-ation o' t%e 9overn)ent is co)"lete6 and it *ould be easy to "rove t%at t%e national
"o*er is )ore co)"act t%an it %as ever been in t%e old nations o' Euro"e# Not only is t%ere but one le&islative
body in eac% !tate6 not only does t%ere exist but one source o' "olitical aut%ority6 but district asse)blies and
county courts %ave not in &eneral been )ulti"lied+ lest t%ey s%ould be te)"ted to exceed t%eir ad)inistrative
duties+ and inter'ere *it% t%e 9overn)ent# In A)erica t%e le&islature o' eac% !tate is su"re)e6 not%in& can
i)"ede its aut%ority6 neit%er "rivile&es+ nor local i))unities+ nor "ersonal in'luence+ nor even t%e e)"ire o'
reason+ since it re"resents t%at )a7ority *%ic% clai)s to be t%e sole or&an o' reason# Its o*n deter)ination is+
t%ere'ore+ t%e only li)it to t%is action# In 7uxta"osition to it+ and under its i))ediate control+ is t%e re"resentative
o' t%e executive "o*er+ *%ose duty it is to constrain t%e re'ractory to sub)it by su"erior 'orce# T%e only
sy)"to) o' *eaness lies in certain details o' t%e action o' t%e 9overn)ent# T%e A)erican re"ublics %ave no
standin& ar)ies to inti)idate a discontented )inority6 but as no )inority %as as yet been reduced to declare o"en
*ar+ t%e necessity o' an ar)y %as not been 'elt# Kq T%e !tate usually e)"loys t%e o''icers o' t%e to*ns%i" or t%e
county to deal *it% t%e citi-ens# T%us+ 'or instance+ in Ne* En&land+ t%e assessor 'ixes t%e rate o' taxes6 t%e
collector receives t%e)6 t%e to*n1treasurer trans)its t%e a)ount to t%e "ublic treasury6 and t%e dis"utes *%ic%
)ay arise are brou&%t be'ore t%e ordinary courts o' 7ustice# T%is )et%od o' collectin& taxes is slo* as *ell as
inconvenient+ and it *ould "rove a "er"etual %indrance to a 9overn)ent *%ose "ecuniary de)ands *ere lar&e# It
is desirable t%at+ in *%atever )aterially a''ects its existence+ t%e 9overn)ent s%ould be served by o''icers o' its
o*n+ a""ointed by itsel'+ re)ovable at "leasure+ and accusto)ed to ra"id )et%ods o' "roceedin&# But it *ill
al*ays be easy 'or t%e central &overn)ent+ or&ani-ed as it is in A)erica+ to introduce ne* and )ore e''icacious
)odes o' action+ "ro"ortioned to its *ants# 35ootnote q@ 3T%e Civil ,ar o' ./;<1;C cruelly belied t%is state)ent+
and in t%e course o' t%e stru&&le t%e Nort% alone called t*o )illions and a %al' o' )en to ar)s6 but to t%e %onor
o' t%e (nited !tates it )ust be added t%at+ *it% t%e cessation o' t%e contest+ t%is ar)y disa""eared as ra"idly as it
%ad been raised#11TranslatorFs Note#44
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T%e absence o' a central &overn)ent *ill not+ t%en+ as %as o'ten been asserted+ "rove t%e destruction o' t%e
re"ublics o' t%e Ne* ,orld6 'ar 'ro) su""osin& t%at t%e A)erican &overn)ents are not su''iciently centrali-ed+ I
s%all "rove %erea'ter t%at t%ey are too )uc% so# T%e le&islative bodies daily encroac% u"on t%e aut%ority o' t%e
9overn)ent+ and t%eir tendency+ lie t%at o' t%e 5renc% Convention+ is to a""ro"riate it entirely to t%e)selves#
(nder t%ese circu)stances t%e social "o*er is constantly c%an&in& %ands+ because it is subordinate to t%e "o*er
o' t%e "eo"le+ *%ic% is too a"t to 'or&et t%e )axi)s o' *isdo) and o' 'oresi&%t in t%e consciousness o' its
stren&t%@ %ence arises its dan&er6 and t%us its vi&or+ and not its i)"otence+ *ill "robably be t%e cause o' its
ulti)ate destruction#
T%e syste) o' local ad)inistration "roduces several di''erent e''ects in A)erica# T%e A)ericans see) to )e to
%ave outste""ed t%e li)its o' sound "olicy in isolatin& t%e ad)inistration o' t%e 9overn)ent6 'or order+ even in
second1rate a''airs+ is a )atter o' national i)"ortance# Kr As t%e !tate %as no ad)inistrative 'unctionaries o' its
o*n+ stationed on di''erent "oints o' its territory+ to *%o) it can &ive a co))on i)"ulse+ t%e consequence is t%at
it rarely atte)"ts to issue any &eneral "olice re&ulations# T%e *ant o' t%ese re&ulations is severely 'elt+ and is
'requently observed by Euro"eans# T%e a""earance o' disorder *%ic% "revails on t%e sur'ace leads %i) at 'irst to
i)a&ine t%at society is in a state o' anarc%y6 nor does %e "erceive %is )istae till %e %as &one dee"er into t%e
sub7ect# Certain undertain&s are o' i)"ortance to t%e *%ole !tate6 but t%ey cannot be "ut in execution+ because
t%ere is no national ad)inistration to direct t%e)# Abandoned to t%e exertions o' t%e to*ns or counties+ under t%e
care o' elected or te)"orary a&ents+ t%ey lead to no result+ or at least to no durable bene'it#
35ootnote r@ T%e aut%ority *%ic% re"resents t%e !tate ou&%t not+ I t%in+ to *aive t%e ri&%t o' ins"ectin& t%e local
ad)inistration+ even *%en it does not inter'ere )ore actively# !u""ose+ 'or instance+ t%at an a&ent o' t%e
9overn)ent *as stationed at so)e a""ointed s"ot in t%e country+ to "rosecute t%e )isde)eanors o' t%e to*n and
county o''icers+ *ould not a )ore uni'or) order be t%e result+ *it%out in any *ay co)"ro)isin& t%e
inde"endence o' t%e to*ns%i"I Not%in& o' t%e ind+ %o*ever+ exists in A)erica@ t%ere is not%in& above t%e
county1courts+ *%ic% %ave+ as it *ere+ only an incidental co&ni-ance o' t%e o''ences t%ey are )eant to re"ress#4
T%e "artisans o' centrali-ation in Euro"e are *ont to )aintain t%at t%e 9overn)ent directs t%e a''airs o' eac%
locality better t%an t%e citi-ens could do it 'or t%e)selves6 t%is )ay be true *%en t%e central "o*er is
enli&%tened+ and *%en t%e local districts are i&norant6 *%en it is as alert as t%ey are slo*6 *%en it is accusto)ed
to act+ and t%ey to obey# Indeed+ it is evident t%at t%is double tendency )ust au&)ent *it% t%e increase o'
centrali-ation+ and t%at t%e readiness o' t%e one and t%e inca"acity o' t%e ot%ers )ust beco)e )ore and )ore
"ro)inent# But I deny t%at suc% is t%e case *%en t%e "eo"le is as enli&%tened+ as a*ae to its interests+ and as
accusto)ed to re'lect on t%e)+ as t%e A)ericans are# I a) "ersuaded+ on t%e contrary+ t%at in t%is case t%e
collective stren&t% o' t%e citi-ens *ill al*ays conduce )ore e''icaciously to t%e "ublic *el'are t%an t%e aut%ority
o' t%e 9overn)ent# It is di''icult to "oint out *it% certainty t%e )eans o' arousin& a slee"in& "o"ulation+ and o'
&ivin& it "assions and no*led&e *%ic% it does not "ossess6 it is+ I a) *ell a*are+ an arduous tas to "ersuade
)en to busy t%e)selves about t%eir o*n a''airs6 and it *ould 'requently be easier to interest t%e) in t%e
"unctilios o' court etiquette t%an in t%e re"airs o' t%eir co))on d*ellin&# But *%enever a central ad)inistration
a''ects to su"ersede t%e "ersons )ost interested+ I a) inclined to su""ose t%at it is eit%er )isled or desirous to
)islead# Ho*ever enli&%tened and %o*ever sil'ul a central "o*er )ay be+ it cannot o' itsel' e)brace all t%e
details o' t%e existence o' a &reat nation# !uc% vi&ilance exceeds t%e "o*ers o' )an# And *%en it atte)"ts to
create and set in )otion so )any co)"licated s"rin&s+ it )ust sub)it to a very i)"er'ect result+ or consu)e itsel'
in bootless e''orts#
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Centrali-ation succeeds )ore easily+ indeed+ in sub7ectin& t%e external actions o' )en to a certain uni'or)ity+
*%ic% at least co))ands our re&ard+ inde"endently o' t%e ob7ects to *%ic% it is a""lied+ lie t%ose devotees *%o
*ors%i" t%e statue and 'or&et t%e deity it re"resents# Centrali-ation i)"arts *it%out di''iculty an ad)irable
re&ularity to t%e routine o' business6 "rovides 'or t%e details o' t%e social "olice *it% sa&acity6 re"resses t%e
s)allest disorder and t%e )ost "etty )isde)eanors6 )aintains society in a status quo alie secure 'ro)
i)"rove)ent and decline6 and "er"etuates a dro*sy "recision in t%e conduct o' a''airs+ *%ic% is %ailed by t%e
%eads o' t%e ad)inistration as a si&n o' "er'ect order and "ublic tranquillity@ Ks in s%ort+ it excels )ore in
"revention t%an in action# Its 'orce deserts it *%en society is to be disturbed or accelerated in its course6 and i'
once t%e co1o"eration o' "rivate citi-ens is necessary to t%e 'urt%erance o' its )easures+ t%e secret o' its
i)"otence is disclosed# Even *%ilst it invoes t%eir assistance+ it is on t%e condition t%at t%ey s%all act exactly as
)uc% as t%e 9overn)ent c%ooses+ and exactly in t%e )anner it a""oints# T%ey are to tae c%ar&e o' t%e details+
*it%out as"irin& to &uide t%e syste)6 t%ey are to *or in a dar and subordinate s"%ere+ and only to 7ud&e t%e
acts in *%ic% t%ey %ave t%e)selves coo"erated by t%eir results# T%ese+ %o*ever+ are not conditions on *%ic% t%e
alliance o' t%e %u)an *ill is to be obtained6 its carria&e )ust be 'ree and its actions res"onsible+ or >suc% is t%e
constitution o' )an? t%e citi-en %ad rat%er re)ain a "assive s"ectator t%an a de"endent actor in sc%e)es *it%
*%ic% %e is unacquainted#
35ootnote s@ C%ina a""ears to )e to "resent t%e )ost "er'ect instance o' t%at s"ecies o' *ell1bein& *%ic% a
co)"letely central ad)inistration )ay 'urnis% to t%e nations a)on& *%ic% it exists# Travellers assure us t%at t%e
C%inese %ave "eace *it%out %a""iness+ industry *it%out i)"rove)ent+ stability *it%out stren&t%+ and "ublic
order *it%out "ublic )orality# T%e condition o' society is al*ays tolerable+ never excellent# I a) convinced t%at+
*%en C%ina is o"ened to Euro"ean observation+ it *ill be 'ound to contain t%e )ost "er'ect )odel o' a central
ad)inistration *%ic% exists in t%e universe#4
It is undeniable t%at t%e *ant o' t%ose uni'or) re&ulations *%ic% control t%e conduct o' every in%abitant o'
5rance is not un'requently 'elt in t%e (nited !tates# 9ross instances o' social indi''erence and ne&lect are to be
)et *it%+ and 'ro) ti)e to ti)e dis&race'ul ble)is%es are seen in co)"lete contrast *it% t%e surroundin&
civili-ation# (se'ul undertain&s *%ic% cannot succeed *it%out "er"etual attention and ri&orous exactitude are
very 'requently abandoned in t%e end6 'or in A)erica+ as *ell as in ot%er countries+ t%e "eo"le is sub7ect to
sudden i)"ulses and )o)entary exertions# T%e Euro"ean *%o is accusto)ed to 'ind a 'unctionary al*ays at
%and to inter'ere *it% all %e undertaes %as so)e di''iculty in accusto)in& %i)sel' to t%e co)"lex )ec%anis) o'
t%e ad)inistration o' t%e to*ns%i"s# In &eneral it )ay be a''ir)ed t%at t%e lesser details o' t%e "olice+ *%ic%
render li'e easy and co)'ortable+ are ne&lected in A)erica6 but t%at t%e essential &uarantees o' )an in society are
as stron& t%ere as else*%ere# In A)erica t%e "o*er *%ic% conducts t%e 9overn)ent is 'ar less re&ular+ less
enli&%tened+ and less learned+ but an %undred'old )ore aut%oritative t%an in Euro"e# In no country in t%e *orld
do t%e citi-ens )ae suc% exertions 'or t%e co))on *eal6 and I a) acquainted *it% no "eo"le *%ic% %as
establis%ed sc%ools as nu)erous and as e''icacious+ "laces o' "ublic *ors%i" better suited to t%e *ants o' t%e
in%abitants+ or roads e"t in better re"air# (ni'or)ity or "er)anence o' desi&n+ t%e )inute arran&e)ent o'
details+ Kt and t%e "er'ection o' an in&enious ad)inistration+ )ust not be sou&%t 'or in t%e (nited !tates6 but it
*ill be easy to 'ind+ on t%e ot%er %and+ t%e sy)"to)s o' a "o*er *%ic%+ i' it is so)e*%at barbarous+ is at least
robust6 and o' an existence *%ic% is c%ecered *it% accidents indeed+ but c%eered at t%e sa)e ti)e by ani)ation
and e''ort#
35ootnote t@ A *riter o' talent+ *%o+ in t%e co)"arison *%ic% %e %as dra*n bet*een t%e 'inances o' 5rance and
t%ose o' t%e (nited !tates+ %as "roved t%at in&enuity cannot al*ays su""ly t%e "lace o' a no*led&e o' 'acts+
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very 7ustly re"roac%es t%e A)ericans 'or t%e sort o' con'usion *%ic% exists in t%e accounts o' t%e ex"enditure in
t%e to*ns%i"s6 and a'ter &ivin& t%e )odel o' a de"art)ental bud&et in 5rance+ %e adds@112,e are indebted to
centrali-ation+ t%at ad)irable invention o' a &reat )an+ 'or t%e uni'or) order and )et%od *%ic% "revail alie in
all t%e )unici"al bud&ets+ 'ro) t%e lar&est to*n to t%e %u)blest co))une#2 ,%atever )ay be )y ad)iration o'
t%is result+ *%en I see t%e co))unes o' 5rance+ *it% t%eir excellent syste) o' accounts+ "lun&ed into t%e &rossest
i&norance o' t%eir true interests+ and abandoned to so incorri&ible an a"at%y t%at t%ey see) to ve&etate rat%er t%an
to live6 *%en+ on t%e ot%er %and+ I observe t%e activity+ t%e in'or)ation+ and t%e s"irit o' enter"rise *%ic% ee"
society in "er"etual labor+ in t%ose A)erican to*ns%i"s *%ose bud&ets are dra*n u" *it% s)all )et%od and *it%
still less uni'or)ity+ I a) struc by t%e s"ectacle6 'or to )y )ind t%e end o' a &ood &overn)ent is to ensure t%e
*el'are o' a "eo"le+ and not to establis% order and re&ularity in t%e )idst o' its )isery and its distress# I a)
t%ere'ore led to su""ose t%at t%e "ros"erity o' t%e A)erican to*ns%i"s and t%e a""arent con'usion o' t%eir
accounts+ t%e distress o' t%e 5renc% co))unes and t%e "er'ection o' t%eir bud&et+ )ay be attributable to t%e sa)e
cause# At any rate I a) sus"icious o' a bene'it *%ic% is united to so )any evils+ and I a) not averse to an evil
*%ic% is co)"ensated by so )any bene'its#4
9rantin& 'or an instant t%at t%e villa&es and counties o' t%e (nited !tates *ould be )ore use'ully &overned by a
re)ote aut%ority *%ic% t%ey %ad never seen t%an by 'unctionaries taen 'ro) t%e )idst o' t%e)11ad)ittin&+ 'or
t%e sae o' ar&u)ent+ t%at t%e country *ould be )ore secure+ and t%e resources o' society better e)"loyed+ i' t%e
*%ole ad)inistration centred in a sin&le ar)11still t%e "olitical advanta&es *%ic% t%e A)ericans derive 'ro)
t%eir syste) *ould induce )e to "re'er it to t%e contrary "lan# It "ro'its )e but little+ a'ter all+ t%at a vi&ilant
aut%ority s%ould "rotect t%e tranquillity o' )y "leasures and constantly avert all dan&ers 'ro) )y "at%+ *it%out
)y care or )y concern+ i' t%is sa)e aut%ority is t%e absolute )istress o' )y liberty and o' )y li'e+ and i' it so
)ono"oli-es all t%e ener&y o' existence t%at *%en it lan&uis%es everyt%in& lan&uis%es around it+ t%at *%en it
slee"s everyt%in& )ust slee"+ t%at *%en it dies t%e !tate itsel' )ust "eris%#
In certain countries o' Euro"e t%e natives consider t%e)selves as a ind o' settlers+ indi''erent to t%e 'ate o' t%e
s"ot u"on *%ic% t%ey live# T%e &reatest c%an&es are e''ected *it%out t%eir concurrence and >unless c%ance )ay
%ave a""rised t%e) o' t%e event? *it%out t%eir no*led&e6 nay )ore+ t%e citi-en is unconcerned as to t%e
condition o' %is villa&e+ t%e "olice o' %is street+ t%e re"airs o' t%e c%urc% or o' t%e "arsona&e6 'or %e loos u"on
all t%ese t%in&s as unconnected *it% %i)sel'+ and as t%e "ro"erty o' a "o*er'ul stran&er *%o) %e calls t%e
9overn)ent# He %as only a li'e1interest in t%ese "ossessions+ and %e entertains no notions o' o*ners%i" or o'
i)"rove)ent# T%is *ant o' interest in %is o*n a''airs &oes so 'ar t%at+ i' %is o*n sa'ety or t%at o' %is c%ildren is
endan&ered+ instead o' tryin& to avert t%e "eril+ %e *ill 'old %is ar)s+ and *ait till t%e nation co)es to %is
assistance# T%is sa)e individual+ *%o %as so co)"letely sacri'iced %is o*n 'ree *ill+ %as no natural "ro"ensity to
obedience6 %e co*ers+ it is true+ be'ore t%e "ettiest o''icer6 but %e braves t%e la* *it% t%e s"irit o' a conquered
'oe as soon as its su"erior 'orce is re)oved@ %is oscillations bet*een servitude and license are "er"etual# ,%en a
nation %as arrived at t%is state it )ust eit%er c%an&e its custo)s and its la*s or "eris%@ t%e source o' "ublic virtue
is dry+ and+ t%ou&% it )ay contain sub7ects+ t%e race o' citi-ens is extinct# !uc% co))unities are a natural "rey to
'orei&n conquests+ and i' t%ey do not disa""ear 'ro) t%e scene o' li'e+ it is because t%ey are surrounded by ot%er
nations si)ilar or in'erior to t%e)selves@ it is because t%e instinctive 'eelin& o' t%eir countryFs clai)s still exists
in t%eir %earts6 and because an involuntary "ride in t%e na)e it bears+ or a va&ue re)iniscence o' its by&one
'a)e+ su''ices to &ive t%e) t%e i)"ulse o' sel'1"reservation#
Nor can t%e "rodi&ious exertions )ade by tribes in t%e de'ence o' a country to *%ic% t%ey did not belon& be
adduced in 'avor o' suc% a syste)6 'or it *ill be 'ound t%at in t%ese cases t%eir )ain incite)ent *as reli&ion# T%e
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"er)anence+ t%e &lory+ or t%e "ros"erity o' t%e nation *ere beco)e "arts o' t%eir 'ait%+ and in de'endin& t%e
country t%ey in%abited t%ey de'ended t%at Holy City o' *%ic% t%ey *ere all citi-ens# T%e Turis% tribes %ave
never taen an active s%are in t%e conduct o' t%e a''airs o' society+ but t%ey acco)"lis%ed stu"endous enter"rises
as lon& as t%e victories o' t%e !ultan *ere t%e triu)"%s o' t%e Mo%a))edan 'ait%# In t%e "resent a&e t%ey are in
ra"id decay+ because t%eir reli&ion is de"artin&+ and des"otis) only re)ains# Montesquieu+ *%o attributed to
absolute "o*er an aut%ority "eculiar to itsel'+ did it+ as I conceive+ an undeserved %onor6 'or des"otis)+ taen by
itsel'+ can "roduce no durable results# On close ins"ection *e s%all 'ind t%at reli&ion+ and not 'ear+ %as ever been
t%e cause o' t%e lon&1lived "ros"erity o' an absolute &overn)ent# ,%atever exertions )ay be )ade+ no true
"o*er can be 'ounded a)on& )en *%ic% does not de"end u"on t%e 'ree union o' t%eir inclinations6 and
"atriotis) and reli&ion are t%e only t*o )otives in t%e *orld *%ic% can "er)anently direct t%e *%ole o' a body
"olitic to one end#
8a*s cannot succeed in reindlin& t%e ardor o' an extin&uis%ed 'ait%+ but )en )ay be interested in t%e 'ate o'
t%eir country by t%e la*s# By t%is in'luence t%e va&ue i)"ulse o' "atriotis)+ *%ic% never abandons t%e %u)an
%eart+ )ay be directed and revived6 and i' it be connected *it% t%e t%ou&%ts+ t%e "assions+ and t%e daily %abits o'
li'e+ it )ay be consolidated into a durable and rational senti)ent#
8et it not be said t%at t%e ti)e 'or t%e ex"eri)ent is already "ast6 'or t%e old a&e o' nations is not lie t%e old a&e
o' )en+ and every 'res% &eneration is a ne* "eo"le ready 'or t%e care o' t%e le&islator#
It is not t%e ad)inistrative but t%e "olitical e''ects o' t%e local syste) t%at I )ost ad)ire in A)erica# In t%e
(nited !tates t%e interests o' t%e country are every*%ere e"t in vie*6 t%ey are an ob7ect o' solicitude to t%e
"eo"le o' t%e *%ole (nion+ and every citi-en is as *ar)ly attac%ed to t%e) as i' t%ey *ere %is o*n# He taes
"ride in t%e &lory o' %is nation6 %e boasts o' its success+ to *%ic% %e conceives %i)sel' to %ave contributed+ and
%e re7oices in t%e &eneral "ros"erity by *%ic% %e "ro'its# T%e 'eelin& %e entertains to*ards t%e !tate is analo&ous
to t%at *%ic% unites %i) to %is 'a)ily+ and it is by a ind o' e&otis) t%at %e interests %i)sel' in t%e *el'are o' %is
country#
T%e Euro"ean &enerally sub)its to a "ublic o''icer because %e re"resents a su"erior 'orce6 but to an A)erican %e
re"resents a ri&%t# In A)erica it )ay be said t%at no one renders obedience to )an+ but to 7ustice and to la*# I'
t%e o"inion *%ic% t%e citi-en entertains o' %i)sel' is exa&&erated+ it is at least salutary6 %e un%esitatin&ly
con'ides in %is o*n "o*ers+ *%ic% a""ear to %i) to be all1su''icient# ,%en a "rivate individual )editates an
undertain&+ %o*ever directly connected it )ay be *it% t%e *el'are o' society+ %e never t%ins o' solicitin& t%e
co1o"eration o' t%e 9overn)ent+ but %e "ublis%es %is "lan+ o''ers to execute it %i)sel'+ courts t%e assistance o'
ot%er individuals+ and stru&&les )an'ully a&ainst all obstacles# (ndoubtedly %e is o'ten less success'ul t%an t%e
!tate )i&%t %ave been in %is "osition6 but in t%e end t%e su) o' t%ese "rivate undertain&s 'ar exceeds all t%at t%e
9overn)ent could %ave done#
As t%e ad)inistrative aut%ority is *it%in t%e reac% o' t%e citi-ens+ *%o) it in so)e de&ree re"resents+ it excites
neit%er t%eir 7ealousy nor t%eir %atred6 as its resources are li)ited+ every one 'eels t%at %e )ust not rely solely on
its assistance# T%us+ *%en t%e ad)inistration t%ins 'it to inter'ere+ it is not abandoned to itsel' as in Euro"e6 t%e
duties o' t%e "rivate citi-ens are not su""osed to %ave la"sed because t%e !tate assists in t%eir 'ul'il)ent+ but
every one is ready+ on t%e contrary+ to &uide and to su""ort it# T%is action o' individual exertions+ 7oined to t%at
o' t%e "ublic aut%orities+ 'requently "er'or)s *%at t%e )ost ener&etic central ad)inistration *ould be unable to
execute# It *ould be easy to adduce several 'acts in "roo' o' *%at I advance+ but I %ad rat%er &ive only one+ *it%
*%ic% I a) )ore t%orou&%ly acquainted# Ku In A)erica t%e )eans *%ic% t%e aut%orities %ave at t%eir dis"osal 'or
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t%e discovery o' cri)es and t%e arrest o' cri)inals are 'e*# T%e !tate "olice does not exist+ and "ass"orts are
unno*n# T%e cri)inal "olice o' t%e (nited !tates cannot be co)"ared to t%at o' 5rance6 t%e )a&istrates and
"ublic "rosecutors are not nu)erous+ and t%e exa)inations o' "risoners are ra"id and oral# Nevert%eless in no
country does cri)e )ore rarely elude "unis%)ent# T%e reason is+ t%at every one conceives %i)sel' to be
interested in 'urnis%in& evidence o' t%e act co))itted+ and in sto""in& t%e delinquent# Durin& )y stay in t%e
(nited !tates I *itnessed t%e s"ontaneous 'or)ation o' co))ittees 'or t%e "ursuit and "rosecution o' a )an *%o
%ad co))itted a &reat cri)e in a certain county# In Euro"e a cri)inal is an un%a""y bein& *%o is stru&&lin& 'or
%is li'e a&ainst t%e )inisters o' 7ustice+ *%ilst t%e "o"ulation is )erely a s"ectator o' t%e con'lict6 in A)erica %e
is looed u"on as an ene)y o' t%e %u)an race+ and t%e *%ole o' )anind is a&ainst %i)#
35ootnote u@ !ee A""endix+ I#4
I believe t%at "rovincial institutions are use'ul to all nations+ but no*%ere do t%ey a""ear to )e to be )ore
indis"ensable t%an a)on&st a de)ocratic "eo"le# In an aristocracy order can al*ays be )aintained in t%e )idst
o' liberty+ and as t%e rulers %ave a &reat deal to lose order is to t%e) a 'irst1rate consideration# In lie )anner an
aristocracy "rotects t%e "eo"le 'ro) t%e excesses o' des"otis)+ because it al*ays "ossesses an or&ani-ed "o*er
ready to resist a des"ot# But a de)ocracy *it%out "rovincial institutions %as no security a&ainst t%ese evils# Ho*
can a "o"ulace+ unaccusto)ed to 'reedo) in s)all concerns+ learn to use it te)"erately in &reat a''airsI ,%at
resistance can be o''ered to tyranny in a country *%ere every "rivate individual is i)"otent+ and *%ere t%e
citi-ens are united by no co))on tieI T%ose *%o dread t%e license o' t%e )ob+ and t%ose *%o 'ear t%e rule o'
absolute "o*er+ ou&%t alie to desire t%e "ro&ressive &ro*t% o' "rovincial liberties#
On t%e ot%er %and+ I a) convinced t%at de)ocratic nations are )ost ex"osed to 'all beneat% t%e yoe o' a central
ad)inistration+ 'or several reasons+ a)on&st *%ic% is t%e 'ollo*in&# T%e constant tendency o' t%ese nations is to
concentrate all t%e stren&t% o' t%e 9overn)ent in t%e %ands o' t%e only "o*er *%ic% directly re"resents t%e
"eo"le+ because beyond t%e "eo"le not%in& is to be "erceived but a )ass o' equal individuals con'ounded
to&et%er# But *%en t%e sa)e "o*er is already in "ossession o' all t%e attributes o' t%e 9overn)ent+ it can
scarcely re'rain 'ro) "enetratin& into t%e details o' t%e ad)inistration+ and an o""ortunity o' doin& so is sure to
"resent itsel' in t%e end+ as *as t%e case in 5rance# In t%e 5renc% Revolution t%ere *ere t*o i)"ulses in o""osite
directions+ *%ic% )ust never be con'ounded11t%e one *as 'avorable to liberty+ t%e ot%er to des"otis)# (nder t%e
ancient )onarc%y t%e Lin& *as t%e sole aut%or o' t%e la*s+ and belo* t%e "o*er o' t%e soverei&n certain
vesti&es o' "rovincial institutions+ %al' destroyed+ *ere still distin&uis%able# T%ese "rovincial institutions *ere
inco%erent+ ill co)"acted+ and 'requently absurd6 in t%e %ands o' t%e aristocracy t%ey %ad so)eti)es been
converted into instru)ents o' o""ression# T%e Revolution declared itsel' t%e ene)y o' royalty and o' "rovincial
institutions at t%e sa)e ti)e6 it con'ounded all t%at %ad "receded it11des"otic "o*er and t%e c%ecs to its abuses11
in indiscri)inate %atred+ and its tendency *as at once to overt%ro* and to centrali-e# T%is double c%aracter o' t%e
5renc% Revolution is a 'act *%ic% %as been adroitly %andled by t%e 'riends o' absolute "o*er# Can t%ey be
accused o' laborin& in t%e cause o' des"otis) *%en t%ey are de'endin& t%at central ad)inistration *%ic% *as one
o' t%e &reat innovations o' t%e RevolutionI Kv In t%is )anner "o"ularity )ay be conciliated *it% %ostility to t%e
ri&%ts o' t%e "eo"le+ and t%e secret slave o' tyranny )ay be t%e "ro'essed ad)irer o' 'reedo)#
35ootnote v@ !ee A""endix L#4
I %ave visited t%e t*o nations in *%ic% t%e syste) o' "rovincial liberty %as been )ost "er'ectly establis%ed+ and I
%ave listened to t%e o"inions o' di''erent "arties in t%ose countries# In A)erica I )et *it% )en *%o secretly
as"ired to destroy t%e de)ocratic institutions o' t%e (nion6 in En&land I 'ound ot%ers *%o attaced t%e
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aristocracy o"enly+ but I no* o' no one *%o does not re&ard "rovincial inde"endence as a &reat bene'it# In bot%
countries I %ave %eard a t%ousand di''erent causes assi&ned 'or t%e evils o' t%e !tate+ but t%e local syste) *as
never )entioned a)on&st t%e)# I %ave %eard citi-ens attribute t%e "o*er and "ros"erity o' t%eir country to a
)ultitude o' reasons+ but t%ey all "laced t%e advanta&es o' local institutions in t%e 'ore)ost ran# A) I to
su""ose t%at *%en )en *%o are naturally so divided on reli&ious o"inions and on "olitical t%eories a&ree on one
"oint >and t%at one o' *%ic% t%ey %ave daily ex"erience?+ t%ey are all in errorI T%e only nations *%ic% deny t%e
utility o' "rovincial liberties are t%ose *%ic% %ave 'e*est o' t%e)6 in ot%er *ords+ t%ose *%o are unacquainted
*it% t%e institution are t%e only "ersons *%o "ass a censure u"on it#
Chapter VI
@ $udicial :o*er In T%e (nited !tates
Chapter Summary
T%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave retained t%e c%aracteristics o' 7udicial "o*er *%ic% are co))on to all nations11T%ey
%ave+ %o*ever+ )ade it a "o*er'ul "olitical or&an11Ho*11In *%at t%e 7udicial syste) o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans
di''ers 'ro) t%at o' all ot%er nations11,%y t%e A)erican 7ud&es %ave t%e ri&%t o' declarin& t%e la*s to be
unconstitutional11Ho* t%ey use t%is ri&%t11:recautions taen by t%e le&islator to "revent its abuse#
$udicial :o*er In T%e (nited !tates And Its In'luence On :olitical !ociety#
I %ave t%ou&%t it essential to devote a se"arate c%a"ter to t%e 7udicial aut%orities o' t%e (nited !tates+ lest t%eir
&reat "olitical i)"ortance s%ould be lessened in t%e readerFs eyes by a )erely incidental )ention o' t%e)#
Con'ederations %ave existed in ot%er countries beside A)erica+ and re"ublics %ave not been establis%ed u"on t%e
s%ores o' t%e Ne* ,orld alone6 t%e re"resentative syste) o' &overn)ent %as been ado"ted in several !tates o'
Euro"e+ but I a) not a*are t%at any nation o' t%e &lobe %as %it%erto or&ani-ed a 7udicial "o*er on t%e "rinci"le
no* ado"ted by t%e A)ericans# T%e 7udicial or&ani-ation o' t%e (nited !tates is t%e institution *%ic% a stran&er
%as t%e &reatest di''iculty in understandin&# He %ears t%e aut%ority o' a 7ud&e invoed in t%e "olitical occurrences
o' every day+ and %e naturally concludes t%at in t%e (nited !tates t%e 7ud&es are i)"ortant "olitical 'unctionaries6
nevert%eless+ *%en %e exa)ines t%e nature o' t%e tribunals+ t%ey o''er not%in& *%ic% is contrary to t%e usual
%abits and "rivile&es o' t%ose bodies+ and t%e )a&istrates see) to %i) to inter'ere in "ublic a''airs o' c%ance+ but
by a c%ance *%ic% recurs every day#
,%en t%e :arlia)ent o' :aris re)onstrated+ or re'used to enre&ister an edict+ or *%en it su))oned a 'unctionary
accused o' )alversation to its bar+ its "olitical in'luence as a 7udicial body *as clearly visible6 but not%in& o' t%e
ind is to be seen in t%e (nited !tates# T%e A)ericans %ave retained all t%e ordinary c%aracteristics o' 7udicial
aut%ority+ and %ave care'ully restricted its action to t%e ordinary circle o' its 'unctions#
T%e 'irst c%aracteristic o' 7udicial "o*er in all nations is t%e duty o' arbitration# But ri&%ts )ust be contested in
order to *arrant t%e inter'erence o' a tribunal6 and an action )ust be brou&%t to obtain t%e decision o' a 7ud&e# As
lon&+ t%ere'ore+ as t%e la* is uncontested+ t%e 7udicial aut%ority is not called u"on to discuss it+ and it )ay exist
*it%out bein& "erceived# ,%en a 7ud&e in a &iven case attacs a la* relatin& to t%at case+ %e extends t%e circle o'
%is custo)ary duties+ *it%out %o*ever ste""in& beyond it6 since %e is in so)e )easure obli&ed to decide u"on
t%e la* in order to decide t%e case# But i' %e "ronounces u"on a la* *it%out restin& u"on a case+ %e clearly ste"s
beyond %is s"%ere+ and invades t%at o' t%e le&islative aut%ority#
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T%e second c%aracteristic o' 7udicial "o*er is t%at it "ronounces on s"ecial cases+ and not u"on &eneral
"rinci"les# I' a 7ud&e in decidin& a "articular "oint destroys a &eneral "rinci"le+ by "assin& a 7ud&)ent *%ic%
tends to re7ect all t%e in'erences 'ro) t%at "rinci"le+ and consequently to annul it+ %e re)ains *it%in t%e ordinary
li)its o' %is 'unctions# But i' %e directly attacs a &eneral "rinci"le *it%out %avin& a "articular case in vie*+ %e
leaves t%e circle in *%ic% all nations %ave a&reed to con'ine %is aut%ority+ %e assu)es a )ore i)"ortant+ and
"er%a"s a )ore use'ul+ in'luence t%an t%at o' t%e )a&istrate+ but %e ceases to be a re"resentative o' t%e 7udicial
"o*er#
T%e t%ird c%aracteristic o' t%e 7udicial "o*er is its inability to act unless it is a""ealed to+ or until it %as taen
co&ni-ance o' an a''air# T%is c%aracteristic is less &eneral t%an t%e ot%er t*o6 but+ not*it%standin& t%e exce"tions+
I t%in it )ay be re&arded as essential# T%e 7udicial "o*er is by its nature devoid o' action6 it )ust be "ut in
)otion in order to "roduce a result# ,%en it is called u"on to re"ress a cri)e+ it "unis%es t%e cri)inal6 *%en a
*ron& is to be redressed+ it is ready to redress it6 *%en an act requires inter"retation+ it is "re"ared to inter"ret it6
but it does not "ursue cri)inals+ %unt out *ron&s+ or exa)ine into evidence o' its o*n accord# A 7udicial
'unctionary *%o s%ould o"en "roceedin&s+ and usur" t%e censors%i" o' t%e la*s+ *ould in so)e )easure do
violence to t%e "assive nature o' %is aut%ority#
T%e A)ericans %ave retained t%ese t%ree distin&uis%in& c%aracteristics o' t%e 7udicial "o*er6 an A)erican 7ud&e
can only "ronounce a decision *%en liti&ation %as arisen+ %e is only conversant *it% s"ecial cases+ and %e cannot
act until t%e cause %as been duly brou&%t be'ore t%e court# His "osition is t%ere'ore "er'ectly si)ilar to t%at o' t%e
)a&istrate o' ot%er nations6 and %e is nevert%eless invested *it% i))ense "olitical "o*er# I' t%e s"%ere o' %is
aut%ority and %is )eans o' action are t%e sa)e as t%ose o' ot%er 7ud&es+ it )ay be ased *%ence %e derives a
"o*er *%ic% t%ey do not "ossess# T%e cause o' t%is di''erence lies in t%e si)"le 'act t%at t%e A)ericans %ave
acno*led&ed t%e ri&%t o' t%e 7ud&es to 'ound t%eir decisions on t%e constitution rat%er t%an on t%e la*s# In ot%er
*ords+ t%ey %ave le't t%e) at liberty not to a""ly suc% la*s as )ay a""ear to t%e) to be unconstitutional#
I a) a*are t%at a si)ilar ri&%t %as been clai)ed11but clai)ed in vain11by courts o' 7ustice in ot%er countries6 but
in A)erica it is reco&ni-ed by all aut%orities6 and not a "arty+ nor so )uc% as an individual+ is 'ound to contest it#
T%is 'act can only be ex"lained by t%e "rinci"les o' t%e A)erican constitution# In 5rance t%e constitution is >or at
least is su""osed to be? i))utable6 and t%e received t%eory is t%at no "o*er %as t%e ri&%t o' c%an&in& any "art o'
it# In En&land t%e :arlia)ent %as an acno*led&ed ri&%t to )odi'y t%e constitution6 as+ t%ere'ore+ t%e constitution
)ay under&o "er"etual c%an&es+ it does not in reality exist6 t%e :arlia)ent is at once a le&islative and a
constituent asse)bly# T%e "olitical t%eories o' A)erica are )ore si)"le and )ore rational# An A)erican
constitution is not su""osed to be i))utable as in 5rance+ nor is it susce"tible o' )odi'ication by t%e ordinary
"o*ers o' society as in En&land# It constitutes a detac%ed *%ole+ *%ic%+ as it re"resents t%e deter)ination o' t%e
*%ole "eo"le+ is no less bindin& on t%e le&islator t%an on t%e "rivate citi-en+ but *%ic% )ay be altered by t%e *ill
o' t%e "eo"le in "redeter)ined cases+ accordin& to establis%ed rules# In A)erica t%e constitution )ay t%ere'ore
vary+ but as lon& as it exists it is t%e ori&in o' all aut%ority+ and t%e sole ve%icle o' t%e "redo)inatin& 'orce# Ka
35ootnote a@ 3T%e 'i't% article o' t%e ori&inal Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates "rovides t%e )ode in *%ic%
a)end)ents o' t%e Constitution )ay be )ade# A)end)ents )ust be "ro"osed by t*o1t%irds o' bot% Houses o'
Con&ress+ and rati'ied by t%e 8e&islatures o' t%ree1'ourt%s o' t%e several !tates# 5i'teen a)end)ents o' t%e
Constitution %ave been )ade at di''erent ti)es since .=/B+ t%e )ost i)"ortant o' *%ic% are t%e T%irteent%+
5ourteent%+ and 5i'teent%+ 'ra)ed and rati'ied a'ter t%e Civil ,ar# T%e ori&inal Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates+
'ollo*ed by t%ese 'i'teen a)end)ents+ is "rinted at t%e end o' t%is edition# 11TranslatorFs Note+ ./=G#44
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It is easy to "erceive in *%at )anner t%ese di''erences )ust act u"on t%e "osition and t%e ri&%ts o' t%e 7udicial
bodies in t%e t%ree countries I %ave cited# I' in 5rance t%e tribunals *ere aut%ori-ed to disobey t%e la*s on t%e
&round o' t%eir bein& o""osed to t%e constitution+ t%e su"re)e "o*er *ould in 'act be "laced in t%eir %ands+
since t%ey alone *ould %ave t%e ri&%t o' inter"retin& a constitution+ t%e clauses o' *%ic% can be )odi'ied by no
aut%ority# T%ey *ould t%ere'ore tae t%e "lace o' t%e nation+ and exercise as absolute a s*ay over society as t%e
in%erent *eaness o' 7udicial "o*er *ould allo* t%e) to do# (ndoubtedly+ as t%e 5renc% 7ud&es are inco)"etent
to declare a la* to be unconstitutional+ t%e "o*er o' c%an&in& t%e constitution is indirectly &iven to t%e
le&islative body+ since no le&al barrier *ould o""ose t%e alterations *%ic% it )i&%t "rescribe# But it is better to
&rant t%e "o*er o' c%an&in& t%e constitution o' t%e "eo"le to )en *%o re"resent >%o*ever i)"er'ectly? t%e *ill
o' t%e "eo"le+ t%an to )en *%o re"resent no one but t%e)selves#
It *ould be still )ore unreasonable to invest t%e En&lis% 7ud&es *it% t%e ri&%t o' resistin& t%e decisions o' t%e
le&islative body+ since t%e :arlia)ent *%ic% )aes t%e la*s also )aes t%e constitution6 and consequently a la*
e)anatin& 'ro) t%e t%ree "o*ers o' t%e !tate can in no case be unconstitutional# But neit%er o' t%ese re)ars is
a""licable to A)erica#
In t%e (nited !tates t%e constitution &overns t%e le&islator as )uc% as t%e "rivate citi-en6 as it is t%e 'irst o' la*s
it cannot be )odi'ied by a la*+ and it is t%ere'ore 7ust t%at t%e tribunals s%ould obey t%e constitution in "re'erence
to any la*# T%is condition is essential to t%e "o*er o' t%e 7udicature+ 'or to select t%at le&al obli&ation by *%ic%
%e is )ost strictly bound is t%e natural ri&%t o' every )a&istrate#
In 5rance t%e constitution is also t%e 'irst o' la*s+ and t%e 7ud&es %ave t%e sa)e ri&%t to tae it as t%e &round o'
t%eir decisions+ but *ere t%ey to exercise t%is ri&%t t%ey )ust "er'orce encroac% on ri&%ts )ore sacred t%an t%eir
o*n+ na)ely+ on t%ose o' society+ in *%ose na)e t%ey are actin&# In t%is case t%e !tate1)otive clearly "revails
over t%e )otives o' an individual# In A)erica+ *%ere t%e nation can al*ays reduce its )a&istrates to obedience
by c%an&in& its constitution+ no dan&er o' t%is ind is to be 'eared# ("on t%is "oint+ t%ere'ore+ t%e "olitical and
t%e lo&ical reasons a&ree+ and t%e "eo"le as *ell as t%e 7ud&es "reserve t%eir "rivile&es#
,%enever a la* *%ic% t%e 7ud&e %olds to be unconstitutional is ar&ued in a tribunal o' t%e (nited !tates %e )ay
re'use to ad)it it as a rule6 t%is "o*er is t%e only one *%ic% is "eculiar to t%e A)erican )a&istrate+ but it &ives
rise to i))ense "olitical in'luence# 5e* la*s can esca"e t%e searc%in& analysis o' t%e 7udicial "o*er 'or any
len&t% o' ti)e+ 'or t%ere are 'e* *%ic% are not "re7udicial to so)e "rivate interest or ot%er+ and none *%ic% )ay
not be brou&%t be'ore a court o' 7ustice by t%e c%oice o' "arties+ or by t%e necessity o' t%e case# But 'ro) t%e ti)e
t%at a 7ud&e %as re'used to a""ly any &iven la* in a case+ t%at la* loses a "ortion o' its )oral co&ency# T%e
"ersons to *%ose interests it is "re7udicial learn t%at )eans exist o' evadin& its aut%ority+ and si)ilar suits are
)ulti"lied+ until it beco)es "o*erless# One o' t*o alternatives )ust t%en be resorted to@ t%e "eo"le )ust alter t%e
constitution+ or t%e le&islature )ust re"eal t%e la*# T%e "olitical "o*er *%ic% t%e A)ericans %ave intrusted to
t%eir courts o' 7ustice is t%ere'ore i))ense+ but t%e evils o' t%is "o*er are considerably di)inis%ed by t%e
obli&ation *%ic% %as been i)"osed o' attacin& t%e la*s t%rou&% t%e courts o' 7ustice alone# I' t%e 7ud&e %ad
been e)"o*ered to contest t%e la*s on t%e &round o' t%eoretical &eneralities+ i' %e %ad been enabled to o"en an
attac or to "ass a censure on t%e le&islator+ %e *ould %ave "layed a "ro)inent "art in t%e "olitical s"%ere6 and as
t%e c%a)"ion or t%e anta&onist o' a "arty+ %e *ould %ave arrayed t%e %ostile "assions o' t%e nation in t%e con'lict#
But *%en a 7ud&e contests a la* a""lied to so)e "articular case in an obscure "roceedin&+ t%e i)"ortance o' %is
attac is concealed 'ro) t%e "ublic &a-e+ %is decision bears u"on t%e interest o' an individual+ and i' t%e la* is
sli&%ted it is only collaterally# Moreover+ alt%ou&% it is censured+ it is not abolis%ed6 its )oral 'orce )ay be
di)inis%ed+ but its co&ency is by no )eans sus"ended+ and its 'inal destruction can only be acco)"lis%ed by t%e
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reiterated attacs o' 7udicial 'unctionaries# It *ill readily be understood t%at by connectin& t%e censors%i" o' t%e
la*s *it% t%e "rivate interests o' )e)bers o' t%e co))unity+ and by inti)ately unitin& t%e "rosecution o' t%e
la* *it% t%e "rosecution o' an individual+ le&islation is "rotected 'ro) *anton assailants+ and 'ro) t%e daily
a&&ressions o' "arty s"irit# T%e errors o' t%e le&islator are ex"osed *%enever t%eir evil consequences are )ost
'elt+ and it is al*ays a "ositive and a""reciable 'act *%ic% serves as t%e basis o' a "rosecution#
I a) inclined to believe t%is "ractice o' t%e A)erican courts to be at once t%e )ost 'avorable to liberty as *ell as
to "ublic order# I' t%e 7ud&e could only attac t%e le&islator o"enly and directly+ %e *ould so)eti)es be a'raid to
o""ose any resistance to %is *ill6 and at ot%er )o)ents "arty s"irit )i&%t encoura&e %i) to brave it at every turn#
T%e la*s *ould consequently be attaced *%en t%e "o*er 'ro) *%ic% t%ey e)anate is *ea+ and obeyed *%en it
is stron&# T%at is to say+ *%en it *ould be use'ul to res"ect t%e) t%ey *ould be contested+ and *%en it *ould be
easy to convert t%e) into an instru)ent o' o""ression t%ey *ould be res"ected# But t%e A)erican 7ud&e is
brou&%t into t%e "olitical arena inde"endently o' %is o*n *ill# He only 7ud&es t%e la* because %e is obli&ed to
7ud&e a case# T%e "olitical question *%ic% %e is called u"on to resolve is connected *it% t%e interest o' t%e
suitors+ and %e cannot re'use to decide it *it%out abdicatin& t%e duties o' %is "ost# He "er'or)s %is 'unctions as a
citi-en by 'ul'illin& t%e "recise duties *%ic% belon& to %is "ro'ession as a )a&istrate# It is true t%at u"on t%is
syste) t%e 7udicial censors%i" *%ic% is exercised by t%e courts o' 7ustice over t%e le&islation cannot extend to all
la*s indiscri)inately+ inas)uc% as so)e o' t%e) can never &ive rise to t%at exact s"ecies o' contestation *%ic%
is ter)ed a la*suit6 and even *%en suc% a contestation is "ossible+ it )ay %a""en t%at no one cares to brin& it
be'ore a court o' 7ustice# T%e A)ericans %ave o'ten 'elt t%is disadvanta&e+ but t%ey %ave le't t%e re)edy
inco)"lete+ lest t%ey s%ould &ive it an e''icacy *%ic% )i&%t in so)e cases "rove dan&erous# ,it%in t%ese li)its
t%e "o*er vested in t%e A)erican courts o' 7ustice o' "ronouncin& a statute to be unconstitutional 'or)s one o'
t%e )ost "o*er'ul barriers *%ic% %as ever been devised a&ainst t%e tyranny o' "olitical asse)blies#
Ot%er :o*ers 9ranted To A)erican $ud&es
T%e (nited !tates all t%e citi-ens %ave t%e ri&%t o' indictin& "ublic 'unctionaries be'ore t%e ordinary tribunals11
Ho* t%ey use t%is ri&%t11Art# =C o' t%e 5renc% Constitution o' t%e An DIII11T%e A)ericans and t%e En&lis%
cannot understand t%e "ur"ort o' t%is clause#
It is "er'ectly natural t%at in a 'ree country lie A)erica all t%e citi-ens s%ould %ave t%e ri&%t o' indictin& "ublic
'unctionaries be'ore t%e ordinary tribunals+ and t%at all t%e 7ud&es s%ould %ave t%e "o*er o' "unis%in& "ublic
o''ences# T%e ri&%t &ranted to t%e courts o' 7ustice o' 7ud&in& t%e a&ents o' t%e executive &overn)ent+ *%en t%ey
%ave violated t%e la*s+ is so natural a one t%at it cannot be looed u"on as an extraordinary "rivile&e# Nor do t%e
s"rin&s o' &overn)ent a""ear to )e to be *eaened in t%e (nited !tates by t%e custo) *%ic% renders all "ublic
o''icers res"onsible to t%e 7ud&es o' t%e land# T%e A)ericans see)+ on t%e contrary+ to %ave increased by t%is
)eans t%at res"ect *%ic% is due to t%e aut%orities+ and at t%e sa)e ti)e to %ave rendered t%ose *%o are in "o*er
)ore scru"ulous o' o''endin& "ublic o"inion# I *as struc by t%e s)all nu)ber o' "olitical trials *%ic% occur in
t%e (nited !tates+ but I %ad no di''iculty in accountin& 'or t%is circu)stance# A la*suit+ o' *%atever nature it
)ay be+ is al*ays a di''icult and ex"ensive undertain&# It is easy to attac a "ublic )an in a 7ournal+ but t%e
)otives *%ic% can *arrant an action at la* )ust be serious# A solid &round o' co)"laint )ust t%ere'ore exist to
induce an individual to "rosecute a "ublic o''icer+ and "ublic o''icers are care'ul not to 'urnis% t%ese &rounds o'
co)"laint *%en t%ey are a'raid o' bein& "rosecuted#
T%is does not de"end u"on t%e re"ublican 'or) o' A)erican institutions+ 'or t%e sa)e 'acts "resent t%e)selves in
En&land# T%ese t*o nations do not re&ard t%e i)"eac%)ent o' t%e "rinci"al o''icers o' !tate as a su''icient
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&uarantee o' t%eir inde"endence# But t%ey %old t%at t%e ri&%t o' )inor "rosecutions+ *%ic% are *it%in t%e reac% o'
t%e *%ole co))unity+ is a better "led&e o' 'reedo) t%an t%ose &reat 7udicial actions *%ic% are rarely e)"loyed
until it is too late#
In t%e Middle A&es+ *%en it *as very di''icult to overtae o''enders+ t%e 7ud&es in'licted t%e )ost dread'ul
tortures on t%e 'e* *%o *ere arrested+ *%ic% by no )eans di)inis%ed t%e nu)ber o' cri)es# It %as since been
discovered t%at *%en 7ustice is )ore certain and )ore )ild+ it is at t%e sa)e ti)e )ore e''icacious# T%e En&lis%
and t%e A)ericans %old t%at tyranny and o""ression are to be treated lie any ot%er cri)e+ by lessenin& t%e
"enalty and 'acilitatin& conviction#
In t%e year DIII o' t%e 5renc% Re"ublic a constitution *as dra*n u" in *%ic% t%e 'ollo*in& clause *as
introduced@ 2Art# =C# All t%e a&ents o' t%e &overn)ent belo* t%e ran o' )inisters can only be "rosecuted 'or
o''ences relatin& to t%eir several 'unctions by virtue o' a decree o' t%e Conseil dFEtat6 in *%ic% t%e case t%e
"rosecution taes "lace be'ore t%e ordinary tribunals#2 T%is clause survived t%e 2Constitution de lFAn DIII+2 and
it is still )aintained in s"ite o' t%e 7ust co)"laints o' t%e nation# I %ave al*ays 'ound t%e ut)ost di''iculty in
ex"lainin& its )eanin& to En&lis%)en or A)ericans# T%ey *ere at once led to conclude t%at t%e Conseil dFEtat in
5rance *as a &reat tribunal+ establis%ed in t%e centre o' t%e in&do)+ *%ic% exercised a "reli)inary and
so)e*%at tyrannical 7urisdiction in all "olitical causes# But *%en I told t%e) t%at t%e Conseil dFEtat *as not a
7udicial body+ in t%e co))on sense o' t%e ter)+ but an ad)inistrative council co)"osed o' )en de"endent on t%e
Cro*n+ so t%at t%e in&+ a'ter %avin& ordered one o' %is servants+ called a :re'ect+ to co))it an in7ustice+ %as t%e
"o*er o' co))andin& anot%er o' %is servants+ called a Councillor o' !tate+ to "revent t%e 'or)er 'ro) bein&
"unis%ed6 *%en I de)onstrated to t%e) t%at t%e citi-en *%o %as been in7ured by t%e order o' t%e soverei&n is
obli&ed to solicit 'ro) t%e soverei&n "er)ission to obtain redress+ t%ey re'used to credit so 'la&rant an abuse+ and
*ere te)"ted to accuse )e o' 'alse%ood or o' i&norance# It 'requently %a""ened be'ore t%e Revolution t%at a
:arlia)ent issued a *arrant a&ainst a "ublic o''icer *%o %ad co))itted an o''ence+ and so)eti)es t%e
"roceedin&s *ere sto""ed by t%e aut%ority o' t%e Cro*n+ *%ic% en'orced co)"liance *it% its absolute and
des"otic *ill# It is "ain'ul to "erceive %o* )uc% lo*er *e are sun t%an our 'ore'at%ers+ since *e allo* t%in&s to
"ass under t%e color o' 7ustice and t%e sanction o' t%e la* *%ic% violence alone could i)"ose u"on t%e)#
Chapter VII
@ :olitical $urisdiction In T%e (nited !tates
Chapter Summary
De'inition o' "olitical 7urisdiction11,%at is understood by "olitical 7urisdiction in 5rance+ in En&land+ and in t%e
(nited !tates11In A)erica t%e "olitical 7ud&e can only "ass sentence on "ublic o''icers11He )ore 'requently
"asses a sentence o' re)oval 'ro) o''ice t%an a "enalty11:olitical 7urisdiction as it exists in t%e (nited !tates is+
not*it%standin& its )ildness+ and "er%a"s in consequence o' t%at )ildness+ a )ost "o*er'ul instru)ent in t%e
%ands o' t%e )a7ority#
:olitical $urisdiction In T%e (nited !tates
I understand+ by "olitical 7urisdiction+ t%at te)"orary ri&%t o' "ronouncin& a le&al decision *it% *%ic% a "olitical
body )ay be invested#
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In absolute &overn)ents no utility can accrue 'ro) t%e introduction o' extraordinary 'or)s o' "rocedure6 t%e
"rince in *%ose na)e an o''ender is "rosecuted is as )uc% t%e soverei&n o' t%e courts o' 7ustice as o' everyt%in&
else+ and t%e idea *%ic% is entertained o' %is "o*er is o' itsel' a su''icient security# T%e only t%in& %e %as to 'ear
is+ t%at t%e external 'or)alities o' 7ustice s%ould be ne&lected+ and t%at %is aut%ority s%ould be dis%onored 'ro) a
*is% to render it )ore absolute# But in )ost 'ree countries+ in *%ic% t%e )a7ority can never exercise t%e sa)e
in'luence u"on t%e tribunals as an absolute )onarc%+ t%e 7udicial "o*er %as occasionally been vested 'or a ti)e
in t%e re"resentatives o' t%e nation# It %as been t%ou&%t better to introduce a te)"orary con'usion bet*een t%e
'unctions o' t%e di''erent aut%orities t%an to violate t%e necessary "rinci"le o' t%e unity o' &overn)ent#
En&land+ 5rance+ and t%e (nited !tates %ave establis%ed t%is "olitical 7urisdiction by la*6 and it is curious to
exa)ine t%e di''erent ada"tations *%ic% t%ese t%ree &reat nations %ave )ade o' t%e "rinci"le# In En&land and in
5rance t%e House o' 8ords and t%e C%a)bre des :aris Ka constitute t%e %i&%est cri)inal court o' t%eir res"ective
nations+ and alt%ou&% t%ey do not %abitually try all "olitical o''ences+ t%ey are co)"etent to try t%e) all# Anot%er
"olitical body en7oys t%e ri&%t o' i)"eac%)ent be'ore t%e House o' 8ords@ t%e only di''erence *%ic% exists
bet*een t%e t*o countries in t%is res"ect is+ t%at in En&land t%e Co))ons )ay i)"eac% *%o)soever t%ey "lease
be'ore t%e 8ords+ *%ilst in 5rance t%e De"uties can only e)"loy t%is )ode o' "rosecution a&ainst t%e )inisters
o' t%e Cro*n#
35ootnote a@ 3As it existed under t%e constitutional )onarc%y do*n to ./G/#44
In bot% countries t%e (""er House )ay )ae use o' all t%e existin& "enal la*s o' t%e nation to "unis% t%e
delinquents#
In t%e (nited !tates+ as *ell as in Euro"e+ one branc% o' t%e le&islature is aut%ori-ed to i)"eac% and anot%er to
7ud&e@ t%e House o' Re"resentatives arrai&ns t%e o''ender+ and t%e !enate a*ards %is sentence# But t%e !enate
can only try suc% "ersons as are brou&%t be'ore it by t%e House o' Re"resentatives+ and t%ose "ersons )ust
belon& to t%e class o' "ublic 'unctionaries# T%us t%e 7urisdiction o' t%e !enate is less extensive t%an t%at o' t%e
:eers o' 5rance+ *%ilst t%e ri&%t o' i)"eac%)ent by t%e Re"resentatives is )ore &eneral t%an t%at o' t%e
De"uties# But t%e &reat di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een Euro"e and A)erica is+ t%at in Euro"e "olitical tribunals
are e)"o*ered to in'lict all t%e dis"ositions o' t%e "enal code+ *%ile in A)erica+ *%en t%ey %ave de"rived t%e
o''ender o' %is o''icial ran+ and %ave declared %i) inca"able o' 'illin& any "olitical o''ice 'or t%e 'uture+ t%eir
7urisdiction ter)inates and t%at o' t%e ordinary tribunals be&ins#
!u""ose+ 'or instance+ t%at t%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates %as co))itted t%e cri)e o' %i&% treason6 t%e House
o' Re"resentatives i)"eac%es %i)+ and t%e !enate de&rades %i)6 %e )ust t%en be tried by a 7ury+ *%ic% alone can
de"rive %i) o' %is liberty or %is li'e# T%is accurately illustrates t%e sub7ect *e are treatin&# T%e "olitical
7urisdiction *%ic% is establis%ed by t%e la*s o' Euro"e is intended to try &reat o''enders+ *%atever )ay be t%eir
birt%+ t%eir ran+ or t%eir "o*ers in t%e !tate6 and to t%is end all t%e "rivile&es o' t%e courts o' 7ustice are
te)"orarily extended to a &reat "olitical asse)bly# T%e le&islator is t%en trans'or)ed into t%e )a&istrate6 %e is
called u"on to ad)it+ to distin&uis%+ and to "unis% t%e o''ence6 and as %e exercises all t%e aut%ority o' a 7ud&e+
t%e la* restricts %i) to t%e observance o' all t%e duties o' t%at %i&% o''ice+ and o' all t%e 'or)alities o' 7ustice#
,%en a "ublic 'unctionary is i)"eac%ed be'ore an En&lis% or a 5renc% "olitical tribunal+ and is 'ound &uilty+ t%e
sentence de"rives %i) i"so 'acto o' %is 'unctions+ and it )ay "ronounce %i) to be inca"able o' resu)in& t%e) or
any ot%ers 'or t%e 'uture# But in t%is case t%e "olitical interdict is a consequence o' t%e sentence+ and not t%e
sentence itsel'# In Euro"e t%e sentence o' a "olitical tribunal is to be re&arded as a 7udicial verdict rat%er t%an as
an ad)inistrative )easure# In t%e (nited !tates t%e contrary taes "lace6 and alt%ou&% t%e decision o' t%e !enate
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is 7udicial in its 'or)+ since t%e !enators are obli&ed to co)"ly *it% t%e "ractices and 'or)alities o' a court o'
7ustice6 alt%ou&% it is 7udicial in res"ect to t%e )otives on *%ic% it is 'ounded+ since t%e !enate is in &eneral
obli&ed to tae an o''ence at co))on la* as t%e basis o' its sentence6 nevert%eless t%e ob7ect o' t%e "roceedin& is
"urely ad)inistrative# I' it %ad been t%e intention o' t%e A)erican le&islator to invest a "olitical body *it% &reat
7udicial aut%ority+ its action *ould not %ave been li)ited to t%e circle o' "ublic 'unctionaries+ since t%e )ost
dan&erous ene)ies o' t%e !tate )ay be in t%e "ossession o' no 'unctions at all6 and t%is is es"ecially true in
re"ublics+ *%ere "arty in'luence is t%e 'irst o' aut%orities+ and *%ere t%e stren&t% o' )any a reader is increased
by %is exercisin& no le&al "o*er#
I' it %ad been t%e intention o' t%e A)erican le&islator to &ive society t%e )eans o' re"ressin& !tate o''ences by
exe)"lary "unis%)ent+ accordin& to t%e "ractice o' ordinary 7ustice+ t%e resources o' t%e "enal code *ould all
%ave been "laced at t%e dis"osal o' t%e "olitical tribunals# But t%e *ea"on *it% *%ic% t%ey are intrusted is an
i)"er'ect one+ and it can never reac% t%e )ost dan&erous o''enders+ since )en *%o ai) at t%e entire subversion
o' t%e la*s are not liely to )ur)ur at a "olitical interdict#
T%e )ain ob7ect o' t%e "olitical 7urisdiction *%ic% obtains in t%e (nited !tates is+ t%ere'ore+ to de"rive t%e ill1
dis"osed citi-en o' an aut%ority *%ic% %e %as used a)iss+ and to "revent %i) 'ro) ever acquirin& it a&ain# T%is is
evidently an ad)inistrative )easure sanctioned by t%e 'or)alities o' a 7udicial decision# In t%is )atter t%e
A)ericans %ave created a )ixed syste)6 t%ey %ave surrounded t%e act *%ic% re)oves a "ublic 'unctionary *it%
t%e securities o' a "olitical trial6 and t%ey %ave de"rived all "olitical conde)nations o' t%eir severest "enalties#
Every lin o' t%e syste) )ay easily be traced 'ro) t%is "oint6 *e at once "erceive *%y t%e A)erican
constitutions sub7ect all t%e civil 'unctionaries to t%e 7urisdiction o' t%e !enate+ *%ilst t%e )ilitary+ *%ose cri)es
are nevert%eless )ore 'or)idable+ are exe)"ted 'ro) t%at tribunal# In t%e civil service none o' t%e A)erican
'unctionaries can be said to be re)ovable6 t%e "laces *%ic% so)e o' t%e) occu"y are inalienable+ and t%e ot%ers
are c%osen 'or a ter) *%ic% cannot be s%ortened# It is t%ere'ore necessary to try t%e) all in order to de"rive t%e)
o' t%eir aut%ority# But )ilitary o''icers are de"endent on t%e c%ie' )a&istrate o' t%e !tate+ *%o is %i)sel' a civil
'unctionary+ and t%e decision *%ic% conde)ns %i) is a blo* u"on t%e) all#
I' *e no* co)"are t%e A)erican and t%e Euro"ean syste)s+ *e s%all )eet *it% di''erences no less striin& in
t%e di''erent e''ects *%ic% eac% o' t%e) "roduces or )ay "roduce# In 5rance and in En&land t%e 7urisdiction o'
"olitical bodies is looed u"on as an extraordinary resource+ *%ic% is only to be e)"loyed in order to rescue
society 'ro) un*onted dan&ers# It is not to be denied t%at t%ese tribunals+ as t%ey are constituted in Euro"e+ are
a"t to violate t%e conservative "rinci"le o' t%e balance o' "o*er in t%e !tate+ and to t%reaten incessantly t%e lives
and liberties o' t%e sub7ect# T%e sa)e "olitical 7urisdiction in t%e (nited !tates is only indirectly %ostile to t%e
balance o' "o*er6 it cannot )enace t%e lives o' t%e citi-ens+ and it does not %over+ as in Euro"e+ over t%e %eads o'
t%e co))unity+ since t%ose only *%o %ave sub)itted to its aut%ority on acce"tin& o''ice are ex"osed to t%e
severity o' its investi&ations# It is at t%e sa)e ti)e less 'or)idable and less e''icacious6 indeed+ it %as not been
considered by t%e le&islators o' t%e (nited !tates as a re)edy 'or t%e )ore violent evils o' society+ but as an
ordinary )eans o' conductin& t%e &overn)ent# In t%is res"ect it "robably exercises )ore real in'luence on t%e
social body in A)erica t%an in Euro"e# ,e )ust not be )isled by t%e a""arent )ildness o' t%e A)erican
le&islation in all t%at relates to "olitical 7urisdiction# It is to be observed+ in t%e 'irst "lace+ t%at in t%e (nited
!tates t%e tribunal *%ic% "asses sentence is co)"osed o' t%e sa)e ele)ents+ and sub7ect to t%e sa)e in'luences+
as t%e body *%ic% i)"eac%es t%e o''ender+ and t%at t%is uni'or)ity &ives an al)ost irresistible i)"ulse to t%e
vindictive "assions o' "arties# I' "olitical 7ud&es in t%e (nited !tates cannot in'lict suc% %eavy "enalties as t%ose
o' Euro"e+ t%ere is t%e less c%ance o' t%eir acquittin& a "risoner6 and t%e conviction+ i' it is less 'or)idable+ is
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)ore certain# T%e "rinci"al ob7ect o' t%e "olitical tribunals o' Euro"e is to "unis% t%e o''ender6 t%e "ur"ose o'
t%ose in A)erica is to de"rive %i) o' %is aut%ority# A "olitical conde)nation in t%e (nited !tates )ay+ t%ere'ore+
be looed u"on as a "reventive )easure6 and t%ere is no reason 'or restrictin& t%e 7ud&es to t%e exact de'initions
o' cri)inal la*# Not%in& can be )ore alar)in& t%an t%e excessive latitude *it% *%ic% "olitical o''ences are
described in t%e la*s o' A)erica# Article II#+ !ection G+ o' t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates runs t%us@112T%e
:resident+ Dice1:resident+ and all civil o''icers o' t%e (nited !tates s%all be re)oved 'ro) o''ice on
i)"eac%)ent 'or+ and conviction o'+ treason+ bribery+ or ot%er %i&% cri)es and )isde)eanors#2 Many o' t%e
Constitutions o' t%e !tates are even less ex"licit# 2:ublic o''icers+2 says t%e Constitution o' Massac%usetts+ Kb
2s%all be i)"eac%ed 'or )isconduct or )alad)inistration62 t%e Constitution o' Dir&inia declares t%at all t%e civil
o''icers *%o s%all %ave o''ended a&ainst t%e !tate+ by )alad)inistration+ corru"tion+ or ot%er %i&% cri)es+ )ay
be i)"eac%ed by t%e House o' Dele&ates6 in so)e constitutions no o''ences are s"eci'ied+ in order to sub7ect t%e
"ublic 'unctionaries to an unli)ited res"onsibility# Kc But I *ill venture to a''ir) t%at it is "recisely t%eir
)ildness *%ic% renders t%e A)erican la*s )ost 'or)idable in t%is res"ect# ,e %ave s%o*n t%at in Euro"e t%e
re)oval o' a 'unctionary and %is "olitical interdiction are t%e consequences o' t%e "enalty %e is to under&o+ and
t%at in A)erica t%ey constitute t%e "enalty itsel'# T%e consequence is t%at in Euro"e "olitical tribunals are
invested *it% ri&%ts *%ic% t%ey are a'raid to use+ and t%at t%e 'ear o' "unis%in& too )uc% %inders t%e) 'ro)
"unis%in& at all# But in A)erica no one %esitates to in'lict a "enalty 'ro) *%ic% %u)anity does not recoil# To
conde)n a "olitical o""onent to deat%+ in order to de"rive %i) o' %is "o*er+ is to co))it *%at all t%e *orld
*ould execrate as a %orrible assassination6 but to declare t%at o""onent un*ort%y to exercise t%at aut%ority+ to
de"rive %i) o' it+ and to leave %i) unin7ured in li'e and li)b+ )ay be 7ud&ed to be t%e 'air issue o' t%e stru&&le#
But t%is sentence+ *%ic% it is so easy to "ronounce+ is not t%e less 'atally severe to t%e )a7ority o' t%ose u"on
*%o) it is in'licted# 9reat cri)inals )ay undoubtedly brave its intan&ible ri&or+ but ordinary o''enders *ill
dread it as a conde)nation *%ic% destroys t%eir "osition in t%e *orld+ casts a bli&%t u"on t%eir %onor+ and
conde)ns t%e) to a s%a)e'ul inactivity *orse t%an deat%# T%e in'luence exercised in t%e (nited !tates u"on t%e
"ro&ress o' society by t%e 7urisdiction o' "olitical bodies )ay not a""ear to be 'or)idable+ but it is only t%e )ore
i))ense# It does not directly coerce t%e sub7ect+ but it renders t%e )a7ority )ore absolute over t%ose in "o*er6 it
does not con'er an unbounded aut%ority on t%e le&islator *%ic% can be exerted at so)e )o)entous crisis+ but it
establis%es a te)"erate and re&ular in'luence+ *%ic% is at all ti)es available# I' t%e "o*er is decreased+ it can+ on
t%e ot%er %and+ be )ore conveniently e)"loyed and )ore easily abused# By "reventin& "olitical tribunals 'ro)
in'lictin& 7udicial "unis%)ents t%e A)ericans see) to %ave eluded t%e *orst consequences o' le&islative tyranny+
rat%er t%an tyranny itsel'6 and I a) not sure t%at "olitical 7urisdiction+ as it is constituted in t%e (nited !tates+ is
not t%e )ost 'or)idable *ea"on *%ic% %as ever been "laced in t%e rude &ras" o' a "o"ular )a7ority# ,%en t%e
A)erican re"ublics be&in to de&enerate it *ill be easy to veri'y t%e trut% o' t%is observation+ by re)arin&
*%et%er t%e nu)ber o' "olitical i)"eac%)ents au&)ents#Kd
35ootnote b@ C%a"# I# sect# ii# !ection /#4
35ootnote c@ !ee t%e constitutions o' Illinois+ Maine+ Connecticut+ and 9eor&ia#4
35ootnote d@ !ee A""endix+ N#
3T%e i)"eac%)ent o' :resident Andre* $o%nson in ./;/11*%ic% *as resorted to by %is "olitical o""onents
solely as a )eans o' turnin& %i) out o' o''ice+ 'or it could not be contended t%at %e %ad been &uilty o' %i&%
cri)es and )isde)eanors+ and %e *as in 'act %onorably acquitted and reinstated in o''ice11is a striin&
con'ir)ation o' t%e trut% o' t%is re)ar#11TranslatorFs Note+ ./=G#44
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Chapter VIII
@ T%e 5ederal Constitution11:art I
I %ave %it%erto considered eac% !tate as a se"arate *%ole+ and I %ave ex"lained t%e di''erent s"rin&s *%ic% t%e
"eo"le sets in )otion+ and t%e di''erent )eans o' action *%ic% it e)"loys# But all t%e !tates *%ic% I %ave
considered as inde"endent are 'orced to sub)it+ in certain cases+ to t%e su"re)e aut%ority o' t%e (nion# T%e ti)e
is no* co)e 'or )e to exa)ine se"arately t%e su"re)acy *it% *%ic% t%e (nion %as been invested+ and to cast a
ra"id &lance over t%e 5ederal Constitution#
Chapter Summary
Ori&in o' t%e 'irst (nion11Its *eaness11Con&ress a""eals to t%e constituent aut%ority11Interval o' t*o years
bet*een t%is a""eal and t%e "ro)ul&ation o' t%e ne* Constitution#
History O' T%e 5ederal Constitution
T%e t%irteen colonies *%ic% si)ultaneously t%re* o'' t%e yoe o' En&land to*ards t%e end o' t%e last century
"ro'essed+ as I %ave already observed+ t%e sa)e reli&ion+ t%e sa)e lan&ua&e+ t%e sa)e custo)s+ and al)ost t%e
sa)e la*s6 t%ey *ere stru&&lin& a&ainst a co))on ene)y6 and t%ese reasons *ere su''iciently stron& to unite
t%e) one to anot%er+ and to consolidate t%e) into one nation# But as eac% o' t%e) %ad en7oyed a se"arate
existence and a &overn)ent *it%in its o*n control+ t%e "eculiar interests and custo)s *%ic% resulted 'ro) t%is
syste) *ere o""osed to a co)"act and inti)ate union *%ic% *ould %ave absorbed t%e individual i)"ortance o'
eac% in t%e &eneral i)"ortance o' all# Hence arose t*o o""osite tendencies+ t%e one "ro)"tin& t%e An&lo1
A)ericans to unite+ t%e ot%er to divide t%eir stren&t%# As lon& as t%e *ar *it% t%e )ot%er1country lasted t%e
"rinci"le o' union *as e"t alive by necessity6 and alt%ou&% t%e la*s *%ic% constituted it *ere de'ective+ t%e
co))on tie subsisted in s"ite o' t%eir i)"er'ections# Ka But no sooner *as "eace concluded t%an t%e 'aults o' t%e
le&islation beca)e )ani'est+ and t%e !tate see)ed to be suddenly dissolved# Eac% colony beca)e an inde"endent
re"ublic+ and assu)ed an absolute soverei&nty# T%e 'ederal &overn)ent+ conde)ned to i)"otence by its
constitution+ and no lon&er sustained by t%e "resence o' a co))on dan&er+ *itnessed t%e outra&es o''ered to its
'la& by t%e &reat nations o' Euro"e+ *%ilst it *as scarcely able to )aintain its &round a&ainst t%e Indian tribes+
and to "ay t%e interest o' t%e debt *%ic% %ad been contracted durin& t%e *ar o' inde"endence# It *as already on
t%e ver&e o' destruction+ *%en it o''icially "roclai)ed its inability to conduct t%e &overn)ent+ and a""ealed to
t%e constituent aut%ority o' t%e nation# Kb I' A)erica ever a""roac%ed >'or %o*ever brie' a ti)e? t%at lo'ty
"innacle o' &lory to *%ic% t%e 'ancy o' its in%abitants is *ont to "oint+ it *as at t%e sole)n )o)ent at *%ic% t%e
"o*er o' t%e nation abdicated+ as it *ere+ t%e e)"ire o' t%e land# All a&es %ave 'urnis%ed t%e s"ectacle o' a
"eo"le stru&&lin& *it% ener&y to *in its inde"endence6 and t%e e''orts o' t%e A)ericans in t%ro*in& o'' t%e
En&lis% yoe %ave been considerably exa&&erated# !e"arated 'ro) t%eir ene)ies by t%ree t%ousand )iles o'
ocean+ and baced by a "o*er'ul ally+ t%e success o' t%e (nited !tates )ay be )ore 7ustly attributed to t%eir
&eo&ra"%ical "osition t%an to t%e valor o' t%eir ar)ies or t%e "atriotis) o' t%eir citi-ens# It *ould be ridiculous to
co)"are t%e A)erican *as to t%e *ars o' t%e 5renc% Revolution+ or t%e e''orts o' t%e A)ericans to t%ose o' t%e
5renc% *%en t%ey *ere attaced by t%e *%ole o' Euro"e+ *it%out credit and *it%out allies+ yet ca"able o'
o""osin& a t*entiet% "art o' t%eir "o"ulation to t%e *orld+ and o' bearin& t%e torc% o' revolution beyond t%eir
'rontiers *%ilst t%ey sti'led its devourin& 'la)e *it%in t%e boso) o' t%eir country# But it is a novelty in t%e
%istory o' society to see a &reat "eo"le turn a cal) and scrutini-in& eye u"on itsel'+ *%en a""rised by t%e
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le&islature t%at t%e *%eels o' &overn)ent are sto""ed6 to see it care'ully exa)ine t%e extent o' t%e evil+ and
"atiently *ait 'or t*o *%ole years until a re)edy *as discovered+ *%ic% it voluntarily ado"ted *it%out %avin&
*run& a tear or a dro" o' blood 'ro) )anind# At t%e ti)e *%en t%e inadequacy o' t%e 'irst constitution *as
discovered A)erica "ossessed t%e double advanta&e o' t%at cal) *%ic% %ad succeeded t%e e''ervescence o' t%e
revolution+ and o' t%ose &reat )en *%o %ad led t%e revolution to a success'ul issue# T%e asse)bly *%ic%
acce"ted t%e tas o' co)"osin& t%e second constitution *as s)all6 Kc but 9eor&e ,as%in&ton *as its :resident+
and it contained t%e c%oicest talents and t%e noblest %earts *%ic% %ad ever a""eared in t%e Ne* ,orld# T%is
national co))ission+ a'ter lon& and )ature deliberation+ o''ered to t%e acce"tance o' t%e "eo"le t%e body o'
&eneral la*s *%ic% still rules t%e (nion# All t%e !tates ado"ted it successively# Kd T%e ne* 5ederal 9overn)ent
co))enced its 'unctions in .=/B+ a'ter an interre&nu) o' t*o years# T%e Revolution o' A)erica ter)inated
*%en t%at o' 5rance be&an#
35ootnote a@ !ee t%e articles o' t%e 'irst con'ederation 'or)ed in .==/# T%is constitution *as not ado"ted by all
t%e !tates until .=/.# !ee also t%e analysis &iven o' t%is constitution in 2T%e 5ederalist2 'ro) No# .C to No# AA+
inclusive+ and !toryFs 2Co))entaries on t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates+2 ""# /C1..C#4
35ootnote b@ Con&ress )ade t%is declaration on 5ebruary A.+ .=/=#4
35ootnote c@ It consisted o' 'i'ty1'ive )e)bers6 ,as%in&ton+ Madison+ Ha)ilton+ and t%e t*o Morrises *ere
a)on&st t%e nu)ber#4
35ootnote d@ It *as not ado"ted by t%e le&islative bodies+ but re"resentatives *ere elected by t%e "eo"le 'or t%is
sole "ur"ose6 and t%e ne* constitution *as discussed at len&t% in eac% o' t%ese asse)blies#4
!u))ary O' T%e 5ederal Constitution
Division o' aut%ority bet*een t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent and t%e !tates11T%e 9overn)ent o' t%e !tates is t%e rule+
t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent t%e exce"tion#
T%e 'irst question *%ic% a*aited t%e A)ericans *as intricate+ and by no )eans easy o' solution@ t%e ob7ect *as
so to divide t%e aut%ority o' t%e di''erent !tates *%ic% co)"osed t%e (nion t%at eac% o' t%e) s%ould continue to
&overn itsel' in all t%at concerned its internal "ros"erity+ *%ilst t%e entire nation+ re"resented by t%e (nion+
s%ould continue to 'or) a co)"act body+ and to "rovide 'or t%e &eneral exi&encies o' t%e "eo"le# It *as as
i)"ossible to deter)ine be'ore%and+ *it% any de&ree o' accuracy+ t%e s%are o' aut%ority *%ic% eac% o' t*o
&overn)ents *as to en7oy+ as to 'oresee all t%e incidents in t%e existence o' a nation#
T%e obli&ations and t%e clai)s o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *ere si)"le and easily de'inable+ because t%e (nion
%ad been 'or)ed *it% t%e ex"ress "ur"ose o' )eetin& t%e &eneral exi&encies o' t%e "eo"le6 but t%e clai)s and
obli&ations o' t%e !tates *ere+ on t%e ot%er %and+ co)"licated and various+ because t%ose 9overn)ents %ad
"enetrated into all t%e details o' social li'e# T%e attributes o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *ere t%ere'ore care'ully
enu)erated and all t%at *as not included a)on&st t%e) *as declared to constitute a "art o' t%e "rivile&es o' t%e
several 9overn)ents o' t%e !tates# T%us t%e &overn)ent o' t%e !tates re)ained t%e rule+ and t%at o' t%e
Con'ederation beca)e t%e exce"tion# Ke
35ootnote e@ !ee t%e A)end)ent to t%e 5ederal Constitution6 25ederalist+2 No# 0A6 !tory+ "# =..6 LentFs
2Co))entaries+2 vol# i# "# 0;G#
It is to be observed t%at *%enever t%e exclusive ri&%t o' re&ulatin& certain )atters is not reserved to Con&ress by
t%e Constitution+ t%e !tates )ay tae u" t%e a''air until it is brou&%t be'ore t%e National Asse)bly# 5or instance+
Con&ress %as t%e ri&%t o' )ain& a &eneral la* on banru"tcy+ *%ic%+ %o*ever+ it ne&lects to do# Eac% !tate is
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t%en at liberty to )ae a la* 'or itsel'# T%is "oint %as been establis%ed by discussion in t%e la*1courts+ and )ay
be said to belon& )ore "ro"erly to 7uris"rudence#4
But as it *as 'oreseen t%at+ in "ractice+ questions )i&%t arise as to t%e exact li)its o' t%is exce"tional aut%ority+
and t%at it *ould be dan&erous to sub)it t%ese questions to t%e decision o' t%e ordinary courts o' 7ustice+
establis%ed in t%e !tates by t%e !tates t%e)selves+ a %i&% 5ederal court *as created+ K' *%ic% *as destined+
a)on&st ot%er 'unctions+ to )aintain t%e balance o' "o*er *%ic% %ad been establis%ed by t%e Constitution
bet*een t%e t*o rival 9overn)ents# K&
35ootnote '@ T%e action o' t%is court is indirect+ as *e s%all %erea'ter s%o*#4
35ootnote &@ It is t%us t%at 2T%e 5ederalist+2 No# GC+ ex"lains t%e division o' su"re)acy bet*een t%e (nion and
t%e !tates@ 2T%e "o*ers dele&ated by t%e Constitution to t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent are 'e* and de'ined# T%ose
*%ic% are to re)ain in t%e !tate 9overn)ents are nu)erous and inde'inite# T%e 'or)er *ill be exercised
"rinci"ally on external ob7ects+ as *ar+ "eace+ ne&otiation+ and 'orei&n co))erce# T%e "o*ers reserved to t%e
several !tates *ill extend to all t%e ob7ects *%ic%+ in t%e ordinary course o' a''airs+ concern t%e internal order and
"ros"erity o' t%e !tate#2 I s%all o'ten %ave occasion to quote 2T%e 5ederalist2 in t%is *or# ,%en t%e bill *%ic%
%as since beco)e t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates *as sub)itted to t%e a""roval o' t%e "eo"le+ and t%e
discussions *ere still "endin&+ t%ree )en+ *%o %ad already acquired a "ortion o' t%at celebrity *%ic% t%ey %ave
since en7oyed11$o%n $ay+ Ha)ilton+ and Madison11'or)ed an association *it% t%e intention o' ex"lainin& to t%e
nation t%e advanta&es o' t%e )easure *%ic% *as "ro"osed# ,it% t%is vie* t%ey "ublis%ed a series o' articles in
t%e s%a"e o' a 7ournal+ *%ic% no* 'or) a co)"lete treatise# T%ey entitled t%eir 7ournal 2T%e 5ederalist+2 a na)e
*%ic% %as been retained in t%e *or# 2T%e 5ederalist2 is an excellent boo+ *%ic% ou&%t to be 'a)iliar to t%e
states)en o' all countries+ alt%ou&% it es"ecially concerns A)erica#4
:rero&ative O' T%e 5ederal 9overn)ent
:o*er o' declarin& *ar+ )ain& "eace+ and levyin& &eneral taxes vested in t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent11,%at "art
o' t%e internal "olicy o' t%e country it )ay direct11T%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion in so)e res"ects )ore central
t%an t%e Lin&Fs 9overn)ent in t%e old 5renc% )onarc%y#
T%e external relations o' a "eo"le )ay be co)"ared to t%ose o' "rivate individuals+ and t%ey cannot be
advanta&eously )aintained *it%out t%e a&ency o' a sin&le %ead o' a 9overn)ent# T%e exclusive ri&%t o' )ain&
"eace and *ar+ o' concludin& treaties o' co))erce+ o' raisin& ar)ies+ and equi""in& 'leets+ *as &ranted to t%e
(nion# K% T%e necessity o' a national 9overn)ent *as less i)"eriously 'elt in t%e conduct o' t%e internal "olicy
o' society6 but t%ere are certain &eneral interests *%ic% can only be attended to *it% advanta&e by a &eneral
aut%ority# T%e (nion *as invested *it% t%e "o*er o' controllin& t%e )onetary syste)+ o' directin& t%e "ost
o''ice+ and o' o"enin& t%e &reat roads *%ic% *ere to establis% a co))unication bet*een t%e di''erent "arts o' t%e
country# Ki T%e inde"endence o' t%e 9overn)ent o' eac% !tate *as 'or)ally reco&ni-ed in its s"%ere6
nevert%eless+ t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *as aut%ori-ed to inter'ere in t%e internal a''airs o' t%e !tates K7 in a 'e*
"redeter)ined cases+ in *%ic% an indiscreet abuse o' t%eir inde"endence )i&%t co)"ro)ise t%e security o' t%e
(nion at lar&e# T%us+ *%ilst t%e "o*er o' )odi'yin& and c%an&in& t%eir le&islation at "leasure *as "reserved in
all t%e re"ublics+ t%ey *ere 'orbidden to enact ex "ost 'acto la*s+ or to create a class o' nobles in t%eir
co))unity# K 8astly+ as it *as necessary t%at t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent s%ould be able to 'ul'il its en&a&e)ents+
it *as endo*ed *it% an unli)ited "o*er o' levyin& taxes# Kl
35ootnote %@ !ee Constitution+ sect# /6 25ederalist+2 Nos# G. and GA6 LentFs 2Co))entaries+2 vol# i# "# A<=6 !tory+
""# 0C/10/A6 Ibid# ""# G<B1GA;#4
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35ootnote i@ !everal ot%er "rivile&es o' t%e sa)e ind exist+ suc% as t%at *%ic% e)"o*ers t%e (nion to le&islate
on banru"tcy+ to &rant "atents+ and ot%er )atters in *%ic% its intervention is clearly necessary#4
35ootnote 7@ Even in t%ese cases its inter'erence is indirect# T%e (nion inter'eres by )eans o' t%e tribunals+ as
*ill be %erea'ter s%o*n#4
35ootnote @ 5ederal Constitution+ sect# .<+ art# I#4
35ootnote l@ Constitution+ sects# /+ B+ and .<6 25ederalist+2 Nos# 0<10;+ inclusive+ and G.1GG6 LentFs
2Co))entaries+2 vol# i# ""# A<= and 0/.6 !tory+ ""# 0AB and C.G#4
In exa)inin& t%e balance o' "o*er as establis%ed by t%e 5ederal Constitution6 in re)arin& on t%e one %and t%e
"ortion o' soverei&nty *%ic% %as been reserved to t%e several !tates+ and on t%e ot%er t%e s%are o' "o*er *%ic%
t%e (nion %as assu)ed+ it is evident t%at t%e 5ederal le&islators entertained t%e clearest and )ost accurate notions
on t%e nature o' t%e centrali-ation o' &overn)ent# T%e (nited !tates 'or) not only a re"ublic+ but a
con'ederation6 nevert%eless t%e aut%ority o' t%e nation is )ore central t%an it *as in several o' t%e )onarc%ies o'
Euro"e *%en t%e A)erican Constitution *as 'or)ed# Tae+ 'or instance+ t%e t*o 'ollo*in& exa)"les#
T%irteen su"re)e courts o' 7ustice existed in 5rance+ *%ic%+ &enerally s"eain&+ %ad t%e ri&%t o' inter"retin& t%e
la* *it%out a""eal6 and t%ose "rovinces *%ic% *ere styled "ays dFetats *ere aut%ori-ed to re'use t%eir assent to
an i)"ost *%ic% %ad been levied by t%e soverei&n *%o re"resented t%e nation# In t%e (nion t%ere is but one
tribunal to inter"ret+ as t%ere is one le&islature to )ae t%e la*s6 and an i)"ost voted by t%e re"resentatives o'
t%e nation is bindin& u"on all t%e citi-ens# In t%ese t*o essential "oints+ t%ere'ore+ t%e (nion exercises )ore
central aut%ority t%an t%e 5renc% )onarc%y "ossessed+ alt%ou&% t%e (nion is only an asse)bla&e o' con'ederate
re"ublics#
In !"ain certain "rovinces %ad t%e ri&%t o' establis%in& a syste) o' custo)1%ouse duties "eculiar to t%e)selves+
alt%ou&% t%at "rivile&e belon&s+ by its very nature+ to t%e national soverei&nty# In A)erica t%e Con&ress alone
%as t%e ri&%t o' re&ulatin& t%e co))ercial relations o' t%e !tates# T%e &overn)ent o' t%e Con'ederation is
t%ere'ore )ore centrali-ed in t%is res"ect t%an t%e in&do) o' !"ain# It is true t%at t%e "o*er o' t%e Cro*n in
5rance or in !"ain *as al*ays able to obtain by 'orce *%atever t%e Constitution o' t%e country denied+ and t%at
t%e ulti)ate result *as consequently t%e sa)e6 but I a) %ere discussin& t%e t%eory o' t%e Constitution#
5ederal :o*ers
A'ter %avin& settled t%e li)its *it%in *%ic% t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *as to act+ t%e next "oint *as to deter)ine
t%e "o*ers *%ic% it *as to exert#
8e&islative :o*ers K)
35ootnote )@ 3In t%is c%a"ter t%e aut%or "oints out t%e essence o' t%e con'lict bet*een t%e secedin& !tates and t%e
(nion *%ic% caused t%e Civil ,ar o' ./;.#44
Division o' t%e 8e&islative Body into t*o branc%es11Di''erence in t%e )anner o' 'or)in& t%e t*o Houses11T%e
"rinci"le o' t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates "redo)inates in t%e 'or)ation o' t%e !enate11T%e "rinci"le o' t%e
soverei&nty o' t%e nation in t%e co)"osition o' t%e House o' Re"resentatives11!in&ular e''ects o' t%e 'act t%at a
Constitution can only be lo&ical in t%e early sta&es o' a nation#
T%e "lan *%ic% %ad been laid do*n be'ore%and 'or t%e Constitutions o' t%e several !tates *as 'ollo*ed+ in )any
"oints+ in t%e or&ani-ation o' t%e "o*ers o' t%e (nion# T%e 5ederal le&islature o' t%e (nion *as co)"osed o' a
!enate and a House o' Re"resentatives# A s"irit o' conciliation "rescribed t%e observance o' distinct "rinci"les in
t%e 'or)ation o' t%ese t*o asse)blies# I %ave already s%o*n t%at t*o contrary interests *ere o""osed to eac%
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ot%er in t%e establis%)ent o' t%e 5ederal Constitution# T%ese t*o interests %ad &iven rise to t*o o"inions# It *as
t%e *is% o' one "arty to convert t%e (nion into a lea&ue o' inde"endent !tates+ or a sort o' con&ress+ at *%ic% t%e
re"resentatives o' t%e several "eo"les *ould )eet to discuss certain "oints o' t%eir co))on interests# T%e ot%er
"arty desired to unite t%e in%abitants o' t%e A)erican colonies into one sole nation+ and to establis% a
9overn)ent *%ic% s%ould act as t%e sole re"resentative o' t%e nation+ as 'ar as t%e li)ited s"%ere o' its aut%ority
*ould "er)it# T%e "ractical consequences o' t%ese t*o t%eories *ere exceedin&ly di''erent#
T%e question *as+ *%et%er a lea&ue *as to be establis%ed instead o' a national 9overn)ent6 *%et%er t%e
)a7ority o' t%e !tate+ instead o' t%e )a7ority o' t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nion+ *as to &ive t%e la*@ 'or every !tate+
t%e s)all as *ell as t%e &reat+ *ould t%en re)ain in t%e 'ull en7oy)ent o' its inde"endence+ and enter t%e (nion
u"on a 'ootin& o' "er'ect equality# I'+ %o*ever+ t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates *ere to be considered as
belon&in& to one and t%e sa)e nation+ it *ould be 7ust t%at t%e )a7ority o' t%e citi-ens o' t%e (nion s%ould
"rescribe t%e la*# O' course t%e lesser !tates could not subscribe to t%e a""lication o' t%is doctrine *it%out+ in
'act+ abdicatin& t%eir existence in relation to t%e soverei&nty o' t%e Con'ederation6 since t%ey *ould %ave "assed
'ro) t%e condition o' a co1equal and co1le&islative aut%ority to t%at o' an insi&ni'icant 'raction o' a &reat "eo"le#
But i' t%e 'or)er syste) *ould %ave invested t%e) *it% an excessive aut%ority+ t%e latter *ould %ave annulled
t%eir in'luence alto&et%er# (nder t%ese circu)stances t%e result *as+ t%at t%e strict rules o' lo&ic *ere evaded+ as
is usually t%e case *%en interests are o""osed to ar&u)ents# A )iddle course *as %it u"on by t%e le&islators+
*%ic% brou&%t to&et%er by 'orce t*o syste)s t%eoretically irreconcilable#
T%e "rinci"le o' t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates "revailed in t%e 'or)ation o' t%e !enate+ and t%at o' t%e
soverei&nty o' t%e nation "redo)inated in t%e co)"osition o' t%e House o' Re"resentatives# It *as decided t%at
eac% !tate s%ould send t*o senators to Con&ress+ and a nu)ber o' re"resentatives "ro"ortioned to its "o"ulation#
Kn It results 'ro) t%is arran&e)ent t%at t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor %as at t%e "resent day 'orty re"resentatives and
only t*o senators6 t%e !tate o' Dela*are %as t*o senators and only one re"resentative6 t%e !tate o' Dela*are is
t%ere'ore equal to t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor in t%e !enate+ *%ilst t%e latter %as 'orty ti)es t%e in'luence o' t%e
'or)er in t%e House o' Re"resentatives# T%us+ i' t%e )inority o' t%e nation "re"onderates in t%e !enate+# it )ay
"araly-e t%e decisions o' t%e )a7ority re"resented in t%e ot%er House+ *%ic% is contrary to t%e s"irit o'
constitutional &overn)ent#
35ootnote n@ Every ten years Con&ress 'ixes ane* t%e nu)ber o' re"resentatives *%ic% eac% !tate is to 'urnis%#
T%e total nu)ber *as ;B in .=/B+ and AG< in ./00# >!ee 2A)erican Al)anac+2 ./0G+ "# .BG#? T%e Constitution
decided t%at t%ere s%ould not be )ore t%an one re"resentative 'or every 0<+<<< "ersons6 but no )ini)u) *as
'ixed on# T%e Con&ress %as not t%ou&%t 'it to au&)ent t%e nu)ber o' re"resentatives in "ro"ortion to t%e increase
o' "o"ulation# T%e 'irst Act *%ic% *as "assed on t%e sub7ect >A"ril .G+ .=BA@ see 28a*s o' t%e (nited !tates+2 by
!tory+ vol# i# "# A0C? decided t%at t%ere s%ould be one re"resentative 'or every 00+<<< in%abitants# T%e last Act+
*%ic% *as "assed in ./0A+ 'ixes t%e "ro"ortion at one 'or G/+<<<# T%e "o"ulation re"resented is co)"osed o' all
t%e 'ree )en and o' t%ree1'i't%s o' t%e slaves#
3T%e last Act o' a""ortion)ent+ "assed 5ebruary A+ ./=A+ 'ixes t%e re"resentation at one to .0G+;/G in%abitants#
T%ere are no* >./=C? A/0 )e)bers o' t%e lo*er House o' Con&ress+ and B 'or t%e !tates at lar&e+ )ain& in all
ABA )e)bers# T%e old !tates %ave o' course lost t%e re"resentatives *%ic% t%e ne* !tates %ave &ained#11
TranslatorFs Note#44
T%ese 'acts s%o* %o* rare and %o* di''icult it is rationally and lo&ically to co)bine all t%e several "arts o'
le&islation# In t%e course o' ti)e di''erent interests arise+ and di''erent "rinci"les are sanctioned by t%e sa)e
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"eo"le6 and *%en a &eneral constitution is to be establis%ed+ t%ese interests and "rinci"les are so )any natural
obstacles to t%e ri&orous a""lication o' any "olitical syste)+ *it% all its consequences# T%e early sta&es o'
national existence are t%e only "eriods at *%ic% it is "ossible to )aintain t%e co)"lete lo&ic o' le&islation6 and
*%en *e "erceive a nation in t%e en7oy)ent o' t%is advanta&e+ be'ore *e %asten to conclude t%at it is *ise+ *e
s%ould do *ell to re)e)ber t%at it is youn&# ,%en t%e 5ederal Constitution *as 'or)ed+ t%e interests o'
inde"endence 'or t%e se"arate !tates+ and t%e interest o' union 'or t%e *%ole "eo"le+ *ere t%e only t*o
con'lictin& interests *%ic% existed a)on&st t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ and a co)"ro)ise *as necessarily )ade
bet*een t%e)#
It is+ %o*ever+ 7ust to acno*led&e t%at t%is "art o' t%e Constitution %as not %it%erto "roduced t%ose evils *%ic%
)i&%t %ave been 'eared# All t%e !tates are youn& and conti&uous6 t%eir custo)s+ t%eir ideas+ and t%eir exi&encies
are not dissi)ilar6 and t%e di''erences *%ic% result 'ro) t%eir si-e or in'eriority do not su''ice to set t%eir
interests at variance# T%e s)all !tates %ave consequently never been induced to lea&ue t%e)selves to&et%er in t%e
!enate to o""ose t%e desi&ns o' t%e lar&er ones6 and indeed t%ere is so irresistible an aut%ority in t%e le&iti)ate
ex"ression o' t%e *ill o' a "eo"le t%at t%e !enate could o''er but a 'eeble o""osition to t%e vote o' t%e )a7ority o'
t%e House o' Re"resentatives#
It )ust not be 'or&otten+ on t%e ot%er %and+ t%at it *as not in t%e "o*er o' t%e A)erican le&islators to reduce to a
sin&le nation t%e "eo"le 'or *%o) t%ey *ere )ain& la*s# T%e ob7ect o' t%e 5ederal Constitution *as not to
destroy t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates+ but to restrain it# By acno*led&in& t%e real aut%ority o' t%ese secondary
co))unities >and it *as i)"ossible to de"rive t%e) o' it?+ t%ey disavo*ed be'ore%and t%e %abitual use o'
constraint in en'orcin& & t%e decisions o' t%e )a7ority# ("on t%is "rinci"le t%e introduction o' t%e in'luence o' t%e
!tates into t%e )ec%anis) o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *as by no )eans to be *ondered at+ since it only attested
t%e existence o' an acno*led&ed "o*er+ *%ic% *as to be %u)ored and not 'orcibly c%eced#
A 5urt%er Di''erence Bet*een T%e !enate And T%e House O' Re"resentatives
T%e !enate na)ed by t%e "rovincial le&islators+ t%e Re"resentatives by t%e "eo"le11Double election o' t%e
'or)er6 sin&le election o' t%e latter11Ter) o' t%e di''erent o''ices11:eculiar 'unctions o' eac% House#
T%e !enate not only di''ers 'ro) t%e ot%er House in t%e "rinci"le *%ic% it re"resents+ but also in t%e )ode o' its
election+ in t%e ter) 'or *%ic% it is c%osen+ and in t%e nature o' its 'unctions# T%e House o' Re"resentatives is
na)ed by t%e "eo"le+ t%e !enate by t%e le&islators o' eac% !tate6 t%e 'or)er is directly elected+ t%e latter is
elected by an elected body6 t%e ter) 'or *%ic% t%e re"resentatives are c%osen is only t*o years+ t%at o' t%e
senators is six# T%e 'unctions o' t%e House o' Re"resentatives are "urely le&islative+ and t%e only s%are it taes in
t%e 7udicial "o*er is in t%e i)"eac%)ent o' "ublic o''icers# T%e !enate co1o"erates in t%e *or o' le&islation+
and tries t%ose "olitical o''ences *%ic% t%e House o' Re"resentatives sub)its to its decision# It also acts as t%e
&reat executive council o' t%e nation6 t%e treaties *%ic% are concluded by t%e :resident )ust be rati'ied by t%e
!enate+ and t%e a""oint)ents %e )ay )ae )ust be de'initely a""roved by t%e sa)e body# Ko
35ootnote o@ !ee 2T%e 5ederalist+2 Nos# CA1C;+ inclusive6 !tory+ ""# .BB10.G6 Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates+
sects# A and 0#4 T%e Executive :o*er K"
35ootnote "@ !ee 2T%e 5ederalist+2 Nos# ;=1==6 Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates+ art# A6 !tory+ "# 0.C+ ""# ;.C1
=/<6 LentFs 2Co))entaries+2 "# ACC#4
De"endence o' t%e :resident11He is elective and res"onsible11He is 'ree to act in %is o*n s"%ere under t%e
ins"ection+ but not under t%e direction+ o' t%e !enate11His salary 'ixed at %is entry into o''ice11!us"ensive veto#
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T%e A)erican le&islators undertoo a di''icult tas in atte)"tin& to create an executive "o*er de"endent on t%e
)a7ority o' t%e "eo"le+ and nevert%eless su''iciently stron& to act *it%out restraint in its o*n s"%ere# It *as
indis"ensable to t%e )aintenance o' t%e re"ublican 'or) o' &overn)ent t%at t%e re"resentative o' t%e executive
"o*er s%ould be sub7ect to t%e *ill o' t%e nation#
T%e :resident is an elective )a&istrate# His %onor+ %is "ro"erty+ %is liberty+ and %is li'e are t%e securities *%ic%
t%e "eo"le %as 'or t%e te)"erate use o' %is "o*er# But in t%e exercise o' %is aut%ority %e cannot be said to be
"er'ectly inde"endent6 t%e !enate taes co&ni-ance o' %is relations *it% 'orei&n "o*ers+ and o' t%e distribution o'
"ublic a""oint)ents+ so t%at %e can neit%er be bribed nor can %e e)"loy t%e )eans o' corru"tion# T%e le&islators
o' t%e (nion acno*led&ed t%at t%e executive "o*er *ould be inco)"etent to 'ul'il its tas *it% di&nity and
utility+ unless it en7oyed a &reater de&ree o' stability and o' stren&t% t%an %ad been &ranted to it in t%e se"arate
!tates#
T%e :resident is c%osen 'or 'our years+ and %e )ay be reelected6 so t%at t%e c%ances o' a "rolon&ed
ad)inistration )ay ins"ire %i) *it% %o"e'ul undertain&s 'or t%e "ublic &ood+ and *it% t%e )eans o' carryin&
t%e) into execution# T%e :resident *as )ade t%e sole re"resentative o' t%e executive "o*er o' t%e (nion+ and
care *as taen not to render %is decisions subordinate to t%e vote o' a council11a dan&erous )easure+ *%ic% tends
at t%e sa)e ti)e to clo& t%e action o' t%e 9overn)ent and to di)inis% its res"onsibility# T%e !enate %as t%e ri&%t
o' annullin& & certain acts o' t%e :resident6 but it cannot co)"el %i) to tae any ste"s+ nor does it "artici"ate in
t%e exercise o' t%e executive "o*er#
T%e action o' t%e le&islature on t%e executive "o*er )ay be direct6 and *e %ave 7ust s%o*n t%at t%e A)ericans
care'ully obviated t%is in'luence6 but it )ay+ on t%e ot%er %and+ be indirect# :ublic asse)blies *%ic% %ave t%e
"o*er o' de"rivin& an o''icer o' state o' %is salary encroac% u"on %is inde"endence6 and as t%ey are 'ree to )ae
t%e la*s+ it is to be 'eared lest t%ey s%ould &radually a""ro"riate to t%e)selves a "ortion o' t%at aut%ority *%ic%
t%e Constitution %ad vested in %is %ands# T%is de"endence o' t%e executive "o*er is one o' t%e de'ects in%erent in
re"ublican constitutions# T%e A)ericans %ave not been able to counteract t%e tendency *%ic% le&islative
asse)blies %ave to &et "ossession o' t%e &overn)ent+ but t%ey %ave rendered t%is "ro"ensity less irresistible# T%e
salary o' t%e :resident is 'ixed+ at t%e ti)e o' %is enterin& u"on o''ice+ 'or t%e *%ole "eriod o' %is )a&istracy#
T%e :resident is+ )oreover+ "rovided *it% a sus"ensive veto+ *%ic% allo*s %i) to o""ose t%e "assin& o' suc%
la*s as )i&%t destroy t%e "ortion o' inde"endence *%ic% t%e Constitution a*ards %i)# T%e stru&&le bet*een t%e
:resident and t%e le&islature )ust al*ays be an unequal one+ since t%e latter is certain o' bearin& do*n all
resistance by "erseverin& in its "lans6 but t%e sus"ensive veto 'orces it at least to reconsider t%e )atter+ and+ i' t%e
)otion be "ersisted in+ it )ust t%en be baced by a )a7ority o' t*o1t%irds o' t%e *%ole %ouse# T%e veto is+ in
'act+ a sort o' a""eal to t%e "eo"le# T%e executive "o*er+ *%ic%+ *it%out t%is security+ )i&%t %ave been secretly
o""ressed+ ado"ts t%is )eans o' "leadin& its cause and statin& its )otives# But i' t%e le&islature is certain o'
over"o*erin& all resistance by "erseverin& in its "lans+ I re"ly+ t%at in t%e constitutions o' all nations+ o'
*%atever ind t%ey )ay be+ a certain "oint exists at *%ic% t%e le&islator is obli&ed to %ave recourse to t%e &ood
sense and t%e virtue o' %is 'ello*1citi-ens# T%is "oint is )ore "ro)inent and )ore discoverable in re"ublics+
*%ilst it is )ore re)ote and )ore care'ully concealed in )onarc%ies+ but it al*ays exists so)e*%ere# T%ere is no
country in t%e *orld in *%ic% everyt%in& can be "rovided 'or by t%e la*s+ or in *%ic% "olitical institutions can
"rove a substitute 'or co))on sense and "ublic )orality#
Di''erences Bet*een T%e :osition O' T%e :resident O' T%e (nited !tates And T%at O' A Constitutional Lin& O'
5rance
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Executive "o*er in t%e Nort%ern !tates as li)ited and as "artial as t%e su"re)acy *%ic% it re"resents11Executive
"o*er in 5rance as universal as t%e su"re)acy it re"resents11T%e Lin& a branc% o' t%e le&islature11T%e :resident
t%e )ere executor o' t%e la*11Ot%er di''erences resultin& 'ro) t%e duration o' t%e t*o "o*ers11T%e :resident
c%eced in t%e exercise o' t%e executive aut%ority11T%e Lin& inde"endent in its exercise11Not*it%standin& t%ese
discre"ancies 5rance is )ore ain to a re"ublic t%an t%e (nion to a )onarc%y11Co)"arison o' t%e nu)ber o'
"ublic o''icers de"endin& u"on t%e executive "o*er in t%e t*o countries#
T%e executive "o*er %as so i)"ortant an in'luence on t%e destinies o' nations t%at I a) inclined to "ause 'or an
instant at t%is "ortion o' )y sub7ect+ in order )ore clearly to ex"lain t%e "art it sustains in A)erica# In order to
'or) an accurate idea o' t%e "osition o' t%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates+ it )ay not be irrelevant to co)"are it
to t%at o' one o' t%e constitutional in&s o' Euro"e# In t%is co)"arison I s%all "ay but little attention to t%e
external si&ns o' "o*er+ *%ic% are )ore a"t to deceive t%e eye o' t%e observer t%an to &uide %is researc%es# ,%en
a )onarc%y is bein& &radually trans'or)ed into a re"ublic+ t%e executive "o*er retains t%e titles+ t%e %onors+ t%e
etiquette+ and even t%e 'unds o' royalty lon& a'ter its aut%ority %as disa""eared# T%e En&lis%+ a'ter %avin& cut o''
t%e %ead o' one in& and ex"elled anot%er 'ro) %is t%rone+ *ere accusto)ed to accost t%e successor o' t%ose
"rinces u"on t%eir nees# On t%e ot%er %and+ *%en a re"ublic 'alls under t%e s*ay o' a sin&le individual+ t%e
de)eanor o' t%e soverei&n is si)"le and un"retendin&+ as i' %is aut%ority *as not yet "ara)ount# ,%en t%e
e)"erors exercised an unli)ited control over t%e 'ortunes and t%e lives o' t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens+ it *as custo)ary
to call t%e) Caesar in conversation+ and t%ey *ere in t%e %abit o' su""in& *it%out 'or)ality at t%eir 'riendsF
%ouses# It is t%ere'ore necessary to loo belo* t%e sur'ace#
T%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nited !tates is s%ared bet*een t%e (nion and t%e !tates+ *%ilst in 5rance it is undivided
and co)"act@ %ence arises t%e 'irst and t%e )ost notable di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een t%e :resident o' t%e
(nited !tates and t%e Lin& o' 5rance# In t%e (nited !tates t%e executive "o*er is as li)ited and "artial as t%e
soverei&nty o' t%e (nion in *%ose na)e it acts6 in 5rance it is as universal as t%e aut%ority o' t%e !tate# T%e
A)ericans %ave a 'ederal and t%e 5renc% a national 9overn)ent#
Chapter VIII
@ T%e 5ederal Constitution11:art II
T%is cause o' in'eriority results 'ro) t%e nature o' t%in&s+ but it is not t%e only one6 t%e second in i)"ortance is
as 'ollo*s@ !overei&nty )ay be de'ined to be t%e ri&%t o' )ain& la*s@ in 5rance+ t%e Lin& really exercises a
"ortion o' t%e soverei&n "o*er+ since t%e la*s %ave no *ei&%t till %e %as &iven %is assent to t%e)6 %e is+
)oreover+ t%e executor o' all t%ey ordain# T%e :resident is also t%e executor o' t%e la*s+ but %e does not really
co1o"erate in t%eir 'or)ation+ since t%e re'usal o' %is assent does not annul t%e)# He is t%ere'ore )erely to be
considered as t%e a&ent o' t%e soverei&n "o*er# But not only does t%e Lin& o' 5rance exercise a "ortion o' t%e
soverei&n "o*er+ %e also contributes to t%e no)ination o' t%e le&islature+ *%ic% exercises t%e ot%er "ortion# He
%as t%e "rivile&e o' a""ointin& t%e )e)bers o' one c%a)ber+ and o' dissolvin& t%e ot%er at %is "leasure6 *%ereas
t%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates %as no s%are in t%e 'or)ation o' t%e le&islative body+ and cannot dissolve any
"art o' it# T%e Lin& %as t%e sa)e ri&%t o' brin&in& 'or*ard )easures as t%e C%a)bers6 a ri&%t *%ic% t%e
:resident does not "ossess# T%e Lin& is re"resented in eac% asse)bly by %is )inisters+ *%o ex"lain %is
intentions+ su""ort %is o"inions+ and )aintain t%e "rinci"les o' t%e 9overn)ent# T%e :resident and %is )inisters
are alie excluded 'ro) Con&ress6 so t%at %is in'luence and %is o"inions can only "enetrate indirectly into t%at
&reat body# T%e Lin& o' 5rance is t%ere'ore on an equal 'ootin& *it% t%e le&islature+ *%ic% can no )ore act
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*it%out %i) t%an %e can *it%out it# T%e :resident exercises an aut%ority in'erior to+ and de"endin& u"on+ t%at o'
t%e le&islature#
Even in t%e exercise o' t%e executive "o*er+ "ro"erly so called11t%e "oint u"on *%ic% %is "osition see)s to be
)ost analo&ous to t%at o' t%e Lin& o' 5rance11t%e :resident labors under several causes o' in'eriority# T%e
aut%ority o' t%e Lin&+ in 5rance+ %as+ in t%e 'irst "lace+ t%e advanta&e o' duration over t%at o' t%e :resident+ and
durability is one o' t%e c%ie' ele)ents o' stren&t%6 not%in& is eit%er loved or 'eared but *%at is liely to endure#
T%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates is a )a&istrate elected 'or 'our years6 t%e Lin&+ in 5rance+ is an %ereditary
soverei&n# In t%e exercise o' t%e executive "o*er t%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates is constantly sub7ect to a
7ealous scrutiny# He )ay )ae+ but %e cannot conclude+ a treaty6 %e )ay desi&nate+ but %e cannot a""oint+ a
"ublic o''icer# Kq T%e Lin& o' 5rance is absolute *it%in t%e li)its o' %is aut%ority# T%e :resident o' t%e (nited
!tates is res"onsible 'or %is actions6 but t%e "erson o' t%e Lin& is declared inviolable by t%e 5renc% C%arter# Kr
35ootnote q@ T%e Constitution %ad le't it doubt'ul *%et%er t%e :resident *as obli&ed to consult t%e !enate in t%e
re)oval as *ell as in t%e a""oint)ent o' 5ederal o''icers# 2T%e 5ederalist2 >No# ==? see)ed to establis% t%e
a''ir)ative6 but in .=/B Con&ress 'or)ally decided t%at+ as t%e :resident *as res"onsible 'or %is actions+ %e
ou&%t not to be 'orced to e)"loy a&ents *%o %ad 'or'eited %is estee)# !ee LentFs 2Co))entaries2+ vol# i# "#
A/B#4
35ootnote r@ 3T%is co)"arison a""lied to t%e Constitutional Lin& o' 5rance and to t%e "o*ers %e %eld under t%e
C%arter o' ./0<+ till t%e overt%ro* o' t%e )onarc%y in ./G/#11TranslatorFs Note#44
Nevert%eless+ t%e su"re)acy o' "ublic o"inion is no less above t%e %ead o' t%e one t%an o' t%e ot%er# T%is "o*er
is less de'inite+ less evident+ and less sanctioned by t%e la*s in 5rance t%an in A)erica+ but in 'act it exists# In
A)erica+ it acts by elections and decrees6 in 5rance it "roceeds by revolutions6 but not*it%standin& t%e di''erent
constitutions o' t%ese t*o countries+ "ublic o"inion is t%e "redo)inant aut%ority in bot% o' t%e)# T%e
'unda)ental "rinci"le o' le&islation11a "rinci"le essentially re"ublican11is t%e sa)e in bot% countries+ alt%ou&%
its consequences )ay be di''erent+ and its results )ore or less extensive# ,%ence I a) led to conclude t%at
5rance *it% its Lin& is nearer ain to a re"ublic t%an t%e (nion *it% its :resident is to a )onarc%y#
In *%at I %ave been sayin& I %ave only touc%ed u"on t%e )ain "oints o' distinction6 and i' I could %ave entered
into details+ t%e contrast *ould %ave been rendered still )ore striin&# I %ave re)ared t%at t%e aut%ority o' t%e
:resident in t%e (nited !tates is only exercised *it%in t%e li)its o' a "artial soverei&nty+ *%ilst t%at o' t%e Lin&
in 5rance is undivided# I )i&%t %ave &one on to s%o* t%at t%e "o*er o' t%e Lin&Fs &overn)ent in 5rance exceeds
its natural li)its+ %o*ever extensive t%ey )ay be+ and "enetrates in a t%ousand di''erent *ays into t%e
ad)inistration o' "rivate interests# A)on&st t%e exa)"les o' t%is in'luence )ay be quoted t%at *%ic% results
'ro) t%e &reat nu)ber o' "ublic 'unctionaries+ *%o all derive t%eir a""oint)ents 'ro) t%e 9overn)ent# T%is
nu)ber no* exceeds all "revious li)its6 it a)ounts to .0/+<<< Ks no)inations+ eac% o' *%ic% )ay be considered
as an ele)ent o' "o*er# T%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates %as not t%e exclusive ri&%t o' )ain& any "ublic
a""oint)ents+ and t%eir *%ole nu)ber scarcely exceeds .A+<<<# Kt
35ootnote s@ T%e su)s annually "aid by t%e !tate to t%ese o''icers a)ount to A<<+<<<+<<< 'r# >NG<+<<<+<<<?#4
35ootnote t@ T%is nu)ber is extracted 'ro) t%e 2National Calendar2 'or ./00# T%e 2National Calendar2 is an
A)erican al)anac *%ic% contains t%e na)es o' all t%e 5ederal o''icers# It results 'ro) t%is co)"arison t%at t%e
Lin& o' 5rance %as eleven ti)es as )any "laces at %is dis"osal as t%e :resident+ alt%ou&% t%e "o"ulation o'
5rance is not )uc% )ore t%an double t%at o' t%e (nion#
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3I %ave not t%e )eans o' ascertainin& t%e nu)ber o' a""oint)ents no* at t%e dis"osal o' t%e :resident o' t%e
(nited !tates+ but %is "atrona&e and t%e abuse o' it %ave lar&ely increased since ./00#11TranslatorFs Note+ ./=C#44
Accidental Causes ,%ic% May Increase T%e In'luence O' T%e Executive 9overn)ent
External security o' t%e (nion11Ar)y o' six t%ousand )en115e* s%i"s11T%e :resident %as no o""ortunity o'
exercisin& %is &reat "rero&atives11In t%e "rero&atives %e exercises %e is *ea#
I' t%e executive &overn)ent is 'eebler in A)erica t%an in 5rance+ t%e cause is )ore attributable to t%e
circu)stances t%an to t%e la*s o' t%e country#
It is c%ie'ly in its 'orei&n relations t%at t%e executive "o*er o' a nation is called u"on to exert its sill and its
vi&or# I' t%e existence o' t%e (nion *ere "er"etually t%reatened+ and i' its c%ie' interests *ere in daily connection
*it% t%ose o' ot%er "o*er'ul nations+ t%e executive &overn)ent *ould assu)e an increased i)"ortance in
"ro"ortion to t%e )easures ex"ected o' it+ and t%ose *%ic% it *ould carry into e''ect# T%e :resident o' t%e (nited
!tates is t%e co))ander1in1c%ie' o' t%e ar)y+ but o' an ar)y co)"osed o' only six t%ousand )en6 %e co))ands
t%e 'leet+ but t%e 'leet recons but 'e* sail6 %e conducts t%e 'orei&n relations o' t%e (nion+ but t%e (nited !tates
are a nation *it%out nei&%bors# !e"arated 'ro) t%e rest o' t%e *orld by t%e ocean+ and too *ea as yet to ai) at
t%e do)inion o' t%e seas+ t%ey %ave no ene)ies+ and t%eir interests rarely co)e into contact *it% t%ose o' any
ot%er nation o' t%e &lobe#
T%e "ractical "art o' a 9overn)ent )ust not be 7ud&ed by t%e t%eory o' its constitution# T%e :resident o' t%e
(nited !tates is in t%e "ossession o' al)ost royal "rero&atives+ *%ic% %e %as no o""ortunity o' exercisin&6 and
t%ose "rivile&es *%ic% %e can at "resent use are very circu)scribed# T%e la*s allo* %i) to "ossess a de&ree o'
in'luence *%ic% circu)stances do not "er)it %i) to e)"loy#
On t%e ot%er %and+ t%e &reat stren&t% o' t%e royal "rero&ative in 5rance arises 'ro) circu)stances 'ar )ore t%an
'ro) t%e la*s# T%ere t%e executive &overn)ent is constantly stru&&lin& a&ainst "rodi&ious obstacles+ and
exertin& all its ener&ies to re"ress t%e)6 so t%at it increases by t%e extent o' its ac%ieve)ents+ and by t%e
i)"ortance o' t%e events it controls+ *it%out )odi'yin& its constitution# I' t%e la*s %ad )ade it as 'eeble and as
circu)scribed as it is in t%e (nion+ its in'luence *ould very soon beco)e still )ore "re"onderant#
,%y T%e :resident O' T%e (nited !tates Does Not Require T%e Ma7ority O' T%e T*o Houses In Order To Carry
On T%e 9overn)ent It is an establis%ed axio) in Euro"e t%at a constitutional Lin& cannot "ersevere in a syste)
o' &overn)ent *%ic% is o""osed by t%e t*o ot%er branc%es o' t%e le&islature# But several :residents o' t%e
(nited !tates %ave been no*n to lose t%e )a7ority in t%e le&islative body *it%out bein& obli&ed to abandon t%e
su"re)e "o*er+ and *it%out in'lictin& a serious evil u"on society# I %ave %eard t%is 'act quoted as an instance o'
t%e inde"endence and t%e "o*er o' t%e executive &overn)ent in A)erica@ a )o)entFs re'lection *ill convince
us+ on t%e contrary+ t%at it is a "roo' o' its extre)e *eaness#
A Lin& in Euro"e requires t%e su""ort o' t%e le&islature to enable %i) to "er'or) t%e duties i)"osed u"on %i)
by t%e Constitution+ because t%ose duties are enor)ous# A constitutional Lin& in Euro"e is not )erely t%e
executor o' t%e la*+ but t%e execution o' its "rovisions devolves so co)"letely u"on %i) t%at %e %as t%e "o*er o'
"araly-in& its in'luence i' it o""oses %is desi&ns# He requires t%e assistance o' t%e le&islative asse)blies to )ae
t%e la*+ but t%ose asse)blies stand in need o' %is aid to execute it@ t%ese t*o aut%orities cannot subsist *it%out
eac% ot%er+ and t%e )ec%anis) o' &overn)ent is sto""ed as soon as t%ey are at variance#
In A)erica t%e :resident cannot "revent any la* 'ro) bein& "assed+ nor can %e evade t%e obli&ation o' en'orcin&
it# His sincere and -ealous co1o"eration is no doubt use'ul+ but it is not indis"ensable+ in t%e carryin& on o' "ublic
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a''airs# All %is i)"ortant acts are directly or indirectly sub)itted to t%e le&islature+ and o' %is o*n 'ree aut%ority
%e can do but little# It is t%ere'ore %is *eaness+ and not %is "o*er+ *%ic% enables %i) to re)ain in o""osition to
Con&ress# In Euro"e+ %ar)ony )ust rei&n bet*een t%e Cro*n and t%e ot%er branc%es o' t%e le&islature+ because a
collision bet*een t%e) )ay "rove serious6 in A)erica+ t%is %ar)ony is not indis"ensable+ because suc% a
collision is i)"ossible#
Election O' T%e :resident
Dan&ers o' t%e elective syste) increase in "ro"ortion to t%e extent o' t%e "rero&ative11T%is syste) "ossible in
A)erica because no "o*er'ul executive aut%ority is required11,%at circu)stances are 'avorable to t%e elective
syste)11,%y t%e election o' t%e :resident does not cause a deviation 'ro) t%e "rinci"les o' t%e 9overn)ent11
In'luence o' t%e election o' t%e :resident on secondary 'unctionaries#
T%e dan&ers o' t%e syste) o' election a""lied to t%e %ead o' t%e executive &overn)ent o' a &reat "eo"le %ave
been su''iciently exe)"li'ied by ex"erience and by %istory+ and t%e re)ars I a) about to )ae re'er to A)erica
alone# T%ese dan&ers )ay be )ore or less 'or)idable in "ro"ortion to t%e "lace *%ic% t%e executive "o*er
occu"ies+ and to t%e i)"ortance it "ossesses in t%e !tate6 and t%ey )ay vary accordin& to t%e )ode o' election
and t%e circu)stances in *%ic% t%e electors are "laced# T%e )ost *ei&%ty ar&u)ent a&ainst t%e election o' a
c%ie' )a&istrate is+ t%at it o''ers so s"lendid a lure to "rivate a)bition+ and is so a"t to in'la)e )en in t%e "ursuit
o' "o*er+ t%at *%en le&iti)ate )eans are *antin& 'orce )ay not un'requently sei-e *%at ri&%t denied#
It is clear t%at t%e &reater t%e "rivile&es o' t%e executive aut%ority are+ t%e &reater is t%e te)"tation6 t%e )ore t%e
a)bition o' t%e candidates is excited+ t%e )ore *ar)ly are t%eir interests es"oused by a t%ron& o' "artisans *%o
%o"e to s%are t%e "o*er *%en t%eir "atron %as *on t%e "ri-e# T%e dan&ers o' t%e elective syste) increase+
t%ere'ore+ in t%e exact ratio o' t%e in'luence exercised by t%e executive "o*er in t%e a''airs o' !tate# T%e
revolutions o' :oland *ere not solely attributable to t%e elective syste) in &eneral+ but to t%e 'act t%at t%e elected
)onarc% *as t%e soverei&n o' a "o*er'ul in&do)# Be'ore *e can discuss t%e absolute advanta&es o' t%e elective
syste) *e )ust )ae "reli)inary inquiries as to *%et%er t%e &eo&ra"%ical "osition+ t%e la*s+ t%e %abits+ t%e
)anners+ and t%e o"inions o' t%e "eo"le a)on&st *%o) it is to be introduced *ill ad)it o' t%e establis%)ent o' a
*ea and de"endent executive &overn)ent6 'or to atte)"t to render t%e re"resentative o' t%e !tate a "o*er'ul
soverei&n+ and at t%e sa)e ti)e elective+ is+ in )y o"inion+ to entertain t*o inco)"atible desi&ns# To reduce
%ereditary royalty to t%e condition o' an elective aut%ority+ t%e only )eans t%at I a) acquainted *it% are to
circu)scribe its s"%ere o' action be'ore%and+ &radually to di)inis% its "rero&atives+ and to accusto) t%e "eo"le
to live *it%out its "rotection# Not%in&+ %o*ever+ is 'urt%er 'ro) t%e desi&ns o' t%e re"ublicans o' Euro"e t%an t%is
course@ as )any o' t%e) o*e t%eir %atred o' tyranny to t%e su''erin&s *%ic% t%ey %ave "ersonally under&one+ it is
o""ression+ and not t%e extent o' t%e executive "o*er+ *%ic% excites t%eir %ostility+ and t%ey attac t%e 'or)er
*it%out "erceivin& %o* nearly it is connected *it% t%e latter#
Hit%erto no citi-en %as s%o*n any dis"osition to ex"ose %is %onor and %is li'e in order to beco)e t%e :resident o'
t%e (nited !tates6 because t%e "o*er o' t%at o''ice is te)"orary+ li)ited+ and subordinate# T%e "ri-e o' 'ortune
)ust be &reat to encoura&e adventurers in so des"erate a &a)e# No candidate %as as yet been able to arouse t%e
dan&erous ent%usias) or t%e "assionate sy)"at%ies o' t%e "eo"le in %is 'avor+ 'or t%e very si)"le reason t%at
*%en %e is at t%e %ead o' t%e 9overn)ent %e %as but little "o*er+ but little *ealt%+ and but little &lory to s%are
a)on&st %is 'riends6 and %is in'luence in t%e !tate is too s)all 'or t%e success or t%e ruin o' a 'action to de"end
u"on t%e elevation o' an individual to "o*er#
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T%e &reat advanta&e o' %ereditary )onarc%ies is+ t%at as t%e "rivate interest o' a 'a)ily is al*ays inti)ately
connected *it% t%e interests o' t%e !tate+ t%e executive &overn)ent is never sus"ended 'or a sin&le instant6 and i'
t%e a''airs o' a )onarc%y are not better conducted t%an t%ose o' a re"ublic+ at least t%ere is al*ays so)e one to
conduct t%e)+ *ell or ill+ accordin& to %is ca"acity# In elective !tates+ on t%e contrary+ t%e *%eels o' &overn)ent
cease to act+ as it *ere+ o' t%eir o*n accord at t%e a""roac% o' an election+ and even 'or so)e ti)e "revious to
t%at event# T%e la*s )ay indeed accelerate t%e o"eration o' t%e election+ *%ic% )ay be conducted *it% suc%
si)"licity and ra"idity t%at t%e seat o' "o*er *ill never be le't vacant6 but+ not*it%standin& t%ese "recautions+ a
brea necessarily occurs in t%e )inds o' t%e "eo"le#
At t%e a""roac% o' an election t%e %ead o' t%e executive &overn)ent is *%olly occu"ied by t%e co)in& stru&&le6
%is 'uture "lans are doubt'ul6 %e can undertae not%in& ne*+ and t%e %e *ill only "rosecute *it% indi''erence
t%ose desi&ns *%ic% anot%er *ill "er%a"s ter)inate# 2I a) so near t%e ti)e o' )y retire)ent 'ro) o''ice+2 said
:resident $e''erson on t%e A.st o' $anuary+ ./<B >six *ees be'ore t%e election?+ 2t%at I 'eel no "assion+ I tae no
"art+ I ex"ress no senti)ent# It a""ears to )e 7ust to leave to )y successor t%e co))ence)ent o' t%ose )easures
*%ic% %e *ill %ave to "rosecute+ and 'or *%ic% %e *ill be res"onsible#2
On t%e ot%er %and+ t%e eyes o' t%e nation are centred on a sin&le "oint6 all are *atc%in& t%e &radual birt% o' so
i)"ortant an event# T%e *ider t%e in'luence o' t%e executive "o*er extends+ t%e &reater and t%e )ore necessary
is its constant action+ t%e )ore 'atal is t%e ter) o' sus"ense6 and a nation *%ic% is accusto)ed to t%e &overn)ent+
or+ still )ore+ one used to t%e ad)inistrative "rotection o' a "o*er'ul executive aut%ority *ould be in'allibly
convulsed by an election o' t%is ind# In t%e (nited !tates t%e action o' t%e 9overn)ent )ay be slacened *it%
i)"unity+ because it is al*ays *ea and circu)scribed# Ku
35ootnote u@ 3T%is+ %o*ever+ )ay be a &reat dan&er# T%e "eriod durin& *%ic% Mr# Buc%anan retained o''ice+ a'ter
t%e election o' Mr# 8incoln+ 'ro) Nove)ber+ ./;<+ to Marc%+ ./;.+ *as t%at *%ic% enabled t%e secedin& !tates
o' t%e !out% to co)"lete t%eir "re"arations 'or t%e Civil ,ar+ and t%e Executive 9overn)ent *as "araly-ed# No
&reater evil could be'all a nation#11TranslatorFs Note#44
One o' t%e "rinci"al vices o' t%e elective syste) is t%at it al*ays introduces a certain de&ree o' instability into t%e
internal and external "olicy o' t%e !tate# But t%is disadvanta&e is less sensibly 'elt i' t%e s%are o' "o*er vested in
t%e elected )a&istrate is s)all# In Ro)e t%e "rinci"les o' t%e 9overn)ent under*ent no variation+ alt%ou&% t%e
Consuls *ere c%an&ed every year+ because t%e !enate+ *%ic% *as an %ereditary asse)bly+ "ossessed t%e directin&
aut%ority# I' t%e elective syste) *ere ado"ted in Euro"e+ t%e condition o' )ost o' t%e )onarc%ical !tates *ould
be c%an&ed at every ne* election# In A)erica t%e :resident exercises a certain in'luence on !tate a''airs+ but %e
does not conduct t%e)6 t%e "re"onderatin& "o*er is vested in t%e re"resentatives o' t%e *%ole nation# T%e
"olitical )axi)s o' t%e country de"end t%ere'ore on t%e )ass o' t%e "eo"le+ not on t%e :resident alone6 and
consequently in A)erica t%e elective syste) %as no very "re7udicial in'luence on t%e 'ixed "rinci"les o' t%e
9overn)ent# But t%e *ant o' 'ixed "rinci"les is an evil so in%erent in t%e elective syste) t%at it is still extre)ely
"erce"tible in t%e narro* s"%ere to *%ic% t%e aut%ority o' t%e :resident extends#
T%e A)ericans %ave ad)itted t%at t%e %ead o' t%e executive "o*er+ *%o %as to bear t%e *%ole res"onsibility o'
t%e duties %e is called u"on to 'ul'il+ ou&%t to be e)"o*ered to c%oose %is o*n a&ents+ and to re)ove t%e) at
"leasure@ t%e le&islative bodies *atc% t%e conduct o' t%e :resident )ore t%an t%ey direct it# T%e consequence o'
t%is arran&e)ent is+ t%at at every ne* election t%e 'ate o' all t%e 5ederal "ublic o''icers is in sus"ense# Mr#
Muincy Ada)s+ on %is entry into o''ice+ disc%ar&ed t%e )a7ority o' t%e individuals *%o %ad been a""ointed by
%is "redecessor@ and I a) not a*are t%at 9eneral $acson allo*ed a sin&le re)ovable 'unctionary e)"loyed in
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t%e 5ederal service to retain %is "lace beyond t%e 'irst year *%ic% succeeded %is election# It is so)eti)es )ade a
sub7ect o' co)"laint t%at in t%e constitutional )onarc%ies o' Euro"e t%e 'ate o' t%e %u)bler servants o' an
Ad)inistration de"ends u"on t%at o' t%e Ministers# But in elective 9overn)ents t%is evil is 'ar &reater# In a
constitutional )onarc%y successive )inistries are ra"idly 'or)ed6 but as t%e "rinci"al re"resentative o' t%e
executive "o*er does not c%an&e+ t%e s"irit o' innovation is e"t *it%in bounds6 t%e c%an&es *%ic% tae "lace are
in t%e details rat%er t%an in t%e "rinci"les o' t%e ad)inistrative syste)6 but to substitute one syste) 'or anot%er+
as is done in A)erica every 'our years+ by la*+ is to cause a sort o' revolution# As to t%e )is'ortunes *%ic% )ay
'all u"on individuals in consequence o' t%is state o' t%in&s+ it )ust be allo*ed t%at t%e uncertain situation o' t%e
"ublic o''icers is less 'rau&%t *it% evil consequences in A)erica t%an else*%ere# It is so easy to acquire an
inde"endent "osition in t%e (nited !tates t%at t%e "ublic o''icer *%o loses %is "lace )ay be de"rived o' t%e
co)'orts o' li'e+ but not o' t%e )eans o' subsistence#
I re)ared at t%e be&innin& o' t%is c%a"ter t%at t%e dan&ers o' t%e elective syste) a""lied to t%e %ead o' t%e !tate
are au&)ented or decreased by t%e "eculiar circu)stances o' t%e "eo"le *%ic% ado"ts it# Ho*ever t%e 'unctions
o' t%e executive "o*er )ay be restricted+ it )ust al*ays exercise a &reat in'luence u"on t%e 'orei&n "olicy o' t%e
country+ 'or a ne&otiation cannot be o"ened or success'ully carried on ot%er*ise t%an by a sin&le a&ent# T%e )ore
"recarious and t%e )ore "erilous t%e "osition o' a "eo"le beco)es+ t%e )ore absolute is t%e *ant o' a 'ixed and
consistent external "olicy+ and t%e )ore dan&erous does t%e elective syste) o' t%e C%ie' Ma&istrate beco)e# T%e
"olicy o' t%e A)ericans in relation to t%e *%ole *orld is exceedin&ly si)"le6 'or it )ay al)ost be said t%at no
country stands in need o' t%e)+ nor do t%ey require t%e co1o"eration o' any ot%er "eo"le# T%eir inde"endence is
never t%reatened# In t%eir "resent condition+ t%ere'ore+ t%e 'unctions o' t%e executive "o*er are no less li)ited by
circu)stances t%an by t%e la*s6 and t%e :resident )ay 'requently c%an&e %is line o' "olicy *it%out involvin& t%e
!tate in di''iculty or destruction#
,%atever t%e "rero&atives o' t%e executive "o*er )ay be+ t%e "eriod *%ic% i))ediately "recedes an election
and t%e )o)ent o' its duration )ust al*ays be considered as a national crisis+ *%ic% is "erilous in "ro"ortion to
t%e internal e)barrass)ents and t%e external dan&ers o' t%e country# 5e* o' t%e nations o' Euro"e could esca"e
t%e cala)ities o' anarc%y or o' conquest every ti)e t%ey )i&%t %ave to elect a ne* soverei&n# In A)erica society
is so constituted t%at it can stand *it%out assistance u"on its o*n basis6 not%in& is to be 'eared 'ro) t%e "ressure
o' external dan&ers+ and t%e election o' t%e :resident is a cause o' a&itation+ but not o' ruin#
Mode O' Election
!ill o' t%e A)erican le&islators s%o*n in t%e )ode o' election ado"ted by t%e)11Creation o' a s"ecial electoral
body11!e"arate votes o' t%ese electors11Case in *%ic% t%e House o' Re"resentatives is called u"on to c%oose t%e
:resident11Results o' t%e t*elve elections *%ic% %ave taen "lace since t%e Constitution %as been establis%ed#
Besides t%e dan&ers *%ic% are in%erent in t%e syste)+ )any ot%er di''iculties )ay arise 'ro) t%e )ode o'
election+ *%ic% )ay be obviated by t%e "recaution o' t%e le&islator# ,%en a "eo"le )et in ar)s on so)e "ublic
s"ot to c%oose its %ead+ it *as ex"osed to all t%e c%ances o' civil *ar resultin& 'ro) so )artial a )ode o'
"roceedin&+ besides t%e dan&ers o' t%e elective syste) in itsel'# T%e :olis% la*s+ *%ic% sub7ected t%e election o'
t%e soverei&n to t%e veto o' a sin&le individual+ su&&ested t%e )urder o' t%at individual or "re"ared t%e *ay to
anarc%y#
In t%e exa)ination o' t%e institutions and t%e "olitical as *ell as social condition o' t%e (nited !tates+ *e are
struc by t%e ad)irable %ar)ony o' t%e &i'ts o' 'ortune and t%e e''orts o' )an# T%e nation "ossessed t*o o' t%e
)ain causes o' internal "eace6 it *as a ne* country+ but it *as in%abited by a "eo"le &ro*n old in t%e exercise o'
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'reedo)# A)erica %ad no %ostile nei&%bors to dread6 and t%e A)erican le&islators+ "ro'itin& by t%ese 'avorable
circu)stances+ created a *ea and subordinate executive "o*er *%ic% could *it%out dan&er be )ade elective#
It t%en only re)ained 'or t%e) to c%oose t%e least dan&erous o' t%e various )odes o' election6 and t%e rules
*%ic% t%ey laid do*n u"on t%is "oint ad)irably corres"ond to t%e securities *%ic% t%e "%ysical and "olitical
constitution o' t%e country already a''orded# T%eir ob7ect *as to 'ind t%e )ode o' election *%ic% *ould best
ex"ress t%e c%oice o' t%e "eo"le *it% t%e least "ossible excite)ent and sus"ense# It *as ad)itted in t%e 'irst "lace
t%at t%e si)"le )a7ority s%ould be decisive6 but t%e di''iculty *as to obtain t%is )a7ority *it%out an interval o'
delay *%ic% it *as )ost i)"ortant to avoid# It rarely %a""ens t%at an individual can at once collect t%e )a7ority
o' t%e su''ra&es o' a &reat "eo"le6 and t%is di''iculty is en%anced in a re"ublic o' con'ederate !tates+ *%ere local
in'luences are a"t to "re"onderate# T%e )eans by *%ic% it *as "ro"osed to obviate t%is second obstacle *as to
dele&ate t%e electoral "o*ers o' t%e nation to a body o' re"resentatives# T%is )ode o' election rendered a
)a7ority )ore "robable6 'or t%e 'e*er t%e electors are+ t%e &reater is t%e c%ance o' t%eir co)in& to a 'inal
decision# It also o''ered an additional "robability o' a 7udicious c%oice# It t%en re)ained to be decided *%et%er
t%is ri&%t o' election *as to be entrusted to a le&islative body+ t%e %abitual re"resentative asse)bly o' t%e nation+
or *%et%er an electoral asse)bly s%ould be 'or)ed 'or t%e ex"ress "ur"ose o' "roceedin& to t%e no)ination o' a
:resident# T%e A)ericans c%ose t%e latter alternative+ 'ro) a belie' t%at t%e individuals *%o *ere returned to
)ae t%e la*s *ere inco)"etent to re"resent t%e *is%es o' t%e nation in t%e election o' its c%ie' )a&istrate6 and
t%at+ as t%ey are c%osen 'or )ore t%an a year+ t%e constituency t%ey re"resent )i&%t %ave c%an&ed its o"inion in
t%at ti)e# It *as t%ou&%t t%at i' t%e le&islature *as e)"o*ered to elect t%e %ead o' t%e executive "o*er+ its
)e)bers *ould+ 'or so)e ti)e be'ore t%e election+ be ex"osed to t%e )anoeuvres o' corru"tion and t%e trics o'
intri&ue6 *%ereas t%e s"ecial electors *ould+ lie a 7ury+ re)ain )ixed u" *it% t%e cro*d till t%e day o' action+
*%en t%ey *ould a""ear 'or t%e sole "ur"ose o' &ivin& t%eir votes#
It *as t%ere'ore establis%ed t%at every !tate s%ould na)e a certain nu)ber o' electors+ Kv *%o in t%eir turn
s%ould elect t%e :resident6 and as it %ad been observed t%at t%e asse)blies to *%ic% t%e c%oice o' a c%ie'
)a&istrate %ad been entrusted in elective countries inevitably beca)e t%e centres o' "assion and o' cabal6 t%at
t%ey so)eti)es usur"ed an aut%ority *%ic% did not belon& to t%e)6 and t%at t%eir "roceedin&s+ or t%e uncertainty
*%ic% resulted 'ro) t%e)+ *ere so)eti)es "rolon&ed so )uc% as to endan&er t%e *el'are o' t%e !tate+ it *as
deter)ined t%at t%e electors s%ould all vote u"on t%e sa)e day+ *it%out bein& convoed to t%e sa)e "lace# K*
T%is double election rendered a )a7ority "robable+ t%ou&% not certain6 'or it *as "ossible t%at as )any
di''erences )i&%t exist bet*een t%e electors as bet*een t%eir constituents# In t%is case it *as necessary to %ave
recourse to one o' t%ree )easures6 eit%er to a""oint ne* electors+ or to consult a second ti)e t%ose already
a""ointed+ or to de'er t%e election to anot%er aut%ority# T%e 'irst t*o o' t%ese alternatives+ inde"endently o' t%e
uncertainty o' t%eir results+ *ere liely to delay t%e 'inal decision+ and to "er"etuate an a&itation *%ic% )ust
al*ays be acco)"anied *it% dan&er# T%e t%ird ex"edient *as t%ere'ore ado"ted+ and it *as a&reed t%at t%e votes
s%ould be trans)itted sealed to t%e :resident o' t%e !enate+ and t%at t%ey s%ould be o"ened and counted in t%e
"resence o' t%e !enate and t%e House o' Re"resentatives# I' none o' t%e candidates %as a )a7ority+ t%e House o'
Re"resentatives t%en "roceeds i))ediately to elect a :resident+ but *it% t%e condition t%at it )ust 'ix u"on one
o' t%e t%ree candidates *%o %ave t%e %i&%est nu)bers# Kx
35ootnote v@ As )any as it sends )e)bers to Con&ress# T%e nu)ber o' electors at t%e election o' ./00 *as A//#
>!ee 2T%e National Calendar+2 ./00#?4
35ootnote *@ T%e electors o' t%e sa)e !tate asse)ble+ but t%ey trans)it to t%e central &overn)ent t%e list o' t%eir
individual votes+ and not t%e )ere result o' t%e vote o' t%e )a7ority#4 35ootnote x@ In t%is case it is t%e )a7ority o'
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t%e !tates+ and not t%e )a7ority o' t%e )e)bers+ *%ic% decides t%e question6 so t%at Ne* Yor %as not )ore
in'luence in t%e debate t%an R%ode Island# T%us t%e citi-ens o' t%e (nion are 'irst consulted as )e)bers o' one
and t%e sa)e co))unity6 and+ i' t%ey cannot a&ree+ recourse is %ad to t%e division o' t%e !tates+ eac% o' *%ic%
%as a se"arate and inde"endent vote# T%is is one o' t%e sin&ularities o' t%e 5ederal Constitution *%ic% can only
be ex"lained by t%e 7ar o' con'lictin& interests#4
T%us it is only in case o' an event *%ic% cannot o'ten %a""en+ and *%ic% can never be 'oreseen+ t%at t%e election
is entrusted to t%e ordinary re"resentatives o' t%e nation6 and even t%en t%ey are obli&ed to c%oose a citi-en *%o
%as already been desi&nated by a "o*er'ul )inority o' t%e s"ecial electors# It is by t%is %a""y ex"edient t%at t%e
res"ect *%ic% is due to t%e "o"ular voice is co)bined *it% t%e ut)ost celerity o' execution and t%ose "recautions
*%ic% t%e "eace o' t%e country de)ands# But t%e decision o' t%e question by t%e House o' Re"resentatives does
not necessarily o''er an i))ediate solution o' t%e di''iculty+ 'or t%e )a7ority o' t%at asse)bly )ay still be
doubt'ul+ and in t%is case t%e Constitution "rescribes no re)edy# Nevert%eless+ by restrictin& t%e nu)ber o'
candidates to t%ree+ and by re'errin& t%e )atter to t%e 7ud&)ent o' an enli&%tened "ublic body+ it %as s)oot%ed
all t%e obstacles Ky *%ic% are not in%erent in t%e elective syste)#
35ootnote y@ $e''erson+ in ./<.+ *as not elected until t%e t%irty1sixt% ti)e o' ballotin&#4
In t%e 'orty1'our years *%ic% %ave ela"sed since t%e "ro)ul&ation o' t%e 5ederal Constitution t%e (nited !tates
%ave t*elve ti)es c%osen a :resident# Ten o' t%ese elections too "lace si)ultaneously by t%e votes o' t%e
s"ecial electors in t%e di''erent !tates# T%e House o' Re"resentatives %as only t*ice exercised its conditional
"rivile&e o' decidin& in cases o' uncertainty6 t%e 'irst ti)e *as at t%e election o' Mr# $e''erson in ./<.6 t%e
second *as in ./AC+ *%en Mr# Muincy Ada)s *as na)ed# K-
35ootnote -@ 39eneral 9rant is no* >./=G? t%e ei&%teent% :resident o' t%e (nited !tates#44
Crises O' T%e Election
T%e Election )ay be considered as a national crisis11,%yI11:assions o' t%e "eo"le11Anxiety o' t%e :resident11
Cal) *%ic% succeeds t%e a&itation o' t%e election#
I %ave s%o*n *%at t%e circu)stances are *%ic% 'avored t%e ado"tion o' t%e elective syste) in t%e (nited !tates+
and *%at "recautions *ere taen by t%e le&islators to obviate its dan&ers# T%e A)ericans are %abitually
accusto)ed to all inds o' elections+ and t%ey no* by ex"erience t%e ut)ost de&ree o' excite)ent *%ic% is
co)"atible *it% security# T%e vast extent o' t%e country and t%e disse)ination o' t%e in%abitants render a
collision bet*een "arties less "robable and less dan&erous t%ere t%an else*%ere# T%e "olitical circu)stances
under *%ic% t%e elections %ave %it%erto been carried on %ave "resented no real e)barrass)ents to t%e nation#
Nevert%eless+ t%e e"oc% o' t%e election o' a :resident o' t%e (nited !tates )ay be considered as a crisis in t%e
a''airs o' t%e nation# T%e in'luence *%ic% %e exercises on "ublic business is no doubt 'eeble and indirect6 but t%e
c%oice o' t%e :resident+ *%ic% is o' s)all i)"ortance to eac% individual citi-en+ concerns t%e citi-ens
collectively6 and %o*ever tri'lin& an interest )ay be+ it assu)es a &reat de&ree o' i)"ortance as soon as it
beco)es &eneral# T%e :resident "ossesses but 'e* )eans o' re*ardin& %is su""orters in co)"arison to t%e in&s
o' Euro"e+ but t%e "laces *%ic% are at %is dis"osal are su''iciently nu)erous to interest+ directly or indirectly+
several t%ousand electors in %is success# :olitical "arties in t%e (nited !tates are led to rally round an individual+
in order to acquire a )ore tan&ible s%a"e in t%e eyes o' t%e cro*d+ and t%e na)e o' t%e candidate 'or t%e
:residency is "ut 'or*ard as t%e sy)bol and "ersoni'ication o' t%eir t%eories# 5or t%ese reasons "arties are
stron&ly interested in &ainin& t%e election+ not so )uc% *it% a vie* to t%e triu)"% o' t%eir "rinci"les under t%e
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aus"ices o' t%e :resident1elect as to s%o* by t%e )a7ority *%ic% returned %i)+ t%e stren&t% o' t%e su""orters o'
t%ose "rinci"les#
5or a lon& *%ile be'ore t%e a""ointed ti)e is at %and t%e election beco)es t%e )ost i)"ortant and t%e all1
en&rossin& to"ic o' discussion# T%e ardor o' 'action is redoubled6 and all t%e arti'icial "assions *%ic% t%e
i)a&ination can create in t%e boso) o' a %a""y and "eace'ul land are a&itated and brou&%t to li&%t# T%e
:resident+ on t%e ot%er %and+ is absorbed by t%e cares o' sel'1de'ence# He no lon&er &overns 'or t%e interest o' t%e
!tate+ but 'or t%at o' %is re1election6 %e does %o)a&e to t%e )a7ority+ and instead o' c%ecin& its "assions+ as %is
duty co))ands %i) to do+ %e 'requently courts its *orst ca"rices# As t%e election dra*s near+ t%e activity o'
intri&ue and t%e a&itation o' t%e "o"ulace increase6 t%e citi-ens are divided into %ostile ca)"s+ eac% o' *%ic%
assu)es t%e na)e o' its 'avorite candidate6 t%e *%ole nation &lo*s *it% 'everis% excite)ent6 t%e election is t%e
daily t%e)e o' t%e "ublic "a"ers+ t%e sub7ect o' "rivate conversation+ t%e end o' every t%ou&%t and every action+
t%e sole interest o' t%e "resent# As soon as t%e c%oice is deter)ined+ t%is ardor is dis"elled6 and as a cal)er
season returns+ t%e current o' t%e !tate+ *%ic% %ad nearly broen its bans+ sins to its usual level@ Ka but *%o
can re'rain 'ro) astonis%)ent at t%e causes o' t%e stor)#
35ootnote a@ 3Not al*ays# T%e election o' :resident 8incoln *as t%e si&nal o' civil *ar#11TranslatorFs Note#44
Chapter VIII
@ T%e 5ederal Constitution11:art III
Re1election O' T%e :resident
,%en t%e %ead o' t%e executive "o*er is re1eli&ible+ it is t%e !tate *%ic% is t%e source o' intri&ue and
corru"tion11T%e desire o' bein& re1elected t%e c%ie' ai) o' a :resident o' t%e (nited !tates11Disadvanta&e o' t%e
syste) "eculiar to A)erica11T%e natural evil o' de)ocracy is t%at it subordinates all aut%ority to t%e sli&%test
desires o' t%e )a7ority11T%e re1election o' t%e :resident encoura&es t%is evil#
It )ay be ased *%et%er t%e le&islators o' t%e (nited !tates did ri&%t or *ron& in allo*in& t%e re1election o' t%e
:resident# It see)s at 'irst si&%t contrary to all reason to "revent t%e %ead o' t%e executive "o*er 'ro) bein&
elected a second ti)e# T%e in'luence *%ic% t%e talents and t%e c%aracter o' a sin&le individual )ay exercise u"on
t%e 'ate o' a *%ole "eo"le+ in critical circu)stances or arduous ti)es+ is *ell no*n@ a la* "reventin& t%e re1
election o' t%e c%ie' )a&istrate *ould de"rive t%e citi-ens o' t%e surest "led&e o' t%e "ros"erity and t%e security
o' t%e co))on*ealt%6 and+ by a sin&ular inconsistency+ a )an *ould be excluded 'ro) t%e &overn)ent at t%e
very ti)e *%en %e %ad s%o*n %is ability in conductin& its a''airs#
But i' t%ese ar&u)ents are stron&+ "er%a"s still )ore "o*er'ul reasons )ay be advanced a&ainst t%e)# Intri&ue
and corru"tion are t%e natural de'ects o' elective &overn)ent6 but *%en t%e %ead o' t%e !tate can be re1elected
t%ese evils rise to a &reat %ei&%t+ and co)"ro)ise t%e very existence o' t%e country# ,%en a si)"le candidate
sees to rise by intri&ue+ %is )anoeuvres )ust necessarily be li)ited to a narro* s"%ere6 but *%en t%e c%ie'
)a&istrate enters t%e lists+ %e borro*s t%e stren&t% o' t%e &overn)ent 'or %is o*n "ur"oses# In t%e 'or)er case
t%e 'eeble resources o' an individual are in action6 in t%e latter+ t%e !tate itsel'+ *it% all its i))ense in'luence+ is
busied in t%e *or o' corru"tion and cabal# T%e "rivate citi-en+ *%o e)"loys t%e )ost i))oral "ractices to
acquire "o*er+ can only act in a )anner indirectly "re7udicial to t%e "ublic "ros"erity# But i' t%e re"resentative o'
t%e executive descends into t%e co)bat+ t%e cares o' &overn)ent d*indle into second1rate i)"ortance+ and t%e
success o' %is election is %is 'irst concern# All la*s and all t%e ne&otiations %e undertaes are to %i) not%in&
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)ore t%an electioneerin& sc%e)es6 "laces beco)e t%e re*ard o' services rendered+ not to t%e nation+ but to its
c%ie'6 and t%e in'luence o' t%e &overn)ent+ i' not in7urious to t%e country+ is at least no lon&er bene'icial to t%e
co))unity 'or *%ic% it *as created#
It is i)"ossible to consider t%e ordinary course o' a''airs in t%e (nited !tates *it%out "erceivin& t%at t%e desire
o' bein& re1elected is t%e c%ie' ai) o' t%e :resident6 t%at %is *%ole ad)inistration+ and even %is )ost indi''erent
)easures+ tend to t%is ob7ect6 and t%at+ as t%e crisis a""roac%es+ %is "ersonal interest taes t%e "lace o' %is interest
in t%e "ublic &ood# T%e "rinci"le o' re1eli&ibility renders t%e corru"t in'luence o' elective &overn)ent still )ore
extensive and "ernicious#
In A)erica it exercises a "eculiarly 'atal in'luence on t%e sources o' national existence# Every &overn)ent see)s
to be a''licted by so)e evil *%ic% is in%erent in its nature+ and t%e &enius o' t%e le&islator is s%o*n in eludin& its
attacs# A !tate )ay survive t%e in'luence o' a %ost o' bad la*s+ and t%e )isc%ie' t%ey cause is 'requently
exa&&erated6 but a la* *%ic% encoura&es t%e &ro*t% o' t%e caner *it%in )ust "rove 'atal in t%e end+ alt%ou&%
its bad consequences )ay not be i))ediately "erceived#
T%e "rinci"le o' destruction in absolute )onarc%ies lies in t%e excessive and unreasonable extension o' t%e
"rero&ative o' t%e cro*n6 and a )easure tendin& to re)ove t%e constitutional "rovisions *%ic% counterbalance
t%is in'luence *ould be radically bad+ even i' its i))ediate consequences *ere unattended *it% evil# By a "arity
o' reasonin&+ in countries &overned by a de)ocracy+ *%ere t%e "eo"le is "er"etually dra*in& all aut%ority to
itsel'+ t%e la*s *%ic% increase or accelerate its action are t%e direct assailants o' t%e very "rinci"le o' t%e
&overn)ent#
T%e &reatest "roo' o' t%e ability o' t%e A)erican le&islators is+ t%at t%ey clearly discerned t%is trut%+ and t%at t%ey
%ad t%e coura&e to act u" to it# T%ey conceived t%at a certain aut%ority above t%e body o' t%e "eo"le *as
necessary+ *%ic% s%ould en7oy a de&ree o' inde"endence+ *it%out+ %o*ever+ bein& entirely beyond t%e "o"ular
control6 an aut%ority *%ic% *ould be 'orced to co)"ly *it% t%e "er)anent deter)inations o' t%e )a7ority+ but
*%ic% *ould be able to resist its ca"rices+ and to re'use its )ost dan&erous de)ands# To t%is end t%ey centred t%e
*%ole executive "o*er o' t%e nation in a sin&le ar)6 t%ey &ranted extensive "rero&atives to t%e :resident+ and
t%ey ar)ed %i) *it% t%e veto to resist t%e encroac%)ents o' t%e le&islature#
But by introducin& t%e "rinci"le o' re1election t%ey "artly destroyed t%eir *or6 and t%ey rendered t%e :resident
but little inclined to exert t%e &reat "o*er t%ey %ad vested in %is %ands# I' ineli&ible a second ti)e+ t%e :resident
*ould be 'ar 'ro) inde"endent o' t%e "eo"le+ 'or %is res"onsibility *ould not be lessened6 but t%e 'avor o' t%e
"eo"le *ould not be so necessary to %i) as to induce %i) to court it by %u)orin& its desires# I' re1eli&ible >and
t%is is )ore es"ecially true at t%e "resent day+ *%en "olitical )orality is relaxed+ and *%en &reat )en are rare?+
t%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates beco)es an easy tool in t%e %ands o' t%e )a7ority# He ado"ts its liin&s and its
ani)osities+ %e %astens to antici"ate its *is%es+ %e 'orestalls its co)"laints+ %e yields to its idlest cravin&s+ and
instead o' &uidin& it+ as t%e le&islature intended t%at %e s%ould do+ %e is ever ready to 'ollo* its biddin&# T%us+ in
order not to de"rive t%e !tate o' t%e talents o' an individual+ t%ose talents %ave been rendered al)ost useless6 and
to reserve an ex"edient 'or extraordinary "erils+ t%e country %as been ex"osed to daily dan&ers#
5ederal Courts Kb
35ootnote b@ !ee c%a"# DI+ entitled 2$udicial :o*er in t%e (nited !tates#2 T%is c%a"ter ex"lains t%e &eneral
"rinci"les o' t%e A)erican t%eory o' 7udicial institutions# !ee also t%e 5ederal Constitution+ Art# 0# !ee 2T%e
5ederalists+2 Nos# =/1/0+ inclusive6 and a *or entitled 2Constitutional 8a*+2 bein& a vie* o' t%e "ractice and
7urisdiction o' t%e courts o' t%e (nited !tates+ by T%o)as !er&eant# !ee !tory+ ""# .0G+ .;A+ G/B+ C..+ C/.+ ;;/6
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and t%e or&anic la* o' !e"te)ber AG+ .=/B+ in t%e 2Collection o' t%e 8a*s o' t%e (nited !tates+2 by !tory+ vol# i#
"# C0#4
:olitical i)"ortance o' t%e 7udiciary in t%e (nited !tates11Di''iculty o' treatin& t%is sub7ect11(tility o' 7udicial
"o*er in con'ederations11,%at tribunals could be introduced into t%e (nion11Necessity o' establis%in& 'ederal
courts o' 7ustice11Or&ani-ation o' t%e national 7udiciary11T%e !u"re)e Court11In *%at it di''ers 'ro) all no*n
tribunals#
I %ave inquired into t%e le&islative and executive "o*er o' t%e (nion+ and t%e 7udicial "o*er no* re)ains to be
exa)ined6 but in t%is "lace I cannot conceal )y 'ears 'ro) t%e reader# T%eir 7udicial institutions exercise a &reat
in'luence on t%e condition o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ and t%ey occu"y a "ro)inent "lace a)on&st *%at are
"robably called "olitical institutions@ in t%is res"ect t%ey are "eculiarly deservin& o' our attention# But I a) at a
loss to ex"lain t%e "olitical action o' t%e A)erican tribunals *it%out enterin& into so)e tec%nical details o' t%eir
constitution and t%eir 'or)s o' "roceedin&6 and I no* not %o* to descend to t%ese )inutiae *it%out *earyin&
t%e curiosity o' t%e reader by t%e natural aridity o' t%e sub7ect+ or *it%out risin& to 'all into obscurity t%rou&% a
desire to be succinct# I can scarcely %o"e to esca"e t%ese various evils6 'or i' I a""ear too len&t%y to a )an o' t%e
*orld+ a la*yer )ay on t%e ot%er %and co)"lain o' )y brevity# But t%ese are t%e natural disadvanta&es o' )y
sub7ect+ and )ore es"ecially o' t%e "oint *%ic% I a) about to discuss#
T%e &reat di''iculty *as+ not to devise t%e Constitution to t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent+ but to 'ind out a )et%od o'
en'orcin& its la*s# 9overn)ents %ave in &eneral but t*o )eans o' overco)in& t%e o""osition o' t%e "eo"le t%ey
&overn+ vi-#+ t%e "%ysical 'orce *%ic% is at t%eir o*n dis"osal+ and t%e )oral 'orce *%ic% t%ey derive 'ro) t%e
decisions o' t%e courts o' 7ustice#
A &overn)ent *%ic% s%ould %ave no ot%er )eans o' exactin& obedience t%an o"en *ar )ust be very near its
ruin+ 'or one o' t*o alternatives *ould t%en "robably occur@ i' its aut%ority *as s)all and its c%aracter te)"erate+
it *ould not resort to violence till t%e last extre)ity+ and it *ould connive at a nu)ber o' "artial acts o'
insubordination+ in *%ic% case t%e !tate *ould &radually 'all into anarc%y6 i' it *as enter"risin& and "o*er'ul+ it
*ould "er"etually %ave recourse to its "%ysical stren&t%+ and *ould s"eedily de&enerate into a )ilitary
des"otis)# !o t%at its activity *ould not be less "re7udicial to t%e co))unity t%an its inaction#
T%e &reat end o' 7ustice is to substitute t%e notion o' ri&%t 'or t%at o' violence+ and to "lace a le&al barrier
bet*een t%e "o*er o' t%e &overn)ent and t%e use o' "%ysical 'orce# T%e aut%ority *%ic% is a*arded to t%e
intervention o' a court o' 7ustice by t%e &eneral o"inion o' )anind is so sur"risin&ly &reat t%at it clin&s to t%e
)ere 'or)alities o' 7ustice+ and &ives a bodily in'luence to t%e s%ado* o' t%e la*# T%e )oral 'orce *%ic% courts
o' 7ustice "ossess renders t%e introduction o' "%ysical 'orce exceedin&ly rare+ and is very 'requently substituted
'or it6 but i' t%e latter "roves to be indis"ensable+ its "o*er is doubled by t%e association o' t%e idea o' la*#
A 'ederal &overn)ent stands in &reater need o' t%e su""ort o' 7udicial institutions t%an any ot%er+ because it is
naturally *ea and ex"osed to 'or)idable o""osition# Kc I' it *ere al*ays obli&ed to resort to violence in t%e
'irst instance+ it could not 'ul'il its tas# T%e (nion+ t%ere'ore+ required a national 7udiciary to en'orce t%e
obedience o' t%e citi-ens to t%e la*s+ and to re"eal t%e attacs *%ic% )i&%t be directed a&ainst t%e)# T%e
question t%en re)ained as to *%at tribunals *ere to exercise t%ese "rivile&es6 *ere t%ey to be entrusted to t%e
courts o' 7ustice *%ic% *ere already or&ani-ed in every !tateI or *as it necessary to create 'ederal courtsI It )ay
easily be "roved t%at t%e (nion could not ada"t t%e 7udicial "o*er o' t%e !tates to its *ants# T%e se"aration o' t%e
7udiciary 'ro) t%e ad)inistrative "o*er o' t%e !tate no doubt a''ects t%e security o' every citi-en and t%e liberty
o' all# But it is no less i)"ortant to t%e existence o' t%e nation t%at t%ese several "o*ers s%ould %ave t%e sa)e
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ori&in+ s%ould 'ollo* t%e sa)e "rinci"les+ and act in t%e sa)e s"%ere6 in a *ord+ t%at t%ey s%ould be correlative
and %o)o&eneous# No one+ I "resu)e+ ever su&&ested t%e advanta&e o' tryin& o''ences co))itted in 5rance by a
'orei&n court o' 7ustice+ in order to secure t%e i)"artiality o' t%e 7ud&es# T%e A)ericans 'or) one "eo"le in
relation to t%eir 5ederal 9overn)ent6 but in t%e boso) o' t%is "eo"le divers "olitical bodies %ave been allo*ed to
subsist *%ic% are de"endent on t%e national 9overn)ent in a 'e* "oints+ and inde"endent in all t%e rest6 *%ic%
%ave all a distinct ori&in+ )axi)s "eculiar to t%e)selves+ and s"ecial )eans o' carryin& on t%eir a''airs# To
entrust t%e execution o' t%e la*s o' t%e (nion to tribunals instituted by t%ese "olitical bodies *ould be to allo*
'orei&n 7ud&es to "reside over t%e nation# Nay+ )ore6 not only is eac% !tate 'orei&n to t%e (nion at lar&e+ but it is
in "er"etual o""osition to t%e co))on interests+ since *%atever aut%ority t%e (nion loses turns to t%e advanta&e
o' t%e !tates# T%us to en'orce t%e la*s o' t%e (nion by )eans o' t%e tribunals o' t%e !tates *ould be to allo* not
only 'orei&n but "artial 7ud&es to "reside over t%e nation#
35ootnote c@ 5ederal la*s are t%ose *%ic% )ost require courts o' 7ustice+ and t%ose at t%e sa)e ti)e *%ic% %ave
)ost rarely establis%ed t%e)# T%e reason is t%at con'ederations %ave usually been 'or)ed by inde"endent !tates+
*%ic% entertained no real intention o' obeyin& t%e central 9overn)ent+ and *%ic% very readily ceded t%e ri&%t o'
co))and to t%e 'ederal executive+ and very "rudently reserved t%e ri&%t o' non1co)"liance to t%e)selves#4
But t%e nu)ber+ still )ore t%an t%e )ere c%aracter+ o' t%e tribunals o' t%e !tates rendered t%e) un'it 'or t%e
service o' t%e nation# ,%en t%e 5ederal Constitution *as 'or)ed t%ere *ere already t%irteen courts o' 7ustice in
t%e (nited !tates *%ic% decided causes *it%out a""eal# T%at nu)ber is no* increased to t*enty1'our# To
su""ose t%at a !tate can subsist *%en its 'unda)ental la*s )ay be sub7ected to 'our1and1t*enty di''erent
inter"retations at t%e sa)e ti)e is to advance a "ro"osition alie contrary to reason and to ex"erience#
T%e A)erican le&islators t%ere'ore a&reed to create a 'ederal 7udiciary "o*er to a""ly t%e la*s o' t%e (nion+ and
to deter)ine certain questions a''ectin& &eneral interests+ *%ic% *ere care'ully deter)ined be'ore%and# T%e
entire 7udicial "o*er o' t%e (nion *as centred in one tribunal+ *%ic% *as deno)inated t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e
(nited !tates# But+ to 'acilitate t%e ex"edition o' business+ in'erior courts *ere a""ended to it+ *%ic% *ere
e)"o*ered to decide causes o' s)all i)"ortance *it%out a""eal+ and *it% a""eal causes o' )ore )a&nitude# T%e
)e)bers o' t%e !u"re)e Court are na)ed neit%er by t%e "eo"le nor t%e le&islature+ but by t%e :resident o' t%e
(nited !tates+ actin& *it% t%e advice o' t%e !enate# In order to render t%e) inde"endent o' t%e ot%er aut%orities+
t%eir o''ice *as )ade inalienable6 and it *as deter)ined t%at t%eir salary+ *%en once 'ixed+ s%ould not be altered
by t%e le&islature# Kd It *as easy to "roclai) t%e "rinci"le o' a 5ederal 7udiciary+ but di''iculties )ulti"lied *%en
t%e extent o' its 7urisdiction *as to be deter)ined#
35ootnote d@ T%e (nion *as divided into districts+ in eac% o' *%ic% a resident 5ederal 7ud&e *as a""ointed+ and
t%e court in *%ic% %e "resided *as ter)ed a 2District Court#2 Eac% o' t%e 7ud&es o' t%e !u"re)e Court annually
visits a certain "ortion o' t%e Re"ublic+ in order to try t%e )ost i)"ortant causes u"on t%e s"ot6 t%e court "resided
over by t%is )a&istrate is styled a 2Circuit Court#2 8astly+ all t%e )ost serious cases o' liti&ation are brou&%t
be'ore t%e !u"re)e Court+ *%ic% %olds a sole)n session once a year+ at *%ic% all t%e 7ud&es o' t%e Circuit
Courts )ust attend# T%e 7ury *as introduced into t%e 5ederal Courts in t%e sa)e )anner+ and in t%e sa)e cases+
as into t%e courts o' t%e !tates#
It *ill be observed t%at no analo&y exists bet*een t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e (nited !tates and t%e 5renc% Cour
de Cassation+ since t%e latter only %ears a""eals on questions o' la*# T%e !u"re)e Court decides u"on t%e
evidence o' t%e 'act as *ell as u"on t%e la* o' t%e case+ *%ereas t%e Cour de Cassation does not "ronounce a
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decision o' its o*n+ but re'ers t%e cause to t%e arbitration o' anot%er tribunal# !ee t%e la* o' !e"te)ber AG+ .=/B+
28a*s o' t%e (nited !tates+2 by !tory+ vol# i# "# C0#4
Means O' Deter)inin& T%e $urisdiction O' T%e 5ederal Courts Di''iculty o' deter)inin& t%e 7urisdiction o'
se"arate courts o' 7ustice in con'ederations11T%e courts o' t%e (nion obtained t%e ri&%t o' 'ixin& t%eir o*n
7urisdiction11In *%at res"ect t%is rule attacs t%e "ortion o' soverei&nty reserved to t%e several !tates11T%e
soverei&nty o' t%ese !tates restricted by t%e la*s+ and t%e inter"retation o' t%e la*s11Consequently+ t%e dan&er o'
t%e several !tates is )ore a""arent t%an real#
As t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates reco&ni-ed t*o distinct "o*ers in "resence o' eac% ot%er+ re"resented in
a 7udicial "oint o' vie* by t*o distinct classes o' courts o' 7ustice+ t%e ut)ost care *%ic% could be taen in
de'inin& t%eir se"arate 7urisdictions *ould %ave been insu''icient to "revent 'requent collisions bet*een t%ose
tribunals# T%e question t%en arose to *%o) t%e ri&%t o' decidin& t%e co)"etency o' eac% court *as to be re'erred#
In nations *%ic% constitute a sin&le body "olitic+ *%en a question is debated bet*een t*o courts relatin& to t%eir
)utual 7urisdiction+ a t%ird tribunal is &enerally *it%in reac% to decide t%e di''erence6 and t%is is e''ected *it%out
di''iculty+ because in t%ese nations t%e questions o' 7udicial co)"etency %ave no connection *it% t%e "rivile&es
o' t%e national su"re)acy# But it *as i)"ossible to create an arbiter bet*een a su"erior court o' t%e (nion and
t%e su"erior court o' a se"arate !tate *%ic% *ould not belon& to one o' t%ese t*o classes# It *as+ t%ere'ore+
necessary to allo* one o' t%ese courts to 7ud&e its o*n cause+ and to tae or to retain co&ni-ance o' t%e "oint
*%ic% *as contested# To &rant t%is "rivile&e to t%e di''erent courts o' t%e !tates *ould %ave been to destroy t%e
soverei&nty o' t%e (nion de 'acto a'ter %avin& establis%ed it de 7ure6 'or t%e inter"retation o' t%e Constitution
*ould soon %ave restored t%at "ortion o' inde"endence to t%e !tates o' *%ic% t%e ter)s o' t%at act de"rived t%e)#
T%e ob7ect o' t%e creation o' a 5ederal tribunal *as to "revent t%e courts o' t%e !tates 'ro) decidin& questions
a''ectin& t%e national interests in t%eir o*n de"art)ent+ and so to 'or) a uni'or) body o' 7uris"rudene 'or t%e
inter"retation o' t%e la*s o' t%e (nion# T%is end *ould not %ave been acco)"lis%ed i' t%e courts o' t%e several
!tates %ad been co)"etent to decide u"on cases in t%eir se"arate ca"acities 'ro) *%ic% t%ey *ere obli&ed to
abstain as 5ederal tribunals# T%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e (nited !tates *as t%ere'ore invested *it% t%e ri&%t o'
deter)inin& all questions o' 7urisdiction# Ke
35ootnote e@ In order to di)inis% t%e nu)ber o' t%ese suits+ it *as decided t%at in a &reat )any 5ederal causes t%e
courts o' t%e !tates s%ould be e)"o*ered to decide con7ointly *it% t%ose o' t%e (nion+ t%e losin& "arty %avin&
t%en a ri&%t o' a""eal to t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e (nited !tates# T%e !u"re)e Court o' Dir&inia contested t%e
ri&%t o' t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e (nited !tates to 7ud&e an a""eal 'ro) its decisions+ but unsuccess'ully# !ee
2LentFs Co))entaries+2 vol# i# "# 0<<+ ""# 0=< et seq#6 !toryFs 2Co))entaries+2 "# ;G;6 and 2T%e Or&anic 8a* o'
t%e (nited !tates+2 vol# i# "# 0C#4
T%is *as a severe blo* u"on t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates+ *%ic% *as t%us restricted not only by t%e la*s+ but
by t%e inter"retation o' t%e)6 by one li)it *%ic% *as no*n+ and by anot%er *%ic% *as dubious6 by a rule *%ic%
*as certain+ and a rule *%ic% *as arbitrary# It is true t%e Constitution %ad laid do*n t%e "recise li)its o' t%e
5ederal su"re)acy+ but *%enever t%is su"re)acy is contested by one o' t%e !tates+ a 5ederal tribunal decides t%e
question# Nevert%eless+ t%e dan&ers *it% *%ic% t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates *as t%reatened by t%is )ode o'
"roceedin& are less serious t%an t%ey a""eared to be# ,e s%all see %erea'ter t%at in A)erica t%e real stren&t% o'
t%e country is vested in t%e "rovincial 'ar )ore t%an in t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent# T%e 5ederal 7ud&es are
conscious o' t%e relative *eaness o' t%e "o*er in *%ose na)e t%ey act+ and t%ey are )ore inclined to abandon a
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ri&%t o' 7urisdiction in cases *%ere it is 7ustly t%eir o*n t%an to assert a "rivile&e to *%ic% t%ey %ave no le&al
clai)#
Di''erent Cases O' $urisdiction
T%e )atter and t%e "arty are t%e 'irst conditions o' t%e 5ederal 7urisdiction11!uits in *%ic% a)bassadors are
en&a&ed11!uits o' t%e (nion11O' a se"arate !tate11By *%o) tried11Causes resultin& 'ro) t%e la*s o' t%e (nion11
,%y 7ud&ed by t%e 5ederal tribunals11Causes relatin& to t%e "er'or)ance o' contracts tried by t%e 5ederal
courts11Consequence o' t%is arran&e)ent#
A'ter %avin& a""ointed t%e )eans o' 'ixin& t%e co)"etency o' t%e 5ederal courts+ t%e le&islators o' t%e (nion
de'ined t%e cases *%ic% s%ould co)e *it%in t%eir 7urisdiction# It *as establis%ed+ on t%e one %and+ t%at certain
"arties )ust al*ays be brou&%t be'ore t%e 5ederal courts+ *it%out any re&ard to t%e s"ecial nature o' t%e cause6
and+ on t%e ot%er+ t%at certain causes )ust al*ays be brou&%t be'ore t%e sa)e courts+ *it%out any re&ard to t%e
quality o' t%e "arties in t%e suit# T%ese distinctions *ere t%ere'ore ad)itted to be t%e basis o' t%e 5ederal
7urisdiction#
A)bassadors are t%e re"resentatives o' nations in a state o' a)ity *it% t%e (nion+ and *%atever concerns t%ese
"ersona&es concerns in so)e de&ree t%e *%ole (nion# ,%en an a)bassador is a "arty in a suit+ t%at suit a''ects
t%e *el'are o' t%e nation+ and a 5ederal tribunal is naturally called u"on to decide it#
T%e (nion itsel' )ay be invoed in le&al "roceedin&s+ and in t%is case it *ould be alie contrary to t%e custo)s
o' all nations and to co))on sense to a""eal to a tribunal re"resentin& any ot%er soverei&nty t%an its o*n6 t%e
5ederal courts+ t%ere'ore+ tae co&ni-ance o' t%ese a''airs#
,%en t*o "arties belon&in& to t*o di''erent !tates are en&a&ed in a suit+ t%e case cannot *it% "ro"riety be
brou&%t be'ore a court o' eit%er !tate# T%e surest ex"edient is to select a tribunal lie t%at o' t%e (nion+ *%ic%
can excite t%e sus"icions o' neit%er "arty+ and *%ic% o''ers t%e )ost natural as *ell as t%e )ost certain re)edy#
,%en t%e t*o "arties are not "rivate individuals+ but !tates+ an i)"ortant "olitical consideration is added to t%e
sa)e )otive o' equity# T%e quality o' t%e "arties in t%is case &ives a national i)"ortance to all t%eir dis"utes6 and
t%e )ost tri'lin& liti&ation o' t%e !tates )ay be said to involve t%e "eace o' t%e *%ole (nion# K'
35ootnote '@ T%e Constitution also says t%at t%e 5ederal courts s%all decide 2controversies bet*een a !tate and t%e
citi-ens o' anot%er !tate#2 And %ere a )ost i)"ortant question o' a constitutional nature arose+ *%ic% *as+
*%et%er t%e 7urisdiction &iven by t%e Constitution in cases in *%ic% a !tate is a "arty extended to suits brou&%t
a&ainst a !tate as *ell as by it+ or *as exclusively con'ined to t%e latter# T%e question *as )ost elaborately
considered in t%e case o' C%is%ol) v# 9eor&ia+ and *as decided by t%e )a7ority o' t%e !u"re)e Court in t%e
a''ir)ative# T%e decision created &eneral alar) a)on& t%e !tates+ and an a)end)ent *as "ro"osed and rati'ied
by *%ic% t%e "o*er *as entirely taen a*ay+ so 'ar as it re&ards suits brou&%t a&ainst a !tate# !ee !toryFs
2Co))entaries+2 "# ;AG+ or in t%e lar&e edition !ection .;==#4
T%e nature o' t%e cause 'requently "rescribes t%e rule o' co)"etency# T%us all t%e questions *%ic% concern
)ariti)e co))erce evidently 'all under t%e co&ni-ance o' t%e 5ederal tribunals# K& Al)ost all t%ese questions
are connected *it% t%e inter"retation o' t%e la* o' nations+ and in t%is res"ect t%ey essentially interest t%e (nion
in relation to 'orei&n "o*ers# Moreover+ as t%e sea is not included *it%in t%e li)its o' any "eculiar 7urisdiction+
t%e national courts can only %ear causes *%ic% ori&inate in )ariti)e a''airs#
35ootnote &@ As 'or instance+ all cases o' "iracy#4
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T%e Constitution co)"rises under one %ead al)ost all t%e cases *%ic% by t%eir very nature co)e *it%in t%e
li)its o' t%e 5ederal courts# T%e rule *%ic% it lays do*n is si)"le+ but "re&nant *it% an entire syste) o' ideas+
and *it% a vast )ultitude o' 'acts# It declares t%at t%e 7udicial "o*er o' t%e !u"re)e Court s%all extend to all
cases in la* and equity arisin& under t%e la*s o' t%e (nited !tates#
T*o exa)"les *ill "ut t%e intention o' t%e le&islator in t%e clearest li&%t@
T%e Constitution "ro%ibits t%e !tates 'ro) )ain& la*s on t%e value and circulation o' )oney@ I'+
not*it%standin& t%is "ro%ibition+ a !tate "asses a la* o' t%is ind+ *it% *%ic% t%e interested "arties re'use to
co)"ly because it is contrary to t%e Constitution+ t%e case )ust co)e be'ore a 5ederal court+ because it arises
under t%e la*s o' t%e (nited !tates# A&ain+ i' di''iculties arise in t%e levyin& o' i)"ort duties *%ic% %ave been
voted by Con&ress+ t%e 5ederal court )ust decide t%e case+ because it arises under t%e inter"retation o' a la* o'
t%e (nited !tates#
T%is rule is in "er'ect accordance *it% t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"les o' t%e 5ederal Constitution# T%e (nion+ as it
*as establis%ed in .=/B+ "ossesses+ it is true+ a li)ited su"re)acy6 but it *as intended t%at *it%in its li)its it
s%ould 'or) one and t%e sa)e "eo"le# K% ,it%in t%ose li)its t%e (nion is soverei&n# ,%en t%is "oint is
establis%ed and ad)itted+ t%e in'erence is easy6 'or i' it be acno*led&ed t%at t%e (nited !tates constitute one
and t%e sa)e "eo"le *it%in t%e bounds "rescribed by t%eir Constitution+ it is i)"ossible to re'use t%e) t%e ri&%ts
*%ic% belon& to ot%er nations# But it %as been allo*ed+ 'ro) t%e ori&in o' society+ t%at every nation %as t%e ri&%t
o' decidin& by its o*n courts t%ose questions *%ic% concern t%e execution o' its o*n la*s# To t%is it is ans*ered
t%at t%e (nion is in so sin&ular a "osition t%at in relation to so)e )atters it constitutes a "eo"le+ and t%at in
relation to all t%e rest it is a nonentity# But t%e in'erence to be dra*n is+ t%at in t%e la*s relatin& to t%ese )atters
t%e (nion "ossesses all t%e ri&%ts o' absolute soverei&nty# T%e di''iculty is to no* *%at t%ese )atters are6 and
*%en once it is resolved >and *e %ave s%o*n %o* it *as resolved+ in s"eain& o' t%e )eans o' deter)inin& t%e
7urisdiction o' t%e 5ederal courts? no 'urt%er doubt can arise6 'or as soon as it is establis%ed t%at a suit is 5ederal11
t%at is to say+ t%at it belon&s to t%e s%are o' soverei&nty reserved by t%e Constitution o' t%e (nion11t%e natural
consequence is t%at it s%ould co)e *it%in t%e 7urisdiction o' a 5ederal court#
35ootnote %@ T%is "rinci"le *as in so)e )easure restricted by t%e introduction o' t%e several !tates as
inde"endent "o*ers into t%e !enate+ and by allo*in& t%e) to vote se"arately in t%e House o' Re"resentatives
*%en t%e :resident is elected by t%at body# But t%ese are exce"tions+ and t%e contrary "rinci"le is t%e rule#4
,%enever t%e la*s o' t%e (nited !tates are attaced+ or *%enever t%ey are resorted to in sel'1de'ence+ t%e 5ederal
courts )ust be a""ealed to# T%us t%e 7urisdiction o' t%e tribunals o' t%e (nion extends and narro*s its li)its
exactly in t%e sa)e ratio as t%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion au&)ents or decreases# ,e %ave s%o*n t%at t%e
"rinci"al ai) o' t%e le&islators o' .=/B *as to divide t%e soverei&n aut%ority into t*o "arts# In t%e one t%ey
"laced t%e control o' all t%e &eneral interests o' t%e (nion+ in t%e ot%er t%e control o' t%e s"ecial interests o' its
co)"onent !tates# T%eir c%ie' solicitude *as to ar) t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *it% su''icient "o*er to enable it to
resist+ *it%in its s"%ere+ t%e encroac%)ents o' t%e several !tates# As 'or t%ese co))unities+ t%e "rinci"le o'
inde"endence *it%in certain li)its o' t%eir o*n *as ado"ted in t%eir be%al'6 and t%ey *ere concealed 'ro) t%e
ins"ection+ and "rotected 'ro) t%e control+ o' t%e central 9overn)ent# In s"eain& o' t%e division o' aut%ority+ I
observed t%at t%is latter "rinci"le %ad not al*ays been %eld sacred+ since t%e !tates are "revented 'ro) "assin&
certain la*s *%ic% a""arently belon& to t%eir o*n "articular s"%ere o' interest# ,%en a !tate o' t%e (nion "asses
a la* o' t%is ind+ t%e citi-ens *%o are in7ured by its execution can a""eal to t%e 5ederal courts#
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T%us t%e 7urisdiction o' t%e 5ederal courts extends not only to all t%e cases *%ic% arise under t%e la*s o' t%e
(nion+ but also to t%ose *%ic% arise under la*s )ade by t%e several !tates in o""osition to t%e Constitution# T%e
!tates are "ro%ibited 'ro) )ain& ex "ost 'acto la*s in cri)inal cases+ and any "erson conde)ned by virtue o' a
la* o' t%is ind can a""eal to t%e 7udicial "o*er o' t%e (nion# T%e !tates are lie*ise "ro%ibited 'ro) )ain&
la*s *%ic% )ay %ave a tendency to i)"air t%e obli&ations o' contracts# Ki I' a citi-en t%ins t%at an obli&ation o'
t%is ind is i)"aired by a la* "assed in %is !tate+ %e )ay re'use to obey it+ and )ay a""eal to t%e 5ederal courts#
K7
35ootnote i@ It is "er'ectly clear+ says Mr# !tory >2Co))entaries+2 "# C<0+ or in t%e lar&e edition !ection .0=B?+
t%at any la* *%ic% enlar&es+ abrid&es+ or in any )anner c%an&es t%e intention o' t%e "arties+ resultin& 'ro) t%e
sti"ulations in t%e contract+ necessarily i)"airs it# He &ives in t%e sa)e "lace a very lon& and care'ul de'inition
o' *%at is understood by a contract in 5ederal 7uris"rudence# A &rant )ade by t%e !tate to a "rivate individual+
and acce"ted by %i)+ is a contract+ and cannot be revoed by any 'uture la*# A c%arter &ranted by t%e !tate to a
co)"any is a contract+ and equally bindin& to t%e !tate as to t%e &rantee# T%e clause o' t%e Constitution %ere
re'erred to insures+ t%ere'ore+ t%e existence o' a &reat "art o' acquired ri&%ts+ but not o' all# :ro"erty )ay le&ally
be %eld+ t%ou&% it )ay not %ave "assed into t%e "ossessorFs %ands by )eans o' a contract6 and its "ossession is an
acquired ri&%t+ not &uaranteed by t%e 5ederal Constitution#4
35ootnote 7@ A re)arable instance o' t%is is &iven by Mr# !tory >"# C</+ or in t%e lar&e edition !ection .0//?@
2Dart)out% Colle&e in Ne* Ha)"s%ire %ad been 'ounded by a c%arter &ranted to certain individuals be'ore t%e
A)erican Revolution+ and its trustees 'or)ed a cor"oration under t%is c%arter# T%e le&islature o' Ne* Ha)"s%ire
%ad+ *it%out t%e consent o' t%is cor"oration+ "assed an act c%an&in& t%e or&ani-ation o' t%e ori&inal "rovincial
c%arter o' t%e colle&e+ and trans'errin& all t%e ri&%ts+ "rivile&es+ and 'ranc%ises 'ro) t%e old c%arter trustees to
ne* trustees a""ointed under t%e act# T%e constitutionality o' t%e act *as contested+ and+ a'ter sole)n ar&u)ents+
it *as deliberately %eld by t%e !u"re)e Court t%at t%e "rovincial c%arter *as a contract *it%in t%e )eanin& o' t%e
Constitution >Art# I# !ection .<?+ and t%at t%e e)endatory act *as utterly void+ as i)"airin& t%e obli&ation o' t%at
c%arter# T%e colle&e *as dee)ed+ lie ot%er colle&es o' "rivate 'oundation+ to be a "rivate elee)osynary
institution+ endo*ed by its c%arter *it% a ca"acity to tae "ro"erty unconnected *it% t%e 9overn)ent# Its 'unds
*ere besto*ed u"on t%e 'ait% o' t%e c%arter+ and t%ose 'unds consisted entirely o' "rivate donations# It is true t%at
t%e uses *ere in so)e sense "ublic+ t%at is+ 'or t%e &eneral bene'it+ and not 'or t%e )ere bene'it o' t%e
cor"orators6 but t%is did not )ae t%e cor"oration a "ublic cor"oration# It *as a "rivate institution 'or &eneral
c%arity# It *as not distin&uis%able in "rinci"le 'ro) a "rivate donation+ vested in "rivate trustees+ 'or a "ublic
c%arity+ or 'or a "articular "ur"ose o' bene'icence# And t%e !tate itsel'+ i' it %ad besto*ed 'unds u"on a c%arity o'
t%e sa)e nature+ could not resu)e t%ose 'unds#24
T%is "rovision a""ears to )e to be t%e )ost serious attac u"on t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates# T%e ri&%ts
a*arded to t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent 'or "ur"oses o' obvious national i)"ortance are de'inite and easily
co)"re%ensible6 but t%ose *it% *%ic% t%is last clause invests it are not eit%er clearly a""reciable or accurately
de'ined# 5or t%ere are vast nu)bers o' "olitical la*s *%ic% in'luence t%e existence o' obli&ations o' contracts+
*%ic% )ay t%us 'urnis% an easy "retext 'or t%e a&&ressions o' t%e central aut%ority#
Chapter VIII
@ T%e 5ederal Constitution11:art ID
:rocedure O' T%e 5ederal Courts
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Natural *eaness o' t%e 7udiciary "o*er in con'ederations118e&islators ou&%t to strive as )uc% as "ossible to
brin& "rivate individuals+ and not !tates+ be'ore t%e 5ederal Courts11Ho* t%e A)ericans %ave succeeded in t%is11
Direct "rosecution o' "rivate individuals in t%e 5ederal Courts11Indirect "rosecution o' t%e !tates *%ic% violate
t%e la*s o' t%e (nion11T%e decrees o' t%e !u"re)e Court enervate but do not destroy t%e "rovincial la*s#
I %ave s%o*n *%at t%e "rivile&es o' t%e 5ederal courts are+ and it is no less i)"ortant to "oint out t%e )anner in
*%ic% t%ey are exercised# T%e irresistible aut%ority o' 7ustice in countries in *%ic% t%e soverei&nty in undivided
is derived 'ro) t%e 'act t%at t%e tribunals o' t%ose countries re"resent t%e entire nation at issue *it% t%e individual
a&ainst *%o) t%eir decree is directed+ and t%e idea o' "o*er is t%us introduced to corroborate t%e idea o' ri&%t#
But t%is is not al*ays t%e case in countries in *%ic% t%e soverei&nty is divided6 in t%e) t%e 7udicial "o*er is
)ore 'requently o""osed to a 'raction o' t%e nation t%an to an isolated individual+ and its )oral aut%ority and
"%ysical stren&t% are consequently di)inis%ed# In 'ederal !tates t%e "o*er o' t%e 7ud&e is naturally decreased+
and t%at o' t%e 7usticiable "arties is au&)ented# T%e ai) o' t%e le&islator in con'ederate !tates ou&%t t%ere'ore to
be to render t%e "osition o' t%e courts o' 7ustice analo&ous to t%at *%ic% t%ey occu"y in countries *%ere t%e
soverei&nty is undivided6 in ot%er *ords+ %is e''orts ou&%t constantly to tend to )aintain t%e 7udicial "o*er o' t%e
con'ederation as t%e re"resentative o' t%e nation+ and t%e 7usticiable "arty as t%e re"resentative o' an individual
interest#
Every &overn)ent+ *%atever )ay be its constitution+ requires t%e )eans o' constrainin& its sub7ects to disc%ar&e
t%eir obli&ations+ and o' "rotectin& its "rivile&es 'ro) t%eir assaults# As 'ar as t%e direct action o' t%e
9overn)ent on t%e co))unity is concerned+ t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates contrived+ by a )aster1stroe
o' "olicy+ t%at t%e 'ederal courts+ actin& in t%e na)e o' t%e la*s+ s%ould only tae co&ni-ance o' "arties in an
individual ca"acity# 5or+ as it %ad been declared t%at t%e (nion consisted o' one and t%e sa)e "eo"le *it%in t%e
li)its laid do*n by t%e Constitution+ t%e in'erence *as t%at t%e 9overn)ent created by t%is Constitution+ and
actin& *it%in t%ese li)its+ *as invested *it% all t%e "rivile&es o' a national &overn)ent+ one o' t%e "rinci"al o'
*%ic% is t%e ri&%t o' trans)ittin& its in7unctions directly to t%e "rivate citi-en# ,%en+ 'or instance+ t%e (nion
votes an i)"ost+ it does not a""ly to t%e !tates 'or t%e levyin& o' it+ but to every A)erican citi-en in "ro"ortion
to %is assess)ent# T%e !u"re)e Court+ *%ic% is e)"o*ered to en'orce t%e execution o' t%is la* o' t%e (nion+
exerts its in'luence not u"on a re'ractory !tate+ but u"on t%e "rivate tax"ayer6 and+ lie t%e 7udicial "o*er o'
ot%er nations+ it is o""osed to t%e "erson o' an individual# It is to be observed t%at t%e (nion c%ose its o*n
anta&onist6 and as t%at anta&onist is 'eeble+ %e is naturally *orsted#
But t%e di''iculty increases *%en t%e "roceedin&s are not brou&%t 'or*ard by but a&ainst t%e (nion# T%e
Constitution reco&ni-es t%e le&islative "o*er o' t%e !tates6 and a la* so enacted )ay i)"air t%e "rivile&es o' t%e
(nion+ in *%ic% case a collision in unavoidable bet*een t%at body and t%e !tate *%ic% %as "assed t%e la*@ and it
only re)ains to select t%e least dan&erous re)edy+ *%ic% is very clearly deducible 'ro) t%e &eneral "rinci"les I
%ave be'ore establis%ed# K
35ootnote @ !ee C%a"ter DI# on 2$udicial :o*er in A)erica#24
It )ay be conceived t%at+ in t%e case under consideration+ t%e (nion )i&%t %ave used t%e !tate be'ore a 5ederal
court+ *%ic% *ould %ave annulled t%e act+ and by t%is )eans it *ould %ave ado"ted a natural course o'
"roceedin&6 but t%e 7udicial "o*er *ould %ave been "laced in o"en %ostility to t%e !tate+ and it *as desirable to
avoid t%is "redica)ent as )uc% as "ossible# T%e A)ericans %old t%at it is nearly i)"ossible t%at a ne* la*
s%ould not i)"air t%e interests o' so)e "rivate individual by its "rovisions@ t%ese "rivate interests are assu)ed by
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t%e A)erican le&islators as t%e &round o' attac a&ainst suc% )easures as )ay be "re7udicial to t%e (nion+ and it
is to t%ese cases t%at t%e "rotection o' t%e !u"re)e Court is extended#
!u""ose a !tate vends a certain "ortion o' its territory to a co)"any+ and t%at a year a'ter*ards it "asses a la* by
*%ic% t%e territory is ot%er*ise dis"osed o'+ and t%at clause o' t%e Constitution *%ic% "ro%ibits la*s i)"airin&
t%e obli&ation o' contracts violated# ,%en t%e "urc%aser under t%e second act a""ears to tae "ossession+ t%e
"ossessor under t%e 'irst act brin&s %is action be'ore t%e tribunals o' t%e (nion+ and causes t%e title o' t%e
clai)ant to be "ronounced null and void# Kl T%us+ in "oint o' 'act+ t%e 7udicial "o*er o' t%e (nion is contestin&
t%e clai)s o' t%e soverei&nty o' a !tate6 but it only acts indirectly and u"on a s"ecial a""lication o' detail@ it
attacs t%e la* in its consequences+ not in its "rinci"le+ and it rat%er *eaens t%an destroys it#
35ootnote l@ !ee LentFs 2Co))entaries+2 vol# i# "# 0/=#4
T%e last %y"ot%esis t%at re)ained *as t%at eac% !tate 'or)ed a cor"oration en7oyin& a se"arate existence and
distinct civil ri&%ts+ and t%at it could t%ere'ore sue or be sued be'ore a tribunal# T%us a !tate could brin& an action
a&ainst anot%er !tate# In t%is instance t%e (nion *as not called u"on to contest a "rovincial la*+ but to try a suit
in *%ic% a !tate *as a "arty# T%is suit *as "er'ectly si)ilar to any ot%er cause+ exce"t t%at t%e quality o' t%e
"arties *as di''erent6 and %ere t%e dan&er "ointed out at t%e be&innin& o' t%is c%a"ter exists *it% less c%ance o'
bein& avoided# T%e in%erent disadvanta&e o' t%e very essence o' 5ederal constitutions is t%at t%ey en&ender
"arties in t%e boso) o' t%e nation *%ic% "resent "o*er'ul obstacles to t%e 'ree course o' 7ustice#
Hi&% Ran O' T%e !u"re)e Court A)on&st T%e 9reat :o*ers O' !tate No nation ever constituted so &reat a
7udicial "o*er as t%e A)ericans11Extent o' its "rero&ative11Its "olitical in'luence11T%e tranquillity and t%e very
existence o' t%e (nion de"end on t%e discretion o' t%e seven 5ederal $ud&es#
,%en *e %ave successively exa)ined in detail t%e or&ani-ation o' t%e !u"re)e Court+ and t%e entire
"rero&atives *%ic% it exercises+ *e s%all readily ad)it t%at a )ore i)"osin& 7udicial "o*er *as never constituted
by any "eo"le# T%e !u"re)e Court is "laced at t%e %ead o' all no*n tribunals+ bot% by t%e nature o' its ri&%ts
and t%e class o' 7usticiable "arties *%ic% it controls#
In all t%e civili-ed countries o' Euro"e t%e 9overn)ent %as al*ays s%o*n t%e &reatest re"u&nance to allo* t%e
cases to *%ic% it *as itsel' a "arty to be decided by t%e ordinary course o' 7ustice# T%is re"u&nance naturally
attains its ut)ost %ei&%t in an absolute 9overn)ent6 and+ on t%e ot%er %and+ t%e "rivile&es o' t%e courts o' 7ustice
are extended *it% t%e increasin& liberties o' t%e "eo"le@ but no Euro"ean nation %as at "resent %eld t%at all
7udicial controversies+ *it%out re&ard to t%eir ori&in+ can be decided by t%e 7ud&es o' co))on la*#
In A)erica t%is t%eory %as been actually "ut in "ractice+ and t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e (nited !tates is t%e sole
tribunal o' t%e nation# Its "o*er extends to all t%e cases arisin& under la*s and treaties )ade by t%e executive and
le&islative aut%orities+ to all cases o' ad)iralty and )ariti)e 7urisdiction+ and in &eneral to all "oints *%ic% a''ect
t%e la* o' nations# It )ay even be a''ir)ed t%at+ alt%ou&% its constitution is essentially 7udicial+ its "rero&atives
are al)ost entirely "olitical# Its sole ob7ect is to en'orce t%e execution o' t%e la*s o' t%e (nion6 and t%e (nion
only re&ulates t%e relations o' t%e 9overn)ent *it% t%e citi-ens+ and o' t%e nation *it% 5orei&n :o*ers@ t%e
relations o' citi-ens a)on&st t%e)selves are al)ost exclusively re&ulated by t%e soverei&nty o' t%e !tates#
A second and still &reater cause o' t%e "re"onderance o' t%is court )ay be adduced# In t%e nations o' Euro"e t%e
courts o' 7ustice are only called u"on to try t%e controversies o' "rivate individuals6 but t%e !u"re)e Court o' t%e
(nited !tates su))ons soverei&n "o*ers to its bar# ,%en t%e cler o' t%e court advances on t%e ste"s o' t%e
tribunal+ and si)"ly says+ 2T%e !tate o' Ne* Yor versus t%e !tate o' O%io+2 it is i)"ossible not to 'eel t%at t%e
Court *%ic% %e addresses is no ordinary body6 and *%en it is recollected t%at one o' t%ese "arties re"resents one
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)illion+ and t%e ot%er t*o )illions o' )en+ one is struc by t%e res"onsibility o' t%e seven 7ud&es *%ose decision
is about to satis'y or to disa""oint so lar&e a nu)ber o' t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens#
T%e "eace+ t%e "ros"erity+ and t%e very existence o' t%e (nion are vested in t%e %ands o' t%e seven 7ud&es#
,it%out t%eir active co1o"eration t%e Constitution *ould be a dead letter@ t%e Executive a""eals to t%e) 'or
assistance a&ainst t%e encroac%)ents o' t%e le&islative "o*ers6 t%e 8e&islature de)ands t%eir "rotection 'ro) t%e
desi&ns o' t%e Executive6 t%ey de'end t%e (nion 'ro) t%e disobedience o' t%e !tates+ t%e !tates 'ro) t%e
exa&&erated clai)s o' t%e (nion+ t%e "ublic interest a&ainst t%e interests o' "rivate citi-ens+ and t%e conservative
s"irit o' order a&ainst t%e 'leetin& innovations o' de)ocracy# T%eir "o*er is enor)ous+ but it is clot%ed in t%e
aut%ority o' "ublic o"inion# T%ey are t%e all1"o*er'ul &uardians o' a "eo"le *%ic% res"ects la*+ but t%ey *ould
be i)"otent a&ainst "o"ular ne&lect or "o"ular conte)"t# T%e 'orce o' "ublic o"inion is t%e )ost intractable o'
a&ents+ because its exact li)its cannot be de'ined6 and it is not less dan&erous to exceed t%an to re)ain belo* t%e
boundary "rescribed#
T%e 5ederal 7ud&es )ust not only be &ood citi-ens+ and )en "ossessed o' t%at in'or)ation and inte&rity *%ic%
are indis"ensable to )a&istrates+ but t%ey )ust be states)en11"oliticians+ not unread in t%e si&ns o' t%e ti)es+ not
a'raid to brave t%e obstacles *%ic% can be subdued+ nor slo* to turn aside suc% encroac%in& ele)ents as )ay
t%reaten t%e su"re)acy o' t%e (nion and t%e obedience *%ic% is due to t%e la*s#
T%e :resident+ *%o exercises a li)ited "o*er+ )ay err *it%out causin& &reat )isc%ie' in t%e !tate# Con&ress )ay
decide a)iss *it%out destroyin& t%e (nion+ because t%e electoral body in *%ic% Con&ress ori&inates )ay cause it
to retract its decision by c%an&in& its )e)bers# But i' t%e !u"re)e Court is ever co)"osed o' i)"rudent )en or
bad citi-ens+ t%e (nion )ay be "lun&ed into anarc%y or civil *ar#
T%e real cause o' t%is dan&er+ %o*ever+ does not lie in t%e constitution o' t%e tribunal+ but in t%e very nature o'
5ederal 9overn)ents# ,e %ave observed t%at in con'ederate "eo"les it is es"ecially necessary to consolidate t%e
7udicial aut%ority+ because in no ot%er nations do t%ose inde"endent "ersons *%o are able to co"e *it% t%e social
body exist in &reater "o*er or in a better condition to resist t%e "%ysical stren&t% o' t%e 9overn)ent# But t%e
)ore a "o*er requires to be stren&t%ened+ t%e )ore extensive and inde"endent it )ust be )ade6 and t%e dan&ers
*%ic% its abuse )ay create are %ei&%tened by its inde"endence and its stren&t%# T%e source o' t%e evil is not+
t%ere'ore+ in t%e constitution o' t%e "o*er+ but in t%e constitution o' t%ose !tates *%ic% render its existence
necessary#
In ,%at Res"ects T%e 5ederal Constitution Is !u"erior To T%at O' T%e !tates
In *%at res"ects t%e Constitution o' t%e (nion can be co)"ared to t%at o' t%e !tates11!u"eriority o' t%e
Constitution o' t%e (nion attributable to t%e *isdo) o' t%e 5ederal le&islators118e&islature o' t%e (nion less
de"endent on t%e "eo"le t%an t%at o' t%e !tates11Executive "o*er )ore inde"endent in its s"%ere11$udicial "o*er
less sub7ected to t%e inclinations o' t%e )a7ority11:ractical consequence o' t%ese 'acts11T%e dan&ers in%erent in a
de)ocratic &overn)ent eluded by t%e 5ederal le&islators+ and increased by t%e le&islators o' t%e !tates#
T%e 5ederal Constitution di''ers essentially 'ro) t%at o' t%e !tates in t%e ends *%ic% it is intended to acco)"lis%+
but in t%e )eans by *%ic% t%ese ends are "ro)oted a &reater analo&y exists bet*een t%e)# T%e ob7ects o' t%e
9overn)ents are di''erent+ but t%eir 'or)s are t%e sa)e6 and in t%is s"ecial "oint o' vie* t%ere is so)e advanta&e
in co)"arin& t%e) to&et%er#
I a) o' o"inion t%at t%e 5ederal Constitution is su"erior to all t%e Constitutions o' t%e !tates+ 'or several reasons#
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T%e "resent Constitution o' t%e (nion *as 'or)ed at a later "eriod t%an t%ose o' t%e )a7ority o' t%e !tates+ and it
)ay %ave derived so)e a)eliorations 'ro) "ast ex"erience# But *e s%all be led to acno*led&e t%at t%is is only
a secondary cause o' its su"eriority+ *%en *e recollect t%at eleven ne* !tates Kn %ave been added to t%e
A)erican Con'ederation since t%e "ro)ul&ation o' t%e 5ederal Constitution+ and t%at t%ese ne* re"ublics %ave
al*ays rat%er exa&&erated t%an avoided t%e de'ects *%ic% existed in t%e 'or)er Constitutions#
35ootnote n@ 3T%e nu)ber o' !tates %as no* risen to G; >./=G?+ besides t%e District o' Colu)bia#44
T%e c%ie' cause o' t%e su"eriority o' t%e 5ederal Constitution lay in t%e c%aracter o' t%e le&islators *%o
co)"osed it# At t%e ti)e *%en it *as 'or)ed t%e dan&ers o' t%e Con'ederation *ere i))inent+ and its ruin
see)ed inevitable# In t%is extre)ity t%e "eo"le c%ose t%e )en *%o )ost deserved t%e estee)+ rat%er t%an t%ose
*%o %ad &ained t%e a''ections+ o' t%e country# I %ave already observed t%at distin&uis%ed as al)ost all t%e
le&islators o' t%e (nion *ere 'or t%eir intelli&ence+ t%ey *ere still )ore so 'or t%eir "atriotis)# T%ey %ad all been
nurtured at a ti)e *%en t%e s"irit o' liberty *as braced by a continual stru&&le a&ainst a "o*er'ul and
"redo)inant aut%ority# ,%en t%e contest *as ter)inated+ *%ilst t%e excited "assions o' t%e "o"ulace "ersisted in
*arrin& *it% dan&ers *%ic% %ad ceased to t%reaten t%e)+ t%ese )en sto""ed s%ort in t%eir career6 t%ey cast a
cal)er and )ore "enetratin& loo u"on t%e country *%ic% *as no* t%eir o*n6 t%ey "erceived t%at t%e *ar o'
inde"endence *as de'initely ended+ and t%at t%e only dan&ers *%ic% A)erica %ad to 'ear *ere t%ose *%ic% )i&%t
result 'ro) t%e abuse o' t%e 'reedo) s%e %ad *on# T%ey %ad t%e coura&e to say *%at t%ey believed to be true+
because t%ey *ere ani)ated by a *ar) and sincere love o' liberty6 and t%ey ventured to "ro"ose restrictions+
because t%ey *ere resolutely o""osed to destruction# Ko
35ootnote o@ At t%is ti)e Alexander Ha)ilton+ *%o *as one o' t%e "rinci"al 'ounders o' t%e Constitution+
ventured to ex"ress t%e 'ollo*in& senti)ents in 2T%e 5ederalist+2 No# =.@11
2T%ere are so)e *%o *ould be inclined to re&ard t%e servile "liancy o' t%e Executive to a "revailin& current+
eit%er in t%e co))unity or in t%e 8e&islature+ as its best reco))endation# But suc% )en entertain very crude
notions+ as *ell o' t%e "ur"oses 'or *%ic% &overn)ent *as instituted as o' t%e true )eans by *%ic% t%e "ublic
%a""iness )ay be "ro)oted# T%e Re"ublican "rinci"le de)ands t%at t%e deliberative sense o' t%e co))unity
s%ould &overn t%e conduct o' t%ose to *%o) t%ey entrust t%e )ana&e)ent o' t%eir a''airs6 but it does not require
an unquali'ied co)"laisance to every sudden bree-e o' "assion+ or to every transient i)"ulse *%ic% t%e "eo"le
)ay receive 'ro) t%e arts o' )en *%o 'latter t%eir "re7udices to betray t%eir interests# It is a 7ust observation+ t%at
t%e "eo"le co))only intend t%e "ublic &ood# T%is o'ten a""lies to t%eir very errors# But t%eir &ood sense *ould
des"ise t%e adulator *%o s%ould "retend t%at t%ey al*ays reason ri&%t about t%e )eans o' "ro)otin& it# T%ey
no* 'ro) ex"erience t%at t%ey so)eti)es err6 and t%e *onder is t%at t%ey so seldo) err as t%ey do+ beset+ as
t%ey continually are+ by t%e *iles o' "arasites and syco"%ants6 by t%e snares o' t%e a)bitious+ t%e avaricious+ t%e
des"erate6 by t%e arti'ices o' )en *%o "ossess t%eir con'idence )ore t%an t%ey deserve it+ and o' t%ose *%o see
to "ossess rat%er t%an to deserve it# ,%en occasions "resent t%e)selves in *%ic% t%e interests o' t%e "eo"le are at
variance *it% t%eir inclinations+ it is t%e duty o' "ersons *%o) t%ey %ave a""ointed to be t%e &uardians o' t%ose
interests to *it%stand t%e te)"orary delusion+ in order to &ive t%e) ti)e and o""ortunity 'or )ore cool and
sedate re'lection# Instances )i&%t be cited in *%ic% a conduct o' t%is ind %as saved t%e "eo"le 'ro) very 'atal
consequences o' t%eir o*n )istaes+ and %as "rocured lastin& )onu)ents o' t%eir &ratitude to t%e )en *%o %ad
coura&e and )a&nani)ity enou&% to serve t%e) at t%e "eril o' t%eir dis"leasure#24
T%e &reater nu)ber o' t%e Constitutions o' t%e !tates assi&n one year 'or t%e duration o' t%e House o'
Re"resentatives+ and t*o years 'or t%at o' t%e !enate6 so t%at )e)bers o' t%e le&islative body are constantly and
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narro*ly tied do*n by t%e sli&%test desires o' t%eir constituents# T%e le&islators o' t%e (nion *ere o' o"inion t%at
t%is excessive de"endence o' t%e 8e&islature tended to alter t%e nature o' t%e )ain consequences o' t%e
re"resentative syste)+ since it vested t%e source+ not only o' aut%ority+ but o' &overn)ent+ in t%e "eo"le# T%ey
increased t%e len&t% o' t%e ti)e 'or *%ic% t%e re"resentatives *ere returned+ in order to &ive t%e) 'reer sco"e 'or
t%e exercise o' t%eir o*n 7ud&)ent#
T%e 5ederal Constitution+ as *ell as t%e Constitutions o' t%e di''erent !tates+ divided t%e le&islative body into
t*o branc%es# But in t%e !tates t%ese t*o branc%es *ere co)"osed o' t%e sa)e ele)ents+ and elected in t%e sa)e
)anner# T%e consequence *as t%at t%e "assions and inclinations o' t%e "o"ulace *ere as ra"idly and as
ener&etically re"resented in one c%a)ber as in t%e ot%er+ and t%at la*s *ere )ade *it% all t%e c%aracteristics o'
violence and "reci"itation# By t%e 5ederal Constitution t%e t*o %ouses ori&inate in lie )anner in t%e c%oice o'
t%e "eo"le6 but t%e conditions o' eli&ibility and t%e )ode o' election *ere c%an&ed+ to t%e end t%at+ i'+ as is t%e
case in certain nations+ one branc% o' t%e 8e&islature re"resents t%e sa)e interests as t%e ot%er+ it )ay at least
re"resent a su"erior de&ree o' intelli&ence and discretion# A )ature a&e *as )ade one o' t%e conditions o' t%e
senatorial di&nity+ and t%e (""er House *as c%osen by an elected asse)bly o' a li)ited nu)ber o' )e)bers#
To concentrate t%e *%ole social 'orce in t%e %ands o' t%e le&islative body is t%e natural tendency o' de)ocracies6
'or as t%is is t%e "o*er *%ic% e)anates t%e )ost directly 'ro) t%e "eo"le+ it is )ade to "artici"ate )ost 'ully in
t%e "re"onderatin& aut%ority o' t%e )ultitude+ and it is naturally led to )ono"oli-e every s"ecies o' in'luence#
T%is concentration is at once "re7udicial to a *ell1conducted ad)inistration+ and 'avorable to t%e des"otis) o'
t%e )a7ority# T%e le&islators o' t%e !tates 'requently yielded to t%ese de)ocratic "ro"ensities+ *%ic% *ere
invariably and coura&eously resisted by t%e 'ounders o' t%e (nion#
In t%e !tates t%e executive "o*er is vested in t%e %ands o' a )a&istrate+ *%o is a""arently "laced u"on a level
*it% t%e 8e&islature+ but *%o is in reality not%in& )ore t%an t%e blind a&ent and t%e "assive instru)ent o' its
decisions# He can derive no in'luence 'ro) t%e duration o' %is 'unctions+ *%ic% ter)inate *it% t%e revolvin&
year+ or 'ro) t%e exercise o' "rero&atives *%ic% can scarcely be said to exist# T%e 8e&islature can conde)n %i)
to inaction by intrustin& t%e execution o' t%e la*s to s"ecial co))ittees o' its o*n )e)bers+ and can annul %is
te)"orary di&nity by de"rivin& %i) o' %is salary# T%e 5ederal Constitution vests all t%e "rivile&es and all t%e
res"onsibility o' t%e executive "o*er in a sin&le individual# T%e duration o' t%e :residency is 'ixed at 'our years6
t%e salary o' t%e individual *%o 'ills t%at o''ice cannot be altered durin& t%e ter) o' %is 'unctions6 %e is "rotected
by a body o' o''icial de"endents+ and ar)ed *it% a sus"ensive veto# In s%ort+ every e''ort *as )ade to con'er a
stron& and inde"endent "osition u"on t%e executive aut%ority *it%in t%e li)its *%ic% %ad been "rescribed to it#
In t%e Constitutions o' all t%e !tates t%e 7udicial "o*er is t%at *%ic% re)ains t%e )ost inde"endent o' t%e
le&islative aut%ority6 nevert%eless+ in all t%e !tates t%e 8e&islature %as reserved to itsel' t%e ri&%t o' re&ulatin& t%e
e)olu)ents o' t%e 7ud&es+ a "ractice *%ic% necessarily sub7ects t%ese )a&istrates to its i))ediate in'luence# In
so)e !tates t%e 7ud&es are only te)"orarily a""ointed+ *%ic% de"rives t%e) o' a &reat "ortion o' t%eir "o*er and
t%eir 'reedo)# In ot%ers t%e le&islative and 7udicial "o*ers are entirely con'ounded6 t%us t%e !enate o' Ne*
Yor+ 'or instance+ constitutes in certain cases t%e !u"erior Court o' t%e !tate# T%e 5ederal Constitution+ on t%e
ot%er %and+ care'ully se"arates t%e 7udicial aut%ority 'ro) all external in'luences6 and it "rovides 'or t%e
inde"endence o' t%e 7ud&es+ by declarin& t%at t%eir salary s%all not be altered+ and t%at t%eir 'unctions s%all be
inalienable#
T%e "ractical consequences o' t%ese di''erent syste)s )ay easily be "erceived# An attentive observer *ill soon
re)ar t%at t%e business o' t%e (nion is inco)"arably better conducted t%an t%at o' any individual !tate# T%e
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conduct o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent is )ore 'air and )ore te)"erate t%an t%at o' t%e !tates+ its desi&ns are )ore
'rau&%t *it% *isdo)+ its "ro7ects are )ore durable and )ore sil'ully co)bined+ its )easures are "ut into
execution *it% )ore vi&or and consistency#
I reca"itulate t%e substance o' t%is c%a"ter in a 'e* *ords@ T%e existence o' de)ocracies is t%reatened by t*o
dan&ers+ vi-#+ t%e co)"lete sub7ection o' t%e le&islative body to t%e ca"rices o' t%e electoral body+ and t%e
concentration o' all t%e "o*ers o' t%e 9overn)ent in t%e le&islative aut%ority# T%e &ro*t% o' t%ese evils %as been
encoura&ed by t%e "olicy o' t%e le&islators o' t%e !tates+ but it %as been resisted by t%e le&islators o' t%e (nion
by every )eans *%ic% lay *it%in t%eir control#
C%aracteristics ,%ic% Distin&uis% T%e 5ederal Constitution O' T%e (nited !tates O' A)erica 5ro) All Ot%er
5ederal Constitutions A)erican (nion a""ears to rese)ble all ot%er con'ederations11Nevert%eless its e''ects are
di''erent11Reason o' t%is11Distinctions bet*een t%e (nion and all ot%er con'ederations11T%e A)erican
9overn)ent not a 'ederal but an i)"er'ect national 9overn)ent#
T%e (nited !tates o' A)erica do not a''ord eit%er t%e 'irst or t%e only instance o' con'ederate !tates+ several o'
*%ic% %ave existed in )odern Euro"e+ *it%out advertin& to t%ose o' antiquity# !*it-erland+ t%e 9er)anic
E)"ire+ and t%e Re"ublic o' t%e (nited :rovinces eit%er %ave been or still are con'ederations# In studyin& t%e
constitutions o' t%ese di''erent countries+ t%e "olitician is sur"rised to observe t%at t%e "o*ers *it% *%ic% t%ey
invested t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent are nearly identical *it% t%e "rivile&es a*arded by t%e A)erican Constitution
to t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nited !tates# T%ey con'er u"on t%e central "o*er t%e sa)e ri&%ts o' )ain& "eace and
*ar+ o' raisin& )oney and troo"s+ and o' "rovidin& 'or t%e &eneral exi&encies and t%e co))on interests o' t%e
nation# Nevert%eless t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent o' t%ese di''erent "eo"les %as al*ays been as re)arable 'or its
*eaness and ine''iciency as t%at o' t%e (nion is 'or its vi&orous and enter"risin& s"irit# A&ain+ t%e 'irst
A)erican Con'ederation "eris%ed t%rou&% t%e excessive *eaness o' its 9overn)ent6 and t%is *ea 9overn)ent
*as+ not*it%standin&+ in "ossession o' ri&%ts even )ore extensive t%an t%ose o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent o' t%e
"resent day# But t%e )ore recent Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates contains certain "rinci"les *%ic% exercise a
)ost i)"ortant in'luence+ alt%ou&% t%ey do not at once strie t%e observer#
T%is Constitution+ *%ic% )ay at 'irst si&%t be con'ounded *it% t%e 'ederal constitutions *%ic% "receded it+ rests
u"on a novel t%eory+ *%ic% )ay be considered as a &reat invention in )odern "olitical science# In all t%e
con'ederations *%ic% %ad been 'or)ed be'ore t%e A)erican Constitution o' .=/B t%e allied !tates a&reed to obey
t%e in7unctions o' a 5ederal 9overn)ent6 but t%ey reserved to t%e)selves t%e ri&%t o' ordainin& and en'orcin& t%e
execution o' t%e la*s o' t%e (nion# T%e A)erican !tates *%ic% co)bined in .=/B a&reed t%at t%e 5ederal
9overn)ent s%ould not only dictate t%e la*s+ but t%at it s%ould execute it o*n enact)ents# In bot% cases t%e ri&%t
is t%e sa)e+ but t%e exercise o' t%e ri&%t is di''erent6 and t%is alteration "roduced t%e )ost )o)entous
consequences#
In all t%e con'ederations *%ic% %ad been 'or)ed be'ore t%e A)erican (nion t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent de)anded
its su""lies at t%e %ands o' t%e se"arate 9overn)ents6 and i' t%e )easure it "rescribed *as onerous to any one o'
t%ose bodies )eans *ere 'ound to evade its clai)s@ i' t%e !tate *as "o*er'ul+ it %ad recourse to ar)s6 i' it *as
*ea+ it connived at t%e resistance *%ic% t%e la* o' t%e (nion+ its soverei&n+ )et *it%+ and resorted to inaction
under t%e "lea o' inability# (nder t%ese circu)stances one o' t%e t*o alternatives %as invariably occurred6 eit%er
t%e )ost "re"onderant o' t%e allied "eo"les %as assu)ed t%e "rivile&es o' t%e 5ederal aut%ority and ruled all t%e
!tates in its na)e+ K" or t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent %as been abandoned by its natural su""orters+ anarc%y %as
arisen bet*een t%e con'ederates+ and t%e (nion %as lost all "o*ers o' action# Kq
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35ootnote "@ T%is *as t%e case in 9reece+ *%en :%ili" undertoo to execute t%e decree o' t%e A)"%ictyons6 in
t%e 8o* Countries+ *%ere t%e "rovince o' Holland al*ays &ave t%e la*6 and+ in our o*n ti)e+ in t%e 9er)anic
Con'ederation+ in *%ic% Austria and :russia assu)e a &reat de&ree o' in'luence over t%e *%ole country+ in t%e
na)e o' t%e Diet#4
35ootnote q@ !uc% %as al*ays been t%e situation o' t%e !*iss Con'ederation+ *%ic% *ould %ave "eris%ed a&es a&o
but 'or t%e )utual 7ealousies o' its nei&%bors#4
In A)erica t%e sub7ects o' t%e (nion are not !tates+ but "rivate citi-ens@ t%e national 9overn)ent levies a tax+
not u"on t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts+ but u"on eac% in%abitant o' Massac%usetts# All 'or)er con'ederate
&overn)ents "resided over co))unities+ but t%at o' t%e (nion rules individuals6 its 'orce is not borro*ed+ but
sel'1derived6 and it is served by its o*n civil and )ilitary o''icers+ by its o*n ar)y+ and its o*n courts o' 7ustice#
It cannot be doubted t%at t%e s"irit o' t%e nation+ t%e "assions o' t%e )ultitude+ and t%e "rovincial "re7udices o'
eac% !tate tend sin&ularly to di)inis% t%e aut%ority o' a 5ederal aut%ority t%us constituted+ and to 'acilitate t%e
)eans o' resistance to its )andates6 but t%e co)"arative *eaness o' a restricted soverei&nty is an evil in%erent
in t%e 5ederal syste)# In A)erica+ eac% !tate %as 'e*er o""ortunities o' resistance and 'e*er te)"tations to non1
co)"liance6 nor can suc% a desi&n be "ut in execution >i' indeed it be entertained? *it%out an o"en violation o'
t%e la*s o' t%e (nion+ a direct interru"tion o' t%e ordinary course o' 7ustice+ and a bold declaration o' revolt6 in a
*ord+ *it%out tain& a decisive ste" *%ic% )en %esitate to ado"t#
In all 'or)er con'ederations t%e "rivile&es o' t%e (nion 'urnis%ed )ore ele)ents o' discord t%an o' "o*er+ since
t%ey )ulti"lied t%e clai)s o' t%e nation *it%out au&)entin& t%e )eans o' en'orcin& t%e)@ and in accordance
*it% t%is 'act it )ay be re)ared t%at t%e real *eaness o' 'ederal &overn)ents %as al)ost al*ays been in t%e
exact ratio o' t%eir no)inal "o*er# !uc% is not t%e case in t%e A)erican (nion+ in *%ic%+ as in ordinary
&overn)ents+ t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent %as t%e )eans o' en'orcin& all it is e)"o*ered to de)and#
T%e %u)an understandin& )ore easily invents ne* t%in&s t%an ne* *ords+ and *e are t%ence constrained to
e)"loy a )ultitude o' i)"ro"er and inadequate ex"ressions# ,%en several nations 'or) a "er)anent lea&ue and
establis% a su"re)e aut%ority+ *%ic%+ alt%ou&% it %as not t%e sa)e in'luence over t%e )e)bers o' t%e co))unity
as a national &overn)ent+ acts u"on eac% o' t%e Con'ederate !tates in a body+ t%is 9overn)ent+ *%ic% is so
essentially di''erent 'ro) all ot%ers+ is deno)inated a 5ederal one# Anot%er 'or) o' society is a'ter*ards
discovered+ in *%ic% several "eo"les are 'used into one and t%e sa)e nation *it% re&ard to certain co))on
interests+ alt%ou&% t%ey re)ain distinct+ or at least only con'ederate+ *it% re&ard to all t%eir ot%er concerns# In
t%is case t%e central "o*er acts directly u"on t%ose *%o) it &overns+ *%o) it rules+ and *%o) it 7ud&es+ in t%e
sa)e )anner+ as+ but in a )ore li)ited circle t%an+ a national &overn)ent# Here t%e ter) 5ederal 9overn)ent is
clearly no lon&er a""licable to a state o' t%in&s *%ic% )ust be styled an inco)"lete national 9overn)ent@ a 'or)
o' &overn)ent %as been 'ound out *%ic% is neit%er exactly national nor 'ederal6 but no 'urt%er "ro&ress %as been
)ade+ and t%e ne* *ord *%ic% *ill one day desi&nate t%is novel invention does not yet exist#
T%e absence o' t%is ne* s"ecies o' con'ederation %as been t%e cause *%ic% %as brou&%t all (nions to Civil ,ar+
to sub7ection+ or to a sta&nant a"at%y+ and t%e "eo"les *%ic% 'or)ed t%ese lea&ues %ave been eit%er too dull to
discern+ or too "usillani)ous to a""ly t%is &reat re)edy# T%e A)erican Con'ederation "eris%ed by t%e sa)e
de'ects#
But t%e Con'ederate !tates o' A)erica %ad been lon& accusto)ed to 'or) a "ortion o' one e)"ire be'ore t%ey
%ad *on t%eir inde"endence6 t%ey %ad not contracted t%e %abit o' &overnin& t%e)selves+ and t%eir national
"re7udices %ad not taen dee" root in t%eir )inds# !u"erior to t%e rest o' t%e *orld in "olitical no*led&e+ and
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s%arin& t%at no*led&e equally a)on&st t%e)selves+ t%ey *ere little a&itated by t%e "assions *%ic% &enerally
o""ose t%e extension o' 'ederal aut%ority in a nation+ and t%ose "assions *ere c%eced by t%e *isdo) o' t%e
c%ie' citi-ens# T%e A)ericans a""lied t%e re)edy *it% "rudent 'ir)ness as soon as t%ey *ere conscious o' t%e
evil6 t%ey a)ended t%eir la*s+ and t%ey saved t%eir country#
Chapter VIII
@ T%e 5ederal Constitution11:art D
Advanta&es O' T%e 5ederal !yste) In 9eneral+ And Its !"ecial (tility In A)erica#
Ha""iness and 'reedo) o' s)all nations11:o*er o' &reat nations119reat e)"ires 'avorable to t%e &ro*t% o'
civili-ation11!tren&t% o'ten t%e 'irst ele)ent o' national "ros"erity11Ai) o' t%e 5ederal syste) to unite t%e
t*o'old advanta&es resultin& 'ro) a s)all and 'ro) a lar&e territory11Advanta&es derived by t%e (nited !tates
'ro) t%is syste)11T%e la* ada"ts itsel' to t%e exi&encies o' t%e "o"ulation6 "o"ulation does not con'or) to t%e
exi&encies o' t%e la*11Activity+ a)elioration+ love and en7oy)ent o' 'reedo) in t%e A)erican co))unities11
:ublic s"irit o' t%e (nion t%e abstract o' "rovincial "atriotis)11:rinci"les and t%in&s circulate 'reely over t%e
territory o' t%e (nited !tates11T%e (nion is %a""y and 'ree as a little nation+ and res"ected as a &reat e)"ire#
In s)all nations t%e scrutiny o' society "enetrates into every "art+ and t%e s"irit o' i)"rove)ent enters into t%e
)ost tri'lin& details6 as t%e a)bition o' t%e "eo"le is necessarily c%eced by its *eaness+ all t%e e''orts and
resources o' t%e citi-ens are turned to t%e internal bene'it o' t%e co))unity+ and are not liely to eva"orate in t%e
'leetin& breat% o' &lory# T%e desires o' every individual are li)ited+ because extraordinary 'aculties are rarely to
be )et *it%# T%e &i'ts o' an equal 'ortune render t%e various conditions o' li'e uni'or)+ and t%e )anners o' t%e
in%abitants are orderly and si)"le# T%us+ i' one esti)ate t%e &radations o' "o"ular )orality and enli&%ten)ent+
*e s%all &enerally 'ind t%at in s)all nations t%ere are )ore "ersons in easy circu)stances+ a )ore nu)erous
"o"ulation+ and a )ore tranquil state o' society+ t%an in &reat e)"ires#
,%en tyranny is establis%ed in t%e boso) o' a s)all nation+ it is )ore &allin& t%an else*%ere+ because+ as it acts
*it%in a narro* circle+ every "oint o' t%at circle is sub7ect to its direct in'luence# It su""lies t%e "lace o' t%ose
&reat desi&ns *%ic% it cannot entertain by a violent or an exas"eratin& inter'erence in a )ultitude o' )inute
details6 and it leaves t%e "olitical *orld+ to *%ic% it "ro"erly belon&s+ to )eddle *it% t%e arran&e)ents o'
do)estic li'e# Tastes as *ell as actions are to be re&ulated at its "leasure6 and t%e 'a)ilies o' t%e citi-ens as *ell
as t%e a''airs o' t%e !tate are to be &overned by its decisions# T%is invasion o' ri&%ts occurs+ %o*ever+ but
seldo)+ and 'reedo) is in trut% t%e natural state o' s)all co))unities# T%e te)"tations *%ic% t%e 9overn)ent
o''ers to a)bition are too *ea+ and t%e resources o' "rivate individuals are too slender+ 'or t%e soverei&n "o*er
easily to 'all *it%in t%e &ras" o' a sin&le citi-en6 and s%ould suc% an event %ave occurred+ t%e sub7ects o' t%e
!tate can *it%out di''iculty overt%ro* t%e tyrant and %is o""ression by a si)ultaneous e''ort#
!)all nations %ave t%ere'ore ever been t%e cradle o' "olitical liberty6 and t%e 'act t%at )any o' t%e) %ave lost
t%eir i))unities by extendin& t%eir do)inion s%o*s t%at t%e 'reedo) t%ey en7oyed *as )ore a consequence o'
t%e in'erior si-e t%an o' t%e c%aracter o' t%e "eo"le#
T%e %istory o' t%e *orld a''ords no instance o' a &reat nation retainin& t%e 'or) o' re"ublican &overn)ent 'or a
lon& series o' years+ Kr and t%is %as led to t%e conclusion t%at suc% a state o' t%in&s is i)"racticable# 5or )y o*n
"art+ I cannot but censure t%e i)"rudence o' atte)"tin& to li)it t%e "ossible and to 7ud&e t%e 'uture on t%e "art o'
a bein& *%o is %ourly deceived by t%e )ost "al"able realities o' li'e+ and *%o is constantly taen by sur"rise in
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t%e circu)stances *it% *%ic% %e is )ost 'a)iliar# But it )ay be advanced *it% con'idence t%at t%e existence o' a
&reat re"ublic *ill al*ays be ex"osed to 'ar &reater "erils t%an t%at o' a s)all one#
35ootnote r@ I do not s"ea o' a con'ederation o' s)all re"ublics+ but o' a &reat consolidated Re"ublic#4
All t%e "assions *%ic% are )ost 'atal to re"ublican institutions s"read *it% an increasin& territory+ *%ilst t%e
virtues *%ic% )aintain t%eir di&nity do not au&)ent in t%e sa)e "ro"ortion# T%e a)bition o' t%e citi-ens
increases *it% t%e "o*er o' t%e !tate6 t%e stren&t% o' "arties *it% t%e i)"ortance o' t%e ends t%ey %ave in vie*6
but t%at devotion to t%e co))on *eal *%ic% is t%e surest c%ec on destructive "assions is not stron&er in a lar&e
t%an in a s)all re"ublic# It )i&%t+ indeed+ be "roved *it%out di''iculty t%at it is less "o*er'ul and less sincere#
T%e arro&ance o' *ealt% and t%e de7ection o' *retc%edness+ ca"ital cities o' un*onted extent+ a lax )orality+ a
vul&ar e&otis)+ and a &reat con'usion o' interests+ are t%e dan&ers *%ic% al)ost invariably arise 'ro) t%e
)a&nitude o' !tates# But several o' t%ese evils are scarcely "re7udicial to a )onarc%y+ and so)e o' t%e)
contribute to )aintain its existence# In )onarc%ical !tates t%e stren&t% o' t%e &overn)ent is its o*n6 it )ay use+
but it does not de"end on+ t%e co))unity+ and t%e aut%ority o' t%e "rince is "ro"ortioned to t%e "ros"erity o' t%e
nation6 but t%e only security *%ic% a re"ublican &overn)ent "ossesses a&ainst t%ese evils lies in t%e su""ort o'
t%e )a7ority# T%is su""ort is not+ %o*ever+ "ro"ortionably &reater in a lar&e re"ublic t%an it is in a s)all one6 and
t%us+ *%ilst t%e )eans o' attac "er"etually increase bot% in nu)ber and in in'luence+ t%e "o*er o' resistance
re)ains t%e sa)e+ or it )ay rat%er be said to di)inis%+ since t%e "ro"ensities and interests o' t%e "eo"le are
diversi'ied by t%e increase o' t%e "o"ulation+ and t%e di''iculty o' 'or)in& a co)"act )a7ority is constantly
au&)ented# It %as been observed+ )oreover+ t%at t%e intensity o' %u)an "assions is %ei&%tened+ not only by t%e
i)"ortance o' t%e end *%ic% t%ey "ro"ose to attain+ but by t%e )ultitude o' individuals *%o are ani)ated by
t%e) at t%e sa)e ti)e# Every one %as %ad occasion to re)ar t%at %is e)otions in t%e )idst o' a sy)"at%i-in&
cro*d are 'ar &reater t%an t%ose *%ic% %e *ould %ave 'elt in solitude# In &reat re"ublics t%e i)"etus o' "olitical
"assion is irresistible+ not only because it ai)s at &i&antic "ur"oses+ but because it is 'elt and s%ared by )illions
o' )en at t%e sa)e ti)e#
It )ay t%ere'ore be asserted as a &eneral "ro"osition t%at not%in& is )ore o""osed to t%e *ell1bein& and t%e
'reedo) o' )an t%an vast e)"ires# Nevert%eless it is i)"ortant to acno*led&e t%e "eculiar advanta&es o' &reat
!tates# 5or t%e very reason *%ic% renders t%e desire o' "o*er )ore intense in t%ese co))unities t%an a)on&st
ordinary )en+ t%e love o' &lory is also )ore "ro)inent in t%e %earts o' a class o' citi-ens+ *%o re&ard t%e
a""lause o' a &reat "eo"le as a re*ard *ort%y o' t%eir exertions+ and an elevatin& encoura&e)ent to )an# I' *e
*ould learn *%y it is t%at &reat nations contribute )ore "o*er'ully to t%e s"read o' %u)an i)"rove)ent t%an
s)all !tates+ *e s%all discover an adequate cause in t%e ra"id and ener&etic circulation o' ideas+ and in t%ose
&reat cities *%ic% are t%e intellectual centres *%ere all t%e rays o' %u)an &enius are re'lected and co)bined# To
t%is it )ay be added t%at )ost i)"ortant discoveries de)and a dis"lay o' national "o*er *%ic% t%e 9overn)ent
o' a s)all !tate is unable to )ae6 in &reat nations t%e 9overn)ent entertains a &reater nu)ber o' &eneral
notions+ and is )ore co)"letely disen&a&ed 'ro) t%e routine o' "recedent and t%e e&otis) o' local "re7udice6 its
desi&ns are conceived *it% )ore talent+ and executed *it% )ore boldness#
In ti)e o' "eace t%e *ell1bein& o' s)all nations is undoubtedly )ore &eneral and )ore co)"lete+ but t%ey are a"t
to su''er )ore acutely 'ro) t%e cala)ities o' *ar t%an t%ose &reat e)"ires *%ose distant 'rontiers )ay 'or a&es
avert t%e "resence o' t%e dan&er 'ro) t%e )ass o' t%e "eo"le+ *%ic% is t%ere'ore )ore 'requently a''licted t%an
ruined by t%e evil#
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But in t%is )atter+ as in )any ot%ers+ t%e ar&u)ent derived 'ro) t%e necessity o' t%e case "redo)inates over all
ot%ers# I' none but s)all nations existed+ I do not doubt t%at )anind *ould be )ore %a""y and )ore 'ree6 but
t%e existence o' &reat nations is unavoidable#
T%is consideration introduces t%e ele)ent o' "%ysical stren&t% as a condition o' national "ros"erity# It "ro'its a
"eo"le but little to be a''luent and 'ree i' it is "er"etually ex"osed to be "illa&ed or sub7u&ated6 t%e nu)ber o' its
)anu'actures and t%e extent o' its co))erce are o' s)all advanta&e i' anot%er nation %as t%e e)"ire o' t%e seas
and &ives t%e la* in all t%e )arets o' t%e &lobe# !)all nations are o'ten i)"overis%ed+ not because t%ey are
s)all+ but because t%ey are *ea6 t%e &reat e)"ires "ros"er less because t%ey are &reat t%an because t%ey are
stron&# :%ysical stren&t% is t%ere'ore one o' t%e 'irst conditions o' t%e %a""iness and even o' t%e existence o'
nations# Hence it occurs t%at+ unless very "eculiar circu)stances intervene+ s)all nations are al*ays united to
lar&e e)"ires in t%e end+ eit%er by 'orce or by t%eir o*n consent@ yet I a) unacquainted *it% a )ore de"lorable
s"ectacle t%an t%at o' a "eo"le unable eit%er to de'end or to )aintain its inde"endence#
T%e 5ederal syste) *as created *it% t%e intention o' co)binin& t%e di''erent advanta&es *%ic% result 'ro) t%e
&reater and t%e lesser extent o' nations6 and a sin&le &lance over t%e (nited !tates o' A)erica su''ices to
discover t%e advanta&es *%ic% t%ey %ave derived 'ro) its ado"tion#
In &reat centrali-ed nations t%e le&islator is obli&ed to i)"art a c%aracter o' uni'or)ity to t%e la*s *%ic% does
not al*ays suit t%e diversity o' custo)s and o' districts6 as %e taes no co&ni-ance o' s"ecial cases+ %e can only
"roceed u"on &eneral "rinci"les6 and t%e "o"ulation is obli&ed to con'or) to t%e exi&encies o' t%e le&islation+
since t%e le&islation cannot ada"t itsel' to t%e exi&encies and t%e custo)s o' t%e "o"ulation+ *%ic% is t%e cause o'
endless trouble and )isery# T%is disadvanta&e does not exist in con'ederations# Con&ress re&ulates t%e "rinci"al
)easures o' t%e national 9overn)ent+ and all t%e details o' t%e ad)inistration are reserved to t%e "rovincial
le&islatures# It is i)"ossible to i)a&ine %o* )uc% t%is division o' soverei&nty contributes to t%e *ell1bein& o'
eac% o' t%e !tates *%ic% co)"ose t%e (nion# In t%ese s)all co))unities+ *%ic% are never a&itated by t%e desire
o' a&&randi-e)ent or t%e cares o' sel'1de'ence+ all "ublic aut%ority and "rivate ener&y is e)"loyed in internal
a)elioration# T%e central &overn)ent o' eac% !tate+ *%ic% is in i))ediate 7uxta"osition to t%e citi-ens+ is daily
a""rised o' t%e *ants *%ic% arise in society6 and ne* "ro7ects are "ro"osed every year+ *%ic% are discussed
eit%er at to*n )eetin&s or by t%e le&islature o' t%e !tate+ and *%ic% are trans)itted by t%e "ress to sti)ulate t%e
-eal and to excite t%e interest o' t%e citi-ens# T%is s"irit o' a)elioration is constantly alive in t%e A)erican
re"ublics+ *it%out co)"ro)isin& t%eir tranquillity6 t%e a)bition o' "o*er yields to t%e less re'ined and less
dan&erous love o' co)'ort# It is &enerally believed in A)erica t%at t%e existence and t%e "er)anence o' t%e
re"ublican 'or) o' &overn)ent in t%e Ne* ,orld de"end u"on t%e existence and t%e "er)anence o' t%e 5ederal
syste)6 and it is not unusual to attribute a lar&e s%are o' t%e )is'ortunes *%ic% %ave be'allen t%e ne* !tates o'
!out% A)erica to t%e in7udicious erection o' &reat re"ublics+ instead o' a divided and con'ederate soverei&nty#
It is incontestably true t%at t%e love and t%e %abits o' re"ublican &overn)ent in t%e (nited !tates *ere
en&endered in t%e to*ns%i"s and in t%e "rovincial asse)blies# In a s)all !tate+ lie t%at o' Connecticut 'or
instance+ *%ere cuttin& a canal or layin& do*n a road is a )o)entous "olitical question+ *%ere t%e !tate %as no
ar)y to "ay and no *ars to carry on+ and *%ere )uc% *ealt% and )uc% %onor cannot be besto*ed u"on t%e c%ie'
citi-ens+ no 'or) o' &overn)ent can be )ore natural or )ore a""ro"riate t%an t%at o' a re"ublic# But it is t%is
sa)e re"ublican s"irit+ it is t%ese )anners and custo)s o' a 'ree "eo"le+ *%ic% are en&endered and nurtured in
t%e di''erent !tates+ to be a'ter*ards a""lied to t%e country at lar&e# T%e "ublic s"irit o' t%e (nion is+ so to s"ea+
not%in& )ore t%an an abstract o' t%e "atriotic -eal o' t%e "rovinces# Every citi-en o' t%e (nited !tates trans'uses
%is attac%)ent to %is little re"ublic in t%e co))on store o' A)erican "atriotis)# In de'endin& t%e (nion %e
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de'ends t%e increasin& "ros"erity o' %is o*n district+ t%e ri&%t o' conductin& its a''airs+ and t%e %o"e o' causin&
)easures o' i)"rove)ent to be ado"ted *%ic% )ay be 'avorable to %is o*n interest6 and t%ese are )otives *%ic%
are *ont to stir )en )ore readily t%an t%e &eneral interests o' t%e country and t%e &lory o' t%e nation#
On t%e ot%er %and+ i' t%e te)"er and t%e )anners o' t%e in%abitants es"ecially 'itted t%e) to "ro)ote t%e *el'are
o' a &reat re"ublic+ t%e 5ederal syste) s)oot%ed t%e obstacles *%ic% t%ey )i&%t %ave encountered# T%e
con'ederation o' all t%e A)erican !tates "resents none o' t%e ordinary disadvanta&es resultin& 'ro) &reat
a&&lo)erations o' )en# T%e (nion is a &reat re"ublic in extent+ but t%e "aucity o' ob7ects 'or *%ic% its
9overn)ent "rovides assi)ilates it to a s)all !tate# Its acts are i)"ortant+ but t%ey are rare# As t%e soverei&nty
o' t%e (nion is li)ited and inco)"lete+ its exercise is not inco)"atible *it% liberty6 'or it does not excite t%ose
insatiable desires o' 'a)e and "o*er *%ic% %ave "roved so 'atal to &reat re"ublics# As t%ere is no co))on centre
to t%e country+ vast ca"ital cities+ colossal *ealt%+ ab7ect "overty+ and sudden revolutions are alie unno*n6 and
"olitical "assion+ instead o' s"readin& over t%e land lie a torrent o' desolation+ s"ends its stren&t% a&ainst t%e
interests and t%e individual "assions o' every !tate#
Nevert%eless+ all co))odities and ideas circulate t%rou&%out t%e (nion as 'reely as in a country in%abited by one
"eo"le# Not%in& c%ecs t%e s"irit o' enter"rise# 9overn)ent avails itsel' o' t%e assistance o' all *%o %ave talents
or no*led&e to serve it# ,it%in t%e 'rontiers o' t%e (nion t%e "ro'oundest "eace "revails+ as *it%in t%e %eart o'
so)e &reat e)"ire6 abroad+ it rans *it% t%e )ost "o*er'ul nations o' t%e eart%6 t*o t%ousand )iles o' coast are
o"en to t%e co))erce o' t%e *orld6 and as it "ossesses t%e eys o' t%e &lobe+ its 'la&s is res"ected in t%e )ost
re)ote seas# T%e (nion is as %a""y and as 'ree as a s)all "eo"le+ and as &lorious and as stron& as a &reat nation#
,%y T%e 5ederal !yste) Is Not Ada"ted To All :eo"les+ And Ho* T%e An&lo1A)ericans ,ere Enabled To
Ado"t It#
Every 5ederal syste) contains de'ects *%ic% ba''le t%e e''orts o' t%e le&islator11T%e 5ederal syste) is co)"lex11
It de)ands a daily exercise o' discretion on t%e "art o' t%e citi-ens11:ractical no*led&e o' &overn)ent co))on
a)on&st t%e A)ericans11Relative *eaness o' t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion+ anot%er de'ect in%erent in t%e
5ederal syste)11T%e A)ericans %ave di)inis%ed *it%out re)edyin& it11T%e soverei&nty o' t%e se"arate !tates
a""arently *eaer+ but really stron&er+ t%an t%at o' t%e (nion11,%yI11Natural causes o' union )ust exist
bet*een con'ederate "eo"les besides t%e la*s11,%at t%ese causes are a)on&st t%e An&lo1A)ericans11Maine and
9eor&ia+ se"arated by a distance o' a t%ousand )iles+ )ore naturally united t%an Nor)andy and Brittany11,ar+
t%e )ain "eril o' con'ederations11T%is "roved even by t%e exa)"le o' t%e (nited !tates11T%e (nion %as no &reat
*ars to 'ear11,%yI11Dan&ers to *%ic% Euro"eans *ould be ex"osed i' t%ey ado"ted t%e 5ederal syste) o' t%e
A)ericans#
,%en a le&islator succeeds+ a'ter "erseverin& e''orts+ in exercisin& an indirect in'luence u"on t%e destiny o'
nations+ %is &enius is lauded by )anind+ *%ilst+ in "oint o' 'act+ t%e &eo&ra"%ical "osition o' t%e country *%ic%
%e is unable to c%an&e+ a social condition *%ic% arose *it%out %is co1o"eration+ )anners and o"inions *%ic% %e
cannot trace to t%eir source+ and an ori&in *it% *%ic% %e is unacquainted+ exercise so irresistible an in'luence
over t%e courses o' society t%at %e is %i)sel' borne a*ay by t%e current+ a'ter an ine''ectual resistance# 8ie t%e
navi&ator+ %e )ay direct t%e vessel *%ic% bears %i) alon&+ but %e can neit%er c%an&e its structure+ nor raise t%e
*inds+ nor lull t%e *aters *%ic% s*ell beneat% %i)#
I %ave s%o*n t%e advanta&es *%ic% t%e A)ericans derive 'ro) t%eir 'ederal syste)6 it re)ains 'or )e to "oint
out t%e circu)stances *%ic% rendered t%at syste) "racticable+ as its bene'its are not to be en7oyed by all nations#
T%e incidental de'ects o' t%e 5ederal syste) *%ic% ori&inate in t%e la*s )ay be corrected by t%e sill o' t%e
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le&islator+ but t%ere are 'urt%er evils in%erent in t%e syste) *%ic% cannot be counteracted by t%e "eo"les *%ic%
ado"t it# T%ese nations )ust t%ere'ore 'ind t%e stren&t% necessary to su""ort t%e natural i)"er'ections o' t%eir
9overn)ent#
T%e )ost "ro)inent evil o' all 5ederal syste)s is t%e very co)"lex nature o' t%e )eans t%ey e)"loy# T*o
soverei&nties are necessarily in "resence o' eac% ot%er# T%e le&islator )ay si)"li'y and equali-e t%e action o'
t%ese t*o soverei&nties+ by li)itin& eac% o' t%e) to a s"%ere o' aut%ority accurately de'ined6 but %e cannot
co)bine t%e) into one+ or "revent t%e) 'ro) co)in& into collision at certain "oints# T%e 5ederal syste)
t%ere'ore rests u"on a t%eory *%ic% is necessarily co)"licated+ and *%ic% de)ands t%e daily exercise o' a
considerable s%are o' discretion on t%e "art o' t%ose it &overns#
A "ro"osition )ust be "lain to be ado"ted by t%e understandin& o' a "eo"le# A 'alse notion *%ic% is clear and
"recise *ill al*ays )eet *it% a &reater nu)ber o' ad%erents in t%e *orld t%an a true "rinci"le *%ic% is obscure
or involved# Hence it arises t%at "arties+ *%ic% are lie s)all co))unities in t%e %eart o' t%e nation+ invariably
ado"t so)e "rinci"le or so)e na)e as a sy)bol+ *%ic% very inadequately re"resents t%e end t%ey %ave in vie*
and t%e )eans *%ic% are at t%eir dis"osal+ but *it%out *%ic% t%ey could neit%er act nor subsist# T%e &overn)ents
*%ic% are 'ounded u"on a sin&le "rinci"le or a sin&le 'eelin& *%ic% is easily de'ined are "er%a"s not t%e best+ but
t%ey are unquestionably t%e stron&est and t%e )ost durable in t%e *orld#
In exa)inin& t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates+ *%ic% is t%e )ost "er'ect 'ederal constitution t%at ever
existed+ one is startled+ on t%e ot%er %and+ at t%e variety o' in'or)ation and t%e excellence o' discretion *%ic% it
"resu""oses in t%e "eo"le *%o) it is )eant to &overn# T%e &overn)ent o' t%e (nion de"ends entirely u"on le&al
'ictions6 t%e (nion is an ideal nation *%ic% only exists in t%e )ind+ and *%ose li)its and extent can only be
discerned by t%e understandin&#
,%en once t%e &eneral t%eory is co)"re%ended+ nu)berless di''iculties re)ain to be solved in its a""lication6 'or
t%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion is so involved in t%at o' t%e !tates t%at it is i)"ossible to distin&uis% its boundaries
at t%e 'irst &lance# T%e *%ole structure o' t%e 9overn)ent is arti'icial and conventional6 and it *ould be ill
ada"ted to a "eo"le *%ic% %as not been lon& accusto)ed to conduct its o*n a''airs+ or to one in *%ic% t%e
science o' "olitics %as not descended to t%e %u)blest classes o' society# I %ave never been )ore struc by t%e
&ood sense and t%e "ractical 7ud&)ent o' t%e A)ericans t%an in t%e in&enious devices by *%ic% t%ey elude t%e
nu)berless di''iculties resultin& 'ro) t%eir 5ederal Constitution# I scarcely ever )et *it% a "lain A)erican
citi-en *%o could not distin&uis%+ *it% sur"risin& 'acility+ t%e obli&ations created by t%e la*s o' Con&ress 'ro)
t%ose created by t%e la*s o' %is o*n !tate6 and *%o+ a'ter %avin& discri)inated bet*een t%e )atters *%ic% co)e
under t%e co&ni-ance o' t%e (nion and t%ose *%ic% t%e local le&islature is co)"etent to re&ulate+ could not "oint
out t%e exact li)it o' t%e several 7urisdictions o' t%e 5ederal courts and t%e tribunals o' t%e !tate#
T%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates is lie t%ose exquisite "roductions o' %u)an industry *%ic% ensure *ealt%
and reno*n to t%eir inventors+ but *%ic% are "ro'itless in any ot%er %ands# T%is trut% is exe)"li'ied by t%e
condition o' Mexico at t%e "resent ti)e# T%e Mexicans *ere desirous o' establis%in& a 'ederal syste)+ and t%ey
too t%e 5ederal Constitution o' t%eir nei&%bors+ t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ as t%eir )odel+ and co"ied it *it%
considerable accuracy# Ks But alt%ou&% t%ey %ad borro*ed t%e letter o' t%e la*+ t%ey *ere unable to create or to
introduce t%e s"irit and t%e sense *%ic% &ive it li'e# T%ey *ere involved in ceaseless e)barrass)ents bet*een t%e
)ec%anis) o' t%eir double &overn)ent6 t%e soverei&nty o' t%e !tates and t%at o' t%e (nion "er"etually exceeded
t%eir res"ective "rivile&es+ and entered into collision6 and to t%e "resent day Mexico is alternately t%e victi) o'
anarc%y and t%e slave o' )ilitary des"otis)#
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35ootnote s@ !ee t%e Mexican Constitution o' ./AG#4
T%e second and t%e )ost 'atal o' all t%e de'ects I %ave alluded to+ and t%at *%ic% I believe to be in%erent in t%e
'ederal syste)+ is t%e relative *eaness o' t%e &overn)ent o' t%e (nion# T%e "rinci"le u"on *%ic% all
con'ederations rest is t%at o' a divided soverei&nty# T%e le&islator )ay render t%is "artition less "erce"tible+ %e
)ay even conceal it 'or a ti)e 'ro) t%e "ublic eye+ but %e cannot "revent it 'ro) existin&+ and a divided
soverei&nty )ust al*ays be less "o*er'ul t%an an entire su"re)acy# T%e reader %as seen in t%e re)ars I %ave
)ade on t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited !tates t%at t%e A)ericans %ave dis"layed sin&ular in&enuity in co)binin&
t%e restriction o' t%e "o*er o' t%e (nion *it%in t%e narro* li)its o' a 'ederal &overn)ent *it% t%e se)blance
and+ to a certain extent+ *it% t%e 'orce o' a national &overn)ent# By t%is )eans t%e le&islators o' t%e (nion %ave
succeeded in di)inis%in&+ t%ou&% not in counteractin& t%e natural dan&er o' con'ederations#
It %as been re)ared t%at t%e A)erican 9overn)ent does not a""ly itsel' to t%e !tates+ but t%at it i))ediately
trans)its its in7unctions to t%e citi-ens+ and co)"els t%e) as isolated individuals to co)"ly *it% its de)ands#
But i' t%e 5ederal la* *ere to clas% *it% t%e interests and t%e "re7udices o' a !tate+ it )i&%t be 'eared t%at all t%e
citi-ens o' t%at !tate *ould conceive t%e)selves to be interested in t%e cause o' a sin&le individual *%o s%ould
re'use to obey# I' all t%e citi-ens o' t%e !tate *ere a&&rieved at t%e sa)e ti)e and in t%e sa)e )anner by t%e
aut%ority o' t%e (nion+ t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *ould vainly atte)"t to subdue t%e) individually6 t%ey *ould
instinctively unite in a co))on de'ence+ and t%ey *ould derive a ready1"re"ared or&ani-ation 'ro) t%e s%are o'
soverei&nty *%ic% t%e institution o' t%eir !tate allo*s t%e) to en7oy# 5iction *ould &ive *ay to reality+ and an
or&ani-ed "ortion o' t%e territory )i&%t t%en contest t%e central aut%ority# Kt T%e sa)e observation %olds &ood
*it% re&ard to t%e 5ederal 7urisdiction# I' t%e courts o' t%e (nion violated an i)"ortant la* o' a !tate in a "rivate
case+ t%e real+ i' not t%e a""arent+ contest *ould arise bet*een t%e a&&rieved !tate re"resented by a citi-en and
t%e (nion re"resented by its courts o' 7ustice# Ku
35ootnote t@ 3T%is is "recisely *%at occurred in ./;A+ and t%e 'ollo*in& "ara&ra"% describes correctly t%e
'eelin&s and notions o' t%e !out%# 9eneral 8ee %eld t%at %is "ri)ary alle&iance *as due+ not to t%e (nion+ but to
Dir&inia#44
35ootnote u@ 5or instance+ t%e (nion "ossesses by t%e Constitution t%e ri&%t o' sellin& unoccu"ied lands 'or its
o*n "ro'it# !u""osin& t%at t%e !tate o' O%io s%ould clai) t%e sa)e ri&%t in be%al' o' certain territories lyin&
*it%in its boundaries+ u"on t%e "lea t%at t%e Constitution re'ers to t%ose lands alone *%ic% do not belon& to t%e
7urisdiction o' any "articular !tate+ and consequently s%ould c%oose to dis"ose o' t%e) itsel'+ t%e liti&ation *ould
be carried on in t%e na)es o' t%e "urc%asers 'ro) t%e !tate o' O%io and t%e "urc%asers 'ro) t%e (nion+ and not
in t%e na)es o' O%io and t%e (nion# But *%at *ould beco)e o' t%is le&al 'iction i' t%e 5ederal "urc%aser *as
con'ir)ed in %is ri&%t by t%e courts o' t%e (nion+ *%ilst t%e ot%er co)"etitor *as ordered to retain "ossession by
t%e tribunals o' t%e !tate o' O%ioI4
He *ould %ave but a "artial no*led&e o' t%e *orld *%o s%ould i)a&ine t%at it is "ossible+ by t%e aid o' le&al
'ictions+ to "revent )en 'ro) 'indin& out and e)"loyin& t%ose )eans o' &rati'yin& t%eir "assions *%ic% %ave
been le't o"en to t%e)6 and it )ay be doubted *%et%er t%e A)erican le&islators+ *%en t%ey rendered a collision
bet*een t%e t*o soverei&ns less "robable+ destroyed t%e cause o' suc% a )is'ortune# But it )ay even be a''ir)ed
t%at t%ey *ere unable to ensure t%e "re"onderance o' t%e 5ederal ele)ent in a case o' t%is ind# T%e (nion is
"ossessed o' )oney and o' troo"s+ but t%e a''ections and t%e "re7udices o' t%e "eo"le are in t%e boso) o' t%e
!tates# T%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion is an abstract bein&+ *%ic% is connected *it% but 'e* external ob7ects6 t%e
soverei&nty o' t%e !tates is %ourly "erce"tible+ easily understood+ constantly active6 and i' t%e 'or)er is o' recent
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creation+ t%e latter is coeval *it% t%e "eo"le itsel'# T%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion is 'actitious+ t%at o' t%e !tates is
natural+ and derives its existence 'ro) its o*n si)"le in'luence+ lie t%e aut%ority o' a "arent# T%e su"re)e
"o*er o' t%e nation only a''ects a 'e* o' t%e c%ie' interests o' society6 it re"resents an i))ense but re)ote
country+ and clai)s a 'eelin& o' "atriotis) *%ic% is va&ue and ill de'ined6 but t%e aut%ority o' t%e !tates controls
every individual citi-en at every %our and in all circu)stances6 it "rotects %is "ro"erty+ %is 'reedo)+ and %is li'e6
and *%en *e recollect t%e traditions+ t%e custo)s+ t%e "re7udices o' local and 'a)iliar attac%)ent *it% *%ic% it is
connected+ *e cannot doubt o' t%e su"eriority o' a "o*er *%ic% is inter*oven *it% every circu)stance t%at
renders t%e love o' oneFs native country instinctive in t%e %u)an %eart#
!ince le&islators are unable to obviate suc% dan&erous collisions as occur bet*een t%e t*o soverei&nties *%ic%
coexist in t%e 'ederal syste)+ t%eir 'irst ob7ect )ust be+ not only to dissuade t%e con'ederate !tates 'ro) *ar'are+
but to encoura&e suc% institutions as )ay "ro)ote t%e )aintenance o' "eace# Hence it results t%at t%e 5ederal
co)"act cannot be lastin& unless t%ere exists in t%e co))unities *%ic% are lea&ued to&et%er a certain nu)ber o'
induce)ents to union *%ic% render t%eir co))on de"endence a&reeable+ and t%e tas o' t%e 9overn)ent li&%t+
and t%at syste) cannot succeed *it%out t%e "resence o' 'avorable circu)stances added to t%e in'luence o' &ood
la*s# All t%e "eo"les *%ic% %ave ever 'or)ed a con'ederation %ave been %eld to&et%er by a certain nu)ber o'
co))on interests+ *%ic% served as t%e intellectual ties o' association#
But t%e senti)ents and t%e "rinci"les o' )an )ust be taen into consideration as *ell as %is i))ediate interests#
A certain uni'or)ity o' civili-ation is not less necessary to t%e durability o' a con'ederation t%an a uni'or)ity o'
interests in t%e !tates *%ic% co)"ose it# In !*it-erland t%e di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een t%e Canton o' (ri
and t%e Canton o' Daud is equal to t%at bet*een t%e 'i'teent% and t%e nineteent% centuries6 and+ "ro"erly
s"eain&+ !*it-erland %as never "ossessed a 'ederal &overn)ent# T%e union bet*een t%ese t*o cantons only
subsists u"on t%e )a"+ and t%eir discre"ancies *ould soon be "erceived i' an atte)"t *ere )ade by a central
aut%ority to "rescribe t%e sa)e la*s to t%e *%ole territory#
One o' t%e circu)stances *%ic% )ost "o*er'ully contribute to su""ort t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent in A)erica is
t%at t%e !tates %ave not only si)ilar interests+ a co))on ori&in+ and a co))on ton&ue+ but t%at t%ey are also
arrived at t%e sa)e sta&e o' civili-ation6 *%ic% al)ost al*ays renders a union 'easible# I do not no* o' any
Euro"ean nation+ %o* s)all soever it )ay be+ *%ic% does not "resent less uni'or)ity in its di''erent "rovinces
t%an t%e A)erican "eo"le+ *%ic% occu"ies a territory as extensive as one1%al' o' Euro"e# T%e distance 'ro) t%e
!tate o' Maine to t%at o' 9eor&ia is reconed at about one t%ousand )iles6 but t%e di''erence bet*een t%e
civili-ation o' Maine and t%at o' 9eor&ia is sli&%ter t%an t%e di''erence bet*een t%e %abits o' Nor)andy and
t%ose o' Brittany# Maine and 9eor&ia+ *%ic% are "laced at t%e o""osite extre)ities o' a &reat e)"ire+ are
consequently in t%e natural "ossession o' )ore real induce)ents to 'or) a con'ederation t%an Nor)andy and
Brittany+ *%ic% are only se"arated by a brid&e#
T%e &eo&ra"%ical "osition o' t%e country contributed to increase t%e 'acilities *%ic% t%e A)erican le&islators
derived 'ro) t%e )anners and custo)s o' t%e in%abitants6 and it is to t%is circu)stance t%at t%e ado"tion and t%e
)aintenance o' t%e 5ederal syste) are )ainly attributable#
T%e )ost i)"ortant occurrence *%ic% can )ar t%e annals o' a "eo"le is t%e breain& out o' a *ar# In *ar a
"eo"le stru&&les *it% t%e ener&y o' a sin&le )an a&ainst 'orei&n nations in t%e de'ence o' its very existence# T%e
sill o' a &overn)ent+ t%e &ood sense o' t%e co))unity+ and t%e natural 'ondness *%ic% )en entertain 'or t%eir
country+ )ay su''ice to )aintain "eace in t%e interior o' a district+ and to 'avor its internal "ros"erity6 but a
nation can only carry on a &reat *ar at t%e cost o' )ore nu)erous and )ore "ain'ul sacri'ices6 and to su""ose
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t%at a &reat nu)ber o' )en *ill o' t%eir o*n accord co)"ly *it% t%ese exi&encies o' t%e !tate is to betray an
i&norance o' )anind# All t%e "eo"les *%ic% %ave been obli&ed to sustain a lon& and serious *ar'are %ave
consequently been led to au&)ent t%e "o*er o' t%eir &overn)ent# T%ose *%ic% %ave not succeeded in t%is
atte)"t %ave been sub7u&ated# A lon& *ar al)ost al*ays "laces nations in t%e *retc%ed alternative o' bein&
abandoned to ruin by de'eat or to des"otis) by success# ,ar t%ere'ore renders t%e sy)"to)s o' t%e *eaness o'
a &overn)ent )ost "al"able and )ost alar)in&6 and I %ave s%o*n t%at t%e in%erent de'eat o' 'ederal
&overn)ents is t%at o' bein& *ea#
T%e 5ederal syste) is not only de'icient in every ind o' centrali-ed ad)inistration+ but t%e central &overn)ent
itsel' is i)"er'ectly or&ani-ed+ *%ic% is invariably an in'luential cause o' in'eriority *%en t%e nation is o""osed
to ot%er countries *%ic% are t%e)selves &overned by a sin&le aut%ority# In t%e 5ederal Constitution o' t%e (nited
!tates+ by *%ic% t%e central &overn)ent "ossesses )ore real 'orce+ t%is evil is still extre)ely sensible# An
exa)"le *ill illustrate t%e case to t%e reader#
T%e Constitution con'ers u"on Con&ress t%e ri&%t o' callin& 'ort% )ilitia to execute t%e la*s o' t%e (nion+
su""ress insurrections+ and re"el invasions6 and anot%er article declares t%at t%e :resident o' t%e (nited !tates is
t%e co))ander1in1c%ie' o' t%e )ilitia# In t%e *ar o' ./.A t%e :resident ordered t%e )ilitia o' t%e Nort%ern !tates
to )arc% to t%e 'rontiers6 but Connecticut and Massac%usetts+ *%ose interests *ere i)"aired by t%e *ar+ re'used
to obey t%e co))and# T%ey ar&ued t%at t%e Constitution aut%ori-es t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent to call 'ort% t%e
)ilitia in case o' insurrection or invasion+ but t%at in t%e "resent instance t%ere *as neit%er invasion nor
insurrection# T%ey added+ t%at t%e sa)e Constitution *%ic% con'erred u"on t%e (nion t%e ri&%t o' callin& 'ort%
t%e )ilitia reserved to t%e !tates t%at o' na)in& t%e o''icers6 and t%at consequently >as t%ey understood t%e
clause? no o''icer o' t%e (nion %ad any ri&%t to co))and t%e )ilitia+ even durin& *ar+ exce"t t%e :resident in
"erson6 and in t%is case t%ey *ere ordered to 7oin an ar)y co))anded by anot%er individual# T%ese absurd and
"ernicious doctrines received t%e sanction not only o' t%e &overnors and t%e le&islative bodies+ but also o' t%e
courts o' 7ustice in bot% !tates6 and t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *as constrained to raise else*%ere t%e troo"s *%ic%
it required# Kv
35ootnote v@ LentFs 2Co))entaries+2 vol# i# "# AGG# I %ave selected an exa)"le *%ic% relates to a ti)e "osterior
to t%e "ro)ul&ation o' t%e "resent Constitution# I' I %ad &one bac to t%e days o' t%e Con'ederation+ I )i&%t %ave
&iven still )ore striin& instances# T%e *%ole nation *as at t%at ti)e in a state o' ent%usiastic excite)ent6 t%e
Revolution *as re"resented by a )an *%o *as t%e idol o' t%e "eo"le6 but at t%at very "eriod Con&ress %ad+ to
say t%e trut%+ no resources at all at its dis"osal# Troo"s and su""lies *ere "er"etually *antin&# T%e best1devised
"ro7ects 'ailed in t%e execution+ and t%e (nion+ *%ic% *as constantly on t%e ver&e o' destruction+ *as saved by
t%e *eaness o' its ene)ies 'ar )ore t%an by its o*n stren&t%# 3All doubt as to t%e "o*ers o' t%e 5ederal
Executive *as+ %o*ever+ re)oved by its e''orts in t%e Civil ,ar+ and t%ose "o*ers *ere lar&ely extended#44
T%e only sa'e&uard *%ic% t%e A)erican (nion+ *it% all t%e relative "er'ection o' its la*s+ "ossesses a&ainst t%e
dissolution *%ic% *ould be "roduced by a &reat *ar+ lies in its "robable exe)"tion 'ro) t%at cala)ity# :laced in
t%e centre o' an i))ense continent+ *%ic% o''ers a boundless 'ield 'or %u)an industry+ t%e (nion is al)ost as
)uc% insulated 'ro) t%e *orld as i' its 'rontiers *ere &irt by t%e ocean# Canada contains only a )illion o'
in%abitants+ and its "o"ulation is divided into t*o ini)ical nations# T%e ri&or o' t%e cli)ate li)its t%e extension
o' its territory+ and s%uts u" its "orts durin& t%e six )ont%s o' *inter# 5ro) Canada to t%e 9ul' o' Mexico a 'e*
sava&e tribes are to be )et *it%+ *%ic% retire+ "eris%in& in t%eir retreat+ be'ore six t%ousand soldiers# To t%e
!out%+ t%e (nion %as a "oint o' contact *it% t%e e)"ire o' Mexico6 and it is t%ence t%at serious %ostilities )ay
one day be ex"ected to arise# But 'or a lon& *%ile to co)e t%e uncivili-ed state o' t%e Mexican co))unity+ t%e
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de"ravity o' its )orals+ and its extre)e "overty+ *ill "revent t%at country 'ro) ranin& %i&% a)on&st nations# K*
As 'or t%e :o*ers o' Euro"e+ t%ey are too distant to be 'or)idable#
35ootnote *@ 3,ar broe out bet*een t%e (nited !tates and Mexico in ./G;+ and ended in t%e conquest o' an
i))ense territory+ includin& Cali'ornia#44
T%e &reat advanta&e o' t%e (nited !tates does not+ t%en+ consist in a 5ederal Constitution *%ic% allo*s t%e) to
carry on &reat *ars+ but in a &eo&ra"%ical "osition *%ic% renders suc% enter"rises extre)ely i)"robable#
No one can be )ore inclined t%an I a) )ysel' to a""reciate t%e advanta&es o' t%e 'ederal syste)+ *%ic% I %old to
be one o' t%e co)binations )ost 'avorable to t%e "ros"erity and 'reedo) o' )an# I envy t%e lot o' t%ose nations
*%ic% %ave been enabled to ado"t it6 but I cannot believe t%at any con'ederate "eo"les could )aintain a lon& or
an equal contest *it% a nation o' si)ilar stren&t% in *%ic% t%e &overn)ent s%ould be centrali-ed# A "eo"le *%ic%
s%ould divide its soverei&nty into 'ractional "o*ers+ in t%e "resence o' t%e &reat )ilitary )onarc%ies o' Euro"e+
*ould+ in )y o"inion+ by t%at very act+ abdicate its "o*er+ and "er%a"s its existence and its na)e# But suc% is t%e
ad)irable "osition o' t%e Ne* ,orld t%at )an %as no ot%er ene)y t%an %i)sel'6 and t%at+ in order to be %a""y
and to be 'ree+ it su''ices to see t%e &i'ts o' "ros"erity and t%e no*led&e o' 'reedo)#
Chapter IX
@ ,%y T%e :eo"le May !trictly Be !aid To 9overn In T%e (nited !tates
I %ave %it%erto exa)ined t%e institutions o' t%e (nited !tates6 I %ave "assed t%eir le&islation in revie*+ and I %ave
de"icted t%e "resent c%aracteristics o' "olitical society in t%at country# But a soverei&n "o*er exists above t%ese
institutions and beyond t%ese c%aracteristic 'eatures *%ic% )ay destroy or )odi'y t%e) at its "leasure11I )ean
t%at o' t%e "eo"le# It re)ains to be s%o*n in *%at )anner t%is "o*er+ *%ic% re&ulates t%e la*s+ acts@ its
"ro"ensities and its "assions re)ain to be "ointed out+ as *ell as t%e secret s"rin&s *%ic% retard+ accelerate+ or
direct its irresistible course6 and t%e e''ects o' its unbounded aut%ority+ *it% t%e destiny *%ic% is "robably
reserved 'or it#
In A)erica t%e "eo"le a""oints t%e le&islative and t%e executive "o*er+ and 'urnis%es t%e 7urors *%o "unis% all
o''ences a&ainst t%e la*s# T%e A)erican institutions are de)ocratic+ not only in t%eir "rinci"le but in all t%eir
consequences6 and t%e "eo"le elects its re"resentatives directly+ and 'or t%e )ost "art annually+ in order to ensure
t%eir de"endence# T%e "eo"le is t%ere'ore t%e real directin& "o*er6 and alt%ou&% t%e 'or) o' &overn)ent is
re"resentative+ it is evident t%at t%e o"inions+ t%e "re7udices+ t%e interests+ and even t%e "assions o' t%e
co))unity are %indered by no durable obstacles 'ro) exercisin& a "er"etual in'luence on society# In t%e (nited
!tates t%e )a7ority &overns in t%e na)e o' t%e "eo"le+ as is t%e case in all t%e countries in *%ic% t%e "eo"le is
su"re)e# T%e )a7ority is "rinci"ally co)"osed o' "eace'ul citi-ens *%o+ eit%er by inclination or by interest+ are
sincerely desirous o' t%e *el'are o' t%eir country# But t%ey are surrounded by t%e incessant a&itation o' "arties+
*%ic% atte)"t to &ain t%eir co1o"eration and to avail t%e)selves o' t%eir su""ort#
Chapter X
@ :arties In T%e (nited !tates
Chapter Summary
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9reat distinction to be )ade bet*een "arties11:arties *%ic% are to eac% ot%er as rival nations11:arties "ro"erly so
called11Di''erence bet*een &reat and s)all "arties11E"oc%s *%ic% "roduce t%e)11T%eir c%aracteristics11A)erica
%as %ad &reat "arties11T%ey are extinct115ederalists11Re"ublicans11De'eat o' t%e 5ederalists11Di''iculty o'
creatin& "arties in t%e (nited !tates11,%at is done *it% t%is intention11Aristocratic or de)ocratic c%aracter to be
)et *it% in all "arties11!tru&&le o' 9eneral $acson a&ainst t%e Ban#
:arties In T%e (nited !tates
A &reat distinction )ust be )ade bet*een "arties# !o)e countries are so lar&e t%at t%e di''erent "o"ulations
*%ic% in%abit t%e) %ave contradictory interests+ alt%ou&% t%ey are t%e sub7ects o' t%e sa)e 9overn)ent+ and
t%ey )ay t%ence be in a "er"etual state o' o""osition# In t%is case t%e di''erent 'ractions o' t%e "eo"le )ay )ore
"ro"erly be considered as distinct nations t%an as )ere "arties6 and i' a civil *ar breas out+ t%e stru&&le is
carried on by rival "eo"les rat%er t%an by 'actions in t%e !tate#
But *%en t%e citi-ens entertain di''erent o"inions u"on sub7ects *%ic% a''ect t%e *%ole country alie+ suc%+ 'or
instance+ as t%e "rinci"les u"on *%ic% t%e &overn)ent is to be conducted+ t%en distinctions arise *%ic% )ay
correctly be styled "arties# :arties are a necessary evil in 'ree &overn)ents6 but t%ey %ave not at all ti)es t%e
sa)e c%aracter and t%e sa)e "ro"ensities#
At certain "eriods a nation )ay be o""ressed by suc% insu""ortable evils as to conceive t%e desi&n o' e''ectin& a
total c%an&e in its "olitical constitution6 at ot%er ti)es t%e )isc%ie' lies still dee"er+ and t%e existence o' society
itsel' is endan&ered# !uc% are t%e ti)es o' &reat revolutions and o' &reat "arties# But bet*een t%ese e"oc%s o'
)isery and o' con'usion t%ere are "eriods durin& *%ic% %u)an society see)s to rest+ and )anind to )ae a
"ause# T%is "ause is+ indeed+ only a""arent+ 'or ti)e does not sto" its course 'or nations any )ore t%an 'or )en6
t%ey are all advancin& to*ards a &oal *it% *%ic% t%ey are unacquainted6 and *e only i)a&ine t%e) to be
stationary *%en t%eir "ro&ress esca"es our observation+ as )en *%o are &oin& at a 'oot1"ace see) to be standin&
still to t%ose *%o run#
But %o*ever t%is )ay be+ t%ere are certain e"oc%s at *%ic% t%e c%an&es t%at tae "lace in t%e social and "olitical
constitution o' nations are so slo* and so insensible t%at )en i)a&ine t%eir "resent condition to be a 'inal state6
and t%e %u)an )ind+ believin& itsel' to be 'ir)ly based u"on certain 'oundations+ does not extend its researc%es
beyond t%e %ori-on *%ic% it descries# T%ese are t%e ti)es o' s)all "arties and o' intri&ue#
T%e "olitical "arties *%ic% I style &reat are t%ose *%ic% clin& to "rinci"les )ore t%an to t%eir consequences6 to
&eneral+ and not to es"ecial cases6 to ideas+ and not to )en# T%ese "arties are usually distin&uis%ed by a nobler
c%aracter+ by )ore &enerous "assions+ )ore &enuine convictions+ and a )ore bold and o"en conduct t%an t%e
ot%ers# In t%e) "rivate interest+ *%ic% al*ays "lays t%e c%ie' "art in "olitical "assions+ is )ore studiously veiled
under t%e "retext o' t%e "ublic &ood6 and it )ay even be so)eti)es concealed 'ro) t%e eyes o' t%e very "ersons
*%o) it excites and i)"els#
Minor "arties are+ on t%e ot%er %and+ &enerally de'icient in "olitical 'ait%# As t%ey are not sustained or di&ni'ied
by a lo'ty "ur"ose+ t%ey ostensibly dis"lay t%e e&otis) o' t%eir c%aracter in t%eir actions# T%ey &lo* *it% a
'actitious -eal6 t%eir lan&ua&e is ve%e)ent+ but t%eir conduct is ti)id and irresolute# T%e )eans t%ey e)"loy are
as *retc%ed as t%e end at *%ic% t%ey ai)# Hence it arises t%at *%en a cal) state o' t%in&s succeeds a violent
revolution+ t%e leaders o' society see) suddenly to disa""ear+ and t%e "o*ers o' t%e %u)an )ind to lie
concealed# !ociety is convulsed by &reat "arties+ by )inor ones it is a&itated6 it is torn by t%e 'or)er+ by t%e latter
it is de&raded6 and i' t%ese so)eti)es save it by a salutary "erturbation+ t%ose invariably disturb it to no &ood
end#
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A)erica %as already lost t%e &reat "arties *%ic% once divided t%e nation6 and i' %er %a""iness is considerably
increased+ %er )orality %as su''ered by t%eir extinction# ,%en t%e ,ar o' Inde"endence *as ter)inated+ and t%e
'oundations o' t%e ne* 9overn)ent *ere to be laid do*n+ t%e nation *as divided bet*een t*o o"inions11t*o
o"inions *%ic% are as old as t%e *orld+ and *%ic% are "er"etually to be )et *it% under all t%e 'or)s and all t%e
na)es *%ic% %ave ever obtained in 'ree co))unities11t%e one tendin& to li)it+ t%e ot%er to extend inde'initely+
t%e "o*er o' t%e "eo"le# T%e con'lict o' t%ese t*o o"inions never assu)ed t%at de&ree o' violence in A)erica
*%ic% it %as 'requently dis"layed else*%ere# Bot% "arties o' t%e A)ericans *ere+ in 'act+ a&reed u"on t%e )ost
essential "oints6 and neit%er o' t%e) %ad to destroy a traditionary constitution+ or to overt%ro* t%e structure o'
society+ in order to ensure its o*n triu)"%# In neit%er o' t%e)+ consequently+ *ere a &reat nu)ber o' "rivate
interests a''ected by success or by de'eat6 but )oral "rinci"les o' a %i&% order+ suc% as t%e love o' equality and o'
inde"endence+ *ere concerned in t%e stru&&le+ and t%ey su''iced to indle violent "assions#
T%e "arty *%ic% desired to li)it t%e "o*er o' t%e "eo"le endeavored to a""ly its doctrines )ore es"ecially to t%e
Constitution o' t%e (nion+ *%ence it derived its na)e o' 5ederal# T%e ot%er "arty+ *%ic% a''ected to be )ore
exclusively attac%ed to t%e cause o' liberty+ too t%at o' Re"ublican# A)erica is a land o' de)ocracy+ and t%e
5ederalists *ere al*ays in a )inority6 but t%ey reconed on t%eir side al)ost all t%e &reat )en *%o %ad been
called 'ort% by t%e ,ar o' Inde"endence+ and t%eir )oral in'luence *as very considerable# T%eir cause *as+
)oreover+ 'avored by circu)stances# T%e ruin o' t%e Con'ederation %ad i)"ressed t%e "eo"le *it% a dread o'
anarc%y+ and t%e 5ederalists did not 'ail to "ro'it by t%is transient dis"osition o' t%e )ultitude# 5or ten or t*elve
years t%ey *ere at t%e %ead o' a''airs+ and t%ey *ere able to a""ly so)e+ t%ou&% not all+ o' t%eir "rinci"les6 'or
t%e %ostile current *as beco)in& 'ro) day to day too violent to be c%eced or ste))ed# In ./<. t%e Re"ublicans
&ot "ossession o' t%e 9overn)ent6 T%o)as $e''erson *as na)ed :resident6 and %e increased t%e in'luence o'
t%eir "arty by t%e *ei&%t o' %is celebrity+ t%e &reatness o' %is talents+ and t%e i))ense extent o' %is "o"ularity#
T%e )eans by *%ic% t%e 5ederalists %ad )aintained t%eir "osition *ere arti'icial+ and t%eir resources *ere
te)"orary6 it *as by t%e virtues or t%e talents o' t%eir leaders t%at t%ey %ad risen to "o*er# ,%en t%e Re"ublicans
attained to t%at lo'ty station+ t%eir o""onents *ere over*%el)ed by utter de'eat# An i))ense )a7ority declared
itsel' a&ainst t%e retirin& "arty+ and t%e 5ederalists 'ound t%e)selves in so s)all a )inority t%at t%ey at once
des"aired o' t%eir 'uture success# 5ro) t%at )o)ent t%e Re"ublican or De)ocratic "arty Ka %as "roceeded 'ro)
conquest to conquest+ until it %as acquired absolute su"re)acy in t%e country# T%e 5ederalists+ "erceivin& t%at
t%ey *ere vanquis%ed *it%out resource+ and isolated in t%e )idst o' t%e nation+ 'ell into t*o divisions+ o' *%ic%
one 7oined t%e victorious Re"ublicans+ and t%e ot%er abandoned its rallyin&1"oint and its na)e# Many years %ave
already ela"sed since t%ey ceased to exist as a "arty#
35ootnote a@ 3It is scarcely necessary to re)ar t%at in )ore recent ti)es t%e si&ni'ication o' t%ese ter)s %as
c%an&ed# T%e Re"ublicans are t%e re"resentatives o' t%e old 5ederalists+ and t%e De)ocrats o' t%e old
Re"ublicans#11Trans# Note >./;.?#44 T%e accession o' t%e 5ederalists to "o*er *as+ in )y o"inion+ one o' t%e
)ost 'ortunate incidents *%ic% acco)"anied t%e 'or)ation o' t%e &reat A)erican (nion6 t%ey resisted t%e
inevitable "ro"ensities o' t%eir a&e and o' t%e country# But *%et%er t%eir t%eories *ere &ood or bad+ t%ey %ad t%e
e''ect o' bein& ina""licable+ as a syste)+ to t%e society *%ic% t%ey "ro'essed to &overn+ and t%at *%ic% occurred
under t%e aus"ices o' $e''erson )ust t%ere'ore %ave taen "lace sooner or later# But t%eir 9overn)ent &ave t%e
ne* re"ublic ti)e to acquire a certain stability+ and a'ter*ards to su""ort t%e ra"id &ro*t% o' t%e very doctrines
*%ic% t%ey %ad co)bated# A considerable nu)ber o' t%eir "rinci"les *ere in "oint o' 'act e)bodied in t%e
"olitical creed o' t%eir o""onents6 and t%e 5ederal Constitution *%ic% subsists at t%e "resent day is a lastin&
)onu)ent o' t%eir "atriotis) and t%eir *isdo)#
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9reat "olitical "arties are not+ t%en+ to be )et *it% in t%e (nited !tates at t%e "resent ti)e# :arties+ indeed+ )ay
be 'ound *%ic% t%reaten t%e 'uture tranquillity o' t%e (nion6 but t%ere are none *%ic% see) to contest t%e "resent
'or) o' 9overn)ent or t%e "resent course o' society# T%e "arties by *%ic% t%e (nion is )enaced do not rest
u"on abstract "rinci"les+ but u"on te)"oral interests# T%ese interests+ disse)inated in t%e "rovinces o' so vast an
e)"ire+ )ay be said to constitute rival nations rat%er t%an "arties# T%us+ u"on a recent occasion+ t%e Nort%
contended 'or t%e syste) o' co))ercial "ro%ibition+ and t%e !out% too u" ar)s in 'avor o' 'ree trade+ si)"ly
because t%e Nort% is a )anu'acturin& and t%e !out% an a&ricultural district6 and t%at t%e restrictive syste) *%ic%
*as "ro'itable to t%e one *as "re7udicial to t%e ot%er# Kb
35ootnote b@ 3T%e divisions o' Nort% and !out% %ave since acquired a 'ar &reater de&ree o' intensity+ and t%e
!out%+ t%ou&% conquered+ still "resents a 'or)idable s"irit o' o""osition to Nort%ern &overn)ent#11TranslatorFs
Note+ ./=C#44
In t%e absence o' &reat "arties+ t%e (nited !tates abound *it% lesser controversies6 and "ublic o"inion is divided
into a t%ousand )inute s%ades o' di''erence u"on questions o' very little )o)ent# T%e "ains *%ic% are taen to
create "arties are inconceivable+ and at t%e "resent day it is no easy tas# In t%e (nited !tates t%ere is no reli&ious
ani)osity+ because all reli&ion is res"ected+ and no sect is "redo)inant6 t%ere is no 7ealousy o' ran+ because t%e
"eo"le is everyt%in&+ and none can contest its aut%ority6 lastly+ t%ere is no "ublic indi&ence to su""ly t%e )eans
o' a&itation+ because t%e "%ysical "osition o' t%e country o"ens so *ide a 'ield to industry t%at )an is able to
acco)"lis% t%e )ost sur"risin& undertain&s *it% %is o*n native resources# Nevert%eless+ a)bitious )en are
interested in t%e creation o' "arties+ since it is di''icult to e7ect a "erson 'ro) aut%ority u"on t%e )ere &round t%at
%is "lace is coveted by ot%ers# T%e sill o' t%e actors in t%e "olitical *orld lies t%ere'ore in t%e art o' creatin&
"arties# A "olitical as"irant in t%e (nited !tates be&ins by discri)inatin& %is o*n interest+ and by calculatin&
u"on t%ose interests *%ic% )ay be collected around and a)al&a)ated *it% it6 %e t%en contrives to discover so)e
doctrine or so)e "rinci"le *%ic% )ay suit t%e "ur"oses o' t%is ne* association+ and *%ic% %e ado"ts in order to
brin& 'or*ard %is "arty and to secure %is "o"ularity6 7ust as t%e i)"ri)atur o' a Lin& *as in 'or)er days
incor"orated *it% t%e volu)e *%ic% it aut%ori-ed+ but to *%ic% it no*ise belon&ed# ,%en t%ese "reli)inaries are
ter)inated+ t%e ne* "arty is us%ered into t%e "olitical *orld#
All t%e do)estic controversies o' t%e A)ericans at 'irst a""ear to a stran&er to be so inco)"re%ensible and so
"uerile t%at %e is at a loss *%et%er to "ity a "eo"le *%ic% taes suc% arrant tri'les in &ood earnest+ or to envy t%e
%a""iness *%ic% enables it to discuss t%e)# But *%en %e co)es to study t%e secret "ro"ensities *%ic% &overn t%e
'actions o' A)erica+ %e easily "erceives t%at t%e &reater "art o' t%e) are )ore or less connected *it% one or t%e
ot%er o' t%ose t*o divisions *%ic% %ave al*ays existed in 'ree co))unities# T%e dee"er *e "enetrate into t%e
*orin& o' t%ese "arties+ t%e )ore do *e "erceive t%at t%e ob7ect o' t%e one is to li)it+ and t%at o' t%e ot%er to
extend+ t%e "o"ular aut%ority# I do not assert t%at t%e ostensible end+ or even t%at t%e secret ai)+ o' A)erican
"arties is to "ro)ote t%e rule o' aristocracy or de)ocracy in t%e country6 but I a''ir) t%at aristocratic or
de)ocratic "assions )ay easily be detected at t%e botto) o' all "arties+ and t%at+ alt%ou&% t%ey esca"e a
su"er'icial observation+ t%ey are t%e )ain "oint and t%e very soul o' every 'action in t%e (nited !tates#
To quote a recent exa)"le# ,%en t%e :resident attaced t%e Ban+ t%e country *as excited and "arties *ere
'or)ed6 t%e *ell1in'or)ed classes rallied round t%e Ban+ t%e co))on "eo"le round t%e :resident# But it )ust
not be i)a&ined t%at t%e "eo"le %ad 'or)ed a rational o"inion u"on a question *%ic% o''ers so )any di''iculties
to t%e )ost ex"erienced states)en# T%e Ban is a &reat establis%)ent *%ic% en7oys an inde"endent existence+
and t%e "eo"le+ accusto)ed to )ae and un)ae *%atsoever it "leases+ is startled to )eet *it% t%is obstacle to its
aut%ority# In t%e )idst o' t%e "er"etual 'luctuation o' society t%e co))unity is irritated by so "er)anent an
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institution+ and is led to attac it in order to see *%et%er it can be s%aen and controlled+ lie all t%e ot%er
institutions o' t%e country#
Re)ains O' T%e Aristocratic :arty In T%e (nited !tates
!ecret o""osition o' *ealt%y individuals to de)ocracy11T%eir retire)ent11T%eir taste 'or exclusive "leasures and
'or luxury at %o)e11T%eir si)"licity abroad11T%eir a''ected condescension to*ards t%e "eo"le#
It so)eti)es %a""ens in a "eo"le a)on&st *%ic% various o"inions "revail t%at t%e balance o' t%e several "arties
is lost+ and one o' t%e) obtains an irresistible "re"onderance+ over"o*ers all obstacles+ %arasses its o""onents+
and a""ro"riates all t%e resources o' society to its o*n "ur"oses# T%e vanquis%ed citi-ens des"air o' success and
t%ey conceal t%eir dissatis'action in silence and in &eneral a"at%y# T%e nation see)s to be &overned by a sin&le
"rinci"le+ and t%e "revailin& "arty assu)es t%e credit o' %avin& restored "eace and unani)ity to t%e country# But
t%is a""arent unani)ity is )erely a cloa to alar)in& dissensions and "er"etual o""osition#
T%is is "recisely *%at occurred in A)erica6 *%en t%e de)ocratic "arty &ot t%e u""er %and+ it too exclusive
"ossession o' t%e conduct o' a''airs+ and 'ro) t%at ti)e t%e la*s and t%e custo)s o' society %ave been ada"ted to
its ca"rices# At t%e "resent day t%e )ore a''luent classes o' society are so entirely re)oved 'ro) t%e direction o'
"olitical a''airs in t%e (nited !tates t%at *ealt%+ 'ar 'ro) con'errin& a ri&%t to t%e exercise o' "o*er+ is rat%er an
obstacle t%an a )eans o' attainin& to it# T%e *ealt%y )e)bers o' t%e co))unity abandon t%e lists+ t%rou&%
un*illin&ness to contend+ and 'requently to contend in vain+ a&ainst t%e "oorest classes o' t%eir 'ello* citi-ens#
T%ey concentrate all t%eir en7oy)ents in t%e "rivacy o' t%eir %o)es+ *%ere t%ey occu"y a ran *%ic% cannot be
assu)ed in "ublic6 and t%ey constitute a "rivate society in t%e !tate+ *%ic% %as its o*n tastes and its o*n
"leasures# T%ey sub)it to t%is state o' t%in&s as an irre)ediable evil+ but t%ey are care'ul not to s%o* t%at t%ey
are &alled by its continuance6 it is even not unco))on to %ear t%e) laud t%e deli&%ts o' a re"ublican
&overn)ent+ and t%e advanta&es o' de)ocratic institutions *%en t%ey are in "ublic# Next to %atin& t%eir ene)ies+
)en are )ost inclined to 'latter t%e)#
Mar+ 'or instance+ t%at o"ulent citi-en+ *%o is as anxious as a $e* o' t%e Middle A&es to conceal %is *ealt%# His
dress is "lain+ %is de)eanor unassu)in&6 but t%e interior o' %is d*ellin& &litters *it% luxury+ and none but a 'e*
c%osen &uests *%o) %e %au&%tily styles %is equals are allo*ed to "enetrate into t%is sanctuary# No Euro"ean
noble is )ore exclusive in %is "leasures+ or )ore 7ealous o' t%e s)allest advanta&es *%ic% %is "rivile&ed station
con'ers u"on %i)# But t%e very sa)e individual crosses t%e city to reac% a dar countin&1%ouse in t%e centre o'
tra''ic+ *%ere every one )ay accost %i) *%o "leases# I' %e )eets %is cobbler u"on t%e *ay+ t%ey sto" and
converse6 t%e t*o citi-ens discuss t%e a''airs o' t%e !tate in *%ic% t%ey %ave an equal interest+ and t%ey s%ae
%ands be'ore t%ey "art#
But beneat% t%is arti'icial ent%usias)+ and t%ese obsequious attentions to t%e "re"onderatin& "o*er+ it is easy to
"erceive t%at t%e *ealt%y )e)bers o' t%e co))unity entertain a %earty distaste to t%e de)ocratic institutions o'
t%eir country# T%e "o"ulace is at once t%e ob7ect o' t%eir scorn and o' t%eir 'ears# I' t%e )alad)inistration o' t%e
de)ocracy ever brin&s about a revolutionary crisis+ and i' )onarc%ical institutions ever beco)e "racticable in t%e
(nited !tates+ t%e trut% o' *%at I advance *ill beco)e obvious#
T%e t*o c%ie' *ea"ons *%ic% "arties use in order to ensure success are t%e "ublic "ress and t%e 'or)ation o'
associations#
Chapter XI
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@ 8iberty O' T%e :ress In T%e (nited !tates
Chapter Summary
Di''iculty o' restrainin& t%e liberty o' t%e "ress11:articular reasons *%ic% so)e nations %ave to c%eris% t%is
liberty11T%e liberty o' t%e "ress a necessary consequence o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le as it is understood in
A)erica11Diolent lan&ua&e o' t%e "eriodical "ress in t%e (nited !tates11:ro"ensities o' t%e "eriodical "ress11
Illustrated by t%e (nited !tates11O"inion o' t%e A)ericans u"on t%e re"ression o' t%e abuse o' t%e liberty o' t%e
"ress by 7udicial "rosecutions11Reasons 'or *%ic% t%e "ress is less "o*er'ul in A)erica t%an in 5rance#
8iberty O' T%e :ress In T%e (nited !tates
T%e in'luence o' t%e liberty o' t%e "ress does not a''ect "olitical o"inions alone+ but it extends to all t%e o"inions
o' )en+ and it )odi'ies custo)s as *ell as la*s# In anot%er "art o' t%is *or I s%all atte)"t to deter)inate t%e
de&ree o' in'luence *%ic% t%e liberty o' t%e "ress %as exercised u"on civil society in t%e (nited !tates+ and to
"oint out t%e direction *%ic% it %as &iven to t%e ideas+ as *ell as t%e tone *%ic% it %as i)"arted to t%e c%aracter
and t%e 'eelin&s+ o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ but at "resent I "ur"ose si)"ly to exa)ine t%e e''ects "roduced by t%e
liberty o' t%e "ress in t%e "olitical *orld#
I con'ess t%at I do not entertain t%at 'ir) and co)"lete attac%)ent to t%e liberty o' t%e "ress *%ic% t%in&s t%at are
su"re)ely &ood in t%eir very nature are *ont to excite in t%e )ind6 and I a""rove o' it )ore 'ro) a recollection
o' t%e evils it "revents t%an 'ro) a consideration o' t%e advanta&es it ensures#
I' any one could "oint out an inter)ediate and yet a tenable "osition bet*een t%e co)"lete inde"endence and t%e
entire sub7ection o' t%e "ublic ex"ression o' o"inion+ I s%ould "er%a"s be inclined to ado"t it6 but t%e di''iculty is
to discover t%is "osition# I' it is your intention to correct t%e abuses o' unlicensed "rintin& and to restore t%e use
o' orderly lan&ua&e+ you )ay in t%e 'irst instance try t%e o''ender by a 7ury6 but i' t%e 7ury acquits %i)+ t%e
o"inion *%ic% *as t%at o' a sin&le individual beco)es t%e o"inion o' t%e country at lar&e# Too )uc% and too
little %as t%ere'ore %it%erto been done# I' you "roceed+ you )ust brin& t%e delinquent be'ore a court o' "er)anent
7ud&es# But even %ere t%e cause )ust be %eard be'ore it can be decided6 and t%e very "rinci"les *%ic% no boo
*ould %ave ventured to avo* are bla-oned 'ort% in t%e "leadin&s+ and *%at *as obscurely %inted at in a sin&le
co)"osition is t%en re"eated in a )ultitude o' ot%er "ublications# T%e lan&ua&e in *%ic% a t%ou&%t is e)bodied
is t%e )ere carcass o' t%e t%ou&%t+ and not t%e idea itsel'6 tribunals )ay conde)n t%e 'or)+ but t%e sense and
s"irit o' t%e *or is too subtle 'or t%eir aut%ority# Too )uc% %as still been done to recede+ too little to attain your
end6 you )ust t%ere'ore "roceed# I' you establis% a censors%i" o' t%e "ress+ t%e ton&ue o' t%e "ublic s"eaer *ill
still )ae itsel' %eard+ and you %ave only increased t%e )isc%ie'# T%e "o*ers o' t%ou&%t do not rely+ lie t%e
"o*ers o' "%ysical stren&t%+ u"on t%e nu)ber o' t%eir )ec%anical a&ents+ nor can a %ost o' aut%ors be reconed
lie t%e troo"s *%ic% co)"ose an ar)y6 on t%e contrary+ t%e aut%ority o' a "rinci"le is o'ten increased by t%e
s)allness o' t%e nu)ber o' )en by *%o) it is ex"ressed# T%e *ords o' a stron&1)inded )an+ *%ic% "enetrate
a)idst t%e "assions o' a listenin& asse)bly+ %ave )ore "o*er t%an t%e voci'erations o' a t%ousand orators6 and i'
it be allo*ed to s"ea 'reely in any "ublic "lace+ t%e consequence is t%e sa)e as i' 'ree s"eain& *as allo*ed in
every villa&e# T%e liberty o' discourse )ust t%ere'ore be destroyed as *ell as t%e liberty o' t%e "ress6 t%is is t%e
necessary ter) o' your e''orts6 but i' your ob7ect *as to re"ress t%e abuses o' liberty+ t%ey %ave brou&%t you to
t%e 'eet o' a des"ot# You %ave been led 'ro) t%e extre)e o' inde"endence to t%e extre)e o' sub7ection *it%out
)eetin& *it% a sin&le tenable "osition 'or s%elter or re"ose#
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T%ere are certain nations *%ic% %ave "eculiar reasons 'or c%eris%in& t%e liberty o' t%e "ress+ inde"endently o' t%e
&eneral )otives *%ic% I %ave 7ust "ointed out# 5or in certain countries *%ic% "ro'ess to en7oy t%e "rivile&es o'
'reedo) every individual a&ent o' t%e 9overn)ent )ay violate t%e la*s *it% i)"unity+ since t%ose *%o) %e
o""resses cannot "rosecute %i) be'ore t%e courts o' 7ustice# In t%is case t%e liberty o' t%e "ress is not )erely a
&uarantee+ but it is t%e only &uarantee+ o' t%eir liberty and t%eir security *%ic% t%e citi-ens "ossess# I' t%e rulers
o' t%ese nations "ro"ose to abolis% t%e inde"endence o' t%e "ress+ t%e "eo"le *ould be 7usti'ied in sayin&@ 9ive
us t%e ri&%t o' "rosecutin& your o''ences be'ore t%e ordinary tribunals+ and "er%a"s *e )ay t%en *aive our ri&%t
o' a""eal to t%e tribunal o' "ublic o"inion#
But in t%e countries in *%ic% t%e doctrine o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le ostensibly "revails+ t%e censors%i" o'
t%e "ress is not only dan&erous+ but it is absurd# ,%en t%e ri&%t o' every citi-en to co1o"erate in t%e &overn)ent
o' society is acno*led&ed+ every citi-en )ust be "resu)ed to "ossess t%e "o*er o' discri)inatin& bet*een t%e
di''erent o"inions o' %is conte)"oraries+ and o' a""reciatin& t%e di''erent 'acts 'ro) *%ic% in'erences )ay be
dra*n# T%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le and t%e liberty o' t%e "ress )ay t%ere'ore be looed u"on as correlative
institutions6 7ust as t%e censors%i" o' t%e "ress and universal su''ra&e are t*o t%in&s *%ic% are irreconcilably
o""osed+ and *%ic% cannot lon& be retained a)on& t%e institutions o' t%e sa)e "eo"le# Not a sin&le individual o'
t%e t*elve )illions *%o in%abit t%e territory o' t%e (nited !tates %as as yet dared to "ro"ose any restrictions to
t%e liberty o' t%e "ress# T%e 'irst ne*s"a"er over *%ic% I cast )y eyes+ u"on )y arrival in A)erica+ contained
t%e 'ollo*in& article@
In all t%is a''air t%e lan&ua&e o' $acson %as been t%at o' a %eartless des"ot+ solely occu"ied *it% t%e "reservation
o' %is o*n aut%ority# A)bition is %is cri)e+ and it *ill be %is "unis%)ent too@ intri&ue is %is native ele)ent+ and
intri&ue *ill con'ound %is trics+ and *ill de"rive %i) o' %is "o*er@ %e &overns by )eans o' corru"tion+ and %is
i))oral "ractices *ill redound to %is s%a)e and con'usion# His conduct in t%e "olitical arena %as been t%at o' a
s%a)eless and la*less &a)ester# He succeeded at t%e ti)e+ but t%e %our o' retribution a""roac%es+ and %e *ill be
obli&ed to dis&or&e %is *innin&s+ to t%ro* aside %is 'alse dice+ and to end %is days in so)e retire)ent+ *%ere %e
)ay curse %is )adness at %is leisure6 'or re"entance is a virtue *it% *%ic% %is %eart is liely to re)ain 'orever
unacquainted#
It is not unco))only i)a&ined in 5rance t%at t%e virulence o' t%e "ress ori&inates in t%e uncertain social
condition+ in t%e "olitical excite)ent+ and t%e &eneral sense o' consequent evil *%ic% "revail in t%at country6 and
it is t%ere'ore su""osed t%at as soon as society %as resu)ed a certain de&ree o' co)"osure t%e "ress *ill abandon
its "resent ve%e)ence# I a) inclined to t%in t%at t%e above causes ex"lain t%e reason o' t%e extraordinary
ascendency it %as acquired over t%e nation+ but t%at t%ey do not exercise )uc% in'luence u"on t%e tone o' its
lan&ua&e# T%e "eriodical "ress a""ears to )e to be actuated by "assions and "ro"ensities inde"endent o' t%e
circu)stances in *%ic% it is "laced+ and t%e "resent "osition o' A)erica corroborates t%is o"inion#
A)erica is "er%a"s+ at t%is )o)ent+ t%e country o' t%e *%ole *orld *%ic% contains t%e 'e*est &er)s o'
revolution6 but t%e "ress is not less destructive in its "rinci"les t%an in 5rance+ and it dis"lays t%e sa)e violence
*it%out t%e sa)e reasons 'or indi&nation# In A)erica+ as in 5rance+ it constitutes a sin&ular "o*er+ so stran&ely
co)"osed o' )in&led &ood and evil t%at it is at t%e sa)e ti)e indis"ensable to t%e existence o' 'reedo)+ and
nearly inco)"atible *it% t%e )aintenance o' "ublic order# Its "o*er is certainly )uc% &reater in 5rance t%an in
t%e (nited !tates6 t%ou&% not%in& is )ore rare in t%e latter country t%an to %ear o' a "rosecution %avin& been
instituted a&ainst it# T%e reason o' t%is is "er'ectly si)"le@ t%e A)ericans+ %avin& once ad)itted t%e doctrine o'
t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le+ a""ly it *it% "er'ect consistency# It *as never t%eir intention to 'ound a "er)anent
state o' t%in&s *it% ele)ents *%ic% under&o daily )odi'ications6 and t%ere is consequently not%in& cri)inal in
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an attac u"on t%e existin& la*s+ "rovided it be not attended *it% a violent in'raction o' t%e)# T%ey are )oreover
o' o"inion t%at courts o' 7ustice are unable to c%ec t%e abuses o' t%e "ress6 and t%at as t%e subtilty o' %u)an
lan&ua&e "er"etually eludes t%e severity o' 7udicial analysis+ o''ences o' t%is nature are a"t to esca"e t%e %and
*%ic% atte)"ts to a""re%end t%e)# T%ey %old t%at to act *it% e''icacy u"on t%e "ress it *ould be necessary to
'ind a tribunal+ not only devoted to t%e existin& order o' t%in&s+ but ca"able o' sur)ountin& t%e in'luence o'
"ublic o"inion6 a tribunal *%ic% s%ould conduct its "roceedin&s *it%out "ublicity+ *%ic% s%ould "ronounce its
decrees *it%out assi&nin& its )otives+ and "unis% t%e intentions even )ore t%an t%e lan&ua&e o' an aut%or#
,%osoever s%ould %ave t%e "o*er o' creatin& and )aintainin& a tribunal o' t%is ind *ould *aste %is ti)e in
"rosecutin& t%e liberty o' t%e "ress6 'or %e *ould be t%e su"re)e )aster o' t%e *%ole co))unity+ and %e *ould
be as 'ree to rid %i)sel' o' t%e aut%ors as o' t%eir *ritin&s# In t%is question+ t%ere'ore+ t%ere is no )ediu)
bet*een servitude and extre)e license6 in order to en7oy t%e inesti)able bene'its *%ic% t%e liberty o' t%e "ress
ensures+ it is necessary to sub)it to t%e inevitable evils *%ic% it en&enders# To ex"ect to acquire t%e 'or)er and
to esca"e t%e latter is to c%eris% one o' t%ose illusions *%ic% co))only )islead nations in t%eir ti)es o'
sicness+ *%en+ tired *it% 'action and ex%austed by e''ort+ t%ey atte)"t to co)bine %ostile o"inions and contrary
"rinci"les u"on t%e sa)e soil#
T%e s)all in'luence o' t%e A)erican 7ournals is attributable to several reasons+ a)on&st *%ic% are t%e 'ollo*in&@
T%e liberty o' *ritin&+ lie all ot%er liberty+ is )ost 'or)idable *%en it is a novelty6 'or a "eo"le *%ic% %as never
been accusto)ed to co1o"erate in t%e conduct o' !tate a''airs "laces i)"licit con'idence in t%e 'irst tribune *%o
arouses its attention# T%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave en7oyed t%is liberty ever since t%e 'oundation o' t%e
settle)ents6 )oreover+ t%e "ress cannot create %u)an "assions by its o*n "o*er+ %o*ever sill'ully it )ay
indle t%e) *%ere t%ey exist# In A)erica "olitics are discussed *it% ani)ation and a varied activity+ but t%ey
rarely touc% t%ose dee" "assions *%ic% are excited *%enever t%e "ositive interest o' a "art o' t%e co))unity is
i)"aired@ but in t%e (nited !tates t%e interests o' t%e co))unity are in a )ost "ros"erous condition# A sin&le
&lance u"on a 5renc% and an A)erican ne*s"a"er is su''icient to s%o* t%e di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een t%e
t*o nations on t%is %ead# In 5rance t%e s"ace allotted to co))ercial advertise)ents is very li)ited+ and t%e
intelli&ence is not considerable+ but t%e )ost essential "art o' t%e 7ournal is t%at *%ic% contains t%e discussion o'
t%e "olitics o' t%e day# In A)erica t%ree1quarters o' t%e enor)ous s%eet *%ic% is set be'ore t%e reader are 'illed
*it% advertise)ents+ and t%e re)ainder is 'requently occu"ied by "olitical intelli&ence or trivial anecdotes@ it is
only 'ro) ti)e to ti)e t%at one 'inds a corner devoted to "assionate discussions lie t%ose *it% *%ic% t%e
7ournalists o' 5rance are *ont to indul&e t%eir readers#
It %as been de)onstrated by observation+ and discovered by t%e innate sa&acity o' t%e "ettiest as *ell as t%e
&reatest o' des"ots+ t%at t%e in'luence o' a "o*er is increased in "ro"ortion as its direction is rendered )ore
central# In 5rance t%e "ress co)bines a t*o'old centrali-ation6 al)ost all its "o*er is centred in t%e sa)e s"ot+
and vested in t%e sa)e %ands+ 'or its or&ans are 'ar 'ro) nu)erous# T%e in'luence o' a "ublic "ress t%us
constituted+ u"on a sce"tical nation+ )ust be unbounded# It is an ene)y *it% *%ic% a 9overn)ent )ay si&n an
occasional truce+ but *%ic% it is di''icult to resist 'or any len&t% o' ti)e#
Neit%er o' t%ese inds o' centrali-ation exists in A)erica# T%e (nited !tates %ave no )etro"olis6 t%e intelli&ence
as *ell as t%e "o*er o' t%e country are dis"ersed abroad+ and instead o' radiatin& 'ro) a "oint+ t%ey cross eac%
ot%er in every direction6 t%e A)ericans %ave establis%ed no central control over t%e ex"ression o' o"inion+ any
)ore t%an over t%e conduct o' business# T%ese are circu)stances *%ic% do not de"end on %u)an 'oresi&%t6 but it
is o*in& to t%e la*s o' t%e (nion t%at t%ere are no licenses to be &ranted to "rinters+ no securities de)anded 'ro)
editors as in 5rance+ and no sta)" duty as in 5rance and 'or)erly in En&land# T%e consequence o' t%is is t%at
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not%in& is easier t%an to set u" a ne*s"a"er+ and a s)all nu)ber o' readers su''ices to de'ray t%e ex"enses o' t%e
editor#
T%e nu)ber o' "eriodical and occasional "ublications *%ic% a""ears in t%e (nited !tates actually sur"asses
belie'# T%e )ost enli&%tened A)ericans attribute t%e subordinate in'luence o' t%e "ress to t%is excessive
disse)ination6 and it is ado"ted as an axio) o' "olitical science in t%at country t%at t%e only *ay to neutrali-e
t%e e''ect o' "ublic 7ournals is to )ulti"ly t%e) inde'initely# I cannot conceive t%at a trut% *%ic% is so sel'1
evident s%ould not already %ave been )ore &enerally ad)itted in Euro"e6 it is co)"re%ensible t%at t%e "ersons
*%o %o"e to brin& about revolutions by )eans o' t%e "ress s%ould be desirous o' con'inin& its action to a 'e*
"o*er'ul or&ans+ but it is "er'ectly incredible t%at t%e "artisans o' t%e existin& state o' t%in&s+ and t%e natural
su""orters o' t%e la*+ s%ould atte)"t to di)inis% t%e in'luence o' t%e "ress by concentratin& its aut%ority# T%e
9overn)ents o' Euro"e see) to treat t%e "ress *it% t%e courtesy o' t%e ni&%ts o' old6 t%ey are anxious to
'urnis% it *it% t%e sa)e central "o*er *%ic% t%ey %ave 'ound to be so trusty a *ea"on+ in order to en%ance t%e
&lory o' t%eir resistance to its attacs#
In A)erica t%ere is scarcely a %a)let *%ic% %as not its o*n ne*s"a"er# It )ay readily be i)a&ined t%at neit%er
disci"line nor unity o' desi&n can be co))unicated to so )ulti'arious a %ost+ and eac% one is consequently led to
'i&%t under %is o*n standard# All t%e "olitical 7ournals o' t%e (nited !tates are indeed arrayed on t%e side o' t%e
ad)inistration or a&ainst it6 but t%ey attac and de'end in a t%ousand di''erent *ays# T%ey cannot succeed in
'or)in& t%ose &reat currents o' o"inion *%ic% over*%el) t%e )ost solid obstacles# T%is division o' t%e in'luence
o' t%e "ress "roduces a variety o' ot%er consequences *%ic% are scarcely less re)arable# T%e 'acility *it% *%ic%
7ournals can be establis%ed induces a )ultitude o' individuals to tae a "art in t%e)6 but as t%e extent o'
co)"etition "recludes t%e "ossibility o' considerable "ro'it+ t%e )ost distin&uis%ed classes o' society are rarely
led to en&a&e in t%ese undertain&s# But suc% is t%e nu)ber o' t%e "ublic "rints t%at+ even i' t%ey *ere a source
o' *ealt%+ *riters o' ability could not be 'ound to direct t%e) all# T%e 7ournalists o' t%e (nited !tates are usually
"laced in a very %u)ble "osition+ *it% a scanty education and a vul&ar turn o' )ind# T%e *ill o' t%e )a7ority is
t%e )ost &eneral o' la*s+ and it establis%es certain %abits *%ic% 'or) t%e c%aracteristics o' eac% "eculiar class o'
society6 t%us it dictates t%e etiquette "ractised at courts and t%e etiquette o' t%e bar# T%e c%aracteristics o' t%e
5renc% 7ournalist consist in a violent+ but 'requently an eloquent and lo'ty+ )anner o' discussin& t%e "olitics o'
t%e day6 and t%e exce"tions to t%is %abitual "ractice are only occasional# T%e c%aracteristics o' t%e A)erican
7ournalist consist in an o"en and coarse a""eal to t%e "assions o' t%e "o"ulace6 and %e %abitually abandons t%e
"rinci"les o' "olitical science to assail t%e c%aracters o' individuals+ to trac t%e) into "rivate li'e+ and disclose
all t%eir *eanesses and errors#
Not%in& can be )ore de"lorable t%an t%is abuse o' t%e "o*ers o' t%ou&%t6 I s%all %ave occasion to "oint out
%erea'ter t%e in'luence o' t%e ne*s"a"ers u"on t%e taste and t%e )orality o' t%e A)erican "eo"le+ but )y "resent
sub7ect exclusively concerns t%e "olitical *orld# It cannot be denied t%at t%e e''ects o' t%is extre)e license o' t%e
"ress tend indirectly to t%e )aintenance o' "ublic order# T%e individuals *%o are already in t%e "ossession o' a
%i&% station in t%e estee) o' t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens are a'raid to *rite in t%e ne*s"a"ers+ and t%ey are t%us
de"rived o' t%e )ost "o*er'ul instru)ent *%ic% t%ey can use to excite t%e "assions o' t%e )ultitude to t%eir o*n
advanta&e# Ka
35ootnote a@ T%ey only *rite in t%e "a"ers *%en t%ey c%oose to address t%e "eo"le in t%eir o*n na)e6 as+ 'or
instance+ *%en t%ey are called u"on to re"el calu)nious i)"utations+ and to correct a )isstate)ent o' 'acts#4
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T%e "ersonal o"inions o' t%e editors %ave no ind o' *ei&%t in t%e eyes o' t%e "ublic@ t%e only use o' a 7ournal is+
t%at it i)"arts t%e no*led&e o' certain 'acts+ and it is only by alterin& or distortin& t%ose 'acts t%at a 7ournalist
can contribute to t%e su""ort o' %is o*n vie*s#
But alt%ou&% t%e "ress is li)ited to t%ese resources+ its in'luence in A)erica is i))ense# It is t%e "o*er *%ic%
i)"els t%e circulation o' "olitical li'e t%rou&% all t%e districts o' t%at vast territory# Its eye is constantly o"en to
detect t%e secret s"rin&s o' "olitical desi&ns+ and to su))on t%e leaders o' all "arties to t%e bar o' "ublic o"inion#
It rallies t%e interests o' t%e co))unity round certain "rinci"les+ and it dra*s u" t%e creed *%ic% 'actions ado"t6
'or it a''ords a )eans o' intercourse bet*een "arties *%ic% %ear+ and *%ic% address eac% ot%er *it%out ever
%avin& been in i))ediate contact# ,%en a &reat nu)ber o' t%e or&ans o' t%e "ress ado"t t%e sa)e line o'
conduct+ t%eir in'luence beco)es irresistible6 and "ublic o"inion+ *%en it is "er"etually assailed 'ro) t%e sa)e
side+ eventually yields to t%e attac# In t%e (nited !tates eac% se"arate 7ournal exercises but little aut%ority+ but
t%e "o*er o' t%e "eriodical "ress is only second to t%at o' t%e "eo"le# Kb
35ootnote b@ !ee A""endix+ :#4
T%e o"inions establis%ed in t%e (nited !tates under t%e e)"ire o' t%e liberty o' t%e "ress are 'requently )ore
'ir)ly rooted t%an t%ose *%ic% are 'or)ed else*%ere under t%e sanction o' a censor#
In t%e (nited !tates t%e de)ocracy "er"etually raises 'res% individuals to t%e conduct o' "ublic a''airs6 and t%e
)easures o' t%e ad)inistration are consequently seldo) re&ulated by t%e strict rules o' consistency or o' order#
But t%e &eneral "rinci"les o' t%e 9overn)ent are )ore stable+ and t%e o"inions )ost "revalent in society are
&enerally )ore durable t%an in )any ot%er countries# ,%en once t%e A)ericans %ave taen u" an idea+ *%et%er
it be *ell or ill 'ounded+ not%in& is )ore di''icult t%an to eradicate it 'ro) t%eir )inds# T%e sa)e tenacity o'
o"inion %as been observed in En&land+ *%ere+ 'or t%e last century+ &reater 'reedo) o' conscience and )ore
invincible "re7udices %ave existed t%an in all t%e ot%er countries o' Euro"e# I attribute t%is consequence to a cause
*%ic% )ay at 'irst si&%t a""ear to %ave a very o""osite tendency+ na)ely+ to t%e liberty o' t%e "ress# T%e nations
a)on&st *%ic% t%is liberty exists are as a"t to clin& to t%eir o"inions 'ro) "ride as 'ro) conviction# T%ey c%eris%
t%e) because t%ey %old t%e) to be 7ust+ and because t%ey exercised t%eir o*n 'ree1*ill in c%oosin& t%e)6 and
t%ey )aintain t%e) not only because t%ey are true+ but because t%ey are t%eir o*n# !everal ot%er reasons conduce
to t%e sa)e end#
It *as re)ared by a )an o' &enius t%at 2i&norance lies at t%e t*o ends o' no*led&e#2 :er%a"s it *ould %ave
been )ore correct to %ave said+ t%at absolute convictions are to be )et *it% at t%e t*o extre)ities+ and t%at doubt
lies in t%e )iddle6 'or t%e %u)an intellect )ay be considered in t%ree distinct states+ *%ic% 'requently succeed
one anot%er# A )an believes i)"licitly+ because %e ado"ts a "ro"osition *it%out inquiry# He doubts as soon as %e
is assailed by t%e ob7ections *%ic% %is inquiries )ay %ave aroused# But %e 'requently succeeds in satis'yin& t%ese
doubts+ and t%en %e be&ins to believe a'res%@ %e no lon&er lays %old on a trut% in its )ost s%ado*y and uncertain
'or)+ but %e sees it clearly be'ore %i)+ and %e advances on*ards by t%e li&%t it &ives %i)# Kc
35ootnote c@ It )ay+ %o*ever+ be doubted *%et%er t%is rational and sel'1&uidin& conviction arouses as )uc%
'ervor or ent%usiastic devotedness in )en as t%eir 'irst do&)atical belie'#4
,%en t%e liberty o' t%e "ress acts u"on )en *%o are in t%e 'irst o' t%ese t%ree states+ it does not i))ediately
disturb t%eir %abit o' believin& i)"licitly *it%out investi&ation+ but it constantly )odi'ies t%e ob7ects o' t%eir
intuitive convictions# T%e %u)an )ind continues to discern but one "oint u"on t%e *%ole intellectual %ori-on+
and t%at "oint is in continual )otion# !uc% are t%e sy)"to)s o' sudden revolutions+ and o' t%e )is'ortunes *%ic%
are sure to be'all t%ose &enerations *%ic% abru"tly ado"t t%e unconditional 'reedo) o' t%e "ress#
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T%e circle o' novel ideas is+ %o*ever+ soon ter)inated6 t%e touc% o' ex"erience is u"on t%e)+ and t%e doubt and
)istrust *%ic% t%eir uncertainty "roduces beco)e universal# ,e )ay rest assured t%at t%e )a7ority o' )anind
*ill eit%er believe t%ey no* not *%ere'ore+ or *ill not no* *%at to believe# 5e* are t%e bein&s *%o can ever
%o"e to attain to t%at state o' rational and inde"endent conviction *%ic% true no*led&e can be&et in de'iance o'
t%e attacs o' doubt#
It %as been re)ared t%at in ti)es o' &reat reli&ious 'ervor )en so)eti)es c%an&e t%eir reli&ious o"inions6
*%ereas in ti)es o' &eneral sce"ticis) everyone clin&s to %is o*n "ersuasion# T%e sa)e t%in& taes "lace in
"olitics under t%e liberty o' t%e "ress# In countries *%ere all t%e t%eories o' social science %ave been contested in
t%eir turn+ t%e citi-ens *%o %ave ado"ted one o' t%e) stic to it+ not so )uc% because t%ey are assured o' its
excellence+ as because t%ey are not convinced o' t%e su"eriority o' any ot%er# In t%e "resent a&e )en are not very
ready to die in de'ence o' t%eir o"inions+ but t%ey are rarely inclined to c%an&e t%e)6 and t%ere are 'e*er )artyrs
as *ell as 'e*er a"ostates#
Anot%er still )ore valid reason )ay yet be adduced@ *%en no abstract o"inions are looed u"on as certain+ )en
clin& to t%e )ere "ro"ensities and external interests o' t%eir "osition+ *%ic% are naturally )ore tan&ible and )ore
"er)anent t%an any o"inions in t%e *orld#
It is not a question o' easy solution *%et%er aristocracy or de)ocracy is )ost 'it to &overn a country# But it is
certain t%at de)ocracy annoys one "art o' t%e co))unity+ and t%at aristocracy o""resses anot%er "art# ,%en t%e
question is reduced to t%e si)"le ex"ression o' t%e stru&&le bet*een "overty and *ealt%+ t%e tendency o' eac%
side o' t%e dis"ute beco)es "er'ectly evident *it%out 'urt%er controversy#
Chapter XII
@ :olitical Associations In T%e (nited !tates
Chapter Summary
Daily use *%ic% t%e An&lo1A)ericans )ae o' t%e ri&%t o' association11T%ree inds o' "olitical associations11In
*%at )anner t%e A)ericans a""ly t%e re"resentative syste) to associations11Dan&ers resultin& to t%e !tate11
9reat Convention o' ./0. relative to t%e Tari''118e&islative c%aracter o' t%is Convention11,%y t%e unli)ited
exercise o' t%e ri&%t o' association is less dan&erous in t%e (nited !tates t%an else*%ere11,%y it )ay be looed
u"on as necessary11(tility o' associations in a de)ocratic "eo"le#
:olitical Associations In T%e (nited !tates
In no country in t%e *orld %as t%e "rinci"le o' association been )ore success'ully used+ or )ore uns"arin&ly
a""lied to a )ultitude o' di''erent ob7ects+ t%an in A)erica# Besides t%e "er)anent associations *%ic% are
establis%ed by la* under t%e na)es o' to*ns%i"s+ cities+ and counties+ a vast nu)ber o' ot%ers are 'or)ed and
)aintained by t%e a&ency o' "rivate individuals#
T%e citi-en o' t%e (nited !tates is tau&%t 'ro) %is earliest in'ancy to rely u"on %is o*n exertions in order to
resist t%e evils and t%e di''iculties o' li'e6 %e loos u"on social aut%ority *it% an eye o' )istrust and anxiety+ and
%e only clai)s its assistance *%en %e is quite unable to s%i't *it%out it# T%is %abit )ay even be traced in t%e
sc%ools o' t%e risin& &eneration+ *%ere t%e c%ildren in t%eir &a)es are *ont to sub)it to rules *%ic% t%ey %ave
t%e)selves establis%ed+ and to "unis% )isde)eanors *%ic% t%ey %ave t%e)selves de'ined# T%e sa)e s"irit
"ervades every act o' social li'e# I' a sto""a&e occurs in a t%orou&%'are+ and t%e circulation o' t%e "ublic is
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%indered+ t%e nei&%bors i))ediately constitute a deliberative body6 and t%is exte)"oraneous asse)bly &ives rise
to an executive "o*er *%ic% re)edies t%e inconvenience be'ore anybody %as t%ou&%t o' recurrin& to an aut%ority
su"erior to t%at o' t%e "ersons i))ediately concerned# I' t%e "ublic "leasures are concerned+ an association is
'or)ed to "rovide 'or t%e s"lendor and t%e re&ularity o' t%e entertain)ent# !ocieties are 'or)ed to resist ene)ies
*%ic% are exclusively o' a )oral nature+ and to di)inis% t%e vice o' inte)"erance@ in t%e (nited !tates
associations are establis%ed to "ro)ote "ublic order+ co))erce+ industry+ )orality+ and reli&ion6 'or t%ere is no
end *%ic% t%e %u)an *ill+ seconded by t%e collective exertions o' individuals+ des"airs o' attainin&#
I s%all %erea'ter %ave occasion to s%o* t%e e''ects o' association u"on t%e course o' society+ and I )ust con'ine
)ysel' 'or t%e "resent to t%e "olitical *orld# ,%en once t%e ri&%t o' association is reco&ni-ed+ t%e citi-ens )ay
e)"loy it in several di''erent *ays#
An association consists si)"ly in t%e "ublic assent *%ic% a nu)ber o' individuals &ive to certain doctrines+ and
in t%e en&a&e)ent *%ic% t%ey contract to "ro)ote t%e s"read o' t%ose doctrines by t%eir exertions# T%e ri&%t o'
association *it% t%ese vie*s is very analo&ous to t%e liberty o' unlicensed *ritin&6 but societies t%us 'or)ed
"ossess )ore aut%ority t%an t%e "ress# ,%en an o"inion is re"resented by a society+ it necessarily assu)es a
)ore exact and ex"licit 'or)# It nu)bers its "artisans+ and co)"ro)ises t%eir *el'are in its cause@ t%ey+ on t%e
ot%er %and+ beco)e acquainted *it% eac% ot%er+ and t%eir -eal is increased by t%eir nu)ber# An association unites
t%e e''orts o' )inds *%ic% %ave a tendency to diver&e in one sin&le c%annel+ and ur&es t%e) vi&orously to*ards
one sin&le end *%ic% it "oints out#
T%e second de&ree in t%e ri&%t o' association is t%e "o*er o' )eetin&# ,%en an association is allo*ed to
establis% centres o' action at certain i)"ortant "oints in t%e country+ its activity is increased and its in'luence
extended# Men %ave t%e o""ortunity o' seein& eac% ot%er6 )eans o' execution are )ore readily co)bined+ and
o"inions are )aintained *it% a de&ree o' *ar)t% and ener&y *%ic% *ritten lan&ua&e cannot a""roac%#
8astly+ in t%e exercise o' t%e ri&%t o' "olitical association+ t%ere is a t%ird de&ree@ t%e "artisans o' an o"inion )ay
unite in electoral bodies+ and c%oose dele&ates to re"resent t%e) in a central asse)bly# T%is is+ "ro"erly
s"eain&+ t%e a""lication o' t%e re"resentative syste) to a "arty#
T%us+ in t%e 'irst instance+ a society is 'or)ed bet*een individuals "ro'essin& t%e sa)e o"inion+ and t%e tie *%ic%
ee"s it to&et%er is o' a "urely intellectual nature6 in t%e second case+ s)all asse)blies are 'or)ed *%ic% only
re"resent a 'raction o' t%e "arty# 8astly+ in t%e t%ird case+ t%ey constitute a se"arate nation in t%e )idst o' t%e
nation+ a &overn)ent *it%in t%e 9overn)ent# T%eir dele&ates+ lie t%e real dele&ates o' t%e )a7ority+ re"resent
t%e entire collective 'orce o' t%eir "arty6 and t%ey en7oy a certain de&ree o' t%at national di&nity and &reat
in'luence *%ic% belon& to t%e c%osen re"resentatives o' t%e "eo"le# It is true t%at t%ey %ave not t%e ri&%t o'
)ain& t%e la*s+ but t%ey %ave t%e "o*er o' attacin& t%ose *%ic% are in bein&+ and o' dra*in& u" be'ore%and
t%ose *%ic% t%ey )ay a'ter*ards cause to be ado"ted#
I'+ in a "eo"le *%ic% is i)"er'ectly accusto)ed to t%e exercise o' 'reedo)+ or *%ic% is ex"osed to violent
"olitical "assions+ a deliberatin& )inority+ *%ic% con'ines itsel' to t%e conte)"lation o' 'uture la*s+ be "laced in
7uxta"osition to t%e le&islative )a7ority+ I cannot but believe t%at "ublic tranquillity incurs very &reat riss in t%at
nation# T%ere is doubtless a very *ide di''erence bet*een "rovin& t%at one la* is in itsel' better t%an anot%er and
"rovin& t%at t%e 'or)er ou&%t to be substituted 'or t%e latter# But t%e i)a&ination o' t%e "o"ulace is very a"t to
overloo t%is di''erence+ *%ic% is so a""arent to t%e )inds o' t%inin& )en# It so)eti)es %a""ens t%at a nation is
divided into t*o nearly equal "arties+ eac% o' *%ic% a''ects to re"resent t%e )a7ority# I'+ in i))ediate conti&uity
to t%e directin& "o*er+ anot%er "o*er be establis%ed+ *%ic% exercises al)ost as )uc% )oral aut%ority as t%e
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'or)er+ it is not to be believed t%at it *ill lon& be content to s"ea *it%out actin&6 or t%at it *ill al*ays be
restrained by t%e abstract consideration o' t%e nature o' associations *%ic% are )eant to direct but not to en'orce
o"inions+ to su&&est but not to )ae t%e la*s#
T%e )ore *e consider t%e inde"endence o' t%e "ress in its "rinci"al consequences+ t%e )ore are *e convinced
t%at it is t%e c%ie' and+ so to s"ea+ t%e constitutive ele)ent o' 'reedo) in t%e )odern *orld# A nation *%ic% is
deter)ined to re)ain 'ree is t%ere'ore ri&%t in de)andin& t%e unrestrained exercise o' t%is inde"endence# But t%e
unrestrained liberty o' "olitical association cannot be entirely assi)ilated to t%e liberty o' t%e "ress# T%e one is at
t%e sa)e ti)e less necessary and )ore dan&erous t%an t%e ot%er# A nation )ay con'ine it *it%in certain li)its
*it%out 'or'eitin& any "art o' its sel'1control6 and it )ay so)eti)es be obli&ed to do so in order to )aintain its
o*n aut%ority#
In A)erica t%e liberty o' association 'or "olitical "ur"oses is unbounded# An exa)"le *ill s%o* in t%e clearest
li&%t to *%at an extent t%is "rivile&e is tolerated#
T%e question o' t%e tari''+ or o' 'ree trade+ "roduced a &reat )ani'estation o' "arty 'eelin& in A)erica6 t%e tari''
*as not only a sub7ect o' debate as a )atter o' o"inion+ but it exercised a 'avorable or a "re7udicial in'luence
u"on several very "o*er'ul interests o' t%e !tates# T%e Nort% attributed a &reat "ortion o' its "ros"erity+ and t%e
!out% all its su''erin&s+ to t%is syste)6 inso)uc% t%at 'or a lon& ti)e t%e tari'' *as t%e sole source o' t%e "olitical
ani)osities *%ic% a&itated t%e (nion#
In ./0.+ *%en t%e dis"ute *as ra&in& *it% t%e ut)ost virulence+ a "rivate citi-en o' Massac%usetts "ro"osed to
all t%e ene)ies o' t%e tari''+ by )eans o' t%e "ublic "rints+ to send dele&ates to :%iladel"%ia in order to consult
to&et%er u"on t%e )eans *%ic% *ere )ost 'itted to "ro)ote 'reedo) o' trade# T%is "ro"osal circulated in a 'e*
days 'ro) Maine to Ne* Orleans by t%e "o*er o' t%e "rintin&1"ress@ t%e o""onents o' t%e tari'' ado"ted it *it%
ent%usias)6 )eetin&s *ere 'or)ed on all sides+ and dele&ates *ere na)ed# T%e )a7ority o' t%ese individuals
*ere *ell no*n+ and so)e o' t%e) %ad earned a considerable de&ree o' celebrity# !out% Carolina alone+ *%ic%
a'ter*ards too u" ar)s in t%e sa)e cause+ sent sixty1t%ree dele&ates# On October .+ ./0.+ t%is asse)bly+ *%ic%
accordin& to t%e A)erican custo) %ad taen t%e na)e o' a Convention+ )et at :%iladel"%ia6 it consisted o' )ore
t%an t*o %undred )e)bers# Its debates *ere "ublic+ and t%ey at once assu)ed a le&islative c%aracter6 t%e extent
o' t%e "o*ers o' Con&ress+ t%e t%eories o' 'ree trade+ and t%e di''erent clauses o' t%e tari''+ *ere discussed in
turn# At t%e end o' ten daysF deliberation t%e Convention broe u"+ a'ter %avin& "ublis%ed an address to t%e
A)erican "eo"le+ in *%ic% it declared@
I# T%at Con&ress %ad not t%e ri&%t o' )ain& a tari''+ and t%at t%e existin& tari'' *as unconstitutional6
II# T%at t%e "ro%ibition o' 'ree trade *as "re7udicial to t%e interests o' all nations+ and to t%at o' t%e A)erican
"eo"le in "articular#
It )ust be acno*led&ed t%at t%e unrestrained liberty o' "olitical association %as not %it%erto "roduced+ in t%e
(nited !tates+ t%ose 'atal consequences *%ic% )i&%t "er%a"s be ex"ected 'ro) it else*%ere# T%e ri&%t o'
association *as i)"orted 'ro) En&land+ and it %as al*ays existed in A)erica6 so t%at t%e exercise o' t%is
"rivile&e is no* a)al&a)ated *it% t%e )anners and custo)s o' t%e "eo"le# At t%e "resent ti)e t%e liberty o'
association is beco)e a necessary &uarantee a&ainst t%e tyranny o' t%e )a7ority# In t%e (nited !tates+ as soon as a
"arty is beco)e "re"onderant+ all "ublic aut%ority "asses under its control6 its "rivate su""orters occu"y all t%e
"laces+ and %ave all t%e 'orce o' t%e ad)inistration at t%eir dis"osal# As t%e )ost distin&uis%ed "artisans o' t%e
ot%er side o' t%e question are unable to sur)ount t%e obstacles *%ic% exclude t%e) 'ro) "o*er+ t%ey require
so)e )eans o' establis%in& t%e)selves u"on t%eir o*n basis+ and o' o""osin& t%e )oral aut%ority o' t%e )inority
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to t%e "%ysical "o*er *%ic% do)ineers over it# T%us a dan&erous ex"edient is used to obviate a still )ore
'or)idable dan&er#
T%e o)ni"otence o' t%e )a7ority a""ears to )e to "resent suc% extre)e "erils to t%e A)erican Re"ublics t%at t%e
dan&erous )easure *%ic% is used to re"ress it see)s to be )ore advanta&eous t%an "re7udicial# And %ere I a)
about to advance a "ro"osition *%ic% )ay re)ind t%e reader o' *%at I said be'ore in s"eain& o' )unici"al
'reedo)@ T%ere are no countries in *%ic% associations are )ore needed+ to "revent t%e des"otis) o' 'action or
t%e arbitrary "o*er o' a "rince+ t%an t%ose *%ic% are de)ocratically constituted# In aristocratic nations t%e body
o' t%e nobles and t%e )ore o"ulent "art o' t%e co))unity are in t%e)selves natural associations+ *%ic% act as
c%ecs u"on t%e abuses o' "o*er# In countries in *%ic% t%ese associations do not exist+ i' "rivate individuals are
unable to create an arti'icial and a te)"orary substitute 'or t%e)+ I can i)a&ine no "er)anent "rotection a&ainst
t%e )ost &allin& tyranny6 and a &reat "eo"le )ay be o""ressed by a s)all 'action+ or by a sin&le individual+ *it%
i)"unity#
T%e )eetin& o' a &reat "olitical Convention >'or t%ere are Conventions o' all inds?+ *%ic% )ay 'requently
beco)e a necessary )easure+ is al*ays a serious occurrence+ even in A)erica+ and one *%ic% is never looed
'or*ard to+ by t%e 7udicious 'riends o' t%e country+ *it%out alar)# T%is *as very "erce"tible in t%e Convention o'
./0.+ at *%ic% t%e exertions o' all t%e )ost distin&uis%ed )e)bers o' t%e Asse)bly tended to )oderate its
lan&ua&e+ and to restrain t%e sub7ects *%ic% it treated *it%in certain li)its# It is "robable+ in 'act+ t%at t%e
Convention o' ./0. exercised a very &reat in'luence u"on t%e )inds o' t%e )alcontents+ and "re"ared t%e) 'or
t%e o"en revolt a&ainst t%e co))ercial la*s o' t%e (nion *%ic% too "lace in ./0A#
It cannot be denied t%at t%e unrestrained liberty o' association 'or "olitical "ur"oses is t%e "rivile&e *%ic% a
"eo"le is lon&est in learnin& %o* to exercise# I' it does not t%ro* t%e nation into anarc%y+ it "er"etually au&)ents
t%e c%ances o' t%at cala)ity# On one "oint+ %o*ever+ t%is "erilous liberty o''ers a security a&ainst dan&ers o'
anot%er ind6 in countries *%ere associations are 'ree+ secret societies are unno*n# In A)erica t%ere are
nu)erous 'actions+ but no cons"iracies#
Di''erent *ays in *%ic% t%e ri&%t o' association is understood in Euro"e and in t%e (nited !tates11Di''erent use
*%ic% is )ade o' it#
T%e )ost natural "rivile&e o' )an+ next to t%e ri&%t o' actin& 'or %i)sel'+ is t%at o' co)binin& %is exertions *it%
t%ose o' %is 'ello*1creatures+ and o' actin& in co))on *it% t%e)# I a) t%ere'ore led to conclude t%at t%e ri&%t o'
association is al)ost as inalienable as t%e ri&%t o' "ersonal liberty# No le&islator can attac it *it%out i)"airin&
t%e very 'oundations o' society# Nevert%eless+ i' t%e liberty o' association is a 'ruit'ul source o' advanta&es and
"ros"erity to so)e nations+ it )ay be "erverted or carried to excess by ot%ers+ and t%e ele)ent o' li'e )ay be
c%an&ed into an ele)ent o' destruction# A co)"arison o' t%e di''erent )et%ods *%ic% associations "ursue in
t%ose countries in *%ic% t%ey are )ana&ed *it% discretion+ as *ell as in t%ose *%ere liberty de&enerates into
license+ )ay "er%a"s be t%ou&%t use'ul bot% to &overn)ents and to "arties#
T%e &reater "art o' Euro"eans loo u"on an association as a *ea"on *%ic% is to be %astily 'as%ioned+ and
i))ediately tried in t%e con'lict# A society is 'or)ed 'or discussion+ but t%e idea o' i)"endin& action "revails in
t%e )inds o' t%ose *%o constitute it@ it is+ in 'act+ an ar)y6 and t%e ti)e &iven to "arley serves to recon u" t%e
stren&t% and to ani)ate t%e coura&e o' t%e %ost+ a'ter *%ic% t%ey direct t%eir )arc% a&ainst t%e ene)y# Resources
*%ic% lie *it%in t%e bounds o' t%e la* )ay su&&est t%e)selves to t%e "ersons *%o co)"ose it as )eans+ but
never as t%e only )eans+ o' success#
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!uc%+ %o*ever+ is not t%e )anner in *%ic% t%e ri&%t o' association is understood in t%e (nited !tates# In A)erica
t%e citi-ens *%o 'or) t%e )inority associate+ in order+ in t%e 'irst "lace+ to s%o* t%eir nu)erical stren&t%+ and so
to di)inis% t%e )oral aut%ority o' t%e )a7ority6 and+ in t%e second "lace+ to sti)ulate co)"etition+ and to
discover t%ose ar&u)ents *%ic% are )ost 'itted to act u"on t%e )a7ority6 'or t%ey al*ays entertain %o"es o'
dra*in& over t%eir o""onents to t%eir o*n side+ and o' a'ter*ards dis"osin& o' t%e su"re)e "o*er in t%eir na)e#
:olitical associations in t%e (nited !tates are t%ere'ore "eaceable in t%eir intentions+ and strictly le&al in t%e
)eans *%ic% t%ey e)"loy6 and t%ey assert *it% "er'ect trut% t%at t%ey only ai) at success by la*'ul ex"edients#
T%e di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een t%e A)ericans and ourselves de"ends on several causes# In Euro"e t%ere are
nu)erous "arties so dia)etrically o""osed to t%e )a7ority t%at t%ey can never %o"e to acquire its su""ort+ and at
t%e sa)e ti)e t%ey t%in t%at t%ey are su''iciently stron& in t%e)selves to stru&&le and to de'end t%eir cause#
,%en a "arty o' t%is ind 'or)s an association+ its ob7ect is+ not to conquer+ but to 'i&%t# In A)erica t%e
individuals *%o %old o"inions very )uc% o""osed to t%ose o' t%e )a7ority are no sort o' i)"edi)ent to its
"o*er+ and all ot%er "arties %o"e to *in it over to t%eir o*n "rinci"les in t%e end# T%e exercise o' t%e ri&%t o'
association beco)es dan&erous in "ro"ortion to t%e i)"ossibility *%ic% excludes &reat "arties 'ro) acquirin& t%e
)a7ority# In a country lie t%e (nited !tates+ in *%ic% t%e di''erences o' o"inion are )ere di''erences o' %ue+ t%e
ri&%t o' association )ay re)ain unrestrained *it%out evil consequences# T%e inex"erience o' )any o' t%e
Euro"ean nations in t%e en7oy)ent o' liberty leads t%e) only to loo u"on t%e liberty o' association as a ri&%t o'
attacin& t%e 9overn)ent# T%e 'irst notion *%ic% "resents itsel' to a "arty+ as *ell as to an individual+ *%en it
%as acquired a consciousness o' its o*n stren&t%+ is t%at o' violence@ t%e notion o' "ersuasion arises at a later
"eriod and is only derived 'ro) ex"erience# T%e En&lis%+ *%o are divided into "arties *%ic% di''er )ost
essentially 'ro) eac% ot%er+ rarely abuse t%e ri&%t o' association+ because t%ey %ave lon& been accusto)ed to
exercise it# In 5rance t%e "assion 'or *ar is so intense t%at t%ere is no undertain& so )ad+ or so in7urious to t%e
*el'are o' t%e !tate+ t%at a )an does not consider %i)sel' %onored in de'endin& it+ at t%e ris o' %is li'e#
But "er%a"s t%e )ost "o*er'ul o' t%e causes *%ic% tend to )iti&ate t%e excesses o' "olitical association in t%e
(nited !tates is (niversal !u''ra&e# In countries in *%ic% universal su''ra&e exists t%e )a7ority is never
doubt'ul+ because neit%er "arty can "retend to re"resent t%at "ortion o' t%e co))unity *%ic% %as not voted# T%e
associations *%ic% are 'or)ed are a*are+ as *ell as t%e nation at lar&e+ t%at t%ey do not re"resent t%e )a7ority@
t%is is+ indeed+ a condition inse"arable 'ro) t%eir existence6 'or i' t%ey did re"resent t%e "re"onderatin& "o*er+
t%ey *ould c%an&e t%e la* instead o' solicitin& its re'or)# T%e consequence o' t%is is t%at t%e )oral in'luence o'
t%e 9overn)ent *%ic% t%ey attac is very )uc% increased+ and t%eir o*n "o*er is very )uc% en'eebled#
In Euro"e t%ere are 'e* associations *%ic% do not a''ect to re"resent t%e )a7ority+ or *%ic% do not believe t%at
t%ey re"resent it# T%is conviction or t%is "retension tends to au&)ent t%eir 'orce a)a-in&ly+ and contributes no
less to le&ali-e t%eir )easures# Diolence )ay see) to be excusable in de'ence o' t%e cause o' o""ressed ri&%t#
T%us it is+ in t%e vast labyrint% o' %u)an la*s+ t%at extre)e liberty so)eti)es corrects t%e abuses o' license+ and
t%at extre)e de)ocracy obviates t%e dan&ers o' de)ocratic &overn)ent# In Euro"e+ associations consider
t%e)selves+ in so)e de&ree+ as t%e le&islative and executive councils o' t%e "eo"le+ *%ic% is unable to s"ea 'or
itsel'# In A)erica+ *%ere t%ey only re"resent a )inority o' t%e nation+ t%ey ar&ue and t%ey "etition#
T%e )eans *%ic% t%e associations o' Euro"e e)"loy are in accordance *it% t%e end *%ic% t%ey "ro"ose to
obtain# As t%e "rinci"al ai) o' t%ese bodies is to act+ and not to debate+ to 'i&%t rat%er t%an to "ersuade+ t%ey are
naturally led to ado"t a 'or) o' or&ani-ation *%ic% di''ers 'ro) t%e ordinary custo)s o' civil bodies+ and *%ic%
assu)es t%e %abits and t%e )axi)s o' )ilitary li'e# T%ey centrali-e t%e direction o' t%eir resources as )uc% as
"ossible+ and t%ey intrust t%e "o*er o' t%e *%ole "arty to a very s)all nu)ber o' leaders#
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T%e )e)bers o' t%ese associations res"ond to a *atc%*ord+ lie soldiers on duty6 t%ey "ro'ess t%e doctrine o'
"assive obedience6 say rat%er+ t%at in unitin& to&et%er t%ey at once ab7ure t%e exercise o' t%eir o*n 7ud&)ent and
'ree *ill6 and t%e tyrannical control *%ic% t%ese societies exercise is o'ten 'ar )ore insu""ortable t%an t%e
aut%ority "ossessed over society by t%e 9overn)ent *%ic% t%ey attac# T%eir )oral 'orce is )uc% di)inis%ed by
t%ese excesses+ and t%ey lose t%e "o*er'ul interest *%ic% is al*ays excited by a stru&&le bet*een o""ressors and
t%e o""ressed# T%e )an *%o in &iven cases consents to obey %is 'ello*s *it% servility+ and *%o sub)its %is
activity and even %is o"inions to t%eir control+ can %ave no clai) to ran as a 'ree citi-en#
T%e A)ericans %ave also establis%ed certain 'or)s o' &overn)ent *%ic% are a""lied to t%eir associations+ but
t%ese are invariably borro*ed 'ro) t%e 'or)s o' t%e civil ad)inistration# T%e inde"endence o' eac% individual is
'or)ally reco&ni-ed6 t%e tendency o' t%e )e)bers o' t%e association "oints+ as it does in t%e body o' t%e
co))unity+ to*ards t%e sa)e end+ but t%ey are not obli&ed to 'ollo* t%e sa)e trac# No one ab7ures t%e exercise
o' %is reason and %is 'ree *ill6 but every one exerts t%at reason and t%at *ill 'or t%e bene'it o' a co))on
undertain&#
Chapter XIII
@ 9overn)ent O' T%e De)ocracy In A)erica11:art I
I a) *ell a*are o' t%e di''iculties *%ic% attend t%is "art o' )y sub7ect+ but alt%ou&% every ex"ression *%ic% I a)
about to )ae use o' )ay clas%+ u"on so)e one "oint+ *it% t%e 'eelin&s o' t%e di''erent "arties *%ic% divide )y
country+ I s%all s"ea )y o"inion *it% t%e )ost "er'ect o"enness#
In Euro"e *e are at a loss %o* to 7ud&e t%e true c%aracter and t%e )ore "er)anent "ro"ensities o' de)ocracy+
because in Euro"e t*o con'lictin& "rinci"les exist+ and *e do not no* *%at to attribute to t%e "rinci"les
t%e)selves+ and *%at to re'er to t%e "assions *%ic% t%ey brin& into collision# !uc%+ %o*ever+ is not t%e case in
A)erica6 t%ere t%e "eo"le rei&ns *it%out any obstacle+ and it %as no "erils to dread and no in7uries to aven&e# In
A)erica+ de)ocracy is s*ayed by its o*n 'ree "ro"ensities6 its course is natural and its activity is unrestrained6
t%e (nited !tates consequently a''ord t%e )ost 'avorable o""ortunity o' studyin& its real c%aracter# And to no
"eo"le can t%is inquiry be )ore vitally interestin& t%an to t%e 5renc% nation+ *%ic% is blindly driven on*ards by
a daily and irresistible i)"ulse to*ards a state o' t%in&s *%ic% )ay "rove eit%er des"otic or re"ublican+ but
*%ic% *ill assuredly be de)ocratic#
(niversal !u''ra&e
I %ave already observed t%at universal su''ra&e %as been ado"ted in all t%e !tates o' t%e (nion6 it consequently
occurs a)on&st di''erent "o"ulations *%ic% occu"y very di''erent "ositions in t%e scale o' society# I %ave %ad
o""ortunities o' observin& its e''ects in di''erent localities+ and a)on&st races o' )en *%o are nearly stran&ers to
eac% ot%er by t%eir lan&ua&e+ t%eir reli&ion+ and t%eir )anner o' li'e6 in 8ouisiana as *ell as in Ne* En&land+ in
9eor&ia and in Canada# I %ave re)ared t%at (niversal !u''ra&e is 'ar 'ro) "roducin& in A)erica eit%er all t%e
&ood or all t%e evil consequences *%ic% are assi&ned to it in Euro"e+ and t%at its e''ects di''er very *idely 'ro)
t%ose *%ic% are usually attributed to it#
C%oice O' T%e :eo"le+ And Instinctive :re'erences O' T%e A)erican De)ocracy
In t%e (nited !tates t%e )ost able )en are rarely "laced at t%e %ead o' a''airs11Reason o' t%is "eculiarity11T%e
envy *%ic% "revails in t%e lo*er orders o' 5rance a&ainst t%e %i&%er classes is not a 5renc%+ but a "urely
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de)ocratic senti)ent115or *%at reason t%e )ost distin&uis%ed )en in A)erica 'requently seclude t%e)selves
'ro) "ublic a''airs#
Many "eo"le in Euro"e are a"t to believe *it%out sayin& it+ or to say *it%out believin& it+ t%at one o' t%e &reat
advanta&es o' universal su''ra&e is+ t%at it entrusts t%e direction o' "ublic a''airs to )en *%o are *ort%y o' t%e
"ublic con'idence# T%ey ad)it t%at t%e "eo"le is unable to &overn 'or itsel'+ but t%ey aver t%at it is al*ays
sincerely dis"osed to "ro)ote t%e *el'are o' t%e !tate+ and t%at it instinctively desi&nates t%ose "ersons *%o are
ani)ated by t%e sa)e &ood *is%es+ and *%o are t%e )ost 'it to *ield t%e su"re)e aut%ority# I con'ess t%at t%e
observations I )ade in A)erica by no )eans coincide *it% t%ese o"inions# On )y arrival in t%e (nited !tates I
*as sur"rised to 'ind so )uc% distin&uis%ed talent a)on& t%e sub7ects+ and so little a)on& t%e %eads o' t%e
9overn)ent# It is a *ell1aut%enticated 'act+ t%at at t%e "resent day t%e )ost able )en in t%e (nited !tates are
very rarely "laced at t%e %ead o' a''airs6 and it )ust be acno*led&ed t%at suc% %as been t%e result in "ro"ortion
as de)ocracy %as outste""ed all its 'or)er li)its# T%e race o' A)erican states)en %as evidently d*indled )ost
re)arably in t%e course o' t%e last 'i'ty years#
!everal causes )ay be assi&ned to t%is "%eno)enon# It is i)"ossible+ not*it%standin& t%e )ost strenuous
exertions+ to raise t%e intelli&ence o' t%e "eo"le above a certain level# ,%atever )ay be t%e 'acilities o' acquirin&
in'or)ation+ *%atever )ay be t%e "ro'usion o' easy )et%ods and o' c%ea" science+ t%e %u)an )ind can never be
instructed and educated *it%out devotin& a considerable s"ace o' ti)e to t%ose ob7ects#
T%e &reater or t%e lesser "ossibility o' subsistin& *it%out labor is t%ere'ore t%e necessary boundary o' intellectual
i)"rove)ent# T%is boundary is )ore re)ote in so)e countries and )ore restricted in ot%ers6 but it )ust exist
so)e*%ere as lon& as t%e "eo"le is constrained to *or in order to "rocure t%e )eans o' "%ysical subsistence+
t%at is to say+ as lon& as it retains its "o"ular c%aracter# It is t%ere'ore quite as di''icult to i)a&ine a !tate in
*%ic% all t%e citi-ens s%ould be very *ell in'or)ed as a !tate in *%ic% t%ey s%ould all be *ealt%y6 t%ese t*o
di''iculties )ay be looed u"on as correlative# It )ay very readily be ad)itted t%at t%e )ass o' t%e citi-ens are
sincerely dis"osed to "ro)ote t%e *el'are o' t%eir country6 nay )ore+ it )ay even be allo*ed t%at t%e lo*er
classes are less a"t to be s*ayed by considerations o' "ersonal interest t%an t%e %i&%er orders@ but it is al*ays
)ore or less i)"ossible 'or t%e) to discern t%e best )eans o' attainin& t%e end *%ic% t%ey desire *it% sincerity#
8on& and "atient observation+ 7oined to a )ultitude o' di''erent notions+ is required to 'or) a 7ust esti)ate o' t%e
c%aracter o' a sin&le individual6 and can it be su""osed t%at t%e vul&ar %ave t%e "o*er o' succeedin& in an
inquiry *%ic% )isleads t%e "enetration o' &enius itsel'I T%e "eo"le %as neit%er t%e ti)e nor t%e )eans *%ic% are
essential to t%e "rosecution o' an investi&ation o' t%is ind@ its conclusions are %astily 'or)ed 'ro) a su"er'icial
ins"ection o' t%e )ore "ro)inent 'eatures o' a question# Hence it o'ten assents to t%e cla)or o' a )ounteban
*%o no*s t%e secret o' sti)ulatin& its tastes+ *%ile its truest 'riends 'requently 'ail in t%eir exertions#
Moreover+ t%e de)ocracy is not only de'icient in t%at soundness o' 7ud&)ent *%ic% is necessary to select )en
really deservin& o' its con'idence+ but it %as neit%er t%e desire nor t%e inclination to 'ind t%e) out# It cannot be
denied t%at de)ocratic institutions %ave a very stron& tendency to "ro)ote t%e 'eelin& o' envy in t%e %u)an
%eart6 not so )uc% because t%ey a''ord to every one t%e )eans o' risin& to t%e level o' any o' %is 'ello*1citi-ens+
as because t%ose )eans "er"etually disa""oint t%e "ersons *%o e)"loy t%e)# De)ocratic institutions a*aen
and 'oster a "assion 'or equality *%ic% t%ey can never entirely satis'y# T%is co)"lete equality eludes t%e &ras" o'
t%e "eo"le at t%e very )o)ent at *%ic% it t%ins to %old it 'ast+ and 2'lies+2 as :ascal says+ 2*it% eternal 'li&%t26
t%e "eo"le is excited in t%e "ursuit o' an advanta&e+ *%ic% is )ore "recious because it is not su''iciently re)ote
to be unno*n+ or su''iciently near to be en7oyed# T%e lo*er orders are a&itated by t%e c%ance o' success+ t%ey
are irritated by its uncertainty6 and t%ey "ass 'ro) t%e ent%usias) o' "ursuit to t%e ex%austion o' ill1success+ and
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lastly to t%e acri)ony o' disa""oint)ent# ,%atever transcends t%eir o*n li)its a""ears to be an obstacle to t%eir
desires+ and t%ere is no ind o' su"eriority+ %o*ever le&iti)ate it )ay be+ *%ic% is not irso)e in t%eir si&%t#
It %as been su""osed t%at t%e secret instinct *%ic% leads t%e lo*er orders to re)ove t%eir su"eriors as )uc% as
"ossible 'ro) t%e direction o' "ublic a''airs is "eculiar to 5rance# T%is+ %o*ever+ is an error6 t%e "ro"ensity to
*%ic% I allude is not in%erent in any "articular nation+ but in de)ocratic institutions in &eneral6 and alt%ou&% it
)ay %ave been %ei&%tened by "eculiar "olitical circu)stances+ it o*es its ori&in to a %i&%er cause#
In t%e (nited !tates t%e "eo"le is not dis"osed to %ate t%e su"erior classes o' society6 but it is not very 'avorably
inclined to*ards t%e)+ and it care'ully excludes t%e) 'ro) t%e exercise o' aut%ority# It does not entertain any
dread o' distin&uis%ed talents+ but it is rarely ca"tivated by t%e)6 and it a*ards its a""robation very s"arin&ly to
suc% as %ave risen *it%out t%e "o"ular su""ort#
,%ilst t%e natural "ro"ensities o' de)ocracy induce t%e "eo"le to re7ect t%e )ost distin&uis%ed citi-ens as its
rulers+ t%ese individuals are no less a"t to retire 'ro) a "olitical career in *%ic% it is al)ost i)"ossible to retain
t%eir inde"endence+ or to advance *it%out de&radin& t%e)selves# T%is o"inion %as been very candidly set 'ort%
by C%ancellor Lent+ *%o says+ in s"eain& *it% &reat eulo&iu)s o' t%at "art o' t%e Constitution *%ic% e)"o*ers
t%e Executive to no)inate t%e 7ud&es@ 2It is indeed "robable t%at t%e )en *%o are best 'itted to disc%ar&e t%e
duties o' t%is %i&% o''ice *ould %ave too )uc% reserve in t%eir )anners+ and too )uc% austerity in t%eir
"rinci"les+ 'or t%e) to be returned by t%e )a7ority at an election *%ere universal su''ra&e is ado"ted#2 !uc% *ere
t%e o"inions *%ic% *ere "rinted *it%out contradiction in A)erica in t%e year ./0<E
I %old it to be su''iciently de)onstrated t%at universal su''ra&e is by no )eans a &uarantee o' t%e *isdo) o' t%e
"o"ular c%oice+ and t%at+ *%atever its advanta&es )ay be+ t%is is not one o' t%e)#
Causes ,%ic% May :artly Correct T%ese Tendencies O' T%e De)ocracy Contrary e''ects "roduced on "eo"les
as *ell as on individuals by &reat dan&ers11,%y so )any distin&uis%ed )en stood at t%e %ead o' a''airs in
A)erica 'i'ty years a&o11In'luence *%ic% t%e intelli&ence and t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le exercise u"on its
c%oice11Exa)"le o' Ne* En&land11!tates o' t%e !out%*est11In'luence o' certain la*s u"on t%e c%oice o' t%e
"eo"le11Election by an elected body11Its e''ects u"on t%e co)"osition o' t%e !enate#
,%en a !tate is t%reatened by serious dan&ers+ t%e "eo"le 'requently succeeds in selectin& t%e citi-ens *%o are
t%e )ost able to save it# It %as been observed t%at )an rarely retains %is custo)ary level in "resence o' very
critical circu)stances6 %e rises above or %e sins belo* %is usual condition+ and t%e sa)e t%in& occurs in nations
at lar&e# Extre)e "erils so)eti)es quenc% t%e ener&y o' a "eo"le instead o' sti)ulatin& it6 t%ey excite *it%out
directin& its "assions+ and instead o' clearin& t%ey con'use its "o*ers o' "erce"tion# T%e $e*s delu&ed t%e
s)oin& ruins o' t%eir te)"le *it% t%e carna&e o' t%e re)nant o' t%eir %ost# But it is )ore co))on+ bot% in t%e
case o' nations and in t%at o' individuals+ to 'ind extraordinary virtues arisin& 'ro) t%e very i))inence o' t%e
dan&er# 9reat c%aracters are t%en t%ro*n into relie'+ as edi'ices *%ic% are concealed by t%e &loo) o' ni&%t are
illu)inated by t%e &lare o' a con'la&ration# At t%ose dan&erous ti)es &enius no lon&er abstains 'ro) "resentin&
itsel' in t%e arena6 and t%e "eo"le+ alar)ed by t%e "erils o' its situation+ buries its envious "assions in a s%ort
oblivion# 9reat na)es )ay t%en be dra*n 'ro) t%e ballotin&1box#
I %ave already observed t%at t%e A)erican states)en o' t%e "resent day are very in'erior to t%ose *%o stood at
t%e %ead o' a''airs 'i'ty years a&o# T%is is as )uc% a consequence o' t%e circu)stances as o' t%e la*s o' t%e
country# ,%en A)erica *as stru&&lin& in t%e %i&% cause o' inde"endence to t%ro* o'' t%e yoe o' anot%er
country+ and *%en it *as about to us%er a ne* nation into t%e *orld+ t%e s"irits o' its in%abitants *ere roused to
t%e %ei&%t *%ic% t%eir &reat e''orts required# In t%is &eneral excite)ent t%e )ost distin&uis%ed )en *ere ready to
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'orestall t%e *ants o' t%e co))unity+ and t%e "eo"le clun& to t%e) 'or su""ort+ and "laced t%e) at its %ead# But
events o' t%is )a&nitude are rare+ and it is 'ro) an ins"ection o' t%e ordinary course o' a''airs t%at our 7ud&)ent
)ust be 'or)ed#
I' "assin& occurrences so)eti)es act as c%ecs u"on t%e "assions o' de)ocracy+ t%e intelli&ence and t%e
)anners o' t%e co))unity exercise an in'luence *%ic% is not less "o*er'ul and 'ar )ore "er)anent# T%is is
extre)ely "erce"tible in t%e (nited !tates#
In Ne* En&land t%e education and t%e liberties o' t%e co))unities *ere en&endered by t%e )oral and reli&ious
"rinci"les o' t%eir 'ounders# ,%ere society %as acquired a su''icient de&ree o' stability to enable it to %old certain
)axi)s and to retain 'ixed %abits+ t%e lo*er orders are accusto)ed to res"ect intellectual su"eriority and to
sub)it to it *it%out co)"laint+ alt%ou&% t%ey set at nau&%t all t%ose "rivile&es *%ic% *ealt% and birt% %ave
introduced a)on& )anind# T%e de)ocracy in Ne* En&land consequently )aes a )ore 7udicious c%oice t%an it
does else*%ere#
But as *e descend to*ards t%e !out%+ to t%ose !tates in *%ic% t%e constitution o' society is )ore )odern and
less stron&+ *%ere instruction is less &eneral+ and *%ere t%e "rinci"les o' )orality+ o' reli&ion+ and o' liberty are
less %a""ily co)bined+ *e "erceive t%at t%e talents and t%e virtues o' t%ose *%o are in aut%ority beco)e )ore
and )ore rare#
8astly+ *%en *e arrive at t%e ne* !out%1*estern !tates+ in *%ic% t%e constitution o' society dates but 'ro)
yesterday+ and "resents an a&&lo)eration o' adventurers and s"eculators+ *e are a)a-ed at t%e "ersons *%o are
invested *it% "ublic aut%ority+ and *e are led to as by *%at 'orce+ inde"endent o' t%e le&islation and o' t%e )en
*%o direct it+ t%e !tate can be "rotected+ and society be )ade to 'louris%#
T%ere are certain la*s o' a de)ocratic nature *%ic% contribute+ nevert%eless+ to correct+ in so)e )easure+ t%e
dan&erous tendencies o' de)ocracy# On enterin& t%e House o' Re"resentatives o' ,as%in&ton one is struc by
t%e vul&ar de)eanor o' t%at &reat asse)bly# T%e eye 'requently does not discover a )an o' celebrity *it%in its
*alls# Its )e)bers are al)ost all obscure individuals *%ose na)es "resent no associations to t%e )ind@ t%ey are
)ostly villa&e la*yers+ )en in trade+ or even "ersons belon&in& to t%e lo*er classes o' society# In a country in
*%ic% education is very &eneral+ it is said t%at t%e re"resentatives o' t%e "eo"le do not al*ays no* %o* to *rite
correctly#
At a 'e* yardsF distance 'ro) t%is s"ot is t%e door o' t%e !enate+ *%ic% contains *it%in a s)all s"ace a lar&e
"ro"ortion o' t%e celebrated )en o' A)erica# !carcely an individual is to be "erceived in it *%o does not recall
t%e idea o' an active and illustrious career@ t%e !enate is co)"osed o' eloquent advocates+ distin&uis%ed &enerals+
*ise )a&istrates+ and states)en o' note+ *%ose lan&ua&e *ould at all ti)es do %onor to t%e )ost re)arable
"arlia)entary debates o' Euro"e#
,%at t%en is t%e cause o' t%is stran&e contrast+ and *%y are t%e )ost able citi-ens to be 'ound in one asse)bly
rat%er t%an in t%e ot%erI ,%y is t%e 'or)er body re)arable 'or its vul&arity and its "overty o' talent+ *%ilst t%e
latter see)s to en7oy a )ono"oly o' intelli&ence and o' sound 7ud&)entI Bot% o' t%ese asse)blies e)anate 'ro)
t%e "eo"le6 bot% o' t%e) are c%osen by universal su''ra&e6 and no voice %as %it%erto been %eard to assert in
A)erica t%at t%e !enate is %ostile to t%e interests o' t%e "eo"le# 5ro) *%at cause+ t%en+ does so startlin& a
di''erence ariseI T%e only reason *%ic% a""ears to )e adequately to account 'or it is+ t%at t%e House o'
Re"resentatives is elected by t%e "o"ulace directly+ and t%at t%e !enate is elected by elected bodies# T%e *%ole
body o' t%e citi-ens na)es t%e le&islature o' eac% !tate+ and t%e 5ederal Constitution converts t%ese le&islatures
into so )any electoral bodies+ *%ic% return t%e )e)bers o' t%e !enate# T%e senators are elected by an indirect
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a""lication o' universal su''ra&e6 'or t%e le&islatures *%ic% na)e t%e) are not aristocratic or "rivile&ed bodies
*%ic% exercise t%e electoral 'ranc%ise in t%eir o*n ri&%t6 but t%ey are c%osen by t%e totality o' t%e citi-ens6 t%ey
are &enerally elected every year+ and ne* )e)bers )ay constantly be c%osen *%o *ill e)"loy t%eir electoral
ri&%ts in con'or)ity *it% t%e *is%es o' t%e "ublic# But t%is trans)ission o' t%e "o"ular aut%ority t%rou&% an
asse)bly o' c%osen )en o"erates an i)"ortant c%an&e in it+ by re'inin& its discretion and i)"rovin& t%e 'or)s
*%ic% it ado"ts# Men *%o are c%osen in t%is )anner accurately re"resent t%e )a7ority o' t%e nation *%ic%
&overns t%e)6 but t%ey re"resent t%e elevated t%ou&%ts *%ic% are current in t%e co))unity+ t%e "ro"ensities
*%ic% "ro)"t its nobler actions+ rat%er t%an t%e "etty "assions *%ic% disturb or t%e vices *%ic% dis&race it#
T%e ti)e )ay be already antici"ated at *%ic% t%e A)erican Re"ublics *ill be obli&ed to introduce t%e "lan o'
election by an elected body )ore 'requently into t%eir syste) o' re"resentation+ or t%ey *ill incur no s)all ris
o' "eris%in& )iserably a)on&st t%e s%oals o' de)ocracy#
And %ere I %ave no scru"le in con'essin& t%at I loo u"on t%is "eculiar syste) o' election as t%e only )eans o'
brin&in& t%e exercise o' "olitical "o*er to t%e level o' all classes o' t%e "eo"le# T%ose t%iners *%o re&ard t%is
institution as t%e exclusive *ea"on o' a "arty+ and t%ose *%o 'ear+ on t%e ot%er %and+ to )ae use o' it+ see) to
)e to 'all into as &reat an error in t%e one case as in t%e ot%er#
In'luence ,%ic% T%e A)erican De)ocracy Has Exercised On T%e 8a*s Relatin& To Elections
,%en elections are rare+ t%ey ex"ose t%e !tate to a violent crisis11,%en t%ey are 'requent+ t%ey ee" u" a de&ree
o' 'everis% excite)ent11T%e A)ericans %ave "re'erred t%e second o' t%ese t*o evils11Mutability o' t%e la*s11
O"inions o' Ha)ilton and $e''erson on t%is sub7ect#
,%en elections recur at lon& intervals t%e !tate is ex"osed to violent a&itation every ti)e t%ey tae "lace# :arties
exert t%e)selves to t%e ut)ost in order to &ain a "ri-e *%ic% is so rarely *it%in t%eir reac%6 and as t%e evil is
al)ost irre)ediable 'or t%e candidates *%o 'ail+ t%e consequences o' t%eir disa""ointed a)bition )ay "rove )ost
disastrous6 i'+ on t%e ot%er %and+ t%e le&al stru&&le can be re"eated *it%in a s%ort s"ace o' ti)e+ t%e de'eated
"arties tae "atience# ,%en elections occur 'requently+ t%eir recurrence ee"s society in a "er"etual state o'
'everis% excite)ent+ and i)"arts a continual instability to "ublic a''airs#
T%us+ on t%e one %and t%e !tate is ex"osed to t%e "erils o' a revolution+ on t%e ot%er to "er"etual )utability6 t%e
'or)er syste) t%reatens t%e very existence o' t%e 9overn)ent+ t%e latter is an obstacle to all steady and
consistent "olicy# T%e A)ericans %ave "re'erred t%e second o' t%ese evils to t%e 'irst6 but t%ey *ere led to t%is
conclusion by t%eir instinct )uc% )ore t%an by t%eir reason6 'or a taste 'or variety is one o' t%e c%aracteristic
"assions o' de)ocracy# An extraordinary )utability %as+ by t%is )eans+ been introduced into t%eir le&islation#
Many o' t%e A)ericans consider t%e instability o' t%eir la*s as a necessary consequence o' a syste) *%ose
&eneral results are bene'icial# But no one in t%e (nited !tates a''ects to deny t%e 'act o' t%is instability+ or to
contend t%at it is not a &reat evil#
Ha)ilton+ a'ter %avin& de)onstrated t%e utility o' a "o*er *%ic% )i&%t "revent+ or *%ic% )i&%t at least i)"ede+
t%e "ro)ul&ation o' bad la*s+ adds@ 2It )i&%t "er%a"s be said t%at t%e "o*er o' "reventin& bad la*s includes t%at
o' "reventin& &ood ones+ and )ay be used to t%e one "ur"ose as *ell as to t%e ot%er# But t%is ob7ection *ill %ave
little *ei&%t *it% t%ose *%o can "ro"erly esti)ate t%e )isc%ie's o' t%at inconstancy and )utability in t%e la*s
*%ic% 'or) t%e &reatest ble)is% in t%e c%aracter and &enius o' our &overn)ents#2 >5ederalist+ No# =0#? And a&ain
in No# ;A o' t%e sa)e *or %e observes@ 2T%e 'acility and excess o' la*1)ain& see) to be t%e diseases to *%ic%
our &overn)ents are )ost liable# # # # T%e )isc%ievous e''ects o' t%e )utability in t%e "ublic councils arisin&
'ro) a ra"id succession o' ne* )e)bers *ould 'ill a volu)e@ every ne* election in t%e !tates is 'ound to c%an&e
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one1%al' o' t%e re"resentatives# 5ro) t%is c%an&e o' )en )ust "roceed a c%an&e o' o"inions and o' )easures+
*%ic% 'or'eits t%e res"ect and con'idence o' ot%er nations+ "oisons t%e blessin&s o' liberty itsel'+ and di)inis%es
t%e attac%)ent and reverence o' t%e "eo"le to*ard a "olitical syste) *%ic% betrays so )any )ars o' in'ir)ity#2
$e''erson %i)sel'+ t%e &reatest De)ocrat *%o) t%e de)ocracy o' A)erica %as yet "roduced+ "ointed out t%e
sa)e evils# 2T%e instability o' our la*s+2 said %e in a letter to Madison+ 2is really a very serious inconvenience# I
t%in t%at *e ou&%t to %ave obviated it by decidin& t%at a *%ole year s%ould al*ays be allo*ed to ela"se bet*een
t%e brin&in& in o' a bill and t%e 'inal "assin& o' it# It s%ould a'ter*ard be discussed and "ut to t%e vote *it%out
t%e "ossibility o' )ain& any alteration in it6 and i' t%e circu)stances o' t%e case required a )ore s"eedy
decision+ t%e question s%ould not be decided by a si)"le )a7ority+ but by a )a7ority o' at least t*o1t%irds o' bot%
%ouses#2
:ublic O''icers (nder T%e Control O' T%e De)ocracy In A)erica !i)"le exterior o' t%e A)erican "ublic
o''icers11No o''icial costu)e11All "ublic o''icers are re)unerated11:olitical consequences o' t%is syste)11No
"ublic career exists in A)erica11Result o' t%is#
:ublic o''icers in t%e (nited !tates are co))in&led *it% t%e cro*d o' citi-ens6 t%ey %ave neit%er "alaces+ nor
&uards+ nor cere)onial costu)es# T%is si)"le exterior o' t%e "ersons in aut%ority is connected not only *it% t%e
"eculiarities o' t%e A)erican c%aracter+ but *it% t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"les o' t%at society# In t%e esti)ation o'
t%e de)ocracy a &overn)ent is not a bene'it+ but a necessary evil# A certain de&ree o' "o*er )ust be &ranted to
"ublic o''icers+ 'or t%ey *ould be o' no use *it%out it# But t%e ostensible se)blance o' aut%ority is by no )eans
indis"ensable to t%e conduct o' a''airs+ and it is needlessly o''ensive to t%e susce"tibility o' t%e "ublic# T%e
"ublic o''icers t%e)selves are *ell a*are t%at t%ey only en7oy t%e su"eriority over t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens *%ic%
t%ey derive 'ro) t%eir aut%ority u"on condition o' "uttin& t%e)selves on a level *it% t%e *%ole co))unity by
t%eir )anners# A "ublic o''icer in t%e (nited !tates is uni'or)ly civil+ accessible to all t%e *orld+ attentive to all
requests+ and obli&in& in %is re"lies# I *as "leased by t%ese c%aracteristics o' a de)ocratic &overn)ent6 and I *as
struc by t%e )anly inde"endence o' t%e citi-ens+ *%o res"ect t%e o''ice )ore t%an t%e o''icer+ and *%o are less
attac%ed to t%e e)ble)s o' aut%ority t%an to t%e )an *%o bears t%e)#
I a) inclined to believe t%at t%e in'luence *%ic% costu)es really exercise+ in an a&e lie t%at in *%ic% *e live+
%as been a &ood deal exa&&erated# I never "erceived t%at a "ublic o''icer in A)erica *as t%e less res"ected *%ilst
%e *as in t%e disc%ar&e o' %is duties because %is o*n )erit *as set o'' by no adventitious si&ns# On t%e ot%er
%and+ it is very doubt'ul *%et%er a "eculiar dress contributes to t%e res"ect *%ic% "ublic c%aracters ou&%t to %ave
'or t%eir o*n "osition+ at least *%en t%ey are not ot%er*ise inclined to res"ect it# ,%en a )a&istrate >and in
5rance suc% instances are not rare? indul&es %is trivial *it at t%e ex"ense o' t%e "risoner+ or derides t%e
"redica)ent in *%ic% a cul"rit is "laced+ it *ould be *ell to de"rive %i) o' %is robes o' o''ice+ to see *%et%er %e
*ould recall so)e "ortion o' t%e natural di&nity o' )anind *%en %e is reduced to t%e a""arel o' a "rivate
citi-en#
A de)ocracy )ay+ %o*ever+ allo* a certain s%o* o' )a&isterial "o)"+ and clot%e its o''icers in sils and &old+
*it%out seriously co)"ro)isin& its "rinci"les# :rivile&es o' t%is ind are transitory6 t%ey belon& to t%e "lace+ and
are distinct 'ro) t%e individual@ but i' "ublic o''icers are not uni'or)ly re)unerated by t%e !tate+ t%e "ublic
c%ar&es )ust be entrusted to )en o' o"ulence and inde"endence+ *%o constitute t%e basis o' an aristocracy6 and
i' t%e "eo"le still retains its ri&%t o' election+ t%at election can only be )ade 'ro) a certain class o' citi-ens#
,%en a de)ocratic re"ublic renders o''ices *%ic% %ad 'or)erly been re)unerated &ratuitous+ it )ay sa'ely be
believed t%at t%e !tate is advancin& to )onarc%ical institutions6 and *%en a )onarc%y be&ins to re)unerate suc%
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o''icers as %ad %it%erto been un"aid+ it is a sure si&n t%at it is a""roac%in& to*ard a des"otic or a re"ublican 'or)
o' &overn)ent# T%e substitution o' "aid 'or un"aid 'unctionaries is o' itsel'+ in )y o"inion+ su''icient to
constitute a serious revolution#
I loo u"on t%e entire absence o' &ratuitous 'unctionaries in A)erica as one o' t%e )ost "ro)inent si&ns o' t%e
absolute do)inion *%ic% de)ocracy exercises in t%at country# All "ublic services+ o' *%atsoever nature t%ey
)ay be+ are "aid6 so t%at every one %as not )erely t%e ri&%t+ but also t%e )eans o' "er'or)in& t%e)# Alt%ou&%+ in
de)ocratic !tates+ all t%e citi-ens are quali'ied to occu"y stations in t%e 9overn)ent+ all are not te)"ted to try
'or t%e)# T%e nu)ber and t%e ca"acities o' t%e candidates are )ore a"t to restrict t%e c%oice o' electors t%an t%e
connections o' t%e candidates%i"#
In nations in *%ic% t%e "rinci"le o' election extends to every "lace in t%e !tate no "olitical career can+ "ro"erly
s"eain&+ be said to exist# Men are "ro)oted as i' by c%ance to t%e ran *%ic% t%ey en7oy+ and t%ey are by no
)eans sure o' retainin& it# T%e consequence is t%at in tranquil ti)es "ublic 'unctions o''er but 'e* lures to
a)bition# In t%e (nited !tates t%e "ersons *%o en&a&e in t%e "er"lexities o' "olitical li'e are individuals o' very
)oderate "retensions# T%e "ursuit o' *ealt% &enerally diverts )en o' &reat talents and o' &reat "assions 'ro) t%e
"ursuit o' "o*er+ and it very 'requently %a""ens t%at a )an does not undertae to direct t%e 'ortune o' t%e !tate
until %e %as discovered %is inco)"etence to conduct %is o*n a''airs# T%e vast nu)ber o' very ordinary )en *%o
occu"y "ublic stations is quite as attributable to t%ese causes as to t%e bad c%oice o' t%e de)ocracy# In t%e (nited
!tates+ I a) not sure t%at t%e "eo"le *ould return t%e )en o' su"erior abilities *%o )i&%t solicit its su""ort+ but it
is certain t%at )en o' t%is descri"tion do not co)e 'or*ard#
Arbitrary :o*er O' Ma&istrates (nder T%e Rule O' T%e A)erican De)ocracy
5or *%at reason t%e arbitrary "o*er o' Ma&istrates is &reater in absolute )onarc%ies and in de)ocratic re"ublics
t%an it is in li)ited )onarc%ies11Arbitrary "o*er o' t%e Ma&istrates in Ne* En&land#
In t*o di''erent inds o' &overn)ent t%e )a&istrates Ka exercise a considerable de&ree o' arbitrary "o*er6
na)ely+ under t%e absolute &overn)ent o' a sin&le individual+ and under t%at o' a de)ocracy# T%is identical
result "roceeds 'ro) causes *%ic% are nearly analo&ous#
35ootnote a@ I %ere use t%e *ord )a&istrates in t%e *idest sense in *%ic% it can be taen6 I a""ly it to all t%e
o''icers to *%o) t%e execution o' t%e la*s is intrusted#4
In des"otic !tates t%e 'ortune o' no citi-en is secure6 and "ublic o''icers are not )ore sa'e t%an "rivate
individuals# T%e soverei&n+ *%o %as under %is control t%e lives+ t%e "ro"erty+ and so)eti)es t%e %onor o' t%e
)en *%o) %e e)"loys+ does not scru"le to allo* t%e) a &reat latitude o' action+ because %e is convinced t%at
t%ey *ill not use it to %is "re7udice# In des"otic !tates t%e soverei&n is so attac%ed to t%e exercise o' %is "o*er+
t%at %e dislies t%e constraint even o' %is o*n re&ulations6 and %e is *ell "leased t%at %is a&ents s%ould 'ollo* a
so)e*%at 'ortuitous line o' conduct+ "rovided %e be certain t%at t%eir actions *ill never counteract %is desires#
In de)ocracies+ as t%e )a7ority %as every year t%e ri&%t o' de"rivin& t%e o''icers *%o) it %as a""ointed o' t%eir
"o*er+ it %as no reason to 'ear any abuse o' t%eir aut%ority# As t%e "eo"le is al*ays able to si&ni'y its *is%es to
t%ose *%o conduct t%e 9overn)ent+ it "re'ers leavin& t%e) to )ae t%eir o*n exertions to "rescribin& an
invariable rule o' conduct *%ic% *ould at once 'etter t%eir activity and t%e "o"ular aut%ority#
It )ay even be observed+ on attentive consideration+ t%at under t%e rule o' a de)ocracy t%e arbitrary "o*er o' t%e
)a&istrate )ust be still &reater t%an in des"otic !tates# In t%e latter t%e soverei&n %as t%e "o*er o' "unis%in& all
t%e 'aults *it% *%ic% %e beco)es acquainted+ but it *ould be vain 'or %i) to %o"e to beco)e acquainted *it% all
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t%ose *%ic% are co))itted# In t%e 'or)er t%e soverei&n "o*er is not only su"re)e+ but it is universally "resent#
T%e A)erican 'unctionaries are+ in "oint o' 'act+ )uc% )ore inde"endent in t%e s"%ere o' action *%ic% t%e la*
traces out 'or t%e) t%an any "ublic o''icer in Euro"e# Dery 'requently t%e ob7ect *%ic% t%ey are to acco)"lis% is
si)"ly "ointed out to t%e)+ and t%e c%oice o' t%e )eans is le't to t%eir o*n discretion#
In Ne* En&land+ 'or instance+ t%e select)en o' eac% to*ns%i" are bound to dra* u" t%e list o' "ersons *%o are to
serve on t%e 7ury6 t%e only rule *%ic% is laid do*n to &uide t%e) in t%eir c%oice is t%at t%ey are to select citi-ens
"ossessin& t%e elective 'ranc%ise and en7oyin& a 'air re"utation# Kb In 5rance t%e lives and liberties o' t%e
sub7ects *ould be t%ou&%t to be in dan&er i' a "ublic o''icer o' any ind *as entrusted *it% so 'or)idable a ri&%t#
In Ne* En&land t%e sa)e )a&istrates are e)"o*ered to "ost t%e na)es o' %abitual drunards in "ublic1%ouses+
and to "ro%ibit t%e in%abitants o' a to*n 'ro) su""lyin& t%e) *it% liquor# Kc A censorial "o*er o' t%is excessive
ind *ould be revoltin& to t%e "o"ulation o' t%e )ost absolute )onarc%ies6 %ere+ %o*ever+ it is sub)itted to
*it%out di''iculty#
35ootnote b@ !ee t%e Act o' 5ebruary A=+ ./.0# 29eneral Collection o' t%e 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+2 vol# ii# "#
00.# It s%ould be added t%at t%e 7urors are a'ter*ards dra*n 'ro) t%ese lists by lot#4
35ootnote c@ !ee Act o' 5ebruary A/+ .=/=# 29eneral Collection o' t%e 8a*s o' Massac%usetts+2 vol# i# "# 0<A#4
No*%ere %as so )uc% been le't by t%e la* to t%e arbitrary deter)ination o' t%e )a&istrate as in de)ocratic
re"ublics+ because t%is arbitrary "o*er is unattended by any alar)in& consequences# It )ay even be asserted t%at
t%e 'reedo) o' t%e )a&istrate increases as t%e elective 'ranc%ise is extended+ and as t%e duration o' t%e ti)e o'
o''ice is s%ortened# Hence arises t%e &reat di''iculty *%ic% attends t%e conversion o' a de)ocratic re"ublic into a
)onarc%y# T%e )a&istrate ceases to be elective+ but %e retains t%e ri&%ts and t%e %abits o' an elected o''icer+
*%ic% lead directly to des"otis)#
It is only in li)ited )onarc%ies t%at t%e la*+ *%ic% "rescribes t%e s"%ere in *%ic% "ublic o''icers are to act+
su"erintends all t%eir )easures# T%e cause o' t%is )ay be easily detected# In li)ited )onarc%ies t%e "o*er is
divided bet*een t%e Lin& and t%e "eo"le+ bot% o' *%o) are interested in t%e stability o' t%e )a&istrate# T%e Lin&
does not venture to "lace t%e "ublic o''icers under t%e control o' t%e "eo"le+ lest t%ey s%ould be te)"ted to betray
%is interests6 on t%e ot%er %and+ t%e "eo"le 'ears lest t%e )a&istrates s%ould serve to o""ress t%e liberties o' t%e
country+ i' t%ey *ere entirely de"endent u"on t%e Cro*n6 t%ey cannot t%ere'ore be said to de"end on eit%er one
or t%e ot%er# T%e sa)e cause *%ic% induces t%e in& and t%e "eo"le to render "ublic o''icers inde"endent
su&&ests t%e necessity o' suc% securities as )ay "revent t%eir inde"endence 'ro) encroac%in& u"on t%e aut%ority
o' t%e 'or)er and t%e liberties o' t%e latter# T%ey consequently a&ree as to t%e necessity o' restrictin& t%e
'unctionary to a line o' conduct laid do*n be'ore%and+ and t%ey are interested in con'inin& %i) by certain
re&ulations *%ic% %e cannot evade#
Chapter XIII
@ 9overn)ent O' T%e De)ocracy In A)erica11:art II
Instability O' T%e Ad)inistration In T%e (nited !tates
In A)erica t%e "ublic acts o' a co))unity 'requently leave 'e*er traces t%an t%e occurrences o' a 'a)ily11
Ne*s"a"ers t%e only %istorical re)ains11Instability o' t%e ad)inistration "re7udicial to t%e art o' &overn)ent#
T%e aut%ority *%ic% "ublic )en "ossess in A)erica is so brie'+ and t%ey are so soon co))in&led *it% t%e ever1
c%an&in& "o"ulation o' t%e country+ t%at t%e acts o' a co))unity 'requently leave 'e*er traces t%an t%e
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occurrences o' a "rivate 'a)ily# T%e "ublic ad)inistration is+ so to s"ea+ oral and traditionary# But little is
co))itted to *ritin&+ and t%at little is *a'ted a*ay 'orever+ lie t%e leaves o' t%e !ibyl+ by t%e s)allest bree-e#
T%e only %istorical re)ains in t%e (nited !tates are t%e ne*s"a"ers6 but i' a nu)ber be *antin&+ t%e c%ain o'
ti)e is broen+ and t%e "resent is severed 'ro) t%e "ast# I a) convinced t%at in 'i'ty years it *ill be )ore di''icult
to collect aut%entic docu)ents concernin& t%e social condition o' t%e A)ericans at t%e "resent day t%an it is to
'ind re)ains o' t%e ad)inistration o' 5rance durin& t%e Middle A&es6 and i' t%e (nited !tates *ere ever invaded
by barbarians+ it *ould be necessary to %ave recourse to t%e %istory o' ot%er nations in order to learn anyt%in& o'
t%e "eo"le *%ic% no* in%abits t%e)#
T%e instability o' t%e ad)inistration %as "enetrated into t%e %abits o' t%e "eo"le@ it even a""ears to suit t%e
&eneral taste+ and no one cares 'or *%at occurred be'ore %is ti)e# No )et%odical syste) is "ursued6 no arc%ives
are 'or)ed6 and no docu)ents are brou&%t to&et%er *%en it *ould be very easy to do so# ,%ere t%ey exist+ little
store is set u"on t%e)6 and I %ave a)on&st )y "a"ers several ori&inal "ublic docu)ents *%ic% *ere &iven to )e
in ans*er to so)e o' )y inquiries# In A)erica society see)s to live 'ro) %and to )out%+ lie an ar)y in t%e
'ield# Nevert%eless+ t%e art o' ad)inistration )ay undoubtedly be raned as a science+ and no sciences can be
i)"roved i' t%e discoveries and observations o' successive &enerations are not connected to&et%er in t%e order in
*%ic% t%ey occur# One )an+ in t%e s%ort s"ace o' %is li'e re)ars a 'act6 anot%er conceives an idea6 t%e 'or)er
invents a )eans o' execution+ t%e latter reduces a trut% to a 'ixed "ro"osition6 and )anind &at%ers t%e 'ruits o'
individual ex"erience u"on its *ay and &radually 'or)s t%e sciences# But t%e "ersons *%o conduct t%e
ad)inistration in A)erica can seldo) a''ord any instruction to eac% ot%er6 and *%en t%ey assu)e t%e direction
o' society+ t%ey si)"ly "ossess t%ose attain)ents *%ic% are )ost *idely disse)inated in t%e co))unity+ and no
ex"erience "eculiar to t%e)selves# De)ocracy+ carried to its 'urt%est li)its+ is t%ere'ore "re7udicial to t%e art o'
&overn)ent6 and 'or t%is reason it is better ada"ted to a "eo"le already versed in t%e conduct o' an ad)inistration
t%an to a nation *%ic% is uninitiated in "ublic a''airs#
T%is re)ar+ indeed+ is not exclusively a""licable to t%e science o' ad)inistration# Alt%ou&% a de)ocratic
&overn)ent is 'ounded u"on a very si)"le and natural "rinci"le+ it al*ays "resu""oses t%e existence o' a %i&%
de&ree o' culture and enli&%ten)ent in society# Kd At t%e 'irst &lance it )ay be i)a&ined to belon& to t%e earliest
a&es o' t%e *orld6 but )aturer observation *ill convince us t%at it could only co)e last in t%e succession o'
%u)an %istory#
35ootnote d@ It is needless to observe t%at I s"ea %ere o' t%e de)ocratic 'or) o' &overn)ent as a""lied to a
"eo"le+ not )erely to a tribe#4
C%ar&es 8evied By T%e !tate (nder T%e Rule O' T%e A)erican De)ocracy
In all co))unities citi-ens divisible into t%ree classes11Habits o' eac% o' t%ese classes in t%e direction o' "ublic
'inances11,%y "ublic ex"enditure )ust tend to increase *%en t%e "eo"le &overns11,%at renders t%e
extrava&ance o' a de)ocracy less to be 'eared in A)erica11:ublic ex"enditure under a de)ocracy#
Be'ore *e can a''ir) *%et%er a de)ocratic 'or) o' &overn)ent is econo)ical or not+ *e )ust establis% a
suitable standard o' co)"arison# T%e question *ould be one o' easy solution i' *e *ere to atte)"t to dra* a
"arallel bet*een a de)ocratic re"ublic and an absolute )onarc%y# T%e "ublic ex"enditure *ould be 'ound to be
)ore considerable under t%e 'or)er t%an under t%e latter6 suc% is t%e case *it% all 'ree !tates co)"ared to t%ose
*%ic% are not so# It is certain t%at des"otis) ruins individuals by "reventin& t%e) 'ro) "roducin& *ealt%+ )uc%
)ore t%an by de"rivin& t%e) o' t%e *ealt% t%ey %ave "roduced6 it dries u" t%e source o' ric%es+ *%ilst it usually
res"ects acquired "ro"erty# 5reedo)+ on t%e contrary+ en&enders 'ar )ore bene'its t%an it destroys6 and t%e
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nations *%ic% are 'avored by 'ree institutions invariably 'ind t%at t%eir resources increase even )ore ra"idly t%an
t%eir taxes#
My "resent ob7ect is to co)"are 'ree nations to eac% ot%er+ and to "oint out t%e in'luence o' de)ocracy u"on t%e
'inances o' a !tate#
Co))unities+ as *ell as or&anic bodies+ are sub7ect to certain 'ixed rules in t%eir 'or)ation *%ic% t%ey cannot
evade# T%ey are co)"osed o' certain ele)ents *%ic% are co))on to t%e) at all ti)es and under all
circu)stances# T%e "eo"le )ay al*ays be )entally divided into t%ree distinct classes# T%e 'irst o' t%ese classes
consists o' t%e *ealt%y6 t%e second+ o' t%ose *%o are in easy circu)stances6 and t%e t%ird is co)"osed o' t%ose
*%o %ave little or no "ro"erty+ and *%o subsist )ore es"ecially by t%e *or *%ic% t%ey "er'or) 'or t%e t*o
su"erior orders# T%e "ro"ortion o' t%e individuals *%o are included in t%ese t%ree divisions )ay vary accordin&
to t%e condition o' society+ but t%e divisions t%e)selves can never be obliterated#
It is evident t%at eac% o' t%ese classes *ill exercise an in'luence "eculiar to its o*n "ro"ensities u"on t%e
ad)inistration o' t%e 'inances o' t%e !tate# I' t%e 'irst o' t%e t%ree exclusively "ossesses t%e le&islative "o*er+ it
is "robable t%at it *ill not be s"arin& o' t%e "ublic 'unds+ because t%e taxes *%ic% are levied on a lar&e 'ortune
only tend to di)inis% t%e su) o' su"er'luous en7oy)ent+ and are+ in "oint o' 'act+ but little 'elt# I' t%e second
class %as t%e "o*er o' )ain& t%e la*s+ it *ill certainly not be lavis% o' taxes+ because not%in& is so onerous as a
lar&e i)"ost *%ic% is levied u"on a s)all inco)e# T%e &overn)ent o' t%e )iddle classes a""ears to )e to be t%e
)ost econo)ical+ t%ou&% "er%a"s not t%e )ost enli&%tened+ and certainly not t%e )ost &enerous+ o' 'ree
&overn)ents#
But let us no* su""ose t%at t%e le&islative aut%ority is vested in t%e lo*est orders@ t%ere are t*o striin& reasons
*%ic% s%o* t%at t%e tendency o' t%e ex"enditure *ill be to increase+ not to di)inis%# As t%e &reat )a7ority o'
t%ose *%o create t%e la*s are "ossessed o' no "ro"erty u"on *%ic% taxes can be i)"osed+ all t%e )oney *%ic% is
s"ent 'or t%e co))unity a""ears to be s"ent to t%eir advanta&e+ at no cost o' t%eir o*n6 and t%ose *%o are
"ossessed o' so)e little "ro"erty readily 'ind )eans o' re&ulatin& t%e taxes so t%at t%ey are burdenso)e to t%e
*ealt%y and "ro'itable to t%e "oor+ alt%ou&% t%e ric% are unable to tae t%e sa)e advanta&e *%en t%ey are in
"ossession o' t%e 9overn)ent#
In countries in *%ic% t%e "oor Ke s%ould be exclusively invested *it% t%e "o*er o' )ain& t%e la*s no &reat
econo)y o' "ublic ex"enditure ou&%t to be ex"ected@ t%at ex"enditure *ill al*ays be considerable6 eit%er
because t%e taxes do not *ei&% u"on t%ose *%o levy t%e)+ or because t%ey are levied in suc% a )anner as not to
*ei&% u"on t%ose classes# In ot%er *ords+ t%e &overn)ent o' t%e de)ocracy is t%e only one under *%ic% t%e
"o*er *%ic% lays on taxes esca"es t%e "ay)ent o' t%e)#
35ootnote e@ T%e *ord "oor is used %ere+ and t%rou&%out t%e re)ainder o' t%is c%a"ter+ in a relative+ not in an
absolute sense# :oor )en in A)erica *ould o'ten a""ear ric% in co)"arison *it% t%e "oor o' Euro"e6 but t%ey
)ay *it% "ro"riety by styled "oor in co)"arison *it% t%eir )ore a''luent country)en#4
It )ay be ob7ected >but t%e ar&u)ent %as no real *ei&%t? t%at t%e true interest o' t%e "eo"le is indissolubly
connected *it% t%at o' t%e *ealt%ier "ortion o' t%e co))unity+ since it cannot but su''er by t%e severe )easures
to *%ic% it resorts# But is it not t%e true interest o' in&s to render t%eir sub7ects %a""y+ and t%e true interest o'
nobles to ad)it recruits into t%eir order on suitable &roundsI I' re)ote advanta&es %ad "o*er to "revail over t%e
"assions and t%e exi&encies o' t%e )o)ent+ no suc% t%in& as a tyrannical soverei&n or an exclusive aristocracy
could ever exist#
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A&ain+ it )ay be ob7ected t%at t%e "oor are never invested *it% t%e sole "o*er o' )ain& t%e la*s6 but I re"ly+
t%at *%erever universal su''ra&e %as been establis%ed t%e )a7ority o' t%e co))unity unquestionably exercises
t%e le&islative aut%ority6 and i' it be "roved t%at t%e "oor al*ays constitute t%e )a7ority+ it )ay be added+ *it%
"er'ect trut%+ t%at in t%e countries in *%ic% t%ey "ossess t%e elective 'ranc%ise t%ey "ossess t%e sole "o*er o'
)ain& la*s# But it is certain t%at in all t%e nations o' t%e *orld t%e &reater nu)ber %as al*ays consisted o' t%ose
"ersons *%o %old no "ro"erty+ or o' t%ose *%ose "ro"erty is insu''icient to exe)"t t%e) 'ro) t%e necessity o'
*orin& in order to "rocure an easy subsistence# (niversal su''ra&e does t%ere'ore+ in "oint o' 'act+ invest t%e
"oor *it% t%e &overn)ent o' society#
T%e disastrous in'luence *%ic% "o"ular aut%ority )ay so)eti)es exercise u"on t%e 'inances o' a !tate *as very
clearly seen in so)e o' t%e de)ocratic re"ublics o' antiquity+ in *%ic% t%e "ublic treasure *as ex%austed in order
to relieve indi&ent citi-ens+ or to su""ly t%e &a)es and t%eatrical a)use)ents o' t%e "o"ulace# It is true t%at t%e
re"resentative syste) *as t%en very i)"er'ectly no*n+ and t%at+ at t%e "resent ti)e+ t%e in'luence o' "o"ular
"assion is less 'elt in t%e conduct o' "ublic a''airs6 but it )ay be believed t%at t%e dele&ate *ill in t%e end
con'or) to t%e "rinci"les o' %is constituents+ and 'avor t%eir "ro"ensities as )uc% as t%eir interests#
T%e extrava&ance o' de)ocracy is+ %o*ever+ less to be dreaded in "ro"ortion as t%e "eo"le acquires a s%are o'
"ro"erty+ because on t%e one %and t%e contributions o' t%e ric% are t%en less needed+ and+ on t%e ot%er+ it is )ore
di''icult to lay on taxes *%ic% do not a''ect t%e interests o' t%e lo*er classes# On t%is account universal su''ra&e
*ould be less dan&erous in 5rance t%an in En&land+ because in t%e latter country t%e "ro"erty on *%ic% taxes
)ay be levied is vested in 'e*er %ands# A)erica+ *%ere t%e &reat )a7ority o' t%e citi-ens "ossess so)e 'ortune+
is in a still )ore 'avorable "osition t%an 5rance#
T%ere are still 'urt%er causes *%ic% )ay increase t%e su) o' "ublic ex"enditure in de)ocratic countries# ,%en
t%e aristocracy &overns+ t%e individuals *%o conduct t%e a''airs o' !tate are exe)"ted by t%eir o*n station in
society 'ro) every ind o' "rivation6 t%ey are contented *it% t%eir "osition6 "o*er and reno*n are t%e ob7ects 'or
*%ic% t%ey strive6 and+ as t%ey are "laced 'ar above t%e obscurer t%ron& o' citi-ens+ t%ey do not al*ays distinctly
"erceive %o* t%e *ell1bein& o' t%e )ass o' t%e "eo"le ou&%t to redound to t%eir o*n %onor# T%ey are not indeed
callous to t%e su''erin&s o' t%e "oor+ but t%ey cannot 'eel t%ose )iseries as acutely as i' t%ey *ere t%e)selves
"artaers o' t%e)# :rovided t%at t%e "eo"le a""ear to sub)it to its lot+ t%e rulers are satis'ied+ and t%ey de)and
not%in& 'urt%er 'ro) t%e 9overn)ent# An aristocracy is )ore intent u"on t%e )eans o' )aintainin& its in'luence
t%an u"on t%e )eans o' i)"rovin& its condition#
,%en+ on t%e contrary+ t%e "eo"le is invested *it% t%e su"re)e aut%ority+ t%e "er"etual sense o' t%eir o*n
)iseries i)"els t%e rulers o' society to see 'or "er"etual a)eliorations# A t%ousand di''erent ob7ects are
sub7ected to i)"rove)ent6 t%e )ost trivial details are sou&%t out as susce"tible o' a)end)ent6 and t%ose c%an&es
*%ic% are acco)"anied *it% considerable ex"ense are )ore es"ecially advocated+ since t%e ob7ect is to render
t%e condition o' t%e "oor )ore tolerable+ *%o cannot "ay 'or t%e)selves#
Moreover+ all de)ocratic co))unities are a&itated by an ill1de'ined excite)ent and by a ind o' 'everis%
i)"atience+ t%at en&ender a )ultitude o' innovations+ al)ost all o' *%ic% are attended *it% ex"ense#
In )onarc%ies and aristocracies t%e natural taste *%ic% t%e rulers %ave 'or "o*er and 'or reno*n is sti)ulated by
t%e "ro)"tin&s o' a)bition+ and t%ey are 'requently incited by t%ese te)"tations to very costly undertain&s# In
de)ocracies+ *%ere t%e rulers labor under "rivations+ t%ey can only be courted by suc% )eans as i)"rove t%eir
*ell1bein&+ and t%ese i)"rove)ents cannot tae "lace *it%out a sacri'ice o' )oney# ,%en a "eo"le be&ins to
re'lect u"on its situation+ it discovers a )ultitude o' *ants to *%ic% it %ad not be'ore been sub7ect+ and to satis'y
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t%ese exi&encies recourse )ust be %ad to t%e co''ers o' t%e !tate# Hence it arises t%at t%e "ublic c%ar&es increase
in "ro"ortion as civili-ation s"reads+ and t%at i)"osts are au&)ented as no*led&e "ervades t%e co))unity#
T%e last cause *%ic% 'requently renders a de)ocratic &overn)ent dearer t%an any ot%er is+ t%at a de)ocracy does
not al*ays succeed in )oderatin& its ex"enditure+ because it does not understand t%e art o' bein& econo)ical# As
t%e desi&ns *%ic% it entertains are 'requently c%an&ed+ and t%e a&ents o' t%ose desi&ns are still )ore 'requently
re)oved+ its undertain&s are o'ten ill conducted or le't un'inis%ed@ in t%e 'or)er case t%e !tate s"ends su)s out
o' all "ro"ortion to t%e end *%ic% it "ro"oses to acco)"lis%6 in t%e second+ t%e ex"ense itsel' is un"ro'itable# K'
35ootnote '@ T%e &ross recei"ts o' t%e Treasury o' t%e (nited !tates in ./0A *ere about NA/+<<<+<<<6 in ./=<
t%ey %ad risen to NG..+<<<+<<<# T%e &ross ex"enditure in ./0A *as N0<+<<<+<<<6 in ./=<+ N0<B+<<<+<<<#4
Tendencies O' T%e A)erican De)ocracy As Re&ards T%e !alaries O' :ublic O''icers
In t%e de)ocracies t%ose *%o establis% %i&% salaries %ave no c%ance o' "ro'itin& by t%e)11Tendency o' t%e
A)erican de)ocracy to increase t%e salaries o' subordinate o''icers and to lo*er t%ose o' t%e )ore i)"ortant
'unctionaries11Reason o' t%is11Co)"arative state)ent o' t%e salaries o' "ublic o''icers in t%e (nited !tates and in
5rance#
T%ere is a "o*er'ul reason *%ic% usually induces de)ocracies to econo)i-e u"on t%e salaries o' "ublic o''icers#
As t%e nu)ber o' citi-ens *%o dis"ense t%e re)uneration is extre)ely lar&e in de)ocratic countries+ so t%e
nu)ber o' "ersons *%o can %o"e to be bene'ited by t%e recei"t o' it is co)"aratively s)all# In aristocratic
countries+ on t%e contrary+ t%e individuals *%o 'ix %i&% salaries %ave al)ost al*ays a va&ue %o"e o' "ro'itin& by
t%e)# T%ese a""oint)ents )ay be looed u"on as a ca"ital *%ic% t%ey create 'or t%eir o*n use+ or at least as a
resource 'or t%eir c%ildren#
It )ust+ %o*ever+ be allo*ed t%at a de)ocratic !tate is )ost "arsi)onious to*ards its "rinci"al a&ents# In
A)erica t%e secondary o''icers are )uc% better "aid+ and t%e di&nitaries o' t%e ad)inistration )uc% *orse+ t%an
t%ey are else*%ere#
T%ese o""osite e''ects result 'ro) t%e sa)e cause6 t%e "eo"le 'ixes t%e salaries o' t%e "ublic o''icers in bot%
cases6 and t%e scale o' re)uneration is deter)ined by t%e consideration o' its o*n *ants# It is %eld to be 'air t%at
t%e servants o' t%e "ublic s%ould be "laced in t%e sa)e easy circu)stances as t%e "ublic itsel'6 K& but *%en t%e
question turns u"on t%e salaries o' t%e &reat o''icers o' !tate+ t%is rule 'ails+ and c%ance alone can &uide t%e
"o"ular decision# T%e "oor %ave no adequate conce"tion o' t%e *ants *%ic% t%e %i&%er classes o' society )ay
'eel# T%e su) *%ic% is scanty to t%e ric% a""ears enor)ous to t%e "oor )an *%ose *ants do not extend beyond
t%e necessaries o' li'e6 and in %is esti)ation t%e 9overnor o' a !tate+ *it% %is t*elve or 'i'teen %undred dollars a
year+ is a very 'ortunate and enviable bein&# K% I' you undertae to convince %i) t%at t%e re"resentative o' a &reat
"eo"le ou&%t to be able to )aintain so)e s%o* o' s"lendor in t%e eyes o' 'orei&n nations+ %e *ill "er%a"s assent
to your )eanin&6 but *%en %e re'lects on %is o*n %u)ble d*ellin&+ and on t%e %ard1earned "roduce o' %is
*eariso)e toil+ %e re)e)bers all t%at %e could do *it% a salary *%ic% you say is insu''icient+ and %e is startled or
al)ost 'ri&%tened at t%e si&%t o' suc% unco))on *ealt%# Besides+ t%e secondary "ublic o''icer is al)ost on a
level *it% t%e "eo"le+ *%ilst t%e ot%ers are raised above it# T%e 'or)er )ay t%ere'ore excite %is interest+ but t%e
latter be&ins to arouse %is envy#
35ootnote &@ T%e easy circu)stances in *%ic% secondary 'unctionaries are "laced in t%e (nited !tates result also
'ro) anot%er cause+ *%ic% is inde"endent o' t%e &eneral tendencies o' de)ocracy6 every ind o' "rivate business
is very lucrative+ and t%e !tate *ould not be served at all i' it did not "ay its servants# T%e country is in t%e
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"osition o' a co))ercial undertain&+ *%ic% is obli&ed to sustain an ex"ensive co)"etition+ not*it%standin& its
tastes 'or econo)y#4
35ootnote %@ T%e !tate o' O%io+ *%ic% contains a )illion o' in%abitants+ &ives its 9overnor a salary o' only
N.+A<< a year#4
T%is is very clearly seen in t%e (nited !tates+ *%ere t%e salaries see) to decrease as t%e aut%ority o' t%ose *%o
receive t%e) au&)ents Ki
35ootnote i@ To render t%is assertion "er'ectly evident+ it *ill su''ice to exa)ine t%e scale o' salaries o' t%e a&ents
o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent# I %ave added t%e salaries attac%ed to t%e corres"ondin& o''icers in 5rance under t%e
constitutional )onarc%y to co)"lete t%e co)"arison#
(nited !tates Treasury De"art)ent Messen&er ############################ N=<< Cler *it% lo*est salary ############# .+<<<
Cler *it% %i&%est salary ############ .+;<< C%ie' Cler ########################## A+<<< !ecretary o' !tate ################### ;+<<<
T%e :resident ######################## AC+<<<
5rance Ministere des 5inances Hussier ########################### .+C<< 'r# Cler *it% lo*est salary+ .+<<< to .+/<< 'r#
Cler *it% %i&%est salary 0+A<< to /+;<< 'r# !ecretaire1&eneral ################A<+<<< 'r# T%e
Minister ######################/<+<<< 'r# T%e Lin& ######################.A+<<<+<<< 'r#
I %ave "er%a"s done *ron& in selectin& 5rance as )y standard o' co)"arison# In 5rance t%e de)ocratic
tendencies o' t%e nation exercise an ever1increasin& in'luence u"on t%e 9overn)ent+ and t%e C%a)bers s%o* a
dis"osition to raise t%e lo* salaries and to lo*er t%e "rinci"al ones# T%us+ t%e Minister o' 5inance+ *%o received
.;<+<<< 'r# under t%e E)"ire+ receives /<+<<< 'r# in ./0C@ t%e Directeurs1&eneraux o' 5inance+ *%o t%en received
C<+<<< 'r# no* receive only A<+<<< 'r# 3T%is co)"arison is based on t%e state o' t%in&s existin& in 5rance and t%e
(nited !tates in ./0.# It %as since )aterially altered in bot% countries+ but not so )uc% as to i)"u&n t%e trut% o'
t%e aut%orFs observation#44
(nder t%e rule o' an aristocracy it 'requently %a""ens+ on t%e contrary+ t%at *%ilst t%e %i&% o''icers are receivin&
)uni'icent salaries+ t%e in'erior ones %ave not )ore t%an enou&% to "rocure t%e necessaries o' li'e# T%e reason o'
t%is 'act is easily discoverable 'ro) causes very analo&ous to t%ose to *%ic% I %ave 7ust alluded# I' a de)ocracy
is unable to conceive t%e "leasures o' t%e ric% or to *itness t%e) *it%out envy+ an aristocracy is slo* to
understand+ or+ to s"ea )ore correctly+ is unacquainted *it%+ t%e "rivations o' t%e "oor# T%e "oor )an is not >i'
*e use t%e ter) ari&%t? t%e 'ello* o' t%e ric% one6 but %e is a bein& o' anot%er s"ecies# An aristocracy is t%ere'ore
a"t to care but little 'or t%e 'ate o' its subordinate a&ents6 and t%eir salaries are only raised *%en t%ey re'use to
"er'or) t%eir service 'or too scanty a re)uneration#
It is t%e "arsi)onious conduct o' de)ocracy to*ards its "rinci"al o''icers *%ic% %as countenanced a su""osition
o' 'ar )ore econo)ical "ro"ensities t%an any *%ic% it really "ossesses# It is true t%at it scarcely allo*s t%e )eans
o' %onorable subsistence to t%e individuals *%o conduct its a''airs6 but enor)ous su)s are lavis%ed to )eet t%e
exi&encies or to 'acilitate t%e en7oy)ents o' t%e "eo"le# K7 T%e )oney raised by taxation )ay be better e)"loyed+
but it is not saved# In &eneral+ de)ocracy &ives lar&ely to t%e co))unity+ and very s"arin&ly to t%ose *%o
&overn it# T%e reverse is t%e case in aristocratic countries+ *%ere t%e )oney o' t%e !tate is ex"ended to t%e "ro'it
o' t%e "ersons *%o are at t%e %ead o' a''airs#
35ootnote 7@ !ee t%e A)erican bud&ets 'or t%e cost o' indi&ent citi-ens and &ratuitous instruction# In ./0.
NAC<+<<< *ere s"ent in t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor 'or t%e )aintenance o' t%e "oor+ and at least N.+<<<+<<< *ere
devoted to &ratuitous instruction# >,illia)Fs 2Ne* Yor Annual Re&ister+2 ./0A+ ""# A<C and AG0#? T%e !tate o'
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Ne* Yor contained only .+B<<+<<< in%abitants in t%e year ./0<+ *%ic% is not )ore t%an double t%e a)ount o'
"o"ulation in t%e De"art)ent du Nord in 5rance#4
Di''iculty o' Distin&uis%in& T%e Causes ,%ic% Contribute To T%e Econo)y O' T%e A)erican 9overn)ent
,e are liable to 'requent errors in t%e researc% o' t%ose 'acts *%ic% exercise a serious in'luence u"on t%e 'ate o'
)anind+ since not%in& is )ore di''icult t%an to a""reciate t%eir real value# One "eo"le is naturally inconsistent
and ent%usiastic6 anot%er is sober and calculatin&6 and t%ese c%aracteristics ori&inate in t%eir "%ysical constitution
or in re)ote causes *it% *%ic% *e are unacquainted#
T%ese are nations *%ic% are 'ond o' "arade and t%e bustle o' 'estivity+ and *%ic% do not re&ret t%e costly &aieties
o' an %our# Ot%ers+ on t%e contrary+ are attac%ed to )ore retirin& "leasures+ and see) al)ost as%a)ed o'
a""earin& to be "leased# In so)e countries t%e %i&%est value is set u"on t%e beauty o' "ublic edi'ices6 in ot%ers
t%e "roductions o' art are treated *it% indi''erence+ and everyt%in& *%ic% is un"roductive is looed do*n u"on
*it% conte)"t# In so)e reno*n+ in ot%ers )oney+ is t%e rulin& "assion#
Inde"endently o' t%e la*s+ all t%ese causes concur to exercise a very "o*er'ul in'luence u"on t%e conduct o' t%e
'inances o' t%e !tate# I' t%e A)ericans never s"end t%e )oney o' t%e "eo"le in &alas+ it is not only because t%e
i)"osition o' taxes is under t%e control o' t%e "eo"le+ but because t%e "eo"le taes no deli&%t in "ublic
re7oicin&s# I' t%ey re"udiate all orna)ent 'ro) t%eir arc%itecture+ and set no store on any but t%e )ore "ractical
and %o)ely advanta&es+ it is not only because t%ey live under de)ocratic institutions+ but because t%ey are a
co))ercial nation# T%e %abits o' "rivate li'e are continued in "ublic6 and *e ou&%t care'ully to distin&uis% t%at
econo)y *%ic% de"ends u"on t%eir institutions 'ro) t%at *%ic% is t%e natural result o' t%eir )anners and
custo)s#
,%et%er T%e Ex"enditure O' T%e (nited !tates Can Be Co)"ared To T%at O' 5rance
T*o "oints to be establis%ed in order to esti)ate t%e extent o' t%e "ublic c%ar&es+ vi-#+ t%e national *ealt% and
t%e rate o' taxation11T%e *ealt% and t%e c%ar&es o' 5rance not accurately no*n11,%y t%e *ealt% and c%ar&es o'
t%e (nion cannot be accurately no*n11Researc%es o' t%e aut%or *it% a vie* to discover t%e a)ount o' taxation
o' :ennsylvania119eneral sy)"to)s *%ic% )ay serve to indicate t%e a)ount o' t%e "ublic c%ar&es in a &iven
nation11Result o' t%is investi&ation 'or t%e (nion#
Many atte)"ts %ave recently been )ade in 5rance to co)"are t%e "ublic ex"enditure o' t%at country *it% t%e
ex"enditure o' t%e (nited !tates6 all t%ese atte)"ts %ave+ %o*ever+ been unattended by success+ and a 'e* *ords
*ill su''ice to s%o* t%at t%ey could not %ave %ad a satis'actory result#
In order to esti)ate t%e a)ount o' t%e "ublic c%ar&es o' a "eo"le t*o "reli)inaries are indis"ensable@ it is
necessary+ in t%e 'irst "lace+ to no* t%e *ealt% o' t%at "eo"le6 and in t%e second+ to learn *%at "ortion o' t%at
*ealt% is devoted to t%e ex"enditure o' t%e !tate# To s%o* t%e a)ount o' taxation *it%out s%o*in& t%e resources
*%ic% are destined to )eet t%e de)and+ is to undertae a 'utile labor6 'or it is not t%e ex"enditure+ but t%e relation
o' t%e ex"enditure to t%e revenue+ *%ic% it is desirable to no*#
T%e sa)e rate o' taxation *%ic% )ay easily be su""orted by a *ealt%y contributor *ill reduce a "oor one to
extre)e )isery# T%e *ealt% o' nations is co)"osed o' several distinct ele)ents+ o' *%ic% "o"ulation is t%e 'irst+
real "ro"erty t%e second+ and "ersonal "ro"erty t%e t%ird# T%e 'irst o' t%ese t%ree ele)ents )ay be discovered
*it%out di''iculty# A)on&st civili-ed nations it is easy to obtain an accurate census o' t%e in%abitants6 but t%e
t*o ot%ers cannot be deter)ined *it% so )uc% 'acility# It is di''icult to tae an exact account o' all t%e lands in a
country *%ic% are under cultivation+ *it% t%eir natural or t%eir acquired value6 and it is still )ore i)"ossible to
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esti)ate t%e entire "ersonal "ro"erty *%ic% is at t%e dis"osal o' a nation+ and *%ic% eludes t%e strictest analysis
by t%e diversity and t%e nu)ber o' s%a"es under *%ic% it )ay occur# And+ indeed+ *e 'ind t%at t%e )ost ancient
civili-ed nations o' Euro"e+ includin& even t%ose in *%ic% t%e ad)inistration is )ost central+ %ave not succeeded+
as yet+ in deter)inin& t%e exact condition o' t%eir *ealt%#
In A)erica t%e atte)"t %as never been )ade6 'or %o* *ould suc% an investi&ation be "ossible in a country *%ere
society %as not yet settled into %abits o' re&ularity and tranquillity6 *%ere t%e national 9overn)ent is not assisted
by a )ulti"le o' a&ents *%ose exertions it can co))and and direct to one sole end6 and *%ere statistics are not
studied+ because no one is able to collect t%e necessary docu)ents+ or to 'ind ti)e to "eruse t%e)I T%us t%e
"ri)ary ele)ents o' t%e calculations *%ic% %ave been )ade in 5rance cannot be obtained in t%e (nion6 t%e
relative *ealt% o' t%e t*o countries is unno*n6 t%e "ro"erty o' t%e 'or)er is not accurately deter)ined+ and no
)eans exist o' co)"utin& t%at o' t%e latter#
I consent+ t%ere'ore+ 'or t%e sae o' t%e discussion+ to abandon t%is necessary ter) o' t%e co)"arison+ and I
con'ine )ysel' to a co)"utation o' t%e actual a)ount o' taxation+ *it%out investi&atin& t%e relation *%ic%
subsists bet*een t%e taxation and t%e revenue# But t%e reader *ill "erceive t%at )y tas %as not been 'acilitated
by t%e li)its *%ic% I %ere lay do*n 'or )y researc%es#
It cannot be doubted t%at t%e central ad)inistration o' 5rance+ assisted by all t%e "ublic o''icers *%o are at its
dis"osal+ )i&%t deter)ine *it% exactitude t%e a)ount o' t%e direct and indirect taxes levied u"on t%e citi-ens#
But t%is investi&ation+ *%ic% no "rivate individual can undertae+ %as not %it%erto been co)"leted by t%e 5renc%
9overn)ent+ or+ at least+ its results %ave not been )ade "ublic# ,e are acquainted *it% t%e su) total o' t%e
c%ar&es o' t%e !tate6 *e no* t%e a)ount o' t%e de"art)ental ex"enditure6 but t%e ex"enses o' t%e co))unal
divisions %ave not been co)"uted+ and t%e a)ount o' t%e "ublic ex"enses o' 5rance is consequently unno*n#
I' *e no* turn to A)erica+ *e s%all "erceive t%at t%e di''iculties are )ulti"lied and en%anced# T%e (nion
"ublis%es an exact return o' t%e a)ount o' its ex"enditure6 t%e bud&ets o' t%e 'our and t*enty !tates 'urnis%
si)ilar returns o' t%eir revenues6 but t%e ex"enses incident to t%e a''airs o' t%e counties and t%e to*ns%i"s are
unno*n# K
35ootnote @ T%e A)ericans+ as *e %ave seen+ %ave 'our se"arate bud&ets+ t%e (nion+ t%e !tates+ t%e Counties+
and t%e To*ns%i"s %avin& eac% severally t%eir o*n# Durin& )y stay in A)erica I )ade every endeavor to
discover t%e a)ount o' t%e "ublic ex"enditure in t%e to*ns%i"s and counties o' t%e "rinci"al !tates o' t%e (nion+
and I readily obtained t%e bud&et o' t%e lar&er to*ns%i"s+ but I 'ound it quite i)"ossible to "rocure t%at o' t%e
s)aller ones# I "ossess+ %o*ever+ so)e docu)ents relatin& to county ex"enses+ *%ic%+ alt%ou&% inco)"lete+ are
still curious# I %ave to t%an Mr# Ric%ards+ Mayor o' :%iladel"%ia+ 'or t%e bud&ets o' t%irteen o' t%e counties o'
:ennsylvania+ vi-#+ 8ebanon+ Centre+ 5ranlin+ 5ayette+ Mont&o)ery+ 8u-erne+ Dau"%in+ Butler+ Alle&%any+
Colu)bia+ Nort%a)"ton+ Nort%u)berland+ and :%iladel"%ia+ 'or t%e year ./0<# T%eir "o"ulation at t%at ti)e
consisted o' GBC+A<= in%abitants# On looin& at t%e )a" o' :ennsylvania+ it *ill be seen t%at t%ese t%irteen
counties are scattered in every direction+ and so &enerally a''ected by t%e causes *%ic% usually in'luence t%e
condition o' a country+ t%at t%ey )ay easily be su""osed to 'urnis% a correct avera&e o' t%e 'inancial state o' t%e
counties o' :ennsylvania in &eneral6 and t%us+ u"on reconin& t%at t%e ex"enses o' t%ese counties a)ounted in
t%e year ./0< to about N0;.+;C<+ or nearly =C cents 'or eac% in%abitant+ and calculatin& t%at eac% o' t%e)
contributed in t%e sa)e year about NA#CC to*ards t%e (nion+ and about =C cents to t%e !tate o' :ennsylvania+ it
a""ears t%at t%ey eac% contributed as t%eir s%are o' all t%e "ublic ex"enses >exce"t t%ose o' t%e to*ns%i"s? t%e
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su) o' NG#<C# T%is calculation is doubly inco)"lete+ as it a""lies only to a sin&le year and to one "art o' t%e
"ublic c%ar&es6 but it %as at least t%e )erit o' not bein& con7ectural#4
T%e aut%ority o' t%e 5ederal &overn)ent cannot obli&e t%e "rovincial &overn)ents to t%ro* any li&%t u"on t%is
"oint6 and even i' t%ese &overn)ents *ere inclined to a''ord t%eir si)ultaneous co1o"eration+ it )ay be doubted
*%et%er t%ey "ossess t%e )eans o' "rocurin& a satis'actory ans*er# Inde"endently o' t%e natural di''iculties o'
t%e tas+ t%e "olitical or&ani-ation o' t%e country *ould act as a %indrance to t%e success o' t%eir e''orts# T%e
county and to*n )a&istrates are not a""ointed by t%e aut%orities o' t%e !tate+ and t%ey are not sub7ected to t%eir
control# It is t%ere'ore very allo*able to su""ose t%at+ i' t%e !tate *as desirous o' obtainin& t%e returns *%ic% *e
require+ its desi&n *ould be counteracted by t%e ne&lect o' t%ose subordinate o''icers *%o) it *ould be obli&ed
to e)"loy# Kl It is+ in "oint o' 'act+ useless to inquire *%at t%e A)ericans )i&%t do to 'or*ard t%is inquiry+ since
it is certain t%at t%ey %ave %it%erto done not%in& at all# T%ere does not exist a sin&le individual at t%e "resent day+
in A)erica or in Euro"e+ *%o can in'or) us *%at eac% citi-en o' t%e (nion annually contributes to t%e "ublic
c%ar&es o' t%e nation# K) 35ootnote l@ T%ose *%o %ave atte)"ted to dra* a co)"arison bet*een t%e ex"enses o'
5rance and A)erica %ave at once "erceived t%at no suc% co)"arison could be dra*n bet*een t%e total
ex"enditure o' t%e t*o countries6 but t%ey %ave endeavored to contrast detac%ed "ortions o' t%is ex"enditure# It
)ay readily be s%o*n t%at t%is second syste) is not at all less de'ective t%an t%e 'irst# I' I atte)"t to co)"are t%e
5renc% bud&et *it% t%e bud&et o' t%e (nion+ it )ust be re)e)bered t%at t%e latter e)braces )uc% 'e*er ob7ects
t%an t%en central 9overn)ent o' t%e 'or)er country+ and t%at t%e ex"enditure )ust consequently be )uc%
s)aller# I' I contrast t%e bud&ets o' t%e De"art)ents *it% t%ose o' t%e !tates *%ic% constitute t%e (nion+ it )ust
be observed t%at+ as t%e "o*er and control exercised by t%e !tates is )uc% &reater t%an t%at *%ic% is exercised by
t%e De"art)ents+ t%eir ex"enditure is also )ore considerable# As 'or t%e bud&ets o' t%e counties+ not%in& o' t%e
ind occurs in t%e 5renc% syste) o' 'inances6 and it is+ a&ain+ doubt'ul *%et%er t%e corres"ondin& ex"enses
s%ould be re'erred to t%e bud&et o' t%e !tate or to t%ose o' t%e )unici"al divisions# Munici"al ex"enses exist in
bot% countries+ but t%ey are not al*ays analo&ous# In A)erica t%e to*ns%i"s disc%ar&e a variety o' o''ices *%ic%
are reserved in 5rance to t%e De"art)ents or to t%e !tate# It )ay+ )oreover+ be ased *%at is to be understood by
t%e )unici"al ex"enses o' A)erica# T%e or&ani-ation o' t%e )unici"al bodies or to*ns%i"s di''ers in t%e several
!tates# Are *e to be &uided by *%at occurs in Ne* En&land or in 9eor&ia+ in :ennsylvania or in t%e !tate o'
IllinoisI A ind o' analo&y )ay very readily be "erceived bet*een certain bud&ets in t%e t*o countries6 but as
t%e ele)ents o' *%ic% t%ey are co)"osed al*ays di''er )ore or less+ no 'air co)"arison can be instituted
bet*een t%e)# 3T%e sa)e di''iculty exists+ "er%a"s to a &reater de&ree at t%e "resent ti)e+ *%en t%e taxation o'
A)erica %as lar&ely increased#11./=G#44
35ootnote )@ Even i' *e ne* t%e exact "ecuniary contributions o' every 5renc% and A)erican citi-en to t%e
co''ers o' t%e !tate+ *e s%ould only co)e at a "ortion o' t%e trut%# 9overn)ents do not only de)and su""lies o'
)oney+ but t%ey call 'or "ersonal services+ *%ic% )ay be looed u"on as equivalent to a &iven su)# ,%en a
!tate raises an ar)y+ besides t%e "ay o' t%e troo"s+ *%ic% is 'urnis%ed by t%e entire nation+ eac% soldier )ust &ive
u" %is ti)e+ t%e value o' *%ic% de"ends on t%e use %e )i&%t )ae o' it i' %e *ere not in t%e service# T%e sa)e
re)ar a""lies to t%e )ilitia6 t%e citi-en *%o is in t%e )ilitia devotes a certain "ortion o' valuable ti)e to t%e
)aintenance o' t%e "ublic "eace+ and %e does in reality surrender to t%e !tate t%ose earnin&s *%ic% %e is
"revented 'ro) &ainin&# Many ot%er instances )i&%t be cited in addition to t%ese# T%e &overn)ents o' 5rance
and o' A)erica bot% levy taxes o' t%is ind+ *%ic% *ei&% u"on t%e citi-ens6 but *%o can esti)ate *it% accuracy
t%eir relative a)ount in t%e t*o countriesI
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T%is+ %o*ever+ is not t%e last o' t%e di''iculties *%ic% "revent us 'ro) co)"arin& t%e ex"enditure o' t%e (nion
*it% t%at o' 5rance# T%e 5renc% 9overn)ent contracts certain obli&ations *%ic% do not exist in A)erica+ and
vice versa# T%e 5renc% 9overn)ent "ays t%e cler&y6 in A)erica t%e voluntary "rinci"le "revails# In A)erica
t%ere is a le&al "rovision 'or t%e "oor6 in 5rance t%ey are abandoned to t%e c%arity o' t%e "ublic# T%e 5renc%
"ublic o''icers are "aid by a 'ixed salary6 in A)erica t%ey are allo*ed certain "erquisites# In 5rance contributions
in ind tae "lace on very 'e* roads6 in A)erica u"on al)ost all t%e t%orou&%'ares@ in t%e 'or)er country t%e
roads are 'ree to all travellers6 in t%e latter turn"ies abound# All t%ese di''erences in t%e )anner in *%ic%
contributions are levied in t%e t*o countries en%ance t%e di''iculty o' co)"arin& t%eir ex"enditure6 'or t%ere are
certain ex"enses *%ic% t%e citi-ens *ould not be sub7ect to+ or *%ic% *ould at any rate be )uc% less
considerable+ i' t%e !tate did not tae u"on itsel' to act in t%e na)e o' t%e "ublic#4
Hence *e )ust conclude t%at it is no less di''icult to co)"are t%e social ex"enditure t%an it is to esti)ate t%e
relative *ealt% o' 5rance and A)erica# I *ill even add t%at it *ould be dan&erous to atte)"t t%is co)"arison6 'or
*%en statistics are not based u"on co)"utations *%ic% are strictly accurate+ t%ey )islead instead o' &uidin&
ari&%t# T%e )ind is easily i)"osed u"on by t%e 'alse a''ectation o' exactness+ *%ic% "revails even in t%e
)isstate)ents o' science+ and it ado"ts *it% con'idence errors *%ic% are dressed in t%e 'or)s o' )at%e)atical
trut%#
,e abandon+ t%ere'ore+ our nu)erical investi&ation+ *it% t%e %o"e o' )eetin& *it% data o' anot%er ind# In t%e
absence o' "ositive docu)ents+ *e )ay 'or) an o"inion as to t%e "ro"ortion *%ic% t%e taxation o' a "eo"le bears
to its real "ros"erity+ by observin& *%et%er its external a""earance is 'louris%in&6 *%et%er+ a'ter %avin&
disc%ar&ed t%e calls o' t%e !tate+ t%e "oor )an retains t%e )eans o' subsistence+ and t%e ric% t%e )eans o'
en7oy)ent6 and *%et%er bot% classes are contented *it% t%eir "osition+ seein&+ %o*ever+ to a)eliorate it by
"er"etual exertions+ so t%at industry is never in *ant o' ca"ital+ nor ca"ital une)"loyed by industry# T%e observer
*%o dra*s %is in'erences 'ro) t%ese si&ns *ill+ undoubtedly+ be led to t%e conclusion t%at t%e A)erican o' t%e
(nited !tates contributes a )uc% s)aller "ortion o' %is inco)e to t%e !tate t%an t%e citi-en o' 5rance# Nor+
indeed+ can t%e result be ot%er*ise#
A "ortion o' t%e 5renc% debt is t%e consequence o' t*o successive invasions6 and t%e (nion %as no si)ilar
cala)ity to 'ear# A nation "laced u"on t%e continent o' Euro"e is obli&ed to )aintain a lar&e standin& ar)y6 t%e
isolated "osition o' t%e (nion enables it to %ave only ;+<<< soldiers# T%e 5renc% %ave a 'leet o' 0<< sail6 t%e
A)ericans %ave CA vessels# Kn Ho*+ t%en+ can t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nion be called u"on to contribute as
lar&ely as t%e in%abitants o' 5ranceI No "arallel can be dra*n bet*een t%e 'inances o' t*o countries so
di''erently situated#
35ootnote n@ !ee t%e details in t%e Bud&et o' t%e 5renc% Minister o' Marine6 and 'or A)erica+ t%e National
Calendar o' ./00+ "# AA/# 3But t%e "ublic debt o' t%e (nited !tates in ./=<+ caused by t%e Civil ,ar+ a)ounted
to NA+G/<+;=A+GA=6 t%at o' 5rance *as )ore t%an doubled by t%e extrava&ance o' t%e !econd E)"ire and by t%e
*ar o' ./=<#44
It is by exa)inin& *%at actually taes "lace in t%e (nion+ and not by co)"arin& t%e (nion *it% 5rance+ t%at *e
)ay discover *%et%er t%e A)erican 9overn)ent is really econo)ical# On castin& )y eyes over t%e di''erent
re"ublics *%ic% 'or) t%e con'ederation+ I "erceive t%at t%eir 9overn)ents lac "erseverance in t%eir
undertain&s+ and t%at t%ey exercise no steady control over t%e )en *%o) t%ey e)"loy# ,%ence I naturally in'er
t%at t%ey )ust o'ten s"end t%e )oney o' t%e "eo"le to no "ur"ose+ or consu)e )ore o' it t%an is really necessary
to t%eir undertain&s# 9reat e''orts are )ade+ in accordance *it% t%e de)ocratic ori&in o' society+ to satis'y t%e
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exi&encies o' t%e lo*er orders+ to o"en t%e career o' "o*er to t%eir endeavors+ and to di''use no*led&e and
co)'ort a)on&st t%e)# T%e "oor are )aintained+ i))ense su)s are annually devoted to "ublic instruction+ all
services *%atsoever are re)unerated+ and t%e )ost subordinate a&ents are liberally "aid# I' t%is ind o'
&overn)ent a""ears to )e to be use'ul and rational+ I a) nevert%eless constrained to ad)it t%at it is ex"ensive#
,%erever t%e "oor direct "ublic a''airs and dis"ose o' t%e national resources+ it a""ears certain t%at+ as t%ey
"ro'it by t%e ex"enditure o' t%e !tate+ t%ey are a"t to au&)ent t%at ex"enditure#
I conclude+ t%ere'ore+ *it%out %avin& recourse to inaccurate co)"utations+ and *it%out %a-ardin& a co)"arison
*%ic% )i&%t "rove incorrect+ t%at t%e de)ocratic &overn)ent o' t%e A)ericans is not a c%ea" &overn)ent+ as is
so)eti)es asserted6 and I %ave no %esitation in "redictin& t%at+ i' t%e "eo"le o' t%e (nited !tates is ever involved
in serious di''iculties+ its taxation *ill s"eedily be increased to t%e rate o' t%at *%ic% "revails in t%e &reater "art
o' t%e aristocracies and t%e )onarc%ies o' Euro"e# Ko
35ootnote o@ 3T%at is "recisely *%at %as since occurred#44
Chapter XIII
@ 9overn)ent O' T%e De)ocracy In A)erica11:art III
Corru"tion And Dices O' T%e Rulers In A De)ocracy+ And Consequent E''ects ("on :ublic Morality
In aristocracies rulers so)eti)es endeavor to corru"t t%e "eo"le11In de)ocracies rulers 'requently s%o*
t%e)selves to be corru"t11In t%e 'or)er t%eir vices are directly "re7udicial to t%e )orality o' t%e "eo"le11In t%e
latter t%eir indirect in'luence is still )ore "ernicious#
A distinction )ust be )ade+ *%en t%e aristocratic and t%e de)ocratic "rinci"les )utually invei&% a&ainst eac%
ot%er+ as tendin& to 'acilitate corru"tion# In aristocratic &overn)ents t%e individuals *%o are "laced at t%e %ead o'
a''airs are ric% )en+ *%o are solely desirous o' "o*er# In de)ocracies states)en are "oor+ and t%ey %ave t%eir
'ortunes to )ae# T%e consequence is t%at in aristocratic !tates t%e rulers are rarely accessible to corru"tion+ and
%ave very little cravin& 'or )oney6 *%ilst t%e reverse is t%e case in de)ocratic nations#
But in aristocracies+ as t%ose *%o are desirous o' arrivin& at t%e %ead o' a''airs are "ossessed o' considerable
*ealt%+ and as t%e nu)ber o' "ersons by *%ose assistance t%ey )ay rise is co)"aratively s)all+ t%e &overn)ent
is+ i' I )ay use t%e ex"ression+ "ut u" to a sort o' auction# In de)ocracies+ on t%e contrary+ t%ose *%o are
covetous o' "o*er are very seldo) *ealt%y+ and t%e nu)ber o' citi-ens *%o con'er t%at "o*er is extre)ely
&reat# :er%a"s in de)ocracies t%e nu)ber o' )en *%o )i&%t be bou&%t is by no )eans s)aller+ but buyers are
rarely to be )et *it%6 and+ besides+ it *ould be necessary to buy so )any "ersons at once t%at t%e atte)"t is
rendered nu&atory#
Many o' t%e )en *%o %ave been in t%e ad)inistration in 5rance durin& t%e last 'orty years %ave been accused o'
)ain& t%eir 'ortunes at t%e ex"ense o' t%e !tate or o' its allies6 a re"roac% *%ic% *as rarely addressed to t%e
"ublic c%aracters o' t%e ancient )onarc%y# But in 5rance t%e "ractice o' bribin& electors is al)ost unno*n+
*%ilst it is notoriously and "ublicly carried on in En&land# In t%e (nited !tates I never %eard a )an accused o'
s"endin& %is *ealt% in corru"tin& t%e "o"ulace6 but I %ave o'ten %eard t%e "robity o' "ublic o''icers questioned6
still )ore 'requently %ave I %eard t%eir success attributed to lo* intri&ues and i))oral "ractices#
I'+ t%en+ t%e )en *%o conduct t%e &overn)ent o' an aristocracy so)eti)es endeavor to corru"t t%e "eo"le+ t%e
%eads o' a de)ocracy are t%e)selves corru"t# In t%e 'or)er case t%e )orality o' t%e "eo"le is directly assailed6 in
t%e latter an indirect in'luence is exercised u"on t%e "eo"le *%ic% is still )ore to be dreaded#
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As t%e rulers o' de)ocratic nations are al)ost al*ays ex"osed to t%e sus"icion o' dis%onorable conduct+ t%ey in
so)e )easure lend t%e aut%ority o' t%e 9overn)ent to t%e base "ractices o' *%ic% t%ey are accused# T%ey t%us
a''ord an exa)"le *%ic% )ust "rove discoura&in& to t%e stru&&les o' virtuous inde"endence+ and )ust 'oster t%e
secret calculations o' a vicious a)bition# I' it be asserted t%at evil "assions are dis"layed in all rans o' society+
t%at t%ey ascend t%e t%rone by %ereditary ri&%t+ and t%at des"icable c%aracters are to be )et *it% at t%e %ead o'
aristocratic nations as *ell as in t%e s"%ere o' a de)ocracy+ t%is ob7ection %as but little *ei&%t in )y esti)ation#
T%e corru"tion o' )en *%o %ave casually risen to "o*er %as a coarse and vul&ar in'ection in it *%ic% renders it
conta&ious to t%e )ultitude# On t%e contrary+ t%ere is a ind o' aristocratic re'ine)ent and an air o' &randeur in
t%e de"ravity o' t%e &reat+ *%ic% 'requently "revent it 'ro) s"readin& abroad#
T%e "eo"le can never "enetrate into t%e "er"lexin& labyrint% o' court intri&ue+ and it *ill al*ays %ave di''iculty
in detectin& t%e tur"itude *%ic% lurs under ele&ant )anners+ re'ined tastes+ and &race'ul lan&ua&e# But to "illa&e
t%e "ublic "urse+ and to vend t%e 'avors o' t%e !tate+ are arts *%ic% t%e )eanest villain )ay co)"re%end+ and
%o"e to "ractice in %is turn#
In reality it is 'ar less "re7udicial to *itness t%e i))orality o' t%e &reat t%an to *itness t%at i))orality *%ic%
leads to &reatness# In a de)ocracy "rivate citi-ens see a )an o' t%eir o*n ran in li'e+ *%o rises 'ro) t%at
obscure "osition+ and *%o beco)es "ossessed o' ric%es and o' "o*er in a 'e* years6 t%e s"ectacle excites t%eir
sur"rise and t%eir envy+ and t%ey are led to inquire %o* t%e "erson *%o *as yesterday t%eir equal is to1day t%eir
ruler# To attribute %is rise to %is talents or %is virtues is un"leasant6 'or it is tacitly to acno*led&e t%at t%ey are
t%e)selves less virtuous and less talented t%an %e *as# T%ey are t%ere'ore led >and not un'requently t%eir
con7ecture is a correct one? to i)"ute %is success )ainly to so)e one o' %is de'ects6 and an odious )ixture is
t%us 'or)ed o' t%e ideas o' tur"itude and "o*er+ un*ort%iness and success+ utility and dis%onor#
E''orts O' ,%ic% A De)ocracy Is Ca"able
T%e (nion %as only %ad one stru&&le %it%erto 'or its existence11Ent%usias) at t%e co))ence)ent o' t%e *ar11
Indi''erence to*ards its close11Di''iculty o' establis%in& )ilitary conscri"tion or i)"ress)ent o' sea)en in
A)erica11,%y a de)ocratic "eo"le is less ca"able o' sustained e''ort t%an anot%er#
I %ere *arn t%e reader t%at I s"ea o' a &overn)ent *%ic% i)"licitly 'ollo*s t%e real desires o' a "eo"le+ and not
o' a &overn)ent *%ic% si)"ly co))ands in its na)e# Not%in& is so irresistible as a tyrannical "o*er
co))andin& in t%e na)e o' t%e "eo"le+ because+ *%ilst it exercises t%at )oral in'luence *%ic% belon&s to t%e
decision o' t%e )a7ority+ it acts at t%e sa)e ti)e *it% t%e "ro)"titude and t%e tenacity o' a sin&le )an#
It is di''icult to say *%at de&ree o' exertion a de)ocratic &overn)ent )ay be ca"able o' )ain& a crisis in t%e
%istory o' t%e nation# But no &reat de)ocratic re"ublic %as %it%erto existed in t%e *orld# To style t%e oli&arc%y
*%ic% ruled over 5rance in .=B0 by t%at na)e *ould be to o''er an insult to t%e re"ublican 'or) o' &overn)ent#
T%e (nited !tates a''ord t%e 'irst exa)"le o' t%e ind#
T%e A)erican (nion %as no* subsisted 'or %al' a century+ in t%e course o' *%ic% ti)e its existence %as only
once been attaced+ na)ely+ durin& t%e ,ar o' Inde"endence# At t%e co))ence)ent o' t%at lon& *ar+ various
occurrences too "lace *%ic% betoened an extraordinary -eal 'or t%e service o' t%e country# K" But as t%e
contest *as "rolon&ed+ sy)"to)s o' "rivate e&otis) be&an to s%o* t%e)selves# No )oney *as "oured into t%e
"ublic treasury6 'e* recruits could be raised to 7oin t%e ar)y6 t%e "eo"le *is%ed to acquire inde"endence+ but
*as very ill1dis"osed to under&o t%e "rivations by *%ic% alone it could be obtained# 2Tax la*s+2 says Ha)ilton
in t%e 25ederalist2 >No# .A?+ 2%ave in vain been )ulti"lied6 ne* )et%ods to en'orce t%e collection %ave in vain
been tried6 t%e "ublic ex"ectation %as been uni'or)ly disa""ointed and t%e treasuries o' t%e !tates %ave re)ained
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e)"ty# T%e "o"ular syste) o' ad)inistration in%erent in t%e nature o' "o"ular &overn)ent+ coincidin& *it% t%e
real scarcity o' )oney incident to a lan&uid and )utilated state o' trade+ %as %it%erto de'eated every ex"eri)ent
'or extensive collections+ and %as at len&t% tau&%t t%e di''erent le&islatures t%e 'olly o' atte)"tin& t%e)#2
35ootnote "@ One o' t%e )ost sin&ular o' t%ese occurrences *as t%e resolution *%ic% t%e A)ericans too o'
te)"orarily abandonin& t%e use o' tea# T%ose *%o no* t%at )en usually clin& )ore to t%eir %abits t%an to t%eir
li'e *ill doubtless ad)ire t%is &reat t%ou&% obscure sacri'ice *%ic% *as )ade by a *%ole "eo"le#4
T%e (nited !tates %ave not %ad any serious *ar to carry on ever since t%at "eriod# In order+ t%ere'ore+ to
a""reciate t%e sacri'ices *%ic% de)ocratic nations )ay i)"ose u"on t%e)selves+ *e )ust *ait until t%e
A)erican "eo"le is obli&ed to "ut %al' its entire inco)e at t%e dis"osal o' t%e 9overn)ent+ as *as done by t%e
En&lis%6 or until it sends 'ort% a t*entiet% "art o' its "o"ulation to t%e 'ield o' battle+ as *as done by 5rance# Kq
35ootnote q@ 3T%e Civil ,ar s%o*ed t%at *%en t%e necessity arose t%e A)erican "eo"le+ bot% in t%e Nort% and in
t%e !out%+ are ca"able o' )ain& t%e )ost enor)ous sacri'ices+ bot% in )oney and in )en#44
In A)erica t%e use o' conscri"tion is unno*n+ and )en are induced to enlist by bounties# T%e notions and
%abits o' t%e "eo"le o' t%e (nited !tates are so o""osed to co)"ulsory enlist)ent t%at I do not i)a&ine it can
ever be sanctioned by t%e la*s# ,%at is ter)ed t%e conscri"tion in 5rance is assuredly t%e %eaviest tax u"on t%e
"o"ulation o' t%at country6 yet %o* could a &reat continental *ar be carried on *it%out itI T%e A)ericans %ave
not ado"ted t%e Britis% i)"ress)ent o' sea)en+ and t%ey %ave not%in& *%ic% corres"onds to t%e 5renc% syste)
o' )ariti)e conscri"tion6 t%e navy+ as *ell as t%e )erc%ant service+ is su""lied by voluntary service# But it is not
easy to conceive %o* a "eo"le can sustain a &reat )ariti)e *ar *it%out %avin& recourse to one or t%e ot%er o'
t%ese t*o syste)s# Indeed+ t%e (nion+ *%ic% %as 'ou&%t *it% so)e %onor u"on t%e seas+ %as never "ossessed a
very nu)erous 'leet+ and t%e equi")ent o' t%e s)all nu)ber o' A)erican vessels %as al*ays been excessively
ex"ensive#
I %ave %eard A)erican states)en con'ess t%at t%e (nion *ill %ave &reat di''iculty in )aintainin& its ran on t%e
seas *it%out ado"tin& t%e syste) o' i)"ress)ent or o' )ariti)e conscri"tion6 but t%e di''iculty is to induce t%e
"eo"le+ *%ic% exercises t%e su"re)e aut%ority+ to sub)it to i)"ress)ent or any co)"ulsory syste)#
It is incontestable t%at in ti)es o' dan&er a 'ree "eo"le dis"lays 'ar )ore ener&y t%an one *%ic% is not so# But I
incline to believe t%at t%is is )ore es"ecially t%e case in t%ose 'ree nations in *%ic% t%e de)ocratic ele)ent
"re"onderates# De)ocracy a""ears to )e to be )uc% better ada"ted 'or t%e "eace'ul conduct o' society+ or 'or an
occasional e''ort o' re)arable vi&or+ t%an 'or t%e %ardy and "rolon&ed endurance o' t%e stor)s *%ic% beset t%e
"olitical existence o' nations# T%e reason is very evident6 it is ent%usias) *%ic% "ro)"ts )en to ex"ose
t%e)selves to dan&ers and "rivations+ but t%ey *ill not su""ort t%e) lon& *it%out re'lection# T%ere is )ore
calculation+ even in t%e i)"ulses o' bravery+ t%an is &enerally attributed to t%e)6 and alt%ou&% t%e 'irst e''orts are
su&&ested by "assion+ "erseverance is )aintained by a distinct re&ard o' t%e "ur"ose in vie*# A "ortion o' *%at
*e value is ex"osed+ in order to save t%e re)ainder#
But it is t%is distinct "erce"tion o' t%e 'uture+ 'ounded u"on a sound 7ud&)ent and an enli&%tened ex"erience+
*%ic% is )ost 'requently *antin& in de)ocracies# T%e "o"ulace is )ore a"t to 'eel t%an to reason6 and i' its
"resent su''erin&s are &reat+ it is to be 'eared t%at t%e still &reater su''erin&s attendant u"on de'eat *ill be
'or&otten#
Anot%er cause tends to render t%e e''orts o' a de)ocratic &overn)ent less "erseverin& t%an t%ose o' an
aristocracy# Not only are t%e lo*er classes less a*aened t%an t%e %i&%er orders to t%e &ood or evil c%ances o'
t%e 'uture+ but t%ey are liable to su''er 'ar )ore acutely 'ro) "resent "rivations# T%e noble ex"oses %is li'e+
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indeed+ but t%e c%ance o' &lory is equal to t%e c%ance o' %ar)# I' %e sacri'ices a lar&e "ortion o' %is inco)e to t%e
!tate+ %e de"rives %i)sel' 'or a ti)e o' t%e "leasures o' a''luence6 but to t%e "oor )an deat% is e)bellis%ed by no
"o)" or reno*n+ and t%e i)"osts *%ic% are irso)e to t%e ric% are 'atal to %i)#
T%is relative i)"otence o' de)ocratic re"ublics is+ "er%a"s+ t%e &reatest obstacle to t%e 'oundation o' a re"ublic
o' t%is ind in Euro"e# In order t%at suc% a !tate s%ould subsist in one country o' t%e Old ,orld+ it *ould be
necessary t%at si)ilar institutions s%ould be introduced into all t%e ot%er nations#
I a) o' o"inion t%at a de)ocratic &overn)ent tends in t%e end to increase t%e real stren&t% o' society6 but it can
never co)bine+ u"on a sin&le "oint and at a &iven ti)e+ so )uc% "o*er as an aristocracy or a )onarc%y# I' a
de)ocratic country re)ained durin& a *%ole century sub7ect to a re"ublican &overn)ent+ it *ould "robably at
t%e end o' t%at "eriod be )ore "o"ulous and )ore "ros"erous t%an t%e nei&%borin& des"otic !tates# But it *ould
%ave incurred t%e ris o' bein& conquered )uc% o'tener t%an t%ey *ould in t%at la"se o' years#
!el'1Control O' T%e A)erican De)ocracy
T%e A)erican "eo"le acquiesces slo*ly+ or 'requently does not acquiesce+ in *%at is bene'icial to its interests11
T%e 'aults o' t%e A)erican de)ocracy are 'or t%e )ost "art re"arable#
T%e di''iculty *%ic% a de)ocracy %as in conquerin& t%e "assions and in subduin& t%e exi&encies o' t%e )o)ent+
*it% a vie* to t%e 'uture+ is cons"icuous in t%e )ost trivial occurrences o' t%e (nited !tates# T%e "eo"le+ *%ic%
is surrounded by 'latterers+ %as &reat di''iculty in sur)ountin& its inclinations+ and *%enever it is solicited to
under&o a "rivation or any ind o' inconvenience+ even to attain an end *%ic% is sanctioned by its o*n rational
conviction+ it al)ost al*ays re'uses to co)"ly at 'irst# T%e de'erence o' t%e A)ericans to t%e la*s %as been very
7ustly a""lauded6 but it )ust be added t%at in A)erica t%e le&islation is )ade by t%e "eo"le and 'or t%e "eo"le#
Consequently+ in t%e (nited !tates t%e la* 'avors t%ose classes *%ic% are )ost interested in evadin& it else*%ere#
It )ay t%ere'ore be su""osed t%at an o''ensive la*+ *%ic% s%ould not be acno*led&ed to be one o' i))ediate
utility+ *ould eit%er not be enacted or *ould not be obeyed#
In A)erica t%ere is no la* a&ainst 'raudulent banru"tcies6 not because t%ey are 'e*+ but because t%ere are a
&reat nu)ber o' banru"tcies# T%e dread o' bein& "rosecuted as a banru"t acts *it% )ore intensity u"on t%e
)ind o' t%e )a7ority o' t%e "eo"le t%an t%e 'ear o' bein& involved in losses or ruin by t%e 'ailure o' ot%er "arties+
and a sort o' &uilty tolerance is extended by t%e "ublic conscience to an o''ence *%ic% everyone conde)ns in %is
individual ca"acity# In t%e ne* !tates o' t%e !out%*est t%e citi-ens &enerally tae 7ustice into t%eir o*n %ands+
and )urders are o' very 'requent occurrence# T%is arises 'ro) t%e rude )anners and t%e i&norance o' t%e
in%abitants o' t%ose deserts+ *%o do not "erceive t%e utility o' investin& t%e la* *it% adequate 'orce+ and *%o
"re'er duels to "rosecutions#
!o)eone observed to )e one day+ in :%iladel"%ia+ t%at al)ost all cri)es in A)erica are caused by t%e abuse o'
intoxicatin& liquors+ *%ic% t%e lo*er classes can "rocure in &reat abundance+ 'ro) t%eir excessive c%ea"ness#
2Ho* co)es it+2 said I+ 2t%at you do not "ut a duty u"on brandyI2 2Our le&islators+2 re7oined )y in'or)ant+
2%ave 'requently t%ou&%t o' t%is ex"edient6 but t%e tas o' "uttin& it in o"eration is a di''icult one6 a revolt )i&%t
be a""re%ended+ and t%e )e)bers *%o s%ould vote 'or a la* o' t%is ind *ould be sure o' losin& t%eir seats#2
2,%ence I a) to in'er+2 re"lied I+ 2t%at t%e drinin& "o"ulation constitutes t%e )a7ority in your country+ and t%at
te)"erance is so)e*%at un"o"ular#2
,%en t%ese t%in&s are "ointed out to t%e A)erican states)en+ t%ey content t%e)selves *it% assurin& you t%at
ti)e *ill o"erate t%e necessary c%an&e+ and t%at t%e ex"erience o' evil *ill teac% t%e "eo"le its true interests#
T%is is 'requently true+ alt%ou&% a de)ocracy is )ore liable to error t%an a )onarc% or a body o' nobles6 t%e
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c%ances o' its re&ainin& t%e ri&%t "at% *%en once it %as acno*led&ed its )istae+ are &reater also6 because it is
rarely e)barrassed by internal interests+ *%ic% con'lict *it% t%ose o' t%e )a7ority+ and resist t%e aut%ority o'
reason# But a de)ocracy can only obtain trut% as t%e result o' ex"erience+ and )any nations )ay 'or'eit t%eir
existence *%ilst t%ey are a*aitin& t%e consequences o' t%eir errors#
T%e &reat "rivile&e o' t%e A)ericans does not si)"ly consist in t%eir bein& )ore enli&%tened t%an ot%er nations+
but in t%eir bein& able to re"air t%e 'aults t%ey )ay co))it# To *%ic% it )ust be added+ t%at a de)ocracy cannot
derive substantial bene'it 'ro) "ast ex"erience+ unless it be arrived at a certain "itc% o' no*led&e and
civili-ation# T%ere are tribes and "eo"les *%ose education %as been so vicious+ and *%ose c%aracter "resents so
stran&e a )ixture o' "assion+ o' i&norance+ and o' erroneous notions u"on all sub7ects+ t%at t%ey are unable to
discern t%e causes o' t%eir o*n *retc%edness+ and t%ey 'all a sacri'ice to ills *it% *%ic% t%ey are unacquainted#
I %ave crossed vast tracts o' country t%at *ere 'or)erly in%abited by "o*er'ul Indian nations *%ic% are no*
extinct6 I %ave )ysel' "assed so)e ti)e in t%e )idst o' )utilated tribes+ *%ic% *itness t%e daily decline o' t%eir
nu)erical stren&t% and o' t%e &lory o' t%eir inde"endence6 and I %ave %eard t%ese Indians t%e)selves antici"ate
t%e i)"endin& doo) o' t%eir race# Every Euro"ean can "erceive )eans *%ic% *ould rescue t%ese un'ortunate
bein&s 'ro) inevitable destruction# T%ey alone are insensible to t%e ex"edient6 t%ey 'eel t%e *oe *%ic% year a'ter
year %ea"s u"on t%eir %eads+ but t%ey *ill "eris% to a )an *it%out acce"tin& t%e re)edy# It *ould be necessary to
e)"loy 'orce to induce t%e) to sub)it to t%e "rotection and t%e constraint o' civili-ation#
T%e incessant revolutions *%ic% %ave convulsed t%e !out% A)erican "rovinces 'or t%e last quarter o' a century
%ave 'requently been adverted to *it% astonis%)ent+ and ex"ectations %ave been ex"ressed t%at t%ose nations
*ould s"eedily return to t%eir natural state# But can it be a''ir)ed t%at t%e tur)oil o' revolution is not actually t%e
)ost natural state o' t%e !out% A)erican !"aniards at t%e "resent ti)eI In t%at country society is "lun&ed into
di''iculties 'ro) *%ic% all its e''orts are insu''icient to rescue it# T%e in%abitants o' t%at 'air "ortion o' t%e
,estern He)is"%ere see) obstinately bent on "ursuin& t%e *or o' in*ard %avoc# I' t%ey 'all into a )o)entary
re"ose 'ro) t%e e''ects o' ex%austion+ t%at re"ose "re"ares t%e) 'or a 'res% state o' 'ren-y# ,%en I consider t%eir
condition+ *%ic% alternates bet*een )isery and cri)e+ I s%ould be inclined to believe t%at des"otis) itsel' *ould
be a bene'it to t%e)+ i' it *ere "ossible t%at t%e *ords des"otis) and bene'it could ever be united in )y )ind#
Conduct O' 5orei&n A''airs By T%e A)erican De)ocracy
Direction &iven to t%e 'orei&n "olicy o' t%e (nited !tates by ,as%in&ton and $e''erson11Al)ost all t%e de'ects
in%erent in de)ocratic institutions are brou&%t to li&%t in t%e conduct o' 'orei&n a''airs11T%eir advanta&es are less
"erce"tible#
,e %ave seen t%at t%e 5ederal Constitution entrusts t%e "er)anent direction o' t%e external interests o' t%e nation
to t%e :resident and t%e !enate+ Kr *%ic% tends in so)e de&ree to detac% t%e &eneral 'orei&n "olicy o' t%e (nion
'ro) t%e control o' t%e "eo"le# It cannot t%ere'ore be asserted *it% trut% t%at t%e external a''airs o' !tate are
conducted by t%e de)ocracy#
35ootnote r@ 2T%e :resident+2 says t%e Constitution+ Art# II+ sect# A+ !ection A+ 2s%all %ave "o*er+ by and *it% t%e
advice and consent o' t%e !enate+ to )ae treaties+ "rovided t*o1t%irds o' t%e senators "resent concur#2 T%e
reader is re)inded t%at t%e senators are returned 'or a ter) o' six years+ and t%at t%ey are c%osen by t%e
le&islature o' eac% !tate#4
T%e "olicy o' A)erica o*es its rise to ,as%in&ton+ and a'ter %i) to $e''erson+ *%o establis%ed t%ose "rinci"les
*%ic% it observes at t%e "resent day# ,as%in&ton said in t%e ad)irable letter *%ic% %e addressed to %is 'ello*1
citi-ens+ and *%ic% )ay be looed u"on as %is "olitical bequest to t%e country@ 2T%e &reat rule o' conduct 'or us
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in re&ard to 'orei&n nations is+ in extendin& our co))ercial relations+ to %ave *it% t%e) as little "olitical
connection as "ossible# !o 'ar as *e %ave already 'or)ed en&a&e)ents+ let t%e) be 'ul'illed *it% "er'ect &ood
'ait%# Here let us sto"# Euro"e %as a set o' "ri)ary interests *%ic% to us %ave none+ or a very re)ote relation#
Hence+ s%e )ust be en&a&ed in 'requent controversies+ t%e causes o' *%ic% are essentially 'orei&n to our
concerns# Hence+ t%ere'ore+ it )ust be un*ise in us to i)"licate ourselves+ by arti'icial ties+ in t%e ordinary
vicissitudes o' %er "olitics+ or t%e ordinary co)binations and collisions o' %er 'riends%i"s or en)ities# Our
detac%ed and distant situation invites and enables us to "ursue a di''erent course# I' *e re)ain one "eo"le+ under
an e''icient &overn)ent+ t%e "eriod is not 'ar o'' *%en *e )ay de'y )aterial in7ury 'ro) external annoyance6
*%en *e )ay tae suc% an attitude as *ill cause t%e neutrality *e )ay at any ti)e resolve u"on to be
scru"ulously res"ected6 *%en belli&erent nations+ under t%e i)"ossibility o' )ain& acquisitions u"on us+ *ill
not li&%tly %a-ard t%e &ivin& us "rovocation6 *%en *e )ay c%oose "eace or *ar+ as our interest+ &uided by
7ustice+ s%all counsel# ,%y 'ore&o t%e advanta&es o' so "eculiar a situationI ,%y quit our o*n to stand u"on
'orei&n &roundI ,%y+ by inter*eavin& our destiny *it% t%at o' any "art o' Euro"e+ entan&le our "eace and
"ros"erity in t%e toils o' Euro"ean a)bition+ rivals%i"+ interest+ %u)or+ or ca"riceI It is our true "olicy to steer
clear o' "er)anent alliances *it% any "ortion o' t%e 'orei&n *orld6 so 'ar+ I )ean+ as *e are no* at liberty to do
it6 'or let )e not be understood as ca"able o' "atroni-in& in'idelity to existin& en&a&e)ents# I %old t%e )axi) no
less a""licable to "ublic t%an to "rivate a''airs+ t%at %onesty is al*ays t%e best "olicy# I re"eat it6 t%ere'ore+ let
t%ose en&a&e)ents be observed in t%eir &enuine sense6 but in )y o"inion it is unnecessary+ and *ould be un*ise+
to extend t%e)# Tain& care al*ays to ee" ourselves+ by suitable establis%)ents+ in a res"ectable de'ensive
"osture+ *e )ay sa'ely trust to te)"orary alliances 'or extraordinary e)er&encies#2 In a "revious "art o' t%e
sa)e letter ,as%in&ton )aes t%e 'ollo*in& ad)irable and 7ust re)ar@ 2T%e nation *%ic% indul&es to*ards
anot%er an %abitual %atred or an %abitual 'ondness is in so)e de&ree a slave# It is a slave to its ani)osity or to its
a''ection+ eit%er o' *%ic% is su''icient to lead it astray 'ro) its duty and its interest#2
T%e "olitical conduct o' ,as%in&ton *as al*ays &uided by t%ese )axi)s# He succeeded in )aintainin& %is
country in a state o' "eace *%ilst all t%e ot%er nations o' t%e &lobe *ere at *ar6 and %e laid it do*n as a
'unda)ental doctrine+ t%at t%e true interest o' t%e A)ericans consisted in a "er'ect neutrality *it% re&ard to t%e
internal dissensions o' t%e Euro"ean :o*ers#
$e''erson *ent still 'urt%er+ and %e introduced a )axi) into t%e "olicy o' t%e (nion+ *%ic% a''ir)s t%at 2t%e
A)ericans ou&%t never to solicit any "rivile&es 'ro) 'orei&n nations+ in order not to be obli&ed to &rant si)ilar
"rivile&es t%e)selves#2
T%ese t*o "rinci"les+ *%ic% *ere so "lain and so 7ust as to be ada"ted to t%e ca"acity o' t%e "o"ulace+ %ave
&reatly si)"li'ied t%e 'orei&n "olicy o' t%e (nited !tates# As t%e (nion taes no "art in t%e a''airs o' Euro"e+ it
%as+ "ro"erly s"eain&+ no 'orei&n interests to discuss+ since it %as at "resent no "o*er'ul nei&%bors on t%e
A)erican continent# T%e country is as )uc% re)oved 'ro) t%e "assions o' t%e Old ,orld by its "osition as by
t%e line o' "olicy *%ic% it %as c%osen+ and it is neit%er called u"on to re"udiate nor to es"ouse t%e con'lictin&
interests o' Euro"e6 *%ilst t%e dissensions o' t%e Ne* ,orld are still concealed *it%in t%e boso) o' t%e 'uture#
T%e (nion is 'ree 'ro) all "re1existin& obli&ations+ and it is consequently enabled to "ro'it by t%e ex"erience o'
t%e old nations o' Euro"e+ *it%out bein& obli&ed+ as t%ey are+ to )ae t%e best o' t%e "ast+ and to ada"t it to t%eir
"resent circu)stances6 or to acce"t t%at i))ense in%eritance *%ic% t%ey derive 'ro) t%eir 'ore'at%ers11an
in%eritance o' &lory )in&led *it% cala)ities+ and o' alliances con'lictin& *it% national anti"at%ies# T%e 'orei&n
"olicy o' t%e (nited !tates is reduced by its very nature to a*ait t%e c%ances o' t%e 'uture %istory o' t%e nation+
and 'or t%e "resent it consists )ore in abstainin& 'ro) inter'erence t%an in exertin& its activity#
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It is t%ere'ore very di''icult to ascertain+ at "resent+ *%at de&ree o' sa&acity t%e A)erican de)ocracy *ill dis"lay
in t%e conduct o' t%e 'orei&n "olicy o' t%e country6 and u"on t%is "oint its adversaries+ as *ell as its advocates+
)ust sus"end t%eir 7ud&)ent# As 'or )ysel' I %ave no %esitation in avo*in& )y conviction+ t%at it is )ost
es"ecially in t%e conduct o' 'orei&n relations t%at de)ocratic &overn)ents a""ear to )e to be decidedly in'erior
to &overn)ents carried on u"on di''erent "rinci"les# Ex"erience+ instruction+ and %abit )ay al)ost al*ays
succeed in creatin& a s"ecies o' "ractical discretion in de)ocracies+ and t%at science o' t%e daily occurrences o'
li'e *%ic% is called &ood sense# 9ood sense )ay su''ice to direct t%e ordinary course o' society6 and a)on&st a
"eo"le *%ose education %as been "rovided 'or+ t%e advanta&es o' de)ocratic liberty in t%e internal a''airs o' t%e
country )ay )ore t%an co)"ensate 'or t%e evils in%erent in a de)ocratic &overn)ent# But suc% is not al*ays t%e
case in t%e )utual relations o' 'orei&n nations#
5orei&n "olitics de)and scarcely any o' t%ose qualities *%ic% a de)ocracy "ossesses6 and t%ey require+ on t%e
contrary+ t%e "er'ect use o' al)ost all t%ose 'aculties in *%ic% it is de'icient# De)ocracy is 'avorable to t%e
increase o' t%e internal resources o' t%e !tate6 it tends to di''use a )oderate inde"endence6 it "ro)otes t%e
&ro*t% o' "ublic s"irit+ and 'orti'ies t%e res"ect *%ic% is entertained 'or la* in all classes o' society6 and t%ese
are advanta&es *%ic% only exercise an indirect in'luence over t%e relations *%ic% one "eo"le bears to anot%er#
But a de)ocracy is unable to re&ulate t%e details o' an i)"ortant undertain&+ to "ersevere in a desi&n+ and to
*or out its execution in t%e "resence o' serious obstacles# It cannot co)bine its )easures *it% secrecy+ and it
*ill not a*ait t%eir consequences *it% "atience# T%ese are qualities *%ic% )ore es"ecially belon& to an
individual or to an aristocracy6 and t%ey are "recisely t%e )eans by *%ic% an individual "eo"le attains to a
"redo)inant "osition#
I'+ on t%e contrary+ *e observe t%e natural de'ects o' aristocracy+ *e s%all 'ind t%at t%eir in'luence is
co)"aratively innoxious in t%e direction o' t%e external a''airs o' a !tate# T%e ca"ital 'ault o' *%ic% aristocratic
bodies )ay be accused is t%at t%ey are )ore a"t to contrive t%eir o*n advanta&e t%an t%at o' t%e )ass o' t%e
"eo"le# In 'orei&n "olitics it is rare 'or t%e interest o' t%e aristocracy to be in any *ay distinct 'ro) t%at o' t%e
"eo"le#
T%e "ro"ensity *%ic% de)ocracies %ave to obey t%e i)"ulse o' "assion rat%er t%an t%e su&&estions o' "rudence+
and to abandon a )ature desi&n 'or t%e &rati'ication o' a )o)entary ca"rice+ *as very clearly seen in A)erica
on t%e breain& out o' t%e 5renc% Revolution# It *as t%en as evident to t%e si)"lest ca"acity as it is at t%e "resent
ti)e t%at t%e interest o' t%e A)ericans 'orbade t%e) to tae any "art in t%e contest *%ic% *as about to delu&e
Euro"e *it% blood+ but *%ic% could by no )eans in7ure t%e *el'are o' t%eir o*n country# Nevert%eless t%e
sy)"at%ies o' t%e "eo"le declared t%e)selves *it% so )uc% violence in be%al' o' 5rance t%at not%in& but t%e
in'lexible c%aracter o' ,as%in&ton+ and t%e i))ense "o"ularity *%ic% %e en7oyed+ could %ave "revented t%e
A)ericans 'ro) declarin& *ar a&ainst En&land# And even t%en+ t%e exertions *%ic% t%e austere reason o' t%at
&reat )an )ade to re"ress t%e &enerous but i)"rudent "assions o' %is 'ello*1citi-ens+ very nearly de"rived %i)
o' t%e sole reco)"ense *%ic% %e %ad ever clai)ed11t%at o' %is countryFs love# T%e )a7ority t%en re"robated t%e
line o' "olicy *%ic% %e ado"ted+ and *%ic% %as since been unani)ously a""roved by t%e nation# Ks I' t%e
Constitution and t%e 'avor o' t%e "ublic %ad not entrusted t%e direction o' t%e 'orei&n a''airs o' t%e country to
,as%in&ton+ it is certain t%at t%e A)erican nation *ould at t%at ti)e %ave taen t%e very )easures *%ic% it no*
conde)ns#
35ootnote s@ !ee t%e 'i't% volu)e o' Mars%allFs 28i'e o' ,as%in&ton#2 In a &overn)ent constituted lie t%at o' t%e
(nited !tates+ %e says+ 2it is i)"ossible 'or t%e c%ie' )a&istrate+ %o*ever 'ir) %e )ay be+ to o""ose 'or any
len&t% o' ti)e t%e torrent o' "o"ular o"inion6 and t%e "revalent o"inion o' t%at day see)ed to incline to *ar# In
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'act+ in t%e session o' Con&ress %eld at t%e ti)e+ it *as 'requently seen t%at ,as%in&ton %ad lost t%e )a7ority in
t%e House o' Re"resentatives#2 T%e violence o' t%e lan&ua&e used a&ainst %i) in "ublic *as extre)e+ and in a
"olitical )eetin& t%ey did not scru"le to co)"are %i) indirectly to t%e treac%erous Arnold# 2By t%e o""osition+2
says Mars%all+ 2t%e 'riends o' t%e ad)inistration *ere declared to be an aristocratic and corru"t 'action+ *%o+
'ro) a desire to introduce )onarc%y+ *ere %ostile to 5rance and under t%e in'luence o' Britain6 t%at t%ey *ere a
"a"er nobility+ *%ose extre)e sensibility at every )easure *%ic% t%reatened t%e 'unds+ induced a ta)e
sub)ission to in7uries and insults+ *%ic% t%e interests and %onor o' t%e nation required t%e) to resist#24
Al)ost all t%e nations *%ic% %ave ever exercised a "o*er'ul in'luence u"on t%e destinies o' t%e *orld by
conceivin&+ 'ollo*in& u"+ and executin& vast desi&ns11'ro) t%e Ro)ans to t%e En&lis%11%ave been &overned by
aristocratic institutions# Nor *ill t%is be a sub7ect o' *onder *%en *e recollect t%at not%in& in t%e *orld %as so
absolute a 'ixity o' "ur"ose as an aristocracy# T%e )ass o' t%e "eo"le )ay be led astray by i&norance or "assion6
t%e )ind o' a in& )ay be biased+ and %is "erseverance in %is desi&ns )ay be s%aen11besides *%ic% a in& is
not i))ortal11but an aristocratic body is too nu)erous to be led astray by t%e blandis%)ents o' intri&ue+ and yet
not nu)erous enou&% to yield readily to t%e intoxicatin& in'luence o' unre'lectin& "assion@ it %as t%e ener&y o' a
'ir) and enli&%tened individual+ added to t%e "o*er *%ic% it derives 'ro) "er"etuity#
Chapter XIV
@ Advanta&es A)erican !ociety Derive 5ro) De)ocracy11:art I
,%at T%e Real Advanta&es Are ,%ic% A)erican !ociety Derives 5ro) T%e 9overn)ent O' T%e De)ocracy
Be'ore I enter u"on t%e sub7ect o' t%e "resent c%a"ter I a) induced to re)ind t%e reader o' *%at I %ave )ore t%an
once adverted to in t%e course o' t%is boo# T%e "olitical institutions o' t%e (nited !tates a""ear to )e to be one
o' t%e 'or)s o' &overn)ent *%ic% a de)ocracy )ay ado"t6 but I do not re&ard t%e A)erican Constitution as t%e
best+ or as t%e only one+ *%ic% a de)ocratic "eo"le )ay establis%# In s%o*in& t%e advanta&es *%ic% t%e
A)ericans derive 'ro) t%e &overn)ent o' de)ocracy+ I a) t%ere'ore very 'ar 'ro) )eanin&+ or 'ro) believin&+
t%at si)ilar advanta&es can only be obtained 'ro) t%e sa)e la*s#
9eneral Tendency O' T%e 8a*s (nder T%e Rule O' T%e A)erican De)ocracy+ And Habits O' T%ose ,%o
A""ly T%e)
De'ects o' a de)ocratic &overn)ent easy to be discovered11Its advanta&es only to be discerned by lon&
observation11De)ocracy in A)erica o'ten inex"ert+ but t%e &eneral tendency o' t%e la*s advanta&eous11In t%e
A)erican de)ocracy "ublic o''icers %ave no "er)anent interests distinct 'ro) t%ose o' t%e )a7ority11Result o'
t%is state o' t%in&s#
T%e de'ects and t%e *eanesses o' a de)ocratic &overn)ent )ay very readily be discovered6 t%ey are
de)onstrated by t%e )ost 'la&rant instances+ *%ilst its bene'icial in'luence is less "erce"tibly exercised# A sin&le
&lance su''ices to detect its evil consequences+ but its &ood qualities can only be discerned by lon& observation#
T%e la*s o' t%e A)erican de)ocracy are 'requently de'ective or inco)"lete6 t%ey so)eti)es attac vested
ri&%ts+ or &ive a sanction to ot%ers *%ic% are dan&erous to t%e co))unity6 but even i' t%ey *ere &ood+ t%e
'requent c%an&es *%ic% t%ey under&o *ould be an evil# Ho* co)es it+ t%en+ t%at t%e A)erican re"ublics "ros"er
and )aintain t%eir "ositionI
In t%e consideration o' la*s a distinction )ust be care'ully observed bet*een t%e end at *%ic% t%ey ai) and t%e
)eans by *%ic% t%ey are directed to t%at end+ bet*een t%eir absolute and t%eir relative excellence# I' it be t%e
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intention o' t%e le&islator to 'avor t%e interests o' t%e )inority at t%e ex"ense o' t%e )a7ority+ and i' t%e )easures
%e taes are so co)bined as to acco)"lis% t%e ob7ect %e %as in vie* *it% t%e least "ossible ex"ense o' ti)e and
exertion+ t%e la* )ay be *ell dra*n u"+ alt%ou&% its "ur"ose be bad6 and t%e )ore e''icacious it is+ t%e &reater is
t%e )isc%ie' *%ic% it causes#
De)ocratic la*s &enerally tend to "ro)ote t%e *el'are o' t%e &reatest "ossible nu)ber6 'or t%ey e)anate 'ro)
t%e )a7ority o' t%e citi-ens+ *%o are sub7ect to error+ but *%o cannot %ave an interest o""osed to t%eir o*n
advanta&e# T%e la*s o' an aristocracy tend+ on t%e contrary+ to concentrate *ealt% and "o*er in t%e %ands o' t%e
)inority+ because an aristocracy+ by its very nature+ constitutes a )inority# It )ay t%ere'ore be asserted+ as a
&eneral "ro"osition+ t%at t%e "ur"ose o' a de)ocracy in t%e conduct o' its le&islation is use'ul to a &reater nu)ber
o' citi-ens t%an t%at o' an aristocracy# T%is is+ %o*ever+ t%e su) total o' its advanta&es#
Aristocracies are in'initely )ore ex"ert in t%e science o' le&islation t%an de)ocracies ever can be# T%ey are
"ossessed o' a sel'1control *%ic% "rotects t%e) 'ro) t%e errors o' te)"orary excite)ent+ and t%ey 'or) lastin&
desi&ns *%ic% t%ey )ature *it% t%e assistance o' 'avorable o""ortunities# Aristocratic &overn)ent "roceeds *it%
t%e dexterity o' art6 it understands %o* to )ae t%e collective 'orce o' all its la*s conver&e at t%e sa)e ti)e to a
&iven "oint# !uc% is not t%e case *it% de)ocracies+ *%ose la*s are al)ost al*ays ine''ective or ino""ortune#
T%e )eans o' de)ocracy are t%ere'ore )ore i)"er'ect t%an t%ose o' aristocracy+ and t%e )easures *%ic% it
un*ittin&ly ado"ts are 'requently o""osed to its o*n cause6 but t%e ob7ect it %as in vie* is )ore use'ul#
8et us no* i)a&ine a co))unity so or&ani-ed by nature+ or by its constitution+ t%at it can su""ort t%e transitory
action o' bad la*s+ and t%at it can a*ait+ *it%out destruction+ t%e &eneral tendency o' t%e le&islation@ *e s%all
t%en be able to conceive t%at a de)ocratic &overn)ent+ not*it%standin& its de'ects+ *ill be )ost 'itted to
conduce to t%e "ros"erity o' t%is co))unity# T%is is "recisely *%at %as occurred in t%e (nited !tates6 and I
re"eat+ *%at I %ave be'ore re)ared+ t%at t%e &reat advanta&e o' t%e A)ericans consists in t%eir bein& able to
co))it 'aults *%ic% t%ey )ay a'ter*ard re"air#
An analo&ous observation )ay be )ade res"ectin& "ublic o''icers# It is easy to "erceive t%at t%e A)erican
de)ocracy 'requently errs in t%e c%oice o' t%e individuals to *%o) it entrusts t%e "o*er o' t%e ad)inistration6
but it is )ore di''icult to say *%y t%e !tate "ros"ers under t%eir rule# In t%e 'irst "lace it is to be re)ared+ t%at i'
in a de)ocratic !tate t%e &overnors %ave less %onesty and less ca"acity t%an else*%ere+ t%e &overned+ on t%e
ot%er %and+ are )ore enli&%tened and )ore attentive to t%eir interests# As t%e "eo"le in de)ocracies is )ore
incessantly vi&ilant in its a''airs and )ore 7ealous o' its ri&%ts+ it "revents its re"resentatives 'ro) abandonin&
t%at &eneral line o' conduct *%ic% its o*n interest "rescribes# In t%e second "lace+ it )ust be re)e)bered t%at i'
t%e de)ocratic )a&istrate is )ore a"t to )isuse %is "o*er+ %e "ossesses it 'or a s%orter "eriod o' ti)e# But t%ere
is yet anot%er reason *%ic% is still )ore &eneral and conclusive# It is no doubt o' i)"ortance to t%e *el'are o'
nations t%at t%ey s%ould be &overned by )en o' talents and virtue6 but it is "er%a"s still )ore i)"ortant t%at t%e
interests o' t%ose )en s%ould not di''er 'ro) t%e interests o' t%e co))unity at lar&e6 'or+ i' suc% *ere t%e case+
virtues o' a %i&% order )i&%t beco)e useless+ and talents )i&%t be turned to a bad account# I say t%at it is
i)"ortant t%at t%e interests o' t%e "ersons in aut%ority s%ould not con'lict *it% or o""ose t%e interests o' t%e
co))unity at lar&e6 but I do not insist u"on t%eir %avin& t%e sa)e interests as t%e *%ole "o"ulation+ because I
a) not a*are t%at suc% a state o' t%in&s ever existed in any country#
No "olitical 'or) %as %it%erto been discovered *%ic% is equally 'avorable to t%e "ros"erity and t%e develo")ent
o' all t%e classes into *%ic% society is divided# T%ese classes continue to 'or)+ as it *ere+ a certain nu)ber o'
distinct nations in t%e sa)e nation6 and ex"erience %as s%o*n t%at it is no less dan&erous to "lace t%e 'ate o'
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t%ese classes exclusively in t%e %ands o' any one o' t%e) t%an it is to )ae one "eo"le t%e arbiter o' t%e destiny
o' anot%er# ,%en t%e ric% alone &overn+ t%e interest o' t%e "oor is al*ays endan&ered6 and *%en t%e "oor )ae
t%e la*s+ t%at o' t%e ric% incurs very serious riss# T%e advanta&e o' de)ocracy does not consist+ t%ere'ore+ as %as
so)eti)es been asserted+ in 'avorin& t%e "ros"erity o' all+ but si)"ly in contributin& to t%e *ell1bein& o' t%e
&reatest "ossible nu)ber#
T%e )en *%o are entrusted *it% t%e direction o' "ublic a''airs in t%e (nited !tates are 'requently in'erior+ bot% in
"oint o' ca"acity and o' )orality+ to t%ose *%o) aristocratic institutions *ould raise to "o*er# But t%eir interest
is identi'ied and con'ounded *it% t%at o' t%e )a7ority o' t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens# T%ey )ay 'requently be 'ait%less
and 'requently )istaen+ but t%ey *ill never syste)atically ado"t a line o' conduct o""osed to t%e *ill o' t%e
)a7ority6 and it is i)"ossible t%at t%ey s%ould &ive a dan&erous or an exclusive tendency to t%e &overn)ent#
T%e )al1ad)inistration o' a de)ocratic )a&istrate is a )ere isolated 'act+ *%ic% only occurs durin& t%e s%ort
"eriod 'or *%ic% %e is elected# Corru"tion and inca"acity do not act as co))on interests+ *%ic% )ay connect
)en "er)anently *it% one anot%er# A corru"t or an inca"able )a&istrate *ill not concert %is )easures *it%
anot%er )a&istrate+ si)"ly because t%at individual is as corru"t and as inca"able as %i)sel'6 and t%ese t*o )en
*ill never unite t%eir endeavors to "ro)ote t%e corru"tion and ina"titude o' t%eir re)ote "osterity# T%e a)bition
and t%e )anoeuvres o' t%e one *ill serve+ on t%e contrary+ to un)as t%e ot%er# T%e vices o' a )a&istrate+ in
de)ocratic states+ are usually "eculiar to %is o*n "erson#
But under aristocratic &overn)ents "ublic )en are s*ayed by t%e interest o' t%eir order+ *%ic%+ i' it is so)eti)es
con'ounded *it% t%e interests o' t%e )a7ority+ is very 'requently distinct 'ro) t%e)# T%is interest is t%e co))on
and lastin& bond *%ic% unites t%e) to&et%er6 it induces t%e) to coalesce+ and to co)bine t%eir e''orts in order to
attain an end *%ic% does not al*ays ensure t%e &reatest %a""iness o' t%e &reatest nu)ber6 and it serves not only
to connect t%e "ersons in aut%ority+ but to unite t%e) to a considerable "ortion o' t%e co))unity+ since a
nu)erous body o' citi-ens belon&s to t%e aristocracy+ *it%out bein& invested *it% o''icial 'unctions# T%e
aristocratic )a&istrate is t%ere'ore constantly su""orted by a "ortion o' t%e co))unity+ as *ell as by t%e
9overn)ent o' *%ic% %e is a )e)ber#
T%e co))on "ur"ose *%ic% connects t%e interest o' t%e )a&istrates in aristocracies *it% t%at o' a "ortion o' t%eir
conte)"oraries identi'ies it *it% t%at o' 'uture &enerations6 t%eir in'luence belon&s to t%e 'uture as )uc% as to t%e
"resent# T%e aristocratic )a&istrate is ur&ed at t%e sa)e ti)e to*ard t%e sa)e "oint by t%e "assions o' t%e
co))unity+ by %is o*n+ and I )ay al)ost add by t%ose o' %is "osterity# Is it+ t%en+ *onder'ul t%at %e does not
resist suc% re"eated i)"ulsesI And indeed aristocracies are o'ten carried a*ay by t%e s"irit o' t%eir order *it%out
bein& corru"ted by it6 and t%ey unconsciously 'as%ion society to t%eir o*n ends+ and "re"are it 'or t%eir o*n
descendants#
T%e En&lis% aristocracy is "er%a"s t%e )ost liberal *%ic% ever existed+ and no body o' )en %as ever+
uninterru"tedly+ 'urnis%ed so )any %onorable and enli&%tened individuals to t%e &overn)ent o' a country# It
cannot+ %o*ever+ esca"e observation t%at in t%e le&islation o' En&land t%e &ood o' t%e "oor %as been sacri'iced to
t%e advanta&e o' t%e ric%+ and t%e ri&%ts o' t%e )a7ority to t%e "rivile&es o' t%e 'e*# T%e consequence is+ t%at
En&land+ at t%e "resent day+ co)bines t%e extre)es o' 'ortune in t%e boso) o' %er society+ and %er "erils and
cala)ities are al)ost equal to %er "o*er and %er reno*n# Ka
35ootnote a@ 3T%e le&islation o' En&land 'or t%e 'orty years is certainly not 'airly o"en to t%is criticis)+ *%ic%
*as *ritten be'ore t%e Re'or) Bill o' ./0A+ and accordin&ly 9reat Britain %as t%us 'ar esca"ed and sur)ounted
t%e "erils and cala)ities to *%ic% s%e see)ed to be ex"osed#44
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In t%e (nited !tates+ *%ere t%e "ublic o''icers %ave no interests to "ro)ote connected *it% t%eir caste+ t%e
&eneral and constant in'luence o' t%e 9overn)ent is bene'icial+ alt%ou&% t%e individuals *%o conduct it are
'requently unsil'ul and so)eti)es conte)"tible# T%ere is indeed a secret tendency in de)ocratic institutions to
render t%e exertions o' t%e citi-ens subservient to t%e "ros"erity o' t%e co))unity+ not*it%standin& t%eir "rivate
vices and )istaes6 *%ilst in aristocratic institutions t%ere is a secret "ro"ensity *%ic%+ not*it%standin& t%e
talents and t%e virtues o' t%ose *%o conduct t%e &overn)ent+ leads t%e) to contribute to t%e evils *%ic% o""ress
t%eir 'ello*1creatures# In aristocratic &overn)ents "ublic )en )ay 'requently do in7uries *%ic% t%ey do not
intend+ and in de)ocratic states t%ey "roduce advanta&es *%ic% t%ey never t%ou&%t o'#
:ublic !"irit In T%e (nited !tates
:atriotis) o' instinct11:atriotis) o' re'lection11T%eir di''erent c%aracteristics11Nations ou&%t to strive to acquire
t%e second *%en t%e 'irst %as disa""eared11E''orts o' t%e A)ericans to it11Interest o' t%e individual inti)ately
connected *it% t%at o' t%e country#
T%ere is one sort o' "atriotic attac%)ent *%ic% "rinci"ally arises 'ro) t%at instinctive+ disinterested+ and
unde'inable 'eelin& *%ic% connects t%e a''ections o' )an *it% %is birt%"lace# T%is natural 'ondness is united to a
taste 'or ancient custo)s+ and to a reverence 'or ancestral traditions o' t%e "ast6 t%ose *%o c%eris% it love t%eir
country as t%ey love t%e )ansions o' t%eir 'at%ers# T%ey en7oy t%e tranquillity *%ic% it a''ords t%e)6 t%ey clin& to
t%e "eace'ul %abits *%ic% t%ey %ave contracted *it%in its boso)6 t%ey are attac%ed to t%e re)iniscences *%ic% it
a*aens+ and t%ey are even "leased by t%e state o' obedience in *%ic% t%ey are "laced# T%is "atriotis) is
so)eti)es sti)ulated by reli&ious ent%usias)+ and t%en it is ca"able o' )ain& t%e )ost "rodi&ious e''orts# It is
in itsel' a ind o' reli&ion6 it does not reason+ but it acts 'ro) t%e i)"ulse o' 'ait% and o' senti)ent# By so)e
nations t%e )onarc% %as been re&arded as a "ersoni'ication o' t%e country6 and t%e 'ervor o' "atriotis) bein&
converted into t%e 'ervor o' loyalty+ t%ey too a sy)"at%etic "ride in %is conquests+ and &loried in %is "o*er# At
one ti)e+ under t%e ancient )onarc%y+ t%e 5renc% 'elt a sort o' satis'action in t%e sense o' t%eir de"endence u"on
t%e arbitrary "leasure o' t%eir in&+ and t%ey *ere *ont to say *it% "ride+ 2,e are t%e sub7ects o' t%e )ost
"o*er'ul in& in t%e *orld#2
But+ lie all instinctive "assions+ t%is ind o' "atriotis) is )ore a"t to "ro)"t transient exertion t%an to su""ly
t%e )otives o' continuous endeavor# It )ay save t%e !tate in critical circu)stances+ but it *ill not un'requently
allo* t%e nation to decline in t%e )idst o' "eace# ,%ilst t%e )anners o' a "eo"le are si)"le and its 'ait%
uns%aen+ *%ilst society is steadily based u"on traditional institutions *%ose le&iti)acy %as never been
contested+ t%is instinctive "atriotis) is *ont to endure#
But t%ere is anot%er s"ecies o' attac%)ent to a country *%ic% is )ore rational t%an t%e one *e %ave been
describin&# It is "er%a"s less &enerous and less ardent+ but it is )ore 'ruit'ul and )ore lastin&6 it is coeval *it%
t%e s"read o' no*led&e+ it is nurtured by t%e la*s+ it &ro*s by t%e exercise o' civil ri&%ts+ and+ in t%e end+ it is
con'ounded *it% t%e "ersonal interest o' t%e citi-en# A )an co)"re%ends t%e in'luence *%ic% t%e "ros"erity o'
%is country %as u"on %is o*n *el'are6 %e is a*are t%at t%e la*s aut%ori-e %i) to contribute %is assistance to t%at
"ros"erity+ and %e labors to "ro)ote it as a "ortion o' %is interest in t%e 'irst "lace+ and as a "ortion o' %is ri&%t in
t%e second#
But e"oc%s so)eti)es occur+ in t%e course o' t%e existence o' a nation+ at *%ic% t%e ancient custo)s o' a "eo"le
are c%an&ed+ "ublic )orality destroyed+ reli&ious belie' disturbed+ and t%e s"ell o' tradition broen+ *%ilst t%e
di''usion o' no*led&e is yet i)"er'ect+ and t%e civil ri&%ts o' t%e co))unity are ill secured+ or con'ined *it%in
very narro* li)its# T%e country t%en assu)es a di) and dubious s%a"e in t%e eyes o' t%e citi-ens6 t%ey no lon&er
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be%old it in t%e soil *%ic% t%ey in%abit+ 'or t%at soil is to t%e) a dull inani)ate clod6 nor in t%e usa&es o' t%eir
'ore'at%ers+ *%ic% t%ey %ave been tau&%t to loo u"on as a debasin& yoe6 nor in reli&ion+ 'or o' t%at t%ey doubt6
nor in t%e la*s+ *%ic% do not ori&inate in t%eir o*n aut%ority6 nor in t%e le&islator+ *%o) t%ey 'ear and des"ise#
T%e country is lost to t%eir senses+ t%ey can neit%er discover it under its o*n nor under borro*ed 'eatures+ and
t%ey entrenc% t%e)selves *it%in t%e dull "recincts o' a narro* e&otis)# T%ey are e)anci"ated 'ro) "re7udice
*it%out %avin& acno*led&ed t%e e)"ire o' reason6 t%ey are neit%er ani)ated by t%e instinctive "atriotis) o'
)onarc%ical sub7ects nor by t%e t%inin& "atriotis) o' re"ublican citi-ens6 but t%ey %ave sto""ed %al'*ay
bet*een t%e t*o+ in t%e )idst o' con'usion and o' distress#
In t%is "redica)ent+ to retreat is i)"ossible6 'or a "eo"le cannot restore t%e vivacity o' its earlier ti)es+ any )ore
t%an a )an can return to t%e innocence and t%e bloo) o' c%ild%ood6 suc% t%in&s )ay be re&retted+ but t%ey
cannot be rene*ed# T%e only t%in&+ t%en+ *%ic% re)ains to be done is to "roceed+ and to accelerate t%e union o'
"rivate *it% "ublic interests+ since t%e "eriod o' disinterested "atriotis) is &one by 'orever#
I a) certainly very 'ar 'ro) averrin& t%at+ in order to obtain t%is result+ t%e exercise o' "olitical ri&%ts s%ould be
i))ediately &ranted to all t%e )e)bers o' t%e co))unity# But I )aintain t%at t%e )ost "o*er'ul+ and "er%a"s
t%e only+ )eans o' interestin& )en in t%e *el'are o' t%eir country *%ic% *e still "ossess is to )ae t%e)
"artaers in t%e 9overn)ent# At t%e "resent ti)e civic -eal see)s to )e to be inse"arable 'ro) t%e exercise o'
"olitical ri&%ts6 and I %old t%at t%e nu)ber o' citi-ens *ill be 'ound to au&)ent or to decrease in Euro"e in
"ro"ortion as t%ose ri&%ts are extended#
In t%e (nited !tates t%e in%abitants *ere t%ro*n but as yesterday u"on t%e soil *%ic% t%ey no* occu"y+ and t%ey
brou&%t neit%er custo)s nor traditions *it% t%e) t%ere6 t%ey )eet eac% ot%er 'or t%e 'irst ti)e *it% no "revious
acquaintance6 in s%ort+ t%e instinctive love o' t%eir country can scarcely exist in t%eir )inds6 but everyone taes
as -ealous an interest in t%e a''airs o' %is to*ns%i"+ %is county+ and o' t%e *%ole !tate+ as i' t%ey *ere %is o*n+
because everyone+ in %is s"%ere+ taes an active "art in t%e &overn)ent o' society#
T%e lo*er orders in t%e (nited !tates are alive to t%e "erce"tion o' t%e in'luence exercised by t%e &eneral
"ros"erity u"on t%eir o*n *el'are6 and si)"le as t%is observation is+ it is one *%ic% is but too rarely )ade by t%e
"eo"le# But in A)erica t%e "eo"le re&ards t%is "ros"erity as t%e result o' its o*n exertions6 t%e citi-en loos
u"on t%e 'ortune o' t%e "ublic as %is "rivate interest+ and %e co1o"erates in its success+ not so )uc% 'ro) a sense
o' "ride or o' duty+ as 'ro) *%at I s%all venture to ter) cu"idity#
It is unnecessary to study t%e institutions and t%e %istory o' t%e A)ericans in order to discover t%e trut% o' t%is
re)ar+ 'or t%eir )anners render it su''iciently evident# As t%e A)erican "artici"ates in all t%at is done in %is
country+ %e t%ins %i)sel' obli&ed to de'end *%atever )ay be censured6 'or it is not only %is country *%ic% is
attaced u"on t%ese occasions+ but it is %i)sel'# T%e consequence is+ t%at %is national "ride resorts to a t%ousand
arti'ices+ and to all t%e "etty trics o' individual vanity#
Not%in& is )ore e)barrassin& in t%e ordinary intercourse o' li'e t%an t%is irritable "atriotis) o' t%e A)ericans# A
stran&er )ay be very *ell inclined to "raise )any o' t%e institutions o' t%eir country+ but %e be&s "er)ission to
bla)e so)e o' t%e "eculiarities *%ic% %e observes11a "er)ission *%ic% is+ %o*ever+ inexorably re'used# A)erica
is t%ere'ore a 'ree country+ in *%ic%+ lest anybody s%ould be %urt by your re)ars+ you are not allo*ed to s"ea
'reely o' "rivate individuals+ or o' t%e !tate+ o' t%e citi-ens or o' t%e aut%orities+ o' "ublic or o' "rivate
undertain&s+ or+ in s%ort+ o' anyt%in& at all+ exce"t it be o' t%e cli)ate and t%e soil6 and even t%en A)ericans
*ill be 'ound ready to de'end eit%er t%e one or t%e ot%er+ as i' t%ey %ad been contrived by t%e in%abitants o' t%e
country#
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In our ti)es o"tion )ust be )ade bet*een t%e "atriotis) o' all and t%e &overn)ent o' a 'e*6 'or t%e 'orce and
activity *%ic% t%e 'irst con'ers are irreconcilable *it% t%e &uarantees o' tranquillity *%ic% t%e second 'urnis%es#
Notion O' Ri&%ts In T%e (nited !tates
No &reat "eo"le *it%out a notion o' ri&%ts11Ho* t%e notion o' ri&%ts can be &iven to "eo"le11Res"ect o' ri&%ts in
t%e (nited !tates11,%ence it arises#
A'ter t%e idea o' virtue+ I no* no %i&%er "rinci"le t%an t%at o' ri&%t6 or+ to s"ea )ore accurately+ t%ese t*o
ideas are co))in&led in one# T%e idea o' ri&%t is si)"ly t%at o' virtue introduced into t%e "olitical *orld# It is t%e
idea o' ri&%t *%ic% enabled )en to de'ine anarc%y and tyranny6 and *%ic% tau&%t t%e) to re)ain inde"endent
*it%out arro&ance+ as *ell as to obey *it%out servility# T%e )an *%o sub)its to violence is debased by %is
co)"liance6 but *%en %e obeys t%e )andate o' one *%o "ossesses t%at ri&%t o' aut%ority *%ic% %e acno*led&es
in a 'ello*1creature+ %e rises in so)e )easure above t%e "erson *%o delivers t%e co))and# T%ere are no &reat
)en *it%out virtue+ and t%ere are no &reat nations11it )ay al)ost be added t%at t%ere *ould be no society11
*it%out t%e notion o' ri&%ts6 'or *%at is t%e condition o' a )ass o' rational and intelli&ent bein&s *%o are only
united to&et%er by t%e bond o' 'orceI
I a) "ersuaded t%at t%e only )eans *%ic% *e "ossess at t%e "resent ti)e o' inculcatin& t%e notion o' ri&%ts+ and
o' renderin& it+ as it *ere+ "al"able to t%e senses+ is to invest all t%e )e)bers o' t%e co))unity *it% t%e "eace'ul
exercise o' certain ri&%ts@ t%is is very clearly seen in c%ildren+ *%o are )en *it%out t%e stren&t% and t%e
ex"erience o' )an%ood# ,%en a c%ild be&ins to )ove in t%e )idst o' t%e ob7ects *%ic% surround %i)+ %e is
instinctively led to turn everyt%in& *%ic% %e can lay %is %ands u"on to %is o*n "ur"oses6 %e %as no notion o' t%e
"ro"erty o' ot%ers6 but as %e &radually learns t%e value o' t%in&s+ and be&ins to "erceive t%at %e )ay in %is turn
be de"rived o' %is "ossessions+ %e beco)es )ore circu)s"ect+ and %e observes t%ose ri&%ts in ot%ers *%ic% %e
*is%es to %ave res"ected in %i)sel'# T%e "rinci"le *%ic% t%e c%ild derives 'ro) t%e "ossession o' %is toys is
tau&%t to t%e )an by t%e ob7ects *%ic% %e )ay call %is o*n# In A)erica t%ose co)"laints a&ainst "ro"erty in
&eneral *%ic% are so 'requent in Euro"e are never %eard+ because in A)erica t%ere are no "au"ers6 and as
everyone %as "ro"erty o' %is o*n to de'end+ everyone reco&ni-es t%e "rinci"le u"on *%ic% %e %olds it#
T%e sa)e t%in& occurs in t%e "olitical *orld# In A)erica t%e lo*est classes %ave conceived a very %i&% notion o'
"olitical ri&%ts+ because t%ey exercise t%ose ri&%ts6 and t%ey re'rain 'ro) attacin& t%ose o' ot%er "eo"le+ in order
to ensure t%eir o*n 'ro) attac# ,%ilst in Euro"e t%e sa)e classes so)eti)es recalcitrate even a&ainst t%e
su"re)e "o*er+ t%e A)erican sub)its *it%out a )ur)ur to t%e aut%ority o' t%e "ettiest )a&istrate#
T%is trut% is exe)"li'ied by t%e )ost trivial details o' national "eculiarities# In 5rance very 'e* "leasures are
exclusively reserved 'or t%e %i&%er classes6 t%e "oor are ad)itted *%erever t%e ric% are received+ and t%ey
consequently be%ave *it% "ro"riety+ and res"ect *%atever contributes to t%e en7oy)ents in *%ic% t%ey
t%e)selves "artici"ate# In En&land+ *%ere *ealt% %as a )ono"oly o' a)use)ent as *ell as o' "o*er+ co)"laints
are )ade t%at *%enever t%e "oor %a""en to steal into t%e enclosures *%ic% are reserved 'or t%e "leasures o' t%e
ric%+ t%ey co))it acts o' *anton )isc%ie'@ can t%is be *ondered at+ since care %as been taen t%at t%ey s%ould
%ave not%in& to loseI Kb
35ootnote b@ 3T%is+ too+ %as been a)ended by )uc% lar&er "rovisions 'or t%e a)use)ents o' t%e "eo"le in "ublic
"ars+ &ardens+ )useu)s+ etc#6 and t%e conduct o' t%e "eo"le in t%ese "laces o' a)use)ent %as i)"roved in t%e
sa)e "ro"ortion#44
T%e &overn)ent o' de)ocracy brin&s t%e notion o' "olitical ri&%ts to t%e level o' t%e %u)blest citi-ens+ 7ust as
t%e disse)ination o' *ealt% brin&s t%e notion o' "ro"erty *it%in t%e reac% o' all t%e )e)bers o' t%e co))unity6
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and I con'ess t%at+ to )y )ind+ t%is is one o' its &reatest advanta&es# I do not assert t%at it is easy to teac% )en to
exercise "olitical ri&%ts6 but I )aintain t%at+ *%en it is "ossible+ t%e e''ects *%ic% result 'ro) it are %i&%ly
i)"ortant6 and I add t%at+ i' t%ere ever *as a ti)e at *%ic% suc% an atte)"t ou&%t to be )ade+ t%at ti)e is our
o*n# It is clear t%at t%e in'luence o' reli&ious belie' is s%aen+ and t%at t%e notion o' divine ri&%ts is declinin&6 it
is evident t%at "ublic )orality is vitiated+ and t%e notion o' )oral ri&%ts is also disa""earin&@ t%ese are &eneral
sy)"to)s o' t%e substitution o' ar&u)ent 'or 'ait%+ and o' calculation 'or t%e i)"ulses o' senti)ent# I'+ in t%e
)idst o' t%is &eneral disru"tion+ you do not succeed in connectin& t%e notion o' ri&%ts *it% t%at o' "ersonal
interest+ *%ic% is t%e only i))utable "oint in t%e %u)an %eart+ *%at )eans *ill you %ave o' &overnin& t%e *orld
exce"t by 'earI ,%en I a) told t%at+ since t%e la*s are *ea and t%e "o"ulace is *ild+ since "assions are excited
and t%e aut%ority o' virtue is "araly-ed+ no )easures )ust be taen to increase t%e ri&%ts o' t%e de)ocracy+ I
re"ly+ t%at it is 'or t%ese very reasons t%at so)e )easures o' t%e ind )ust be taen6 and I a) "ersuaded t%at
&overn)ents are still )ore interested in tain& t%e) t%an society at lar&e+ because &overn)ents are liable to be
destroyed and society cannot "eris%#
I a) not+ %o*ever+ inclined to exa&&erate t%e exa)"le *%ic% A)erica 'urnis%es# In t%ose !tates t%e "eo"le are
invested *it% "olitical ri&%ts at a ti)e *%en t%ey could scarcely be abused+ 'or t%e citi-ens *ere 'e* in nu)ber
and si)"le in t%eir )anners# As t%ey %ave increased+ t%e A)ericans %ave not au&)ented t%e "o*er o' t%e
de)ocracy+ but t%ey %ave+ i' I )ay use t%e ex"ression+ extended its do)inions# It cannot be doubted t%at t%e
)o)ent at *%ic% "olitical ri&%ts are &ranted to a "eo"le t%at %ad be'ore been *it%out t%e) is a very critical+
t%ou&% it be a necessary one# A c%ild )ay ill be'ore %e is a*are o' t%e value o' li'e6 and %e )ay de"rive anot%er
"erson o' %is "ro"erty be'ore %e is a*are t%at %is o*n )ay be taen a*ay 'ro) %i)# T%e lo*er orders+ *%en 'irst
t%ey are invested *it% "olitical ri&%ts+ stand+ in relation to t%ose ri&%ts+ in t%e sa)e "osition as t%e c%ild does to
t%e *%ole o' nature+ and t%e celebrated ada&e )ay t%en be a""lied to t%e)+ Ho)o "uer robustus# T%is trut% )ay
even be "erceived in A)erica# T%e !tates in *%ic% t%e citi-ens %ave en7oyed t%eir ri&%ts lon&est are t%ose in
*%ic% t%ey )ae t%e best use o' t%e)#
It cannot be re"eated too o'ten t%at not%in& is )ore 'ertile in "rodi&ies t%an t%e art o' bein& 'ree6 but t%ere is
not%in& )ore arduous t%an t%e a""rentices%i" o' liberty# !uc% is not t%e case *it% des"otic institutions@
des"otis) o'ten "ro)ises to )ae a)ends 'or a t%ousand "revious ills6 it su""orts t%e ri&%t+ it "rotects t%e
o""ressed+ and it )aintains "ublic order# T%e nation is lulled by t%e te)"orary "ros"erity *%ic% accrues to it+
until it is roused to a sense o' its o*n )isery# 8iberty+ on t%e contrary+ is &enerally establis%ed in t%e )idst o'
a&itation+ it is "er'ected by civil discord+ and its bene'its cannot be a""reciated until it is already old#
Chapter XIV
@ Advanta&es A)erican !ociety Derive 5ro) De)ocracy11:art II
Res"ect 5or T%e 8a* In T%e (nited !tates
Res"ect o' t%e A)ericans 'or t%e la*11:arental a''ection *%ic% t%ey entertain 'or it11:ersonal interest o'
everyone to increase t%e aut%ority o' t%e la*#
It is not al*ays 'easible to consult t%e *%ole "eo"le+ eit%er directly or indirectly+ in t%e 'or)ation o' t%e la*6 but
it cannot be denied t%at+ *%en suc% a )easure is "ossible t%e aut%ority o' t%e la* is very )uc% au&)ented# T%is
"o"ular ori&in+ *%ic% i)"airs t%e excellence and t%e *isdo) o' le&islation+ contributes "rodi&iously to increase
its "o*er# T%ere is an a)a-in& stren&t% in t%e ex"ression o' t%e deter)ination o' a *%ole "eo"le+ and *%en it
declares itsel' t%e i)a&ination o' t%ose *%o are )ost inclined to contest it is overa*ed by its aut%ority# T%e trut%
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o' t%is 'act is very *ell no*n by "arties+ and t%ey consequently strive to )ae out a )a7ority *%enever t%ey
can# I' t%ey %ave not t%e &reater nu)ber o' voters on t%eir side+ t%ey assert t%at t%e true )a7ority abstained 'ro)
votin&6 and i' t%ey are 'oiled even t%ere+ t%ey %ave recourse to t%e body o' t%ose "ersons *%o %ad no votes to
&ive#
In t%e (nited !tates+ exce"t slaves+ servants+ and "au"ers in t%e recei"t o' relie' 'ro) t%e to*ns%i"s+ t%ere is no
class o' "ersons *%o do not exercise t%e elective 'ranc%ise+ and *%o do not indirectly contribute to )ae t%e
la*s# T%ose *%o desi&n to attac t%e la*s )ust consequently eit%er )odi'y t%e o"inion o' t%e nation or tra)"le
u"on its decision#
A second reason+ *%ic% is still )ore *ei&%ty+ )ay be 'urt%er adduced6 in t%e (nited !tates everyone is
"ersonally interested in en'orcin& t%e obedience o' t%e *%ole co))unity to t%e la*6 'or as t%e )inority )ay
s%ortly rally t%e )a7ority to its "rinci"les+ it is interested in "ro'essin& t%at res"ect 'or t%e decrees o' t%e
le&islator *%ic% it )ay soon %ave occasion to clai) 'or its o*n# Ho*ever irso)e an enact)ent )ay be+ t%e
citi-en o' t%e (nited !tates co)"lies *it% it+ not only because it is t%e *or o' t%e )a7ority+ but because it
ori&inates in %is o*n aut%ority+ and %e re&ards it as a contract to *%ic% %e is %i)sel' a "arty#
In t%e (nited !tates+ t%en+ t%at nu)erous and turbulent )ultitude does not exist *%ic% al*ays loos u"on t%e la*
as its natural ene)y+ and accordin&ly surveys it *it% 'ear and *it% 'ear and *it% distrust# It is i)"ossible+ on t%e
ot%er %and+ not to "erceive t%at all classes dis"lay t%e ut)ost reliance u"on t%e le&islation o' t%eir country+ and
t%at t%ey are attac%ed to it by a ind o' "arental a''ection#
I a) *ron&+ %o*ever+ in sayin& all classes6 'or as in A)erica t%e Euro"ean scale o' aut%ority is inverted+ t%e
*ealt%y are t%ere "laced in a "osition analo&ous to t%at o' t%e "oor in t%e Old ,orld+ and it is t%e o"ulent classes
*%ic% 'requently loo u"on t%e la* *it% sus"icion# I %ave already observed t%at t%e advanta&e o' de)ocracy is
not+ as %as been so)eti)es asserted+ t%at it "rotects t%e interests o' t%e *%ole co))unity+ but si)"ly t%at it
"rotects t%ose o' t%e )a7ority# In t%e (nited !tates+ *%ere t%e "oor rule+ t%e ric% %ave al*ays so)e reason to
dread t%e abuses o' t%eir "o*er# T%is natural anxiety o' t%e ric% )ay "roduce a sullen dissatis'action+ but society
is not disturbed by it6 'or t%e sa)e reason *%ic% induces t%e ric% to *it%%old t%eir con'idence in t%e le&islative
aut%ority )aes t%e) obey its )andates6 t%eir *ealt%+ *%ic% "revents t%e) 'ro) )ain& t%e la*+ "revents t%e)
'ro) *it%standin& it# A)on&st civili-ed nations revolts are rarely excited+ exce"t by suc% "ersons as %ave
not%in& to lose by t%e)6 and i' t%e la*s o' a de)ocracy are not al*ays *ort%y o' res"ect+ at least t%ey al*ays
obtain it6 'or t%ose *%o usually in'rin&e t%e la*s %ave no excuse 'or not co)"lyin& *it% t%e enact)ents t%ey
%ave t%e)selves )ade+ and by *%ic% t%ey are t%e)selves bene'ited+ *%ilst t%e citi-ens *%ose interests )i&%t be
"ro)oted by t%e in'raction o' t%e) are induced+ by t%eir c%aracter and t%eir stations+ to sub)it to t%e decisions o'
t%e le&islature+ *%atever t%ey )ay be# Besides *%ic%+ t%e "eo"le in A)erica obeys t%e la* not only because it
e)anates 'ro) t%e "o"ular aut%ority+ but because t%at aut%ority )ay )odi'y it in any "oints *%ic% )ay "rove
vexatory6 a la* is observed because it is a sel'1i)"osed evil in t%e 'irst "lace+ and an evil o' transient duration in
t%e second#
Activity ,%ic% :ervades All T%e Branc%es O' T%e Body :olitic In T%e (nited !tates6 In'luence ,%ic% It
Exercises ("on !ociety
More di''icult to conceive t%e "olitical activity *%ic% "ervades t%e (nited !tates t%an t%e 'reedo) and equality
*%ic% rei&n t%ere11T%e &reat activity *%ic% "er"etually a&itates t%e le&islative bodies is only an e"isode to t%e
&eneral activity11Di''icult 'or an A)erican to con'ine %i)sel' to %is o*n business11:olitical a&itation extends to
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all social intercourse11Co))ercial activity o' t%e A)ericans "artly attributable to t%is cause11Indirect advanta&es
*%ic% society derives 'ro) a de)ocratic &overn)ent#
On "assin& 'ro) a country in *%ic% 'ree institutions are establis%ed to one *%ere t%ey do not exist+ t%e traveller
is struc by t%e c%an&e6 in t%e 'or)er all is bustle and activity+ in t%e latter everyt%in& is cal) and )otionless# In
t%e one+ a)elioration and "ro&ress are t%e &eneral to"ics o' inquiry6 in t%e ot%er+ it see)s as i' t%e co))unity
only as"ired to re"ose in t%e en7oy)ent o' t%e advanta&es *%ic% it %as acquired# Nevert%eless+ t%e country *%ic%
exerts itsel' so strenuously to "ro)ote its *el'are is &enerally )ore *ealt%y and )ore "ros"erous t%an t%at *%ic%
a""ears to be so contented *it% its lot6 and *%en *e co)"are t%e) to&et%er+ *e can scarcely conceive %o* so
)any ne* *ants are daily 'elt in t%e 'or)er+ *%ilst so 'e* see) to occur in t%e latter#
I' t%is re)ar is a""licable to t%ose 'ree countries in *%ic% )onarc%ical and aristocratic institutions subsist+ it is
still )ore striin& *it% re&ard to de)ocratic re"ublics# In t%ese !tates it is not only a "ortion o' t%e "eo"le *%ic%
is busied *it% t%e a)elioration o' its social condition+ but t%e *%ole co))unity is en&a&ed in t%e tas6 and it is
not t%e exi&encies and t%e convenience o' a sin&le class 'or *%ic% a "rovision is to be )ade+ but t%e exi&encies
and t%e convenience o' all rans o' li'e#
It is not i)"ossible to conceive t%e sur"assin& liberty *%ic% t%e A)ericans en7oy6 so)e idea )ay lie*ise be
'or)ed o' t%e extre)e equality *%ic% subsists a)on&st t%e)+ but t%e "olitical activity *%ic% "ervades t%e (nited
!tates )ust be seen in order to be understood# No sooner do you set 'oot u"on t%e A)erican soil t%an you are
stunned by a ind o' tu)ult6 a con'used cla)or is %eard on every side6 and a t%ousand si)ultaneous voices
de)and t%e i))ediate satis'action o' t%eir social *ants# Everyt%in& is in )otion around you6 %ere+ t%e "eo"le o'
one quarter o' a to*n are )et to decide u"on t%e buildin& o' a c%urc%6 t%ere+ t%e election o' a re"resentative is
&oin& on6 a little 'urt%er t%e dele&ates o' a district are "ostin& to t%e to*n in order to consult u"on so)e local
i)"rove)ents6 or in anot%er "lace t%e laborers o' a villa&e quit t%eir "lou&%s to deliberate u"on t%e "ro7ect o' a
road or a "ublic sc%ool# Meetin&s are called 'or t%e sole "ur"ose o' declarin& t%eir disa""robation o' t%e line o'
conduct "ursued by t%e 9overn)ent6 *%ilst in ot%er asse)blies t%e citi-ens salute t%e aut%orities o' t%e day as
t%e 'at%ers o' t%eir country# !ocieties are 'or)ed *%ic% re&ard drunenness as t%e "rinci"al cause o' t%e evils
under *%ic% t%e !tate labors+ and *%ic% sole)nly bind t%e)selves to &ive a constant exa)"le o' te)"erance# Kc
35ootnote c@ At t%e ti)e o' )y stay in t%e (nited !tates t%e te)"erance societies already consisted o' )ore t%an
A=<+<<< )e)bers+ and t%eir e''ect %ad been to di)inis% t%e consu)"tion o' 'er)ented liquors by C<<+<<<
&allons "er annu) in t%e !tate o' :ennsylvania alone#4
T%e &reat "olitical a&itation o' t%e A)erican le&islative bodies+ *%ic% is t%e only ind o' excite)ent t%at attracts
t%e attention o' 'orei&n countries+ is a )ere e"isode or a sort o' continuation o' t%at universal )ove)ent *%ic%
ori&inates in t%e lo*est classes o' t%e "eo"le and extends successively to all t%e rans o' society# It is i)"ossible
to s"end )ore e''orts in t%e "ursuit o' en7oy)ent#
T%e cares o' "olitical li'e en&ross a )ost "ro)inent "lace in t%e occu"ation o' a citi-en in t%e (nited !tates+ and
al)ost t%e only "leasure o' *%ic% an A)erican %as any idea is to tae a "art in t%e 9overn)ent+ and to discuss
t%e "art %e %as taen# T%is 'eelin& "ervades t%e )ost tri'lin& %abits o' li'e6 even t%e *o)en 'requently attend
"ublic )eetin&s and listen to "olitical %aran&ues as a recreation a'ter t%eir %ouse%old labors# Debatin& clubs are
to a certain extent a substitute 'or t%eatrical entertain)ents@ an A)erican cannot converse+ but %e can discuss6
and *%en %e atte)"ts to tal %e 'alls into a dissertation# He s"eas to you as i' %e *as addressin& a )eetin&6 and
i' %e s%ould c%ance to *ar) in t%e course o' t%e discussion+ %e *ill in'allibly say+ 29entle)en+2 to t%e "erson
*it% *%o) %e is conversin&#
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In so)e countries t%e in%abitants dis"lay a certain re"u&nance to avail t%e)selves o' t%e "olitical "rivile&es *it%
*%ic% t%e la* invests t%e)6 it *ould see) t%at t%ey set too %i&% a value u"on t%eir ti)e to s"end it on t%e
interests o' t%e co))unity6 and t%ey "re'er to *it%dra* *it%in t%e exact li)its o' a *%oleso)e e&otis)+ )ared
out by 'our sun 'ences and a quicset %ed&e# But i' an A)erican *ere conde)ned to con'ine %is activity to %is
o*n a''airs+ %e *ould be robbed o' one %al' o' %is existence6 %e *ould 'eel an i))ense void in t%e li'e *%ic% %e
is accusto)ed to lead+ and %is *retc%edness *ould be unbearable# Kd I a) "ersuaded t%at+ i' ever a des"otic
&overn)ent is establis%ed in A)erica+ it *ill 'ind it )ore di''icult to sur)ount t%e %abits *%ic% 'ree institutions
%ave en&endered t%an to conquer t%e attac%)ent o' t%e citi-ens to 'reedo)#
35ootnote d@ T%e sa)e re)ar *as )ade at Ro)e under t%e 'irst Caesars# Montesquieu so)e*%ere alludes to t%e
excessive des"ondency o' certain Ro)an citi-ens *%o+ a'ter t%e excite)ent o' "olitical li'e+ *ere all at once
'lun& bac into t%e sta&nation o' "rivate li'e#4
T%is ceaseless a&itation *%ic% de)ocratic &overn)ent %as introduced into t%e "olitical *orld in'luences all
social intercourse# I a) not sure t%at u"on t%e *%ole t%is is not t%e &reatest advanta&e o' de)ocracy# And I a)
)uc% less inclined to a""laud it 'or *%at it does t%an 'or *%at it causes to be done# It is incontestable t%at t%e
"eo"le 'requently conducts "ublic business very ill6 but it is i)"ossible t%at t%e lo*er orders s%ould tae a "art in
"ublic business *it%out extendin& t%e circle o' t%eir ideas+ and *it%out quittin& t%e ordinary routine o' t%eir
)ental acquire)ents# T%e %u)blest individual *%o is called u"on to co1o"erate in t%e &overn)ent o' society
acquires a certain de&ree o' sel'1res"ect6 and as %e "ossesses aut%ority+ %e can co))and t%e services o' )inds
)uc% )ore enli&%tened t%an %is o*n# He is canvassed by a )ultitude o' a""licants+ *%o see to deceive %i) in a
t%ousand di''erent *ays+ but *%o instruct %i) by t%eir deceit# He taes a "art in "olitical undertain&s *%ic% did
not ori&inate in %is o*n conce"tion+ but *%ic% &ive %i) a taste 'or undertain&s o' t%e ind# Ne* a)eliorations
are daily "ointed out in t%e "ro"erty *%ic% %e %olds in co))on *it% ot%ers+ and t%is &ives %i) t%e desire o'
i)"rovin& t%at "ro"erty *%ic% is )ore "eculiarly %is o*n# He is "er%a"s neit%er %a""ier nor better t%an t%ose
*%o ca)e be'ore %i)+ but %e is better in'or)ed and )ore active# I %ave no doubt t%at t%e de)ocratic institutions
o' t%e (nited !tates+ 7oined to t%e "%ysical constitution o' t%e country+ are t%e cause >not t%e direct+ as is so o'ten
asserted+ but t%e indirect cause? o' t%e "rodi&ious co))ercial activity o' t%e in%abitants# It is not en&endered by
t%e la*s+ but t%e "eo"le learns %o* to "ro)ote it by t%e ex"erience derived 'ro) le&islation#
,%en t%e o""onents o' de)ocracy assert t%at a sin&le individual "er'or)s t%e duties *%ic% %e undertaes )uc%
better t%an t%e &overn)ent o' t%e co))unity+ it a""ears to )e t%at t%ey are "er'ectly ri&%t# T%e &overn)ent o'
an individual+ su""osin& an equality o' instruction on eit%er side+ is )ore consistent+ )ore "erseverin&+ and )ore
accurate t%an t%at o' a )ultitude+ and it is )uc% better quali'ied 7udiciously to discri)inate t%e c%aracters o' t%e
)en it e)"loys# I' any deny *%at I advance+ t%ey %ave certainly never seen a de)ocratic &overn)ent+ or %ave
'or)ed t%eir o"inion u"on very "artial evidence# It is true t%at even *%en local circu)stances and t%e dis"osition
o' t%e "eo"le allo* de)ocratic institutions to subsist+ t%ey never dis"lay a re&ular and )et%odical syste) o'
&overn)ent# De)ocratic liberty is 'ar 'ro) acco)"lis%in& all t%e "ro7ects it undertaes+ *it% t%e sill o' an
adroit des"otis)# It 'requently abandons t%e) be'ore t%ey %ave borne t%eir 'ruits+ or riss t%e) *%en t%e
consequences )ay "rove dan&erous6 but in t%e end it "roduces )ore t%an any absolute &overn)ent+ and i' it do
'e*er t%in&s *ell+ it does a &reater nu)ber o' t%in&s# (nder its s*ay t%e transactions o' t%e "ublic ad)inistration
are not nearly so i)"ortant as *%at is done by "rivate exertion# De)ocracy does not con'er t%e )ost sil'ul ind
o' &overn)ent u"on t%e "eo"le+ but it "roduces t%at *%ic% t%e )ost sil'ul &overn)ents are 'requently unable to
a*aen+ na)ely+ an all1"ervadin& and restless activity+ a su"erabundant 'orce+ and an ener&y *%ic% is
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inse"arable 'ro) it+ and *%ic% )ay+ under 'avorable circu)stances+ be&et t%e )ost a)a-in& bene'its# T%ese are
t%e true advanta&es o' de)ocracy#
In t%e "resent a&e+ *%en t%e destinies o' C%ristendo) see) to be in sus"ense+ so)e %asten to assail de)ocracy
as its 'oe *%ilst it is yet in its early &ro*t%6 and ot%ers are ready *it% t%eir vo*s o' adoration 'or t%is ne* deity
*%ic% is s"rin&in& 'ort% 'ro) c%aos@ but bot% "arties are very i)"er'ectly acquainted *it% t%e ob7ect o' t%eir
%atred or o' t%eir desires6 t%ey strie in t%e dar+ and distribute t%eir blo*s by )ere c%ance#
,e )ust 'irst understand *%at t%e "ur"ort o' society and t%e ai) o' &overn)ent is %eld to be# I' it be your
intention to con'er a certain elevation u"on t%e %u)an )ind+ and to teac% it to re&ard t%e t%in&s o' t%is *orld
*it% &enerous 'eelin&s+ to ins"ire )en *it% a scorn o' )ere te)"oral advanta&e+ to &ive birt% to livin&
convictions+ and to ee" alive t%e s"irit o' %onorable devotedness6 i' you %old it to be a &ood t%in& to re'ine t%e
%abits+ to e)bellis% t%e )anners+ to cultivate t%e arts o' a nation+ and to "ro)ote t%e love o' "oetry+ o' beauty+
and o' reno*n6 i' you *ould constitute a "eo"le not un'itted to act *it% "o*er u"on all ot%er nations+ nor
un"re"ared 'or t%ose %i&% enter"rises *%ic%+ *%atever be t%e result o' its e''orts+ *ill leave a na)e 'orever
'a)ous in ti)e11i' you believe suc% to be t%e "rinci"al ob7ect o' society+ you )ust avoid t%e &overn)ent o'
de)ocracy+ *%ic% *ould be a very uncertain &uide to t%e end you %ave in vie*#
But i' you %old it to be ex"edient to divert t%e )oral and intellectual activity o' )an to t%e "roduction o'
co)'ort+ and to t%e acquire)ent o' t%e necessaries o' li'e6 i' a clear understandin& be )ore "ro'itable to )an t%an
&enius6 i' your ob7ect be not to sti)ulate t%e virtues o' %erois)+ but to create %abits o' "eace6 i' you %ad rat%er
*itness vices t%an cri)es and are content to )eet *it% 'e*er noble deeds+ "rovided o''ences be di)inis%ed in t%e
sa)e "ro"ortion6 i'+ instead o' livin& in t%e )idst o' a brilliant state o' society+ you are contented to %ave
"ros"erity around you6 i'+ in s%ort+ you are o' o"inion t%at t%e "rinci"al ob7ect o' a 9overn)ent is not to con'er
t%e &reatest "ossible s%are o' "o*er and o' &lory u"on t%e body o' t%e nation+ but to ensure t%e &reatest de&ree o'
en7oy)ent and t%e least de&ree o' )isery to eac% o' t%e individuals *%o co)"ose it11i' suc% be your desires+ you
can %ave no surer )eans o' satis'yin& t%e) t%an by equali-in& t%e conditions o' )en+ and establis%in&
de)ocratic institutions#
But i' t%e ti)e be "assed at *%ic% suc% a c%oice *as "ossible+ and i' so)e su"er%u)an "o*er i)"el us to*ards
one or t%e ot%er o' t%ese t*o &overn)ents *it%out consultin& our *is%es+ let us at least endeavor to )ae t%e
best o' t%at *%ic% is allotted to us6 and let us so inquire into its &ood and its evil "ro"ensities as to be able to
'oster t%e 'or)er and re"ress t%e latter to t%e ut)ost#
Chapter XV
@ (nli)ited :o*er O' Ma7ority+ And Its Consequences11:art I
Chapter Summary
Natural stren&t% o' t%e )a7ority in de)ocracies11Most o' t%e A)erican Constitutions %ave increased t%is stren&t%
by arti'icial )eans11Ho* t%is %as been done11:led&ed dele&ates11Moral "o*er o' t%e )a7ority11O"inion as to its
in'allibility11Res"ect 'or its ri&%ts+ %o* au&)ented in t%e (nited !tates#
(nli)ited :o*er O' T%e Ma7ority In T%e (nited !tates+ And Its Consequences
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T%e very essence o' de)ocratic &overn)ent consists in t%e absolute soverei&nty o' t%e )a7ority6 'or t%ere is
not%in& in de)ocratic !tates *%ic% is ca"able o' resistin& it# Most o' t%e A)erican Constitutions %ave sou&%t to
increase t%is natural stren&t% o' t%e )a7ority by arti'icial )eans# Ka
35ootnote a@ ,e observed+ in exa)inin& t%e 5ederal Constitution+ t%at t%e e''orts o' t%e le&islators o' t%e (nion
%ad been dia)etrically o""osed to t%e "resent tendency# T%e consequence %as been t%at t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent
is )ore inde"endent in its s"%ere t%an t%at o' t%e !tates# But t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent scarcely ever inter'eres in
any but external a''airs6 and t%e &overn)ents o' t%e !tate are in t%e &overn)ents o' t%e !tates are in reality t%e
aut%orities *%ic% direct society in A)erica#4
T%e le&islature is+ o' all "olitical institutions+ t%e one *%ic% is )ost easily s*ayed by t%e *is%es o' t%e )a7ority#
T%e A)ericans deter)ined t%at t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&islature s%ould be elected by t%e "eo"le i))ediately+ and
'or a very brie' ter)+ in order to sub7ect t%e)+ not only to t%e &eneral convictions+ but even to t%e daily "assion+
o' t%eir constituents# T%e )e)bers o' bot% %ouses are taen 'ro) t%e sa)e class in society+ and are no)inated in
t%e sa)e )anner6 so t%at t%e )odi'ications o' t%e le&islative bodies are al)ost as ra"id and quite as irresistible as
t%ose o' a sin&le asse)bly# It is to a le&islature t%us constituted t%at al)ost all t%e aut%ority o' t%e &overn)ent
%as been entrusted#
But *%ilst t%e la* increased t%e stren&t% o' t%ose aut%orities *%ic% o' t%e)selves *ere stron&+ it en'eebled )ore
and )ore t%ose *%ic% *ere naturally *ea# It de"rived t%e re"resentatives o' t%e executive o' all stability and
inde"endence+ and by sub7ectin& t%e) co)"letely to t%e ca"rices o' t%e le&islature+ it robbed t%e) o' t%e slender
in'luence *%ic% t%e nature o' a de)ocratic &overn)ent )i&%t %ave allo*ed t%e) to retain# In several !tates t%e
7udicial "o*er *as also sub)itted to t%e elective discretion o' t%e )a7ority+ and in all o' t%e) its existence *as
)ade to de"end on t%e "leasure o' t%e le&islative aut%ority+ since t%e re"resentatives *ere e)"o*ered annually
to re&ulate t%e sti"end o' t%e 7ud&es#
Custo)+ %o*ever+ %as done even )ore t%an la*# A "roceedin& *%ic% *ill in t%e end set all t%e &uarantees o'
re"resentative &overn)ent at nau&%t is beco)in& )ore and )ore &eneral in t%e (nited !tates6 it 'requently
%a""ens t%at t%e electors+ *%o c%oose a dele&ate+ "oint out a certain line o' conduct to %i)+ and i)"ose u"on %i)
a certain nu)ber o' "ositive obli&ations *%ic% %e is "led&ed to 'ul'il# ,it% t%e exce"tion o' t%e tu)ult+ t%is
co)es to t%e sa)e t%in& as i' t%e )a7ority o' t%e "o"ulace %eld its deliberations in t%e )aret1"lace#
!everal ot%er circu)stances concur in renderin& t%e "o*er o' t%e )a7ority in A)erica not only "re"onderant+ but
irresistible# T%e )oral aut%ority o' t%e )a7ority is "artly based u"on t%e notion t%at t%ere is )ore intelli&ence and
)ore *isdo) in a &reat nu)ber o' )en collected to&et%er t%an in a sin&le individual+ and t%at t%e quantity o'
le&islators is )ore i)"ortant t%an t%eir quality# T%e t%eory o' equality is in 'act a""lied to t%e intellect o' )an@
and %u)an "ride is t%us assailed in its last retreat by a doctrine *%ic% t%e )inority %esitate to ad)it+ and in
*%ic% t%ey very slo*ly concur# 8ie all ot%er "o*ers+ and "er%a"s )ore t%an all ot%er "o*ers+ t%e aut%ority o'
t%e )any requires t%e sanction o' ti)e6 at 'irst it en'orces obedience by constraint+ but its la*s are not res"ected
until t%ey %ave lon& been )aintained#
T%e ri&%t o' &overnin& society+ *%ic% t%e )a7ority su""oses itsel' to derive 'ro) its su"erior intelli&ence+ *as
introduced into t%e (nited !tates by t%e 'irst settlers+ and t%is idea+ *%ic% *ould be su''icient o' itsel' to create a
'ree nation+ %as no* been a)al&a)ated *it% t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le and t%e )inor incidents o' social
intercourse#
T%e 5renc%+ under t%e old )onarc%y+ %eld it 'or a )axi) >*%ic% is still a 'unda)ental "rinci"le o' t%e En&lis%
Constitution? t%at t%e Lin& could do no *ron&6 and i' %e did do *ron&+ t%e bla)e *as i)"uted to %is advisers#
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T%is notion *as %i&%ly 'avorable to %abits o' obedience+ and it enabled t%e sub7ect to co)"lain o' t%e la*
*it%out ceasin& to love and %onor t%e la*&iver# T%e A)ericans entertain t%e sa)e o"inion *it% res"ect to t%e
)a7ority#
T%e )oral "o*er o' t%e )a7ority is 'ounded u"on yet anot%er "rinci"le+ *%ic% is+ t%at t%e interests o' t%e )any
are to be "re'erred to t%ose o' t%e 'e*# It *ill readily be "erceived t%at t%e res"ect %ere "ro'essed 'or t%e ri&%ts o'
t%e )a7ority )ust naturally increase or di)inis% accordin& to t%e state o' "arties# ,%en a nation is divided into
several irreconcilable 'actions+ t%e "rivile&e o' t%e )a7ority is o'ten overlooed+ because it is intolerable to
co)"ly *it% its de)ands#
I' t%ere existed in A)erica a class o' citi-ens *%o) t%e le&islatin& )a7ority sou&%t to de"rive o' exclusive
"rivile&es *%ic% t%ey %ad "ossessed 'or a&es+ and to brin& do*n 'ro) an elevated station to t%e level o' t%e rans
o' t%e )ultitude+ it is "robable t%at t%e )inority *ould be less ready to co)"ly *it% its la*s# But as t%e (nited
!tates *ere coloni-ed by )en %oldin& equal ran a)on&st t%e)selves+ t%ere is as yet no natural or "er)anent
source o' dissension bet*een t%e interests o' its di''erent in%abitants#
T%ere are certain co))unities in *%ic% t%e "ersons *%o constitute t%e )inority can never %o"e to dra* over t%e
)a7ority to t%eir side+ because t%ey )ust t%en &ive u" t%e very "oint *%ic% is at issue bet*een t%e)# T%us+ an
aristocracy can never beco)e a )a7ority *%ilst it retains its exclusive "rivile&es+ and it cannot cede its "rivile&es
*it%out ceasin& to be an aristocracy#
In t%e (nited !tates "olitical questions cannot be taen u" in so &eneral and absolute a )anner+ and all "arties are
*illin& to reco&ni-e t%e ri&%t o' t%e )a7ority+ because t%ey all %o"e to turn t%ose ri&%ts to t%eir o*n advanta&e at
so)e 'uture ti)e# T%e )a7ority t%ere'ore in t%at country exercises a "rodi&ious actual aut%ority+ and a )oral
in'luence *%ic% is scarcely less "re"onderant6 no obstacles exist *%ic% can i)"ede or so )uc% as retard its
"ro&ress+ or *%ic% can induce it to %eed t%e co)"laints o' t%ose *%o) it crus%es u"on its "at%# T%is state o'
t%in&s is 'atal in itsel' and dan&erous 'or t%e 'uture#
Ho* T%e (nli)ited :o*er O' T%e Ma7ority Increases In A)erica T%e Instability O' 8e&islation And
Ad)inistration In%erent In De)ocracy T%e A)ericans increase t%e )utability o' t%e la*s *%ic% is in%erent in
de)ocracy by c%an&in& t%e le&islature every year+ and by investin& it *it% unbounded aut%ority11T%e sa)e
e''ect is "roduced u"on t%e ad)inistration11In A)erica social a)elioration is conducted )ore ener&etically but
less "erseverin&ly t%an in Euro"e#
I %ave already s"oen o' t%e natural de'ects o' de)ocratic institutions+ and t%ey all o' t%e) increase at t%e exact
ratio o' t%e "o*er o' t%e )a7ority# To be&in *it% t%e )ost evident o' t%e) all6 t%e )utability o' t%e la*s is an
evil in%erent in de)ocratic &overn)ent+ because it is natural to de)ocracies to raise )en to "o*er in very ra"id
succession# But t%is evil is )ore or less sensible in "ro"ortion to t%e aut%ority and t%e )eans o' action *%ic% t%e
le&islature "ossesses#
In A)erica t%e aut%ority exercised by t%e le&islative bodies is su"re)e6 not%in& "revents t%e) 'ro)
acco)"lis%in& t%eir *is%es *it% celerity+ and *it% irresistible "o*er+ *%ilst t%ey are su""lied by ne*
re"resentatives every year# T%at is to say+ t%e circu)stances *%ic% contribute )ost "o*er'ully to de)ocratic
instability+ and *%ic% ad)it o' t%e 'ree a""lication o' ca"rice to every ob7ect in t%e !tate+ are %ere in 'ull
o"eration# In con'or)ity *it% t%is "rinci"le+ A)erica is+ at t%e "resent day+ t%e country in t%e *orld *%ere la*s
last t%e s%ortest ti)e# Al)ost all t%e A)erican constitutions %ave been a)ended *it%in t%e course o' t%irty years@
t%ere is t%ere'ore not a sin&le A)erican !tate *%ic% %as not )odi'ied t%e "rinci"les o' its le&islation in t%at la"se
o' ti)e# As 'or t%e la*s t%e)selves+ a sin&le &lance u"on t%e arc%ives o' t%e di''erent !tates o' t%e (nion
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su''ices to convince one t%at in A)erica t%e activity o' t%e le&islator never slacens# Not t%at t%e A)erican
de)ocracy is naturally less stable t%an any ot%er+ but t%at it is allo*ed to 'ollo* its ca"ricious "ro"ensities in t%e
'or)ation o' t%e la*s# Kb
35ootnote b@ T%e le&islative acts "ro)ul&ated by t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts alone+ 'ro) t%e year .=/< to t%e
"resent ti)e+ already 'ill t%ree stout volu)es6 and it )ust not be 'or&otten t%at t%e collection to *%ic% I allude
*as "ublis%ed in ./A0+ *%en )any old la*s *%ic% %ad 'allen into disuse *ere o)itted# T%e !tate o'
Massac%usetts+ *%ic% is not )ore "o"ulous t%an a de"art)ent o' 5rance+ )ay be considered as t%e )ost stable+
t%e )ost consistent+ and t%e )ost sa&acious in its undertain&s o' t%e *%ole (nion#4
T%e o)ni"otence o' t%e )a7ority+ and t%e ra"id as *ell as absolute )anner in *%ic% its decisions are executed in
t%e (nited !tates+ %as not only t%e e''ect o' renderin& t%e la* unstable+ but it exercises t%e sa)e in'luence u"on
t%e execution o' t%e la* and t%e conduct o' t%e "ublic ad)inistration# As t%e )a7ority is t%e only "o*er *%ic% it
is i)"ortant to court+ all its "ro7ects are taen u" *it% t%e &reatest ardor+ but no sooner is its attention distracted
t%an all t%is ardor ceases6 *%ilst in t%e 'ree !tates o' Euro"e t%e ad)inistration is at once inde"endent and secure+
so t%at t%e "ro7ects o' t%e le&islature are "ut into execution+ alt%ou&% its i))ediate attention )ay be directed to
ot%er ob7ects#
In A)erica certain a)eliorations are undertaen *it% )uc% )ore -eal and activity t%an else*%ere6 in Euro"e t%e
sa)e ends are "ro)oted by )uc% less social e''ort+ )ore continuously a""lied#
!o)e years a&o several "ious individuals undertoo to a)eliorate t%e condition o' t%e "risons# T%e "ublic *as
excited by t%e state)ents *%ic% t%ey "ut 'or*ard+ and t%e re&eneration o' cri)inals beca)e a very "o"ular
undertain&# Ne* "risons *ere built+ and 'or t%e 'irst ti)e t%e idea o' re'or)in& as *ell as o' "unis%in& t%e
delinquent 'or)ed a "art o' "rison disci"line# But t%is %a""y alteration+ in *%ic% t%e "ublic %ad taen so %earty
an interest+ and *%ic% t%e exertions o' t%e citi-ens %ad irresistibly accelerated+ could not be co)"leted in a
)o)ent# ,%ilst t%e ne* "enitentiaries *ere bein& erected >and it *as t%e "leasure o' t%e )a7ority t%at t%ey
s%ould be ter)inated *it% all "ossible celerity?+ t%e old "risons existed+ *%ic% still contained a &reat nu)ber o'
o''enders# T%ese 7ails beca)e )ore un*%oleso)e and )ore corru"t in "ro"ortion as t%e ne* establis%)ents *ere
beauti'ied and i)"roved+ 'or)in& a contrast *%ic% )ay readily be understood# T%e )a7ority *as so ea&erly
e)"loyed in 'oundin& t%e ne* "risons t%at t%ose *%ic% already existed *ere 'or&otten6 and as t%e &eneral
attention *as diverted to a novel ob7ect+ t%e care *%ic% %ad %it%erto been besto*ed u"on t%e ot%ers ceased# T%e
salutary re&ulations o' disci"line *ere 'irst relaxed+ and a'ter*ards broen6 so t%at in t%e i))ediate
nei&%bor%ood o' a "rison *%ic% bore *itness to t%e )ild and enli&%tened s"irit o' our ti)e+ dun&eons )i&%t be
)et *it% *%ic% re)inded t%e visitor o' t%e barbarity o' t%e Middle A&es#
Chapter XV
@ (nli)ited :o*er O' Ma7ority+ And Its Consequences11:art II
Tyranny O' T%e Ma7ority
Ho* t%e "rinci"le o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le is to be understood11I)"ossibility o' conceivin& a )ixed
&overn)ent11T%e soverei&n "o*er )ust centre so)e*%ere11:recautions to be taen to control its action11T%ese
"recautions %ave not been taen in t%e (nited !tates11Consequences#
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I %old it to be an i)"ious and an execrable )axi) t%at+ "olitically s"eain&+ a "eo"le %as a ri&%t to do
*%atsoever it "leases+ and yet I %ave asserted t%at all aut%ority ori&inates in t%e *ill o' t%e )a7ority# A) I t%en+
in contradiction *it% )ysel'I
A &eneral la*11*%ic% bears t%e na)e o' $ustice11%as been )ade and sanctioned+ not only by a )a7ority o' t%is or
t%at "eo"le+ but by a )a7ority o' )anind# T%e ri&%ts o' every "eo"le are consequently con'ined *it%in t%e li)its
o' *%at is 7ust# A nation )ay be considered in t%e li&%t o' a 7ury *%ic% is e)"o*ered to re"resent society at
lar&e+ and to a""ly t%e &reat and &eneral la* o' 7ustice# Ou&%t suc% a 7ury+ *%ic% re"resents society+ to %ave )ore
"o*er t%an t%e society in *%ic% t%e la*s it a""lies ori&inateI
,%en I re'use to obey an un7ust la*+ I do not contest t%e ri&%t *%ic% t%e )a7ority %as o' co))andin&+ but I
si)"ly a""eal 'ro) t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le to t%e soverei&nty o' )anind# It %as been asserted t%at a
"eo"le can never entirely outste" t%e boundaries o' 7ustice and o' reason in t%ose a''airs *%ic% are )ore
"eculiarly its o*n+ and t%at consequently+ 'ull "o*er )ay 'earlessly be &iven to t%e )a7ority by *%ic% it is
re"resented# But t%is lan&ua&e is t%at o' a slave#
A )a7ority taen collectively )ay be re&arded as a bein& *%ose o"inions+ and )ost 'requently *%ose interests+
are o""osed to t%ose o' anot%er bein&+ *%ic% is styled a )inority# I' it be ad)itted t%at a )an+ "ossessin&
absolute "o*er+ )ay )isuse t%at "o*er by *ron&in& %is adversaries+ *%y s%ould a )a7ority not be liable to t%e
sa)e re"roac%I Men are not a"t to c%an&e t%eir c%aracters by a&&lo)eration6 nor does t%eir "atience in t%e
"resence o' obstacles increase *it% t%e consciousness o' t%eir stren&t%# Kc And 'or t%ese reasons I can never
*illin&ly invest any nu)ber o' )y 'ello*1creatures *it% t%at unli)ited aut%ority *%ic% I s%ould re'use to any
one o' t%e)#
35ootnote c@ No one *ill assert t%at a "eo"le cannot 'orcibly *ron& anot%er "eo"le6 but "arties )ay be looed
u"on as lesser nations *it%in a &reater one+ and t%ey are aliens to eac% ot%er@ i'+ t%ere'ore+ it be ad)itted t%at a
nation can act tyrannically to*ards anot%er nation+ it cannot be denied t%at a "arty )ay do t%e sa)e to*ards
anot%er "arty#4
I do not t%in t%at it is "ossible to co)bine several "rinci"les in t%e sa)e &overn)ent+ so as at t%e sa)e ti)e to
)aintain 'reedo)+ and really to o""ose t%e) to one anot%er# T%e 'or) o' &overn)ent *%ic% is usually ter)ed
)ixed %as al*ays a""eared to )e to be a )ere c%i)era# Accurately s"eain& t%ere is no suc% t%in& as a )ixed
&overn)ent >*it% t%e )eanin& usually &iven to t%at *ord?+ because in all co))unities so)e one "rinci"le o'
action )ay be discovered *%ic% "re"onderates over t%e ot%ers# En&land in t%e last century+ *%ic% %as been )ore
es"ecially cited as an exa)"le o' t%is 'or) o' 9overn)ent+ *as in "oint o' 'act an essentially aristocratic !tate+
alt%ou&% it co)"rised very "o*er'ul ele)ents o' de)ocracy6 'or t%e la*s and custo)s o' t%e country *ere suc%
t%at t%e aristocracy could not but "re"onderate in t%e end+ and sub7ect t%e direction o' "ublic a''airs to its o*n
*ill# T%e error arose 'ro) too )uc% attention bein& "aid to t%e actual stru&&le *%ic% *as &oin& on bet*een t%e
nobles and t%e "eo"le+ *it%out considerin& t%e "robable issue o' t%e contest+ *%ic% *as in reality t%e i)"ortant
"oint# ,%en a co))unity really %as a )ixed &overn)ent+ t%at is to say+ *%en it is equally divided bet*een t*o
adverse "rinci"les+ it )ust eit%er "ass t%rou&% a revolution or 'all into co)"lete dissolution#
I a) t%ere'ore o' o"inion t%at so)e one social "o*er )ust al*ays be )ade to "redo)inate over t%e ot%ers6 but I
t%in t%at liberty is endan&ered *%en t%is "o*er is c%eced by no obstacles *%ic% )ay retard its course+ and
'orce it to )oderate its o*n ve%e)ence#
(nli)ited "o*er is in itsel' a bad and dan&erous t%in&6 %u)an bein&s are not co)"etent to exercise it *it%
discretion+ and 9od alone can be o)ni"otent+ because His *isdo) and His 7ustice are al*ays equal to His "o*er#
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But no "o*er u"on eart% is so *ort%y o' %onor 'or itsel'+ or o' reverential obedience to t%e ri&%ts *%ic% it
re"resents+ t%at I *ould consent to ad)it its uncontrolled and all1"redo)inant aut%ority# ,%en I see t%at t%e ri&%t
and t%e )eans o' absolute co))and are con'erred on a "eo"le or u"on a in&+ u"on an aristocracy or a
de)ocracy+ a )onarc%y or a re"ublic+ I reco&ni-e t%e &er) o' tyranny+ and I 7ourney on*ard to a land o' )ore
%o"e'ul institutions#
In )y o"inion t%e )ain evil o' t%e "resent de)ocratic institutions o' t%e (nited !tates does not arise+ as is o'ten
asserted in Euro"e+ 'ro) t%eir *eaness+ but 'ro) t%eir over"o*erin& stren&t%6 and I a) not so )uc% alar)ed at
t%e excessive liberty *%ic% rei&ns in t%at country as at t%e very inadequate securities *%ic% exist a&ainst tyranny#
,%en an individual or a "arty is *ron&ed in t%e (nited !tates+ to *%o) can %e a""ly 'or redressI I' to "ublic
o"inion+ "ublic o"inion constitutes t%e )a7ority6 i' to t%e le&islature+ it re"resents t%e )a7ority+ and i)"licitly
obeys its in7unctions6 i' to t%e executive "o*er+ it is a""ointed by t%e )a7ority+ and re)ains a "assive tool in its
%ands6 t%e "ublic troo"s consist o' t%e )a7ority under ar)s6 t%e 7ury is t%e )a7ority invested *it% t%e ri&%t o'
%earin& 7udicial cases6 and in certain !tates even t%e 7ud&es are elected by t%e )a7ority# Ho*ever iniquitous or
absurd t%e evil o' *%ic% you co)"lain )ay be+ you )ust sub)it to it as *ell as you can# Kd
35ootnote d@ A striin& instance o' t%e excesses *%ic% )ay be occasioned by t%e des"otis) o' t%e )a7ority
occurred at Balti)ore in t%e year ./.A# At t%at ti)e t%e *ar *as very "o"ular in Balti)ore# A 7ournal *%ic% %ad
taen t%e ot%er side o' t%e question excited t%e indi&nation o' t%e in%abitants by its o""osition# T%e "o"ulace
asse)bled+ broe t%e "rintin&1"resses+ and attaced t%e %ouses o' t%e ne*s"a"er editors# T%e )ilitia *as called
out+ but no one obeyed t%e call6 and t%e only )eans o' savin& t%e "oor *retc%es *%o *ere t%reatened by t%e
'ren-y o' t%e )ob *as to t%ro* t%e) into "rison as co))on )ale'actors# But even t%is "recaution *as
ine''ectual6 t%e )ob collected a&ain durin& t%e ni&%t+ t%e )a&istrates a&ain )ade a vain atte)"t to call out t%e
)ilitia+ t%e "rison *as 'orced+ one o' t%e ne*s"a"er editors *as illed u"on t%e s"ot+ and t%e ot%ers *ere le't 'or
dead6 t%e &uilty "arties *ere acquitted by t%e 7ury *%en t%ey *ere brou&%t to trial#
I said one day to an in%abitant o' :ennsylvania+ 2Be so &ood as to ex"lain to )e %o* it %a""ens t%at in a !tate
'ounded by Muaers+ and celebrated 'or its toleration+ 'reed blacs are not allo*ed to exercise civil ri&%ts# T%ey
"ay t%e taxes6 is it not 'air t%at t%ey s%ould %ave a voteI2
2You insult us+2 re"lied )y in'or)ant+ 2i' you i)a&ine t%at our le&islators could %ave co))itted so &ross an act
o' in7ustice and intolerance#2
2,%atE t%en t%e blacs "ossess t%e ri&%t o' votin& in t%is countyI2
2,it%out t%e s)allest doubt#2
2Ho* co)es it+ t%en+ t%at at t%e "ollin&1boot% t%is )ornin& I did not "erceive a sin&le ne&ro in t%e *%ole
)eetin&I2
2T%is is not t%e 'ault o' t%e la*@ t%e ne&roes %ave an undis"uted ri&%t o' votin&+ but t%ey voluntarily abstain 'ro)
)ain& t%eir a""earance#2
2A very "retty "iece o' )odesty on t%eir "artsE2 re7oined I#
2,%y+ t%e trut% is+ t%at t%ey are not disinclined to vote+ but t%ey are a'raid o' bein& )altreated6 in t%is country t%e
la* is so)eti)es unable to )aintain its aut%ority *it%out t%e su""ort o' t%e )a7ority# But in t%is case t%e
)a7ority entertains very stron& "re7udices a&ainst t%e blacs+ and t%e )a&istrates are unable to "rotect t%e) in t%e
exercise o' t%eir le&al "rivile&es#2
2,%atE t%en t%e )a7ority clai)s t%e ri&%t not only o' )ain& t%e la*s+ but o' breain& t%e la*s it %as )adeI24
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I'+ on t%e ot%er %and+ a le&islative "o*er could be so constituted as to re"resent t%e )a7ority *it%out necessarily
bein& t%e slave o' its "assions6 an executive+ so as to retain a certain de&ree o' uncontrolled aut%ority6 and a
7udiciary+ so as to re)ain inde"endent o' t%e t*o ot%er "o*ers6 a &overn)ent *ould be 'or)ed *%ic% *ould still
be de)ocratic *it%out incurrin& any ris o' tyrannical abuse#
I do not say t%at tyrannical abuses 'requently occur in A)erica at t%e "resent day+ but I )aintain t%at no sure
barrier is establis%ed a&ainst t%e)+ and t%at t%e causes *%ic% )iti&ate t%e &overn)ent are to be 'ound in t%e
circu)stances and t%e )anners o' t%e country )ore t%an in its la*s#
E''ects O' T%e (nli)ited :o*er O' T%e Ma7ority ("on T%e Arbitrary Aut%ority O' T%e A)erican :ublic
O''icers
8iberty le't by t%e A)erican la*s to "ublic o''icers *it%in a certain s"%ere11T%eir "o*er#
A distinction )ust be dra*n bet*een tyranny and arbitrary "o*er# Tyranny )ay be exercised by )eans o' t%e
la*+ and in t%at case it is not arbitrary6 arbitrary "o*er )ay be exercised 'or t%e &ood o' t%e co))unity at lar&e+
in *%ic% case it is not tyrannical# Tyranny usually e)"loys arbitrary )eans+ but+ i' necessary+ it can rule *it%out
t%e)#
In t%e (nited !tates t%e unbounded "o*er o' t%e )a7ority+ *%ic% is 'avorable to t%e le&al des"otis) o' t%e
le&islature+ is lie*ise 'avorable to t%e arbitrary aut%ority o' t%e )a&istrate# T%e )a7ority %as an entire control
over t%e la* *%en it is )ade and *%en it is executed6 and as it "ossesses an equal aut%ority over t%ose *%o are in
"o*er and t%e co))unity at lar&e+ it considers "ublic o''icers as its "assive a&ents+ and readily con'ides t%e tas
o' servin& its desi&ns to t%eir vi&ilance# T%e details o' t%eir o''ice and t%e "rivile&es *%ic% t%ey are to en7oy are
rarely de'ined be'ore%and6 but t%e )a7ority treats t%e) as a )aster does %is servants *%en t%ey are al*ays at
*or in %is si&%t+ and %e %as t%e "o*er o' directin& or re"ri)andin& t%e) at every instant#
In &eneral t%e A)erican 'unctionaries are 'ar )ore inde"endent t%an t%e 5renc% civil o''icers *it%in t%e s"%ere
*%ic% is "rescribed to t%e)# !o)eti)es+ even+ t%ey are allo*ed by t%e "o"ular aut%ority to exceed t%ose bounds6
and as t%ey are "rotected by t%e o"inion+ and baced by t%e co1o"eration+ o' t%e )a7ority+ t%ey venture u"on suc%
)ani'estations o' t%eir "o*er as astonis% a Euro"ean# By t%is )eans %abits are 'or)ed in t%e %eart o' a 'ree
country *%ic% )ay so)e day "rove 'atal to its liberties#
:o*er Exercised By T%e Ma7ority In A)erica ("on O"inion
In A)erica+ *%en t%e )a7ority %as once irrevocably decided a question+ all discussion ceases11Reason o' t%is11
Moral "o*er exercised by t%e )a7ority u"on o"inion11De)ocratic re"ublics %ave de"rived des"otis) o' its
"%ysical instru)ents11T%eir des"otis) s*ays t%e )inds o' )en#
It is in t%e exa)ination o' t%e dis"lay o' "ublic o"inion in t%e (nited !tates t%at *e clearly "erceive %o* 'ar t%e
"o*er o' t%e )a7ority sur"asses all t%e "o*ers *it% *%ic% *e are acquainted in Euro"e# Intellectual "rinci"les
exercise an in'luence *%ic% is so invisible+ and o'ten so ina""reciable+ t%at t%ey ba''le t%e toils o' o""ression# At
t%e "resent ti)e t%e )ost absolute )onarc%s in Euro"e are unable to "revent certain notions+ *%ic% are o""osed
to t%eir aut%ority+ 'ro) circulatin& in secret t%rou&%out t%eir do)inions+ and even in t%eir courts# !uc% is not t%e
case in A)erica6 as lon& as t%e )a7ority is still undecided+ discussion is carried on6 but as soon as its decision is
irrevocably "ronounced+ a sub)issive silence is observed+ and t%e 'riends+ as *ell as t%e o""onents+ o' t%e
)easure unite in assentin& to its "ro"riety# T%e reason o' t%is is "er'ectly clear@ no )onarc% is so absolute as to
co)bine all t%e "o*ers o' society in %is o*n %ands+ and to conquer all o""osition *it% t%e ener&y o' a )a7ority
*%ic% is invested *it% t%e ri&%t o' )ain& and o' executin& t%e la*s#
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T%e aut%ority o' a in& is "urely "%ysical+ and it controls t%e actions o' t%e sub7ect *it%out subduin& %is "rivate
*ill6 but t%e )a7ority "ossesses a "o*er *%ic% is "%ysical and )oral at t%e sa)e ti)e6 it acts u"on t%e *ill as
*ell as u"on t%e actions o' )en+ and it re"resses not only all contest+ but all controversy# I no* no country in
*%ic% t%ere is so little true inde"endence o' )ind and 'reedo) o' discussion as in A)erica# In any constitutional
state in Euro"e every sort o' reli&ious and "olitical t%eory )ay be advocated and "ro"a&ated abroad6 'or t%ere is
no country in Euro"e so subdued by any sin&le aut%ority as not to contain citi-ens *%o are ready to "rotect t%e
)an *%o raises %is voice in t%e cause o' trut% 'ro) t%e consequences o' %is %ardi%ood# I' %e is un'ortunate
enou&% to live under an absolute &overn)ent+ t%e "eo"le is u"on %is side6 i' %e in%abits a 'ree country+ %e )ay
'ind a s%elter be%ind t%e aut%ority o' t%e t%rone+ i' %e require one# T%e aristocratic "art o' society su""orts %i) in
so)e countries+ and t%e de)ocracy in ot%ers# But in a nation *%ere de)ocratic institutions exist+ or&ani-ed lie
t%ose o' t%e (nited !tates+ t%ere is but one sole aut%ority+ one sin&le ele)ent o' stren&t% and o' success+ *it%
not%in& beyond it#
In A)erica t%e )a7ority raises very 'or)idable barriers to t%e liberty o' o"inion@ *it%in t%ese barriers an aut%or
)ay *rite *%atever %e "leases+ but %e *ill re"ent it i' %e ever ste" beyond t%e)# Not t%at %e is ex"osed to t%e
terrors o' an auto1da1'e+ but %e is tor)ented by t%e sli&%ts and "ersecutions o' daily obloquy# His "olitical career
is closed 'orever+ since %e %as o''ended t%e only aut%ority *%ic% is able to "ro)ote %is success# Every sort o'
co)"ensation+ even t%at o' celebrity+ is re'used to %i)# Be'ore %e "ublis%ed %is o"inions %e i)a&ined t%at %e
%eld t%e) in co))on *it% )any ot%ers6 but no sooner %as %e declared t%e) o"enly t%an %e is loudly censured
by %is overbearin& o""onents+ *%ilst t%ose *%o t%in *it%out %avin& t%e coura&e to s"ea+ lie %i)+ abandon
%i) in silence# He yields at len&t%+ o""ressed by t%e daily e''orts %e %as been )ain&+ and %e subsides into
silence+ as i' %e *as tor)ented by re)orse 'or %avin& s"oen t%e trut%#
5etters and %eads)en *ere t%e coarse instru)ents *%ic% tyranny 'or)erly e)"loyed6 but t%e civili-ation o' our
a&e %as re'ined t%e arts o' des"otis) *%ic% see)ed+ %o*ever+ to %ave been su''iciently "er'ected be'ore# T%e
excesses o' )onarc%ical "o*er %ad devised a variety o' "%ysical )eans o' o""ression@ t%e de)ocratic re"ublics
o' t%e "resent day %ave rendered it as entirely an a''air o' t%e )ind as t%at *ill *%ic% it is intended to coerce#
(nder t%e absolute s*ay o' an individual des"ot t%e body *as attaced in order to subdue t%e soul+ and t%e soul
esca"ed t%e blo*s *%ic% *ere directed a&ainst it and rose su"erior to t%e atte)"t6 but suc% is not t%e course
ado"ted by tyranny in de)ocratic re"ublics6 t%ere t%e body is le't 'ree+ and t%e soul is enslaved# T%e soverei&n
can no lon&er say+ 2You s%all t%in as I do on "ain o' deat%62 but %e says+ 2You are 'ree to t%in di''erently 'ro)
)e+ and to retain your li'e+ your "ro"erty+ and all t%at you "ossess6 but i' suc% be your deter)ination+ you are
%ence'ort% an alien a)on& your "eo"le# You )ay retain your civil ri&%ts+ but t%ey *ill be useless to you+ 'or you
*ill never be c%osen by your 'ello*1citi-ens i' you solicit t%eir su''ra&es+ and t%ey *ill a''ect to scorn you i' you
solicit t%eir estee)# You *ill re)ain a)on& )en+ but you *ill be de"rived o' t%e ri&%ts o' )anind# Your
'ello*1creatures *ill s%un you lie an i)"ure bein&+ and t%ose *%o are )ost "ersuaded o' your innocence *ill
abandon you too+ lest t%ey s%ould be s%unned in t%eir turn# 9o in "eaceE I %ave &iven you your li'e+ but it is an
existence in co)"arably *orse t%an deat%#2
Monarc%ical institutions %ave t%ro*n an odiu) u"on des"otis)6 let us be*are lest de)ocratic re"ublics s%ould
restore o""ression+ and s%ould render it less odious and less de&radin& in t%e eyes o' t%e )any+ by )ain& it still
)ore onerous to t%e 'e*#
,ors %ave been "ublis%ed in t%e "roudest nations o' t%e Old ,orld ex"ressly intended to censure t%e vices and
deride t%e 'ollies o' t%e ti)es6 8abruyere in%abited t%e "alace o' 8ouis HID *%en %e co)"osed %is c%a"ter u"on
t%e 9reat+ and Moliere criticised t%e courtiers in t%e very "ieces *%ic% *ere acted be'ore t%e Court# But t%e
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rulin& "o*er in t%e (nited !tates is not to be )ade &a)e o'6 t%e s)allest re"roac% irritates its sensibility+ and t%e
sli&%test 7oe *%ic% %as any 'oundation in trut% renders it indi&nant6 'ro) t%e style o' its lan&ua&e to t%e )ore
solid virtues o' its c%aracter+ everyt%in& )ust be )ade t%e sub7ect o' enco)iu)# No *riter+ *%atever be %is
e)inence+ can esca"e 'ro) t%is tribute o' adulation to %is 'ello*1citi-ens# T%e )a7ority lives in t%e "er"etual
"ractice o' sel'1a""lause+ and t%ere are certain trut%s *%ic% t%e A)ericans can only learn 'ro) stran&ers or 'ro)
ex"erience#
I' &reat *riters %ave not at "resent existed in A)erica+ t%e reason is very si)"ly &iven in t%ese 'acts6 t%ere can be
no literary &enius *it%out 'reedo) o' o"inion+ and 'reedo) o' o"inion does not exist in A)erica# T%e Inquisition
%as never been able to "revent a vast nu)ber o' anti1reli&ious boos 'ro) circulatin& in !"ain# T%e e)"ire o' t%e
)a7ority succeeds )uc% better in t%e (nited !tates+ since it actually re)oves t%e *is% o' "ublis%in& t%e)#
(nbelievers are to be )et *it% in A)erica+ but+ to say t%e trut%+ t%ere is no "ublic or&an o' in'idelity# Atte)"ts
%ave been )ade by so)e &overn)ents to "rotect t%e )orality o' nations by "ro%ibitin& licentious boos# In t%e
(nited !tates no one is "unis%ed 'or t%is sort o' *ors+ but no one is induced to *rite t%e)6 not because all t%e
citi-ens are i))aculate in t%eir )anners+ but because t%e )a7ority o' t%e co))unity is decent and orderly#
In t%ese cases t%e advanta&es derived 'ro) t%e exercise o' t%is "o*er are unquestionable+ and I a) si)"ly
discussin& t%e nature o' t%e "o*er itsel'# T%is irresistible aut%ority is a constant 'act+ and its 7udicious exercise is
an accidental occurrence#
E''ects O' T%e Tyranny O' T%e Ma7ority ("on T%e National C%aracter O' T%e A)ericans
E''ects o' t%e tyranny o' t%e )a7ority )ore sensibly 'elt %it%erto in t%e )anners t%an in t%e conduct o' society11
T%ey c%ec t%e develo")ent o' leadin& c%aracters11De)ocratic re"ublics or&ani-ed lie t%e (nited !tates brin&
t%e "ractice o' courtin& 'avor *it%in t%e reac% o' t%e )any11:roo's o' t%is s"irit in t%e (nited !tates11,%y t%ere
is )ore "atriotis) in t%e "eo"le t%an in t%ose *%o &overn in its na)e#
T%e tendencies *%ic% I %ave 7ust alluded to are as yet very sli&%tly "erce"tible in "olitical society+ but t%ey
already be&in to exercise an un'avorable in'luence u"on t%e national c%aracter o' t%e A)ericans# I a) inclined to
attribute t%e sin&ular "aucity o' distin&uis%ed "olitical c%aracters to t%e ever1increasin& activity o' t%e des"otis)
o' t%e )a7ority in t%e (nited !tates# ,%en t%e A)erican Revolution broe out t%ey arose in &reat nu)bers+ 'or
"ublic o"inion t%en served+ not to tyranni-e over+ but to direct t%e exertions o' individuals# T%ose celebrated )en
too a 'ull "art in t%e &eneral a&itation o' )ind co))on at t%at "eriod+ and t%ey attained a %i&% de&ree o'
"ersonal 'a)e+ *%ic% *as re'lected bac u"on t%e nation+ but *%ic% *as by no )eans borro*ed 'ro) it#
In absolute &overn)ents t%e &reat nobles *%o are nearest to t%e t%rone 'latter t%e "assions o' t%e soverei&n+ and
voluntarily trucle to %is ca"rices# But t%e )ass o' t%e nation does not de&rade itsel' by servitude@ it o'ten
sub)its 'ro) *eaness+ 'ro) %abit+ or 'ro) i&norance+ and so)eti)es 'ro) loyalty# !o)e nations %ave been
no*n to sacri'ice t%eir o*n desires to t%ose o' t%e soverei&n *it% "leasure and *it% "ride+ t%us ex%ibitin& a sort
o' inde"endence in t%e very act o' sub)ission# T%ese "eo"les are )iserable+ but t%ey are not de&raded# T%ere is a
&reat di''erence bet*een doin& *%at one does not a""rove and 'ei&nin& to a""rove *%at one does6 t%e one is t%e
necessary case o' a *ea "erson+ t%e ot%er be'its t%e te)"er o' a lacey#
In 'ree countries+ *%ere everyone is )ore or less called u"on to &ive %is o"inion in t%e a''airs o' state6 in
de)ocratic re"ublics+ *%ere "ublic li'e is incessantly co))in&led *it% do)estic a''airs+ *%ere t%e soverei&n
aut%ority is accessible on every side+ and *%ere its attention can al)ost al*ays be attracted by voci'eration+ )ore
"ersons are to be )et *it% *%o s"eculate u"on its 'oibles and live at t%e cost o' its "assions t%an in absolute
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)onarc%ies# Not because )en are naturally *orse in t%ese !tates t%an else*%ere+ but t%e te)"tation is stron&er+
and o' easier access at t%e sa)e ti)e# T%e result is a 'ar )ore extensive debase)ent o' t%e c%aracters o' citi-ens#
De)ocratic re"ublics extend t%e "ractice o' curryin& 'avor *it% t%e )any+ and t%ey introduce it into a &reater
nu)ber o' classes at once@ t%is is one o' t%e )ost serious re"roac%es t%at can be addressed to t%e)# In de)ocratic
!tates or&ani-ed on t%e "rinci"les o' t%e A)erican re"ublics+ t%is is )ore es"ecially t%e case+ *%ere t%e aut%ority
o' t%e )a7ority is so absolute and so irresistible t%at a )an )ust &ive u" %is ri&%ts as a citi-en+ and al)ost ab7ure
%is quality as a %u)an bein&+ i' te intends to stray 'ro) t%e trac *%ic% it lays do*n#
In t%at i))ense cro*d *%ic% t%ron&s t%e avenues to "o*er in t%e (nited !tates I 'ound very 'e* )en *%o
dis"layed any o' t%at )anly candor and t%at )asculine inde"endence o' o"inion *%ic% 'requently distin&uis%ed
t%e A)ericans in 'or)er ti)es+ and *%ic% constitutes t%e leadin& 'eature in distin&uis%ed c%aracters+
*%eresoever t%ey )ay be 'ound# It see)s+ at 'irst si&%t+ as i' all t%e )inds o' t%e A)ericans *ere 'or)ed u"on
one )odel+ so accurately do t%ey corres"ond in t%eir )anner o' 7ud&in&# A stran&er does+ indeed+ so)eti)es
)eet *it% A)ericans *%o dissent 'ro) t%ese ri&orous 'or)ularies6 *it% )en *%o de"lore t%e de'ects o' t%e
la*s+ t%e )utability and t%e i&norance o' de)ocracy6 *%o even &o so 'ar as to observe t%e evil tendencies *%ic%
i)"air t%e national c%aracter+ and to "oint out suc% re)edies as it )i&%t be "ossible to a""ly6 but no one is t%ere
to %ear t%ese t%in&s besides yoursel'+ and you+ to *%o) t%ese secret re'lections are con'ided+ are a stran&er and a
bird o' "assa&e# T%ey are very ready to co))unicate trut%s *%ic% are useless to you+ but t%ey continue to %old a
di''erent lan&ua&e in "ublic#
I' ever t%ese lines are read in A)erica+ I a) *ell assured o' t*o t%in&s@ in t%e 'irst "lace+ t%at all *%o "eruse
t%e) *ill raise t%eir voices to conde)n )e6 and in t%e second "lace+ t%at very )any o' t%e) *ill acquit )e at t%e
botto) o' t%eir conscience#
I %ave %eard o' "atriotis) in t%e (nited !tates+ and it is a virtue *%ic% )ay be 'ound a)on& t%e "eo"le+ but
never a)on& t%e leaders o' t%e "eo"le# T%is )ay be ex"lained by analo&y6 des"otis) debases t%e o""ressed
)uc% )ore t%an t%e o""ressor@ in absolute )onarc%ies t%e in& %as o'ten &reat virtues+ but t%e courtiers are
invariably servile# It is true t%at t%e A)erican courtiers do not say 2!ire+2 or 2Your Ma7esty211a distinction
*it%out a di''erence# T%ey are 'orever talin& o' t%e natural intelli&ence o' t%e "o"ulace t%ey serve6 t%ey do not
debate t%e question as to *%ic% o' t%e virtues o' t%eir )aster is "re1e)inently *ort%y o' ad)iration+ 'or t%ey
assure %i) t%at %e "ossesses all t%e virtues under %eaven *it%out %avin& acquired t%e)+ or *it%out carin& to
acquire t%e)6 t%ey do not &ive %i) t%eir dau&%ters and t%eir *ives to be raised at %is "leasure to t%e ran o' %is
concubines+ but+ by sacri'icin& t%eir o"inions+ t%ey "rostitute t%e)selves# Moralists and "%iloso"%ers in A)erica
are not obli&ed to conceal t%eir o"inions under t%e veil o' alle&ory6 but+ be'ore t%ey venture u"on a %ars% trut%+
t%ey say+ 2,e are a*are t%at t%e "eo"le *%ic% *e are addressin& is too su"erior to all t%e *eanesses o' %u)an
nature to lose t%e co))and o' its te)"er 'or an instant6 and *e s%ould not %old t%is lan&ua&e i' *e *ere not
s"eain& to )en *%o) t%eir virtues and t%eir intelli&ence render )ore *ort%y o' 'reedo) t%an all t%e rest o' t%e
*orld#2 It *ould %ave been i)"ossible 'or t%e syco"%ants o' 8ouis HID to 'latter )ore dexterously# 5or )y "art+
I a) "ersuaded t%at in all &overn)ents+ *%atever t%eir nature )ay be+ servility *ill co*er to 'orce+ and adulation
*ill clin& to "o*er# T%e only )eans o' "reventin& )en 'ro) de&radin& t%e)selves is to invest no one *it% t%at
unli)ited aut%ority *%ic% is t%e surest )et%od o' debasin& t%e)#
T%e 9reatest Dan&ers O' T%e A)erican Re"ublics :roceed 5ro) T%e (nli)ited :o*er O' T%e Ma7ority
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De)ocratic re"ublics liable to "eris% 'ro) a )isuse o' t%eir "o*er+ and not by i)"otence11T%e 9overn)ents o'
t%e A)erican re"ublics are )ore centrali-ed and )ore ener&etic t%an t%ose o' t%e )onarc%ies o' Euro"e11
Dan&ers resultin& 'ro) t%is11O"inions o' Ha)ilton and $e''erson u"on t%is "oint#
9overn)ents usually 'all a sacri'ice to i)"otence or to tyranny# In t%e 'or)er case t%eir "o*er esca"es 'ro)
t%e)6 it is *rested 'ro) t%eir &ras" in t%e latter# Many observers+ *%o %ave *itnessed t%e anarc%y o' de)ocratic
!tates+ %ave i)a&ined t%at t%e &overn)ent o' t%ose !tates *as naturally *ea and i)"otent# T%e trut% is+ t%at
*%en once %ostilities are be&un bet*een "arties+ t%e &overn)ent loses its control over society# But I do not t%in
t%at a de)ocratic "o*er is naturally *it%out 'orce or *it%out resources@ say+ rat%er+ t%at it is al)ost al*ays by
t%e abuse o' its 'orce and t%e )ise)"loy)ent o' its resources t%at a de)ocratic &overn)ent 'ails# Anarc%y is
al)ost al*ays "roduced by its tyranny or its )istaes+ but not by its *ant o' stren&t%#
It is i)"ortant not to con'ound stability *it% 'orce+ or t%e &reatness o' a t%in& *it% its duration# In de)ocratic
re"ublics+ t%e "o*er *%ic% directs Ke society is not stable6 'or it o'ten c%an&es %ands and assu)es a ne*
direction# But *%ic%ever *ay it turns+ its 'orce is al)ost irresistible# T%e 9overn)ents o' t%e A)erican re"ublics
a""ear to )e to be as )uc% centrali-ed as t%ose o' t%e absolute )onarc%ies o' Euro"e+ and )ore ener&etic t%an
t%ey are# I do not+ t%ere'ore+ i)a&ine t%at t%ey *ill "eris% 'ro) *eaness# K'
35ootnote e@ T%is "o*er )ay be centred in an asse)bly+ in *%ic% case it *ill be stron& *it%out bein& stable6 or it
)ay be centred in an individual+ in *%ic% case it *ill be less stron&+ but )ore stable#4
35ootnote '@ I "resu)e t%at it is scarcely necessary to re)ind t%e reader %ere+ as *ell as t%rou&%out t%e re)ainder
o' t%is c%a"ter+ t%at I a) s"eain&+ not o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent+ but o' t%e several &overn)ents o' eac% !tate+
*%ic% t%e )a7ority controls at its "leasure#4
I' ever t%e 'ree institutions o' A)erica are destroyed+ t%at event )ay be attributed to t%e unli)ited aut%ority o'
t%e )a7ority+ *%ic% )ay at so)e 'uture ti)e ur&e t%e )inorities to des"eration+ and obli&e t%e) to %ave recourse
to "%ysical 'orce# Anarc%y *ill t%en be t%e result+ but it *ill %ave been brou&%t about by des"otis)#
Mr# Ha)ilton ex"resses t%e sa)e o"inion in t%e 25ederalist+2 No# C.# 2It is o' &reat i)"ortance in a re"ublic not
only to &uard t%e society a&ainst t%e o""ression o' its rulers+ but to &uard one "art o' t%e society a&ainst t%e
in7ustice o' t%e ot%er "art# $ustice is t%e end o' &overn)ent# It is t%e end o' civil society# It ever %as been+ and
ever *ill be+ "ursued until it be obtained+ or until liberty be lost in t%e "ursuit# In a society+ under t%e 'or)s o'
*%ic% t%e stron&er 'action can readily unite and o""ress t%e *eaer+ anarc%y )ay as truly be said to rei&n as in a
state o' nature+ *%ere t%e *eaer individual is not secured a&ainst t%e violence o' t%e stron&er@ and as in t%e latter
state even t%e stron&er individuals are "ro)"ted by t%e uncertainty o' t%eir condition to sub)it to a &overn)ent
*%ic% )ay "rotect t%e *ea as *ell as t%e)selves+ so in t%e 'or)er state *ill t%e )ore "o*er'ul 'actions be
&radually induced by a lie )otive to *is% 'or a &overn)ent *%ic% *ill "rotect all "arties+ t%e *eaer as *ell as
t%e )ore "o*er'ul# It can be little doubted t%at+ i' t%e !tate o' R%ode Island *as se"arated 'ro) t%e Con'ederacy
and le't to itsel'+ t%e insecurity o' ri&%t under t%e "o"ular 'or) o' &overn)ent *it%in suc% narro* li)its *ould
be dis"layed by suc% reiterated o""ressions o' t%e 'actious )a7orities+ t%at so)e "o*er alto&et%er inde"endent o'
t%e "eo"le *ould soon be called 'or by t%e voice o' t%e very 'actions *%ose )isrule %ad "roved t%e necessity o'
it#2
$e''erson %as also t%us ex"ressed %i)sel' in a letter to Madison@ K& 2T%e executive "o*er in our 9overn)ent is
not t%e only+ "er%a"s not even t%e "rinci"al+ ob7ect o' )y solicitude# T%e tyranny o' t%e 8e&islature is really t%e
dan&er )ost to be 'eared+ and *ill continue to be so 'or )any years to co)e# T%e tyranny o' t%e executive "o*er
*ill co)e in its turn+ but at a )ore distant "eriod#2 I a) &lad to cite t%e o"inion o' $e''erson u"on t%is sub7ect
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rat%er t%an t%at o' anot%er+ because I consider %i) to be t%e )ost "o*er'ul advocate de)ocracy %as ever sent
'ort%#
35ootnote &@ Marc% .C+ .=/B#4
Chapter XVI
@ Causes Miti&atin& Tyranny In T%e (nited !tates11:art I
Chapter Summary
T%e national )a7ority does not "retend to conduct all business11Is obli&ed to e)"loy t%e to*n and county
)a&istrates to execute its su"re)e decisions#
I %ave already "ointed out t%e distinction *%ic% is to be )ade bet*een a centrali-ed &overn)ent and a
centrali-ed ad)inistration# T%e 'or)er exists in A)erica+ but t%e latter is nearly unno*n t%ere# I' t%e directin&
"o*er o' t%e A)erican co))unities %ad bot% t%ese instru)ents o' &overn)ent at its dis"osal+ and united t%e
%abit o' executin& its o*n co))ands to t%e ri&%t o' co))andin&6 i'+ a'ter %avin& establis%ed t%e &eneral
"rinci"les o' &overn)ent+ it descended to t%e details o' "ublic business6 and i'+ %avin& re&ulated t%e &reat
interests o' t%e country+ it could "enetrate into t%e "rivacy o' individual interests+ 'reedo) *ould soon be
banis%ed 'ro) t%e Ne* ,orld#
But in t%e (nited !tates t%e )a7ority+ *%ic% so 'requently dis"lays t%e tastes and t%e "ro"ensities o' a des"ot+ is
still destitute o' t%e )ore "er'ect instru)ents o' tyranny# In t%e A)erican re"ublics t%e activity o' t%e central
9overn)ent %as never as yet been extended beyond a li)ited nu)ber o' ob7ects su''iciently "ro)inent to call
'ort% its attention# T%e secondary a''airs o' society %ave never been re&ulated by its aut%ority+ and not%in& %as
%it%erto betrayed its desire o' inter'erin& in t%e)# T%e )a7ority is beco)e )ore and )ore absolute+ but it %as not
increased t%e "rero&atives o' t%e central &overn)ent6 t%ose &reat "rero&atives %ave been con'ined to a certain
s"%ere6 and alt%ou&% t%e des"otis) o' t%e )a7ority )ay be &allin& u"on one "oint+ it cannot be said to extend to
all# Ho*ever t%e "redo)inant "arty in t%e nation )ay be carried a*ay by its "assions+ %o*ever ardent it )ay be
in t%e "ursuit o' its "ro7ects+ it cannot obli&e all t%e citi-ens to co)"ly *it% its desires in t%e sa)e )anner and at
t%e sa)e ti)e t%rou&%out t%e country# ,%en t%e central 9overn)ent *%ic% re"resents t%at )a7ority %as issued a
decree+ it )ust entrust t%e execution o' its *ill to a&ents+ over *%o) it 'requently %as no control+ and *%o) it
cannot "er"etually direct# T%e to*ns%i"s+ )unici"al bodies+ and counties )ay t%ere'ore be looed u"on as
concealed brea1*aters+ *%ic% c%ec or "art t%e tide o' "o"ular excite)ent# I' an o""ressive la* *ere "assed+
t%e liberties o' t%e "eo"le *ould still be "rotected by t%e )eans by *%ic% t%at la* *ould be "ut in execution@ t%e
)a7ority cannot descend to t%e details and >as I *ill venture to style t%e)? t%e "uerilities o' ad)inistrative
tyranny# Nor does t%e "eo"le entertain t%at 'ull consciousness o' its aut%ority *%ic% *ould "ro)"t it to inter'ere
in t%ese )atters6 it no*s t%e extent o' its natural "o*ers+ but it is unacquainted *it% t%e increased resources
*%ic% t%e art o' &overn)ent )i&%t 'urnis%#
T%is "oint deserves attention+ 'or i' a de)ocratic re"ublic si)ilar to t%at o' t%e (nited !tates *ere ever 'ounded
in a country *%ere t%e "o*er o' a sin&le individual %ad "reviously subsisted+ and t%e e''ects o' a centrali-ed
ad)inistration %ad sun dee" into t%e %abits and t%e la*s o' t%e "eo"le+ I do not %esitate to assert+ t%at in t%at
country a )ore insu''erable des"otis) *ould "revail t%an any *%ic% no* exists in t%e )onarc%ical !tates o'
Euro"e+ or indeed t%an any *%ic% could be 'ound on t%is side o' t%e con'ines o' Asia#
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T%e :ro'ession O' T%e 8a* In T%e (nited !tates !erves To Counter"oise T%e De)ocracy
(tility o' discri)inatin& t%e natural "ro"ensities o' t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession11T%ese )en called u"on
to act a "ro)inent "art in 'uture society11In *%at )anner t%e "eculiar "ursuits o' la*yers &ive an aristocratic turn
to t%eir ideas11Accidental causes *%ic% )ay c%ec t%is tendency11Ease *it% *%ic% t%e aristocracy coalesces *it%
le&al )en11(se o' la*yers to a des"ot11T%e "ro'ession o' t%e la* constitutes t%e only aristocratic ele)ent *it%
*%ic% t%e natural ele)ents o' de)ocracy *ill co)bine11:eculiar causes *%ic% tend to &ive an aristocratic turn o'
)ind to t%e En&lis% and A)erican la*yers11T%e aristocracy o' A)erica is on t%e benc% and at t%e bar11In'luence
o' la*yers u"on A)erican society11T%eir "eculiar )a&isterial %abits a''ect t%e le&islature+ t%e ad)inistration+
and even t%e "eo"le#
In visitin& t%e A)ericans and in studyin& t%eir la*s *e "erceive t%at t%e aut%ority t%ey %ave entrusted to
)e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession+ and t%e in'luence *%ic% t%ese individuals exercise in t%e 9overn)ent+ is t%e
)ost "o*er'ul existin& security a&ainst t%e excesses o' de)ocracy# T%is e''ect see)s to )e to result 'ro) a
&eneral cause *%ic% it is use'ul to investi&ate+ since it )ay "roduce analo&ous consequences else*%ere#
T%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession %ave taen an i)"ortant "art in all t%e vicissitudes o' "olitical society in
Euro"e durin& t%e last 'ive %undred years# At one ti)e t%ey %ave been t%e instru)ents o' t%ose *%o *ere
invested *it% "olitical aut%ority+ and at anot%er t%ey %ave succeeded in convertin& "olitical aut%orities into t%eir
instru)ent# In t%e Middle A&es t%ey a''orded a "o*er'ul su""ort to t%e Cro*n+ and since t%at "eriod t%ey %ave
exerted t%e)selves to t%e ut)ost to li)it t%e royal "rero&ative# In En&land t%ey %ave contracted a close alliance
*it% t%e aristocracy6 in 5rance t%ey %ave "roved to be t%e )ost dan&erous ene)ies o' t%at class# It is )y ob7ect to
inquire *%et%er+ under all t%ese circu)stances+ t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession %ave been s*ayed by sudden
and )o)entary i)"ulses6 or *%et%er t%ey %ave been i)"elled by "rinci"les *%ic% are in%erent in t%eir "ursuits+
and *%ic% *ill al*ays recur in %istory# I a) incited to t%is investi&ation by re'lectin& t%at t%is "articular class o'
)en *ill )ost liely "lay a "ro)inent "art in t%at order o' t%in&s to *%ic% t%e events o' our ti)e are &ivin& birt%#
Men *%o %ave )ore es"ecially devoted t%e)selves to le&al "ursuits derive 'ro) t%ose occu"ations certain %abits
o' order+ a taste 'or 'or)alities+ and a ind o' instinctive re&ard 'or t%e re&ular connection o' ideas+ *%ic%
naturally render t%e) very %ostile to t%e revolutionary s"irit and t%e unre'lectin& "assions o' t%e )ultitude#
T%e s"ecial in'or)ation *%ic% la*yers derive 'ro) t%eir studies ensures t%e) a se"arate station in society+ and
t%ey constitute a sort o' "rivile&ed body in t%e scale o' intelli&ence# T%is notion o' t%eir su"eriority "er"etually
recurs to t%e) in t%e "ractice o' t%eir "ro'ession@ t%ey are t%e )asters o' a science *%ic% is necessary+ but *%ic%
is not very &enerally no*n6 t%ey serve as arbiters bet*een t%e citi-ens6 and t%e %abit o' directin& t%e blind
"assions o' "arties in liti&ation to t%eir "ur"ose ins"ires t%e) *it% a certain conte)"t 'or t%e 7ud&)ent o' t%e
)ultitude# To t%is it )ay be added t%at t%ey naturally constitute a body+ not by any "revious understandin&+ or by
an a&ree)ent *%ic% directs t%e) to a co))on end6 but t%e analo&y o' t%eir studies and t%e uni'or)ity o' t%eir
"roceedin&s connect t%eir )inds to&et%er+ as )uc% as a co))on interest could co)bine t%eir endeavors#
A "ortion o' t%e tastes and o' t%e %abits o' t%e aristocracy )ay consequently be discovered in t%e c%aracters o'
)en in t%e "ro'ession o' t%e la*# T%ey "artici"ate in t%e sa)e instinctive love o' order and o' 'or)alities6 and
t%ey entertain t%e sa)e re"u&nance to t%e actions o' t%e )ultitude+ and t%e sa)e secret conte)"t o' t%e
&overn)ent o' t%e "eo"le# I do not )ean to say t%at t%e natural "ro"ensities o' la*yers are su''iciently stron& to
s*ay t%e) irresistibly6 'or t%ey+ lie )ost ot%er )en+ are &overned by t%eir "rivate interests and t%e advanta&es
o' t%e )o)ent#
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In a state o' society in *%ic% t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession are "revented 'ro) %oldin& t%at ran in t%e
"olitical *orld *%ic% t%ey en7oy in "rivate li'e+ *e )ay rest assured t%at t%ey *ill be t%e 'ore)ost a&ents o'
revolution# But it )ust t%en be inquired *%et%er t%e cause *%ic% induces t%e) to innovate and to destroy is
accidental+ or *%et%er it belon&s to so)e lastin& "ur"ose *%ic% t%ey entertain# It is true t%at la*yers )ainly
contributed to t%e overt%ro* o' t%e 5renc% )onarc%y in .=/B6 but it re)ains to be seen *%et%er t%ey acted t%us
because t%ey %ad studied t%e la*s+ or because t%ey *ere "ro%ibited 'ro) co1o"eratin& in t%e *or o' le&islation#
5ive %undred years a&o t%e En&lis% nobles %eaded t%e "eo"le+ and s"oe in its na)e6 at t%e "resent ti)e t%e
aristocracy su""orts t%e t%rone+ and de'ends t%e royal "rero&ative# But aristocracy %as+ not*it%standin& t%is+ its
"eculiar instincts and "ro"ensities# ,e )ust be care'ul not to con'ound isolated )e)bers o' a body *it% t%e
body itsel'# In all 'ree &overn)ents+ o' *%atsoever 'or) t%ey )ay be+ )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession *ill be
'ound at t%e %ead o' all "arties# T%e sa)e re)ar is also a""licable to t%e aristocracy6 'or al)ost all t%e
de)ocratic convulsions *%ic% %ave a&itated t%e *orld %ave been directed by nobles#
A "rivile&ed body can never satis'y t%e a)bition o' all its )e)bers6 it %as al*ays )ore talents and )ore
"assions to content and to e)"loy t%an it can 'ind "laces6 so t%at a considerable nu)ber o' individuals are
usually to be )et *it% *%o are inclined to attac t%ose very "rivile&es *%ic% t%ey 'ind it i)"ossible to turn to
t%eir o*n account#
I do not+ t%en+ assert t%at all t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession are at all ti)es t%e 'riends o' order and t%e
o""onents o' innovation+ but )erely t%at )ost o' t%e) usually are so# In a co))unity in *%ic% la*yers are
allo*ed to occu"y+ *it%out o""osition+ t%at %i&% station *%ic% naturally belon&s to t%e)+ t%eir &eneral s"irit *ill
be e)inently conservative and anti1de)ocratic# ,%en an aristocracy excludes t%e leaders o' t%at "ro'ession 'ro)
its rans+ it excites ene)ies *%ic% are t%e )ore 'or)idable to its security as t%ey are inde"endent o' t%e nobility
by t%eir industrious "ursuits6 and t%ey 'eel t%e)selves to be its equal in "oint o' intelli&ence+ alt%ou&% t%ey en7oy
less o"ulence and less "o*er# But *%enever an aristocracy consents to i)"art so)e o' its "rivile&es to t%ese
sa)e individuals+ t%e t*o classes coalesce very readily+ and assu)e+ as it *ere+ t%e consistency o' a sin&le order
o' 'a)ily interests#
I a)+ in lie )anner+ inclined to believe t%at a )onarc% *ill al*ays be able to convert le&al "ractitioners into t%e
)ost serviceable instru)ents o' %is aut%ority# T%ere is a 'ar &reater a''inity bet*een t%is class o' individuals and
t%e executive "o*er t%an t%ere is bet*een t%e) and t%e "eo"le6 7ust as t%ere is a &reater natural a''inity bet*een
t%e nobles and t%e )onarc% t%an bet*een t%e nobles and t%e "eo"le+ alt%ou&% t%e %i&%er orders o' society %ave
occasionally resisted t%e "rero&ative o' t%e Cro*n in concert *it% t%e lo*er classes#
8a*yers are attac%ed to "ublic order beyond every ot%er consideration+ and t%e best security o' "ublic order is
aut%ority# It )ust not be 'or&otten t%at+ i' t%ey "ri-e t%e 'ree institutions o' t%eir country )uc%+ t%ey nevert%eless
value t%e le&ality o' t%ose institutions 'ar )ore@ t%ey are less a'raid o' tyranny t%an o' arbitrary "o*er6 and
"rovided t%at t%e le&islature tae u"on itsel' to de"rive )en o' t%eir inde"endence+ t%ey are not dissatis'ied#
I a) t%ere'ore convinced t%at t%e "rince *%o+ in "resence o' an encroac%in& de)ocracy+ s%ould endeavor to
i)"air t%e 7udicial aut%ority in %is do)inions+ and to di)inis% t%e "olitical in'luence o' la*yers+ *ould co))it a
&reat )istae# He *ould let sli" t%e substance o' aut%ority to &ras" at t%e s%ado*# He *ould act )ore *isely in
introducin& )en connected *it% t%e la* into t%e &overn)ent6 and i' %e entrusted t%e) *it% t%e conduct o' a
des"otic "o*er+ bearin& so)e )ars o' violence+ t%at "o*er *ould )ost liely assu)e t%e external 'eatures o'
7ustice and o' le&ality in t%eir %ands#
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T%e &overn)ent o' de)ocracy is 'avorable to t%e "olitical "o*er o' la*yers6 'or *%en t%e *ealt%y+ t%e noble+
and t%e "rince are excluded 'ro) t%e &overn)ent+ t%ey are sure to occu"y t%e %i&%est stations+ in t%eir o*n ri&%t+
as it *ere+ since t%ey are t%e only )en o' in'or)ation and sa&acity+ beyond t%e s"%ere o' t%e "eo"le+ *%o can be
t%e ob7ect o' t%e "o"ular c%oice# I'+ t%en+ t%ey are led by t%eir tastes to co)bine *it% t%e aristocracy and to
su""ort t%e Cro*n+ t%ey are naturally brou&%t into contact *it% t%e "eo"le by t%eir interests# T%ey lie t%e
&overn)ent o' de)ocracy+ *it%out "artici"atin& in its "ro"ensities and *it%out i)itatin& its *eanesses6 *%ence
t%ey derive a t*o'old aut%ority+ 'ro) it and over it# T%e "eo"le in de)ocratic states does not )istrust t%e
)e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession+ because it is *ell no*n t%at t%ey are interested in servin& t%e "o"ular cause6
and it listens to t%e) *it%out irritation+ because it does not attribute to t%e) any sinister desi&ns# T%e ob7ect o'
la*yers is not+ indeed+ to overt%ro* t%e institutions o' de)ocracy+ but t%ey constantly endeavor to &ive it an
i)"ulse *%ic% diverts it 'ro) its real tendency+ by )eans *%ic% are 'orei&n to its nature# 8a*yers belon& to t%e
"eo"le by birt% and interest+ to t%e aristocracy by %abit and by taste+ and t%ey )ay be looed u"on as t%e natural
bond and connectin& lin o' t%e t*o &reat classes o' society#
T%e "ro'ession o' t%e la* is t%e only aristocratic ele)ent *%ic% can be a)al&a)ated *it%out violence *it% t%e
natural ele)ents o' de)ocracy+ and *%ic% can be advanta&eously and "er)anently co)bined *it% t%e)# I a)
not unacquainted *it% t%e de'ects *%ic% are in%erent in t%e c%aracter o' t%at body o' )en6 but *it%out t%is
ad)ixture o' la*yer1lie sobriety *it% t%e de)ocratic "rinci"le+ I question *%et%er de)ocratic institutions could
lon& be )aintained+ and I cannot believe t%at a re"ublic could subsist at t%e "resent ti)e i' t%e in'luence o'
la*yers in "ublic business did not increase in "ro"ortion to t%e "o*er o' t%e "eo"le#
T%is aristocratic c%aracter+ *%ic% I %old to be co))on to t%e le&al "ro'ession+ is )uc% )ore distinctly )ared in
t%e (nited !tates and in En&land t%an in any ot%er country# T%is "roceeds not only 'ro) t%e le&al studies o' t%e
En&lis% and A)erican la*yers+ but 'ro) t%e nature o' t%e le&islation+ and t%e "osition *%ic% t%ose "ersons
occu"y in t%e t*o countries# T%e En&lis% and t%e A)ericans %ave retained t%e la* o' "recedents6 t%at is to say+
t%ey continue to 'ound t%eir le&al o"inions and t%e decisions o' t%eir courts u"on t%e o"inions and t%e decisions
o' t%eir 'ore'at%ers# In t%e )ind o' an En&lis% or A)erican la*yer a taste and a reverence 'or *%at is old is
al)ost al*ays united to a love o' re&ular and la*'ul "roceedin&s#
T%is "redis"osition %as anot%er e''ect u"on t%e c%aracter o' t%e le&al "ro'ession and u"on t%e &eneral course o'
society# T%e En&lis% and A)erican la*yers investi&ate *%at %as been done6 t%e 5renc% advocate inquires *%at
s%ould %ave been done6 t%e 'or)er "roduce "recedents+ t%e latter reasons# A 5renc% observer is sur"rised to %ear
%o* o'ten an En&lis% dr an A)erican la*yer quotes t%e o"inions o' ot%ers+ and %o* little %e alludes to %is o*n6
*%ilst t%e reverse occurs in 5rance# T%ere t%e )ost tri'lin& liti&ation is never conducted *it%out t%e introduction
o' an entire syste) o' ideas "eculiar to t%e counsel e)"loyed6 and t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"les o' la* are
discussed in order to obtain a "erc% o' land by t%e decision o' t%e court# T%is abne&ation o' %is o*n o"inion+ and
t%is i)"licit de'erence to t%e o"inion o' %is 'ore'at%ers+ *%ic% are co))on to t%e En&lis% and A)erican la*yer+
t%is sub7ection o' t%ou&%t *%ic% %e is obli&ed to "ro'ess+ necessarily &ive %i) )ore ti)id %abits and )ore
slu&&is% inclinations in En&land and A)erica t%an in 5rance#
T%e 5renc% codes are o'ten di''icult o' co)"re%ension+ but t%ey can be read by every one6 not%in&+ on t%e ot%er
%and+ can be )ore i)"enetrable to t%e uninitiated t%an a le&islation 'ounded u"on "recedents# T%e indis"ensable
*ant o' le&al assistance *%ic% is 'elt in En&land and in t%e (nited !tates+ and t%e %i&% o"inion *%ic% is &enerally
entertained o' t%e ability o' t%e le&al "ro'ession+ tend to se"arate it )ore and )ore 'ro) t%e "eo"le+ and to "lace
it in a distinct class# T%e 5renc% la*yer is si)"ly a )an extensively acquainted *it% t%e statutes o' %is country6
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but t%e En&lis% or A)erican la*yer rese)bles t%e %iero"%ants o' E&y"t+ 'or+ lie t%e)+ %e is t%e sole inter"reter
o' an occult science#
T%e station *%ic% la*yers occu"y in En&land and A)erica exercises no less an in'luence u"on t%eir %abits and
t%eir o"inions# T%e En&lis% aristocracy+ *%ic% %as taen care to attract to its s"%ere *%atever is at all analo&ous
to itsel'+ %as con'erred a %i&% de&ree o' i)"ortance and o' aut%ority u"on t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al "ro'ession# In
En&lis% society la*yers do not occu"y t%e 'irst ran+ but t%ey are contented *it% t%e station assi&ned to t%e)6
t%ey constitute+ as it *ere+ t%e youn&er branc% o' t%e En&lis% aristocracy+ and t%ey are attac%ed to t%eir elder
brot%ers+ alt%ou&% t%ey do not en7oy all t%eir "rivile&es# T%e En&lis% la*yers consequently )in&le t%e taste and
t%e ideas o' t%e aristocratic circles in *%ic% t%ey )ove *it% t%e aristocratic interests o' t%eir "ro'ession#
And indeed t%e la*yer1lie c%aracter *%ic% I a) endeavorin& to de"ict is )ost distinctly to be )et *it% in
En&land@ t%ere la*s are estee)ed not so )uc% because t%ey are &ood as because t%ey are old6 and i' it be
necessary to )odi'y t%e) in any res"ect+ or to ada"t t%e) t%e c%an&es *%ic% ti)e o"erates in society+ recourse is
%ad to t%e )ost inconceivable contrivances in order to u"%old t%e traditionary 'abric+ and to )aintain t%at
not%in& %as been done *%ic% does not square *it% t%e intentions and co)"lete t%e labors o' 'or)er &enerations#
T%e very individuals *%o conduct t%ese c%an&es disclai) all intention o' innovation+ and t%ey %ad rat%er resort
to absurd ex"edients t%an "lead &uilty to so &reat a cri)e# T%is s"irit a""ertains )ore es"ecially to t%e En&lis%
la*yers6 t%ey see) indi''erent to t%e real )eanin& o' *%at t%ey treat+ and t%ey direct all t%eir attention to t%e
letter+ see)in& inclined to in'rin&e t%e rules o' co))on sense and o' %u)anity rat%er t%an to s*erve one title
'ro) t%e la*# T%e En&lis% le&islation )ay be co)"ared to t%e stoc o' an old tree+ u"on *%ic% la*yers %ave
en&ra'ted t%e )ost various s%oots+ *it% t%e %o"e t%at+ alt%ou&% t%eir 'ruits )ay di''er+ t%eir 'olia&e at least *ill
be con'ounded *it% t%e venerable trun *%ic% su""orts t%e) all#
In A)erica t%ere are no nobles or )en o' letters+ and t%e "eo"le is a"t to )istrust t%e *ealt%y6 la*yers
consequently 'or) t%e %i&%est "olitical class+ and t%e )ost cultivated circle o' society# T%ey %ave t%ere'ore
not%in& to &ain by innovation+ *%ic% adds a conservative interest to t%eir natural taste 'or "ublic order# I' I *ere
ased *%ere I "lace t%e A)erican aristocracy+ I s%ould re"ly *it%out %esitation t%at it is not co)"osed o' t%e
ric%+ *%o are united to&et%er by no co))on tie+ but t%at it occu"ies t%e 7udicial benc% and t%e bar#
T%e )ore *e re'lect u"on all t%at occurs in t%e (nited !tates t%e )ore s%all *e be "ersuaded t%at t%e la*yers as
a body 'or) t%e )ost "o*er'ul+ i' not t%e only+ counter"oise to t%e de)ocratic ele)ent# In t%at country *e
"erceive %o* e)inently t%e le&al "ro'ession is quali'ied by its "o*ers+ and even by its de'ects+ to neutrali-e t%e
vices *%ic% are in%erent in "o"ular &overn)ent# ,%en t%e A)erican "eo"le is intoxicated by "assion+ or carried
a*ay by t%e i)"etuosity o' its ideas+ it is c%eced and sto""ed by t%e al)ost invisible in'luence o' its le&al
counsellors+ *%o secretly o""ose t%eir aristocratic "ro"ensities to its de)ocratic instincts+ t%eir su"erstitious
attac%)ent to *%at is antique to its love o' novelty+ t%eir narro* vie*s to its i))ense desi&ns+ and t%eir %abitual
"rocrastination to its ardent i)"atience#
T%e courts o' 7ustice are t%e )ost visible or&ans by *%ic% t%e le&al "ro'ession is enabled to control t%e
de)ocracy# T%e 7ud&e is a la*yer+ *%o+ inde"endently o' t%e taste 'or re&ularity and order *%ic% %e %as
contracted in t%e study o' le&islation+ derives an additional love o' stability 'ro) %is o*n inalienable 'unctions#
His le&al attain)ents %ave already raised %i) to a distin&uis%ed ran a)on&st %is 'ello*1citi-ens6 %is "olitical
"o*er co)"letes t%e distinction o' %is station+ and &ives %i) t%e inclinations natural to "rivile&ed classes#
Ar)ed *it% t%e "o*er o' declarin& t%e la*s to be unconstitutional+ Ka t%e A)erican )a&istrate "er"etually
inter'eres in "olitical a''airs# He cannot 'orce t%e "eo"le to )ae la*s+ but at least %e can obli&e it not to disobey
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its o*n enact)ents6 or to act inconsistently *it% its o*n "rinci"les# I a) a*are t%at a secret tendency to di)inis%
t%e 7udicial "o*er exists in t%e (nited !tates+ and by )ost o' t%e constitutions o' t%e several !tates t%e
9overn)ent can+ u"on t%e de)and o' t%e t*o %ouses o' t%e le&islature+ re)ove t%e 7ud&es 'ro) t%eir station# By
so)e ot%er constitutions t%e )e)bers o' t%e tribunals are elected+ and t%ey are even sub7ected to 'requent re1
elections# I venture to "redict t%at t%ese innovations *ill sooner or later be attended *it% 'atal consequences+ and
t%at it *ill be 'ound out at so)e 'uture "eriod t%at t%e attac *%ic% is )ade u"on t%e 7udicial "o*er %as a''ected
t%e de)ocratic re"ublic itsel'#
35ootnote a@ !ee c%a"ter DI# on t%e 2$udicial :o*er in t%e (nited !tates#24
It )ust not+ %o*ever+ be su""osed t%at t%e le&al s"irit o' *%ic% I %ave been s"eain& %as been con'ined+ in t%e
(nited !tates+ to t%e courts o' 7ustice6 it extends 'ar beyond t%e)# As t%e la*yers constitute t%e only enli&%tened
class *%ic% t%e "eo"le does not )istrust+ t%ey are naturally called u"on to occu"y )ost o' t%e "ublic stations#
T%ey 'ill t%e le&islative asse)blies+ and t%ey conduct t%e ad)inistration6 t%ey consequently exercise a "o*er'ul
in'luence u"on t%e 'or)ation o' t%e la*+ and u"on its execution# T%e la*yers are+ %o*ever+ obli&ed to yield to
t%e current o' "ublic o"inion+ *%ic% is too stron& 'or t%e) to resist it+ but it is easy to 'ind indications o' *%at
t%eir conduct *ould be i' t%ey *ere 'ree to act as t%ey c%ose# T%e A)ericans+ *%o %ave )ade suc% co"ious
innovations in t%eir "olitical le&islation+ %ave introduced very s"arin& alterations in t%eir civil la*s+ and t%at *it%
&reat di''iculty+ alt%ou&% t%ose la*s are 'requently re"u&nant to t%eir social condition# T%e reason o' t%is is+ t%at
in )atters o' civil la* t%e )a7ority is obli&ed to de'er to t%e aut%ority o' t%e le&al "ro'ession+ and t%at t%e
A)erican la*yers are disinclined to innovate *%en t%ey are le't to t%eir o*n c%oice#
It is curious 'or a 5renc%)an+ accusto)ed to a very di''erent state o' t%in&s+ to %ear t%e "er"etual co)"laints
*%ic% are )ade in t%e (nited !tates a&ainst t%e stationary "ro"ensities o' le&al )en+ and t%eir "re7udices in 'avor
o' existin& institutions#
T%e in'luence o' t%e le&al %abits *%ic% are co))on in A)erica extends beyond t%e li)its I %ave 7ust "ointed
out# !carcely any question arises in t%e (nited !tates *%ic% does not beco)e+ sooner or later+ a sub7ect o'
7udicial debate6 %ence all "arties are obli&ed to borro* t%e ideas+ and even t%e lan&ua&e+ usual in 7udicial
"roceedin&s in t%eir daily controversies# As )ost "ublic )en are+ or %ave been+ le&al "ractitioners+ t%ey introduce
t%e custo)s and tec%nicalities o' t%eir "ro'ession into t%e a''airs o' t%e country# T%e 7ury extends t%is %abitude to
all classes# T%e lan&ua&e o' t%e la* t%us beco)es+ in so)e )easure+ a vul&ar ton&ue6 t%e s"irit o' t%e la*+ *%ic%
is "roduced in t%e sc%ools and courts o' 7ustice+ &radually "enetrates beyond t%eir *alls into t%e boso) o'
society+ *%ere it descends to t%e lo*est classes+ so t%at t%e *%ole "eo"le contracts t%e %abits and t%e tastes o' t%e
)a&istrate# T%e la*yers o' t%e (nited !tates 'or) a "arty *%ic% is but little 'eared and scarcely "erceived+ *%ic%
%as no bad&e "eculiar to itsel'+ *%ic% ada"ts itsel' *it% &reat 'lexibility to t%e exi&encies o' t%e ti)e+ and
acco))odates itsel' to all t%e )ove)ents o' t%e social body6 but t%is "arty extends over t%e *%ole co))unity+
and it "enetrates into all classes o' society6 it acts u"on t%e country i)"erce"tibly+ but it 'inally 'as%ions it to suit
its "ur"oses#
Chapter XVI
@ Causes Miti&atin& Tyranny In T%e (nited !tates11:art II
Trial By $ury In T%e (nited !tates Considered As A :olitical Institution
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Trial by 7ury+ *%ic% is one o' t%e instru)ents o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le+ deserves to be co)"ared *it% t%e
ot%er la*s *%ic% establis% t%at soverei&nty11Co)"osition o' t%e 7ury in t%e (nited !tates11E''ect o' trial by 7ury
u"on t%e national c%aracter11It educates t%e "eo"le11It tends to establis% t%e aut%ority o' t%e )a&istrates and to
extend a no*led&e o' la* a)on& t%e "eo"le#
!ince I %ave been led by )y sub7ect to recur to t%e ad)inistration o' 7ustice in t%e (nited !tates+ I *ill not "ass
over t%is "oint *it%out advertin& to t%e institution o' t%e 7ury# Trial by 7ury )ay be considered in t*o se"arate
"oints o' vie*+ as a 7udicial and as a "olitical institution# I' it entered into )y "resent "ur"ose to inquire %o* 'ar
trial by 7ury >)ore es"ecially in civil cases? contributes to insure t%e best ad)inistration o' 7ustice+ I ad)it t%at its
utility )i&%t be contested# As t%e 7ury *as 'irst introduced at a ti)e *%en society *as in an uncivili-ed state+ and
*%en courts o' 7ustice *ere )erely called u"on to decide on t%e evidence o' 'acts+ it is not an easy tas to ada"t it
to t%e *ants o' a %i&%ly civili-ed co))unity *%en t%e )utual relations o' )en are )ulti"lied to a sur"risin&
extent+ and %ave assu)ed t%e enli&%tened and intellectual c%aracter o' t%e a&e# Kb
35ootnote b@ T%e investi&ation o' trial by 7ury as a 7udicial institution+ and t%e a""reciation o' its e''ects in t%e
(nited !tates+ to&et%er *it% t%e advanta&es t%e A)ericans %ave derived 'ro) it+ *ould su''ice to 'or) a boo+
and a boo u"on a very use'ul and curious sub7ect# T%e !tate o' 8ouisiana *ould in "articular a''ord t%e curious
"%eno)enon o' a 5renc% and En&lis% le&islation+ as *ell as a 5renc% and En&lis% "o"ulation+ *%ic% are
&radually co)binin& *it% eac% ot%er# !ee t%e 2Di&este des 8ois de la 8ouisiane+2 in t*o volu)es6 and t%e 2Traite
sur les Re&les des Actions civiles+2 "rinted in 5renc% and En&lis% at Ne* Orleans in ./0<#4
My "resent ob7ect is to consider t%e 7ury as a "olitical institution+ and any ot%er course *ould divert )e 'ro) )y
sub7ect# O' trial by 7ury+ considered as a 7udicial institution+ I s%all %ere say but very 'e* *ords# ,%en t%e
En&lis% ado"ted trial by 7ury t%ey *ere a se)i1barbarous "eo"le6 t%ey are beco)e+ in course o' ti)e+ one o' t%e
)ost enli&%tened nations o' t%e eart%6 and t%eir attac%)ent to t%is institution see)s to %ave increased *it% t%eir
increasin& cultivation# T%ey soon s"read beyond t%eir insular boundaries to every corner o' t%e %abitable &lobe6
so)e %ave 'or)ed colonies+ ot%ers inde"endent states6 t%e )ot%er1country %as )aintained its )onarc%ical
constitution6 )any o' its o''s"rin& %ave 'ounded "o*er'ul re"ublics6 but *%erever t%e En&lis% %ave been t%ey
%ave boasted o' t%e "rivile&e o' trial by 7ury# Kc T%ey %ave establis%ed it+ or %astened to re1establis% it+ in all t%eir
settle)ents# A 7udicial institution *%ic% obtains t%e su''ra&es o' a &reat "eo"le 'or so lon& a series o' a&es+ *%ic%
is -ealously rene*ed at every e"oc% o' civili-ation+ in all t%e cli)ates o' t%e eart% and under every 'or) o'
%u)an &overn)ent+ cannot be contrary to t%e s"irit o' 7ustice# Kd
35ootnote c@ All t%e En&lis% and A)erican 7urists are unani)ous u"on t%is %ead# Mr# !tory+ 7ud&e o' t%e !u"re)e
Court o' t%e (nited !tates+ s"eas+ in %is 2Treatise on t%e 5ederal Constitution+2 o' t%e advanta&es o' trial by 7ury
in civil cases@112T%e inesti)able "rivile&e o' a trial by 7ury in civil cases11a "rivile&e scarcely in'erior to t%at in
cri)inal cases+ *%ic% is counted by all "ersons to be essential to "olitical and civil liberty# # # #2 >!tory+ boo iii#+
c%a"# xxxviii#?4
35ootnote d@ I' it *ere our "rovince to "oint out t%e utility o' t%e 7ury as a 7udicial institution in t%is "lace+ )uc%
)i&%t be said+ and t%e 'ollo*in& ar&u)ents )i&%t be brou&%t 'or*ard a)on&st ot%ers@11
By introducin& t%e 7ury into t%e business o' t%e courts you are enabled to di)inis% t%e nu)ber o' 7ud&es+ *%ic%
is a very &reat advanta&e# ,%en 7ud&es are very nu)erous+ deat% is "er"etually t%innin& t%e rans o' t%e 7udicial
'unctionaries+ and layin& "laces vacant 'or ne*co)ers# T%e a)bition o' t%e )a&istrates is t%ere'ore continually
excited+ and t%ey are naturally )ade de"endent u"on t%e *ill o' t%e )a7ority+ or t%e individual *%o 'ills u" t%e
vacant a""oint)ents6 t%e o''icers o' t%e court t%en rise lie t%e o''icers o' an ar)y# T%is state o' t%in&s is entirely
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contrary to t%e sound ad)inistration o' 7ustice+ and to t%e intentions o' t%e le&islator# T%e o''ice o' a 7ud&e is
)ade inalienable in order t%at %e )ay re)ain inde"endent@ but o' *%at advanta&e is it t%at %is inde"endence
s%ould be "rotected i' %e be te)"ted to sacri'ice it o' %is o*n accordI ,%en 7ud&es are very nu)erous )any o'
t%e) )ust necessarily be inca"able o' "er'or)in& t%eir i)"ortant duties+ 'or a &reat )a&istrate is a )an o' no
co))on "o*ers6 and I a) inclined to believe t%at a %al'1enli&%tened tribunal is t%e *orst o' all instru)ents 'or
attainin& t%ose ob7ects *%ic% it is t%e "ur"ose o' courts o' 7ustice to acco)"lis%# 5or )y o*n "art+ I %ad rat%er
sub)it t%e decision o' a case to i&norant 7urors directed by a sil'ul 7ud&e t%an to 7ud&es a )a7ority o' *%o) are
i)"er'ectly acquainted *it% 7uris"rudence and *it% t%e la*s#4
I turn+ %o*ever+ 'ro) t%is "art o' t%e sub7ect# To loo u"on t%e 7ury as a )ere 7udicial institution is to con'ine our
attention to a very narro* vie* o' it6 'or %o*ever &reat its in'luence )ay be u"on t%e decisions o' t%e la* courts+
t%at in'luence is very subordinate to t%e "o*er'ul e''ects *%ic% it "roduces on t%e destinies o' t%e co))unity at
lar&e# T%e 7ury is above all a "olitical institution+ and it )ust be re&arded in t%is li&%t in order to be duly
a""reciated#
By t%e 7ury I )ean a certain nu)ber o' citi-ens c%osen indiscri)inately+ and invested *it% a te)"orary ri&%t o'
7ud&in&# Trial by 7ury+ as a""lied to t%e re"ression o' cri)e+ a""ears to )e to introduce an e)inently re"ublican
ele)ent into t%e &overn)ent u"on t%e 'ollo*in& &rounds@11
T%e institution o' t%e 7ury )ay be aristocratic or de)ocratic+ accordin& to t%e class o' society 'ro) *%ic% t%e
7urors are selected6 but it al*ays "reserves its re"ublican c%aracter+ inas)uc% as it "laces t%e real direction o'
society in t%e %ands o' t%e &overned+ or o' a "ortion o' t%e &overned+ instead o' leavin& it under t%e aut%ority o'
t%e 9overn)ent# 5orce is never )ore t%an a transient ele)ent o' success6 and a'ter 'orce co)es t%e notion o'
ri&%t# A &overn)ent *%ic% s%ould only be able to crus% its ene)ies u"on a 'ield o' battle *ould very soon be
destroyed# T%e true sanction o' "olitical la*s is to be 'ound in "enal le&islation+ and i' t%at sanction be *antin&
t%e la* *ill sooner or later lose its co&ency# He *%o "unis%es in'ractions o' t%e la* is t%ere'ore t%e real )aster
o' society# No* t%e institution o' t%e 7ury raises t%e "eo"le itsel'+ or at least a class o' citi-ens+ to t%e benc% o'
7udicial aut%ority# T%e institution o' t%e 7ury consequently invests t%e "eo"le+ or t%at class o' citi-ens+ *it% t%e
direction o' society# Ke
35ootnote e@ An i)"ortant re)ar )ust+ %o*ever+ be )ade# Trial by 7ury does unquestionably invest t%e "eo"le
*it% a &eneral control over t%e actions o' citi-ens+ but it does not 'urnis% )eans o' exercisin& t%is control in all
cases+ or *it% an absolute aut%ority# ,%en an absolute )onarc% %as t%e ri&%t o' tryin& o''ences by %is
re"resentatives+ t%e 'ate o' t%e "risoner is+ as it *ere+ decided be'ore%and# But even i' t%e "eo"le *ere
"redis"osed to convict+ t%e co)"osition and t%e non1res"onsibility o' t%e 7ury *ould still a''ord so)e c%ances
'avorable to t%e "rotection o' innocence#4
In En&land t%e 7ury is returned 'ro) t%e aristocratic "ortion o' t%e nation6 K' t%e aristocracy )aes t%e la*s+
a""lies t%e la*s+ and "unis%es all in'ractions o' t%e la*s6 everyt%in& is establis%ed u"on a consistent 'ootin&+ and
En&land )ay *it% trut% be said to constitute an aristocratic re"ublic# In t%e (nited !tates t%e sa)e syste) is
a""lied to t%e *%ole "eo"le# Every A)erican citi-en is quali'ied to be an elector+ a 7uror+ and is eli&ible to o''ice#
K& T%e syste) o' t%e 7ury+ as it is understood in A)erica+ a""ears to )e to be as direct and as extre)e a
consequence o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le as universal su''ra&e# T%ese institutions are t*o instru)ents o'
equal "o*er+ *%ic% contribute to t%e su"re)acy o' t%e )a7ority# All t%e soverei&ns *%o %ave c%osen to &overn
by t%eir o*n aut%ority+ and to direct society instead o' obeyin& its directions+ %ave destroyed or en'eebled t%e
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institution o' t%e 7ury# T%e )onarc%s o' t%e House o' Tudor sent to "rison 7urors *%o re'used to convict+ and
Na"oleon caused t%e) to be returned by %is a&ents#
35ootnote '@ 3T%is )ay be true to so)e extent o' s"ecial 7uries+ but not o' co))on 7uries# T%e aut%or see)s not
to %ave been a*are t%at t%e quali'ications o' 7urors in En&land vary exceedin&ly#44
35ootnote &@ !ee A""endix+ M#4
Ho*ever clear )ost o' t%ese trut%s )ay see) to be+ t%ey do not co))and universal assent+ and in 5rance+ at
least+ t%e institution o' trial by 7ury is still very i)"er'ectly understood# I' t%e question arises as to t%e "ro"er
quali'ication o' 7urors+ it is con'ined to a discussion o' t%e intelli&ence and no*led&e o' t%e citi-ens *%o )ay be
returned+ as i' t%e 7ury *as )erely a 7udicial institution# T%is a""ears to )e to be t%e least "art o' t%e sub7ect# T%e
7ury is "re1e)inently a "olitical institution6 it )ust be re&arded as one 'or) o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le6
*%en t%at soverei&nty is re"udiated+ it )ust be re7ected+ or it )ust be ada"ted to t%e la*s by *%ic% t%at
soverei&nty is establis%ed# T%e 7ury is t%at "ortion o' t%e nation to *%ic% t%e execution o' t%e la*s is entrusted+
as t%e Houses o' :arlia)ent constitute t%at "art o' t%e nation *%ic% )aes t%e la*s6 and in order t%at society )ay
be &overned *it% consistency and uni'or)ity+ t%e list o' citi-ens quali'ied to serve on 7uries )ust increase and
di)inis% *it% t%e list o' electors# T%is I %old to be t%e "oint o' vie* )ost *ort%y o' t%e attention o' t%e
le&islator+ and all t%at re)ains is )erely accessory#
I a) so entirely convinced t%at t%e 7ury is "re1e)inently a "olitical institution t%at I still consider it in t%is li&%t
*%en it is a""lied in civil causes# 8a*s are al*ays unstable unless t%ey are 'ounded u"on t%e )anners o' a
nation6 )anners are t%e only durable and resistin& "o*er in a "eo"le# ,%en t%e 7ury is reserved 'or cri)inal
o''ences+ t%e "eo"le only *itnesses its occasional action in certain "articular cases6 t%e ordinary course o' li'e
&oes on *it%out its inter'erence+ and it is considered as an instru)ent+ but not as t%e only instru)ent+ o'
obtainin& 7ustice# T%is is true a 'ortiori *%en t%e 7ury is only a""lied to certain cri)inal causes#
,%en+ on t%e contrary+ t%e in'luence o' t%e 7ury is extended to civil causes+ its a""lication is constantly "al"able6
it a''ects all t%e interests o' t%e co))unity6 everyone co1o"erates in its *or@ it t%us "enetrates into all t%e
usa&es o' li'e+ it 'as%ions t%e %u)an )ind to its "eculiar 'or)s+ and is &radually associated *it% t%e idea o'
7ustice itsel'#
T%e institution o' t%e 7ury+ i' con'ined to cri)inal causes+ is al*ays in dan&er+ but *%en once it is introduced into
civil "roceedin&s it de'ies t%e a&&ressions o' ti)e and o' )an# I' it %ad been as easy to re)ove t%e 7ury 'ro) t%e
)anners as 'ro) t%e la*s o' En&land+ it *ould %ave "eris%ed under Henry DIII+ and Eli-abet%+ and t%e civil 7ury
did in reality+ at t%at "eriod+ save t%e liberties o' t%e country# In *%atever )anner t%e 7ury be a""lied+ it cannot
'ail to exercise a "o*er'ul in'luence u"on t%e national c%aracter6 but t%is in'luence is "rodi&iously increased
*%en it is introduced into civil causes# T%e 7ury+ and )ore es"ecially t%e 7ury in civil cases+ serves to
co))unicate t%e s"irit o' t%e 7ud&es to t%e )inds o' all t%e citi-ens6 and t%is s"irit+ *it% t%e %abits *%ic% attend
it+ is t%e soundest "re"aration 'or 'ree institutions# It i)bues all classes *it% a res"ect 'or t%e t%in& 7ud&ed+ and
*it% t%e notion o' ri&%t# I' t%ese t*o ele)ents be re)oved+ t%e love o' inde"endence is reduced to a )ere
destructive "assion# It teac%es )en to "ractice equity+ every )an learns to 7ud&e %is nei&%bor as %e *ould
%i)sel' be 7ud&ed6 and t%is is es"ecially true o' t%e 7ury in civil causes+ 'or+ *%ilst t%e nu)ber o' "ersons *%o
%ave reason to a""re%end a cri)inal "rosecution is s)all+ every one is liable to %ave a civil action brou&%t
a&ainst %i)# T%e 7ury teac%es every )an not to recoil be'ore t%e res"onsibility o' %is o*n actions+ and i)"resses
%i) *it% t%at )anly con'idence *it%out *%ic% "olitical virtue cannot exist# It invests eac% citi-en *it% a ind o'
)a&istracy+ it )aes t%e) all 'eel t%e duties *%ic% t%ey are bound to disc%ar&e to*ards society+ and t%e "art
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*%ic% t%ey tae in t%e 9overn)ent# By obli&in& )en to turn t%eir attention to a''airs *%ic% are not exclusively
t%eir o*n+ it rubs o'' t%at individual e&otis) *%ic% is t%e rust o' society#
T%e 7ury contributes )ost "o*er'ully to 'or) t%e 7ud&e)ent and to increase t%e natural intelli&ence o' a "eo"le+
and t%is is+ in )y o"inion+ its &reatest advanta&e# It )ay be re&arded as a &ratuitous "ublic sc%ool ever o"en+ in
*%ic% every 7uror learns to exercise %is ri&%ts+ enters into daily co))unication *it% t%e )ost learned and
enli&%tened )e)bers o' t%e u""er classes+ and beco)es "ractically acquainted *it% t%e la*s o' %is country+
*%ic% are brou&%t *it%in t%e reac% o' %is ca"acity by t%e e''orts o' t%e bar+ t%e advice o' t%e 7ud&e+ and even by
t%e "assions o' t%e "arties# I t%in t%at t%e "ractical intelli&ence and "olitical &ood sense o' t%e A)ericans are
)ainly attributable to t%e lon& use *%ic% t%ey %ave )ade o' t%e 7ury in civil causes# I do not no* *%et%er t%e
7ury is use'ul to t%ose *%o are in liti&ation6 but I a) certain it is %i&%ly bene'icial to t%ose *%o decide t%e
liti&ation6 and I loo u"on it as one o' t%e )ost e''icacious )eans 'or t%e education o' t%e "eo"le *%ic% society
can e)"loy#
,%at I %ave %it%erto said a""lies to all nations+ but t%e re)ar I a) no* about to )ae is "eculiar to t%e
A)ericans and to de)ocratic "eo"les# I %ave already observed t%at in de)ocracies t%e )e)bers o' t%e le&al
"ro'ession and t%e )a&istrates constitute t%e only aristocratic body *%ic% can c%ec t%e irre&ularities o' t%e
"eo"le# T%is aristocracy is invested *it% no "%ysical "o*er+ but it exercises its conservative in'luence u"on t%e
)inds o' )en+ and t%e )ost abundant source o' its aut%ority is t%e institution o' t%e civil 7ury# In cri)inal causes+
*%en society is ar)ed a&ainst a sin&le individual+ t%e 7ury is a"t to loo u"on t%e 7ud&e as t%e "assive instru)ent
o' social "o*er+ and to )istrust %is advice# Moreover+ cri)inal causes are entirely 'ounded u"on t%e evidence o'
'acts *%ic% co))on sense can readily a""reciate6 u"on t%is &round t%e 7ud&e and t%e 7ury are equal# !uc%+
%o*ever+ is not t%e case in civil causes6 t%en t%e 7ud&e a""ears as a disinterested arbiter bet*een t%e con'lictin&
"assions o' t%e "arties# T%e 7urors loo u" to %i) *it% con'idence and listen to %i) *it% res"ect+ 'or in t%is
instance t%eir intelli&ence is co)"letely under t%e control o' %is learnin&# It is t%e 7ud&e *%o su)s u" t%e various
ar&u)ents *it% *%ic% t%eir )e)ory %as been *earied out+ and *%o &uides t%e) t%rou&% t%e devious course o'
t%e "roceedin&s6 %e "oints t%eir attention to t%e exact question o' 'act *%ic% t%ey are called u"on to solve+ and %e
"uts t%e ans*er to t%e question o' la* into t%eir )out%s# His in'luence u"on t%eir verdict is al)ost unli)ited#
I' I a) called u"on to ex"lain *%y I a) but little )oved by t%e ar&u)ents derived 'ro) t%e i&norance o' 7urors in
civil causes+ I re"ly+ t%at in t%ese "roceedin&s+ *%enever t%e question to be solved is not a )ere question o' 'act+
t%e 7ury %as only t%e se)blance o' a 7udicial body# T%e 7ury sanctions t%e decision o' t%e 7ud&e+ t%ey by t%e
aut%ority o' society *%ic% t%ey re"resent+ and %e by t%at o' reason and o' la*# K%
35ootnote %@ !ee A""endix+ R#4
In En&land and in A)erica t%e 7ud&es exercise an in'luence u"on cri)inal trials *%ic% t%e 5renc% 7ud&es %ave
never "ossessed# T%e reason o' t%is di''erence )ay easily be discovered6 t%e En&lis% and A)erican )a&istrates
establis% t%eir aut%ority in civil causes+ and only trans'er it a'ter*ards to tribunals o' anot%er ind+ *%ere t%at
aut%ority *as not acquired# In so)e cases >and t%ey are 'requently t%e )ost i)"ortant ones? t%e A)erican 7ud&es
%ave t%e ri&%t o' decidin& causes alone# Ki ("on t%ese occasions t%ey are accidentally "laced in t%e "osition
*%ic% t%e 5renc% 7ud&es %abitually occu"y+ but t%ey are invested *it% 'ar )ore "o*er t%an t%e latter6 t%ey are
still surrounded by t%e re)iniscence o' t%e 7ury+ and t%eir 7ud&)ent %as al)ost as )uc% aut%ority as t%e voice o'
t%e co))unity at lar&e+ re"resented by t%at institution# T%eir in'luence extends beyond t%e li)its o' t%e courts6 in
t%e recreations o' "rivate li'e as *ell as in t%e tur)oil o' "ublic business+ abroad and in t%e le&islative
asse)blies+ t%e A)erican 7ud&e is constantly surrounded by )en *%o are accusto)ed to re&ard %is intelli&ence
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as su"erior to t%eir o*n+ and a'ter %avin& exercised %is "o*er in t%e decision o' causes+ %e continues to in'luence
t%e %abits o' t%ou&%t and t%e c%aracters o' t%e individuals *%o too a "art in %is 7ud&)ent#
35ootnote i@ T%e 5ederal 7ud&es decide u"on t%eir o*n aut%ority al)ost all t%e questions )ost i)"ortant to t%e
country#4
T%e 7ury+ t%en+ *%ic% see)s to restrict t%e ri&%ts o' )a&istracy+ does in reality consolidate its "o*er+ and in no
country are t%e 7ud&es so "o*er'ul as t%ere+ *%ere t%e "eo"le "artaes t%eir "rivile&es# It is )ore es"ecially by
)eans o' t%e 7ury in civil causes t%at t%e A)erican )a&istrates i)bue all classes o' society *it% t%e s"irit o' t%eir
"ro'ession# T%us t%e 7ury+ *%ic% is t%e )ost ener&etic )eans o' )ain& t%e "eo"le rule+ is also t%e )ost
e''icacious )eans o' teac%in& it to rule *ell#
Chapter XVII
@ :rinci"al Causes Maintainin& T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic11:art I
:rinci"al Causes ,%ic% Tend To Maintain T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic In T%e (nited !tates
A de)ocratic re"ublic subsists in t%e (nited !tates+ and t%e "rinci"al ob7ect o' t%is boo %as been to account 'or
t%e 'act o' its existence# !everal o' t%e causes *%ic% contribute to )aintain t%e institutions o' A)erica %ave been
involuntarily "assed by or only %inted at as I *as borne alon& by )y sub7ect# Ot%ers I %ave been unable to
discuss+ and t%ose on *%ic% I %ave d*elt )ost are+ as it *ere+ buried in t%e details o' t%e 'or)er "arts o' t%is
*or# I t%in+ t%ere'ore+ t%at be'ore I "roceed to s"ea o' t%e 'uture+ I cannot do better t%an collect *it%in a s)all
co)"ass t%e reasons *%ic% best ex"lain t%e "resent# In t%is retros"ective c%a"ter I s%all be succinct+ 'or I s%all
tae care to re)ind t%e reader very su))arily o' *%at %e already no*s6 and I s%all only select t%e )ost
"ro)inent o' t%ose 'acts *%ic% I %ave not yet "ointed out#
All t%e causes *%ic% contribute to t%e )aintenance o' t%e de)ocratic re"ublic in t%e (nited !tates are reducible
to t%ree %eads@11
I# T%e "eculiar and accidental situation in *%ic% :rovidence %as "laced t%e A)ericans#
II# T%e la*s#
III# T%e )anners and custo)s o' t%e "eo"le#
Accidental Or :rovidential Causes ,%ic% Contribute To T%e Maintenance O' T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic In T%e
(nited !tates T%e (nion %as no nei&%bors11No )etro"olis11T%e A)ericans %ave %ad t%e c%ances o' birt% in t%eir
'avor11A)erica an e)"ty country11Ho* t%is circu)stance contributes "o*er'ully to t%e )aintenance o' t%e
de)ocratic re"ublic in A)erica11Ho* t%e A)erican *ilds are "eo"led11Avidity o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans in
tain& "ossession o' t%e solitudes o' t%e Ne* ,orld11In'luence o' "%ysical "ros"erity u"on t%e "olitical o"inions
o' t%e A)ericans#
A t%ousand circu)stances+ inde"endent o' t%e *ill o' )an+ concur to 'acilitate t%e )aintenance o' a de)ocratic
re"ublic in t%e (nited !tates# !o)e o' t%ese "eculiarities are no*n+ t%e ot%ers )ay easily be "ointed out6 but I
s%all con'ine )ysel' to t%e )ost "ro)inent a)on&st t%e)#
T%e A)ericans %ave no nei&%bors+ and consequently t%ey %ave no &reat *ars+ or 'inancial crises+ or inroads+ or
conquest to dread6 t%ey require neit%er &reat taxes+ nor &reat ar)ies+ nor &reat &enerals6 and t%ey %ave not%in& to
'ear 'ro) a scour&e *%ic% is )ore 'or)idable to re"ublics t%an all t%ese evils co)bined+ na)ely+ )ilitary &lory#
It is i)"ossible to deny t%e inconceivable in'luence *%ic% )ilitary &lory exercises u"on t%e s"irit o' a nation#
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9eneral $acson+ *%o) t%e A)ericans %ave t*ice elected to t%e %ead o' t%eir 9overn)ent+ is a )an o' a violent
te)"er and )ediocre talents6 no one circu)stance in t%e *%ole course o' %is career ever "roved t%at %e is
quali'ied to &overn a 'ree "eo"le+ and indeed t%e )a7ority o' t%e enli&%tened classes o' t%e (nion %as al*ays
been o""osed to %i)# But %e *as raised to t%e :residency+ and %as been )aintained in t%at lo'ty station+ solely by
t%e recollection o' a victory *%ic% %e &ained t*enty years a&o under t%e *alls o' Ne* Orleans+ a victory *%ic%
*as+ %o*ever+ a very ordinary ac%ieve)ent+ and *%ic% could only be re)e)bered in a country *%ere battles are
rare# No* t%e "eo"le *%ic% is t%us carried a*ay by t%e illusions o' &lory is unquestionably t%e )ost cold and
calculatin&+ t%e )ost un)ilitary >i' I )ay use t%e ex"ression?+ and t%e )ost "rosaic o' all t%e "eo"les o' t%e eart%#
A)erica %as no &reat ca"ital Ka city+ *%ose in'luence is directly or indirectly 'elt over t%e *%ole extent o' t%e
country+ *%ic% I %old to be one o' t%e 'irst causes o' t%e )aintenance o' re"ublican institutions in t%e (nited
!tates# In cities )en cannot be "revented 'ro) concertin& to&et%er+ and 'ro) a*aenin& a )utual excite)ent
*%ic% "ro)"ts sudden and "assionate resolutions# Cities )ay be looed u"on as lar&e asse)blies+ o' *%ic% all
t%e in%abitants are )e)bers6 t%eir "o"ulace exercises a "rodi&ious in'luence u"on t%e )a&istrates+ and 'requently
executes its o*n *is%es *it%out t%eir intervention#
35ootnote a@ T%e (nited !tates %ave no )etro"olis+ but t%ey already contain several very lar&e cities#
:%iladel"%ia reconed .;.+<<< in%abitants and Ne* Yor A<A+<<< in t%e year ./0<# T%e lo*er orders *%ic%
in%abit t%ese cities constitute a rabble even )ore 'or)idable t%an t%e "o"ulace o' Euro"ean to*ns# T%ey consist
o' 'reed blacs in t%e 'irst "lace+ *%o are conde)ned by t%e la*s and by "ublic o"inion to a %ereditary state o'
)isery and de&radation# T%ey also contain a )ultitude o' Euro"eans *%o %ave been driven to t%e s%ores o' t%e
Ne* ,orld by t%eir )is'ortunes or t%eir )isconduct6 and t%ese )en inoculate t%e (nited !tates *it% all our
vices+ *it%out brin&in& *it% t%e) any o' t%ose interests *%ic% counteract t%eir bane'ul in'luence# As in%abitants
o' a country *%ere t%ey %ave no civil ri&%ts+ t%ey are ready to turn all t%e "assions *%ic% a&itate t%e co))unity
to t%eir o*n advanta&e6 t%us+ *it%in t%e last 'e* )ont%s serious riots %ave broen out in :%iladel"%ia and in Ne*
Yor# Disturbances o' t%is ind are unno*n in t%e rest o' t%e country+ *%ic% is no*ise alar)ed by t%e)+
because t%e "o"ulation o' t%e cities %as %it%erto exercised neit%er "o*er nor in'luence over t%e rural districts#
Nevert%eless+ I loo u"on t%e si-e o' certain A)erican cities+ and es"ecially on t%e nature o' t%eir "o"ulation+ as
a real dan&er *%ic% t%reatens t%e 'uture security o' t%e de)ocratic re"ublics o' t%e Ne* ,orld6 and I venture to
"redict t%at t%ey *ill "eris% 'ro) t%is circu)stance unless t%e &overn)ent succeeds in creatin& an ar)ed 'orce+
*%ic%+ *%ilst it re)ains under t%e control o' t%e )a7ority o' t%e nation+ *ill be inde"endent o' t%e to*n
"o"ulation+ and able to re"ress its excesses#
3T%e "o"ulation o' t%e city o' Ne* Yor %ad risen+ in ./=<+ to BGA+ABA+ and t%at o' :%iladel"%ia to ;=G+<AA#
Broolyn+ *%ic% )ay be said to 'or) "art o' Ne* Yor city+ %as a "o"ulation o' 0B;+<BB+ in addition to t%at o'
Ne* Yor# T%e 'requent disturbances in t%e &reat cities o' A)erica+ and t%e excessive corru"tion o' t%eir local
&overn)ents11over *%ic% t%ere is no e''ectual control11are a)on&st t%e &reatest evils and dan&ers o' t%e
country#44
To sub7ect t%e "rovinces to t%e )etro"olis is t%ere'ore not only to "lace t%e destiny o' t%e e)"ire in t%e %ands o'
a "ortion o' t%e co))unity+ *%ic% )ay be re"robated as un7ust+ but to "lace it in t%e %ands o' a "o"ulace actin&
under its o*n i)"ulses+ *%ic% )ust be avoided as dan&erous# T%e "re"onderance o' ca"ital cities is t%ere'ore a
serious blo* u"on t%e re"resentative syste)+ and it ex"oses )odern re"ublics to t%e sa)e de'ect as t%e re"ublics
o' antiquity+ *%ic% all "eris%ed 'ro) not %avin& been acquainted *it% t%at 'or) o' &overn)ent#
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It *ould be easy 'or )e to adduce a &reat nu)ber o' secondary causes *%ic% %ave contributed to establis%+ and
*%ic% concur to )aintain+ t%e de)ocratic re"ublic o' t%e (nited !tates# But I discern t*o "rinci"al circu)stances
a)on&st t%ese 'avorable ele)ents+ *%ic% I %asten to "oint out# I %ave already observed t%at t%e ori&in o' t%e
A)erican settle)ents )ay be looed u"on as t%e 'irst and )ost e''icacious cause to *%ic% t%e "resent "ros"erity
o' t%e (nited !tates )ay be attributed# T%e A)ericans %ad t%e c%ances o' birt% in t%eir 'avor+ and t%eir
'ore'at%ers i)"orted t%at equality o' conditions into t%e country *%ence t%e de)ocratic re"ublic %as very
naturally taen its rise# Nor *as t%is all t%ey did6 'or besides t%is re"ublican condition o' society+ t%e early settler
bequeat%ed to t%eir descendants t%ose custo)s+ )anners+ and o"inions *%ic% contribute )ost to t%e success o' a
re"ublican 'or) o' &overn)ent# ,%en I re'lect u"on t%e consequences o' t%is "ri)ary circu)stance+ )et%ins I
see t%e destiny o' A)erica e)bodied in t%e 'irst :uritan *%o landed on t%ose s%ores+ 7ust as t%e %u)an race *as
re"resented by t%e 'irst )an#
T%e c%ie' circu)stance *%ic% %as 'avored t%e establis%)ent and t%e )aintenance o' a de)ocratic re"ublic in t%e
(nited !tates is t%e nature o' t%e territory *%ic% t%e A)erican in%abit# T%eir ancestors &ave t%e) t%e love o'
equality and o' 'reedo)+ but 9od %i)sel' &ave t%e) t%e )eans o' re)ainin& equal and 'ree+ by "lacin& t%e)
u"on a boundless continent+ *%ic% is o"en to t%eir exertions# 9eneral "ros"erity is 'avorable to t%e stability o' all
&overn)ents+ but )ore "articularly o' a de)ocratic constitution+ *%ic% de"ends u"on t%e dis"ositions o' t%e
)a7ority+ and )ore "articularly o' t%at "ortion o' t%e co))unity *%ic% is )ost ex"osed to 'eel t%e "ressure o'
*ant# ,%en t%e "eo"le rules+ it )ust be rendered %a""y+ or it *ill overturn t%e !tate+ and )isery is a"t to
sti)ulate it to t%ose excesses to *%ic% a)bition rouses in&s# T%e "%ysical causes+ inde"endent o' t%e la*s+
*%ic% contribute to "ro)ote &eneral "ros"erity+ are )ore nu)erous in A)erica t%an t%ey %ave ever been in any
ot%er country in t%e *orld+ at any ot%er "eriod o' %istory# In t%e (nited !tates not only is le&islation de)ocratic+
but nature %ersel' 'avors t%e cause o' t%e "eo"le#
In *%at "art o' %u)an tradition can be 'ound anyt%in& at all si)ilar to t%at *%ic% is occurrin& under our eyes in
Nort% A)ericaI T%e celebrated co))unities o' antiquity *ere all 'ounded in t%e )idst o' %ostile nations+ *%ic%
t%ey *ere obli&ed to sub7u&ate be'ore t%ey could 'louris% in t%eir "lace# Even t%e )oderns %ave 'ound+ in so)e
"arts o' !out% A)erica+ vast re&ions in%abited by a "eo"le o' in'erior civili-ation+ but *%ic% occu"ied and
cultivated t%e soil# To 'ound t%eir ne* states it *as necessary to extir"ate or to subdue a nu)erous "o"ulation+
until civili-ation %as been )ade to blus% 'or t%eir success# But Nort% A)erica *as only in%abited by *anderin&
tribes+ *%o too no t%ou&%t o' t%e natural ric%es o' t%e soil+ and t%at vast country *as still+ "ro"erly s"eain&+ an
e)"ty continent+ a desert land a*aitin& its in%abitants#
Everyt%in& is extraordinary in A)erica+ t%e social condition o' t%e in%abitants+ as *ell as t%e la*s6 but t%e soil
u"on *%ic% t%ese institutions are 'ounded is )ore extraordinary t%an all t%e rest# ,%en )an *as 'irst "laced
u"on t%e eart% by t%e Creator+ t%e eart% *as inex%austible in its yout%+ but )an *as *ea and i&norant6 and *%en
%e %ad learned to ex"lore t%e treasures *%ic% it contained+ %osts o' %is 'ello* creatures covered its sur'ace+ and
%e *as obli&ed to earn an asylu) 'or re"ose and 'or 'reedo) by t%e s*ord# At t%at sa)e "eriod Nort% A)erica
*as discovered+ as i' it %ad been e"t in reserve by t%e Deity+ and %ad 7ust risen 'ro) beneat% t%e *aters o' t%e
delu&e#
T%at continent still "resents+ as it did in t%e "ri)eval ti)e+ rivers *%ic% rise 'ro) never1'ailin& sources+ &reen
and )oist solitudes+ and 'ields *%ic% t%e "lou&%s%are o' t%e %usband)an %as never turned# In t%is state it is
o''ered to )an+ not in t%e barbarous and isolated condition o' t%e early a&es+ but to a bein& *%o is already in
"ossession o' t%e )ost "otent secrets o' t%e natural *orld+ *%o is united to %is 'ello*1)en+ and instructed by t%e
ex"erience o' 'i'ty centuries# At t%is very ti)e t%irteen )illions o' civili-ed Euro"eans are "eaceably s"readin&
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over t%ose 'ertile "lains+ *it% *%ose resources and *%ose extent t%ey are not yet t%e)selves accurately
acquainted# T%ree or 'our t%ousand soldiers drive t%e *anderin& races o' t%e abori&ines be'ore t%e)6 t%ese are
'ollo*ed by t%e "ioneers+ *%o "ierce t%e *oods+ scare o'' t%e beasts o' "rey+ ex"lore t%e courses o' t%e inland
strea)s+ and )ae ready t%e triu)"%al "rocession o' civili-ation across t%e *aste#
T%e 'avorable in'luence o' t%e te)"oral "ros"erity o' A)erica u"on t%e institutions o' t%at country %as been so
o'ten described by ot%ers+ and adverted to by )ysel'+ t%at I s%all not enlar&e u"on it beyond t%e addition o' a 'e*
'acts# An erroneous notion is &enerally entertained t%at t%e deserts o' A)erica are "eo"led by Euro"ean
e)i&rants+ *%o annually dise)bar u"on t%e coasts o' t%e Ne* ,orld+ *%ilst t%e A)erican "o"ulation increases
and )ulti"lies u"on t%e soil *%ic% its 'ore'at%ers tilled# T%e Euro"ean settler+ %o*ever+ usually arrives in t%e
(nited !tates *it%out 'riends+ and so)eti)es *it%out resources6 in order to subsist %e is obli&ed to *or 'or %ire+
and %e rarely "roceeds beyond t%at belt o' industrious "o"ulation *%ic% ad7oins t%e ocean# T%e desert cannot be
ex"lored *it%out ca"ital or credit6 and t%e body )ust be accusto)ed to t%e ri&ors o' a ne* cli)ate be'ore it can
be ex"osed to t%e c%ances o' 'orest li'e# It is t%e A)ericans t%e)selves *%o daily quit t%e s"ots *%ic% &ave t%e)
birt% to acquire extensive do)ains in a re)ote country# T%us t%e Euro"ean leaves %is cotta&e 'or t%e trans1
Atlantic s%ores6 and t%e A)erican+ *%o is born on t%at very coast+ "lun&es in %is turn into t%e *ilds o' Central
A)erica# T%is double e)i&ration is incessant6 it be&ins in t%e re)otest "arts o' Euro"e+ it crosses t%e Atlantic
Ocean+ and it advances over t%e solitudes o' t%e Ne* ,orld# Millions o' )en are )arc%in& at once to*ards t%e
sa)e %ori-on6 t%eir lan&ua&e+ t%eir reli&ion+ t%eir )anners di''er+ t%eir ob7ect is t%e sa)e# T%e &i'ts o' 'ortune are
"ro)ised in t%e ,est+ and to t%e ,est t%ey bend t%eir course# Kb
35ootnote b@ 3T%e nu)ber o' 'orei&n i))i&rants into t%e (nited !tates in t%e last 'i'ty years >'ro) ./A< to ./=.?
is stated to be =+CC;+<<=# O' t%ese+ G+.<G+CC0 s"oe En&lis%11t%at is+ t%ey ca)e 'ro) 9reat Britain+ Ireland+ or
t%e Britis% colonies6 A+;G0+<;B ca)e 'ro) 9er)any or nort%ern Euro"e6 and about %al' a )illion 'ro) t%e sout%
o' Euro"e#44
No event can be co)"ared *it% t%is continuous re)oval o' t%e %u)an race+ exce"t "er%a"s t%ose irru"tions
*%ic% "receded t%e 'all o' t%e Ro)an E)"ire# T%en+ as *ell as no*+ &enerations o' )en *ere i)"elled 'or*ards
in t%e sa)e direction to )eet and stru&&le on t%e sa)e s"ot6 but t%e desi&ns o' :rovidence *ere not t%e sa)e6
t%en+ every ne*co)er *as t%e %arbin&er o' destruction and o' deat%6 no*+ every adventurer brin&s *it% %i) t%e
ele)ents o' "ros"erity and o' li'e# T%e 'uture still conceals 'ro) us t%e ulterior consequences o' t%is e)i&ration
o' t%e A)ericans to*ards t%e ,est6 but *e can readily a""re%end its )ore i))ediate results# As a "ortion o' t%e
in%abitants annually leave t%e !tates in *%ic% t%ey *ere born+ t%e "o"ulation o' t%ese !tates increases very
slo*ly+ alt%ou&% t%ey %ave lon& been establis%ed@ t%us in Connecticut+ *%ic% only contains 'i'ty1nine in%abitants
to t%e square )ile+ t%e "o"ulation %as not increased by )ore t%an one1quarter in 'orty years+ *%ilst t%at o'
En&land %as been au&)ented by one1t%ird in t%e la"se o' t%e sa)e "eriod# T%e Euro"ean e)i&rant al*ays lands+
t%ere'ore+ in a country *%ic% is but %al' 'ull+ and *%ere %ands are in request@ %e beco)es a *or)an in easy
circu)stances6 %is son &oes to see %is 'ortune in un"eo"led re&ions+ and %e beco)es a ric% lando*ner# T%e
'or)er a)asses t%e ca"ital *%ic% t%e latter invests+ and t%e stran&er as *ell as t%e native is unacquainted *it%
*ant#
T%e la*s o' t%e (nited !tates are extre)ely 'avorable to t%e division o' "ro"erty6 but a cause *%ic% is )ore
"o*er'ul t%an t%e la*s "revents "ro"erty 'ro) bein& divided to excess# Kc T%is is very "erce"tible in t%e !tates
*%ic% are be&innin& to be t%icly "eo"led6 Massac%usetts is t%e )ost "o"ulous "art o' t%e (nion+ but it contains
only ei&%ty in%abitants to t%e square )ile+ *%ic% is )ust less t%an in 5rance+ *%ere .;A are reconed to t%e sa)e
extent o' country# But in Massac%usetts estates are very rarely divided6 t%e eldest son taes t%e land+ and t%e
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ot%ers &o to see t%eir 'ortune in t%e desert# T%e la* %as abolis%ed t%e ri&%ts o' "ri)o&eniture+ but circu)stances
%ave concurred to re1establis% it under a 'or) o' *%ic% none can co)"lain+ and by *%ic% no 7ust ri&%ts are
i)"aired#
35ootnote c@ In Ne* En&land t%e estates are exceedin&ly s)all+ but t%ey are rarely sub7ected to 'urt%er division#4
A sin&le 'act *ill su''ice to s%o* t%e "rodi&ious nu)ber o' individuals *%o leave Ne* En&land+ in t%is )anner+
to settle t%e)selves in t%e *ilds# ,e *ere assured in ./0< t%at t%irty1six o' t%e )e)bers o' Con&ress *ere born
in t%e little !tate o' Connecticut# T%e "o"ulation o' Connecticut+ *%ic% constitutes only one 'orty1t%ird "art o'
t%at o' t%e (nited !tates+ t%us 'urnis%ed one1ei&%t% o' t%e *%ole body o' re"resentatives# T%e !tates o'
Connecticut+ %o*ever+ only sends 'ive dele&ates to Con&ress6 and t%e t%irty1one ot%ers sit 'or t%e ne* ,estern
!tates# I' t%ese t%irty1one individuals %ad re)ained in Connecticut+ it is "robable t%at instead o' beco)in& ric%
lando*ners t%ey *ould %ave re)ained %u)ble laborers+ t%at t%ey *ould %ave lived in obscurity *it%out bein&
able to rise into "ublic li'e+ and t%at+ 'ar 'ro) beco)in& use'ul )e)bers o' t%e le&islature+ t%ey )i&%t %ave been
unruly citi-ens#
T%ese re'lections do not esca"e t%e observation o' t%e A)ericans any )ore t%an o' ourselves# 2It cannot be
doubted+2 says C%ancellor Lent in %is 2Treatise on A)erican 8a*+2 2t%at t%e division o' landed estates )ust
"roduce &reat evils *%en it is carried to suc% excess as t%at eac% "arcel o' land is insu''icient to su""ort a 'a)ily6
but t%ese disadvanta&es %ave never been 'elt in t%e (nited !tates+ and )any &enerations )ust ela"se be'ore t%ey
can be 'elt# T%e extent o' our in%abited territory+ t%e abundance o' ad7acent land+ and t%e continual strea) o'
e)i&ration 'lo*in& 'ro) t%e s%ores o' t%e Atlantic to*ards t%e interior o' t%e country+ su''ice as yet+ and *ill
lon& su''ice+ to "revent t%e "arcellin& out o' estates#2
It is di''icult to describe t%e ra"acity *it% *%ic% t%e A)erican rus%es 'or*ard to secure t%e i))ense booty
*%ic% 'ortune "ro''ers to %i)# In t%e "ursuit %e 'earlessly braves t%e arro* o' t%e Indian and t%e diste)"ers o'
t%e 'orest6 %e is uni)"ressed by t%e silence o' t%e *oods6 t%e a""roac% o' beasts o' "rey does not disturb %i)6 'or
%e is &oaded on*ards by a "assion )ore intense t%an t%e love o' li'e# Be'ore %i) lies a boundless continent+ and
%e ur&es on*ards as i' ti)e "ressed+ and %e *as a'raid o' 'indin& no roo) 'or %is exertions# I %ave s"oen o' t%e
e)i&ration 'ro) t%e older !tates+ but %o* s%all I describe t%at *%ic% taes "lace 'ro) t%e )ore recent onesI
5i'ty years %ave scarcely ela"sed since t%at o' O%io *as 'ounded6 t%e &reater "art o' its in%abitants *ere not born
*it%in its con'ines6 its ca"ital %as only been built t%irty years+ and its territory is still covered by an i))ense
extent o' uncultivated 'ields6 nevert%eless t%e "o"ulation o' O%io is already "roceedin& *est*ard+ and )ost o'
t%e settlers *%o descend to t%e 'ertile savanna%s o' Illinois are citi-ens o' O%io# T%ese )en le't t%eir 'irst country
to i)"rove t%eir condition6 t%ey quit t%eir restin&1"lace to a)eliorate it still )ore6 'ortune a*aits t%e)
every*%ere+ but %a""iness t%ey cannot attain# T%e desire o' "ros"erity is beco)e an ardent and restless "assion
in t%eir )inds *%ic% &ro*s by *%at it &ains# T%ey early broe t%e ties *%ic% bound t%e) to t%eir natal eart%+ and
t%ey %ave contracted no 'res% ones on t%eir *ay# E)i&ration *as at 'irst necessary to t%e) as a )eans o'
subsistence6 and it soon beco)es a sort o' &a)e o' c%ance+ *%ic% t%ey "ursue 'or t%e e)otions it excites as )uc%
as 'or t%e &ain it "rocures#
!o)eti)es t%e "ro&ress o' )an is so ra"id t%at t%e desert rea""ears be%ind %i)# T%e *oods stoo" to &ive %i) a
"assa&e+ and s"rin& u" a&ain *%en %e %as "assed# It is not unco))on in crossin& t%e ne* !tates o' t%e ,est to
)eet *it% deserted d*ellin&s in t%e )idst o' t%e *ilds6 t%e traveller 'requently discovers t%e vesti&es o' a lo&
%ouse in t%e )ost solitary retreats+ *%ic% bear *itness to t%e "o*er+ and no less to t%e inconstancy o' )an# In
t%ese abandoned 'ields+ and over t%ese ruins o' a day+ t%e "ri)eval 'orest soon scatters a 'res% ve&etation+ t%e
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beasts resu)e t%e %aunts *%ic% *ere once t%eir o*n+ and Nature covers t%e traces o' )anFs "at% *it% branc%es
and *it% 'lo*ers+ *%ic% obliterate %is evanescent trac#
I re)e)ber t%at+ in crossin& one o' t%e *oodland districts *%ic% still cover t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor+ I reac%ed t%e
s%ores o' a lae e)boso)ed in 'orests coeval *it% t%e *orld# A s)all island+ covered *it% *oods *%ose t%ic
'olia&e concealed its bans+ rose 'ro) t%e centre o' t%e *aters# ("on t%e s%ores o' t%e lae no ob7ect attested t%e
"resence o' )an exce"t a colu)n o' s)oe *%ic% )i&%t be seen on t%e %ori-on risin& 'ro) t%e to"s o' t%e trees
to t%e clouds+ and see)in& to %an& 'ro) %eaven rat%er t%an to be )ountin& to t%e sy# An Indian s%allo" *as
%auled u" on t%e sand+ *%ic% te)"ted )e to visit t%e islet t%at %ad 'irst attracted )y attention+ and in a 'e*
)inutes I set 'oot u"on its bans# T%e *%ole island 'or)ed one o' t%ose delicious solitudes o' t%e Ne* ,orld
*%ic% al)ost lead civili-ed )an to re&ret t%e %aunts o' t%e sava&e# A luxuriant ve&etation bore *itness to t%e
inco)"arable 'ruit'ulness o' t%e soil# T%e dee" silence *%ic% is co))on to t%e *ilds o' Nort% A)erica *as only
broen by t%e %oarse cooin& o' t%e *ood1"i&eon+ and t%e ta""in& o' t%e *ood"ecer u"on t%e bar o' trees# I *as
'ar 'ro) su""osin& t%at t%is s"ot %ad ever been in%abited+ so co)"letely did Nature see) to be le't to %er o*n
ca"rices6 but *%en I reac%ed t%e centre o' t%e isle I t%ou&%t t%at I discovered so)e traces o' )an# I t%en
"roceeded to exa)ine t%e surroundin& ob7ects *it% care+ and I soon "erceived t%at a Euro"ean %ad undoubtedly
been led to see a re'u&e in t%is retreat# Yet *%at c%an&es %ad taen "lace in t%e scene o' %is laborsE T%e lo&s
*%ic% %e %ad %astily %e*n to build %i)sel' a s%ed %ad s"routed a'res%6 t%e very "ro"s *ere intert*ined *it%
livin& verdure+ and %is cabin *as trans'or)ed into a bo*er# In t%e )idst o' t%ese s%rubs a 'e* stones *ere to be
seen+ blacened *it% 'ire and s"rinled *it% t%in as%es6 %ere t%e %eart% %ad no doubt been+ and t%e c%i)ney in
'allin& %ad covered it *it% rubbis%# I stood 'or so)e ti)e in silent ad)iration o' t%e exuberance o' Nature and
t%e littleness o' )an@ and *%en I *as obli&ed to leave t%at enc%antin& solitude+ I exclai)ed *it% )elanc%oly+
2Are ruins+ t%en+ already %ereI2
In Euro"e *e are *ont to loo u"on a restless dis"osition+ an unbounded desire o' ric%es+ and an excessive love
o' inde"endence+ as "ro"ensities very 'or)idable to society# Yet t%ese are t%e very ele)ents *%ic% ensure a lon&
and "eace'ul duration to t%e re"ublics o' A)erica# ,it%out t%ese unquiet "assions t%e "o"ulation *ould collect
in certain s"ots+ and *ould soon be sub7ect to *ants lie t%ose o' t%e Old ,orld+ *%ic% it is di''icult to satis'y6
'or suc% is t%e "resent &ood 'ortune o' t%e Ne* ,orld+ t%at t%e vices o' its in%abitants are scarcely less 'avorable
to society t%an t%eir virtues# T%ese circu)stances exercise a &reat in'luence on t%e esti)ation in *%ic% %u)an
actions are %eld in t%e t*o %e)is"%eres# T%e A)ericans 'requently ter) *%at *e s%ould call cu"idity a laudable
industry6 and t%ey bla)e as 'aint1%eartedness *%at *e consider to be t%e virtue o' )oderate desires#
In 5rance+ si)"le tastes+ orderly )anners+ do)estic a''ections+ and t%e attac%)ents *%ic% )en 'eel to t%e "lace
o' t%eir birt%+ are looed u"on as &reat &uarantees o' t%e tranquillity and %a""iness o' t%e !tate# But in A)erica
not%in& see)s to be )ore "re7udicial to society t%an t%ese virtues# T%e 5renc% Canadians+ *%o %ave 'ait%'ully
"reserved t%e traditions o' t%eir "ristine )anners+ are already e)barrassed 'or roo) u"on t%eir s)all territory6
and t%is little co))unity+ *%ic% %as so recently be&un to exist+ *ill s%ortly be a "rey to t%e cala)ities incident to
old nations# In Canada+ t%e )ost enli&%tened+ "atriotic+ and %u)ane in%abitants )ae extraordinary e''orts to
render t%e "eo"le dissatis'ied *it% t%ose si)"le en7oy)ents *%ic% still content it# T%ere+ t%e seductions o' *ealt%
are vaunted *it% as )uc% -eal as t%e c%ar)s o' an %onest but li)ited inco)e in t%e Old ,orld+ and )ore
exertions are )ade to excite t%e "assions o' t%e citi-ens t%ere t%an to cal) t%e) else*%ere# I' *e listen to t%eir
eulo&ies+ *e s%all %ear t%at not%in& is )ore "raise*ort%y t%an to exc%an&e t%e "ure and %o)ely "leasures *%ic%
even t%e "oor )an tastes in %is o*n country 'or t%e dull deli&%ts o' "ros"erity under a 'orei&n sy6 to leave t%e
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"atri)onial %eart% and t%e tur' beneat% *%ic% %is 'ore'at%ers slee"6 in s%ort+ to abandon t%e livin& and t%e dead
in quest o' 'ortune#
At t%e "resent ti)e A)erica "resents a 'ield 'or %u)an e''ort 'ar )ore extensive t%an any su) o' labor *%ic%
can be a""lied to *or it# In A)erica too )uc% no*led&e cannot be di''used6 'or all no*led&e+ *%ilst it )ay
serve %i) *%o "ossesses it+ turns also to t%e advanta&e o' t%ose *%o are *it%out it# Ne* *ants are not to be
'eared+ since t%ey can be satis'ied *it%out di''iculty6 t%e &ro*t% o' %u)an "assions need not be dreaded+ since all
"assions )ay 'ind an easy and a le&iti)ate ob7ect6 nor can )en be "ut in "ossession o' too )uc% 'reedo)+ since
t%ey are scarcely ever te)"ted to )isuse t%eir liberties#
T%e A)erican re"ublics o' t%e "resent day are lie co)"anies o' adventurers 'or)ed to ex"lore in co))on t%e
*aste lands o' t%e Ne* ,orld+ and busied in a 'louris%in& trade# T%e "assions *%ic% a&itate t%e A)ericans )ost
dee"ly are not t%eir "olitical but t%eir co))ercial "assions6 or+ to s"ea )ore correctly+ t%ey introduce t%e %abits
t%ey contract in business into t%eir "olitical li'e# T%ey love order+ *it%out *%ic% a''airs do not "ros"er6 and t%ey
set an es"ecial value u"on a re&ular conduct+ *%ic% is t%e 'oundation o' a solid business6 t%ey "re'er t%e &ood
sense *%ic% a)asses lar&e 'ortunes to t%at enter"risin& s"irit *%ic% 'requently dissi"ates t%e)6 &eneral ideas
alar) t%eir )inds+ *%ic% are accusto)ed to "ositive calculations+ and t%ey %old "ractice in )ore %onor t%an
t%eory#
It is in A)erica t%at one learns to understand t%e in'luence *%ic% "%ysical "ros"erity exercises over "olitical
actions+ and even over o"inions *%ic% ou&%t to acno*led&e no s*ay but t%at o' reason6 and it is )ore
es"ecially a)on&st stran&ers t%at t%is trut% is "erce"tible# Most o' t%e Euro"ean e)i&rants to t%e Ne* ,orld
carry *it% t%e) t%at *ild love o' inde"endence and o' c%an&e *%ic% our cala)ities are so a"t to en&ender# I
so)eti)es )et *it% Euro"eans in t%e (nited !tates *%o %ad been obli&ed to leave t%eir o*n country on account
o' t%eir "olitical o"inions# T%ey all astonis%ed )e by t%e lan&ua&e t%ey %eld+ but one o' t%e) sur"rised )e )ore
t%an all t%e rest# As I *as crossin& one o' t%e )ost re)ote districts o' :ennsylvania I *as beni&%ted+ and obli&ed
to be& 'or %os"itality at t%e &ate o' a *ealt%y "lanter+ *%o *as a 5renc%)an by birt%# He bade )e sit do*n
beside %is 'ire+ and *e be&an to tal *it% t%at 'reedo) *%ic% be'its "ersons *%o )eet in t%e bac*oods+ t*o
t%ousand lea&ues 'ro) t%eir native country# I *as a*are t%at )y %ost %ad been a &reat leveller and an ardent
de)a&o&ue 'orty years a&o+ and t%at %is na)e *as not unno*n to 'a)e# I *as+ t%ere'ore+ not a little sur"rised to
%ear %i) discuss t%e ri&%ts o' "ro"erty as an econo)ist or a lando*ner )i&%t %ave done@ %e s"oe o' t%e
necessary &radations *%ic% 'ortune establis%es a)on& )en+ o' obedience to establis%ed la*s+ o' t%e in'luence o'
&ood )orals in co))on*ealt%s+ and o' t%e su""ort *%ic% reli&ious o"inions &ive to order and to 'reedo)6 %e
even *ent to 'ar as to quote an evan&elical aut%ority in corroboration o' one o' %is "olitical tenets#
I listened+ and )arvelled at t%e 'eebleness o' %u)an reason# A "ro"osition is true or 'alse+ but no art can "rove it
to be one or t%e ot%er+ in t%e )idst o' t%e uncertainties o' science and t%e con'lictin& lessons o' ex"erience+ until
a ne* incident dis"erses t%e clouds o' doubt6 I *as "oor+ I beco)e ric%+ and I a) not to ex"ect t%at "ros"erity
*ill act u"on )y conduct+ and leave )y 7ud&)ent 'ree6 )y o"inions c%an&e *it% )y 'ortune+ and t%e %a""y
circu)stances *%ic% I turn to )y advanta&e 'urnis% )e *it% t%at decisive ar&u)ent *%ic% *as be'ore *antin&#
T%e in'luence o' "ros"erity acts still )ore 'reely u"on t%e A)erican t%an u"on stran&ers# T%e A)erican %as
al*ays seen t%e connection o' "ublic order and "ublic "ros"erity+ inti)ately united as t%ey are+ &o on be'ore %is
eyes6 %e does not conceive t%at one can subsist *it%out t%e ot%er6 %e %as t%ere'ore not%in& to 'or&et6 nor %as %e+
lie so )any Euro"eans+ to unlearn t%e lessons o' %is early education#
Chapter XVII
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@ :rinci"al Causes Maintainin& T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic11:art II
In'luence O' T%e 8a*s ("on T%e Maintenance O' T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic In T%e (nited !tates
T%ree "rinci"al causes o' t%e )aintenance o' t%e de)ocratic re"ublic115ederal Constitutions11Munici"al
institutions11$udicial "o*er#
T%e "rinci"al ai) o' t%is boo %as been to )ae no*n t%e la*s o' t%e (nited !tates6 i' t%is "ur"ose %as been
acco)"lis%ed+ t%e reader is already enabled to 7ud&e 'or %i)sel' *%ic% are t%e la*s t%at really tend to )aintain
t%e de)ocratic re"ublic+ and *%ic% endan&er its existence# I' I %ave not succeeded in ex"lainin& t%is in t%e *%ole
course o' )y *or+ I cannot %o"e to do so *it%in t%e li)its o' a sin&le c%a"ter# It is not )y intention to retrace
t%e "at% I %ave already "ursued+ and a very 'e* lines *ill su''ice to reca"itulate *%at I %ave "reviously
ex"lained#
T%ree circu)stances see) to )e to contribute )ost "o*er'ully to t%e )aintenance o' t%e de)ocratic re"ublic in
t%e (nited !tates#
T%e 'irst is t%at 5ederal 'or) o' 9overn)ent *%ic% t%e A)ericans %ave ado"ted+ and *%ic% enables t%e (nion to
co)bine t%e "o*er o' a &reat e)"ire *it% t%e security o' a s)all !tate#
T%e second consists in t%ose )unici"al institutions *%ic% li)it t%e des"otis) o' t%e )a7ority+ and at t%e sa)e
ti)e i)"art a taste 'or 'reedo) and a no*led&e o' t%e art o' bein& 'ree to t%e "eo"le#
T%e t%ird is to be )et *it% in t%e constitution o' t%e 7udicial "o*er# I %ave s%o*n in *%at )anner t%e courts o'
7ustice serve to re"ress t%e excesses o' de)ocracy+ and %o* t%ey c%ec and direct t%e i)"ulses o' t%e )a7ority
*it%out sto""in& its activity#
In'luence O' Manners ("on T%e Maintenance O' T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic In T%e (nited !tates
I %ave "reviously re)ared t%at t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le )ay be considered as one o' t%e &eneral causes to
*%ic% t%e )aintenance o' a de)ocratic re"ublic in t%e (nited !tates is attributable# I %ere used t%e *ord )anners
*it% t%e )eanin& *%ic% t%e ancients attac%ed to t%e *ord )ores+ 'or I a""ly it not only to )anners in t%eir
"ro"er sense o' *%at constitutes t%e c%aracter o' social intercourse+ but I extend it to t%e various notions and
o"inions current a)on& )en+ and to t%e )ass o' t%ose ideas *%ic% constitute t%eir c%aracter o' )ind# I co)"rise+
t%ere'ore+ under t%is ter) t%e *%ole )oral and intellectual condition o' a "eo"le# My intention is not to dra* a
"icture o' A)erican )anners+ but si)"ly to "oint out suc% 'eatures o' t%e) as are 'avorable to t%e )aintenance
o' "olitical institutions#
Reli&ion Considered As A :olitical Institution+ ,%ic% :o*er'ully Contributes To T%e Maintenance O' T%e
De)ocratic Re"ublic A)on&st T%e A)ericans
Nort% A)erica "eo"led by )en *%o "ro'essed a de)ocratic and re"ublican C%ristianity11Arrival o' t%e
Cat%olics115or *%at reason t%e Cat%olics 'or) t%e )ost de)ocratic and t%e )ost re"ublican class at t%e "resent
ti)e#
Every reli&ion is to be 'ound in 7uxta"osition to a "olitical o"inion *%ic% is connected *it% it by a''inity# I' t%e
%u)an )ind be le't to 'ollo* its o*n bent+ it *ill re&ulate t%e te)"oral and s"iritual institutions o' society u"on
one uni'or) "rinci"le6 and )an *ill endeavor+ i' I )ay use t%e ex"ression+ to %ar)oni-e t%e state in *%ic% %e
lives u"on eart% *it% t%e state *%ic% %e believes to a*ait %i) in %eaven# T%e &reatest "art o' Britis% A)erica
*as "eo"led by )en *%o+ a'ter %avin& s%aen o'' t%e aut%ority o' t%e :o"e+ acno*led&ed no ot%er reli&ious
su"re)acy6 t%ey brou&%t *it% t%e) into t%e Ne* ,orld a 'or) o' C%ristianity *%ic% I cannot better describe
t%an by stylin& it a de)ocratic and re"ublican reli&ion# T%is sect contributed "o*er'ully to t%e establis%)ent o' a
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de)ocracy and a re"ublic+ and 'ro) t%e earliest settle)ent o' t%e e)i&rants "olitics and reli&ion contracted an
alliance *%ic% %as never been dissolved#
About 'i'ty years a&o Ireland be&an to "our a Cat%olic "o"ulation into t%e (nited !tates6 on t%e ot%er %and+ t%e
Cat%olics o' A)erica )ade "roselytes+ and at t%e "resent )o)ent )ore t%an a )illion o' C%ristians "ro'essin&
t%e trut%s o' t%e C%urc% o' Ro)e are to be )et *it% in t%e (nion# Kd T%e Cat%olics are 'ait%'ul to t%e
observances o' t%eir reli&ion6 t%ey are 'ervent and -ealous in t%e su""ort and belie' o' t%eir doctrines#
Nevert%eless t%ey constitute t%e )ost re"ublican and t%e )ost de)ocratic class o' citi-ens *%ic% exists in t%e
(nited !tates6 and alt%ou&% t%is 'act )ay sur"rise t%e observer at 'irst+ t%e causes by *%ic% it is occasioned )ay
easily be discovered u"on re'lection#
35ootnote d@ 3It is di''icult to ascertain *it% accuracy t%e a)ount o' t%e Ro)an Cat%olic "o"ulation o' t%e (nited
!tates+ but in ./;/ an able *riter in t%e 2Edinbur&% Revie*2 >vol# cxxvii# "# CA.? a''ir)ed t%at t%e *%ole
Cat%olic "o"ulation o' t%e (nited !tates *as t%en about G+<<<+<<<+ divided into G0 dioceses+ *it% 0+=BC
c%urc%es+ under t%e care o' GC bis%o"s and A+0.= cler&y)en# But t%is ra"id increase is )ainly su""orted by
i))i&ration 'ro) t%e Cat%olic countries o' Euro"e#44
I t%in t%at t%e Cat%olic reli&ion %as erroneously been looed u"on as t%e natural ene)y o' de)ocracy# A)on&st
t%e various sects o' C%ristians+ Cat%olicis) see)s to )e+ on t%e contrary+ to be one o' t%ose *%ic% are )ost
'avorable to t%e equality o' conditions# In t%e Cat%olic C%urc%+ t%e reli&ious co))unity is co)"osed o' only t*o
ele)ents+ t%e "riest and t%e "eo"le# T%e "riest alone rises above t%e ran o' %is 'loc+ and all belo* %i) are
equal#
On doctrinal "oints t%e Cat%olic 'ait% "laces all %u)an ca"acities u"on t%e sa)e level6 it sub7ects t%e *ise and
i&norant+ t%e )an o' &enius and t%e vul&ar cro*d+ to t%e details o' t%e sa)e creed6 it i)"oses t%e sa)e
observances u"on t%e ric% and needy+ it in'licts t%e sa)e austerities u"on t%e stron& and t%e *ea+ it listens to no
co)"ro)ise *it% )ortal )an+ but+ reducin& all t%e %u)an race to t%e sa)e standard+ it con'ounds all t%e
distinctions o' society at t%e 'oot o' t%e sa)e altar+ even as t%ey are con'ounded in t%e si&%t o' 9od# I'
Cat%olicis) "redis"oses t%e 'ait%'ul to obedience+ it certainly does not "re"are t%e) 'or inequality6 but t%e
contrary )ay be said o' :rotestantis)+ *%ic% &enerally tends to )ae )en inde"endent+ )ore t%an to render
t%e) equal#
Cat%olicis) is lie an absolute )onarc%y6 i' t%e soverei&n be re)oved+ all t%e ot%er classes o' society are )ore
equal t%an t%ey are in re"ublics# It %as not un'requently occurred t%at t%e Cat%olic "riest %as le't t%e service o'
t%e altar to )ix *it% t%e &overnin& "o*ers o' society+ and to tae %is "lace a)on&st t%e civil &radations o' )en#
T%is reli&ious in'luence %as so)eti)es been used to secure t%e interests o' t%at "olitical state o' t%in&s to *%ic%
%e belon&ed# At ot%er ti)es Cat%olics %ave taen t%e side o' aristocracy 'ro) a s"irit o' reli&ion#
But no sooner is t%e "riest%ood entirely se"arated 'ro) t%e &overn)ent+ as is t%e case in t%e (nited !tates+ t%an
is 'ound t%at no class o' )en are )ore naturally dis"osed t%an t%e Cat%olics to trans'use t%e doctrine o' t%e
equality o' conditions into t%e "olitical *orld# I'+ t%en+ t%e Cat%olic citi-ens o' t%e (nited !tates are not 'orcibly
led by t%e nature o' t%eir tenets to ado"t de)ocratic and re"ublican "rinci"les+ at least t%ey are not necessarily
o""osed to t%e)6 and t%eir social "osition+ as *ell as t%eir li)ited nu)ber+ obli&es t%e) to ado"t t%ese o"inions#
Most o' t%e Cat%olics are "oor+ and t%ey %ave no c%ance o' tain& a "art in t%e &overn)ent unless it be o"en to
all t%e citi-ens# T%ey constitute a )inority+ and all ri&%ts )ust be res"ected in order to insure to t%e) t%e 'ree
exercise o' t%eir o*n "rivile&es# T%ese t*o causes induce t%e)+ unconsciously+ to ado"t "olitical doctrines+
*%ic% t%ey *ould "er%a"s su""ort *it% less -eal i' t%ey *ere ric% and "re"onderant#
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T%e Cat%olic cler&y o' t%e (nited !tates %as never atte)"ted to o""ose t%is "olitical tendency+ but it sees rat%er
to 7usti'y its results# T%e "riests in A)erica %ave divided t%e intellectual *orld into t*o "arts@ in t%e one t%ey
"lace t%e doctrines o' revealed reli&ion+ *%ic% co))and t%eir assent6 in t%e ot%er t%ey leave t%ose trut%s *%ic%
t%ey believe to %ave been 'reely le't o"en to t%e researc%es o' "olitical inquiry# T%us t%e Cat%olics o' t%e (nited
!tates are at t%e sa)e ti)e t%e )ost 'ait%'ul believers and t%e )ost -ealous citi-ens#
It )ay be asserted t%at in t%e (nited !tates no reli&ious doctrine dis"lays t%e sli&%test %ostility to de)ocratic and
re"ublican institutions# T%e cler&y o' all t%e di''erent sects %old t%e sa)e lan&ua&e+ t%eir o"inions are consonant
to t%e la*s+ and t%e %u)an intellect 'lo*s on*ards in one sole current#
I %a""ened to be stayin& in one o' t%e lar&est to*ns in t%e (nion+ *%en I *as invited to attend a "ublic )eetin&
*%ic% %ad been called 'or t%e "ur"ose o' assistin& t%e :oles+ and o' sendin& t%e) su""lies o' ar)s and )oney# I
'ound t*o or t%ree t%ousand "ersons collected in a vast %all *%ic% %ad been "re"ared to receive t%e)# In a s%ort
ti)e a "riest in %is ecclesiastical robes advanced to t%e 'ront o' t%e %ustin&s@ t%e s"ectators rose+ and stood
uncovered+ *%ilst %e s"oe in t%e 'ollo*in& ter)s@11
2Al)i&%ty 9odE t%e 9od o' Ar)iesE T%ou *%o didst stren&t%en t%e %earts and &uide t%e ar)s o' our 'at%ers
*%en t%ey *ere 'i&%tin& 'or t%e sacred ri&%ts o' national inde"endence6 T%ou *%o didst )ae t%e) triu)"% over
a %ate'ul o""ression+ and %ast &ranted to our "eo"le t%e bene'its o' liberty and "eace6 Turn+ O 8ord+ a 'avorable
eye u"on t%e ot%er %e)is"%ere6 "iti'ully loo do*n u"on t%at %eroic nation *%ic% is even no* stru&&lin& as *e
did in t%e 'or)er ti)e+ and 'or t%e sa)e ri&%ts *%ic% *e de'ended *it% our blood# T%ou+ *%o didst create Man in
t%e lieness o' t%e sa)e i)a&e+ let not tyranny )ar T%y *or+ and establis% inequality u"on t%e eart%# Al)i&%ty
9odE do T%ou *atc% over t%e destiny o' t%e :oles+ and render t%e) *ort%y to be 'ree# May T%y *isdo) direct
t%eir councils+ and )ay T%y stren&t% sustain t%eir ar)sE !%ed 'ort% T%y terror over t%eir ene)ies+ scatter t%e
"o*ers *%ic% tae counsel a&ainst t%e)6 and vouc%sa'e t%at t%e in7ustice *%ic% t%e *orld %as *itnessed 'or 'i'ty
years+ be not consu))ated in our ti)e# O 8ord+ *%o %oldest alie t%e %earts o' nations and o' )en in T%y
"o*er'ul %and6 raise u" allies to t%e sacred cause o' ri&%t6 arouse t%e 5renc% nation 'ro) t%e a"at%y in *%ic% its
rulers retain it+ t%at it &o 'ort% a&ain to 'i&%t 'or t%e liberties o' t%e *orld#
28ord+ turn not T%ou T%y 'ace 'ro) us+ and &rant t%at *e )ay al*ays be t%e )ost reli&ious as *ell as t%e 'reest
"eo"le o' t%e eart%# Al)i&%ty 9od+ %ear our su""lications t%is day# !ave t%e :oles+ *e beseec% T%ee+ in t%e na)e
o' T%y *ell1beloved !on+ our 8ord $esus C%rist+ *%o died u"on t%e cross 'or t%e salvation o' )en# A)en#2
T%e *%ole )eetin& res"onded 2A)enE2 *it% devotion#
Indirect In'luence O' Reli&ious O"inions ("on :olitical !ociety In T%e (nited !tates
C%ristian )orality co))on to all sects11In'luence o' reli&ion u"on t%e )anners o' t%e A)ericans11Res"ect 'or
t%e )arria&e tie11In *%at )anner reli&ion con'ines t%e i)a&ination o' t%e A)ericans *it%in certain li)its+ and
c%ecs t%e "assion o' innovation11O"inion o' t%e A)ericans on t%e "olitical utility o' reli&ion11T%eir exertions to
extend and secure its "redo)inance#
I %ave 7ust s%o*n *%at t%e direct in'luence o' reli&ion u"on "olitics is in t%e (nited !tates+ but its indirect
in'luence a""ears to )e to be still )ore considerable+ and it never instructs t%e A)ericans )ore 'ully in t%e art o'
bein& 'ree t%an *%en it says not%in& o' 'reedo)#
T%e sects *%ic% exist in t%e (nited !tates are innu)erable# T%ey all di''er in res"ect to t%e *ors%i" *%ic% is due
'ro) )an to %is Creator+ but t%ey all a&ree in res"ect to t%e duties *%ic% are due 'ro) )an to )an# Eac% sect
adores t%e Deity in its o*n "eculiar )anner+ but all t%e sects "reac% t%e sa)e )oral la* in t%e na)e o' 9od# I' it
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be o' t%e %i&%est i)"ortance to )an+ as an individual+ t%at %is reli&ion s%ould be true+ t%e case o' society is not
t%e sa)e# !ociety %as no 'uture li'e to %o"e 'or or to 'ear6 and "rovided t%e citi-ens "ro'ess a reli&ion+ t%e
"eculiar tenets o' t%at reli&ion are o' very little i)"ortance to its interests# Moreover+ al)ost all t%e sects o' t%e
(nited !tates are co)"rised *it%in t%e &reat unity o' C%ristianity+ and C%ristian )orality is every*%ere t%e
sa)e#
It )ay be believed *it%out un'airness t%at a certain nu)ber o' A)ericans "ursue a "eculiar 'or) o' *ors%i"+
'ro) %abit )ore t%an 'ro) conviction# In t%e (nited !tates t%e soverei&n aut%ority is reli&ious+ and consequently
%y"ocrisy )ust be co))on6 but t%ere is no country in t%e *%ole *orld in *%ic% t%e C%ristian reli&ion retains a
&reater in'luence over t%e souls o' )en t%an in A)erica6 and t%ere can be no &reater "roo' o' its utility+ and o' its
con'or)ity to %u)an nature+ t%an t%at its in'luence is )ost "o*er'ully 'elt over t%e )ost enli&%tened and 'ree
nation o' t%e eart%#
I %ave re)ared t%at t%e )e)bers o' t%e A)erican cler&y in &eneral+ *it%out even exce"tin& t%ose *%o do not
ad)it reli&ious liberty+ are all in 'avor o' civil 'reedo)6 but t%ey do not su""ort any "articular "olitical syste)#
T%ey ee" aloo' 'ro) "arties and 'ro) "ublic a''airs# In t%e (nited !tates reli&ion exercises but little in'luence
u"on t%e la*s and u"on t%e details o' "ublic o"inion+ but it directs t%e )anners o' t%e co))unity+ and by
re&ulatin& do)estic li'e it re&ulates t%e !tate#
I do not question t%at t%e &reat austerity o' )anners *%ic% is observable in t%e (nited !tates+ arises+ in t%e 'irst
instance+ 'ro) reli&ious 'ait%# Reli&ion is o'ten unable to restrain )an 'ro) t%e nu)berless te)"tations o'
'ortune6 nor can it c%ec t%at "assion 'or &ain *%ic% every incident o' %is li'e contributes to arouse+ but its
in'luence over t%e )ind o' *o)an is su"re)e+ and *o)en are t%e "rotectors o' )orals# T%ere is certainly no
country in t%e *orld *%ere t%e tie o' )arria&e is so )uc% res"ected as in A)erica+ or *%ere con7u&al %a""iness
is )ore %i&%ly or *ort%ily a""reciated# In Euro"e al)ost all t%e disturbances o' society arise 'ro) t%e
irre&ularities o' do)estic li'e# To des"ise t%e natural bonds and le&iti)ate "leasures o' %o)e+ is to contract a
taste 'or excesses+ a restlessness o' %eart+ and t%e evil o' 'luctuatin& desires# A&itated by t%e tu)ultuous "assions
*%ic% 'requently disturb %is d*ellin&+ t%e Euro"ean is &alled by t%e obedience *%ic% t%e le&islative "o*ers o'
t%e !tate exact# But *%en t%e A)erican retires 'ro) t%e tur)oil o' "ublic li'e to t%e boso) o' %is 'a)ily+ %e 'inds
in it t%e i)a&e o' order and o' "eace# T%ere %is "leasures are si)"le and natural+ %is 7oys are innocent and cal)6
and as %e 'inds t%at an orderly li'e is t%e surest "at% to %a""iness+ %e accusto)s %i)sel' *it%out di''iculty to
)oderate %is o"inions as *ell as %is tastes# ,%ilst t%e Euro"ean endeavors to 'or&et %is do)estic troubles by
a&itatin& society+ t%e A)erican derives 'ro) %is o*n %o)e t%at love o' order *%ic% %e a'ter*ards carries *it%
%i) into "ublic a''airs#
In t%e (nited !tates t%e in'luence o' reli&ion is not con'ined to t%e )anners+ but it extends to t%e intelli&ence o'
t%e "eo"le# A)on&st t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ t%ere are so)e *%o "ro'ess t%e doctrines o' C%ristianity 'ro) a
sincere belie' in t%e)+ and ot%ers *%o do t%e sa)e because t%ey are a'raid to be sus"ected o' unbelie'#
C%ristianity+ t%ere'ore+ rei&ns *it%out any obstacle+ by universal consent6 t%e consequence is+ as I %ave be'ore
observed+ t%at every "rinci"le o' t%e )oral *orld is 'ixed and deter)inate+ alt%ou&% t%e "olitical *orld is
abandoned to t%e debates and t%e ex"eri)ents o' )en# T%us t%e %u)an )ind is never le't to *ander across a
boundless 'ield6 and+ *%atever )ay be its "retensions+ it is c%eced 'ro) ti)e to ti)e by barriers *%ic% it cannot
sur)ount# Be'ore it can "er"etrate innovation+ certain "ri)al and i))utable "rinci"les are laid do*n+ and t%e
boldest conce"tions o' %u)an device are sub7ected to certain 'or)s *%ic% retard and sto" t%eir co)"letion#
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T%e i)a&ination o' t%e A)ericans+ even in its &reatest 'li&%ts+ is circu)s"ect and undecided6 its i)"ulses are
c%eced+ and its *ors un'inis%ed# T%ese %abits o' restraint recur in "olitical society+ and are sin&ularly 'avorable
bot% to t%e tranquillity o' t%e "eo"le and to t%e durability o' t%e institutions it %as establis%ed# Nature and
circu)stances concurred to )ae t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates bold )en+ as is su''iciently attested by t%e
enter"risin& s"irit *it% *%ic% t%ey see 'or 'ortune# I' t%e )ind o' t%e A)ericans *ere 'ree 'ro) all tra))els+
t%ey *ould very s%ortly beco)e t%e )ost darin& innovators and t%e )ost i)"lacable dis"utants in t%e *orld# But
t%e revolutionists o' A)erica are obli&ed to "ro'ess an ostensible res"ect 'or C%ristian )orality and equity+
*%ic% does not easily "er)it t%e) to violate t%e la*s t%at o""ose t%eir desi&ns6 nor *ould t%ey 'ind it easy to
sur)ount t%e scru"les o' t%eir "artisans+ even i' t%ey *ere able to &et over t%eir o*n# Hit%erto no one in t%e
(nited !tates %as dared to advance t%e )axi)+ t%at everyt%in& is "er)issible *it% a vie* to t%e interests o'
society6 an i)"ious ada&e *%ic% see)s to %ave been invented in an a&e o' 'reedo) to s%elter all t%e tyrants o'
'uture a&es# T%us *%ilst t%e la* "er)its t%e A)ericans to do *%at t%ey "lease+ reli&ion "revents t%e) 'ro)
conceivin&+ and 'orbids t%e) to co))it+ *%at is ras% or un7ust#
Reli&ion in A)erica taes no direct "art in t%e &overn)ent o' society+ but it )ust nevert%eless be re&arded as t%e
'ore)ost o' t%e "olitical institutions o' t%at country6 'or i' it does not i)"art a taste 'or 'reedo)+ it 'acilitates t%e
use o' 'ree institutions# Indeed+ it is in t%is sa)e "oint o' vie* t%at t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates
t%e)selves loo u"on reli&ious belie'# I do not no* *%et%er all t%e A)ericans %ave a sincere 'ait% in t%eir
reli&ion+ 'or *%o can searc% t%e %u)an %eartI but I a) certain t%at t%ey %old it to be indis"ensable to t%e
)aintenance o' re"ublican institutions# T%is o"inion is not "eculiar to a class o' citi-ens or to a "arty+ but it
belon&s to t%e *%ole nation+ and to every ran o' society#
In t%e (nited !tates+ i' a "olitical c%aracter attacs a sect+ t%is )ay not "revent even t%e "artisans o' t%at very
sect 'ro) su""ortin& %i)6 but i' %e attacs all t%e sects to&et%er+ everyone abandons %i)+ and %e re)ains alone#
,%ilst I *as in A)erica+ a *itness+ *%o %a""ened to be called at t%e assi-es o' t%e county o' C%ester >!tate o'
Ne* Yor?+ declared t%at %e did not believe in t%e existence o' 9od+ or in t%e i))ortality o' t%e soul# T%e 7ud&e
re'used to ad)it %is evidence+ on t%e &round t%at t%e *itness %ad destroyed be'ore%and all t%e con'idence o' t%e
Court in *%at %e *as about to say# Ke T%e ne*s"a"ers related t%e 'act *it%out any 'urt%er co))ent#
35ootnote e@ T%e Ne* Yor 2!"ectator2 o' Au&ust A0+ ./0.+ relates t%e 'act in t%e 'ollo*in& ter)s@112T%e Court
o' Co))on :leas o' C%ester county >Ne* Yor? a 'e* days since re7ected a *itness *%o declared %is disbelie'
in t%e existence o' 9od# T%e "residin& 7ud&e re)ared t%at %e %ad not be'ore been a*are t%at t%ere *as a )an
livin& *%o did not believe in t%e existence o' 9od6 t%at t%is belie' constituted t%e sanction o' all testi)ony in a
court o' 7ustice+ and t%at %e ne* o' no cause in a C%ristian country *%ere a *itness %ad been "er)itted to testi'y
*it%out suc% belie'#24
T%e A)ericans co)bine t%e notions o' C%ristianity and o' liberty so inti)ately in t%eir )inds+ t%at it is
i)"ossible to )ae t%e) conceive t%e one *it%out t%e ot%er6 and *it% t%e) t%is conviction does not s"rin& 'ro)
t%at barren traditionary 'ait% *%ic% see)s to ve&etate in t%e soul rat%er t%an to live#
I %ave no*n o' societies 'or)ed by t%e A)ericans to send out )inisters o' t%e 9os"el into t%e ne* ,estern
!tates to 'ound sc%ools and c%urc%es t%ere+ lest reli&ion s%ould be su''ered to die a*ay in t%ose re)ote
settle)ents+ and t%e risin& !tates be less 'itted to en7oy 'ree institutions t%an t%e "eo"le 'ro) *%ic% t%ey
e)anated# I )et *it% *ealt%y Ne* En&landers *%o abandoned t%e country in *%ic% t%ey *ere born in order to
lay t%e 'oundations o' C%ristianity and o' 'reedo) on t%e bans o' t%e Missouri+ or in t%e "rairies o' Illinois#
T%us reli&ious -eal is "er"etually sti)ulated in t%e (nited !tates by t%e duties o' "atriotis)# T%ese )en do not
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act 'ro) an exclusive consideration o' t%e "ro)ises o' a 'uture li'e6 eternity is only one )otive o' t%eir devotion
to t%e cause6 and i' you converse *it% t%ese )issionaries o' C%ristian civili-ation+ you *ill be sur"rised to 'ind
%o* )uc% value t%ey set u"on t%e &oods o' t%is *orld+ and t%at you )eet *it% a "olitician *%ere you ex"ected to
'ind a "riest# T%ey *ill tell you t%at 2all t%e A)erican re"ublics are collectively involved *it% eac% ot%er6 i' t%e
re"ublics o' t%e ,est *ere to 'all into anarc%y+ or to be )astered by a des"ot+ t%e re"ublican institutions *%ic%
no* 'louris% u"on t%e s%ores o' t%e Atlantic Ocean *ould be in &reat "eril# It is+ t%ere'ore+ our interest t%at t%e
ne* !tates s%ould be reli&ious+ in order to )aintain our liberties#2
!uc% are t%e o"inions o' t%e A)ericans+ and i' any %old t%at t%e reli&ious s"irit *%ic% I ad)ire is t%e very t%in&
)ost a)iss in A)erica+ and t%at t%e only ele)ent *antin& to t%e 'reedo) and %a""iness o' t%e %u)an race is to
believe in so)e blind cos)o&ony+ or to assert *it% Cabanis t%e secretion o' t%ou&%t by t%e brain+ I can only re"ly
t%at t%ose *%o %old t%is lan&ua&e %ave never been in A)erica+ and t%at t%ey %ave never seen a reli&ious or a 'ree
nation# ,%en t%ey return 'ro) t%eir ex"edition+ *e s%all %ear *%at t%ey %ave to say#
T%ere are "ersons in 5rance *%o loo u"on re"ublican institutions as a te)"orary )eans o' "o*er+ o' *ealt%+
and distinction6 )en *%o are t%e condottieri o' liberty+ and *%o 'i&%t 'or t%eir o*n advanta&e+ *%atever be t%e
colors t%ey *ear@ it is not to t%ese t%at I address )ysel'# But t%ere are ot%ers *%o loo 'or*ard to t%e re"ublican
'or) o' &overn)ent as a tranquil and lastin& state+ to*ards *%ic% )odern society is daily i)"elled by t%e ideas
and )anners o' t%e ti)e+ and *%o sincerely desire to "re"are )en to be 'ree# ,%en t%ese )en attac reli&ious
o"inions+ t%ey obey t%e dictates o' t%eir "assions to t%e "re7udice o' t%eir interests# Des"otis) )ay &overn
*it%out 'ait%+ but liberty cannot# Reli&ion is )uc% )ore necessary in t%e re"ublic *%ic% t%ey set 'ort% in &lo*in&
colors t%an in t%e )onarc%y *%ic% t%ey attac6 and it is )ore needed in de)ocratic re"ublics t%an in any ot%ers#
Ho* is it "ossible t%at society s%ould esca"e destruction i' t%e )oral tie be not stren&t%ened in "ro"ortion as t%e
"olitical tie is relaxedI and *%at can be done *it% a "eo"le *%ic% is its o*n )aster+ i' it be not sub)issive to t%e
DivinityI
Chapter XVII
@ :rinci"al Causes Maintainin& T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic11:art III
:rinci"al Causes ,%ic% Render Reli&ion :o*er'ul In A)erica Care taen by t%e A)ericans to se"arate t%e
C%urc% 'ro) t%e !tate11T%e la*s+ "ublic o"inion+ and even t%e exertions o' t%e cler&y concur to "ro)ote t%is
end11In'luence o' reli&ion u"on t%e )ind in t%e (nited !tates attributable to t%is cause11Reason o' t%is11,%at is
t%e natural state o' )en *it% re&ard to reli&ion at t%e "resent ti)e11,%at are t%e "eculiar and incidental causes
*%ic% "revent )en+ in certain countries+ 'ro) arrivin& at t%is state#
T%e "%iloso"%ers o' t%e ei&%teent% century ex"lained t%e &radual decay o' reli&ious 'ait% in a very si)"le
)anner# Reli&ious -eal+ said t%ey+ )ust necessarily 'ail+ t%e )ore &enerally liberty is establis%ed and no*led&e
di''used# (n'ortunately+ 'acts are by no )eans in accordance *it% t%eir t%eory# T%ere are certain "o"ulations in
Euro"e *%ose unbelie' is only equalled by t%eir i&norance and t%eir debase)ent+ *%ilst in A)erica one o' t%e
'reest and )ost enli&%tened nations in t%e *orld 'ul'ils all t%e out*ard duties o' reli&ious 'ervor#
("on )y arrival in t%e (nited !tates+ t%e reli&ious as"ect o' t%e country *as t%e 'irst t%in& t%at struc )y
attention6 and t%e lon&er I stayed t%ere t%e )ore did I "erceive t%e &reat "olitical consequences resultin& 'ro)
t%is state o' t%in&s+ to *%ic% I *as unaccusto)ed# In 5rance I %ad al)ost al*ays seen t%e s"irit o' reli&ion and
t%e s"irit o' 'reedo) "ursuin& courses dia)etrically o""osed to eac% ot%er6 but in A)erica I 'ound t%at t%ey *ere
inti)ately united+ and t%at t%ey rei&ned in co))on over t%e sa)e country# My desire to discover t%e causes o'
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t%is "%eno)enon increased 'ro) day to day# In order to satis'y it I questioned t%e )e)bers o' all t%e di''erent
sects6 and I )ore es"ecially sou&%t t%e society o' t%e cler&y+ *%o are t%e de"ositaries o' t%e di''erent
"ersuasions+ and *%o are )ore es"ecially interested in t%eir duration# As a )e)ber o' t%e Ro)an Cat%olic
C%urc% I *as )ore "articularly brou&%t into contact *it% several o' its "riests+ *it% *%o) I beca)e inti)ately
acquainted# To eac% o' t%ese )en I ex"ressed )y astonis%)ent and I ex"lained )y doubts6 I 'ound t%at t%ey
di''ered u"on )atters o' detail alone6 and t%at t%ey )ainly attributed t%e "eace'ul do)inion o' reli&ion in t%eir
country to t%e se"aration o' C%urc% and !tate# I do not %esitate to a''ir) t%at durin& )y stay in A)erica I did not
)eet *it% a sin&le individual+ o' t%e cler&y or o' t%e laity+ *%o *as not o' t%e sa)e o"inion u"on t%is "oint#
T%is led )e to exa)ine )ore attentively t%an I %ad %it%erto done+ t%e station *%ic% t%e A)erican cler&y occu"y
in "olitical society# I learned *it% sur"rise t%at t%ey 'illed no "ublic a""oint)ents6 K' not one o' t%e) is to be )et
*it% in t%e ad)inistration+ and t%ey are not even re"resented in t%e le&islative asse)blies# In several !tates K& t%e
la* excludes t%e) 'ro) "olitical li'e+ "ublic o"inion in all# And *%en I ca)e to inquire into t%e "revailin& s"irit
o' t%e cler&y I 'ound t%at )ost o' its )e)bers see)ed to retire o' t%eir o*n accord 'ro) t%e exercise o' "o*er+
and t%at t%ey )ade it t%e "ride o' t%eir "ro'ession to abstain 'ro) "olitics#
35ootnote '@ (nless t%is ter) be a""lied to t%e 'unctions *%ic% )any o' t%e) 'ill in t%e sc%ools# Al)ost all
education is entrusted to t%e cler&y#4
35ootnote &@ !ee t%e Constitution o' Ne* Yor+ art# =+ !ection G@11 2And *%ereas t%e )inisters o' t%e &os"el are+
by t%eir "ro'ession+ dedicated to t%e service o' 9od and t%e care o' souls+ and ou&%t not to be diverted 'ro) t%e
&reat duties o' t%eir 'unctions@ t%ere'ore no )inister o' t%e &os"el+ or "riest o' any deno)ination *%atsoever+
s%all at any ti)e %erea'ter+ under any "retence or descri"tion *%atever+ be eli&ible to+ or ca"able o' %oldin&+ any
civil or )ilitary o''ice or "lace *it%in t%is !tate#2
!ee also t%e constitutions o' Nort% Carolina+ art# 0.6 Dir&inia6 !out% Carolina+ art# I+ !ection A06 Lentucy+ art# A+
!ection A;6 Tennessee+ art# /+ !ection I6 8ouisiana+ art# A+ !ection AA#4
I %eard t%e) invei&% a&ainst a)bition and deceit+ under *%atever "olitical o"inions t%ese vices )i&%t c%ance to
lur6 but I learned 'ro) t%eir discourses t%at )en are not &uilty in t%e eye o' 9od 'or any o"inions concernin&
"olitical &overn)ent *%ic% t%ey )ay "ro'ess *it% sincerity+ any )ore t%an t%ey are 'or t%eir )istaes in buildin&
a %ouse or in drivin& a 'urro*# I "erceived t%at t%ese )inisters o' t%e &os"el esc%e*ed all "arties *it% t%e anxiety
attendant u"on "ersonal interest# T%ese 'acts convinced )e t%at *%at I %ad been told *as true6 and it t%en beca)e
)y ob7ect to investi&ate t%eir causes+ and to inquire %o* it %a""ened t%at t%e real aut%ority o' reli&ion *as
increased by a state o' t%in&s *%ic% di)inis%ed its a""arent 'orce@ t%ese causes did not lon& esca"e )y
researc%es#
T%e s%ort s"ace o' t%reescore years can never content t%e i)a&ination o' )an6 nor can t%e i)"er'ect 7oys o' t%is
*orld satis'y %is %eart# Man alone+ o' all created bein&s+ dis"lays a natural conte)"t o' existence+ and yet a
boundless desire to exist6 %e scorns li'e+ but %e dreads anni%ilation# T%ese di''erent 'eelin&s incessantly ur&e %is
soul to t%e conte)"lation o' a 'uture state+ and reli&ion directs %is )usin&s t%it%er# Reli&ion+ t%en+ is si)"ly
anot%er 'or) o' %o"e6 and it is no less natural to t%e %u)an %eart t%an %o"e itsel'# Men cannot abandon t%eir
reli&ious 'ait% *it%out a ind o' aberration o' intellect+ and a sort o' violent distortion o' t%eir true natures6 but
t%ey are invincibly brou&%t bac to )ore "ious senti)ents6 'or unbelie' is an accident+ and 'ait% is t%e only
"er)anent state o' )anind# I' *e only consider reli&ious institutions in a "urely %u)an "oint o' vie*+ t%ey )ay
be said to derive an inex%austible ele)ent o' stren&t% 'ro) )an %i)sel'+ since t%ey belon& to one o' t%e
constituent "rinci"les o' %u)an nature#
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I a) a*are t%at at certain ti)es reli&ion )ay stren&t%en t%is in'luence+ *%ic% ori&inates in itsel'+ by t%e arti'icial
"o*er o' t%e la*s+ and by t%e su""ort o' t%ose te)"oral institutions *%ic% direct society# Reli&ions+ inti)ately
united to t%e &overn)ents o' t%e eart%+ %ave been no*n to exercise a soverei&n aut%ority derived 'ro) t%e
t*o'old source o' terror and o' 'ait%6 but *%en a reli&ion contracts an alliance o' t%is nature+ I do not %esitate to
a''ir) t%at it co))its t%e sa)e error as a )an *%o s%ould sacri'ice %is 'uture to %is "resent *el'are6 and in
obtainin& a "o*er to *%ic% it %as no clai)+ it riss t%at aut%ority *%ic% is ri&%t'ully its o*n# ,%en a reli&ion
'ounds its e)"ire u"on t%e desire o' i))ortality *%ic% lives in every %u)an %eart+ it )ay as"ire to universal
do)inion6 but *%en it connects itsel' *it% a &overn)ent+ it )ust necessarily ado"t )axi)s *%ic% are only
a""licable to certain nations# T%us+ in 'or)in& an alliance *it% a "olitical "o*er+ reli&ion au&)ents its aut%ority
over a 'e*+ and 'or'eits t%e %o"e o' rei&nin& over all#
As lon& as a reli&ion rests u"on t%ose senti)ents *%ic% are t%e consolation o' all a''liction+ it )ay attract t%e
a''ections o' )anind# But i' it be )ixed u" *it% t%e bitter "assions o' t%e *orld+ it )ay be constrained to de'end
allies *%o) its interests+ and not t%e "rinci"le o' love+ %ave &iven to it6 or to re"el as anta&onists )en *%o are
still attac%ed to its o*n s"irit+ %o*ever o""osed t%ey )ay be to t%e "o*ers to *%ic% it is allied# T%e C%urc%
cannot s%are t%e te)"oral "o*er o' t%e !tate *it%out bein& t%e ob7ect o' a "ortion o' t%at ani)osity *%ic% t%e
latter excites#
T%e "olitical "o*ers *%ic% see) to be )ost 'ir)ly establis%ed %ave 'requently no better &uarantee 'or t%eir
duration t%an t%e o"inions o' a &eneration+ t%e interests o' t%e ti)e+ or t%e li'e o' an individual# A la* )ay
)odi'y t%e social condition *%ic% see)s to be )ost 'ixed and deter)inate6 and *it% t%e social condition
everyt%in& else )ust c%an&e# T%e "o*ers o' society are )ore or less 'u&itive+ lie t%e years *%ic% *e s"end
u"on t%e eart%6 t%ey succeed eac% ot%er *it% ra"idity+ lie t%e 'leetin& cares o' li'e6 and no &overn)ent %as ever
yet been 'ounded u"on an invariable dis"osition o' t%e %u)an %eart+ or u"on an i)"eris%able interest#
As lon& as a reli&ion is sustained by t%ose 'eelin&s+ "ro"ensities+ and "assions *%ic% are 'ound to occur under t%e
sa)e 'or)s+ at all t%e di''erent "eriods o' %istory+ it )ay de'y t%e e''orts o' ti)e6 or at least it can only be
destroyed by anot%er reli&ion# But *%en reli&ion clin&s to t%e interests o' t%e *orld+ it beco)es al)ost as 'ra&ile
a t%in& as t%e "o*ers o' eart%# It is t%e only one o' t%e) all *%ic% can %o"e 'or i))ortality6 but i' it be
connected *it% t%eir e"%e)eral aut%ority+ it s%ares t%eir 'ortunes+ and )ay 'all *it% t%ose transient "assions
*%ic% su""orted t%e) 'or a day# T%e alliance *%ic% reli&ion contracts *it% "olitical "o*ers )ust needs be
onerous to itsel'6 since it does not require t%eir assistance to live+ and by &ivin& t%e) its assistance to live+ and by
&ivin& t%e) its assistance it )ay be ex"osed to decay#
T%e dan&er *%ic% I %ave 7ust "ointed out al*ays exists+ but it is not al*ays equally visible# In so)e a&es
&overn)ents see) to be i)"eris%able6 in ot%ers+ t%e existence o' society a""ears to be )ore "recarious t%an t%e
li'e o' )an# !o)e constitutions "lun&e t%e citi-ens into a let%ar&ic so)nolence+ and ot%ers rouse t%e) to 'everis%
excite)ent# ,%en &overn)ents a""ear to be so stron&+ and la*s so stable+ )en do not "erceive t%e dan&ers
*%ic% )ay accrue 'ro) a union o' C%urc% and !tate# ,%en &overn)ents dis"lay so )uc% *eaness+ and la*s so
)uc% inconstancy+ t%e dan&er is sel'1evident+ but it is no lon&er "ossible to avoid it6 to be e''ectual+ )easures
)ust be taen to discover its a""roac%#
In "ro"ortion as a nation assu)es a de)ocratic condition o' society+ and as co))unities dis"lay de)ocratic
"ro"ensities+ it beco)es )ore and )ore dan&erous to connect reli&ion *it% "olitical institutions6 'or t%e ti)e is
co)in& *%en aut%ority *ill be bandied 'ro) %and to %and+ *%en "olitical t%eories *ill succeed eac% ot%er+ and
*%en )en+ la*s+ and constitutions *ill disa""ear+ or be )odi'ied 'ro) day to day+ and t%is+ not 'or a season only+
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but unceasin&ly# A&itation and )utability are in%erent in t%e nature o' de)ocratic re"ublics+ 7ust as sta&nation
and inertness are t%e la* o' absolute )onarc%ies#
I' t%e A)ericans+ *%o c%an&e t%e %ead o' t%e 9overn)ent once in 'our years+ *%o elect ne* le&islators every
t*o years+ and rene* t%e "rovincial o''icers every t*elve)ont%6 i' t%e A)ericans+ *%o %ave abandoned t%e
"olitical *orld to t%e atte)"ts o' innovators+ %ad not "laced reli&ion beyond t%eir reac%+ *%ere could it abide in
t%e ebb and 'lo* o' %u)an o"inionsI *%ere *ould t%at res"ect *%ic% belon&s to it be "aid+ a)idst t%e stru&&les
o' 'actionI and *%at *ould beco)e o' its i))ortality+ in t%e )idst o' "er"etual decayI T%e A)erican cler&y
*ere t%e 'irst to "erceive t%is trut%+ and to act in con'or)ity *it% it# T%ey sa* t%at t%ey )ust renounce t%eir
reli&ious in'luence+ i' t%ey *ere to strive 'or "olitical "o*er6 and t%ey c%ose to &ive u" t%e su""ort o' t%e !tate+
rat%er t%an to s%are its vicissitudes#
In A)erica+ reli&ion is "er%a"s less "o*er'ul t%an it %as been at certain "eriods in t%e %istory o' certain "eo"les6
but its in'luence is )ore lastin&# It restricts itsel' to its o*n resources+ but o' t%ose none can de"rive it@ its circle
is li)ited to certain "rinci"les+ but t%ose "rinci"les are entirely its o*n+ and under its undis"uted control#
On every side in Euro"e *e %ear voices co)"lainin& o' t%e absence o' reli&ious 'ait%+ and inquirin& t%e )eans o'
restorin& to reli&ion so)e re)nant o' its "ristine aut%ority# It see)s to )e t%at *e )ust 'irst attentively consider
*%at ou&%t to be t%e natural state o' )en *it% re&ard to reli&ion at t%e "resent ti)e6 and *%en *e no* *%at *e
%ave to %o"e and to 'ear+ *e )ay discern t%e end to *%ic% our e''orts ou&%t to be directed#
T%e t*o &reat dan&ers *%ic% t%reaten t%e existence o' reli&ions are sc%is) and indi''erence# In a&es o' 'ervent
devotion+ )en so)eti)es abandon t%eir reli&ion+ but t%ey only s%ae it o'' in order to ado"t anot%er# T%eir 'ait%
c%an&es t%e ob7ects to *%ic% it is directed+ but it su''ers no decline# T%e old reli&ion t%en excites ent%usiastic
attac%)ent or bitter en)ity in eit%er "arty6 so)e leave it *it% an&er+ ot%ers clin& to it *it% increased
devotedness+ and alt%ou&% "ersuasions di''er+ irreli&ion is unno*n# !uc%+ %o*ever+ is not t%e case *%en a
reli&ious belie' is secretly under)ined by doctrines *%ic% )ay be ter)ed ne&ative+ since t%ey deny t%e trut% o'
one reli&ion *it%out a''ir)in& t%at o' any ot%er# :ro&idious revolutions t%en tae "lace in t%e %u)an )ind+
*it%out t%e a""arent co1o"eration o' t%e "assions o' )an+ and al)ost *it%out %is no*led&e# Men lose t%e
ob7ects o' t%eir 'ondest %o"es+ as i' t%rou&% 'or&et'ulness# T%ey are carried a*ay by an i)"erce"tible current
*%ic% t%ey %ave not t%e coura&e to ste)+ but *%ic% t%ey 'ollo* *it% re&ret+ since it bears t%e) 'ro) a 'ait% t%ey
love+ to a sce"ticis) t%at "lun&es t%e) into des"air#
In a&es *%ic% ans*er to t%is descri"tion+ )en desert t%eir reli&ious o"inions 'ro) lue*ar)ness rat%er t%an 'ro)
dislie6 t%ey do not re7ect t%e)+ but t%e senti)ents by *%ic% t%ey *ere once 'ostered disa""ear# But i' t%e
unbeliever does not ad)it reli&ion to be true+ %e still considers it use'ul# Re&ardin& reli&ious institutions in a
%u)an "oint o' vie*+ %e acno*led&es t%eir in'luence u"on )anners and le&islation# He ad)its t%at t%ey )ay
serve to )ae )en live in "eace *it% one anot%er+ and to "re"are t%e) &ently 'or t%e %our o' deat%# He re&rets
t%e 'ait% *%ic% %e %as lost6 and as %e is de"rived o' a treasure *%ic% %e %as learned to esti)ate at its 'ull value+
%e scru"les to tae it 'ro) t%ose *%o still "ossess it#
On t%e ot%er %and+ t%ose *%o continue to believe are not a'raid o"enly to avo* t%eir 'ait%# T%ey loo u"on t%ose
*%o do not s%are t%eir "ersuasion as )ore *ort%y o' "ity t%an o' o""osition6 and t%ey are a*are t%at to acquire
t%e estee) o' t%e unbelievin&+ t%ey are not obli&ed to 'ollo* t%eir exa)"le# T%ey are %ostile to no one in t%e
*orld6 and as t%ey do not consider t%e society in *%ic% t%ey live as an arena in *%ic% reli&ion is bound to 'ace its
t%ousand deadly 'oes+ t%ey love t%eir conte)"oraries+ *%ilst t%ey conde)n t%eir *eanesses and la)ent t%eir
errors#
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As t%ose *%o do not believe+ conceal t%eir incredulity6 and as t%ose *%o believe+ dis"lay t%eir 'ait%+ "ublic
o"inion "ronounces itsel' in 'avor o' reli&ion@ love+ su""ort+ and %onor are besto*ed u"on it+ and it is only by
searc%in& t%e %u)an soul t%at *e can detect t%e *ounds *%ic% it %as received# T%e )ass o' )anind+ *%o are
never *it%out t%e 'eelin& o' reli&ion+ do not "erceive anyt%in& at variance *it% t%e establis%ed 'ait%# T%e
instinctive desire o' a 'uture li'e brin&s t%e cro*d about t%e altar+ and o"ens t%e %earts o' )en to t%e "rece"ts and
consolations o' reli&ion#
But t%is "icture is not a""licable to us@ 'or t%ere are )en a)on&st us *%o %ave ceased to believe in C%ristianity+
*it%out ado"tin& any ot%er reli&ion6 ot%ers *%o are in t%e "er"lexities o' doubt+ and *%o already a''ect not to
believe6 and ot%ers+ a&ain+ *%o are a'raid to avo* t%at C%ristian 'ait% *%ic% t%ey still c%eris% in secret#
A)idst t%ese lue*ar) "artisans and ardent anta&onists a s)all nu)ber o' believers exist+ *%o are ready to
brave all obstacles and to scorn all dan&ers in de'ence o' t%eir 'ait%# T%ey %ave done violence to %u)an
*eaness+ in order to rise su"erior to "ublic o"inion# Excited by t%e e''ort t%ey %ave )ade+ t%ey scarcely ne*
*%ere to sto"6 and as t%ey no* t%at t%e 'irst use *%ic% t%e 5renc% )ade o' inde"endence *as to attac reli&ion+
t%ey loo u"on t%eir conte)"oraries *it% dread+ and t%ey recoil in alar) 'ro) t%e liberty *%ic% t%eir 'ello*1
citi-ens are seein& to obtain# As unbelie' a""ears to t%e) to be a novelty+ t%ey co)"rise all t%at is ne* in one
indiscri)inate ani)osity# T%ey are at *ar *it% t%eir a&e and country+ and t%ey loo u"on every o"inion *%ic% is
"ut 'ort% t%ere as t%e necessary ene)y o' t%e 'ait%#
!uc% is not t%e natural state o' )en *it% re&ard to reli&ion at t%e "resent day6 and so)e extraordinary or
incidental cause )ust be at *or in 5rance to "revent t%e %u)an )ind 'ro) 'ollo*in& its ori&inal "ro"ensities
and to drive it beyond t%e li)its at *%ic% it ou&%t naturally to sto"# I a) inti)ately convinced t%at t%is
extraordinary and incidental cause is t%e close connection o' "olitics and reli&ion# T%e unbelievers o' Euro"e
attac t%e C%ristians as t%eir "olitical o""onents+ rat%er t%an as t%eir reli&ious adversaries6 t%ey %ate t%e C%ristian
reli&ion as t%e o"inion o' a "arty+ )uc% )ore t%an as an error o' belie'6 and t%ey re7ect t%e cler&y less because
t%ey are t%e re"resentatives o' t%e Divinity t%an because t%ey are t%e allies o' aut%ority#
In Euro"e+ C%ristianity %as been inti)ately united to t%e "o*ers o' t%e eart%# T%ose "o*ers are no* in decay+
and it is+ as it *ere+ buried under t%eir ruins# T%e livin& body o' reli&ion %as been bound do*n to t%e dead cor"se
o' su"erannuated "olity@ cut but t%e bonds *%ic% restrain it+ and t%at *%ic% is alive *ill rise once )ore# I no*
not *%at could restore t%e C%ristian C%urc% o' Euro"e to t%e ener&y o' its earlier days6 t%at "o*er belon&s to
9od alone6 but it )ay be t%e e''ect o' %u)an "olicy to leave t%e 'ait% in t%e 'ull exercise o' t%e stren&t% *%ic% it
still retains#
Ho* T%e Instruction+ T%e Habits+ And T%e :ractical Ex"erience O' T%e A)ericans :ro)ote T%e !uccess O'
T%eir De)ocratic Institutions
,%at is to be understood by t%e instruction o' t%e A)erican "eo"le11T%e %u)an )ind )ore su"er'icially
instructed in t%e (nited !tates t%an in Euro"e11No one co)"letely uninstructed11Reason o' t%is11Ra"idity *it%
*%ic% o"inions are di''used even in t%e uncultivated !tates o' t%e ,est11:ractical ex"erience )ore serviceable to
t%e A)ericans t%an boo1learnin&#
I %ave but little to add to *%at I %ave already said concernin& t%e in'luence *%ic% t%e instruction and t%e %abits
o' t%e A)ericans exercise u"on t%e )aintenance o' t%eir "olitical institutions#
A)erica %as %it%erto "roduced very 'e* *riters o' distinction6 it "ossesses no &reat %istorians+ and not a sin&le
e)inent "oet# T%e in%abitants o' t%at country loo u"on *%at are "ro"erly styled literary "ursuits *it% a ind o'
disa""robation6 and t%ere are to*ns o' very second1rate i)"ortance in Euro"e in *%ic% )ore literary *ors are
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annually "ublis%ed t%an in t%e t*enty1'our !tates o' t%e (nion "ut to&et%er# T%e s"irit o' t%e A)ericans is averse
to &eneral ideas6 and it does not see t%eoretical discoveries# Neit%er "olitics nor )anu'actures direct t%e) to
t%ese occu"ations6 and alt%ou&% ne* la*s are "er"etually enacted in t%e (nited !tates+ no &reat *riters %ave
%it%erto inquired into t%e &eneral "rinci"les o' t%eir le&islation# T%e A)ericans %ave la*yers and co))entators+
but no 7urists6 K% and t%ey 'urnis% exa)"les rat%er t%an lessons to t%e *orld# T%e sa)e observation a""lies to t%e
)ec%anical arts# In A)erica+ t%e inventions o' Euro"e are ado"ted *it% sa&acity6 t%ey are "er'ected+ and ada"ted
*it% ad)irable sill to t%e *ants o' t%e country# Manu'actures exist+ but t%e science o' )anu'acture is not
cultivated6 and t%ey %ave &ood *or)en+ but very 'e* inventors# 5ulton *as obli&ed to "ro''er %is services to
'orei&n nations 'or a lon& ti)e be'ore %e *as able to devote t%e) to %is o*n country#
35ootnote %@ 3T%is cannot be said *it% trut% o' t%e country o' Lent+ !tory+ and ,%eaton#44
T%e observer *%o is desirous o' 'or)in& an o"inion on t%e state o' instruction a)on&st t%e An&lo1A)ericans
)ust consider t%e sa)e ob7ect 'ro) t*o di''erent "oints o' vie*# I' %e only sin&les out t%e learned+ %e *ill be
astonis%ed to 'ind %o* rare t%ey are6 but i' %e counts t%e i&norant+ t%e A)erican "eo"le *ill a""ear to be t%e
)ost enli&%tened co))unity in t%e *orld# T%e *%ole "o"ulation+ as I observed in anot%er "lace+ is situated
bet*een t%ese t*o extre)es# In Ne* En&land+ every citi-en receives t%e ele)entary notions o' %u)an
no*led&e6 %e is )oreover tau&%t t%e doctrines and t%e evidences o' %is reli&ion+ t%e %istory o' %is country+ and
t%e leadin& 'eatures o' its Constitution# In t%e !tates o' Connecticut and Massac%usetts+ it is extre)ely rare to
'ind a )an i)"er'ectly acquainted *it% all t%ese t%in&s+ and a "erson *%olly i&norant o' t%e) is a sort o'
"%eno)enon#
,%en I co)"are t%e 9ree and Ro)an re"ublics *it% t%ese A)erican !tates6 t%e )anuscri"t libraries o' t%e
'or)er+ and t%eir rude "o"ulation+ *it% t%e innu)erable 7ournals and t%e enli&%tened "eo"le o' t%e latter6 *%en I
re)e)ber all t%e atte)"ts *%ic% are )ade to 7ud&e t%e )odern re"ublics by t%e assistance o' t%ose o' antiquity+
and to in'er *%at *ill %a""en in our ti)e 'ro) *%at too "lace t*o t%ousand years a&o+ I a) te)"ted to burn )y
boos+ in order to a""ly none but novel ideas to so novel a condition o' society#
,%at I %ave said o' Ne* En&land )ust not+ %o*ever+ be a""lied indistinctly to t%e *%ole (nion6 as *e advance
to*ards t%e ,est or t%e !out%+ t%e instruction o' t%e "eo"le di)inis%es# In t%e !tates *%ic% are ad7acent to t%e
9ul' o' Mexico+ a certain nu)ber o' individuals )ay be 'ound+ as in our o*n countries+ *%o are devoid o' t%e
rudi)ents o' instruction# But t%ere is not a sin&le district in t%e (nited !tates sun in co)"lete i&norance6 and 'or
a very si)"le reason@ t%e "eo"les o' Euro"e started 'ro) t%e darness o' a barbarous condition+ to advance
to*ard t%e li&%t o' civili-ation6 t%eir "ro&ress %as been unequal6 so)e o' t%e) %ave i)"roved a"ace+ *%ilst
ot%ers %ave loitered in t%eir course+ and so)e %ave sto""ed+ and are still slee"in& u"on t%e *ay# Ki
35ootnote i@ 3In t%e Nort%ern !tates t%e nu)ber o' "ersons destitute o' instruction is inconsiderable+ t%e lar&est
nu)ber bein& AG.+.CA in t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor >accordin& to !"auldin&Fs 2Handboo o' A)erican !tatistics2
'or ./=G?6 but in t%e !out% no less t%an .+C.;+00B *%ites and A+;=.+0B; colored "ersons are returned as
2illiterate#244
!uc% %as not been t%e case in t%e (nited !tates# T%e An&lo1A)ericans settled in a state o' civili-ation+ u"on t%at
territory *%ic% t%eir descendants occu"y6 t%ey %ad not to be&in to learn+ and it *as su''icient 'or t%e) not to
'or&et# No* t%e c%ildren o' t%ese sa)e A)ericans are t%e "ersons *%o+ year by year+ trans"ort t%eir d*ellin&s
into t%e *ilds6 and *it% t%eir d*ellin&s t%eir acquired in'or)ation and t%eir estee) 'or no*led&e# Education %as
tau&%t t%e) t%e utility o' instruction+ and %as enabled t%e) to trans)it t%at instruction to t%eir "osterity# In t%e
(nited !tates society %as no in'ancy+ but it is born in )anFs estate#
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T%e A)ericans never use t%e *ord 2"easant+2 because t%ey %ave no idea o' t%e "eculiar class *%ic% t%at ter)
denotes6 t%e i&norance o' )ore re)ote a&es+ t%e si)"licity o' rural li'e+ and t%e rusticity o' t%e villa&er %ave not
been "reserved a)on&st t%e)6 and t%ey are alie unacquainted *it% t%e virtues+ t%e vices+ t%e coarse %abits+ and
t%e si)"le &races o' an early sta&e o' civili-ation# At t%e extre)e borders o' t%e Con'ederate !tates+ u"on t%e
con'ines o' society and o' t%e *ilderness+ a "o"ulation o' bold adventurers %ave taen u" t%eir abode+ *%o "ierce
t%e solitudes o' t%e A)erican *oods+ and see a country t%ere+ in order to esca"e t%at "overty *%ic% a*aited
t%e) in t%eir native "rovinces# As soon as t%e "ioneer arrives u"on t%e s"ot *%ic% is to serve %i) 'or a retreat+ %e
'ells a 'e* trees and builds a lo&%ouse# Not%in& can o''er a )ore )iserable as"ect t%an t%ese isolated d*ellin&s#
T%e traveller *%o a""roac%es one o' t%e) to*ards ni&%t'all+ sees t%e 'licer o' t%e %eart%1'la)e t%rou&% t%e
c%ins in t%e *alls6 and at ni&%t+ i' t%e *ind rises+ %e %ears t%e roo' o' bou&%s s%ae to and 'ro in t%e )idst o' t%e
&reat 'orest trees# ,%o *ould not su""ose t%at t%is "oor %ut is t%e asylu) o' rudeness and i&noranceI Yet no sort
o' co)"arison can be dra*n bet*een t%e "ioneer and t%e d*ellin& *%ic% s%elters %i)# Everyt%in& about %i) is
"ri)itive and un'or)ed+ but %e is %i)sel' t%e result o' t%e labor and t%e ex"erience o' ei&%teen centuries# He
*ears t%e dress+ and %e s"eas t%e lan&ua&e o' cities6 %e is acquainted *it% t%e "ast+ curious o' t%e 'uture+ and
ready 'or ar&u)ent u"on t%e "resent6 %e is+ in s%ort+ a %i&%ly civili-ed bein&+ *%o consents+ 'or a ti)e+ to in%abit
t%e bac*oods+ and *%o "enetrates into t%e *ilds o' t%e Ne* ,orld *it% t%e Bible+ an axe+ and a 'ile o'
ne*s"a"ers#
It is di''icult to i)a&ine t%e incredible ra"idity *it% *%ic% "ublic o"inion circulates in t%e )idst o' t%ese deserts#
K7 I do not t%in t%at so )uc% intellectual intercourse taes "lace in t%e )ost enli&%tened and "o"ulous districts
o' 5rance# K It cannot be doubted t%at+ in t%e (nited !tates+ t%e instruction o' t%e "eo"le "o*er'ully contributes
to t%e su""ort o' a de)ocratic re"ublic6 and suc% )ust al*ays be t%e case+ I believe+ *%ere instruction *%ic%
a*aens t%e understandin& is not se"arated 'ro) )oral education *%ic% a)ends t%e %eart# But I by no )eans
exa&&erate t%is bene'it+ and I a) still 'urt%er 'ro) t%inin&+ as so )any "eo"le do t%in in Euro"e+ t%at )en can
be instantaneously )ade citi-ens by teac%in& t%e) to read and *rite# True in'or)ation is )ainly derived 'ro)
ex"erience6 and i' t%e A)ericans %ad not been &radually accusto)ed to &overn t%e)selves+ t%eir boo1learnin&
*ould not assist t%e) )uc% at t%e "resent day#
35ootnote 7@ I travelled alon& a "ortion o' t%e 'rontier o' t%e (nited !tates in a sort o' cart *%ic% *as ter)ed t%e
)ail# ,e "assed+ day and ni&%t+ *it% &reat ra"idity alon& t%e roads *%ic% *ere scarcely )ared out+ t%rou&%
i))ense 'orests6 *%en t%e &loo) o' t%e *oods beca)e i)"enetrable t%e coac%)an li&%ted branc%es o' 'ir+ and
*e 7ourneyed alon& by t%e li&%t t%ey cast# 5ro) ti)e to ti)e *e ca)e to a %ut in t%e )idst o' t%e 'orest+ *%ic%
*as a "ost1o''ice# T%e )ail dro""ed an enor)ous bundle o' letters at t%e door o' t%is isolated d*ellin&+ and *e
"ursued our *ay at 'ull &allo"+ leavin& t%e in%abitants o' t%e nei&%borin& lo& %ouses to send 'or t%eir s%are o' t%e
treasure#
3,%en t%e aut%or visited A)erica t%e loco)otive and t%e railroad *ere scarcely invented+ and not yet introduced
in t%e (nited !tates# It is su"er'luous to "oint out t%e i))ense e''ect o' t%ose inventions in extendin& civili-ation
and develo"in& t%e resources o' t%at vast continent# In ./0. t%ere *ere C. )iles o' rail*ay in t%e (nited !tates6
in ./=A t%ere *ere ;<+<<< )iles o' rail*ay#44
35ootnote @ In ./0A eac% in%abitant o' Mic%i&an "aid a su) equivalent to . 'r# AA cent# >5renc% )oney? to t%e
"ost1o''ice revenue+ and eac% in%abitant o' t%e 5loridas "aid . 'r# C cent# >!ee 2National Calendar+2 ./00+ "# AGG#?
In t%e sa)e year eac% in%abitant o' t%e De"arte)ent du Nord "aid . 'r# G cent# to t%e revenue o' t%e 5renc% "ost1
o''ice# >!ee t%e 2Co)"te rendu de lFad)inistration des 5inances+2 ./00+ "# ;A0#? No* t%e !tate o' Mic%i&an only
contained at t%at ti)e = in%abitants "er square lea&ue and 5lorida only C@ t%e "ublic instruction and t%e
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co))ercial activity o' t%ese districts is in'erior to t%at o' )ost o' t%e !tates in t%e (nion+ *%ilst t%e De"arte)ent
du Nord+ *%ic% contains 0+G<< in%abitants "er square lea&ue+ is one o' t%e )ost enli&%tened and )anu'acturin&
"arts o' 5rance#4
I %ave lived a &reat deal *it% t%e "eo"le in t%e (nited !tates+ and I cannot ex"ress %o* )uc% I ad)ire t%eir
ex"erience and t%eir &ood sense# An A)erican s%ould never be allo*ed to s"ea o' Euro"e6 'or %e *ill t%en
"robably dis"lay a vast deal o' "resu)"tion and very 'oolis% "ride# He *ill tae u" *it% t%ose crude and va&ue
notions *%ic% are so use'ul to t%e i&norant all over t%e *orld# But i' you question %i) res"ectin& %is o*n
country+ t%e cloud *%ic% di))ed %is intelli&ence *ill i))ediately dis"erse6 %is lan&ua&e *ill beco)e as clear
and as "recise as %is t%ou&%ts# He *ill in'or) you *%at %is ri&%ts are+ and by *%at )eans %e exercises t%e)6 %e
*ill be able to "oint out t%e custo)s *%ic% obtain in t%e "olitical *orld# You *ill 'ind t%at %e is *ell acquainted
*it% t%e rules o' t%e ad)inistration+ and t%at %e is 'a)iliar *it% t%e )ec%anis) o' t%e la*s# T%e citi-en o' t%e
(nited !tates does not acquire %is "ractical science and %is "ositive notions 'ro) boos6 t%e instruction %e %as
acquired )ay %ave "re"ared %i) 'or receivin& t%ose ideas+ but it did not 'urnis% t%e)# T%e A)erican learns to
no* t%e la*s by "artici"atin& in t%e act o' le&islation6 and %e taes a lesson in t%e 'or)s o' &overn)ent 'ro)
&overnin&# T%e &reat *or o' society is ever &oin& on beneat% %is eyes+ and+ as it *ere+ under %is %ands#
In t%e (nited !tates "olitics are t%e end and ai) o' education6 in Euro"e its "rinci"al ob7ect is to 'it )en 'or
"rivate li'e# T%e inter'erence o' t%e citi-ens in "ublic a''airs is too rare an occurrence 'or it to be antici"ated
be'ore%and# ("on castin& a &lance over society in t%e t*o %e)is"%eres+ t%ese di''erences are indicated even by
its external as"ect#
In Euro"e *e 'requently introduce t%e ideas and t%e %abits o' "rivate li'e into "ublic a''airs6 and as *e "ass at
once 'ro) t%e do)estic circle to t%e &overn)ent o' t%e !tate+ *e )ay 'requently be %eard to discuss t%e &reat
interests o' society in t%e sa)e )anner in *%ic% *e converse *it% our 'riends# T%e A)ericans+ on t%e ot%er
%and+ trans'use t%e %abits o' "ublic li'e into t%eir )anners in "rivate6 and in t%eir country t%e 7ury is introduced
into t%e &a)es o' sc%oolboys+ and "arlia)entary 'or)s are observed in t%e order o' a 'east#
Chapter XVII
@ :rinci"al Causes Maintainin& T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic11:art ID
T%e 8a*s Contribute More To T%e Maintenance O' T%e De)ocratic Re"ublic In T%e (nited !tates T%an T%e
:%ysical Circu)stances O' T%e Country+ And T%e Manners More T%an T%e 8a*s
All t%e nations o' A)erica %ave a de)ocratic state o' society11Yet de)ocratic institutions only subsist a)on&st
t%e An&lo1A)ericans11T%e !"aniards o' !out% A)erica+ equally 'avored by "%ysical causes as t%e An&lo1
A)ericans+ unable to )aintain a de)ocratic re"ublic11Mexico+ *%ic% %as ado"ted t%e Constitution o' t%e (nited
!tates+ in t%e sa)e "redica)ent11T%e An&lo1A)ericans o' t%e ,est less able to )aintain it t%an t%ose o' t%e
East11Reason o' t%ese di''erent results#
I %ave re)ared t%at t%e )aintenance o' de)ocratic institutions in t%e (nited !tates is attributable to t%e
circu)stances+ t%e la*s+ and t%e )anners o' t%at country# Kl Most Euro"eans are only acquainted *it% t%e 'irst o'
t%ese t%ree causes+ and t%ey are a"t to &ive it a "re"onderatin& i)"ortance *%ic% it does not really "ossess#
35ootnote l@ I re)ind t%e reader o' t%e &eneral si&ni'ication *%ic% I &ive to t%e *ord 2)anners+2 na)ely+ t%e
)oral and intellectual c%aracteristics o' social )an taen collectively#4
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It is true t%at t%e An&lo1!axons settled in t%e Ne* ,orld in a state o' social equality6 t%e lo*1born and t%e noble
*ere not to be 'ound a)on&st t%e)6 and "ro'essional "re7udices *ere al*ays as entirely unno*n as t%e
"re7udices o' birt%# T%us+ as t%e condition o' society *as de)ocratic+ t%e e)"ire o' de)ocracy *as establis%ed
*it%out di''iculty# But t%is circu)stance is by no )eans "eculiar to t%e (nited !tates6 al)ost all t%e trans1
Atlantic colonies *ere 'ounded by )en equal a)on&st t%e)selves+ or *%o beca)e so by in%abitin& t%e)# In no
one "art o' t%e Ne* ,orld %ave Euro"eans been able to create an aristocracy# Nevert%eless+ de)ocratic
institutions "ros"er no*%ere but in t%e (nited !tates#
T%e A)erican (nion %as no ene)ies to contend *it%6 it stands in t%e *ilds lie an island in t%e ocean# But t%e
!"aniards o' !out% A)erica *ere no less isolated by nature6 yet t%eir "osition %as not relieved t%e) 'ro) t%e
c%ar&e o' standin& ar)ies# T%ey )ae *ar u"on eac% ot%er *%en t%ey %ave no 'orei&n ene)ies to o""ose6 and
t%e An&lo1A)erican de)ocracy is t%e only one *%ic% %as %it%erto been able to )aintain itsel' in "eace# K)
35ootnote )@ 3A re)ar *%ic%+ since t%e &reat Civil ,ar o' ./;.1;C+ ceases to be a""licable#44
T%e territory o' t%e (nion "resents a boundless 'ield to %u)an activity+ and inex%austible )aterials 'or industry
and labor# T%e "assion o' *ealt% taes t%e "lace o' a)bition+ and t%e *ar)t% o' 'action is )iti&ated by a sense o'
"ros"erity# But in *%at "ortion o' t%e &lobe s%all *e )eet *it% )ore 'ertile "lains+ *it% )i&%tier rivers+ or *it%
)ore unex"lored and inex%austible ric%es t%an in !out% A)ericaI
Nevert%eless+ !out% A)erica %as been unable to )aintain de)ocratic institutions# I' t%e *el'are o' nations
de"ended on t%eir bein& "laced in a re)ote "osition+ *it% an unbounded s"ace o' %abitable territory be'ore t%e)+
t%e !"aniards o' !out% A)erica *ould %ave no reason to co)"lain o' t%eir 'ate# And alt%ou&% t%ey )i&%t en7oy
less "ros"erity t%an t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates+ t%eir lot )i&%t still be suc% as to excite t%e envy o' so)e
nations in Euro"e# T%ere are+ %o*ever+ no nations u"on t%e 'ace o' t%e eart% )ore )iserable t%an t%ose o' !out%
A)erica#
T%us+ not only are "%ysical causes inadequate to "roduce results analo&ous to t%ose *%ic% occur in Nort%
A)erica+ but t%ey are unable to raise t%e "o"ulation o' !out% A)erica above t%e level o' Euro"ean !tates+ *%ere
t%ey act in a contrary direction# :%ysical causes do not+ t%ere'ore+ a''ect t%e destiny o' nations so )uc% as %as
been su""osed#
I %ave )et *it% )en in Ne* En&land *%o *ere on t%e "oint o' leavin& a country+ *%ere t%ey )i&%t %ave
re)ained in easy circu)stances+ to &o to see t%eir 'ortune in t%e *ilds# Not 'ar 'ro) t%at district I 'ound a
5renc% "o"ulation in Canada+ *%ic% *as closely cro*ded on a narro* territory+ alt%ou&% t%e sa)e *ilds *ere at
%and6 and *%ilst t%e e)i&rant 'ro) t%e (nited !tates "urc%ased an extensive estate *it% t%e earnin&s o' a s%ort
ter) o' labor+ t%e Canadian "aid as )uc% 'or land as %e *ould %ave done in 5rance# Nature o''ers t%e solitudes o'
t%e Ne* ,orld to Euro"eans6 but t%ey are not al*ays acquainted *it% t%e )eans o' turnin& %er &i'ts to account#
Ot%er "eo"les o' A)erica %ave t%e sa)e "%ysical conditions o' "ros"erity as t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ but *it%out
t%eir la*s and t%eir )anners6 and t%ese "eo"les are *retc%ed# T%e la*s and )anners o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans are
t%ere'ore t%at e''icient cause o' t%eir &reatness *%ic% is t%e ob7ect o' )y inquiry#
I a) 'ar 'ro) su""osin& t%at t%e A)erican la*s are "ree)inently &ood in t%e)selves6 I do not %old t%e) to be
a""licable to all de)ocratic "eo"les6 and several o' t%e) see) to be dan&erous+ even in t%e (nited !tates#
Nevert%eless+ it cannot be denied t%at t%e A)erican le&islation+ taen collectively+ is extre)ely *ell ada"ted to
t%e &enius o' t%e "eo"le and t%e nature o' t%e country *%ic% it is intended to &overn# T%e A)erican la*s are
t%ere'ore &ood+ and to t%e) )ust be attributed a lar&e "ortion o' t%e success *%ic% attends t%e &overn)ent o'
de)ocracy in A)erica@ but I do not believe t%e) to be t%e "rinci"al cause o' t%at success6 and i' t%ey see) to )e
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to %ave )ore in'luence u"on t%e social %a""iness o' t%e A)ericans t%an t%e nature o' t%e country+ on t%e ot%er
%and t%ere is reason to believe t%at t%eir e''ect is still in'erior to t%at "roduced by t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le#
T%e 5ederal la*s undoubtedly constitute t%e )ost i)"ortant "art o' t%e le&islation o' t%e (nited !tates# Mexico+
*%ic% is not less 'ortunately situated t%an t%e An&lo1A)erican (nion+ %as ado"ted t%e sa)e la*s+ but is unable
to accusto) itsel' to t%e &overn)ent o' de)ocracy# !o)e ot%er cause is t%ere'ore at *or+ inde"endently o'
t%ose "%ysical circu)stances and "eculiar la*s *%ic% enable t%e de)ocracy to rule in t%e (nited !tates#
Anot%er still )ore striin& "roo' )ay be adduced# Al)ost all t%e in%abitants o' t%e territory o' t%e (nion are t%e
descendants o' a co))on stoc6 t%ey s"ea t%e sa)e lan&ua&e+ t%ey *ors%i" 9od in t%e sa)e )anner+ t%ey are
a''ected by t%e sa)e "%ysical causes+ and t%ey obey t%e sa)e la*s# ,%ence+ t%en+ do t%eir c%aracteristic
di''erences ariseI ,%y+ in t%e Eastern !tates o' t%e (nion+ does t%e re"ublican &overn)ent dis"lay vi&or and
re&ularity+ and "roceed *it% )ature deliberationI ,%ence does it derive t%e *isdo) and t%e durability *%ic%
)ar its acts+ *%ilst in t%e ,estern !tates+ on t%e contrary+ society see)s to be ruled by t%e "o*ers o' c%anceI
T%ere+ "ublic business is conducted *it% an irre&ularity and a "assionate and 'everis% excite)ent+ *%ic% does not
announce a lon& or sure duration#
I a) no lon&er co)"arin& t%e An&lo1A)erican !tates to 'orei&n nations6 but I a) contrastin& t%e) *it% eac%
ot%er+ and endeavorin& to discover *%y t%ey are so unlie# T%e ar&u)ents *%ic% are derived 'ro) t%e nature o'
t%e country and t%e di''erence o' le&islation are %ere all set aside# Recourse )ust be %ad to so)e ot%er cause6 and
*%at ot%er cause can t%ere be exce"t t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"leI
It is in t%e Eastern !tates t%at t%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave been lon&est accusto)ed to t%e &overn)ent o'
de)ocracy+ and t%at t%ey %ave ado"ted t%e %abits and conceived t%e notions )ost 'avorable to its )aintenance#
De)ocracy %as &radually "enetrated into t%eir custo)s+ t%eir o"inions+ and t%e 'or)s o' social intercourse6 it is
to be 'ound in all t%e details o' daily li'e equally as in t%e la*s# In t%e Eastern !tates t%e instruction and "ractical
education o' t%e "eo"le %ave been )ost "er'ected+ and reli&ion %as been )ost t%orou&%ly a)al&a)ated *it%
liberty# No* t%ese %abits+ o"inions+ custo)s+ and convictions are "recisely t%e constituent ele)ents o' t%at *%ic%
I %ave deno)inated )anners#
In t%e ,estern !tates+ on t%e contrary+ a "ortion o' t%e sa)e advanta&es is still *antin&# Many o' t%e A)ericans
o' t%e ,est *ere born in t%e *oods+ and t%ey )ix t%e ideas and t%e custo)s o' sava&e li'e *it% t%e civili-ation o'
t%eir "arents# T%eir "assions are )ore intense6 t%eir reli&ious )orality less aut%oritative6 and t%eir convictions
less secure# T%e in%abitants exercise no sort o' control over t%eir 'ello*1citi-ens+ 'or t%ey are scarcely acquainted
*it% eac% ot%er# T%e nations o' t%e ,est dis"lay+ to a certain extent+ t%e inex"erience and t%e rude %abits o' a
"eo"le in its in'ancy6 'or alt%ou&% t%ey are co)"osed o' old ele)ents+ t%eir asse)bla&e is o' recent date#
T%e )anners o' t%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited !tates are+ t%en+ t%e real cause *%ic% renders t%at "eo"le t%e only
one o' t%e A)erican nations t%at is able to su""ort a de)ocratic &overn)ent6 and it is t%e in'luence o' )anners
*%ic% "roduces t%e di''erent de&rees o' order and o' "ros"erity t%at )ay be distin&uis%ed in t%e several An&lo1
A)erican de)ocracies# T%us t%e e''ect *%ic% t%e &eo&ra"%ical "osition o' a country )ay %ave u"on t%e duration
o' de)ocratic institutions is exa&&erated in Euro"e# Too )uc% i)"ortance is attributed to le&islation+ too little to
)anners# T%ese t%ree &reat causes serve+ no doubt+ to re&ulate and direct t%e A)erican de)ocracy6 but i' t%ey
*ere to be classed in t%eir "ro"er order+ I s%ould say t%at t%e "%ysical circu)stances are less e''icient t%an t%e
la*s+ and t%e la*s very subordinate to t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le# I a) convinced t%at t%e )ost advanta&eous
situation and t%e best "ossible la*s cannot )aintain a constitution in s"ite o' t%e )anners o' a country6 *%ilst t%e
latter )ay turn t%e )ost un'avorable "ositions and t%e *orst la*s to so)e advanta&e# T%e i)"ortance o' )anners
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is a co))on trut% to *%ic% study and ex"erience incessantly direct our attention# It )ay be re&arded as a central
"oint in t%e ran&e o' %u)an observation+ and t%e co))on ter)ination o' all inquiry# !o seriously do I insist u"on
t%is %ead+ t%at i' I %ave %it%erto 'ailed in )ain& t%e reader 'eel t%e i)"ortant in'luence *%ic% I attribute to t%e
"ractical ex"erience+ t%e %abits+ t%e o"inions+ in s%ort+ to t%e )anners o' t%e A)ericans+ u"on t%e )aintenance o'
t%eir institutions+ I %ave 'ailed in t%e "rinci"al ob7ect o' )y *or#
,%et%er 8a*s And Manners Are !u''icient To Maintain De)ocratic Institutions In Ot%er Countries Besides
A)erica
T%e An&lo1A)ericans+ i' trans"orted into Euro"e+ *ould be obli&ed to )odi'y t%eir la*s11Distinction to be )ade
bet*een de)ocratic institutions and A)erican institutions11De)ocratic la*s )ay be conceived better t%an+ or at
least di''erent 'ro)+ t%ose *%ic% t%e A)erican de)ocracy %as ado"ted11T%e exa)"le o' A)erica only "roves
t%at it is "ossible to re&ulate de)ocracy by t%e assistance o' )anners and le&islation#
I %ave asserted t%at t%e success o' de)ocratic institutions in t%e (nited !tates is )ore inti)ately connected *it%
t%e la*s t%e)selves+ and t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le+ t%an *it% t%e nature o' t%e country# But does it 'ollo* t%at
t%e sa)e causes *ould o' t%e)selves "roduce t%e sa)e results+ i' t%ey *ere "ut into o"eration else*%ere6 and i'
t%e country is no adequate substitute 'or la*s and )anners+ can la*s and )anners in t%eir turn "rove a substitute
'or t%e countryI It *ill readily be understood t%at t%e necessary ele)ents o' a re"ly to t%is question are *antin&@
ot%er "eo"les are to be 'ound in t%e Ne* ,orld besides t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ and as t%ese "eo"le are a''ected
by t%e sa)e "%ysical circu)stances as t%e latter+ t%ey )ay 'airly be co)"ared to&et%er# But t%ere are no nations
out o' A)erica *%ic% %ave ado"ted t%e sa)e la*s and )anners+ bein& destitute o' t%e "%ysical advanta&es
"eculiar to t%e An&lo1A)ericans# No standard o' co)"arison t%ere'ore exists+ and *e can only %a-ard an o"inion
u"on t%is sub7ect#
It a""ears to )e+ in t%e 'irst "lace+ t%at a care'ul distinction )ust be )ade bet*een t%e institutions o' t%e (nited
!tates and de)ocratic institutions in &eneral# ,%en I re'lect u"on t%e state o' Euro"e+ its )i&%ty nations+ its
"o"ulous cities+ its 'or)idable ar)ies+ and t%e co)"lex nature o' its "olitics+ I cannot su""ose t%at even t%e
An&lo1A)ericans+ i' t%ey *ere trans"orted to our %e)is"%ere+ *it% t%eir ideas+ t%eir reli&ion+ and t%eir )anners+
could exist *it%out considerably alterin& t%eir la*s# But a de)ocratic nation )ay be i)a&ined+ or&ani-ed
di''erently 'ro) t%e A)erican "eo"le# It is not i)"ossible to conceive a &overn)ent really establis%ed u"on t%e
*ill o' t%e )a7ority6 but in *%ic% t%e )a7ority+ re"ressin& its natural "ro"ensity to equality+ s%ould consent+ *it%
a vie* to t%e order and t%e stability o' t%e !tate+ to invest a 'a)ily or an individual *it% all t%e "rero&atives o'
t%e executive# A de)ocratic society )i&%t exist+ in *%ic% t%e 'orces o' t%e nation *ould be )ore centrali-ed t%an
t%ey are in t%e (nited !tates6 t%e "eo"le *ould exercise a less direct and less irresistible in'luence u"on "ublic
a''airs+ and yet every citi-en invested *it% certain ri&%ts *ould "artici"ate+ *it%in %is s"%ere+ in t%e conduct o'
t%e &overn)ent# T%e observations I )ade a)on&st t%e An&lo1A)ericans induce )e to believe t%at de)ocratic
institutions o' t%is ind+ "rudently introduced into society+ so as &radually to )ix *it% t%e %abits and to be
inter'used *it% t%e o"inions o' t%e "eo"le+ )i&%t subsist in ot%er countries besides A)erica# I' t%e la*s o' t%e
(nited !tates *ere t%e only i)a&inable de)ocratic la*s+ or t%e )ost "er'ect *%ic% it is "ossible to conceive+ I
s%ould ad)it t%at t%e success o' t%ose institutions a''ords no "roo' o' t%e success o' de)ocratic institutions in
&eneral+ in a country less 'avored by natural circu)stances# But as t%e la*s o' A)erica a""ear to )e to be
de'ective in several res"ects+ and as I can readily i)a&ine ot%ers o' t%e sa)e &eneral nature+ t%e "eculiar
advanta&es o' t%at country do not "rove t%at de)ocratic institutions cannot succeed in a nation less 'avored by
circu)stances+ i' ruled by better la*s#
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I' %u)an nature *ere di''erent in A)erica 'ro) *%at it is else*%ere6 or i' t%e social condition o' t%e A)ericans
en&endered %abits and o"inions a)on&st t%e) di''erent 'ro) t%ose *%ic% ori&inate in t%e sa)e social condition
in t%e Old ,orld+ t%e A)erican de)ocracies *ould a''ord no )eans o' "redictin& *%at )ay occur in ot%er
de)ocracies# I' t%e A)ericans dis"layed t%e sa)e "ro"ensities as all ot%er de)ocratic nations+ and i' t%eir
le&islators %ad relied u"on t%e nature o' t%e country and t%e 'avor o' circu)stances to restrain t%ose "ro"ensities
*it%in due li)its+ t%e "ros"erity o' t%e (nited !tates *ould be exclusively attributable to "%ysical causes+ and it
*ould a''ord no encoura&e)ent to a "eo"le inclined to i)itate t%eir exa)"le+ *it%out s%arin& t%eir natural
advanta&es# But neit%er o' t%ese su""ositions is borne out by 'acts#
In A)erica t%e sa)e "assions are to be )et *it% as in Euro"e6 so)e ori&inatin& in %u)an nature+ ot%ers in t%e
de)ocratic condition o' society# T%us in t%e (nited !tates I 'ound t%at restlessness o' %eart *%ic% is natural to
)en+ *%en all rans are nearly equal and t%e c%ances o' elevation are t%e sa)e to all# I 'ound t%e de)ocratic
'eelin& o' envy ex"ressed under a t%ousand di''erent 'or)s# I re)ared t%at t%e "eo"le 'requently dis"layed+ in
t%e conduct o' a''airs+ a consu))ate )ixture o' i&norance and "resu)"tion6 and I in'erred t%at in A)erica+ )en
are liable to t%e sa)e 'ailin&s and t%e sa)e absurdities as a)on&st ourselves# But u"on exa)inin& t%e state o'
society )ore attentively+ I s"eedily discovered t%at t%e A)ericans %ad )ade &reat and success'ul e''orts to
counteract t%ese i)"er'ections o' %u)an nature+ and to correct t%e natural de'ects o' de)ocracy# T%eir divers
)unici"al la*s a""eared to )e to be a )eans o' restrainin& t%e a)bition o' t%e citi-ens *it%in a narro* s"%ere+
and o' turnin& t%ose sa)e "assions *%ic% )i&%t %ave *ored %avoc in t%e !tate+ to t%e &ood o' t%e to*ns%i" or
t%e "aris%# T%e A)erican le&islators %ave succeeded to a certain extent in o""osin& t%e notion o' ri&%ts to t%e
'eelin&s o' envy6 t%e "er)anence o' t%e reli&ious *orld to t%e continual s%i'tin& o' "olitics6 t%e ex"erience o' t%e
"eo"le to its t%eoretical i&norance6 and its "ractical no*led&e o' business to t%e i)"atience o' its desires#
T%e A)ericans+ t%en+ %ave not relied u"on t%e nature o' t%eir country to counter"oise t%ose dan&ers *%ic%
ori&inate in t%eir Constitution and in t%eir "olitical la*s# To evils *%ic% are co))on to all de)ocratic "eo"les
t%ey %ave a""lied re)edies *%ic% none but t%e)selves %ad ever t%ou&%t o' be'ore6 and alt%ou&% t%ey *ere t%e
'irst to )ae t%e ex"eri)ent+ t%ey %ave succeeded in it#
T%e )anners and la*s o' t%e A)ericans are not t%e only ones *%ic% )ay suit a de)ocratic "eo"le6 but t%e
A)ericans %ave s%o*n t%at it *ould be *ron& to des"air o' re&ulatin& de)ocracy by t%e aid o' )anners and o'
la*s# I' ot%er nations s%ould borro* t%is &eneral and "re&nant idea 'ro) t%e A)ericans+ *it%out %o*ever
intendin& to i)itate t%e) in t%e "eculiar a""lication *%ic% t%ey %ave )ade o' it6 i' t%ey s%ould atte)"t to 'it
t%e)selves 'or t%at social condition+ *%ic% it see)s to be t%e *ill o' :rovidence to i)"ose u"on t%e &enerations
o' t%is a&e+ and so to esca"e 'ro) t%e des"otis) or t%e anarc%y *%ic% t%reatens t%e)6 *%at reason is t%ere to
su""ose t%at t%eir e''orts *ould not be cro*ned *it% successI T%e or&ani-ation and t%e establis%)ent o'
de)ocracy in C%ristendo) is t%e &reat "olitical "roble) o' t%e ti)e# T%e A)ericans+ unquestionably+ %ave not
resolved t%is "roble)+ but t%ey 'urnis% use'ul data to t%ose *%o undertae t%e tas#
I)"ortance O' ,%at :recedes ,it% Res"ect To T%e !tate O' Euro"e
It )ay readily be discovered *it% *%at intention I undertoo t%e 'ore&oin& inquiries# T%e question %ere discussed
is interestin& not only to t%e (nited !tates+ but to t%e *%ole *orld6 it concerns+ not a nation+ but all )anind# I'
t%ose nations *%ose social condition is de)ocratic could only re)ain 'ree as lon& as t%ey are in%abitants o' t%e
*ilds+ *e could not but des"air o' t%e 'uture destiny o' t%e %u)an race6 'or de)ocracy is ra"idly acquirin& a
)ore extended s*ay+ and t%e *ilds are &radually "eo"led *it% )en# I' it *ere true t%at la*s and )anners are
insu''icient to )aintain de)ocratic institutions+ *%at re'u&e *ould re)ain o"en to t%e nations+ exce"t t%e
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des"otis) o' a sin&le individualI I a) a*are t%at t%ere are )any *ort%y "ersons at t%e "resent ti)e *%o are not
alar)ed at t%is latter alternative+ and *%o are so tired o' liberty as to be &lad o' re"ose+ 'ar 'ro) t%ose stor)s by
*%ic% it is attended# But t%ese individuals are ill acquainted *it% t%e %aven to*ards *%ic% t%ey are bound# T%ey
are so deluded by t%eir recollections+ as to 7ud&e t%e tendency o' absolute "o*er by *%at it *as 'or)erly+ and not
by *%at it )i&%t beco)e at t%e "resent ti)e#
I' absolute "o*er *ere re1establis%ed a)on&st t%e de)ocratic nations o' Euro"e+ I a) "ersuaded t%at it *ould
assu)e a ne* 'or)+ and a""ear under 'eatures unno*n to our 'ore'at%ers# T%ere *as a ti)e in Euro"e *%en t%e
la*s and t%e consent o' t%e "eo"le %ad invested "rinces *it% al)ost unli)ited aut%ority6 but t%ey scarcely ever
availed t%e)selves o' it# I do not s"ea o' t%e "rero&atives o' t%e nobility+ o' t%e aut%ority o' su"re)e courts o'
7ustice+ o' cor"orations and t%eir c%artered ri&%ts+ or o' "rovincial "rivile&es+ *%ic% served to brea t%e blo*s o'
t%e soverei&n aut%ority+ and to )aintain a s"irit o' resistance in t%e nation# Inde"endently o' t%ese "olitical
institutions11*%ic%+ %o*ever o""osed t%ey )i&%t be to "ersonal liberty+ served to ee" alive t%e love o' 'reedo)
in t%e )ind o' t%e "ublic+ and *%ic% )ay be estee)ed to %ave been use'ul in t%is res"ect11t%e )anners and
o"inions o' t%e nation con'ined t%e royal aut%ority *it%in barriers *%ic% *ere not less "o*er'ul+ alt%ou&% t%ey
*ere less cons"icuous# Reli&ion+ t%e a''ections o' t%e "eo"le+ t%e benevolence o' t%e "rince+ t%e sense o' %onor+
'a)ily "ride+ "rovincial "re7udices+ custo)+ and "ublic o"inion li)ited t%e "o*er o' in&s+ and restrained t%eir
aut%ority *it%in an invisible circle# T%e constitution o' nations *as des"otic at t%at ti)e+ but t%eir )anners *ere
'ree# :rinces %ad t%e ri&%t+ but t%ey %ad neit%er t%e )eans nor t%e desire+ o' doin& *%atever t%ey "leased#
But *%at no* re)ains o' t%ose barriers *%ic% 'or)erly arrested t%e a&&ressions o' tyrannyI !ince reli&ion %as
lost its e)"ire over t%e souls o' )en+ t%e )ost "ro)inent boundary *%ic% divided &ood 'ro) evil is overt%ro*n6
t%e very ele)ents o' t%e )oral *orld are indeter)inate6 t%e "rinces and t%e "eo"les o' t%e eart% are &uided by
c%ance+ and none can de'ine t%e natural li)its o' des"otis) and t%e bounds o' license# 8on& revolutions %ave
'orever destroyed t%e res"ect *%ic% surrounded t%e rulers o' t%e !tate6 and since t%ey %ave been relieved 'ro)
t%e burden o' "ublic estee)+ "rinces )ay %ence'or*ard surrender t%e)selves *it%out 'ear to t%e seductions o'
arbitrary "o*er#
,%en in&s 'ind t%at t%e %earts o' t%eir sub7ects are turned to*ards t%e)+ t%ey are cle)ent+ because t%ey are
conscious o' t%eir stren&t%+ and t%ey are c%ary o' t%e a''ection o' t%eir "eo"le+ because t%e a''ection o' t%eir
"eo"le is t%e bul*ar o' t%e t%rone# A )utual interc%an&e o' &ood1*ill t%en taes "lace bet*een t%e "rince and
t%e "eo"le+ *%ic% rese)bles t%e &racious intercourse o' do)estic society# T%e sub7ects )ay )ur)ur at t%e
soverei&nFs decree+ but t%ey are &rieved to dis"lease %i)6 and t%e soverei&n c%astises %is sub7ects *it% t%e li&%t
%and o' "arental a''ection#
But *%en once t%e s"ell o' royalty is broen in t%e tu)ult o' revolution6 *%en successive )onarc%s %ave crossed
t%e t%rone+ so as alternately to dis"lay to t%e "eo"le t%e *eaness o' t%eir ri&%t and t%e %ars%ness o' t%eir "o*er+
t%e soverei&n is no lon&er re&arded by any as t%e 5at%er o' t%e !tate+ and %e is 'eared by all as its )aster# I' %e be
*ea+ %e is des"ised6 i' %e be stron&+ %e is detested# He %i)sel' is 'ull o' ani)osity and alar)6 %e 'inds t%at %e is
as a stran&er in %is o*n country+ and %e treats %is sub7ects lie conquered ene)ies#
,%en t%e "rovinces and t%e to*ns 'or)ed so )any di''erent nations in t%e )idst o' t%eir co))on country+ eac%
o' t%e) %ad a *ill o' its o*n+ *%ic% *as o""osed to t%e &eneral s"irit o' sub7ection6 but no* t%at all t%e "arts o'
t%e sa)e e)"ire+ a'ter %avin& lost t%eir i))unities+ t%eir custo)s+ t%eir "re7udices+ t%eir traditions+ and t%eir
na)es+ are sub7ected and accusto)ed to t%e sa)e la*s+ it is not )ore di''icult to o""ress t%e) collectively t%an it
*as 'or)erly to o""ress t%e) sin&ly#
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,%ilst t%e nobles en7oyed t%eir "o*er+ and indeed lon& a'ter t%at "o*er *as lost+ t%e %onor o' aristocracy
con'erred an extraordinary de&ree o' 'orce u"on t%eir "ersonal o""osition# T%ey a''ord instances o' )en *%o+
not*it%standin& t%eir *eaness+ still entertained a %i&% o"inion o' t%eir "ersonal value+ and dared to co"e sin&le1
%anded *it% t%e e''orts o' t%e "ublic aut%ority# But at t%e "resent day+ *%en all rans are )ore and )ore
con'ounded+ *%en t%e individual disa""ears in t%e t%ron&+ and is easily lost in t%e )idst o' a co))on obscurity+
*%en t%e %onor o' )onarc%y %as al)ost lost its e)"ire *it%out bein& succeeded by "ublic virtue+ and *%en
not%in& can enable )an to rise above %i)sel'+ *%o s%all say at *%at "oint t%e exi&encies o' "o*er and t%e
servility o' *eaness *ill sto"I
As lon& as 'a)ily 'eelin& *as e"t alive+ t%e anta&onist o' o""ression *as never alone6 %e looed about %i)+ and
'ound %is clients+ %is %ereditary 'riends+ and %is ins'ol# I' t%is su""ort *as *antin&+ %e *as sustained by %is
ancestors and ani)ated by %is "osterity# But *%en "atri)onial estates are divided+ and *%en a 'e* years su''ice
to con'ound t%e distinctions o' a race+ *%ere can 'a)ily 'eelin& be 'oundI ,%at 'orce can t%ere be in t%e custo)s
o' a country *%ic% %as c%an&ed and is still "er"etually c%an&in&+ its as"ect6 in *%ic% every act o' tyranny %as a
"recedent+ and every cri)e an exa)"le6 in *%ic% t%ere is not%in& so old t%at its antiquity can save it 'ro)
destruction+ and not%in& so un"aralleled t%at its novelty can "revent it 'ro) bein& doneI ,%at resistance can be
o''ered by )anners o' so "liant a )ae t%at t%ey %ave already o'ten yieldedI ,%at stren&t% can even "ublic
o"inion %ave retained+ *%en no t*enty "ersons are connected by a co))on tie6 *%en not a )an+ nor a 'a)ily+
nor c%artered cor"oration+ nor class+ nor 'ree institution+ %as t%e "o*er o' re"resentin& or exertin& t%at o"inion6
and *%en every citi-en11bein& equally *ea+ equally "oor+ and equally de"endent11%as only %is "ersonal
i)"otence to o""ose to t%e or&ani-ed 'orce o' t%e &overn)entI
T%e annals o' 5rance 'urnis% not%in& analo&ous to t%e condition in *%ic% t%at country )i&%t t%en be t%ro*n# But
it )ay )ore a"tly be assi)ilated to t%e ti)es o' old+ and to t%ose %ideous eras o' Ro)an o""ression+ *%en t%e
)anners o' t%e "eo"le *ere corru"ted+ t%eir traditions obliterated+ t%eir %abits destroyed+ t%eir o"inions s%aen+
and 'reedo)+ ex"elled 'ro) t%e la*s+ could 'ind no re'u&e in t%e land6 *%en not%in& "rotected t%e citi-ens+ and
t%e citi-ens no lon&er "rotected t%e)selves6 *%en %u)an nature *as t%e s"ort o' )an+ and "rinces *earied out
t%e cle)ency o' Heaven be'ore t%ey ex%austed t%e "atience o' t%eir sub7ects# T%ose *%o %o"e to revive t%e
)onarc%y o' Henry ID or o' 8ouis HID+ a""ear to )e to be a''licted *it% )ental blindness6 and *%en I consider
t%e "resent condition o' several Euro"ean nations11a condition to *%ic% all t%e ot%ers tend11I a) led to believe
t%at t%ey *ill soon be le't *it% no ot%er alternative t%an de)ocratic liberty+ or t%e tyranny o' t%e Caesars# Kn
35ootnote n@ 3T%is "rediction o' t%e return o' 5rance to i)"erial des"otis)+ and o' t%e true c%aracter o' t%at
des"otic "o*er+ *as *ritten in ./0A+ and reali-ed to t%e letter in ./CA#44
And indeed it is deservin& o' consideration+ *%et%er )en are to be entirely e)anci"ated or entirely enslaved6
*%et%er t%eir ri&%ts are to be )ade equal+ or *%olly taen a*ay 'ro) t%e)# I' t%e rulers o' society *ere reduced
eit%er &radually to raise t%e cro*d to t%eir o*n level+ or to sin t%e citi-ens belo* t%at o' %u)anity+ *ould not
t%e doubts o' )any be resolved+ t%e consciences o' )any be %ealed+ and t%e co))unity "re"ared to )ae &reat
sacri'ices *it% little di''icultyI In t%at case+ t%e &radual &ro*t% o' de)ocratic )anners and institutions s%ould be
re&arded+ not as t%e best+ but as t%e only )eans o' "reservin& 'reedo)6 and *it%out liin& t%e &overn)ent o'
de)ocracy+ it )i&%t be ado"ted as t%e )ost a""licable and t%e 'airest re)edy 'or t%e "resent ills o' society#
It is di''icult to associate a "eo"le in t%e *or o' &overn)ent6 but it is still )ore di''icult to su""ly it *it%
ex"erience+ and to ins"ire it *it% t%e 'eelin&s *%ic% it requires in order to &overn *ell# I &rant t%at t%e ca"rices o'
de)ocracy are "er"etual6 its instru)ents are rude6 its la*s i)"er'ect# But i' it *ere true t%at soon no 7ust )ediu)
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*ould exist bet*een t%e e)"ire o' de)ocracy and t%e do)inion o' a sin&le ar)+ s%ould *e not rat%er incline
to*ards t%e 'or)er t%an sub)it voluntarily to t%e latterI And i' co)"lete equality be our 'ate+ is it not better to
be levelled by 'ree institutions t%an by des"otic "o*erI
T%ose *%o+ a'ter %avin& read t%is boo+ s%ould i)a&ine t%at )y intention in *ritin& it %as been to "ro"ose t%e
la*s and )anners o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans 'or t%e i)itation o' all de)ocratic "eo"les+ *ould co))it a very
&reat )istae6 t%ey )ust %ave "aid )ore attention to t%e 'or) t%an to t%e substance o' )y ideas# My ai) %as
been to s%o*+ by t%e exa)"le o' A)erica+ t%at la*s+ and es"ecially )anners+ )ay exist *%ic% *ill allo* a
de)ocratic "eo"le to re)ain 'ree# But I a) very 'ar 'ro) t%inin& t%at *e ou&%t to 'ollo* t%e exa)"le o' t%e
A)erican de)ocracy+ and co"y t%e )eans *%ic% it %as e)"loyed to attain its ends6 'or I a) *ell a*are o' t%e
in'luence *%ic% t%e nature o' a country and its "olitical "recedents exercise u"on a constitution6 and I s%ould
re&ard it as a &reat )is'ortune 'or )anind i' liberty *ere to exist all over t%e *orld under t%e sa)e 'or)s#
But I a) o' o"inion t%at i' *e do not succeed in &radually introducin& de)ocratic institutions into 5rance+ and i'
*e des"air o' i)"artin& to t%e citi-ens t%ose ideas and senti)ents *%ic% 'irst "re"are t%e) 'or 'reedo)+ and
a'ter*ards allo* t%e) to en7oy it+ t%ere *ill be no inde"endence at all+ eit%er 'or t%e )iddlin& classes or t%e
nobility+ 'or t%e "oor or 'or t%e ric%+ but an equal tyranny over all6 and I 'oresee t%at i' t%e "eaceable e)"ire o'
t%e )a7ority be not 'ounded a)on&st us in ti)e+ *e s%all sooner or later arrive at t%e unli)ited aut%ority o' a
sin&le des"ot#
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races In T%e (nited !tates11:art I
T%e :resent And :robable 5uture Condition O' T%e T%ree Races ,%ic% In%abit T%e Territory O' T%e (nited
!tates
T%e "rinci"al "art o' t%e tas *%ic% I %ad i)"osed u"on )ysel' is no* "er'or)ed# I %ave s%o*n+ as 'ar as I *as
able+ t%e la*s and t%e )anners o' t%e A)erican de)ocracy# Here I )i&%t sto"6 but t%e reader *ould "er%a"s 'eel
t%at I %ad not satis'ied %is ex"ectations#
T%e absolute su"re)acy o' de)ocracy is not all t%at *e )eet *it% in A)erica6 t%e in%abitants o' t%e Ne* ,orld
)ay be considered 'ro) )ore t%an one "oint o' vie*# In t%e course o' t%is *or )y sub7ect %as o'ten led )e to
s"ea o' t%e Indians and t%e Ne&roes6 but I %ave never been able to sto" in order to s%o* *%at "lace t%ese t*o
races occu"y in t%e )idst o' t%e de)ocratic "eo"le *%o) I *as en&a&ed in describin&# I %ave )entioned in *%at
s"irit+ and accordin& to *%at la*s+ t%e An&lo1A)erican (nion *as 'or)ed6 but I could only &lance at t%e
dan&ers *%ic% )enace t%at con'ederation+ *%ilst it *as equally i)"ossible 'or )e to &ive a detailed account o'
its c%ances o' duration+ inde"endently o' its la*s and )anners# ,%en s"eain& o' t%e united re"ublican !tates+ I
%a-arded no con7ectures u"on t%e "er)anence o' re"ublican 'or)s in t%e Ne* ,orld+ and *%en )ain& 'requent
allusion to t%e co))ercial activity *%ic% rei&ns in t%e (nion+ I *as unable to inquire into t%e 'uture condition o'
t%e A)ericans as a co))ercial "eo"le#
T%ese to"ics are collaterally connected *it% )y sub7ect *it%out 'or)in& a "art o' it6 t%ey are A)erican *it%out
bein& de)ocratic6 and to "ortray de)ocracy %as been )y "rinci"al ai)# It *as t%ere'ore necessary to "ost"one
t%ese questions+ *%ic% I no* tae u" as t%e "ro"er ter)ination o' )y *or#
T%e territory no* occu"ied or clai)ed by t%e A)erican (nion s"reads 'ro) t%e s%ores o' t%e Atlantic to t%ose o'
t%e :aci'ic Ocean# On t%e east and *est its li)its are t%ose o' t%e continent itsel'# On t%e sout% it advances nearly
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to t%e tro"ic+ and it extends u"*ards to t%e icy re&ions o' t%e Nort%# T%e %u)an bein&s *%o are scattered over
t%is s"ace do not 'or)+ as in Euro"e+ so )any branc%es o' t%e sa)e stoc# T%ree races+ naturally distinct+ and+ I
)i&%t al)ost say+ %ostile to eac% ot%er+ are discoverable a)on&st t%e) at t%e 'irst &lance# Al)ost insur)ountable
barriers %ad been raised bet*een t%e) by education and by la*+ as *ell as by t%eir ori&in and out*ard
c%aracteristics6 but 'ortune %as brou&%t t%e) to&et%er on t%e sa)e soil+ *%ere+ alt%ou&% t%ey are )ixed+ t%ey do
not a)al&a)ate+ and eac% race 'ul'ils its destiny a"art#
A)on&st t%ese *idely di''erin& 'a)ilies o' )en+ t%e 'irst *%ic% attracts attention+ t%e su"erior in intelli&ence+ in
"o*er and in en7oy)ent+ is t%e *%ite or Euro"ean+ t%e )an "re1e)inent6 and in subordinate &rades+ t%e ne&ro
and t%e Indian# T%ese t*o un%a""y races %ave not%in& in co))on6 neit%er birt%+ nor 'eatures+ nor lan&ua&e+ nor
%abits# T%eir only rese)blance lies in t%eir )is'ortunes# Bot% o' t%e) occu"y an in'erior ran in t%e country t%ey
in%abit6 bot% su''er 'ro) tyranny6 and i' t%eir *ron&s are not t%e sa)e+ t%ey ori&inate+ at any rate+ *it% t%e sa)e
aut%ors#
I' *e reasoned 'ro) *%at "asses in t%e *orld+ *e s%ould al)ost say t%at t%e Euro"ean is to t%e ot%er races o'
)anind+ *%at )an is to t%e lo*er ani)als611%e )aes t%e) subservient to %is use6 and *%en %e cannot subdue+
%e destroys t%e)# O""ression %as+ at one stroe+ de"rived t%e descendants o' t%e A'ricans o' al)ost all t%e
"rivile&es o' %u)anity# T%e ne&ro o' t%e (nited !tates %as lost all re)e)brance o' %is country6 t%e lan&ua&e
*%ic% %is 'ore'at%ers s"oe is never %eard around %i)6 %e ab7ured t%eir reli&ion and 'or&ot t%eir custo)s *%en
%e ceased to belon& to A'rica+ *it%out acquirin& any clai) to Euro"ean "rivile&es# But %e re)ains %al' *ay
bet*een t%e t*o co))unities6 sold by t%e one+ re"ulsed by t%e ot%er6 'indin& not a s"ot in t%e universe to call by
t%e na)e o' country+ exce"t t%e 'aint i)a&e o' a %o)e *%ic% t%e s%elter o' %is )asterFs roo' a''ords#
T%e ne&ro %as no 'a)ily6 *o)an is )erely t%e te)"orary co)"anion o' %is "leasures+ and %is c%ildren are u"on
an equality *it% %i)sel' 'ro) t%e )o)ent o' t%eir birt%# A) I to call it a "roo' o' 9odFs )ercy or a visitation o'
%is *rat%+ t%at )an in certain states a""ears to be insensible to %is extre)e *retc%edness+ and al)ost a''ects+
*it% a de"raved taste+ t%e cause o' %is )is'ortunesI T%e ne&ro+ *%o is "lun&ed in t%is abyss o' evils+ scarcely
'eels %is o*n cala)itous situation# Diolence )ade %i) a slave+ and t%e %abit o' servitude &ives %i) t%e t%ou&%ts
and desires o' a slave6 %e ad)ires %is tyrants )ore t%an %e %ates t%e)+ and 'inds %is 7oy and %is "ride in t%e
servile i)itation o' t%ose *%o o""ress %i)@ %is understandin& is de&raded to t%e level o' %is soul#
T%e ne&ro enters u"on slavery as soon as %e is born@ nay+ %e )ay %ave been "urc%ased in t%e *o)b+ and %ave
be&un %is slavery be'ore %e be&an %is existence# Equally devoid o' *ants and o' en7oy)ent+ and useless to
%i)sel'+ %e learns+ *it% %is 'irst notions o' existence+ t%at %e is t%e "ro"erty o' anot%er+ *%o %as an interest in
"reservin& %is li'e+ and t%at t%e care o' it does not devolve u"on %i)sel'6 even t%e "o*er o' t%ou&%t a""ears to
%i) a useless &i't o' :rovidence+ and %e quietly en7oys t%e "rivile&es o' %is debase)ent# I' %e beco)es 'ree+
inde"endence is o'ten 'elt by %i) to be a %eavier burden t%an slavery6 'or %avin& learned+ in t%e course o' %is li'e+
to sub)it to everyt%in& exce"t reason+ %e is too )uc% unacquainted *it% %er dictates to obey t%e)# A t%ousand
ne* desires beset %i)+ and %e is destitute o' t%e no*led&e and ener&y necessary to resist t%e)@ t%ese are
)asters *%ic% it is necessary to contend *it%+ and %e %as learnt only to sub)it and obey# In s%ort+ %e sins to
suc% a de"t% o' *retc%edness+ t%at *%ile servitude brutali-es+ liberty destroys %i)#
O""ression %as been no less 'atal to t%e Indian t%an to t%e ne&ro race+ but its e''ects are di''erent# Be'ore t%e
arrival o' *%ite )en in t%e Ne* ,orld+ t%e in%abitants o' Nort% A)erica lived quietly in t%eir *oods+ endurin&
t%e vicissitudes and "ractisin& t%e virtues and vices co))on to sava&e nations# T%e Euro"eans+ %avin& dis"ersed
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t%e Indian tribes and driven t%e) into t%e deserts+ conde)ned t%e) to a *anderin& li'e 'ull o' inex"ressible
su''erin&s#
!ava&e nations are only controlled by o"inion and by custo)# ,%en t%e Nort% A)erican Indians %ad lost t%e
senti)ent o' attac%)ent to t%eir country6 *%en t%eir 'a)ilies *ere dis"ersed+ t%eir traditions obscured+ and t%e
c%ain o' t%eir recollections broen6 *%en all t%eir %abits *ere c%an&ed+ and t%eir *ants increased beyond
)easure+ Euro"ean tyranny rendered t%e) )ore disorderly and less civili-ed t%an t%ey *ere be'ore# T%e )oral
and "%ysical condition o' t%ese tribes continually &re* *orse+ and t%ey beca)e )ore barbarous as t%ey beca)e
)ore *retc%ed# Nevert%eless+ t%e Euro"eans %ave not been able to )eta)or"%ose t%e c%aracter o' t%e Indians6
and t%ou&% t%ey %ave %ad "o*er to destroy t%e)+ t%ey %ave never been able to )ae t%e) sub)it to t%e rules o'
civili-ed society#
T%e lot o' t%e ne&ro is "laced on t%e extre)e li)it o' servitude+ *%ile t%at o' t%e Indian lies on t%e utter)ost
ver&e o' liberty6 and slavery does not "roduce )ore 'atal e''ects u"on t%e 'irst+ t%an inde"endence u"on t%e
second# T%e ne&ro %as lost all "ro"erty in %is o*n "erson+ and %e cannot dis"ose o' %is existence *it%out
co))ittin& a sort o' 'raud@ but t%e sava&e is %is o*n )aster as soon as %e is able to act6 "arental aut%ority is
scarcely no*n to %i)6 %e %as never bent %is *ill to t%at o' any o' %is ind+ nor learned t%e di''erence bet*een
voluntary obedience and a s%a)e'ul sub7ection6 and t%e very na)e o' la* is unno*n to %i)# To be 'ree+ *it%
%i)+ si&ni'ies to esca"e 'ro) all t%e s%acles o' society# As %e deli&%ts in t%is barbarous inde"endence+ and
*ould rat%er "eris% t%an sacri'ice t%e least "art o' it+ civili-ation %as little "o*er over %i)#
T%e ne&ro )aes a t%ousand 'ruitless e''orts to insinuate %i)sel' a)on&st )en *%o re"ulse %i)6 %e con'or)s to
t%e tastes o' %is o""ressors+ ado"ts t%eir o"inions+ and %o"es by i)itatin& t%e) to 'or) a "art o' t%eir
co))unity# Havin& been told 'ro) in'ancy t%at %is race is naturally in'erior to t%at o' t%e *%ites+ %e assents to
t%e "ro"osition and is as%a)ed o' %is o*n nature# In eac% o' %is 'eatures %e discovers a trace o' slavery+ and+ i' it
*ere in %is "o*er+ %e *ould *illin&ly rid %i)sel' o' everyt%in& t%at )aes %i) *%at %e is#
T%e Indian+ on t%e contrary+ %as %is i)a&ination in'lated *it% t%e "retended nobility o' %is ori&in+ and lives and
dies in t%e )idst o' t%ese drea)s o' "ride# 5ar 'ro) desirin& to con'or) %is %abits to ours+ %e loves %is sava&e
li'e as t%e distin&uis%in& )ar o' %is race+ and %e re"els every advance to civili-ation+ less "er%a"s 'ro) t%e
%atred *%ic% %e entertains 'or it+ t%an 'ro) a dread o' rese)blin& t%e Euro"eans# Ka ,%ile %e %as not%in& to
o""ose to our "er'ection in t%e arts but t%e resources o' t%e desert+ to our tactics not%in& but undisci"lined
coura&e6 *%ilst our *ell1di&ested "lans are )et by t%e s"ontaneous instincts o' sava&e li'e+ *%o can *onder i' %e
'ails in t%is unequal contestI
35ootnote a@ T%e native o' Nort% A)erica retains %is o"inions and t%e )ost insi&ni'icant o' %is %abits *it% a
de&ree o' tenacity *%ic% %as no "arallel in %istory# 5or )ore t%an t*o %undred years t%e *anderin& tribes o'
Nort% A)erica %ave %ad daily intercourse *it% t%e *%ites+ and t%ey %ave never derived 'ro) t%e) eit%er a
custo) or an idea# Yet t%e Euro"eans %ave exercised a "o*er'ul in'luence over t%e sava&es@ t%ey %ave )ade
t%e) )ore licentious+ but not )ore Euro"ean# In t%e su))er o' ./0. I %a""ened to be beyond 8ae Mic%i&an+ at
a "lace called 9reen Bay+ *%ic% serves as t%e extre)e 'rontier bet*een t%e (nited !tates and t%e Indians on t%e
nort%1*estern side# Here I beca)e acquainted *it% an A)erican o''icer+ Ma7or H#+ *%o+ a'ter talin& to )e at
len&t% on t%e in'lexibility o' t%e Indian c%aracter+ related t%e 'ollo*in& 'act@112I 'or)erly ne* a youn& Indian+2
said %e+ 2*%o %ad been educated at a colle&e in Ne* En&land+ *%ere %e %ad &reatly distin&uis%ed %i)sel'+ and
%ad acquired t%e external a""earance o' a )e)ber o' civili-ed society# ,%en t%e *ar broe out bet*een
ourselves and t%e En&lis% in ./.<+ I sa* t%is youn& )an a&ain6 %e *as servin& in our ar)y+ at t%e %ead o' t%e
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*arriors o' %is tribe+ 'or t%e Indians *ere ad)itted a)on&st t%e rans o' t%e A)ericans+ u"on condition t%at t%ey
*ould abstain 'ro) t%eir %orrible custo) o' scal"in& t%eir victi)s# On t%e evenin& o' t%e battle o' # # #+ C# ca)e
and sat %i)sel' do*n by t%e 'ire o' our bivouac# I ased %i) *%at %ad been %is 'ortune t%at day@ %e related %is
ex"loits6 and &ro*in& *ar) and ani)ated by t%e recollection o' t%e)+ %e concluded by suddenly o"enin& t%e
breast o' %is coat+ sayin&+ FYou )ust not betray )e11see %ereEF And I actually be%eld+2 said t%e Ma7or+ 2bet*een
%is body and %is s%irt+ t%e sin and %air o' an En&lis% %ead+ still dri""in& *it% &ore#24
T%e ne&ro+ *%o earnestly desires to )in&le %is race *it% t%at o' t%e Euro"ean+ cannot e''ect i'6 *%ile t%e Indian+
*%o )i&%t succeed to a certain extent+ disdains to )ae t%e atte)"t# T%e servility o' t%e one doo)s %i) to
slavery+ t%e "ride o' t%e ot%er to deat%#
I re)e)ber t%at *%ile I *as travellin& t%rou&% t%e 'orests *%ic% still cover t%e !tate o' Alaba)a+ I arrived one
day at t%e lo& %ouse o' a "ioneer# I did not *is% to "enetrate into t%e d*ellin& o' t%e A)erican+ but retired to rest
)ysel' 'or a *%ile on t%e )ar&in o' a s"rin&+ *%ic% *as not 'ar o''+ in t%e *oods# ,%ile I *as in t%is "lace
>*%ic% *as in t%e nei&%bor%ood o' t%e Cree territory?+ an Indian *o)an a""eared+ 'ollo*ed by a ne&ress+ and
%oldin& by t%e %and a little *%ite &irl o' 'ive or six years old+ *%o) I too to be t%e dau&%ter o' t%e "ioneer# A
sort o' barbarous luxury set o'' t%e costu)e o' t%e Indian6 rin&s o' )etal *ere %an&in& 'ro) %er nostrils and ears6
%er %air+ *%ic% *as adorned *it% &lass beads+ 'ell loosely u"on %er s%oulders6 and I sa* t%at s%e *as not
)arried+ 'or s%e still *ore t%at neclace o' s%ells *%ic% t%e bride al*ays de"osits on t%e nu"tial couc%# T%e
ne&ress *as clad in squalid Euro"ean &ar)ents# T%ey all t%ree ca)e and seated t%e)selves u"on t%e bans o' t%e
'ountain6 and t%e youn& Indian+ tain& t%e c%ild in %er ar)s+ lavis%ed u"on %er suc% 'ond caresses as )ot%ers
&ive6 *%ile t%e ne&ress endeavored by various little arti'ices to attract t%e attention o' t%e youn& Creole#
T%e c%ild dis"layed in %er sli&%test &estures a consciousness o' su"eriority *%ic% 'or)ed a stran&e contrast *it%
%er in'antine *eaness6 as i' s%e received t%e attentions o' %er co)"anions *it% a sort o' condescension# T%e
ne&ress *as seated on t%e &round be'ore %er )istress+ *atc%in& %er s)allest desires+ and a""arently divided
bet*een stron& a''ection 'or t%e c%ild and servile 'ear6 *%ilst t%e sava&e dis"layed+ in t%e )idst o' %er
tenderness+ an air o' 'reedo) and o' "ride *%ic% *as al)ost 'erocious# I %ad a""roac%ed t%e &rou"+ and I
conte)"lated t%e) in silence6 but )y curiosity *as "robably dis"leasin& to t%e Indian *o)an+ 'or s%e suddenly
rose+ "us%ed t%e c%ild rou&%ly 'ro) %er+ and &ivin& )e an an&ry loo "lun&ed into t%e t%icet# I %ad o'ten
c%anced to see individuals )et to&et%er in t%e sa)e "lace+ *%o belon&ed to t%e t%ree races o' )en *%ic% "eo"le
Nort% A)erica# I %ad "erceived 'ro) )any di''erent results t%e "re"onderance o' t%e *%ites# But in t%e "icture
*%ic% I %ave 7ust been describin& t%ere *as so)et%in& "eculiarly touc%in&6 a bond o' a''ection %ere united t%e
o""ressors *it% t%e o""ressed+ and t%e e''ort o' nature to brin& t%e) to&et%er rendered still )ore striin& t%e
i))ense distance "laced bet*een t%e) by "re7udice and by la*#
T%e :resent And :robable 5uture Condition O' T%e Indian Tribes ,%ic% In%abit T%e Territory :ossessed By
T%e (nion
9radual disa""earance o' t%e native tribes11Manner in *%ic% it taes "lace11Miseries acco)"anyin& t%e 'orced
)i&rations o' t%e Indians11T%e sava&es o' Nort% A)erica %ad only t*o *ays o' esca"in& destruction6 *ar or
civili-ation11T%ey are no lon&er able to )ae *ar11Reasons *%y t%ey re'used to beco)e civili-ed *%en it *as in
t%eir "o*er+ and *%y t%ey cannot beco)e so no* t%at t%ey desire it11Instance o' t%e Crees and C%eroees11
:olicy o' t%e "articular !tates to*ards t%ese Indians11:olicy o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent#
None o' t%e Indian tribes *%ic% 'or)erly in%abited t%e territory o' Ne* En&land11t%e Nara&ansetts+ t%e
Mo%icans+ t%e :ecots11%ave any existence but in t%e recollection o' )an# T%e 8ena"es+ *%o received ,illia)
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:enn+ a %undred and 'i'ty years a&o+ u"on t%e bans o' t%e Dela*are+ %ave disa""eared6 and I )ysel' )et *it%
t%e last o' t%e Iroquois+ *%o *ere be&&in& al)s# T%e nations I %ave )entioned 'or)erly covered t%e country to
t%e sea1coast6 but a traveller at t%e "resent day )ust "enetrate )ore t%an a %undred lea&ues into t%e interior o' t%e
continent to 'ind an Indian# Not only %ave t%ese *ild tribes receded+ but t%ey are destroyed6 Kb and as t%ey &ive
*ay or "eris%+ an i))ense and increasin& "eo"le 'ills t%eir "lace# T%ere is no instance u"on record o' so
"rodi&ious a &ro*t%+ or so ra"id a destruction@ t%e )anner in *%ic% t%e latter c%an&e taes "lace is not di''icult to
describe#
35ootnote b@ In t%e t%irteen ori&inal !tates t%ere are only ;+A=0 Indians re)ainin&# >!ee 8e&islative Docu)ents+
A<t% Con&ress+ No# ..=+ "# B<#? 3T%e decrease in no* 'ar &reater+ and is ver&in& on extinction# !ee "a&e 0;< o'
t%is volu)e#44
,%en t%e Indians *ere t%e sole in%abitants o' t%e *ilds 'ro) *%ence t%ey %ave since been ex"elled+ t%eir *ants
*ere 'e*# T%eir ar)s *ere o' t%eir o*n )anu'acture+ t%eir only drin *as t%e *ater o' t%e broo+ and t%eir
clot%es consisted o' t%e sins o' ani)als+ *%ose 'les% 'urnis%ed t%e) *it% 'ood#
T%e Euro"eans introduced a)on&st t%e sava&es o' Nort% A)erica 'ire1ar)s+ ardent s"irits+ and iron@ t%ey tau&%t
t%e) to exc%an&e 'or )anu'actured stu''s+ t%e rou&% &ar)ents *%ic% %ad "reviously satis'ied t%eir untutored
si)"licity# Havin& acquired ne* tastes+ *it%out t%e arts by *%ic% t%ey could be &rati'ied+ t%e Indians *ere
obli&ed to %ave recourse to t%e *or)ans%i" o' t%e *%ites6 but in return 'or t%eir "roductions t%e sava&e %ad
not%in& to o''er exce"t t%e ric% 'urs *%ic% still abounded in %is *oods# Hence t%e c%ase beca)e necessary+ not
)erely to "rovide 'or %is subsistence+ but in order to "rocure t%e only ob7ects o' barter *%ic% %e could 'urnis% to
Euro"e# Kc ,%ilst t%e *ants o' t%e natives *ere t%us increasin&+ t%eir resources continued to di)inis%#
35ootnote c@ Messrs# Clare and Cass+ in t%eir Re"ort to Con&ress on 5ebruary G+ ./AB+ "# A0+ ex"ressed
t%e)selves t%us@112T%e ti)e *%en t%e Indians &enerally could su""ly t%e)selves *it% 'ood and clot%in&+ *it%out
any o' t%e articles o' civili-ed li'e+ %as lon& since "assed a*ay# T%e )ore re)ote tribes+ beyond t%e Mississi""i+
*%o live *%ere i))ense %erds o' bu''alo are yet to be 'ound and *%o 'ollo* t%ose ani)als in t%eir "eriodical
)i&rations+ could )ore easily t%an any ot%ers recur to t%e %abits o' t%eir ancestors+ and live *it%out t%e *%ite
)an or any o' %is )anu'actures# But t%e bu''alo is constantly recedin&# T%e s)aller ani)als+ t%e bear+ t%e deer+
t%e beaver+ t%e otter+ t%e )usrat+ etc#+ "rinci"ally )inister to t%e co)'ort and su""ort o' t%e Indians6 and t%ese
cannot be taen *it%out &uns+ a))unition+ and tra"s# A)on& t%e Nort%*estern Indians "articularly+ t%e labor o'
su""lyin& a 'a)ily *it% 'ood is excessive# Day a'ter day is s"ent by t%e %unter *it%out success+ and durin& t%is
interval %is 'a)ily )ust subsist u"on bar or roots+ or "eris%# ,ant and )isery are around t%e) and a)on& t%e)#
Many die every *inter 'ro) actual starvation#2
T%e Indians *ill not live as Euro"eans live+ and yet t%ey can neit%er subsist *it%out t%e)+ nor exactly a'ter t%e
'as%ion o' t%eir 'at%ers# T%is is de)onstrated by a 'act *%ic% I lie*ise &ive u"on o''icial aut%ority# !o)e
Indians o' a tribe on t%e bans o' 8ae !u"erior %ad illed a Euro"ean6 t%e A)erican &overn)ent interdicted all
tra''ic *it% t%e tribe to *%ic% t%e &uilty "arties belon&ed+ until t%ey *ere delivered u" to 7ustice# T%is )easure
%ad t%e desired e''ect#4
5ro) t%e )o)ent *%en a Euro"ean settle)ent is 'or)ed in t%e nei&%bor%ood o' t%e territory occu"ied by t%e
Indians+ t%e beasts o' c%ase tae t%e alar)# Kd T%ousands o' sava&es+ *anderin& in t%e 'orests and destitute o'
any 'ixed d*ellin&+ did not disturb t%e)6 but as soon as t%e continuous sounds o' Euro"ean labor are %eard in
t%eir nei&%bor%ood+ t%ey be&in to 'lee a*ay+ and retire to t%e ,est+ *%ere t%eir instinct teac%es t%e) t%at t%ey
*ill 'ind deserts o' i))easurable extent# 2T%e bu''alo is constantly recedin&+2 say Messrs# Clare and Cass in
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t%eir Re"ort o' t%e year ./AB6 2a 'e* years since t%ey a""roac%ed t%e base o' t%e Alle&%any6 and a 'e* years
%ence t%ey )ay even be rare u"on t%e i))ense "lains *%ic% extend to t%e base o' t%e Rocy Mountains#2 I %ave
been assured t%at t%is e''ect o' t%e a""roac% o' t%e *%ites is o'ten 'elt at t*o %undred lea&uesF distance 'ro) t%eir
'rontier# T%eir in'luence is t%us exerted over tribes *%ose na)e is unno*n to t%e)6 and *%o su''er t%e evils o'
usur"ation lon& be'ore t%ey are acquainted *it% t%e aut%ors o' t%eir distress# Ke
35ootnote d@ 25ive years a&o+2 >says Dolney in %is 2Tableau des Etats1(nis+2 "# 0=<? 2in &oin& 'ro) Dincennes to
Lasasia+ a territory *%ic% no* 'or)s "art o' t%e !tate o' Illinois+ but *%ic% at t%e ti)e I )ention *as
co)"letely *ild >.=B=?+ you could not cross a "rairie *it%out seein& %erds o' 'ro) 'our to 'ive %undred
bu''aloes# T%ere are no* none re)ainin&6 t%ey s*a) across t%e Mississi""i to esca"e 'ro) t%e %unters+ and )ore
"articularly 'ro) t%e bells o' t%e A)erican co*s#24
35ootnote e@ T%e trut% o' *%at I %ere advance )ay be easily "roved by consultin& t%e tabular state)ent o' Indian
tribes in%abitin& t%e (nited !tates and t%eir territories# >8e&islative Docu)ents+ A<t% Con&ress+ No# ..=+ ""# B<1
.<C#? It is t%ere s%o*n t%at t%e tribes in t%e centre o' A)erica are ra"idly decreasin&+ alt%ou&% t%e Euro"eans are
still at a considerable distance 'ro) t%e)#4
Bold adventurers soon "enetrate into t%e country t%e Indians %ave deserted+ and *%en t%ey %ave advanced about
'i'teen or t*enty lea&ues 'ro) t%e extre)e 'rontiers o' t%e *%ites+ t%ey be&in to build %abitations 'or civili-ed
bein&s in t%e )idst o' t%e *ilderness# T%is is done *it%out di''iculty+ as t%e territory o' a %untin&1nation is ill1
de'ined6 it is t%e co))on "ro"erty o' t%e tribe+ and belon&s to no one in "articular+ so t%at individual interests are
not concerned in t%e "rotection o' any "art o' it#
A 'e* Euro"ean 'a)ilies+ settled in di''erent situations at a considerable distance 'ro) eac% ot%er+ soon drive
a*ay t%e *ild ani)als *%ic% re)ain bet*een t%eir "laces o' abode# T%e Indians+ *%o %ad "reviously lived in a
sort o' abundance+ t%en 'ind it di''icult to subsist+ and still )ore di''icult to "rocure t%e articles o' barter *%ic%
t%ey stand in need o'#
To drive a*ay t%eir &a)e is to de"rive t%e) o' t%e )eans o' existence+ as e''ectually as i' t%e 'ields o' our
a&riculturists *ere stricen *it% barrenness6 and t%ey are reduced+ lie 'a)is%ed *olves+ to "ro*l t%rou&% t%e
'orsaen *oods in quest o' "rey# T%eir instinctive love o' t%eir country attac%es t%e) to t%e soil *%ic% &ave t%e)
birt%+ K' even a'ter it %as ceased to yield anyt%in& but )isery and deat%# At len&t% t%ey are co)"elled to
acquiesce+ and to de"art@ t%ey 'ollo* t%e traces o' t%e el+ t%e bu''alo+ and t%e beaver+ and are &uided by t%ese
*ild ani)als in t%e c%oice o' t%eir 'uture country# :ro"erly s"eain&+ t%ere'ore+ it is not t%e Euro"eans *%o drive
a*ay t%e native in%abitants o' A)erica6 it is 'a)ine *%ic% co)"els t%e) to recede6 a %a""y distinction *%ic%
%ad esca"ed t%e casuists o' 'or)er ti)es+ and 'or *%ic% *e are indebted to )odern discoveryE
35ootnote '@ 2T%e Indians+2 say Messrs# Clare and Cass in t%eir Re"ort to Con&ress+ "# .C+ 2are attac%ed to t%eir
country by t%e sa)e 'eelin&s *%ic% bind us to ours6 and+ besides+ t%ere are certain su"erstitious notions
connected *it% t%e alienation o' *%at t%e 9reat !"irit &ave to t%eir ancestors+ *%ic% o"erate stron&ly u"on t%e
tribes *%o %ave )ade 'e* or no cessions+ but *%ic% are &radually *eaened as our intercourse *it% t%e) is
extended# F,e *ill not sell t%e s"ot *%ic% contains t%e bones o' our 'at%ers+F is al)ost al*ays t%e 'irst ans*er to
a "ro"osition 'or a sale#24
It is i)"ossible to conceive t%e extent o' t%e su''erin&s *%ic% attend t%ese 'orced e)i&rations# T%ey are
undertaen by a "eo"le already ex%austed and reduced6 and t%e countries to *%ic% t%e ne*co)ers betae
t%e)selves are in%abited by ot%er tribes *%ic% receive t%e) *it% 7ealous %ostility# Hun&er is in t%e rear6 *ar
a*aits t%e)+ and )isery besets t%e) on all sides# In t%e %o"e o' esca"in& 'ro) suc% a %ost o' ene)ies+ t%ey
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se"arate+ and eac% individual endeavors to "rocure t%e )eans o' su""ortin& %is existence in solitude and secrecy+
livin& in t%e i))ensity o' t%e desert lie an outcast in civili-ed society# T%e social tie+ *%ic% distress %ad lon&
since *eaened+ is t%en dissolved6 t%ey %ave lost t%eir country+ and t%eir "eo"le soon desert t%e)@ t%eir very
'a)ilies are obliterated6 t%e na)es t%ey bore in co))on are 'or&otten+ t%eir lan&ua&e "eris%es+ and all traces o'
t%eir ori&in disa""ear# T%eir nation %as ceased to exist+ exce"t in t%e recollection o' t%e antiquaries o' A)erica
and a 'e* o' t%e learned o' Euro"e#
I s%ould be sorry to %ave )y reader su""ose t%at I a) colorin& t%e "icture too %i&%ly6 I sa* *it% )y o*n eyes
several o' t%e cases o' )isery *%ic% I %ave been describin&6 and I *as t%e *itness o' su''erin&s *%ic% I %ave not
t%e "o*er to "ortray#
At t%e end o' t%e year ./0.+ *%ilst I *as on t%e le't ban o' t%e Mississi""i at a "lace na)ed by Euro"eans+
Me)"%is+ t%ere arrived a nu)erous band o' C%octa*s >or C%actas+ as t%ey are called by t%e 5renc% in
8ouisiana?# T%ese sava&es %ad le't t%eir country+ and *ere endeavorin& to &ain t%e ri&%t ban o' t%e Mississi""i+
*%ere t%ey %o"ed to 'ind an asylu) *%ic% %ad been "ro)ised t%e) by t%e A)erican &overn)ent# It *as t%en t%e
)iddle o' *inter+ and t%e cold *as unusually severe6 t%e sno* %ad 'ro-en %ard u"on t%e &round+ and t%e river
*as dri'tin& %u&e )asses o' ice# T%e Indians %ad t%eir 'a)ilies *it% t%e)6 and t%ey brou&%t in t%eir train t%e
*ounded and sic+ *it% c%ildren ne*ly born+ and old )en u"on t%e ver&e o' deat%# T%ey "ossessed neit%er tents
nor *a&ons+ but only t%eir ar)s and so)e "rovisions# I sa* t%e) e)bar to "ass t%e )i&%ty river+ and never *ill
t%at sole)n s"ectacle 'ade 'ro) )y re)e)brance# No cry+ no sob *as %eard a)on&st t%e asse)bled cro*d6 all
*ere silent# T%eir cala)ities *ere o' ancient date+ and t%ey ne* t%e) to be irre)ediable# T%e Indians %ad all
ste""ed into t%e bar *%ic% *as to carry t%e) across+ but t%eir do&s re)ained u"on t%e ban# As soon as t%ese
ani)als "erceived t%at t%eir )asters *ere 'inally leavin& t%e s%ore+ t%ey set u" a dis)al %o*l+ and+ "lun&in& all
to&et%er into t%e icy *aters o' t%e Mississi""i+ t%ey s*a) a'ter t%e boat#
T%e e7ect)ent o' t%e Indians very o'ten taes "lace at t%e "resent day+ in a re&ular+ and+ as it *ere+ a le&al
)anner# ,%en t%e Euro"ean "o"ulation be&ins to a""roac% t%e li)it o' t%e desert in%abited by a sava&e tribe+ t%e
&overn)ent o' t%e (nited !tates usually dis"atc%es envoys to t%e)+ *%o asse)ble t%e Indians in a lar&e "lain+
and %avin& 'irst eaten and drun *it% t%e)+ accost t%e) in t%e 'ollo*in& )anner@ 2,%at %ave you to do in t%e
land o' your 'at%ersI Be'ore lon&+ you )ust di& u" t%eir bones in order to live# In *%at res"ect is t%e country you
in%abit better t%an anot%erI Are t%ere no *oods+ )ars%es+ or "rairies+ exce"t *%ere you d*ellI And can you live
no*%ere but under your o*n sunI Beyond t%ose )ountains *%ic% you see at t%e %ori-on+ beyond t%e lae *%ic%
bounds your territory on t%e *est+ t%ere lie vast countries *%ere beasts o' c%ase are 'ound in &reat abundance6
sell your lands to us+ and &o to live %a""ily in t%ose solitudes#2 A'ter %oldin& t%is lan&ua&e+ t%ey s"read be'ore
t%e eyes o' t%e Indians 'irear)s+ *oollen &ar)ents+ e&s o' brandy+ &lass neclaces+ bracelets o' tinsel+ earrin&s+
and looin&1&lasses# K& I'+ *%en t%ey %ave be%eld all t%ese ric%es+ t%ey still %esitate+ it is insinuated t%at t%ey
%ave not t%e )eans o' re'usin& t%eir required consent+ and t%at t%e &overn)ent itsel' *ill not lon& %ave t%e
"o*er o' "rotectin& t%e) in t%eir ri&%ts# ,%at are t%ey to doI Hal' convinced+ and %al' co)"elled+ t%ey &o to
in%abit ne* deserts+ *%ere t%e i)"ortunate *%ites *ill not let t%e) re)ain ten years in tranquillity# In t%is
)anner do t%e A)ericans obtain+ at a very lo* "rice+ *%ole "rovinces+ *%ic% t%e ric%est soverei&ns o' Euro"e
could not "urc%ase# K%
35ootnote &@ !ee+ in t%e 8e&islative Docu)ents o' Con&ress >Doc# ..=?+ t%e narrative o' *%at taes "lace on
t%ese occasions# T%is curious "assa&e is 'ro) t%e above1)entioned re"ort+ )ade to Con&ress by Messrs# Clare
and Cass in 5ebruary+ ./AB# Mr# Cass is no* t%e !ecretary o' ,ar#
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2T%e Indians+2 says t%e re"ort+ 2reac% t%e treaty1&round "oor and al)ost naed# 8ar&e quantities o' &oods are
taen t%ere by t%e traders+ and are seen and exa)ined by t%e Indians# T%e *o)en and c%ildren beco)e
i)"ortunate to %ave t%eir *ants su""lied+ and t%eir in'luence is soon exerted to induce a sale# T%eir i)"rovidence
is %abitual and unconquerable# T%e &rati'ication o' %is i))ediate *ants and desires is t%e rulin& "assion o' an
Indian# T%e ex"ectation o' 'uture advanta&es seldo) "roduces )uc% e''ect# T%e ex"erience o' t%e "ast is lost+
and t%e "ros"ects o' t%e 'uture disre&arded# It *ould be utterly %o"eless to de)and a cession o' land+ unless t%e
)eans *ere at %and o' &rati'yin& t%eir i))ediate *ants6 and *%en t%eir condition and circu)stances are 'airly
considered+ it ou&%t not to sur"rise us t%at t%ey are so anxious to relieve t%e)selves#24
35ootnote %@ On May .B+ ./0<+ Mr# Ed*ard Everett a''ir)ed be'ore t%e House o' Re"resentatives+ t%at t%e
A)ericans %ad already acquired by treaty+ to t%e east and *est o' t%e Mississi""i+ A0<+<<<+<<< o' acres# In ./</
t%e Osa&es &ave u" G/+<<<+<<< acres 'or an annual "ay)ent o' N.+<<<# In ././ t%e Mua"a*s yielded u"
AB+<<<+<<< acres 'or NG+<<<# T%ey reserved 'or t%e)selves a territory o' .+<<<+<<< acres 'or a %untin&1&round# A
sole)n oat% *as taen t%at it s%ould be res"ected@ but be'ore lon& it *as invaded lie t%e rest# Mr# Bell+ in %is
Re"ort o' t%e Co))ittee on Indian A''airs+ 5ebruary AG+ ./0<+ %as t%ese *ords@112To "ay an Indian tribe *%at
t%eir ancient %untin&1&rounds are *ort% to t%e)+ a'ter t%e &a)e is 'led or destroyed+ as a )ode o' a""ro"riatin&
*ild lands clai)ed by Indians+ %as been 'ound )ore convenient+ and certainly it is )ore a&reeable to t%e 'or)s
o' 7ustice+ as *ell as )ore )erci'ul+ t%an to assert t%e "ossession o' t%e) by t%e s*ord# T%us t%e "ractice o'
buyin& Indian titles is but t%e substitute *%ic% %u)anity and ex"ediency %ave i)"osed+ in "lace o' t%e s*ord+ in
arrivin& at t%e actual en7oy)ent o' "ro"erty clai)ed by t%e ri&%t o' discovery+ and sanctioned by t%e natural
su"eriority allo*ed to t%e clai)s o' civili-ed co))unities over t%ose o' sava&e tribes# (" to t%e "resent ti)e so
invariable %as been t%e o"eration o' certain causes+ 'irst in di)inis%in& t%e value o' 'orest lands to t%e Indians+
and secondly in dis"osin& t%e) to sell readily+ t%at t%e "lan o' buyin& t%eir ri&%t o' occu"ancy %as never
t%reatened to retard+ in any "erce"tible de&ree+ t%e "ros"erity o' any o' t%e !tates#2 >8e&islative Docu)ents+ A.st
Con&ress+ No# AA=+ "# ;#?4
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art II
T%ese are &reat evils6 and it )ust be added t%at t%ey a""ear to )e to be irre)ediable# I believe t%at t%e Indian
nations o' Nort% A)erica are doo)ed to "eris%6 and t%at *%enever t%e Euro"eans s%all be establis%ed on t%e
s%ores o' t%e :aci'ic Ocean+ t%at race o' )en *ill be no )ore# Ki T%e Indians %ad only t%e t*o alternatives o' *ar
or civili-ation6 in ot%er *ords+ t%ey )ust eit%er %ave destroyed t%e Euro"eans or beco)e t%eir equals#
35ootnote i@ T%is see)s+ indeed+ to be t%e o"inion o' al)ost all A)erican states)en# 2$ud&in& o' t%e 'uture by
t%e "ast+2 says Mr# Cass+ 2*e cannot err in antici"atin& a "ro&ressive di)inution o' t%eir nu)bers+ and t%eir
eventual extinction+ unless our border s%ould beco)e stationary+ and t%ey be re)oved beyond it+ or unless so)e
radical c%an&e s%ould tae "lace in t%e "rinci"les o' our intercourse *it% t%e)+ *%ic% it is easier to %o"e 'or t%an
to ex"ect#24
At t%e 'irst settle)ent o' t%e colonies t%ey )i&%t %ave 'ound it "ossible+ by unitin& t%eir 'orces+ to deliver
t%e)selves 'ro) t%e s)all bodies o' stran&ers *%o landed on t%eir continent# K7 T%ey several ti)es atte)"ted to
do it+ and *ere on t%e "oint o' succeedin&6 but t%e dis"ro"ortion o' t%eir resources+ at t%e "resent day+ *%en
co)"ared *it% t%ose o' t%e *%ites+ is too &reat to allo* suc% an enter"rise to be t%ou&%t o'# Nevert%eless+ t%ere
do arise 'ro) ti)e to ti)e a)on& t%e Indians )en o' "enetration+ *%o 'oresee t%e 'inal destiny *%ic% a*aits t%e
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native "o"ulation+ and *%o exert t%e)selves to unite all t%e tribes in co))on %ostility to t%e Euro"eans6 but
t%eir e''orts are unavailin&# T%ose tribes *%ic% are in t%e nei&%bor%ood o' t%e *%ites+ are too )uc% *eaened to
o''er an e''ectual resistance6 *%ilst t%e ot%ers+ &ivin& *ay to t%at c%ildis% carelessness o' t%e )orro* *%ic%
c%aracteri-es sava&e li'e+ *ait 'or t%e near a""roac% o' dan&er be'ore t%ey "re"are to )eet it6 so)e are unable+
t%e ot%ers are un*illin&+ to exert t%e)selves#
35ootnote 7@ A)on&st ot%er *arlie enter"rises+ t%ere *as one o' t%e ,a)"anao&s+ and ot%er con'ederate tribes+
under Metaco) in .;=C+ a&ainst t%e colonists o' Ne* En&land6 t%e En&lis% *ere also en&a&ed in *ar in Dir&inia
in .;AA#4
It is easy to 'oresee t%at t%e Indians *ill never con'or) to civili-ation6 or t%at it *ill be too late+ *%enever t%ey
)ay be inclined to )ae t%e ex"eri)ent#
Civili-ation is t%e result o' a lon& social "rocess *%ic% taes "lace in t%e sa)e s"ot+ and is %anded do*n 'ro)
one &eneration to anot%er+ eac% one "ro'itin& by t%e ex"erience o' t%e last# O' all nations+ t%ose sub)it to
civili-ation *it% t%e )ost di''iculty *%ic% %abitually live by t%e c%ase# :astoral tribes+ indeed+ o'ten c%an&e t%eir
"lace o' abode6 but t%ey 'ollo* a re&ular order in t%eir )i&rations+ and o'ten return a&ain to t%eir old stations+
*%ilst t%e d*ellin& o' t%e %unter varies *it% t%at o' t%e ani)als %e "ursues#
!everal atte)"ts %ave been )ade to di''use no*led&e a)on&st t%e Indians+ *it%out controllin& t%eir *anderin&
"ro"ensities6 by t%e $esuits in Canada+ and by t%e :uritans in Ne* En&land6 K but none o' t%ese endeavors *ere
cro*ned by any lastin& success# Civili-ation be&an in t%e cabin+ but it soon retired to ex"ire in t%e *oods# T%e
&reat error o' t%ese le&islators o' t%e Indians *as t%eir not understandin& t%at+ in order to succeed in civili-in& a
"eo"le+ it is 'irst necessary to 'ix it6 *%ic% cannot be done *it%out inducin& it to cultivate t%e soil6 t%e Indians
ou&%t in t%e 'irst "lace to %ave been accusto)ed to a&riculture# But not only are t%ey destitute o' t%is
indis"ensable "reli)inary to civili-ation+ t%ey *ould even %ave &reat di''iculty in acquirin& it# Men *%o %ave
once abandoned t%e)selves to t%e restless and adventurous li'e o' t%e %unter+ 'eel an insur)ountable dis&ust 'or
t%e constant and re&ular labor *%ic% tilla&e requires# ,e see t%is "roved in t%e boso) o' our o*n society6 but it
is 'ar )ore visible a)on& "eo"les *%ose "artiality 'or t%e c%ase is a "art o' t%eir national c%aracter#
35ootnote @ !ee t%e 2Histoire de la Nouvelle 5rance+2 by C%arlevoix+ and t%e *or entitled 28ettres edi'iantes#24
Inde"endently o' t%is &eneral di''iculty+ t%ere is anot%er+ *%ic% a""lies "eculiarly to t%e Indians6 t%ey consider
labor not )erely as an evil+ but as a dis&race6 so t%at t%eir "ride "revents t%e) 'ro) beco)in& civili-ed+ as )uc%
as t%eir indolence# Kl
35ootnote l@ 2In all t%e tribes+2 says Dolney+ in %is 2Tableau des Etats1(nis+2 "# GA0+ 2t%ere still exists a
&eneration o' old *arriors+ *%o cannot 'orbear+ *%en t%ey see t%eir country)en usin& t%e %oe+ 'ro) exclai)in&
a&ainst t%e de&radation o' ancient )anners+ and assertin& t%at t%e sava&es o*e t%eir decline to t%ese innovations6
addin&+ t%at t%ey %ave only to return to t%eir "ri)itive %abits in order to recover t%eir "o*er and t%eir &lory#24
T%ere is no Indian so *retc%ed as not to retain under %is %ut o' bar a lo'ty idea o' %is "ersonal *ort%6 %e
considers t%e cares o' industry and labor as de&radin& occu"ations6 %e co)"ares t%e %usband)an to t%e ox *%ic%
traces t%e 'urro*6 and even in our )ost in&enious %andicra't+ %e can see not%in& but t%e labor o' slaves# Not t%at
%e is devoid o' ad)iration 'or t%e "o*er and intellectual &reatness o' t%e *%ites6 but alt%ou&% t%e result o' our
e''orts sur"rises %i)+ %e conte)ns t%e )eans by *%ic% *e obtain it6 and *%ile %e acno*led&es our ascendancy+
%e still believes in %is su"eriority# ,ar and %untin& are t%e only "ursuits *%ic% a""ear to %i) *ort%y to be t%e
occu"ations o' a )an# K) T%e Indian+ in t%e dreary solitude o' %is *oods+ c%eris%es t%e sa)e ideas+ t%e sa)e
o"inions as t%e noble o' t%e Middle a&es in %is castle+ and %e only requires to beco)e a conqueror to co)"lete
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t%e rese)blance6 t%us+ %o*ever stran&e it )ay see)+ it is in t%e 'orests o' t%e Ne* ,orld+ and not a)on&st t%e
Euro"eans *%o "eo"le its coasts+ t%at t%e ancient "re7udices o' Euro"e are still in existence#
35ootnote )@ T%e 'ollo*in& descri"tion occurs in an o''icial docu)ent@ 2(ntil a youn& )an %as been en&a&ed
*it% an ene)y+ and %as "er'or)ed so)e acts o' valor+ %e &ains no consideration+ but is re&arded nearly as a
*o)an# In t%eir &reat *ar1dances all t%e *arriors in succession strie t%e "ost+ as it is called+ and recount t%eir
ex"loits# On t%ese occasions t%eir auditory consists o' t%e ins)en+ 'riends+ and co)rades o' t%e narrator# T%e
"ro'ound i)"ression *%ic% %is discourse "roduces on t%e) is )ani'ested by t%e silent attention it receives+ and
by t%e loud s%outs *%ic% %ail its ter)ination# T%e youn& )an *%o 'inds %i)sel' at suc% a )eetin& *it%out
anyt%in& to recount is very un%a""y6 and instances %ave so)eti)es occurred o' youn& *arriors+ *%ose "assions
%ad been t%us in'la)ed+ quittin& t%e *ar1dance suddenly+ and &oin& o'' alone to see 'or tro"%ies *%ic% t%ey
)i&%t ex%ibit+ and adventures *%ic% t%ey )i&%t be allo*ed to relate#24
More t%an once+ in t%e course o' t%is *or+ I %ave endeavored to ex"lain t%e "rodi&ious in'luence *%ic% t%e
social condition a""ears to exercise u"on t%e la*s and t%e )anners o' )en6 and I be& to add a 'e* *ords on t%e
sa)e sub7ect#
,%en I "erceive t%e rese)blance *%ic% exists bet*een t%e "olitical institutions o' our ancestors+ t%e 9er)ans+
and o' t%e *anderin& tribes o' Nort% A)erica6 bet*een t%e custo)s described by Tacitus+ and t%ose o' *%ic% I
%ave so)eti)es been a *itness+ I cannot %el" t%inin& t%at t%e sa)e cause %as brou&%t about t%e sa)e results in
bot% %e)is"%eres6 and t%at in t%e )idst o' t%e a""arent diversity o' %u)an a''airs+ a certain nu)ber o' "ri)ary
'acts )ay be discovered+ 'ro) *%ic% all t%e ot%ers are derived# In *%at *e usually call t%e 9er)an institutions+
t%en+ I a) inclined only to "erceive barbarian %abits6 and t%e o"inions o' sava&es in *%at *e style 'eudal
"rinci"les#
Ho*ever stron&ly t%e vices and "re7udices o' t%e Nort% A)erican Indians )ay be o""osed to t%eir beco)in&
a&ricultural and civili-ed+ necessity so)eti)es obli&es t%e) to it# !everal o' t%e !out%ern nations+ and a)on&st
ot%ers t%e C%eroees and t%e Crees+ Kn *ere surrounded by Euro"eans+ *%o %ad landed on t%e s%ores o' t%e
Atlantic6 and *%o+ eit%er descendin& t%e O%io or "roceedin& u" t%e Mississi""i+ arrived si)ultaneously u"on
t%eir borders# T%ese tribes %ave not been driven 'ro) "lace to "lace+ lie t%eir Nort%ern bret%ren6 but t%ey %ave
been &radually enclosed *it%in narro* li)its+ lie t%e &a)e *it%in t%e t%icet+ be'ore t%e %unts)en "lun&e into
t%e interior# T%e Indians *%o *ere t%us "laced bet*een civili-ation and deat%+ 'ound t%e)selves obli&ed to live
by i&no)inious labor lie t%e *%ites# T%ey too to a&riculture+ and *it%out entirely 'orsain& t%eir old %abits or
)anners+ sacri'iced only as )uc% as *as necessary to t%eir existence#
35ootnote n@ T%ese nations are no* s*allo*ed u" in t%e !tates o' 9eor&ia+ Tennessee+ Alaba)a+ and Mississi""i#
T%ere *ere 'or)erly in t%e !out% 'our &reat nations >re)nants o' *%ic% still exist?+ t%e C%octa*s+ t%e
C%icasa*s+ t%e Crees+ and t%e C%eroees# T%e re)nants o' t%ese 'our nations a)ounted+ in ./0<+ to about
=C+<<< individuals# It is co)"uted t%at t%ere are no* re)ainin& in t%e territory occu"ied or clai)ed by t%e
An&lo1A)erican (nion about 0<<+<<< Indians# >!ee :roceedin&s o' t%e Indian Board in t%e City o' Ne* Yor#?
T%e o''icial docu)ents su""lied to Con&ress )ae t%e nu)ber a)ount to 0.0+.0<# T%e reader *%o is curious to
no* t%e na)es and nu)erical stren&t% o' all t%e tribes *%ic% in%abit t%e An&lo1A)erican territory s%ould
consult t%e docu)ents I re'er to# >8e&islative Docu)ents+ A<t% Con&ress+ No# ..=+ ""# B<1.<C#? 3In t%e Census o'
./=< it is stated t%at t%e Indian "o"ulation o' t%e (nited !tates is only AC+=0.+ o' *%o) =+AG. are in Cali'ornia#44
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T%e C%eroees *ent 'urt%er6 t%ey created a *ritten lan&ua&e6 establis%ed a "er)anent 'or) o' &overn)ent6 and
as everyt%in& "roceeds ra"idly in t%e Ne* ,orld+ be'ore t%ey %ad all o' t%e) clot%es+ t%ey set u" a ne*s"a"er#
Ko
35ootnote o@ I brou&%t bac *it% )e to 5rance one or t*o co"ies o' t%is sin&ular "ublication#4
T%e &ro*t% o' Euro"ean %abits %as been re)arably accelerated a)on& t%ese Indians by t%e )ixed race *%ic%
%as s"run& u"# K" Derivin& intelli&ence 'ro) t%eir 'at%erFs side+ *it%out entirely losin& t%e sava&e custo)s o' t%e
)ot%er+ t%e %al'1blood 'or)s t%e natural lin bet*een civili-ation and barbaris)# ,%erever t%is race %as
)ulti"lied t%e sava&e state %as beco)e )odi'ied+ and a &reat c%an&e %as taen "lace in t%e )anners o' t%e
"eo"le# Kq
35ootnote "@ !ee in t%e Re"ort o' t%e Co))ittee on Indian A''airs+ A.st Con&ress+ No# AA=+ "# A0+ t%e reasons 'or
t%e )ulti"lication o' Indians o' )ixed blood a)on& t%e C%eroees# T%e "rinci"al cause dates 'ro) t%e ,ar o'
Inde"endence# Many An&lo1A)ericans o' 9eor&ia+ %avin& taen t%e side o' En&land+ *ere obli&ed to retreat
a)on& t%e Indians+ *%ere t%ey )arried#4
35ootnote q@ (n%a""ily t%e )ixed race %as been less nu)erous and less in'luential in Nort% A)erica t%an in any
ot%er country# T%e A)erican continent *as "eo"led by t*o &reat nations o' Euro"e+ t%e 5renc% and t%e En&lis%#
T%e 'or)er *ere not slo* in connectin& t%e)selves *it% t%e dau&%ters o' t%e natives+ but t%ere *as an
un'ortunate a''inity bet*een t%e Indian c%aracter and t%eir o*n@ instead o' &ivin& t%e tastes and %abits o'
civili-ed li'e to t%e sava&es+ t%e 5renc% too o'ten &re* "assionately 'ond o' t%e state o' *ild 'reedo) t%ey 'ound
t%e) in# T%ey beca)e t%e )ost dan&erous o' t%e in%abitants o' t%e desert+ and *on t%e 'riends%i" o' t%e Indian
by exa&&eratin& %is vices and %is virtues# M# de !enonville+ t%e &overnor o' Canada+ *rote t%us to 8ouis HID in
.;/C@ 2It %as lon& been believed t%at in order to civili-e t%e sava&es *e ou&%t to dra* t%e) nearer to us# But
t%ere is every reason to su""ose *e %ave been )istaen# T%ose *%ic% %ave been brou&%t into contact *it% us
%ave not beco)e 5renc%+ and t%e 5renc% *%o %ave lived a)on& t%e) are c%an&ed into sava&es+ a''ectin& to dress
and live lie t%e)#2 >2History o' Ne* 5rance+2 by C%arlevoix+ vol# ii#+ "# 0GC#? T%e En&lis%)an+ on t%e contrary+
continuin& obstinately attac%ed to t%e custo)s and t%e )ost insi&ni'icant %abits o' %is 'ore'at%ers+ %as re)ained
in t%e )idst o' t%e A)erican solitudes 7ust *%at %e *as in t%e boso) o' Euro"ean cities6 %e *ould not allo* o'
any co))unication *it% sava&es *%o) %e des"ised+ and avoided *it% care t%e union o' %is race *it% t%eirs#
T%us *%ile t%e 5renc% exercised no salutary in'luence over t%e Indians+ t%e En&lis% %ave al*ays re)ained alien
'ro) t%e)#4
T%e success o' t%e C%eroees "roves t%at t%e Indians are ca"able o' civili-ation+ but it does not "rove t%at t%ey
*ill succeed in it# T%is di''iculty *%ic% t%e Indians 'ind in sub)ittin& to civili-ation "roceeds 'ro) t%e in'luence
o' a &eneral cause+ *%ic% it is al)ost i)"ossible 'or t%e) to esca"e# An attentive survey o' %istory de)onstrates
t%at+ in &eneral+ barbarous nations %ave raised t%e)selves to civili-ation by de&rees+ and by t%eir o*n e''orts#
,%enever t%ey derive no*led&e 'ro) a 'orei&n "eo"le+ t%ey stood to*ards it in t%e relation o' conquerors+ and
not o' a conquered nation# ,%en t%e conquered nation is enli&%tened+ and t%e conquerors are %al' sava&e+ as in
t%e case o' t%e invasion o' Ro)e by t%e Nort%ern nations or t%at o' C%ina by t%e Mon&ols+ t%e "o*er *%ic%
victory besto*s u"on t%e barbarian is su''icient to ee" u" %is i)"ortance a)on& civili-ed )en+ and "er)it %i)
to ran as t%eir equal+ until %e beco)es t%eir rival@ t%e one %as )i&%t on %is side+ t%e ot%er %as intelli&ence6 t%e
'or)er ad)ires t%e no*led&e and t%e arts o' t%e conquered+ t%e latter envies t%e "o*er o' t%e conquerors# T%e
barbarians at len&t% ad)it civili-ed )an into t%eir "alaces+ and %e in turn o"ens %is sc%ools to t%e barbarians# But
*%en t%e side on *%ic% t%e "%ysical 'orce lies+ also "ossesses an intellectual "re"onderance+ t%e conquered "arty
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seldo) beco)e civili-ed6 it retreats+ or is destroyed# It )ay t%ere'ore be said+ in a &eneral *ay+ t%at sava&es &o
'ort% in ar)s to see no*led&e+ but t%at t%ey do not receive it *%en it co)es to t%e)#
I' t%e Indian tribes *%ic% no* in%abit t%e %eart o' t%e continent could su))on u" ener&y enou&% to atte)"t to
civili-e t%e)selves+ t%ey )i&%t "ossibly succeed# !u"erior already to t%e barbarous nations *%ic% surround t%e)+
t%ey *ould &radually &ain stren&t% and ex"erience+ and *%en t%e Euro"eans s%ould a""ear u"on t%eir borders+
t%ey *ould be in a state+ i' not to )aintain t%eir inde"endence+ at least to assert t%eir ri&%t to t%e soil+ and to
incor"orate t%e)selves *it% t%e conquerors# But it is t%e )is'ortune o' Indians to be brou&%t into contact *it% a
civili-ed "eo"le+ *%ic% is also >it )ust be o*ned? t%e )ost avaricious nation on t%e &lobe+ *%ilst t%ey are still
se)i1barbarian@ to 'ind des"ots in t%eir instructors+ and to receive no*led&e 'ro) t%e %and o' o""ression#
8ivin& in t%e 'reedo) o' t%e *oods+ t%e Nort% A)erican Indian *as destitute+ but %e %ad no 'eelin& o' in'eriority
to*ards anyone6 as soon+ %o*ever+ as %e desires to "enetrate into t%e social scale o' t%e *%ites+ %e taes t%e
lo*est ran in society+ 'or %e enters+ i&norant and "oor+ *it%in t%e "ale o' science and *ealt%# A'ter %avin& led a
li'e o' a&itation+ beset *it% evils and dan&ers+ but at t%e sa)e ti)e 'illed *it% "roud e)otions+ Kr %e is obli&ed to
sub)it to a *eariso)e+ obscure+ and de&raded state6 and to &ain t%e bread *%ic% nouris%es %i) by %ard and
i&noble labor6 suc% are in %is eyes t%e only results o' *%ic% civili-ation can boast@ and even t%is )uc% %e is not
sure to obtain#
35ootnote r@ T%ere is in t%e adventurous li'e o' t%e %unter a certain irresistible c%ar)+ *%ic% sei-es t%e %eart o'
)an and carries %i) a*ay in s"ite o' reason and ex"erience# T%is is "lainly s%o*n by t%e )e)oirs o' Tanner#
Tanner is a Euro"ean *%o *as carried a*ay at t%e a&e o' six by t%e Indians+ and %as re)ained t%irty years *it%
t%e) in t%e *oods# Not%in& can be conceived )ore a""allin& t%at t%e )iseries *%ic% %e describes# He tells us o'
tribes *it%out a c%ie'+ 'a)ilies *it%out a nation to call t%eir o*n+ )en in a state o' isolation+ *recs o' "o*er'ul
tribes *anderin& at rando) a)id t%e ice and sno* and desolate solitudes o' Canada# Hun&er and cold "ursue
t%e)6 every day t%eir li'e is in 7eo"ardy# A)on&st t%ese )en+ )anners %ave lost t%eir e)"ire+ traditions are
*it%out "o*er# T%ey beco)e )ore and )ore sava&e# Tanner s%ared in all t%ese )iseries6 %e *as a*are o' %is
Euro"ean ori&in6 %e *as not e"t a*ay 'ro) t%e *%ites by 'orce6 on t%e contrary+ %e ca)e every year to trade
*it% t%e)+ entered t%eir d*ellin&s+ and *itnessed t%eir en7oy)ents6 %e ne* t%at *%enever %e c%ose to return to
civili-ed li'e %e *as "er'ectly able to do so11and %e re)ained t%irty years in t%e deserts# ,%en %e ca)e into
civili-ed society %e declared t%at t%e rude existence *%ic% %e described+ %ad a secret c%ar) 'or %i) *%ic% %e *as
unable to de'ine@ %e returned to it a&ain and a&ain@ at len&t% %e abandoned it *it% "oi&nant re&ret6 and *%en %e
*as at len&t% 'ixed a)on& t%e *%ites+ several o' %is c%ildren re'used to s%are %is tranquil and easy situation# I
sa* Tanner )ysel' at t%e lo*er end o' 8ae !u"erior6 %e see)ed to )e to be )ore lie a sava&e t%an a civili-ed
bein&# His boo is *ritten *it%out eit%er taste or order6 but %e &ives+ even unconsciously+ a lively "icture o' t%e
"re7udices+ t%e "assions+ t%e vices+ and+ above all+ o' t%e destitution in *%ic% %e lived#4
,%en t%e Indians undertae to i)itate t%eir Euro"ean nei&%bors+ and to till t%e eart% lie t%e settlers+ t%ey are
i))ediately ex"osed to a very 'or)idable co)"etition# T%e *%ite )an is silled in t%e cra't o' a&riculture6 t%e
Indian is a rou&% be&inner in an art *it% *%ic% %e is unacquainted# T%e 'or)er rea"s abundant cro"s *it%out
di''iculty+ t%e latter )eets *it% a t%ousand obstacles in raisin& t%e 'ruits o' t%e eart%#
T%e Euro"ean is "laced a)on&st a "o"ulation *%ose *ants %e no*s and "artaes# T%e sava&e is isolated in t%e
)idst o' a %ostile "eo"le+ *it% *%ose )anners+ lan&ua&e+ and la*s %e is i)"er'ectly acquainted+ but *it%out
*%ose assistance %e cannot live# He can only "rocure t%e )aterials o' co)'ort by barterin& %is co))odities
a&ainst t%e &oods o' t%e Euro"ean+ 'or t%e assistance o' %is country)en is *%olly insu''icient to su""ly %is
*ants# ,%en t%e Indian *is%es to sell t%e "roduce o' %is labor+ %e cannot al*ays )eet *it% a "urc%aser+ *%ilst
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t%e Euro"ean readily 'inds a )aret6 and t%e 'or)er can only "roduce at a considerable cost t%at *%ic% t%e latter
vends at a very lo* rate# T%us t%e Indian %as no sooner esca"ed t%ose evils to *%ic% barbarous nations are
ex"osed+ t%an %e is sub7ected to t%e still &reater )iseries o' civili-ed co))unities6 and %e 'inds is scarcely less
di''icult to live in t%e )idst o' our abundance+ t%an in t%e de"t% o' %is o*n *ilderness#
He %as not yet lost t%e %abits o' %is erratic li'e6 t%e traditions o' %is 'at%ers and %is "assion 'or t%e c%ase are still
alive *it%in %i)# T%e *ild en7oy)ents *%ic% 'or)erly ani)ated %i) in t%e *oods+ "ain'ully excite %is troubled
i)a&ination6 and %is 'or)er "rivations a""ear to be less een+ %is 'or)er "erils less a""allin&# He contrasts t%e
inde"endence *%ic% %e "ossessed a)on&st %is equals *it% t%e servile "osition *%ic% %e occu"ies in civili-ed
society# On t%e ot%er %and+ t%e solitudes *%ic% *ere so lon& %is 'ree %o)e are still at %and6 a 'e* %oursF )arc%
*ill brin& %i) bac to t%e) once )ore# T%e *%ites o''er %i) a su)+ *%ic% see)s to %i) to be considerable+ 'or
t%e &round *%ic% %e %as be&un to clear# T%is )oney o' t%e Euro"eans )ay "ossibly 'urnis% %i) *it% t%e )eans
o' a %a""y and "eace'ul subsistence in re)oter re&ions6 and %e quits t%e "lou&%+ resu)es %is native ar)s+ and
returns to t%e *ilderness 'orever# Ks T%e condition o' t%e Crees and C%eroees+ to *%ic% I %ave already alluded+
su''iciently corroborates t%e trut% o' t%is de"lorable "icture#
35ootnote s@ T%e destructive in'luence o' %i&%ly civili-ed nations u"on ot%ers *%ic% are less so+ %as been
exe)"li'ied by t%e Euro"eans t%e)selves# About a century a&o t%e 5renc% 'ounded t%e to*n o' Dincennes u" on
t%e ,abas%+ in t%e )iddle o' t%e desert6 and t%ey lived t%ere in &reat "lenty until t%e arrival o' t%e A)erican
settlers+ *%o 'irst ruined t%e "revious in%abitants by t%eir co)"etition+ and a'ter*ards "urc%ased t%eir lands at a
very lo* rate# At t%e ti)e *%en M# de Dolney+ 'ro) *%o) I borro* t%ese details+ "assed t%rou&% Dincennes+ t%e
nu)ber o' t%e 5renc% *as reduced to a %undred individuals+ )ost o' *%o) *ere about to "ass over to 8ouisiana
or to Canada# T%ese 5renc% settlers *ere *ort%y "eo"le+ but idle and uninstructed@ t%ey %ad contracted )any o'
t%e %abits o' sava&es# T%e A)ericans+ *%o *ere "er%a"s t%eir in'eriors+ in a )oral "oint o' vie*+ *ere
i))easurably su"erior to t%e) in intelli&ence@ t%ey *ere industrious+ *ell in'or)ed+ ric%+ and accusto)ed to
&overn t%eir o*n co))unity#
I )ysel' sa* in Canada+ *%ere t%e intellectual di''erence bet*een t%e t*o races is less striin&+ t%at t%e En&lis%
are t%e )asters o' co))erce and )anu'acture in t%e Canadian country+ t%at t%ey s"read on all sides+ and con'ine
t%e 5renc% *it%in li)its *%ic% scarcely su''ice to contain t%e)# In lie )anner+ in 8ouisiana+ al)ost all activity
in co))erce and )anu'acture centres in t%e %ands o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans#
But t%e case o' Texas is still )ore striin&@ t%e !tate o' Texas is a "art o' Mexico+ and lies u"on t%e 'rontier
bet*een t%at country and t%e (nited !tates# In t%e course o' t%e last 'e* years t%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave
"enetrated into t%is "rovince+ *%ic% is still t%inly "eo"led6 t%ey "urc%ase land+ t%ey "roduce t%e co))odities o'
t%e country+ and su""lant t%e ori&inal "o"ulation# It )ay easily be 'oreseen t%at i' Mexico taes no ste"s to c%ec
t%is c%an&e+ t%e "rovince o' Texas *ill very s%ortly cease to belon& to t%at &overn)ent#
I' t%e di''erent de&rees11co)"aratively so sli&%t11*%ic% exist in Euro"ean civili-ation "roduce results o' suc%
)a&nitude+ t%e consequences *%ic% )ust ensue 'ro) t%e collision o' t%e )ost "er'ect Euro"ean civili-ation *it%
Indian sava&es )ay readily be conceived#4
T%e Indians+ in t%e little *%ic% t%ey %ave done+ %ave unquestionably dis"layed as )uc% natural &enius as t%e
"eo"les o' Euro"e in t%eir )ost i)"ortant desi&ns6 but nations as *ell as )en require ti)e to learn+ *%atever
)ay be t%eir intelli&ence and t%eir -eal# ,%ilst t%e sava&es *ere en&a&ed in t%e *or o' civili-ation+ t%e
Euro"eans continued to surround t%e) on every side+ and to con'ine t%e) *it%in narro*er li)its6 t%e t*o races
&radually )et+ and t%ey are no* in i))ediate 7uxta"osition to eac% ot%er# T%e Indian is already su"erior to %is
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barbarous "arent+ but %e is still very 'ar belo* %is *%ite nei&%bor# ,it% t%eir resources and acquired no*led&e+
t%e Euro"eans soon a""ro"riated to t%e)selves )ost o' t%e advanta&es *%ic% t%e natives )i&%t %ave derived
'ro) t%e "ossession o' t%e soil6 t%ey %ave settled in t%e country+ t%ey %ave "urc%ased land at a very lo* rate or
%ave occu"ied it by 'orce+ and t%e Indians %ave been ruined by a co)"etition *%ic% t%ey %ad not t%e )eans o'
resistin&# T%ey *ere isolated in t%eir o*n country+ and t%eir race only constituted a colony o' troubleso)e aliens
in t%e )idst o' a nu)erous and do)ineerin& "eo"le# Kt
35ootnote t@ !ee in t%e 8e&islative Docu)ents >A.st Con&ress+ No# /B? instances o' excesses o' every ind
co))itted by t%e *%ites u"on t%e territory o' t%e Indians+ eit%er in tain& "ossession o' a "art o' t%eir lands+ until
co)"elled to retire by t%e troo"s o' Con&ress+ or carryin& o'' t%eir cattle+ burnin& t%eir %ouses+ cuttin& do*n t%eir
corn+ and doin& violence to t%eir "ersons# It a""ears+ nevert%eless+ 'ro) all t%ese docu)ents t%at t%e clai)s o' t%e
natives are constantly "rotected by t%e &overn)ent 'ro) t%e abuse o' 'orce# T%e (nion %as a re"resentative a&ent
continually e)"loyed to reside a)on& t%e Indians6 and t%e re"ort o' t%e C%eroee a&ent+ *%ic% is a)on& t%e
docu)ents I %ave re'erred to+ is al)ost al*ays 'avorable to t%e Indians# 2T%e intrusion o' *%ites+2 %e says+ 2u"on
t%e lands o' t%e C%eroees *ould cause ruin to t%e "oor+ %el"less+ and ino''ensive in%abitants#2 And %e 'urt%er
re)ars u"on t%e atte)"t o' t%e !tate o' 9eor&ia to establis% a division line 'or t%e "ur"ose o' li)itin& t%e
boundaries o' t%e C%eroees+ t%at t%e line dra*n %avin& been )ade by t%e *%ites+ and entirely u"on ex "arte
evidence o' t%eir several ri&%ts+ *as o' no validity *%atever#4
,as%in&ton said in one o' %is )essa&es to Con&ress+ 2,e are )ore enli&%tened and )ore "o*er'ul t%an t%e
Indian nations+ *e are t%ere'ore bound in %onor to treat t%e) *it% indness and even *it% &enerosity#2 But t%is
virtuous and %i&%1)inded "olicy %as not been 'ollo*ed# T%e ra"acity o' t%e settlers is usually baced by t%e
tyranny o' t%e &overn)ent# Alt%ou&% t%e C%eroees and t%e Crees are establis%ed u"on t%e territory *%ic% t%ey
in%abited be'ore t%e settle)ent o' t%e Euro"eans+ and alt%ou&% t%e A)ericans %ave 'requently treated *it% t%e)
as *it% 'orei&n nations+ t%e surroundin& !tates %ave not consented to acno*led&e t%e) as inde"endent "eo"les+
and atte)"ts %ave been )ade to sub7ect t%ese c%ildren o' t%e *oods to An&lo1A)erican )a&istrates+ la*s+ and
custo)s# Ku Destitution %ad driven t%ese un'ortunate Indians to civili-ation+ and o""ression no* drives t%e)
bac to t%eir 'or)er condition@ )any o' t%e) abandon t%e soil *%ic% t%ey %ad be&un to clear+ and return to t%eir
sava&e course o' li'e#
35ootnote u@ In ./AB t%e !tate o' Alaba)a divided t%e Cree territory into counties+ and sub7ected t%e Indian
"o"ulation to t%e "o*er o' Euro"ean )a&istrates#
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art III
In ./0< t%e !tate o' Mississi""i assi)ilated t%e C%octa*s and C%icasa*s to t%e *%ite "o"ulation+ and declared
t%at any o' t%e) t%at s%ould tae t%e title o' c%ie' *ould be "unis%ed by a 'ine o' N.+<<< and a yearFs
i)"rison)ent# ,%en t%ese la*s *ere en'orced u"on t%e C%octa*s+ *%o in%abited t%at district+ t%e tribe
asse)bled+ t%eir c%ie' co))unicated to t%e) t%e intentions o' t%e *%ites+ and read to t%e) so)e o' t%e la*s to
*%ic% it *as intended t%at t%ey s%ould sub)it6 and t%ey unani)ously declared t%at it *as better at once to retreat
a&ain into t%e *ilds#4
I' *e consider t%e tyrannical )easures *%ic% %ave been ado"ted by t%e le&islatures o' t%e !out%ern !tates+ t%e
conduct o' t%eir 9overnors+ and t%e decrees o' t%eir courts o' 7ustice+ *e s%all be convinced t%at t%e entire
ex"ulsion o' t%e Indians is t%e 'inal result to *%ic% t%e e''orts o' t%eir "olicy are directed# T%e A)ericans o' t%at
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"art o' t%e (nion loo *it% 7ealousy u"on t%e abori&ines+ Kv t%ey are a*are t%at t%ese tribes %ave not yet lost t%e
traditions o' sava&e li'e+ and be'ore civili-ation %as "er)anently 'ixed t%e) to t%e soil+ it is intended to 'orce
t%e) to recede by reducin& t%e) to des"air# T%e Crees and C%eroees+ o""ressed by t%e several !tates+ %ave
a""ealed to t%e central &overn)ent+ *%ic% is by no )eans insensible to t%eir )is'ortunes+ and is sincerely
desirous o' savin& t%e re)nant o' t%e natives+ and o' )aintainin& t%e) in t%e 'ree "ossession o' t%at territory+
*%ic% t%e (nion is "led&ed to res"ect# K* But t%e several !tates o""ose so 'or)idable a resistance to t%e
execution o' t%is desi&n+ t%at t%e &overn)ent is obli&ed to consent to t%e extir"ation o' a 'e* barbarous tribes in
order not to endan&er t%e sa'ety o' t%e A)erican (nion#
35ootnote v@ T%e 9eor&ians+ *%o are so )uc% annoyed by t%e "roxi)ity o' t%e Indians+ in%abit a territory *%ic%
does not at "resent contain )ore t%an seven in%abitants to t%e square )ile# In 5rance t%ere are one %undred and
sixty1t*o in%abitants to t%e sa)e extent o' country#4
35ootnote *@ In ././ Con&ress a""ointed co))issioners to visit t%e Aransas Territory+ acco)"anied by a
de"utation o' Crees+ C%octa*s+ and C%icasa*s# T%is ex"edition *as co))anded by Messrs# Lennerly+
MFCoy+ ,as% Hood+ and $o%n Bell# !ee t%e di''erent re"orts o' t%e co))issioners+ and t%eir 7ournal+ in t%e
Docu)ents o' Con&ress+ No# /=+ House o' Re"resentatives#4
But t%e 'ederal &overn)ent+ *%ic% is not able to "rotect t%e Indians+ *ould 'ain )iti&ate t%e %ards%i"s o' t%eir
lot6 and+ *it% t%is intention+ "ro"osals %ave been )ade to trans"ort t%e) into )ore re)ote re&ions at t%e "ublic
cost#
Bet*een t%e t%irty1t%ird and t%irty1sevent% de&rees o' nort% latitude+ a vast tract o' country lies+ *%ic% %as taen
t%e na)e o' Aransas+ 'ro) t%e "rinci"al river t%at *aters its extent# It is bounded on t%e one side by t%e con'ines
o' Mexico+ on t%e ot%er by t%e Mississi""i# Nu)berless strea)s cross it in every direction6 t%e cli)ate is )ild+
and t%e soil "roductive+ but it is only in%abited by a 'e* *anderin& %ordes o' sava&es# T%e &overn)ent o' t%e
(nion *is%es to trans"ort t%e broen re)nants o' t%e indi&enous "o"ulation o' t%e !out% to t%e "ortion o' t%is
country *%ic% is nearest to Mexico+ and at a &reat distance 'ro) t%e A)erican settle)ents#
,e *ere assured+ to*ards t%e end o' t%e year ./0.+ t%at .<+<<< Indians %ad already &one do*n to t%e s%ores o'
t%e Aransas6 and 'res% detac%)ents *ere constantly 'ollo*in& t%e)6 but Con&ress %as been unable to excite a
unani)ous deter)ination in t%ose *%o) it is dis"osed to "rotect# !o)e+ indeed+ are *illin& to quit t%e seat o'
o""ression+ but t%e )ost enli&%tened )e)bers o' t%e co))unity re'use to abandon t%eir recent d*ellin&s and
t%eir s"rin&in& cro"s6 t%ey are o' o"inion t%at t%e *or o' civili-ation+ once interru"ted+ *ill never be resu)ed6
t%ey 'ear t%at t%ose do)estic %abits *%ic% %ave been so recently contracted+ )ay be irrevocably lost in t%e )idst
o' a country *%ic% is still barbarous+ and *%ere not%in& is "re"ared 'or t%e subsistence o' an a&ricultural "eo"le6
t%ey no* t%at t%eir entrance into t%ose *ilds *ill be o""osed by ini)ical %ordes+ and t%at t%ey %ave lost t%e
ener&y o' barbarians+ *it%out acquirin& t%e resources o' civili-ation to resist t%eir attacs# Moreover+ t%e Indians
readily discover t%at t%e settle)ent *%ic% is "ro"osed to t%e) is )erely a te)"orary ex"edient# ,%o can assure
t%e) t%at t%ey *ill at len&t% be allo*ed to d*ell in "eace in t%eir ne* retreatI T%e (nited !tates "led&e
t%e)selves to t%e observance o' t%e obli&ation6 but t%e territory *%ic% t%ey at "resent occu"y *as 'or)erly
secured to t%e) by t%e )ost sole)n oat%s o' An&lo1A)erican 'ait%# Kx T%e A)erican &overn)ent does not
indeed rob t%e) o' t%eir lands+ but it allo*s "er"etual incursions to be )ade on t%e)# In a 'e* years t%e sa)e
*%ite "o"ulation *%ic% no* 'locs around t%e)+ *ill trac t%e) to t%e solitudes o' t%e Aransas6 t%ey *ill t%en
be ex"osed to t%e sa)e evils *it%out t%e sa)e re)edies+ and as t%e li)its o' t%e eart% *ill at last 'ail t%e)+ t%eir
only re'u&e is t%e &rave#
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35ootnote x@ T%e 'i't% article o' t%e treaty )ade *it% t%e Crees in Au&ust+ .=B<+ is in t%e 'ollo*in&
*ords@112T%e (nited !tates sole)nly &uarantee to t%e Cree nation all t%eir land *it%in t%e li)its o' t%e (nited
!tates#2
T%e sevent% article o' t%e treaty concluded in .=B. *it% t%e C%eroees says@112T%e (nited !tates sole)nly
&uarantee to t%e C%eroee nation all t%eir lands not %ereby ceded#2 T%e 'ollo*in& article declared t%at i' any
citi-en o' t%e (nited !tates or ot%er settler not o' t%e Indian race s%ould establis% %i)sel' u"on t%e territory o'
t%e C%eroees+ t%e (nited !tates *ould *it%dra* t%eir "rotection 'ro) t%at individual+ and &ive %i) u" to be
"unis%ed as t%e C%eroee nation s%ould t%in 'it#4
T%e (nion treats t%e Indians *it% less cu"idity and ri&or t%an t%e "olicy o' t%e several !tates+ but t%e t*o
&overn)ents are alie destitute o' &ood 'ait%# T%e !tates extend *%at t%ey are "leased to ter) t%e bene'its o'
t%eir la*s to t%e Indians+ *it% a belie' t%at t%e tribes *ill recede rat%er t%an sub)it6 and t%e central &overn)ent+
*%ic% "ro)ises a "er)anent re'u&e to t%ese un%a""y bein&s is *ell a*are o' its inability to secure it to t%e)# Ky
35ootnote y@ T%is does not "revent t%e) 'ro) "ro)isin& in t%e )ost sole)n )anner to do so# !ee t%e letter o' t%e
:resident addressed to t%e Cree Indians+ Marc% A0+ ./AB >:roceedin&s o' t%e Indian Board+ in t%e city o' Ne*
Yor+ "# C?@ 2Beyond t%e &reat river Mississi""i+ *%ere a "art o' your nation %as &one+ your 'at%er %as "rovided a
country lar&e enou&% 'or all o' you+ and %e advises you to re)ove to it# T%ere your *%ite brot%ers *ill not
trouble you6 t%ey *ill %ave no clai) to t%e land+ and you can live u"on it+ you and all your c%ildren+ as lon& as
t%e &rass &ro*s+ or t%e *ater runs+ in "eace and "lenty# It *ill be yours 'orever#2
T%e !ecretary o' ,ar+ in a letter *ritten to t%e C%eroees+ A"ril ./+ ./AB+ >see t%e sa)e *or+ "# ;?+ declares to
t%e) t%at t%ey cannot ex"ect to retain "ossession o' t%e lands at t%at ti)e occu"ied by t%e)+ but &ives t%e) t%e
)ost "ositive assurance o' uninterru"ted "eace i' t%ey *ould re)ove beyond t%e Mississi""i@ as i' t%e "o*er
*%ic% could not &rant t%e) "rotection t%en+ *ould be able to a''ord it t%e) %erea'terE4
T%us t%e tyranny o' t%e !tates obli&es t%e sava&es to retire+ t%e (nion+ by its "ro)ises and resources+ 'acilitates
t%eir retreat6 and t%ese )easures tend to "recisely t%e sa)e end# K- 2By t%e *ill o' our 5at%er in Heaven+ t%e
9overnor o' t%e *%ole *orld+2 said t%e C%eroees in t%eir "etition to Con&ress+ Ka 2t%e red )an o' A)erica %as
beco)e s)all+ and t%e *%ite )an &reat and reno*ned# ,%en t%e ancestors o' t%e "eo"le o' t%ese (nited !tates
'irst ca)e to t%e s%ores o' A)erica t%ey 'ound t%e red )an stron&@ t%ou&% %e *as i&norant and sava&e+ yet %e
received t%e) indly+ and &ave t%e) dry land to rest t%eir *eary 'eet# T%ey )et in "eace+ and s%oo %ands in
toen o' 'riends%i"# ,%atever t%e *%ite )an *anted and ased o' t%e Indian+ t%e latter *illin&ly &ave# At t%at
ti)e t%e Indian *as t%e lord+ and t%e *%ite )an t%e su""liant# But no* t%e scene %as c%an&ed# T%e stren&t% o'
t%e red )an %as beco)e *eaness# As %is nei&%bors increased in nu)bers %is "o*er beca)e less and less+ and
no*+ o' t%e )any and "o*er'ul tribes *%o once covered t%ese (nited !tates+ only a 'e* are to be seen11a 'e*
*%o) a s*ee"in& "estilence %as le't# T%e nort%ern tribes+ *%o *ere once so nu)erous and "o*er'ul+ are no*
nearly extinct# T%us it %as %a""ened to t%e red )an o' A)erica# !%all *e+ *%o are re)nants+ s%are t%e sa)e
'ateI2
35ootnote -@ To obtain a correct idea o' t%e "olicy "ursued by t%e several !tates and t%e (nion *it% res"ect to t%e
Indians+ it is necessary to consult+ .st+ 2T%e 8a*s o' t%e Colonial and !tate 9overn)ents relatin& to t%e Indian
In%abitants#2 >!ee t%e 8e&islative Docu)ents+ A.st Con&ress+ No# 0.B#? Ad+ T%e 8a*s o' t%e (nion on t%e sa)e
sub7ect+ and es"ecially t%at o' Marc% 0<+ ./<A# >!ee !toryFs 28a*s o' t%e (nited !tates#2? 0d+ T%e Re"ort o' Mr#
Cass+ !ecretary o' ,ar+ relative to Indian A''airs+ Nove)ber AB+ ./A0#4
35ootnote a@ Dece)ber ./+ ./AB#4
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2T%e land on *%ic% *e stand *e %ave received as an in%eritance 'ro) our 'at%ers+ *%o "ossessed it 'ro) ti)e
i))e)orial+ as a &i't 'ro) our co))on 5at%er in Heaven# T%ey bequeat%ed it to us as t%eir c%ildren+ and *e
%ave sacredly e"t it+ as containin& t%e re)ains o' our beloved )en# T%is ri&%t o' in%eritance *e %ave never
ceded nor ever 'or'eited# :er)it us to as *%at better ri&%t can t%e "eo"le %ave to a country t%an t%e ri&%t o'
in%eritance and i))e)orial "eaceable "ossessionI ,e no* it is said o' late by t%e !tate o' 9eor&ia and by t%e
Executive o' t%e (nited !tates+ t%at *e %ave 'or'eited t%is ri&%t6 but *e t%in t%is is said &ratuitously# At *%at
ti)e %ave *e )ade t%e 'or'eitI ,%at &reat cri)e %ave *e co))itted+ *%ereby *e )ust 'orever be divested o'
our country and ri&%tsI ,as it *%en *e *ere %ostile to t%e (nited !tates+ and too "art *it% t%e Lin& o' 9reat
Britain+ durin& t%e stru&&le 'or inde"endenceI I' so+ *%y *as not t%is 'or'eiture declared in t%e 'irst treaty o'
"eace bet*een t%e (nited !tates and our beloved )enI ,%y *as not suc% an article as t%e 'ollo*in& inserted in
t%e treaty@11FT%e (nited !tates &ive "eace to t%e C%eroees+ but+ 'or t%e "art t%ey too in t%e late *ar+ declare
t%e) to be but tenants at *ill+ to be re)oved *%en t%e convenience o' t%e !tates+ *it%in *%ose c%artered li)its
t%ey live+ s%all require itFI T%at *as t%e "ro"er ti)e to assu)e suc% a "ossession# But it *as not t%ou&%t o'+ nor
*ould our 'ore'at%ers %ave a&reed to any treaty *%ose tendency *as to de"rive t%e) o' t%eir ri&%ts and t%eir
country#2
!uc% is t%e lan&ua&e o' t%e Indians@ t%eir assertions are true+ t%eir 'orebodin&s inevitable# 5ro) *%ic%ever side
*e consider t%e destinies o' t%e abori&ines o' Nort% A)erica+ t%eir cala)ities a""ear to be irre)ediable@ i' t%ey
continue barbarous+ t%ey are 'orced to retire6 i' t%ey atte)"t to civili-e t%eir )anners+ t%e contact o' a )ore
civili-ed co))unity sub7ects t%e) to o""ression and destitution# T%ey "eris% i' t%ey continue to *ander 'ro)
*aste to *aste+ and i' t%ey atte)"t to settle t%ey still )ust "eris%6 t%e assistance o' Euro"eans is necessary to
instruct t%e)+ but t%e a""roac% o' Euro"eans corru"ts and re"els t%e) into sava&e li'e6 t%ey re'use to c%an&e
t%eir %abits as lon& as t%eir solitudes are t%eir o*n+ and it is too late to c%an&e t%e) *%en t%ey are constrained to
sub)it#
T%e !"aniards "ursued t%e Indians *it% blood%ounds+ lie *ild beasts6 t%ey saced t%e Ne* ,orld *it% no )ore
te)"er or co)"assion t%an a city taen by stor)6 but destruction )ust cease+ and 'ren-y be stayed6 t%e re)nant
o' t%e Indian "o"ulation *%ic% %ad esca"ed t%e )assacre )ixed *it% its conquerors+ and ado"ted in t%e end t%eir
reli&ion and t%eir )anners# Kb T%e conduct o' t%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited !tates to*ards t%e abori&ines is
c%aracteri-ed+ on t%e ot%er %and+ by a sin&ular attac%)ent to t%e 'or)alities o' la*# :rovided t%at t%e Indians
retain t%eir barbarous condition+ t%e A)ericans tae no "art in t%eir a''airs6 t%ey treat t%e) as inde"endent
nations+ and do not "ossess t%e)selves o' t%eir %untin& &rounds *it%out a treaty o' "urc%ase6 and i' an Indian
nation %a""ens to be so encroac%ed u"on as to be unable to subsist u"on its territory+ t%ey a''ord it brot%erly
assistance in trans"ortin& it to a &rave su''iciently re)ote 'ro) t%e land o' its 'at%ers#
35ootnote b@ T%e %onor o' t%is result is+ %o*ever+ by no )eans due to t%e !"aniards# I' t%e Indian tribes %ad not
been tillers o' t%e &round at t%e ti)e o' t%e arrival o' t%e Euro"eans+ t%ey *ould unquestionably %ave been
destroyed in !out% as *ell as in Nort% A)erica#4
T%e !"aniards *ere unable to exter)inate t%e Indian race by t%ose un"aralleled atrocities *%ic% brand t%e) *it%
indelible s%a)e+ nor did t%ey even succeed in *%olly de"rivin& it o' its ri&%ts6 but t%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited
!tates %ave acco)"lis%ed t%is t*o'old "ur"ose *it% sin&ular 'elicity6 tranquilly+ le&ally+ "%ilant%ro"ically+
*it%out s%eddin& blood+ and *it%out violatin& a sin&le &reat "rinci"le o' )orality in t%e eyes o' t%e *orld# Kc It
is i)"ossible to destroy )en *it% )ore res"ect 'or t%e la*s o' %u)anity#
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35ootnote c@ !ee+ a)on&st ot%er docu)ents+ t%e re"ort )ade by Mr# Bell in t%e na)e o' t%e Co))ittee on Indian
A''airs+ 5ebruary AG+ ./0<+ in *%ic% is )ost lo&ically establis%ed and )ost learnedly "roved+ t%at 2t%e
'unda)ental "rinci"le t%at t%e Indians %ad no ri&%t by virtue o' t%eir ancient "ossession eit%er o' *ill or
soverei&nty+ %as never been abandoned eit%er ex"ressly or by i)"lication#2 In "erusin& t%is re"ort+ *%ic% is
evidently dra*n u" by an ex"erienced %and+ one is astonis%ed at t%e 'acility *it% *%ic% t%e aut%or &ets rid o' all
ar&u)ents 'ounded u"on reason and natural ri&%t+ *%ic% %e desi&nates as abstract and t%eoretical "rinci"les# T%e
)ore I conte)"late t%e di''erence bet*een civili-ed and uncivili-ed )an *it% re&ard to t%e "rinci"les o' 7ustice+
t%e )ore I observe t%at t%e 'or)er contests t%e 7ustice o' t%ose ri&%ts *%ic% t%e latter si)"ly violates#4
3I leave t%is c%a"ter *%olly unc%an&ed+ 'or it %as al*ays a""eared to )e to be one o' t%e )ost eloquent and
touc%in& "arts o' t%is boo# But it %as ceased to be "ro"%etic6 t%e destruction o' t%e Indian race in t%e (nited
!tates is already consu))ated# In ./=< t%ere re)ained but AC+=0. Indians in t%e *%ole territory o' t%e (nion+
and o' t%ese by 'ar t%e lar&est "art exist in Cali'ornia+ Mic%i&an+ ,isconsin+ Daota+ and Ne* Mexico and
Nevada# In Ne* En&land+ :ennsylvania+ and Ne* Yor t%e race is extinct6 and t%e "redictions o' M# de
Tocqueville are 'ul'illed# 11TranslatorFs Note#4
!ituation O' T%e Blac :o"ulation In T%e (nited !tates+ And Dan&ers ,it% ,%ic% Its :resence T%reatens T%e
,%ites
,%y it is )ore di''icult to abolis% slavery+ and to e''ace all vesti&es o' it a)on&st t%e )oderns t%an it *as
a)on&st t%e ancients11In t%e (nited !tates t%e "re7udices o' t%e ,%ites a&ainst t%e Blacs see) to increase in
"ro"ortion as slavery is abolis%ed11!ituation o' t%e Ne&roes in t%e Nort%ern and !out%ern !tates11,%y t%e
A)ericans abolis% slavery11!ervitude+ *%ic% debases t%e slave+ i)"overis%es t%e )aster11Contrast bet*een t%e
le't and t%e ri&%t ban o' t%e O%io11To *%at attributable11T%e Blac race+ as *ell as slavery+ recedes to*ards t%e
!out%11Ex"lanation o' t%is 'act11Di''iculties attendant u"on t%e abolition o' slavery in t%e !out%11Dan&ers to
co)e119eneral anxiety115oundation o' a Blac colony in A'rica11,%y t%e A)ericans o' t%e !out% increase t%e
%ards%i"s o' slavery+ *%ilst t%ey are distressed at its continuance#
T%e Indians *ill "eris% in t%e sa)e isolated condition in *%ic% t%ey %ave lived6 but t%e destiny o' t%e ne&roes is
in so)e )easure inter*oven *it% t%at o' t%e Euro"eans# T%ese t*o races are attac%ed to eac% ot%er *it%out
inter)in&lin&+ and t%ey are alie unable entirely to se"arate or to co)bine# T%e )ost 'or)idable o' all t%e ills
*%ic% t%reaten t%e 'uture existence o' t%e (nion arises 'ro) t%e "resence o' a blac "o"ulation u"on its territory6
and in conte)"latin& t%e cause o' t%e "resent e)barrass)ents or o' t%e 'uture dan&ers o' t%e (nited !tates+ t%e
observer is invariably led to consider t%is as a "ri)ary 'act#
T%e "er)anent evils to *%ic% )anind is sub7ected are usually "roduced by t%e ve%e)ent or t%e increasin&
e''orts o' )en6 but t%ere is one cala)ity *%ic% "enetrated 'urtively into t%e *orld+ and *%ic% *as at 'irst
scarcely distin&uis%able a)idst t%e ordinary abuses o' "o*er6 it ori&inated *it% an individual *%ose na)e
%istory %as not "reserved6 it *as *a'ted lie so)e accursed &er) u"on a "ortion o' t%e soil+ but it a'ter*ards
nurtured itsel'+ &re* *it%out e''ort+ and s"reads naturally *it% t%e society to *%ic% it belon&s# I need scarcely
add t%at t%is cala)ity is slavery# C%ristianity su""ressed slavery+ but t%e C%ristians o' t%e sixteent% century re1
establis%ed it11as an exce"tion+ indeed+ to t%eir social syste)+ and restricted to one o' t%e races o' )anind6 but
t%e *ound t%us in'licted u"on %u)anity+ t%ou&% less extensive+ *as at t%e sa)e ti)e rendered 'ar )ore di''icult
o' cure#
It is i)"ortant to )ae an accurate distinction bet*een slavery itsel' and its consequences# T%e i))ediate evils
*%ic% are "roduced by slavery *ere very nearly t%e sa)e in antiquity as t%ey are a)on&st t%e )oderns6 but t%e
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consequences o' t%ese evils *ere di''erent# T%e slave+ a)on&st t%e ancients+ belon&ed to t%e sa)e race as %is
)aster+ and %e *as o'ten t%e su"erior o' t%e t*o in education Kd and instruction# 5reedo) *as t%e only
distinction bet*een t%e)6 and *%en 'reedo) *as con'erred t%ey *ere easily con'ounded to&et%er# T%e ancients+
t%en+ %ad a very si)"le )eans o' avoidin& slavery and its evil consequences+ *%ic% *as t%at o' a''ranc%ise)ent6
and t%ey succeeded as soon as t%ey ado"ted t%is )easure &enerally# Not but+ in ancient !tates+ t%e vesti&es o'
servitude subsisted 'or so)e ti)e a'ter servitude itsel' *as abolis%ed# T%ere is a natural "re7udice *%ic% "ro)"ts
)en to des"ise *%o)soever %as been t%eir in'erior lon& a'ter %e is beco)e t%eir equal6 and t%e real inequality
*%ic% is "roduced by 'ortune or by la* is al*ays succeeded by an i)a&inary inequality *%ic% is i)"lanted in t%e
)anners o' t%e "eo"le# Nevert%eless+ t%is secondary consequence o' slavery *as li)ited to a certain ter)
a)on&st t%e ancients+ 'or t%e 'reed)an bore so entire a rese)blance to t%ose born 'ree+ t%at it soon beca)e
i)"ossible to distin&uis% %i) 'ro) a)on&st t%e)#
35ootnote d@ It is *ell no*n t%at several o' t%e )ost distin&uis%ed aut%ors o' antiquity+ and a)on&st t%e)
Aeso" and Terence+ *ere+ or %ad been slaves# !laves *ere not al*ays taen 'ro) barbarous nations+ and t%e
c%ances o' *ar reduced %i&%ly civili-ed )en to servitude#4
T%e &reatest di''iculty in antiquity *as t%at o' alterin& t%e la*6 a)on&st t%e )oderns it is t%at o' alterin& t%e
)anners6 and+ as 'ar as *e are concerned+ t%e real obstacles be&in *%ere t%ose o' t%e ancients le't o''# T%is arises
'ro) t%e circu)stance t%at+ a)on&st t%e )oderns+ t%e abstract and transient 'act o' slavery is 'atally united to t%e
"%ysical and "er)anent 'act o' color# T%e tradition o' slavery dis%onors t%e race+ and t%e "eculiarity o' t%e race
"er"etuates t%e tradition o' slavery# No A'rican %as ever voluntarily e)i&rated to t%e s%ores o' t%e Ne* ,orld6
*%ence it )ust be in'erred+ t%at all t%e blacs *%o are no* to be 'ound in t%at %e)is"%ere are eit%er slaves or
'reed)en# T%us t%e ne&ro trans)its t%e eternal )ar o' %is i&no)iny to all %is descendants6 and alt%ou&% t%e la*
)ay abolis% slavery+ 9od alone can obliterate t%e traces o' its existence#
T%e )odern slave di''ers 'ro) %is )aster not only in %is condition+ but in %is ori&in# You )ay set t%e ne&ro 'ree+
but you cannot )ae %i) ot%er*ise t%an an alien to t%e Euro"ean# Nor is t%is all6 *e scarcely acno*led&e t%e
co))on 'eatures o' )anind in t%is c%ild o' debase)ent *%o) slavery %as brou&%t a)on&st us# His
"%ysio&no)y is to our eyes %ideous+ %is understandin& *ea+ %is tastes lo*6 and *e are al)ost inclined to loo
u"on %i) as a bein& inter)ediate bet*een )an and t%e brutes# Ke T%e )oderns+ t%en+ a'ter t%ey %ave abolis%ed
slavery+ %ave t%ree "re7udices to contend a&ainst+ *%ic% are less easy to attac and 'ar less easy to conquer t%an
t%e )ere 'act o' servitude@ t%e "re7udice o' t%e )aster+ t%e "re7udice o' t%e race+ and t%e "re7udice o' color#
35ootnote e@ To induce t%e *%ites to abandon t%e o"inion t%ey %ave conceived o' t%e )oral and intellectual
in'eriority o' t%eir 'or)er slaves+ t%e ne&roes )ust c%an&e6 but as lon& as t%is o"inion subsists+ to c%an&e is
i)"ossible#4
It is di''icult 'or us+ *%o %ave %ad t%e &ood 'ortune to be born a)on&st )en lie ourselves by nature+ and equal
to ourselves by la*+ to conceive t%e irreconcilable di''erences *%ic% se"arate t%e ne&ro 'ro) t%e Euro"ean in
A)erica# But *e )ay derive so)e 'aint notion o' t%e) 'ro) analo&y# 5rance *as 'or)erly a country in *%ic%
nu)erous distinctions o' ran existed+ t%at %ad been created by t%e le&islation# Not%in& can be )ore 'ictitious
t%an a "urely le&al in'eriority6 not%in& )ore contrary to t%e instinct o' )anind t%an t%ese "er)anent divisions
*%ic% %ad been establis%ed bet*een bein&s evidently si)ilar# Nevert%eless t%ese divisions subsisted 'or a&es6
t%ey still subsist in )any "laces6 and on all sides t%ey %ave le't i)a&inary vesti&es+ *%ic% ti)e alone can e''ace#
I' it be so di''icult to root out an inequality *%ic% solely ori&inates in t%e la*+ %o* are t%ose distinctions to be
destroyed *%ic% see) to be based u"on t%e i))utable la*s o' Nature %ersel'I ,%en I re)e)ber t%e extre)e
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di''iculty *it% *%ic% aristocratic bodies+ o' *%atever nature t%ey )ay be+ are co))in&led *it% t%e )ass o' t%e
"eo"le6 and t%e exceedin& care *%ic% t%ey tae to "reserve t%e ideal boundaries o' t%eir caste inviolate+ I des"air
o' seein& an aristocracy disa""ear *%ic% is 'ounded u"on visible and indelible si&ns# T%ose *%o %o"e t%at t%e
Euro"eans *ill ever )ix *it% t%e ne&roes+ a""ear to )e to delude t%e)selves6 and I a) not led to any suc%
conclusion by )y o*n reason+ or by t%e evidence o' 'acts#
Hit%erto+ *%erever t%e *%ites %ave been t%e )ost "o*er'ul+ t%ey %ave )aintained t%e blacs in a subordinate or a
servile "osition6 *%erever t%e ne&roes %ave been stron&est t%ey %ave destroyed t%e *%ites6 suc% %as been t%e
only retribution *%ic% %as ever taen "lace bet*een t%e t*o races#
I see t%at in a certain "ortion o' t%e territory o' t%e (nited !tates at t%e "resent day+ t%e le&al barrier *%ic%
se"arated t%e t*o races is tendin& to 'all a*ay+ but not t%at *%ic% exists in t%e )anners o' t%e country6 slavery
recedes+ but t%e "re7udice to *%ic% it %as &iven birt% re)ains stationary# ,%osoever %as in%abited t%e (nited
!tates )ust %ave "erceived t%at in t%ose "arts o' t%e (nion in *%ic% t%e ne&roes are no lon&er slaves+ t%ey %ave
in no *ise dra*n nearer to t%e *%ites# On t%e contrary+ t%e "re7udice o' t%e race a""ears to be stron&er in t%e
!tates *%ic% %ave abolis%ed slavery+ t%an in t%ose *%ere it still exists6 and no*%ere is it so intolerant as in t%ose
!tates *%ere servitude %as never been no*n#
It is true+ t%at in t%e Nort% o' t%e (nion+ )arria&es )ay be le&ally contracted bet*een ne&roes and *%ites6 but
"ublic o"inion *ould sti&)ati-e a )an *%o s%ould connect %i)sel' *it% a ne&ress as in'a)ous+ and it *ould be
di''icult to )eet *it% a sin&le instance o' suc% a union# T%e electoral 'ranc%ise %as been con'erred u"on t%e
ne&roes in al)ost all t%e !tates in *%ic% slavery %as been abolis%ed6 but i' t%ey co)e 'or*ard to vote+ t%eir lives
are in dan&er# I' o""ressed+ t%ey )ay brin& an action at la*+ but t%ey *ill 'ind none but *%ites a)on&st t%eir
7ud&es6 and alt%ou&% t%ey )ay le&ally serve as 7urors+ "re7udice re"ulses t%e) 'ro) t%at o''ice# T%e sa)e sc%ools
do not receive t%e c%ild o' t%e blac and o' t%e Euro"ean# In t%e t%eatres+ &old cannot "rocure a seat 'or t%e
servile race beside t%eir 'or)er )asters6 in t%e %os"itals t%ey lie a"art6 and alt%ou&% t%ey are allo*ed to invoe
t%e sa)e Divinity as t%e *%ites+ it )ust be at a di''erent altar+ and in t%eir o*n c%urc%es+ *it% t%eir o*n cler&y#
T%e &ates o' Heaven are not closed a&ainst t%ese un%a""y bein&s6 but t%eir in'eriority is continued to t%e very
con'ines o' t%e ot%er *orld6 *%en t%e ne&ro is de'unct+ %is bones are cast aside+ and t%e distinction o' condition
"revails even in t%e equality o' deat%# T%e ne&ro is 'ree+ but %e can s%are neit%er t%e ri&%ts+ nor t%e "leasures+ nor
t%e labor+ nor t%e a''lictions+ nor t%e to)b o' %i) *%ose equal %e %as been declared to be6 and %e cannot )eet
%i) u"on 'air ter)s in li'e or in deat%#
In t%e !out%+ *%ere slavery still exists+ t%e ne&roes are less care'ully e"t a"art6 t%ey so)eti)es s%are t%e labor
and t%e recreations o' t%e *%ites6 t%e *%ites consent to inter)ix *it% t%e) to a certain extent+ and alt%ou&% t%e
le&islation treats t%e) )ore %ars%ly+ t%e %abits o' t%e "eo"le are )ore tolerant and co)"assionate# In t%e !out%
t%e )aster is not a'raid to raise %is slave to %is o*n standin&+ because %e no*s t%at %e can in a )o)ent reduce
%i) to t%e dust at "leasure# In t%e Nort% t%e *%ite no lon&er distinctly "erceives t%e barrier *%ic% se"arates %i)
'ro) t%e de&raded race+ and %e s%uns t%e ne&ro *it% t%e )ore "ertinacity+ since %e 'ears lest t%ey s%ould so)e
day be con'ounded to&et%er#
A)on&st t%e A)ericans o' t%e !out%+ nature so)eti)es reasserts %er ri&%ts+ and restores a transient equality
bet*een t%e blacs and t%e *%ites6 but in t%e Nort% "ride restrains t%e )ost i)"erious o' %u)an "assions# T%e
A)erican o' t%e Nort%ern !tates *ould "er%a"s allo* t%e ne&ress to s%are %is licentious "leasures+ i' t%e la*s o'
%is country did not declare t%at s%e )ay as"ire to be t%e le&iti)ate "artner o' %is bed6 but %e recoils *it% %orror
'ro) %er *%o )i&%t beco)e %is *i'e#
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T%us it is+ in t%e (nited !tates+ t%at t%e "re7udice *%ic% re"els t%e ne&roes see)s to increase in "ro"ortion as
t%ey are e)anci"ated+ and inequality is sanctioned by t%e )anners *%ilst it is e''aced 'ro) t%e la*s o' t%e
country# But i' t%e relative "osition o' t%e t*o races *%ic% in%abit t%e (nited !tates is suc% as I %ave described+ it
)ay be ased *%y t%e A)ericans %ave abolis%ed slavery in t%e Nort% o' t%e (nion+ *%y t%ey )aintain it in t%e
!out%+ and *%y t%ey a&&ravate its %ards%i"s t%ereI T%e ans*er is easily &iven# It is not 'or t%e &ood o' t%e
ne&roes+ but 'or t%at o' t%e *%ites+ t%at )easures are taen to abolis% slavery in t%e (nited !tates#
T%e 'irst ne&roes *ere i)"orted into Dir&inia about t%e year .;A.# K' In A)erica+ t%ere'ore+ as *ell as in t%e rest
o' t%e &lobe+ slavery ori&inated in t%e !out%# T%ence it s"read 'ro) one settle)ent to anot%er6 but t%e nu)ber o'
slaves di)inis%ed to*ards t%e Nort%ern !tates+ and t%e ne&ro "o"ulation *as al*ays very li)ited in Ne*
En&land# K&
35ootnote '@ !ee BeverleyFs 2History o' Dir&inia#2 !ee also in $e''ersonFs 2Me)oirs2 so)e curious details
concernin& t%e introduction o' ne&roes into Dir&inia+ and t%e 'irst Act *%ic% "ro%ibited t%e i)"ortation o' t%e)
in .==/#4
35ootnote &@ T%e nu)ber o' slaves *as less considerable in t%e Nort%+ but t%e advanta&es resultin& 'ro) slavery
*ere not )ore contested t%ere t%an in t%e !out%# In .=G<+ t%e 8e&islature o' t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor declared t%at
t%e direct i)"ortation o' slaves ou&%t to be encoura&ed as )uc% as "ossible+ and s)u&&lin& severely "unis%ed in
order not to discoura&e t%e 'air trader# >LentFs 2Co))entaries+2 vol# ii# "# A<;#? Curious researc%es+ by Belna"+
u"on slavery in Ne* En&land+ are to be 'ound in t%e 2Historical Collection o' Massac%usetts+2 vol# iv# "# .B0# It
a""ears t%at ne&roes *ere introduced t%ere in .;0<+ but t%at t%e le&islation and )anners o' t%e "eo"le *ere
o""osed to slavery 'ro) t%e 'irst6 see also+ in t%e sa)e *or+ t%e )anner in *%ic% "ublic o"inion+ and a'ter*ards
t%e la*s+ 'inally "ut an end to slavery#4
A century %ad scarcely ela"sed since t%e 'oundation o' t%e colonies+ *%en t%e attention o' t%e "lanters *as struc
by t%e extraordinary 'act+ t%at t%e "rovinces *%ic% *ere co)"aratively destitute o' slaves+ increased in
"o"ulation+ in *ealt%+ and in "ros"erity )ore ra"idly t%an t%ose *%ic% contained t%e &reatest nu)ber o' ne&roes#
In t%e 'or)er+ %o*ever+ t%e in%abitants *ere obli&ed to cultivate t%e soil t%e)selves+ or by %ired laborers6 in t%e
latter t%ey *ere 'urnis%ed *it% %ands 'or *%ic% t%ey "aid no *a&es6 yet alt%ou&% labor and ex"enses *ere on t%e
one side+ and ease *it% econo)y on t%e ot%er+ t%e 'or)er *ere in "ossession o' t%e )ost advanta&eous syste)#
T%is consequence see)ed to be t%e )ore di''icult to ex"lain+ since t%e settlers+ *%o all belon&ed to t%e sa)e
Euro"ean race+ %ad t%e sa)e %abits+ t%e sa)e civili-ation+ t%e sa)e la*s+ and t%eir s%ades o' di''erence *ere
extre)ely sli&%t#
Ti)e+ %o*ever+ continued to advance+ and t%e An&lo1A)ericans+ s"readin& beyond t%e coasts o' t%e Atlantic
Ocean+ "enetrated 'art%er and 'art%er into t%e solitudes o' t%e ,est6 t%ey )et *it% a ne* soil and an un*onted
cli)ate6 t%e obstacles *%ic% o""osed t%e) *ere o' t%e )ost various c%aracter6 t%eir races inter)in&led+ t%e
in%abitants o' t%e !out% *ent u" to*ards t%e Nort%+ t%ose o' t%e Nort% descended to t%e !out%6 but in t%e )idst
o' all t%ese causes+ t%e sa)e result occurred at every ste"+ and in &eneral+ t%e colonies in *%ic% t%ere *ere no
slaves beca)e )ore "o"ulous and )ore ric% t%an t%ose in *%ic% slavery 'louris%ed# T%e )ore "ro&ress *as
)ade+ t%e )ore *as it s%o*n t%at slavery+ *%ic% is so cruel to t%e slave+ is "re7udicial to t%e )aster#
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art ID
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But t%is trut% *as )ost satis'actorily de)onstrated *%en civili-ation reac%ed t%e bans o' t%e O%io# T%e strea)
*%ic% t%e Indians %ad distin&uis%ed by t%e na)e o' O%io+ or Beauti'ul River+ *aters one o' t%e )ost )a&ni'icent
valleys t%at %as ever been )ade t%e abode o' )an# (ndulatin& lands extend u"on bot% s%ores o' t%e O%io+ *%ose
soil a''ords inex%austible treasures to t%e laborer6 on eit%er ban t%e air is *%oleso)e and t%e cli)ate )ild+ and
eac% o' t%e) 'or)s t%e extre)e 'rontier o' a vast !tate@ T%at *%ic% 'ollo*s t%e nu)erous *indin&s o' t%e O%io
u"on t%e le't is called Lentucy+ t%at u"on t%e ri&%t bears t%e na)e o' t%e river# T%ese t*o !tates only di''er in a
sin&le res"ect6 Lentucy %as ad)itted slavery+ but t%e !tate o' O%io %as "ro%ibited t%e existence o' slaves *it%in
its borders# K%
35ootnote %@ Not only is slavery "ro%ibited in O%io+ but no 'ree ne&roes are allo*ed to enter t%e territory o' t%at
!tate+ or to %old "ro"erty in it# !ee t%e !tatutes o' O%io#4
T%us t%e traveller *%o 'loats do*n t%e current o' t%e O%io to t%e s"ot *%ere t%at river 'alls into t%e Mississi""i+
)ay be said to sail bet*een liberty and servitude6 and a transient ins"ection o' t%e surroundin& ob7ects *ill
convince %i) as to *%ic% o' t%e t*o is )ost 'avorable to )anind# ("on t%e le't ban o' t%e strea) t%e
"o"ulation is rare6 'ro) ti)e to ti)e one descries a troo" o' slaves loiterin& in t%e %al'1desert 'ields6 t%e
"ri)aeval 'orest recurs at every turn6 society see)s to be aslee"+ )an to be idle+ and nature alone o''ers a scene
o' activity and o' li'e# 5ro) t%e ri&%t ban+ on t%e contrary+ a con'used %u) is %eard *%ic% "roclai)s t%e
"resence o' industry6 t%e 'ields are covered *it% abundant %arvests+ t%e ele&ance o' t%e d*ellin&s announces t%e
taste and activity o' t%e laborer+ and )an a""ears to be in t%e en7oy)ent o' t%at *ealt% and content)ent *%ic% is
t%e re*ard o' labor# Ki
35ootnote i@ T%e activity o' O%io is not con'ined to individuals+ but t%e undertain&s o' t%e !tate are sur"risin&ly
&reat6 a canal %as been establis%ed bet*een 8ae Erie and t%e O%io+ by )eans o' *%ic% t%e valley o' t%e
Mississi""i co))unicates *it% t%e river o' t%e Nort%+ and t%e Euro"ean co))odities *%ic% arrive at Ne* Yor
)ay be 'or*arded by *ater to Ne* Orleans across 'ive %undred lea&ues o' continent#4
T%e !tate o' Lentucy *as 'ounded in .==C+ t%e !tate o' O%io only t*elve years later6 but t*elve years are )ore
in A)erica t%an %al' a century in Euro"e+ and+ at t%e "resent day+ t%e "o"ulation o' O%io exceeds t%at o'
Lentucy by t*o %undred and 'i'ty t%ousand souls# K7 T%ese o""osite consequences o' slavery and 'reedo) )ay
readily be understood+ and t%ey su''ice to ex"lain )any o' t%e di''erences *%ic% *e re)ar bet*een t%e
civili-ation o' antiquity and t%at o' our o*n ti)e#
35ootnote 7@ T%e exact nu)bers &iven by t%e census o' ./0< *ere@ Lentucy+ ;//+1/GG6 O%io+ B0=+;=B# 3In ./B<
t%e "o"ulation o' O%io *as 0+;=A+0.;+ t%at o' Lentucy+ .+/C/+;0C#44
("on t%e le't ban o' t%e O%io labor is con'ounded *it% t%e idea o' slavery+ u"on t%e ri&%t ban it is identi'ied
*it% t%at o' "ros"erity and i)"rove)ent6 on t%e one side it is de&raded+ on t%e ot%er it is %onored6 on t%e 'or)er
territory no *%ite laborers can be 'ound+ 'or t%ey *ould be a'raid o' assi)ilatin& t%e)selves to t%e ne&roes6 on
t%e latter no one is idle+ 'or t%e *%ite "o"ulation extends its activity and its intelli&ence to every ind o'
e)"loy)ent# T%us t%e )en *%ose tas it is to cultivate t%e ric% soil o' Lentucy are i&norant and lue*ar)6
*%ilst t%ose *%o are active and enli&%tened eit%er do not%in& or "ass over into t%e !tate o' O%io+ *%ere t%ey )ay
*or *it%out dis%onor#
It is true t%at in Lentucy t%e "lanters are not obli&ed to "ay *a&es to t%e slaves *%o) t%ey e)"loy6 but t%ey
derive s)all "ro'its 'ro) t%eir labor+ *%ilst t%e *a&es "aid to 'ree *or)en *ould be returned *it% interest in
t%e value o' t%eir services# T%e 'ree *or)an is "aid+ but %e does %is *or quicer t%an t%e slave+ and ra"idity o'
execution is one o' t%e &reat ele)ents o' econo)y# T%e *%ite sells %is services+ but t%ey are only "urc%ased at
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t%e ti)es at *%ic% t%ey )ay be use'ul6 t%e blac can clai) no re)uneration 'or %is toil+ but t%e ex"ense o' %is
)aintenance is "er"etual6 %e )ust be su""orted in %is old a&e as *ell as in t%e "ri)e o' )an%ood+ in %is
"ro'itless in'ancy as *ell as in t%e "roductive years o' yout%# :ay)ent )ust equally be )ade in order to obtain
t%e services o' eit%er class o' )en@ t%e 'ree *or)an receives %is *a&es in )oney+ t%e slave in education+ in
'ood+ in care+ and in clot%in&# T%e )oney *%ic% a )aster s"ends in t%e )aintenance o' %is slaves &oes &radually
and in detail+ so t%at it is scarcely "erceived6 t%e salary o' t%e 'ree *or)an is "aid in a round su)+ *%ic%
a""ears only to enric% t%e individual *%o receives it+ but in t%e end t%e slave %as cost )ore t%an t%e 'ree servant+
and %is labor is less "roductive# K
35ootnote @ Inde"endently o' t%ese causes+ *%ic%+ *%erever 'ree *or)en abound+ render t%eir labor )ore
"roductive and )ore econo)ical t%an t%at o' slaves+ anot%er cause )ay be "ointed out *%ic% is "eculiar to t%e
(nited !tates@ t%e su&ar1cane %as %it%erto been cultivated *it% success only u"on t%e bans o' t%e Mississi""i+
near t%e )out% o' t%at river in t%e 9ul' o' Mexico# In 8ouisiana t%e cultivation o' t%e su&ar1cane is exceedin&ly
lucrative+ and no*%ere does a laborer earn so )uc% by %is *or+ and+ as t%ere is al*ays a certain relation
bet*een t%e cost o' "roduction and t%e value o' t%e "roduce+ t%e "rice o' slaves is very %i&% in 8ouisiana# But
8ouisiana is one o' t%e con'ederated !tates+ and slaves )ay be carried t%it%er 'ro) all "arts o' t%e (nion6 t%e
"rice &iven 'or slaves in Ne* Orleans consequently raises t%e value o' slaves in all t%e ot%er )arets# T%e
consequence o' t%is is+ t%at in t%e countries *%ere t%e land is less "roductive+ t%e cost o' slave labor is still very
considerable+ *%ic% &ives an additional advanta&e to t%e co)"etition o' 'ree labor#4
T%e in'luence o' slavery extends still 'urt%er6 it a''ects t%e c%aracter o' t%e )aster+ and i)"arts a "eculiar
tendency to %is ideas and %is tastes# ("on bot% bans o' t%e O%io+ t%e c%aracter o' t%e in%abitants is enter"risin&
and ener&etic6 but t%is vi&or is very di''erently exercised in t%e t*o !tates# T%e *%ite in%abitant o' O%io+ *%o is
obli&ed to subsist by %is o*n exertions+ re&ards te)"oral "ros"erity as t%e "rinci"al ai) o' %is existence6 and as
t%e country *%ic% %e occu"ies "resents inex%austible resources to %is industry and ever1varyin& lures to %is
activity+ %is acquisitive ardor sur"asses t%e ordinary li)its o' %u)an cu"idity@ %e is tor)ented by t%e desire o'
*ealt%+ and %e boldly enters u"on every "at% *%ic% 'ortune o"ens to %i)6 %e beco)es a sailor+ a "ioneer+ an
artisan+ or a laborer *it% t%e sa)e indi''erence+ and %e su""orts+ *it% equal constancy+ t%e 'ati&ues and t%e
dan&ers incidental to t%ese various "ro'essions6 t%e resources o' %is intelli&ence are astonis%in&+ and %is avidity
in t%e "ursuit o' &ain a)ounts to a s"ecies o' %erois)#
But t%e Lentucian scorns not only labor+ but all t%e undertain&s *%ic% labor "ro)otes6 as %e lives in an idle
inde"endence+ %is tastes are t%ose o' an idle )an6 )oney loses a "ortion o' its value in %is eyes6 %e covets *ealt%
)uc% less t%an "leasure and excite)ent6 and t%e ener&y *%ic% %is nei&%bor devotes to &ain+ turns *it% %i) to a
"assionate love o' 'ield s"orts and )ilitary exercises6 %e deli&%ts in violent bodily exertion+ %e is 'a)iliar *it%
t%e use o' ar)s+ and is accusto)ed 'ro) a very early a&e to ex"ose %is li'e in sin&le co)bat# T%us slavery not
only "revents t%e *%ites 'ro) beco)in& o"ulent+ but even 'ro) desirin& to beco)e so#
As t%e sa)e causes %ave been continually "roducin& o""osite e''ects 'or t%e last t*o centuries in t%e Britis%
colonies o' Nort% A)erica+ t%ey %ave establis%ed a very striin& di''erence bet*een t%e co))ercial ca"acity o'
t%e in%abitants o' t%e !out% and t%ose o' t%e Nort%# At t%e "resent day it is only t%e Nort%ern !tates *%ic% are in
"ossession o' s%i""in&+ )anu'actures+ railroads+ and canals# T%is di''erence is "erce"tible not only in co)"arin&
t%e Nort% *it% t%e !out%+ but in co)"arin& t%e several !out%ern !tates# Al)ost all t%e individuals *%o carry on
co))ercial o"erations+ or *%o endeavor to turn slave labor to account in t%e )ost !out%ern districts o' t%e
(nion+ %ave e)i&rated 'ro) t%e Nort%# T%e natives o' t%e Nort%ern !tates are constantly s"readin& over t%at
"ortion o' t%e A)erican territory *%ere t%ey %ave less to 'ear 'ro) co)"etition6 t%ey discover resources t%ere
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*%ic% esca"ed t%e notice o' t%e in%abitants6 and+ as t%ey co)"ly *it% a syste) *%ic% t%ey do not a""rove+ t%ey
succeed in turnin& it to better advanta&e t%an t%ose *%o 'irst 'ounded and *%o still )aintain it#
,ere I inclined to continue t%is "arallel+ I could easily "rove t%at al)ost all t%e di''erences *%ic% )ay be
re)ared bet*een t%e c%aracters o' t%e A)ericans in t%e !out%ern and in t%e Nort%ern !tates %ave ori&inated in
slavery6 but t%is *ould divert )e 'ro) )y sub7ect+ and )y "resent intention is not to "oint out all t%e
consequences o' servitude+ but t%ose e''ects *%ic% it %as "roduced u"on t%e "ros"erity o' t%e countries *%ic%
%ave ad)itted it#
T%e in'luence o' slavery u"on t%e "roduction o' *ealt% )ust %ave been very i)"er'ectly no*n in antiquity+ as
slavery t%en obtained t%rou&%out t%e civili-ed *orld6 and t%e nations *%ic% *ere unacquainted *it% it *ere
barbarous# And indeed C%ristianity only abolis%ed slavery by advocatin& t%e clai)s o' t%e slave6 at t%e "resent
ti)e it )ay be attaced in t%e na)e o' t%e )aster+ and+ u"on t%is "oint+ interest is reconciled *it% )orality#
As t%ese trut%s beca)e a""arent in t%e (nited !tates+ slavery receded be'ore t%e "ro&ress o' ex"erience#
!ervitude %ad be&un in t%e !out%+ and %ad t%ence s"read to*ards t%e Nort%6 but it no* retires a&ain# 5reedo)+
*%ic% started 'ro) t%e Nort%+ no* descends uninterru"tedly to*ards t%e !out%# A)on&st t%e &reat !tates+
:ennsylvania no* constitutes t%e extre)e li)it o' slavery to t%e Nort%@ but even *it%in t%ose li)its t%e slave
syste) is s%aen@ Maryland+ *%ic% is i))ediately belo* :ennsylvania+ is "re"arin& 'or its abolition6 and
Dir&inia+ *%ic% co)es next to Maryland+ is already discussin& its utility and its dan&ers# Kl
35ootnote l@ A "eculiar reason contributes to detac% t%e t*o last1)entioned !tates 'ro) t%e cause o' slavery# T%e
'or)er *ealt% o' t%is "art o' t%e (nion *as "rinci"ally derived 'ro) t%e cultivation o' tobacco# T%is cultivation
is s"ecially carried on by slaves6 but *it%in t%e last 'e* years t%e )aret1"rice o' tobacco %as di)inis%ed+ *%ilst
t%e value o' t%e slaves re)ains t%e sa)e# T%us t%e ratio bet*een t%e cost o' "roduction and t%e value o' t%e
"roduce is c%an&ed# T%e natives o' Maryland and Dir&inia are t%ere'ore )ore dis"osed t%an t%ey *ere t%irty
years a&o+ to &ive u" slave labor in t%e cultivation o' tobacco+ or to &ive u" slavery and tobacco at t%e sa)e
ti)e#4
No &reat c%an&e taes "lace in %u)an institutions *it%out involvin& a)on&st its causes t%e la* o' in%eritance#
,%en t%e la* o' "ri)o&eniture obtained in t%e !out%+ eac% 'a)ily *as re"resented by a *ealt%y individual+ *%o
*as neit%er co)"elled nor induced to labor6 and %e *as surrounded+ as by "arasitic "lants+ by t%e ot%er )e)bers
o' %is 'a)ily *%o *ere t%en excluded by la* 'ro) s%arin& t%e co))on in%eritance+ and *%o led t%e sa)e ind
o' li'e as %i)sel'# T%e very sa)e t%in& t%en occurred in all t%e 'a)ilies o' t%e !out% as still %a""ens in t%e
*ealt%y 'a)ilies o' so)e countries in Euro"e+ na)ely+ t%at t%e youn&er sons re)ain in t%e sa)e state o' idleness
as t%eir elder brot%er+ *it%out bein& as ric% as %e is# T%is identical result see)s to be "roduced in Euro"e and in
A)erica by *%olly analo&ous causes# In t%e !out% o' t%e (nited !tates t%e *%ole race o' *%ites 'or)ed an
aristocratic body+ *%ic% *as %eaded by a certain nu)ber o' "rivile&ed individuals+ *%ose *ealt% *as "er)anent+
and *%ose leisure *as %ereditary# T%ese leaders o' t%e A)erican nobility e"t alive t%e traditional "re7udices o'
t%e *%ite race in t%e body o' *%ic% t%ey *ere t%e re"resentatives+ and )aintained t%e %onor o' inactive li'e# T%is
aristocracy contained )any *%o *ere "oor+ but none *%o *ould *or6 its )e)bers "re'erred *ant to labor+
consequently no co)"etition *as set on 'oot a&ainst ne&ro laborers and slaves+ and+ *%atever o"inion )i&%t be
entertained as to t%e utility o' t%eir e''orts+ it *as indis"ensable to e)"loy t%e)+ since t%ere *as no one else to
*or#
No sooner *as t%e la* o' "ri)o&eniture abolis%ed t%an 'ortunes be&an to di)inis%+ and all t%e 'a)ilies o' t%e
country *ere si)ultaneously reduced to a state in *%ic% labor beca)e necessary to "rocure t%e )eans o'
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subsistence@ several o' t%e) %ave since entirely disa""eared+ and all o' t%e) learned to loo 'or*ard to t%e ti)e
at *%ic% it *ould be necessary 'or everyone to "rovide 'or %is o*n *ants# ,ealt%y individuals are still to be )et
*it%+ but t%ey no lon&er constitute a co)"act and %ereditary body+ nor %ave t%ey been able to ado"t a line o'
conduct in *%ic% t%ey could "ersevere+ and *%ic% t%ey could in'use into all rans o' society# T%e "re7udice
*%ic% sti&)ati-ed labor *as in t%e 'irst "lace abandoned by co))on consent6 t%e nu)ber o' needy )en *as
increased+ and t%e needy *ere allo*ed to &ain a laborious subsistence *it%out blus%in& 'or t%eir exertions# T%us
one o' t%e )ost i))ediate consequences o' t%e "artible quality o' estates %as been to create a class o' 'ree
laborers# As soon as a co)"etition *as set on 'oot bet*een t%e 'ree laborer and t%e slave+ t%e in'eriority o' t%e
latter beca)e )ani'est+ and slavery *as attaced in its 'unda)ental "rinci"le+ *%ic% is t%e interest o' t%e )aster#
As slavery recedes+ t%e blac "o"ulation 'ollo*s its retro&rade course+ and returns *it% it to*ards t%ose tro"ical
re&ions 'ro) *%ic% it ori&inally ca)e# Ho*ever sin&ular t%is 'act )ay at 'irst a""ear to be+ it )ay readily be
ex"lained# Alt%ou&% t%e A)ericans abolis% t%e "rinci"le o' slavery+ t%ey do not set t%eir slaves 'ree# To illustrate
t%is re)ar+ I *ill quote t%e exa)"le o' t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor# In .=//+ t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor "ro%ibited t%e
sale o' slaves *it%in its li)its+ *%ic% *as an indirect )et%od o' "ro%ibitin& t%e i)"ortation o' blacs#
T%ence'or*ard t%e nu)ber o' ne&roes could only increase accordin& to t%e ratio o' t%e natural increase o'
"o"ulation# But ei&%t years later a )ore decisive )easure *as taen+ and it *as enacted t%at all c%ildren born o'
slave "arents a'ter $uly G+ .=BB+ s%ould be 'ree# No increase could t%en tae "lace+ and alt%ou&% slaves still
existed+ slavery )i&%t be said to be abolis%ed#
5ro) t%e ti)e at *%ic% a Nort%ern !tate "ro%ibited t%e i)"ortation o' slaves+ no slaves *ere brou&%t 'ro) t%e
!out% to be sold in its )arets# On t%e ot%er %and+ as t%e sale o' slaves *as 'orbidden in t%at !tate+ an o*ner *as
no lon&er able to &et rid o' %is slave >*%o t%us beca)e a burdenso)e "ossession? ot%er*ise t%an by trans"ortin&
%i) to t%e !out%# But *%en a Nort%ern !tate declared t%at t%e son o' t%e slave s%ould be born 'ree+ t%e slave lost
a lar&e "ortion o' %is )aret value+ since %is "osterity *as no lon&er included in t%e bar&ain+ and t%e o*ner %ad
t%en a stron& interest in trans"ortin& %i) to t%e !out%# T%us t%e sa)e la* "revents t%e slaves o' t%e !out% 'ro)
co)in& to t%e Nort%ern !tates+ and drives t%ose o' t%e Nort% to t%e !out%#
T%e *ant o' 'ree %ands is 'elt in a !tate in "ro"ortion as t%e nu)ber o' slaves decreases# But in "ro"ortion as
labor is "er'or)ed by 'ree %ands+ slave labor beco)es less "roductive6 and t%e slave is t%en a useless or onerous
"ossession+ *%o) it is i)"ortant to ex"ort to t%ose !out%ern !tates *%ere t%e sa)e co)"etition is not to be
'eared# T%us t%e abolition o' slavery does not set t%e slave 'ree+ but it )erely trans'ers %i) 'ro) one )aster to
anot%er+ and 'ro) t%e Nort% to t%e !out%#
T%e e)anci"ated ne&roes+ and t%ose born a'ter t%e abolition o' slavery+ do not+ indeed+ )i&rate 'ro) t%e Nort% to
t%e !out%6 but t%eir situation *it% re&ard to t%e Euro"eans is not unlie t%at o' t%e abori&ines o' A)erica6 t%ey
re)ain %al' civili-ed+ and de"rived o' t%eir ri&%ts in t%e )idst o' a "o"ulation *%ic% is 'ar su"erior to t%e) in
*ealt% and in no*led&e6 *%ere t%ey are ex"osed to t%e tyranny o' t%e la*s K) and t%e intolerance o' t%e
"eo"le# On so)e accounts t%ey are still )ore to be "itied t%an t%e Indians+ since t%ey are %aunted by t%e
re)iniscence o' slavery+ and t%ey cannot clai) "ossession o' a sin&le "ortion o' t%e soil@ )any o' t%e) "eris%
)iserably+ Kn and t%e rest con&re&ate in t%e &reat to*ns+ *%ere t%ey "er'or) t%e )eanest o''ices+ and lead a
*retc%ed and "recarious existence#
35ootnote )@ T%e !tates in *%ic% slavery is abolis%ed usually do *%at t%ey can to render t%eir territory
disa&reeable to t%e ne&roes as a "lace o' residence6 and as a ind o' e)ulation exists bet*een t%e di''erent !tates
in t%is res"ect+ t%e un%a""y blacs can only c%oose t%e least o' t%e evils *%ic% beset t%e)#4
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35ootnote n@ T%ere is a very &reat di''erence bet*een t%e )ortality o' t%e blacs and o' t%e *%ites in t%e !tates in
*%ic% slavery is abolis%ed6 'ro) ./A< to ./0. only one out o' 'orty1t*o individuals o' t%e *%ite "o"ulation died
in :%iladel"%ia6 but one ne&ro out o' t*enty1one individuals o' t%e blac "o"ulation died in t%e sa)e s"ace o'
ti)e# T%e )ortality is by no )eans so &reat a)on&st t%e ne&roes *%o are still slaves# >!ee E)ersonFs 2Medical
!tatistics+2 "# A/#?4
But even i' t%e nu)ber o' ne&roes continued to increase as ra"idly as *%en t%ey *ere still in a state o' slavery+ as
t%e nu)ber o' *%ites au&)ents *it% t*o'old ra"idity since t%e abolition o' slavery+ t%e blacs *ould soon be+ as
it *ere+ lost in t%e )idst o' a stran&e "o"ulation#
A district *%ic% is cultivated by slaves is in &eneral )ore scantily "eo"led t%an a district cultivated by 'ree labor@
)oreover+ A)erica is still a ne* country+ and a !tate is t%ere'ore not %al' "eo"led at t%e ti)e *%en it abolis%es
slavery# No sooner is an end "ut to slavery t%an t%e *ant o' 'ree labor is 'elt+ and a cro*d o' enter"risin&
adventurers i))ediately arrive 'ro) all "arts o' t%e country+ *%o %asten to "ro'it by t%e 'res% resources *%ic%
are t%en o"ened to industry# T%e soil is soon divided a)on&st t%e)+ and a 'a)ily o' *%ite settlers taes
"ossession o' eac% tract o' country# Besides *%ic%+ Euro"ean e)i&ration is exclusively directed to t%e 'ree
!tates6 'or *%at *ould be t%e 'ate o' a "oor e)i&rant *%o crosses t%e Atlantic in searc% o' ease and %a""iness i'
%e *ere to land in a country *%ere labor is sti&)ati-ed as de&radin&I
T%us t%e *%ite "o"ulation &ro*s by its natural increase+ and at t%e sa)e ti)e by t%e i))ense in'lux o'
e)i&rants6 *%ilst t%e blac "o"ulation receives no e)i&rants+ and is u"on its decline# T%e "ro"ortion *%ic%
existed bet*een t%e t*o races is soon inverted# T%e ne&roes constitute a scanty re)nant+ a "oor tribe o' va&rants+
*%ic% is lost in t%e )idst o' an i))ense "eo"le in 'ull "ossession o' t%e land6 and t%e "resence o' t%e blacs is
only )ared by t%e in7ustice and t%e %ards%i"s o' *%ic% t%ey are t%e un%a""y victi)s#
In several o' t%e ,estern !tates t%e ne&ro race never )ade its a""earance+ and in all t%e Nort%ern !tates it is
ra"idly declinin&# T%us t%e &reat question o' its 'uture condition is con'ined *it%in a narro* circle+ *%ere it
beco)es less 'or)idable+ t%ou&% not )ore easy o' solution#
T%e )ore *e descend to*ards t%e !out%+ t%e )ore di''icult does it beco)e to abolis% slavery *it% advanta&e@
and t%is arises 'ro) several "%ysical causes *%ic% it is i)"ortant to "oint out#
T%e 'irst o' t%ese causes is t%e cli)ate6 it is *ell no*n t%at in "ro"ortion as Euro"eans a""roac% t%e tro"ics t%ey
su''er )ore 'ro) labor# Many o' t%e A)ericans even assert t%at *it%in a certain latitude t%e exertions *%ic% a
ne&ro can )ae *it%out dan&er are 'atal to t%e)6 Ko but I do not t%in t%at t%is o"inion+ *%ic% is so 'avorable to
t%e indolence o' t%e in%abitants o' sout%ern re&ions+ is con'ir)ed by ex"erience# T%e sout%ern "arts o' t%e (nion
are not %otter t%an t%e !out% o' Italy and o' !"ain6 K" and it )ay be ased *%y t%e Euro"ean cannot *or as *ell
t%ere as in t%e t*o latter countries# I' slavery %as been abolis%ed in Italy and in !"ain *it%out causin& t%e
destruction o' t%e )asters+ *%y s%ould not t%e sa)e t%in& tae "lace in t%e (nionI I cannot believe t%at nature
%as "ro%ibited t%e Euro"eans in 9eor&ia and t%e 5loridas+ under "ain o' deat%+ 'ro) raisin& t%e )eans o'
subsistence 'ro) t%e soil+ but t%eir labor *ould unquestionably be )ore irso)e and less "roductive to t%e) t%an
to t%e in%abitants o' Ne* En&land# As t%e 'ree *or)an t%us loses a "ortion o' %is su"eriority over t%e slave in
t%e !out%ern !tates+ t%ere are 'e*er induce)ents to abolis% slavery#
35ootnote o@ T%is is true o' t%e s"ots in *%ic% rice is cultivated6 rice1&rounds+ *%ic% are un*%oleso)e in all
countries+ are "articularly dan&erous in t%ose re&ions *%ic% are ex"osed to t%e bea)s o' a tro"ical sun#
Euro"eans *ould not 'ind it easy to cultivate t%e soil in t%at "art o' t%e Ne* ,orld i' it )ust be necessarily be
)ade to "roduce rice6 but )ay t%ey not subsist *it%out rice1&roundsI4
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35ootnote "@ T%ese !tates are nearer to t%e equator t%an Italy and !"ain+ but t%e te)"erature o' t%e continent o'
A)erica is very )uc% lo*er t%an t%at o' Euro"e#
T%e !"anis% 9overn)ent 'or)erly caused a certain nu)ber o' "easants 'ro) t%e Acores to be trans"orted into a
district o' 8ouisiana called Attaa"as+ by *ay o' ex"eri)ent# T%ese settlers still cultivate t%e soil *it%out t%e
assistance o' slaves+ but t%eir industry is so lan&uid as scarcely to su""ly t%eir )ost necessary *ants#4
All t%e "lants o' Euro"e &ro* in t%e nort%ern "arts o' t%e (nion6 t%e !out% %as s"ecial "roductions o' its o*n# It
%as been observed t%at slave labor is a very ex"ensive )et%od o' cultivatin& corn# T%e 'ar)er o' corn land in a
country *%ere slavery is unno*n %abitually retains a s)all nu)ber o' laborers in %is service+ and at seed1ti)e
and %arvest %e %ires several additional %ands+ *%o only live at %is cost 'or a s%ort "eriod# But t%e a&riculturist in
a slave !tate is obli&ed to ee" a lar&e nu)ber o' slaves t%e *%ole year round+ in order to so* %is 'ields and to
&at%er in %is cro"s+ alt%ou&% t%eir services are only required 'or a 'e* *ees6 but slaves are unable to *ait till
t%ey are %ired+ and to subsist by t%eir o*n labor in t%e )ean ti)e lie 'ree laborers6 in order to %ave t%eir services
t%ey )ust be bou&%t# !lavery+ inde"endently o' its &eneral disadvanta&es+ is t%ere'ore still )ore ina""licable to
countries in *%ic% corn is cultivated t%an to t%ose *%ic% "roduce cro"s o' a di''erent ind# T%e cultivation o'
tobacco+ o' cotton+ and es"ecially o' t%e su&ar1cane+ de)ands+ on t%e ot%er %and+ unre)ittin& attention@ and
*o)en and c%ildren are e)"loyed in it+ *%ose services are o' but little use in t%e cultivation o' *%eat# T%us
slavery is naturally )ore 'itted to t%e countries 'ro) *%ic% t%ese "roductions are derived# Tobacco+ cotton+ and
t%e su&ar1cane are exclusively &ro*n in t%e !out%+ and t%ey 'or) one o' t%e "rinci"al sources o' t%e *ealt% o'
t%ose !tates# I' slavery *ere abolis%ed+ t%e in%abitants o' t%e !out% *ould be constrained to ado"t one o' t*o
alternatives@ t%ey )ust eit%er c%an&e t%eir syste) o' cultivation+ and t%en t%ey *ould co)e into co)"etition *it%
t%e )ore active and )ore ex"erienced in%abitants o' t%e Nort%6 or+ i' t%ey continued to cultivate t%e sa)e
"roduce *it%out slave labor+ t%ey *ould %ave to su""ort t%e co)"etition o' t%e ot%er !tates o' t%e !out%+ *%ic%
)i&%t still retain t%eir slaves# T%us+ "eculiar reasons 'or )aintainin& slavery exist in t%e !out% *%ic% do not
o"erate in t%e Nort%#
But t%ere is yet anot%er )otive *%ic% is )ore co&ent t%an all t%e ot%ers@ t%e !out% )i&%t indeed+ ri&orously
s"eain&+ abolis% slavery6 but %o* s%ould it rid its territory o' t%e blac "o"ulationI !laves and slavery are
driven 'ro) t%e Nort% by t%e sa)e la*+ but t%is t*o'old result cannot be %o"ed 'or in t%e !out%#
T%e ar&u)ents *%ic% I %ave adduced to s%o* t%at slavery is )ore natural and )ore advanta&eous in t%e !out%
t%an in t%e Nort%+ su''iciently "rove t%at t%e nu)ber o' slaves )ust be 'ar &reater in t%e 'or)er districts# It *as to
t%e sout%ern settle)ents t%at t%e 'irst A'ricans *ere brou&%t+ and it is t%ere t%at t%e &reatest nu)ber o' t%e) %ave
al*ays been i)"orted# As *e advance to*ards t%e !out%+ t%e "re7udice *%ic% sanctions idleness increases in
"o*er# In t%e !tates nearest to t%e tro"ics t%ere is not a sin&le *%ite laborer6 t%e ne&roes are consequently )uc%
)ore nu)erous in t%e !out% t%an in t%e Nort%# And+ as I %ave already observed+ t%is dis"ro"ortion increases
daily+ since t%e ne&roes are trans'erred to one "art o' t%e (nion as soon as slavery is abolis%ed in t%e ot%er# T%us
t%e blac "o"ulation au&)ents in t%e !out%+ not only by its natural 'ecundity+ but by t%e co)"ulsory e)i&ration
o' t%e ne&roes 'ro) t%e Nort%6 and t%e A'rican race %as causes o' increase in t%e !out% very analo&ous to t%ose
*%ic% so "o*er'ully accelerate t%e &ro*t% o' t%e Euro"ean race in t%e Nort%#
In t%e !tate o' Maine t%ere is one ne&ro in 0<< in%abitants6 in Massac%usetts+ one in .<<6 in Ne* Yor+ t*o in
.<<6 in :ennsylvania+ t%ree in t%e sa)e nu)ber6 in Maryland+ t%irty1'our6 in Dir&inia+ 'orty1t*o6 and lastly+ in
!out% Carolina Kq 'i'ty1'ive "er cent# !uc% *as t%e "ro"ortion o' t%e blac "o"ulation to t%e *%ites in t%e year
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./0<# But t%is "ro"ortion is "er"etually c%an&in&+ as it constantly decreases in t%e Nort% and au&)ents in t%e
!out%#
35ootnote q@ ,e 'ind it asserted in an A)erican *or+ entitled 28etters on t%e Coloni-ation !ociety+2 by Mr#
Carey+ ./00+ 2T%at 'or t%e last 'orty years t%e blac race %as increased )ore ra"idly t%an t%e *%ite race in t%e
!tate o' !out% Carolina6 and t%at i' *e tae t%e avera&e "o"ulation o' t%e 'ive !tates o' t%e !out% into *%ic%
slaves *ere 'irst introduced+ vi-#+ Maryland+ Dir&inia+ !out% Carolina+ Nort% Carolina+ and 9eor&ia+ *e s%all 'ind
t%at 'ro) .=B< to ./0< t%e *%ites %ave au&)ented in t%e "ro"ortion o' /< to .<<+ and t%e blacs in t%at o' ..A to
.<<#2
In t%e (nited !tates+ in ./0<+ t%e "o"ulation o' t%e t*o races stood as 'ollo*s@11
!tates *%ere slavery is abolis%ed+ ;+C;C+G0G *%ites6 .A<+CA< blacs# !lave !tates+ 0+B;<+/.G *%ites6 A+A</+.<A
blacs# 3In ./B< t%e (nited !tates contained a "o"ulation o' CG+B/0+/B< *%ites+ and =+;0/+0;< ne&roes#44
It is evident t%at t%e )ost !out%ern !tates o' t%e (nion cannot abolis% slavery *it%out incurrin& very &reat
dan&ers+ *%ic% t%e Nort% %ad no reason to a""re%end *%en it e)anci"ated its blac "o"ulation# ,e %ave already
s%o*n t%e syste) by *%ic% t%e Nort%ern !tates secure t%e transition 'ro) slavery to 'reedo)+ by ee"in& t%e
"resent &eneration in c%ains+ and settin& t%eir descendants 'ree6 by t%is )eans t%e ne&roes are &radually
introduced into society6 and *%ilst t%e )en *%o )i&%t abuse t%eir 'reedo) are e"t in a state o' servitude+ t%ose
*%o are e)anci"ated )ay learn t%e art o' bein& 'ree be'ore t%ey beco)e t%eir o*n )asters# But it *ould be
di''icult to a""ly t%is )et%od in t%e !out%# To declare t%at all t%e ne&roes born a'ter a certain "eriod s%all be 'ree+
is to introduce t%e "rinci"le and t%e notion o' liberty into t%e %eart o' slavery6 t%e blacs *%o) t%e la* t%us
)aintains in a state o' slavery 'ro) *%ic% t%eir c%ildren are delivered+ are astonis%ed at so unequal a 'ate+ and
t%eir astonis%)ent is only t%e "relude to t%eir i)"atience and irritation# T%ence'or*ard slavery loses+ in t%eir
eyes+ t%at ind o' )oral "o*er *%ic% it derived 'ro) ti)e and %abit6 it is reduced to a )ere "al"able abuse o'
'orce# T%e Nort%ern !tates %ad not%in& to 'ear 'ro) t%e contrast+ because in t%e) t%e blacs *ere 'e* in nu)ber+
and t%e *%ite "o"ulation *as very considerable# But i' t%is 'aint da*n o' 'reedo) *ere to s%o* t*o )illions o'
)en t%eir true "osition+ t%e o""ressors *ould %ave reason to tre)ble# A'ter %avin& a''ranc%ised t%e c%ildren o'
t%eir slaves t%e Euro"eans o' t%e !out%ern !tates *ould very s%ortly be obli&ed to extend t%e sa)e bene'it to t%e
*%ole blac "o"ulation#
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art D
In t%e Nort%+ as I %ave already re)ared+ a t*o'old )i&ration ensues u"on t%e abolition o' slavery+ or even
"recedes t%at event *%en circu)stances %ave rendered it "robable6 t%e slaves quit t%e country to be trans"orted
sout%*ards6 and t%e *%ites o' t%e Nort%ern !tates+ as *ell as t%e e)i&rants 'ro) Euro"e+ %asten to 'ill u" t%eir
"lace# But t%ese t*o causes cannot o"erate in t%e sa)e )anner in t%e !out%ern !tates# On t%e one %and+ t%e )ass
o' slaves is too &reat 'or any ex"ectation o' t%eir ever bein& re)oved 'ro) t%e country to be entertained6 and on
t%e ot%er %and+ t%e Euro"eans and An&lo1A)ericans o' t%e Nort% are a'raid to co)e to in%abit a country in
*%ic% labor %as not yet been reinstated in its ri&%t'ul %onors# Besides+ t%ey very 7ustly loo u"on t%e !tates in
*%ic% t%e "ro"ortion o' t%e ne&roes equals or exceeds t%at o' t%e *%ites+ as ex"osed to very &reat dan&ers6 and
t%ey re'rain 'ro) turnin& t%eir activity in t%at direction#
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T%us t%e in%abitants o' t%e !out% *ould not be able+ lie t%eir Nort%ern country)en+ to initiate t%e slaves
&radually into a state o' 'reedo) by abolis%in& slavery6 t%ey %ave no )eans o' "erce"tibly di)inis%in& t%e blac
"o"ulation+ and t%ey *ould re)ain unsu""orted to re"ress its excesses# !o t%at in t%e course o' a 'e* years+ a
&reat "eo"le o' 'ree ne&roes *ould exist in t%e %eart o' a *%ite nation o' equal si-e#
T%e sa)e abuses o' "o*er *%ic% still )aintain slavery+ *ould t%en beco)e t%e source o' t%e )ost alar)in&
"erils *%ic% t%e *%ite "o"ulation o' t%e !out% )i&%t %ave to a""re%end# At t%e "resent ti)e t%e descendants o'
t%e Euro"eans are t%e sole o*ners o' t%e land6 t%e absolute )asters o' all labor6 and t%e only "ersons *%o are
"ossessed o' *ealt%+ no*led&e+ and ar)s# T%e blac is destitute o' all t%ese advanta&es+ but %e subsists *it%out
t%e) because %e is a slave# I' %e *ere 'ree+ and obli&ed to "rovide 'or %is o*n subsistence+ *ould it be "ossible
'or %i) to re)ain *it%out t%ese t%in&s and to su""ort li'eI Or *ould not t%e very instru)ents o' t%e "resent
su"eriority o' t%e *%ite+ *%ilst slavery exists+ ex"ose %i) to a t%ousand dan&ers i' it *ere abolis%edI
As lon& as t%e ne&ro re)ains a slave+ %e )ay be e"t in a condition not very 'ar re)oved 'ro) t%at o' t%e brutes6
but+ *it% %is liberty+ %e cannot but acquire a de&ree o' instruction *%ic% *ill enable %i) to a""reciate %is
)is'ortunes+ and to discern a re)edy 'or t%e)# Moreover+ t%ere exists a sin&ular "rinci"le o' relative 7ustice
*%ic% is very 'ir)ly i)"lanted in t%e %u)an %eart# Men are )uc% )ore 'orcibly struc by t%ose inequalities
*%ic% exist *it%in t%e circle o' t%e sa)e class+ t%an *it% t%ose *%ic% )ay be re)ared bet*een di''erent classes#
It is )ore easy 'or t%e) to ad)it slavery+ t%an to allo* several )illions o' citi-ens to exist under a load o' eternal
in'a)y and %ereditary *retc%edness# In t%e Nort% t%e "o"ulation o' 'reed ne&roes 'eels t%ese %ards%i"s and
resents t%ese indi&nities6 but its nu)bers and its "o*ers are s)all+ *%ilst in t%e !out% it *ould be nu)erous and
stron&#
As soon as it is ad)itted t%at t%e *%ites and t%e e)anci"ated blacs are "laced u"on t%e sa)e territory in t%e
situation o' t*o alien co))unities+ it *ill readily be understood t%at t%ere are but t*o alternatives 'or t%e 'uture6
t%e ne&roes and t%e *%ites )ust eit%er *%olly "art or *%olly )in&le# I %ave already ex"ressed t%e conviction
*%ic% I entertain as to t%e latter event# Kr I do not i)a&ine t%at t%e *%ite and blac races *ill ever live in any
country u"on an equal 'ootin&# But I believe t%e di''iculty to be still &reater in t%e (nited !tates t%an else*%ere#
An isolated individual )ay sur)ount t%e "re7udices o' reli&ion+ o' %is country+ or o' %is race+ and i' t%is
individual is a in& %e )ay e''ect sur"risin& c%an&es in society6 but a *%ole "eo"le cannot rise+ as it *ere+ above
itsel'# A des"ot *%o s%ould sub7ect t%e A)ericans and t%eir 'or)er slaves to t%e sa)e yoe+ )i&%t "er%a"s
succeed in co))in&lin& t%eir races6 but as lon& as t%e A)erican de)ocracy re)ains at t%e %ead o' a''airs+ no
one *ill undertae so di''icult a tas6 and it )ay be 'oreseen t%at t%e 'reer t%e *%ite "o"ulation o' t%e (nited
!tates beco)es+ t%e )ore isolated *ill it re)ain# Ks
35ootnote r@ T%is o"inion is sanctioned by aut%orities in'initely *ei&%tier t%an anyt%in& t%at I can say@ t%us+ 'or
instance+ it is stated in t%e 2Me)oirs o' $e''erson2 >as collected by M# Conseil?+ 2Not%in& is )ore clearly *ritten
in t%e boo o' destiny t%an t%e e)anci"ation o' t%e blacs6 and it is equally certain t%at t%e t*o races *ill never
live in a state o' equal 'reedo) under t%e sa)e &overn)ent+ so insur)ountable are t%e barriers *%ic% nature+
%abit+ and o"inions %ave establis%ed bet*een t%e)#24
35ootnote s@ I' t%e Britis% ,est India "lanters %ad &overned t%e)selves+ t%ey *ould assuredly not %ave "assed
t%e !lave E)anci"ation Bill *%ic% t%e )ot%er1country %as recently i)"osed u"on t%e)#4
I %ave "reviously observed t%at t%e )ixed race is t%e true bond o' union bet*een t%e Euro"eans and t%e Indians6
7ust so t%e )ulattoes are t%e true )eans o' transition bet*een t%e *%ite and t%e ne&ro6 so t%at *%erever )ulattoes
abound+ t%e inter)ixture o' t%e t*o races is not i)"ossible# In so)e "arts o' A)erica+ t%e Euro"ean and t%e
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ne&ro races are so crossed by one anot%er+ t%at it is rare to )eet *it% a )an *%o is entirely blac+ or entirely
*%ite@ *%en t%ey are arrived at t%is "oint+ t%e t*o races )ay really be said to be co)bined6 or rat%er to %ave been
absorbed in a t%ird race+ *%ic% is connected *it% bot% *it%out bein& identical *it% eit%er#
O' all t%e Euro"eans t%e En&lis% are t%ose *%o %ave )ixed least *it% t%e ne&roes# More )ulattoes are to be seen
in t%e !out% o' t%e (nion t%an in t%e Nort%+ but still t%ey are in'initely )ore scarce t%an in any ot%er Euro"ean
colony@ )ulattoes are by no )eans nu)erous in t%e (nited !tates6 t%ey %ave no 'orce "eculiar to t%e)selves+ and
*%en quarrels ori&inatin& in di''erences o' color tae "lace+ t%ey &enerally side *it% t%e *%ites6 7ust as t%e
laceys o' t%e &reat+ in Euro"e+ assu)e t%e conte)"tuous airs o' nobility to t%e lo*er orders#
T%e "ride o' ori&in+ *%ic% is natural to t%e En&lis%+ is sin&ularly au&)ented by t%e "ersonal "ride *%ic%
de)ocratic liberty 'osters a)on&st t%e A)ericans@ t%e *%ite citi-en o' t%e (nited !tates is "roud o' %is race+ and
"roud o' %i)sel'# But i' t%e *%ites and t%e ne&roes do not inter)in&le in t%e Nort% o' t%e (nion+ %o* s%ould
t%ey )ix in t%e !out%I Can it be su""osed 'or an instant+ t%at an A)erican o' t%e !out%ern !tates+ "laced+ as %e
)ust 'orever be+ bet*een t%e *%ite )an *it% all %is "%ysical and )oral su"eriority and t%e ne&ro+ *ill ever t%in
o' "re'errin& t%e latterI T%e A)ericans o' t%e !out%ern !tates %ave t*o "o*er'ul "assions *%ic% *ill al*ays
ee" t%e) aloo'6 t%e 'irst is t%e 'ear o' bein& assi)ilated to t%e ne&roes+ t%eir 'or)er slaves6 and t%e second t%e
dread o' sinin& belo* t%e *%ites+ t%eir nei&%bors#
I' I *ere called u"on to "redict *%at *ill "robably occur at so)e 'uture ti)e+ I s%ould say+ t%at t%e abolition o'
slavery in t%e !out% *ill+ in t%e co))on course o' t%in&s+ increase t%e re"u&nance o' t%e *%ite "o"ulation 'or
t%e )en o' color# I 'ound t%is o"inion u"on t%e analo&ous observation *%ic% I already %ad occasion to )ae in
t%e Nort%# I t%ere re)ared t%at t%e *%ite in%abitants o' t%e Nort% avoid t%e ne&roes *it% increasin& care+ in
"ro"ortion as t%e le&al barriers o' se"aration are re)oved by t%e le&islature6 and *%y s%ould not t%e sa)e result
tae "lace in t%e !out%I In t%e Nort%+ t%e *%ites are deterred 'ro) inter)in&lin& *it% t%e blacs by t%e 'ear o' an
i)a&inary dan&er6 in t%e !out%+ *%ere t%e dan&er *ould be real+ I cannot i)a&ine t%at t%e 'ear *ould be less
&eneral#
I'+ on t%e one %and+ it be ad)itted >and t%e 'act is unquestionable? t%at t%e colored "o"ulation "er"etually
accu)ulates in t%e extre)e !out%+ and t%at it increases )ore ra"idly t%an t%at o' t%e *%ites6 and i'+ on t%e ot%er
%and+ it be allo*ed t%at it is i)"ossible to 'oresee a ti)e at *%ic% t%e *%ites and t%e blacs *ill be so
inter)in&led as to derive t%e sa)e bene'its 'ro) society6 )ust it not be in'erred t%at t%e blacs and t%e *%ites
*ill+ sooner or later+ co)e to o"en stri'e in t%e !out%ern !tates o' t%e (nionI But i' it be ased *%at t%e issue o'
t%e stru&&le is liely to be+ it *ill readily be understood t%at *e are %ere le't to 'or) a very va&ue sur)ise o' t%e
trut%# T%e %u)an )ind )ay succeed in tracin& a *ide circle+ as it *ere+ *%ic% includes t%e course o' 'uture
events6 but *it%in t%at circle a t%ousand various c%ances and circu)stances )ay direct it in as )any di''erent
*ays6 and in every "icture o' t%e 'uture t%ere is a di) s"ot+ *%ic% t%e eye o' t%e understandin& cannot "enetrate#
It a""ears+ %o*ever+ to be extre)ely "robable t%at in t%e ,est Indian Islands t%e *%ite race is destined to be
subdued+ and t%e blac "o"ulation to s%are t%e sa)e 'ate u"on t%e continent#
In t%e ,est India Islands t%e *%ite "lanters are surrounded by an i))ense blac "o"ulation6 on t%e continent+
t%e blacs are "laced bet*een t%e ocean and an innu)erable "eo"le+ *%ic% already extends over t%e) in a dense
)ass+ 'ro) t%e icy con'ines o' Canada to t%e 'rontiers o' Dir&inia+ and 'ro) t%e bans o' t%e Missouri to t%e
s%ores o' t%e Atlantic# I' t%e *%ite citi-ens o' Nort% A)erica re)ain united+ it cannot be su""osed t%at t%e
ne&roes *ill esca"e t%e destruction *it% *%ic% t%ey are )enaced6 t%ey )ust be subdued by *ant or by t%e s*ord#
But t%e blac "o"ulation *%ic% is accu)ulated alon& t%e coast o' t%e 9ul' o' Mexico+ %as a c%ance o' success i'
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t%e A)erican (nion is dissolved *%en t%e stru&&le bet*een t%e t*o races be&ins# I' t%e 'ederal tie *ere broen+
t%e citi-ens o' t%e !out% *ould be *ron& to rely u"on any lastin& succor 'ro) t%eir Nort%ern country)en# T%e
latter are *ell a*are t%at t%e dan&er can never reac% t%e)6 and unless t%ey are constrained to )arc% to t%e
assistance o' t%e !out% by a "ositive obli&ation+ it )ay be 'oreseen t%at t%e sy)"at%y o' color *ill be insu''icient
to sti)ulate t%eir exertions#
Yet+ at *%atever "eriod t%e stri'e )ay brea out+ t%e *%ites o' t%e !out%+ even i' t%ey are abandoned to t%eir o*n
resources+ *ill enter t%e lists *it% an i))ense su"eriority o' no*led&e and o' t%e )eans o' *ar'are6 but t%e
blacs *ill %ave nu)erical stren&t% and t%e ener&y o' des"air u"on t%eir side+ and t%ese are "o*er'ul resources to
)en *%o %ave taen u" ar)s# T%e 'ate o' t%e *%ite "o"ulation o' t%e !out%ern !tates *ill+ "er%a"s+ be si)ilar to
t%at o' t%e Moors in !"ain# A'ter %avin& occu"ied t%e land 'or centuries+ it *ill "er%a"s be 'orced to retire to t%e
country *%ence its ancestors ca)e+ and to abandon to t%e ne&roes t%e "ossession o' a territory+ *%ic% :rovidence
see)s to %ave )ore "eculiarly destined 'or t%e)+ since t%ey can subsist and labor in it )ore easily t%at t%e
*%ites#
T%e dan&er o' a con'lict bet*een t%e *%ite and t%e blac in%abitants o' t%e !out%ern !tates o' t%e (nion11a
dan&er *%ic%+ %o*ever re)ote it )ay be+ is inevitable11"er"etually %aunts t%e i)a&ination o' t%e A)ericans# T%e
in%abitants o' t%e Nort% )ae it a co))on to"ic o' conversation+ alt%ou&% t%ey %ave no direct in7ury to 'ear
'ro) t%e stru&&le6 but t%ey vainly endeavor to devise so)e )eans o' obviatin& t%e )is'ortunes *%ic% t%ey
'oresee# In t%e !out%ern !tates t%e sub7ect is not discussed@ t%e "lanter does not allude to t%e 'uture in conversin&
*it% stran&ers6 t%e citi-en does not co))unicate %is a""re%ensions to %is 'riends6 %e sees to conceal t%e) 'ro)
%i)sel'6 but t%ere is so)et%in& )ore alar)in& in t%e tacit 'orebodin&s o' t%e !out%+ t%an in t%e cla)orous 'ears
o' t%e Nort%ern !tates#
T%is all1"ervadin& disquietude %as &iven birt% to an undertain& *%ic% is but little no*n+ but *%ic% )ay %ave
t%e e''ect o' c%an&in& t%e 'ate o' a "ortion o' t%e %u)an race# 5ro) a""re%ension o' t%e dan&ers *%ic% I %ave
7ust been describin&+ a certain nu)ber o' A)erican citi-ens %ave 'or)ed a society 'or t%e "ur"ose o' ex"ortin& to
t%e coast o' 9uinea+ at t%eir o*n ex"ense+ suc% 'ree ne&roes as )ay be *illin& to esca"e 'ro) t%e o""ression to
*%ic% t%ey are sub7ect# Kt In ./A<+ t%e society to *%ic% I allude 'or)ed a settle)ent in A'rica+ u"on t%e sevent%
de&ree o' nort% latitude+ *%ic% bears t%e na)e o' 8iberia# T%e )ost recent intelli&ence in'or)s us t%at A+C<<
ne&roes are collected t%ere6 t%ey %ave introduced t%e de)ocratic institutions o' A)erica into t%e country o' t%eir
'ore'at%ers6 and 8iberia %as a re"resentative syste) o' &overn)ent+ ne&ro 7ury)en+ ne&ro )a&istrates+ and ne&ro
"riests6 c%urc%es %ave been built+ ne*s"a"ers establis%ed+ and+ by a sin&ular c%an&e in t%e vicissitudes o' t%e
*orld+ *%ite )en are "ro%ibited 'ro) so7ournin& *it%in t%e settle)ent# Ku
35ootnote t@ T%is society assu)ed t%e na)e o' 2T%e !ociety 'or t%e Coloni-ation o' t%e Blacs#2 !ee its annual
re"orts6 and )ore "articularly t%e 'i'teent%# !ee also t%e "a)"%let+ to *%ic% allusion %as already been )ade+
entitled 28etters on t%e Coloni-ation !ociety+ and on its "robable Results+2 by Mr# Carey+ :%iladel"%ia+ ./00#4
35ootnote u@ T%is last re&ulation *as laid do*n by t%e 'ounders o' t%e settle)ent6 t%ey a""re%ended t%at a state
o' t%in&s )i&%t arise in A'rica si)ilar to t%at *%ic% exists on t%e 'rontiers o' t%e (nited !tates+ and t%at i' t%e
ne&roes+ lie t%e Indians+ *ere brou&%t into collision *it% a "eo"le )ore enli&%tened t%an t%e)selves+ t%ey
*ould be destroyed be'ore t%ey could be civili-ed#4
T%is is indeed a stran&e ca"rice o' 'ortune# T*o %undred years %ave no* ela"sed since t%e in%abitants o' Euro"e
undertoo to tear t%e ne&ro 'ro) %is 'a)ily and %is %o)e+ in order to trans"ort %i) to t%e s%ores o' Nort%
A)erica6 at t%e "resent day+ t%e Euro"ean settlers are en&a&ed in sendin& bac t%e descendants o' t%ose very
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ne&roes to t%e Continent 'ro) *%ic% t%ey *ere ori&inally taen6 and t%e barbarous A'ricans %ave been brou&%t
into contact *it% civili-ation in t%e )idst o' bonda&e+ and %ave beco)e acquainted *it% 'ree "olitical institutions
in slavery# (" to t%e "resent ti)e A'rica %as been closed a&ainst t%e arts and sciences o' t%e *%ites6 but t%e
inventions o' Euro"e *ill "er%a"s "enetrate into t%ose re&ions+ no* t%at t%ey are introduced by A'ricans
t%e)selves# T%e settle)ent o' 8iberia is 'ounded u"on a lo'ty and a )ost 'ruit'ul idea6 but *%atever )ay be its
results *it% re&ard to t%e Continent o' A'rica+ it can a''ord no re)edy to t%e Ne* ,orld#
In t*elve years t%e Coloni-ation !ociety %as trans"orted A+C<< ne&roes to A'rica6 in t%e sa)e s"ace o' ti)e about
=<<+<<< blacs *ere born in t%e (nited !tates# I' t%e colony o' 8iberia *ere so situated as to be able to receive
t%ousands o' ne* in%abitants every year+ and i' t%e ne&roes *ere in a state to be sent t%it%er *it% advanta&e6 i'
t%e (nion *ere to su""ly t%e society *it% annual subsidies+ Kv and to trans"ort t%e ne&roes to A'rica in t%e
vessels o' t%e !tate+ it *ould still be unable to counter"oise t%e natural increase o' "o"ulation a)on&st t%e
blacs6 and as it could not re)ove as )any )en in a year as are born u"on its territory *it%in t%e sa)e s"ace o'
ti)e+ it *ould 'ail in sus"endin& t%e &ro*t% o' t%e evil *%ic% is daily increasin& in t%e !tates# K* T%e ne&ro race
*ill never leave t%ose s%ores o' t%e A)erican continent+ to *%ic% it *as brou&%t by t%e "assions and t%e vices o'
Euro"eans6 and it *ill not disa""ear 'ro) t%e Ne* ,orld as lon& as it continues to exist# T%e in%abitants o' t%e
(nited !tates )ay retard t%e cala)ities *%ic% t%ey a""re%end+ but t%ey cannot no* destroy t%eir e''icient cause#
35ootnote v@ Nor *ould t%ese be t%e only di''iculties attendant u"on t%e undertain&6 i' t%e (nion undertoo to
buy u" t%e ne&roes no* in A)erica+ in order to trans"ort t%e) to A'rica+ t%e "rice o' slaves+ increasin& *it% t%eir
scarcity+ *ould soon beco)e enor)ous6 and t%e !tates o' t%e Nort% *ould never consent to ex"end suc% &reat
su)s 'or a "ur"ose *%ic% *ould "rocure suc% s)all advanta&es to t%e)selves# I' t%e (nion too "ossession o'
t%e slaves in t%e !out%ern !tates by 'orce+ or at a rate deter)ined by la*+ an insur)ountable resistance *ould
arise in t%at "art o' t%e country# Bot% alternatives are equally i)"ossible#4
35ootnote *@ In ./0< t%ere *ere in t%e (nited !tates A+<.<+0A= slaves and 0.B+G0B 'ree blacs+ in all A+0AB+=;;
ne&roes@ *%ic% 'or)ed about one1'i't% o' t%e total "o"ulation o' t%e (nited !tates at t%at ti)e#4
I a) obli&ed to con'ess t%at I do not re&ard t%e abolition o' slavery as a )eans o' *ardin& o'' t%e stru&&le o' t%e
t*o races in t%e (nited !tates# T%e ne&roes )ay lon& re)ain slaves *it%out co)"lainin&6 but i' t%ey are once
raised to t%e level o' 'ree )en+ t%ey *ill soon revolt at bein& de"rived o' all t%eir civil ri&%ts6 and as t%ey cannot
beco)e t%e equals o' t%e *%ites+ t%ey *ill s"eedily declare t%e)selves as ene)ies# In t%e Nort% everyt%in&
contributed to 'acilitate t%e e)anci"ation o' t%e slaves6 and slavery *as abolis%ed+ *it%out "lacin& t%e 'ree
ne&roes in a "osition *%ic% could beco)e 'or)idable+ since t%eir nu)ber *as too s)all 'or t%e) ever to clai)
t%e exercise o' t%eir ri&%ts# But suc% is not t%e case in t%e !out%# T%e question o' slavery *as a question o'
co))erce and )anu'acture 'or t%e slave1o*ners in t%e Nort%6 'or t%ose o' t%e !out%+ it is a question o' li'e and
deat%# 9od 'orbid t%at I s%ould see to 7usti'y t%e "rinci"le o' ne&ro slavery+ as %as been done by so)e A)erican
*ritersE But I only observe t%at all t%e countries *%ic% 'or)erly ado"ted t%at execrable "rinci"le are not equally
able to abandon it at t%e "resent ti)e#
,%en I conte)"late t%e condition o' t%e !out%+ I can only discover t*o alternatives *%ic% )ay be ado"ted by
t%e *%ite in%abitants o' t%ose !tates6 vi-#+ eit%er to e)anci"ate t%e ne&roes+ and to inter)in&le *it% t%e)6 or+
re)ainin& isolated 'ro) t%e)+ to ee" t%e) in a state o' slavery as lon& as "ossible# All inter)ediate )easures
see) to )e liely to ter)inate+ and t%at s%ortly+ in t%e )ost %orrible o' civil *ars+ and "er%a"s in t%e extir"ation
o' one or ot%er o' t%e t*o races# !uc% is t%e vie* *%ic% t%e A)ericans o' t%e !out% tae o' t%e question+ and
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t%ey act consistently *it% it# As t%ey are deter)ined not to )in&le *it% t%e ne&roes+ t%ey re'use to e)anci"ate
t%e)#
Not t%at t%e in%abitants o' t%e !out% re&ard slavery as necessary to t%e *ealt% o' t%e "lanter+ 'or on t%is "oint
)any o' t%e) a&ree *it% t%eir Nort%ern country)en in 'reely ad)ittin& t%at slavery is "re7udicial to t%eir
interest6 but t%ey are convinced t%at+ %o*ever "re7udicial it )ay be+ t%ey %old t%eir lives u"on no ot%er tenure#
T%e instruction *%ic% is no* di''used in t%e !out% %as convinced t%e in%abitants t%at slavery is in7urious to t%e
slave1o*ner+ but it %as also s%o*n t%e)+ )ore clearly t%an be'ore+ t%at no )eans exist o' &ettin& rid o' its bad
consequences# Hence arises a sin&ular contrast6 t%e )ore t%e utility o' slavery is contested+ t%e )ore 'ir)ly is it
establis%ed in t%e la*s6 and *%ilst t%e "rinci"le o' servitude is &radually abolis%ed in t%e Nort%+ t%at sel'1sa)e
"rinci"le &ives rise to )ore and )ore ri&orous consequences in t%e !out%#
T%e le&islation o' t%e !out%ern !tates *it% re&ard to slaves+ "resents at t%e "resent day suc% un"aralleled
atrocities as su''ice to s%o* %o* radically t%e la*s o' %u)anity %ave been "erverted+ and to betray t%e des"erate
"osition o' t%e co))unity in *%ic% t%at le&islation %as been "ro)ul&ated# T%e A)ericans o' t%is "ortion o' t%e
(nion %ave not+ indeed+ au&)ented t%e %ards%i"s o' slavery6 t%ey %ave+ on t%e contrary+ bettered t%e "%ysical
condition o' t%e slaves# T%e only )eans by *%ic% t%e ancients )aintained slavery *ere 'etters and deat%6 t%e
A)ericans o' t%e !out% o' t%e (nion %ave discovered )ore intellectual securities 'or t%e duration o' t%eir "o*er#
T%ey %ave e)"loyed t%eir des"otis) and t%eir violence a&ainst t%e %u)an )ind# In antiquity+ "recautions *ere
taen to "revent t%e slave 'ro) breain& %is c%ains6 at t%e "resent day )easures are ado"ted to de"rive %i) even
o' t%e desire o' 'reedo)# T%e ancients e"t t%e bodies o' t%eir slaves in bonda&e+ but t%ey "laced no restraint
u"on t%e )ind and no c%ec u"on education6 and t%ey acted consistently *it% t%eir establis%ed "rinci"le+ since a
natural ter)ination o' slavery t%en existed+ and one day or ot%er t%e slave )i&%t be set 'ree+ and beco)e t%e
equal o' %is )aster# But t%e A)ericans o' t%e !out%+ *%o do not ad)it t%at t%e ne&roes can ever be co))in&led
*it% t%e)selves+ %ave 'orbidden t%e) to be tau&%t to read or to *rite+ under severe "enalties6 and as t%ey *ill not
raise t%e) to t%eir o*n level+ t%ey sin t%e) as nearly as "ossible to t%at o' t%e brutes#
T%e %o"e o' liberty %ad al*ays been allo*ed to t%e slave to c%eer t%e %ards%i"s o' %is condition# But t%e
A)ericans o' t%e !out% are *ell a*are t%at e)anci"ation cannot but be dan&erous+ *%en t%e 'reed )an can
never be assi)ilated to %is 'or)er )aster# To &ive a )an %is 'reedo)+ and to leave %i) in *retc%edness and
i&no)iny+ is not%in& less t%an to "re"are a 'uture c%ie' 'or a revolt o' t%e slaves# Moreover+ it %as lon& been
re)ared t%at t%e "resence o' a 'ree ne&ro va&uely a&itates t%e )inds o' %is less 'ortunate bret%ren+ and conveys
to t%e) a di) notion o' t%eir ri&%ts# T%e A)ericans o' t%e !out% %ave consequently taen )easures to "revent
slave1o*ners 'ro) e)anci"atin& t%eir slaves in )ost cases6 not indeed by a "ositive "ro%ibition+ but by
sub7ectin& t%at ste" to various 'or)s *%ic% it is di''icult to co)"ly *it%# I %a""ened to )eet *it% an old )an+ in
t%e !out% o' t%e (nion+ *%o %ad lived in illicit intercourse *it% one o' %is ne&resses+ and %ad %ad several
c%ildren by %er+ *%o *ere born t%e slaves o' t%eir 'at%er# He %ad indeed 'requently t%ou&%t o' bequeat%in& to
t%e) at least t%eir liberty6 but years %ad ela"sed *it%out %is bein& able to sur)ount t%e le&al obstacles to t%eir
e)anci"ation+ and in t%e )ean *%ile %is old a&e *as co)e+ and %e *as about to die# He "ictured to %i)sel' %is
sons dra&&ed 'ro) )aret to )aret+ and "assin& 'ro) t%e aut%ority o' a "arent to t%e rod o' t%e stran&er+ until
t%ese %orrid antici"ations *ored %is ex"irin& i)a&ination into 'ren-y# ,%en I sa* %i) %e *as a "rey to all t%e
an&uis% o' des"air+ and %e )ade )e 'eel %o* a*'ul is t%e retribution o' nature u"on t%ose *%o %ave broen %er
la*s#
T%ese evils are unquestionably &reat6 but t%ey are t%e necessary and 'oreseen consequence o' t%e very "rinci"le
o' )odern slavery# ,%en t%e Euro"eans c%ose t%eir slaves 'ro) a race di''erin& 'ro) t%eir o*n+ *%ic% )any o'
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t%e) considered as in'erior to t%e ot%er races o' )anind+ and *%ic% t%ey all re"elled *it% %orror 'ro) any
notion o' inti)ate connection+ t%ey )ust %ave believed t%at slavery *ould last 'orever6 since t%ere is no
inter)ediate state *%ic% can be durable bet*een t%e excessive inequality "roduced by servitude and t%e
co)"lete equality *%ic% ori&inates in inde"endence# T%e Euro"eans did i)"er'ectly 'eel t%is trut%+ but *it%out
acno*led&in& it even to t%e)selves# ,%enever t%ey %ave %ad to do *it% ne&roes+ t%eir conduct %as eit%er been
dictated by t%eir interest and t%eir "ride+ or by t%eir co)"assion# T%ey 'irst violated every ri&%t o' %u)anity by
t%eir treat)ent o' t%e ne&ro and t%ey a'ter*ards in'or)ed %i) t%at t%ose ri&%ts *ere "recious and inviolable#
T%ey a''ected to o"en t%eir rans to t%e slaves+ but t%e ne&roes *%o atte)"ted to "enetrate into t%e co))unity
*ere driven bac *it% scorn6 and t%ey %ave incautiously and involuntarily been led to ad)it o' 'reedo) instead
o' slavery+ *it%out %avin& t%e coura&e to be *%olly iniquitous+ or *%olly 7ust#
I' it be i)"ossible to antici"ate a "eriod at *%ic% t%e A)ericans o' t%e !out% *ill )in&le t%eir blood *it% t%at o'
t%e ne&roes+ can t%ey allo* t%eir slaves to beco)e 'ree *it%out co)"ro)isin& t%eir o*n securityI And i' t%ey are
obli&ed to ee" t%at race in bonda&e in order to save t%eir o*n 'a)ilies+ )ay t%ey not be excused 'or availin&
t%e)selves o' t%e )eans best ada"ted to t%at endI T%e events *%ic% are tain& "lace in t%e !out%ern !tates o' t%e
(nion a""ear to )e to be at once t%e )ost %orrible and t%e )ost natural results o' slavery# ,%en I see t%e order
o' nature overt%ro*n+ and *%en I %ear t%e cry o' %u)anity in its vain stru&&le a&ainst t%e la*s+ )y indi&nation
does not li&%t u"on t%e )en o' our o*n ti)e *%o are t%e instru)ents o' t%ese outra&es6 but I reserve )y
execration 'or t%ose *%o+ a'ter a t%ousand years o' 'reedo)+ brou&%t bac slavery into t%e *orld once )ore#
,%atever )ay be t%e e''orts o' t%e A)ericans o' t%e !out% to )aintain slavery+ t%ey *ill not al*ays succeed#
!lavery+ *%ic% is no* con'ined to a sin&le tract o' t%e civili-ed eart%+ *%ic% is attaced by C%ristianity as un7ust+
and by "olitical econo)y as "re7udicial6 and *%ic% is no* contrasted *it% de)ocratic liberties and t%e
in'or)ation o' our a&e+ cannot survive# By t%e c%oice o' t%e )aster+ or by t%e *ill o' t%e slave+ it *ill cease6 and
in eit%er case &reat cala)ities )ay be ex"ected to ensue# I' liberty be re'used to t%e ne&roes o' t%e !out%+ t%ey
*ill in t%e end sei-e it 'or t%e)selves by 'orce6 i' it be &iven+ t%ey *ill abuse it ere lon&# Kx
35ootnote x@ 3T%is c%a"ter is no lon&er a""licable to t%e condition o' t%e ne&ro race in t%e (nited !tates+ since
t%e abolition o' slavery *as t%e result+ t%ou&% not t%e ob7ect+ o' t%e &reat Civil ,ar+ and t%e ne&roes %ave been
raised to t%e condition not only o' 'reed)en+ but o' citi-ens6 and in so)e !tates t%ey exercise a "re"onderatin&
"olitical "o*er by reason o' t%eir nu)erical )a7ority# T%us+ in !out% Carolina t%ere *ere in ./=<+ A/B+;;=
*%ites and G.C+/.G blacs# But t%e e)anci"ation o' t%e slaves %as not solved t%e "roble)+ %o* t*o races so
di''erent and so %ostile are to live to&et%er in "eace in one country on equal ter)s# T%at "roble) is as di''icult+
"er%a"s )ore di''icult t%an ever6 and to t%is di''iculty t%e aut%orFs re)ars are still "er'ectly a""licable#44
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art DI
,%at Are T%e C%ances In 5avor O' T%e Duration O' T%e A)erican (nion+ And ,%at Dan&ers T%reaten It Ky
35ootnote y@ 3T%is c%a"ter is one o' t%e )ost curious and interestin& "ortions o' t%e *or+ because it e)braces
al)ost all t%e constitutional and social questions *%ic% *ere raised by t%e &reat secession o' t%e !out% and
decided by t%e results o' t%e Civil ,ar# But it )ust be con'essed t%at t%e sa&acity o' t%e aut%or is so)eti)es at
'ault in t%ese s"eculations+ and did not save %i) 'ro) considerable errors+ *%ic% t%e course o' events %as since
)ade a""arent# He %eld t%at 2t%e le&islators o' t%e Constitution o' .=/B *ere not a""ointed to constitute t%e
&overn)ent o' a sin&le "eo"le+ but to re&ulate t%e association o' several !tates6 t%at t%e (nion *as 'or)ed by t%e
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voluntary a&ree)ent o' t%e !tates+ and in unitin& to&et%er t%ey %ave not 'or'eited t%eir nationality+ nor %ave t%ey
been reduced to t%e condition o' one and t%e sa)e "eo"le#2 ,%ence %e in'erred t%at 2i' one o' t%e !tates c%ose to
*it%dra* its na)e 'ro) t%e contract+ it *ould be di''icult to dis"rove its ri&%t o' doin& so6 and t%at t%e 5ederal
9overn)ent *ould %ave no )eans o' )aintainin& its clai)s directly+ eit%er by 'orce or by ri&%t#2 T%is is t%e
!out%ern t%eory o' t%e Constitution+ and t%e *%ole case o' t%e !out% in 'avor o' secession# To )any Euro"eans+
and to so)e A)erican >Nort%ern? 7urists+ t%is vie* a""eared to be sound6 but it *as vi&orously resisted by t%e
Nort%+ and crus%ed by 'orce o' ar)s#
T%e aut%or o' t%is boo *as )istaen in su""osin& t%at t%e 2(nion *as a vast body *%ic% "resents no de'inite
ob7ect to "atriotic 'eelin&#2 ,%en t%e day o' trial ca)e+ )illions o' )en *ere ready to lay do*n t%eir lives 'or it#
He *as also )istaen in su""osin& t%at t%e 5ederal Executive is so *ea t%at it requires t%e 'ree consent o' t%e
&overned to enable it to subsist+ and t%at it *ould be de'eated in a stru&&le to )aintain t%e (nion a&ainst one or
)ore se"arate !tates# In ./;. nine !tates+ *it% a "o"ulation o' /+=C0+<<<+ seceded+ and )aintained 'or 'our years
a resolute but unequal contest 'or inde"endence+ but t%ey *ere de'eated#
8astly+ t%e aut%or *as )istaen in su""osin& t%at a co))unity o' interests *ould al*ays "revail bet*een Nort%
and !out% su''iciently "o*er'ul to bind t%e) to&et%er# He overlooed t%e in'luence *%ic% t%e question o' slavery
)ust %ave on t%e (nion t%e )o)ent t%at t%e )a7ority o' t%e "eo"le o' t%e Nort% declared a&ainst it# In ./0.+
*%en t%e aut%or visited A)erica+ t%e anti1slavery a&itation %ad scarcely be&un6 and t%e 'act o' !out%ern slavery
*as acce"ted by )en o' all "arties+ even in t%e !tates *%ere t%ere *ere no slaves@ and t%at *as unquestionably
t%e vie* taen by all t%e !tates and by all A)erican states)en at t%e ti)e o' t%e ado"tion o' t%e Constitution+ in
.=/B# But in t%e course o' t%irty years a &reat c%an&e too "lace+ and t%e Nort% re'used to "er"etuate *%at %ad
beco)e t%e 2"eculiar institution2 o' t%e !out%+ es"ecially as it &ave t%e !out% a s"ecies o' aristocratic
"re"onderance# T%e result *as t%e rati'ication+ in Dece)ber+ ./;C+ o' t%e celebrated .0t% article or a)end)ent
o' t%e Constitution+ *%ic% declared t%at 2neit%er slavery nor involuntary servitude11exce"t as a "unis%)ent 'or
cri)e11s%all exist *it%in t%e (nited !tates#2 To *%ic% *as soon a'ter*ards added t%e .Ct% article+ 2T%e ri&%t o'
citi-ens to vote s%all not be denied or abrid&ed by t%e (nited !tates+ or by any !tate+ on account o' race+ color+ or
"revious servitude#2 T%e e)anci"ation o' several )illions o' ne&ro slaves *it%out co)"ensation+ and t%e trans'er
to t%e) o' "olitical "re"onderance in t%e !tates in *%ic% t%ey outnu)ber t%e *%ite "o"ulation+ *ere acts o' t%e
Nort% totally o""osed to t%e interests o' t%e !out%+ and *%ic% could only %ave been carried into e''ect by
conquest#11TranslatorFs Note#44
Reason 'or *%ic% t%e "re"onderatin& 'orce lies in t%e !tates rat%er t%an in t%e (nion11T%e (nion *ill only last as
lon& as all t%e !tates c%oose to belon& to it11Causes *%ic% tend to ee" t%e) united11(tility o' t%e (nion to resist
'orei&n ene)ies+ and to "revent t%e existence o' 'orei&ners in A)erica11No natural barriers bet*een t%e several
!tates11No con'lictin& interests to divide t%e)11Reci"rocal interests o' t%e Nort%ern+ !out%ern+ and ,estern
!tates11Intellectual ties o' union11(ni'or)ity o' o"inions11Dan&ers o' t%e (nion resultin& 'ro) t%e di''erent
c%aracters and t%e "assions o' its citi-ens11C%aracter o' t%e citi-ens in t%e !out% and in t%e Nort%11T%e ra"id
&ro*t% o' t%e (nion one o' its &reatest dan&ers11:ro&ress o' t%e "o"ulation to t%e Nort%*est11:o*er &ravitates in
t%e sa)e direction11:assions ori&inatin& 'ro) sudden turns o' 'ortune11,%et%er t%e existin& 9overn)ent o' t%e
(nion tends to &ain stren&t%+ or to lose it11Darious si&ns o' its decrease11Internal i)"rove)ents11,aste lands11
Indians11T%e Ban11T%e Tari''119eneral $acson#
T%e )aintenance o' t%e existin& institutions o' t%e several !tates de"ends in so)e )easure u"on t%e )aintenance
o' t%e (nion itsel'# It is t%ere'ore i)"ortant in t%e 'irst instance to inquire into t%e "robable 'ate o' t%e (nion#
One "oint )ay indeed be assu)ed at once@ i' t%e "resent con'ederation *ere dissolved+ it a""ears to )e to be
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incontestable t%at t%e !tates o' *%ic% it is no* co)"osed *ould not return to t%eir ori&inal isolated condition+
but t%at several unions *ould t%en be 'or)ed in t%e "lace o' one# It is not )y intention to inquire into t%e
"rinci"les u"on *%ic% t%ese ne* unions *ould "robably be establis%ed+ but )erely to s%o* *%at t%e causes are
*%ic% )ay e''ect t%e dis)e)ber)ent o' t%e existin& con'ederation#
,it% t%is ob7ect I s%all be obli&ed to retrace so)e o' t%e ste"s *%ic% I %ave already taen+ and to revert to to"ics
*%ic% I %ave be'ore discussed# I a) a*are t%at t%e reader )ay accuse )e o' re"etition+ but t%e i)"ortance o' t%e
)atter *%ic% still re)ains to be treated is )y excuse6 I %ad rat%er say too )uc%+ t%an say too little to be
t%orou&%ly understood+ and I "re'er in7urin& t%e aut%or to sli&%tin& t%e sub7ect#
T%e le&islators *%o 'or)ed t%e Constitution o' .=/B endeavored to con'er a distinct and "re"onderatin&
aut%ority u"on t%e 'ederal "o*er# But t%ey *ere con'ined by t%e conditions o' t%e tas *%ic% t%ey %ad
undertaen to "er'or)# T%ey *ere not a""ointed to constitute t%e &overn)ent o' a sin&le "eo"le+ but to re&ulate
t%e association o' several !tates6 and+ *%atever t%eir inclinations )i&%t be+ t%ey could not but divide t%e exercise
o' soverei&nty in t%e end#
In order to understand t%e consequences o' t%is division+ it is necessary to )ae a s%ort distinction bet*een t%e
a''airs o' t%e 9overn)ent# T%ere are so)e ob7ects *%ic% are national by t%eir very nature+ t%at is to say+ *%ic%
a''ect t%e nation as a body+ and can only be intrusted to t%e )an or t%e asse)bly o' )en *%o )ost co)"letely
re"resent t%e entire nation# A)on&st t%ese )ay be reconed *ar and di"lo)acy# T%ere are ot%er ob7ects *%ic%
are "rovincial by t%eir very nature+ t%at is to say+ *%ic% only a''ect certain localities+ and *%ic% can only be
"ro"erly treated in t%at locality# !uc%+ 'or instance+ is t%e bud&et o' a )unici"ality# 8astly+ t%ere are certain
ob7ects o' a )ixed nature+ *%ic% are national inas)uc% as t%ey a''ect all t%e citi-ens *%o co)"ose t%e nation+
and *%ic% are "rovincial inas)uc% as it is not necessary t%at t%e nation itsel' s%ould "rovide 'or t%e) all# !uc%
are t%e ri&%ts *%ic% re&ulate t%e civil and "olitical condition o' t%e citi-ens# No society can exist *it%out civil
and "olitical ri&%ts# T%ese ri&%ts t%ere'ore interest all t%e citi-ens alie6 but it is not al*ays necessary to t%e
existence and t%e "ros"erity o' t%e nation t%at t%ese ri&%ts s%ould be uni'or)+ nor+ consequently+ t%at t%ey s%ould
be re&ulated by t%e central aut%ority#
T%ere are+ t%en+ t*o distinct cate&ories o' ob7ects *%ic% are sub)itted to t%e direction o' t%e soverei&n "o*er6
and t%ese cate&ories occur in all *ell1constituted co))unities+ *%atever t%e basis o' t%e "olitical constitution
)ay ot%er*ise be# Bet*een t%ese t*o extre)es t%e ob7ects *%ic% I %ave ter)ed )ixed )ay be considered to lie#
As t%ese ob7ects are neit%er exclusively national nor entirely "rovincial+ t%ey )ay be obtained by a national or by
a "rovincial &overn)ent+ accordin& to t%e a&ree)ent o' t%e contractin& "arties+ *it%out in any *ay i)"airin& t%e
contract o' association#
T%e soverei&n "o*er is usually 'or)ed by t%e union o' se"arate individuals+ *%o co)"ose a "eo"le6 and
individual "o*ers or collective 'orces+ eac% re"resentin& a very s)all "ortion o' t%e soverei&n aut%ority+ are t%e
sole ele)ents *%ic% are sub7ected to t%e &eneral 9overn)ent o' t%eir c%oice# In t%is case t%e &eneral
9overn)ent is )ore naturally called u"on to re&ulate+ not only t%ose a''airs *%ic% are o' essential national
i)"ortance+ but t%ose *%ic% are o' a )ore local interest6 and t%e local &overn)ents are reduced to t%at s)all
s%are o' soverei&n aut%ority *%ic% is indis"ensable to t%eir "ros"erity#
But so)eti)es t%e soverei&n aut%ority is co)"osed o' "reor&ani-ed "olitical bodies+ by virtue o' circu)stances
anterior to t%eir union6 and in t%is case t%e "rovincial &overn)ents assu)e t%e control+ not only o' t%ose a''airs
*%ic% )ore "eculiarly belon& to t%eir "rovince+ but o' all+ or o' a "art o' t%e )ixed a''airs to *%ic% allusion %as
been )ade# 5or t%e con'ederate nations *%ic% *ere inde"endent soverei&n !tates be'ore t%eir union+ and *%ic%
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still re"resent a very considerable s%are o' t%e soverei&n "o*er+ %ave only consented to cede to t%e &eneral
9overn)ent t%e exercise o' t%ose ri&%ts *%ic% are indis"ensable to t%e (nion#
,%en t%e national 9overn)ent+ inde"endently o' t%e "rero&atives in%erent in its nature+ is invested *it% t%e ri&%t
o' re&ulatin& t%e a''airs *%ic% relate "artly to t%e &eneral and "artly to t%e local interests+ it "ossesses a
"re"onderatin& in'luence# Not only are its o*n ri&%ts extensive+ but all t%e ri&%ts *%ic% it does not "ossess exist
by its su''erance+ and it )ay be a""re%ended t%at t%e "rovincial &overn)ents )ay be de"rived o' t%eir natural
and necessary "rero&atives by its in'luence#
,%en+ on t%e ot%er %and+ t%e "rovincial &overn)ents are invested *it% t%e "o*er o' re&ulatin& t%ose sa)e
a''airs o' )ixed interest+ an o""osite tendency "revails in society# T%e "re"onderatin& 'orce resides in t%e
"rovince+ not in t%e nation6 and it )ay be a""re%ended t%at t%e national 9overn)ent )ay in t%e end be stri""ed
o' t%e "rivile&es *%ic% are necessary to its existence#
Inde"endent nations %ave t%ere'ore a natural tendency to centrali-ation+ and con'ederations to dis)e)ber)ent#
It no* only re)ains 'or us to a""ly t%ese &eneral "rinci"les to t%e A)erican (nion# T%e several !tates *ere
necessarily "ossessed o' t%e ri&%t o' re&ulatin& all exclusively "rovincial a''airs# Moreover t%ese sa)e !tates
retained t%e ri&%ts o' deter)inin& t%e civil and "olitical co)"etency o' t%e citi-ens+ or re&ulatin& t%e reci"rocal
relations o' t%e )e)bers o' t%e co))unity+ and o' dis"ensin& 7ustice6 ri&%ts *%ic% are o' a &eneral nature+ but
*%ic% do not necessarily a""ertain to t%e national 9overn)ent# ,e %ave s%o*n t%at t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e
(nion is invested *it% t%e "o*er o' actin& in t%e na)e o' t%e *%ole nation in t%ose cases in *%ic% t%e nation %as
to a""ear as a sin&le and undivided "o*er6 as+ 'or instance+ in 'orei&n relations+ and in o''erin& a co))on
resistance to a co))on ene)y6 in s%ort+ in conductin& t%ose a''airs *%ic% I %ave styled exclusively national#
In t%is division o' t%e ri&%ts o' soverei&nty+ t%e s%are o' t%e (nion see)s at 'irst si&%t to be )ore considerable
t%an t%at o' t%e !tates6 but a )ore attentive investi&ation s%o*s it to be less so# T%e undertain&s o' t%e
9overn)ent o' t%e (nion are )ore vast+ but t%eir in'luence is )ore rarely 'elt# T%ose o' t%e "rovincial
&overn)ents are co)"aratively s)all+ but t%ey are incessant+ and t%ey serve to ee" alive t%e aut%ority *%ic%
t%ey re"resent# T%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion *atc%es t%e &eneral interests o' t%e country6 but t%e &eneral
interests o' a "eo"le %ave a very questionable in'luence u"on individual %a""iness+ *%ilst "rovincial interests
"roduce a )ost i))ediate e''ect u"on t%e *el'are o' t%e in%abitants# T%e (nion secures t%e inde"endence and
t%e &reatness o' t%e nation+ *%ic% do not i))ediately a''ect "rivate citi-ens6 but t%e several !tates )aintain t%e
liberty+ re&ulate t%e ri&%ts+ "rotect t%e 'ortune+ and secure t%e li'e and t%e *%ole 'uture "ros"erity o' every
citi-en#
T%e 5ederal 9overn)ent is very 'ar re)oved 'ro) its sub7ects+ *%ilst t%e "rovincial &overn)ents are *it%in t%e
reac% o' t%e) all+ and are ready to attend to t%e s)allest a""eal# T%e central 9overn)ent %as u"on its side t%e
"assions o' a 'e* su"erior )en *%o as"ire to conduct it6 but u"on t%e side o' t%e "rovincial &overn)ents are t%e
interests o' all t%ose second1rate individuals *%o can only %o"e to obtain "o*er *it%in t%eir o*n !tate+ and *%o
nevert%eless exercise t%e lar&est s%are o' aut%ority over t%e "eo"le because t%ey are "laced nearest to its level#
T%e A)ericans %ave t%ere'ore )uc% )ore to %o"e and to 'ear 'ro) t%e !tates t%an 'ro) t%e (nion6 and+ in
con'or)ity *it% t%e natural tendency o' t%e %u)an )ind+ t%ey are )ore liely to attac% t%e)selves to t%e 'or)er
t%an to t%e latter# In t%is res"ect t%eir %abits and 'eelin&s %ar)oni-e *it% t%eir interests#
,%en a co)"act nation divides its soverei&nty+ and ado"ts a con'ederate 'or) o' &overn)ent+ t%e traditions+ t%e
custo)s+ and t%e )anners o' t%e "eo"le are 'or a lon& ti)e at variance *it% t%eir le&islation6 and t%e 'or)er tend
to &ive a de&ree o' in'luence to t%e central &overn)ent *%ic% t%e latter 'orbids# ,%en a nu)ber o' con'ederate
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states unite to 'or) a sin&le nation+ t%e sa)e causes o"erate in an o""osite direction# I %ave no doubt t%at i'
5rance *ere to beco)e a con'ederate re"ublic lie t%at o' t%e (nited !tates+ t%e &overn)ent *ould at 'irst
dis"lay )ore ener&y t%an t%at o' t%e (nion6 and i' t%e (nion *ere to alter its constitution to a )onarc%y lie t%at
o' 5rance+ I t%in t%at t%e A)erican 9overn)ent *ould be a lon& ti)e in acquirin& t%e 'orce *%ic% no* rules
t%e latter nation# ,%en t%e national existence o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans be&an+ t%eir "rovincial existence *as
already o' lon& standin&6 necessary relations *ere establis%ed bet*een t%e to*ns%i"s and t%e individual citi-ens
o' t%e sa)e !tates6 and t%ey *ere accusto)ed to consider so)e ob7ects as co))on to t%e) all+ and to conduct
ot%er a''airs as exclusively relatin& to t%eir o*n s"ecial interests#
T%e (nion is a vast body *%ic% "resents no de'inite ob7ect to "atriotic 'eelin&# T%e 'or)s and li)its o' t%e !tate
are distinct and circu)scribed6 since it re"resents a certain nu)ber o' ob7ects *%ic% are 'a)iliar to t%e citi-ens
and beloved by all# It is identi'ied *it% t%e very soil+ *it% t%e ri&%t o' "ro"erty and t%e do)estic a''ections+ *it%
t%e recollections o' t%e "ast+ t%e labors o' t%e "resent+ and t%e %o"es o' t%e 'uture# :atriotis)+ t%en+ *%ic% is
'requently a )ere extension o' individual e&otis)+ is still directed to t%e !tate+ and is not excited by t%e (nion#
T%us t%e tendency o' t%e interests+ t%e %abits+ and t%e 'eelin&s o' t%e "eo"le is to centre "olitical activity in t%e
!tates+ in "re'erence to t%e (nion#
It is easy to esti)ate t%e di''erent 'orces o' t%e t*o &overn)ents+ by re)arin& t%e )anner in *%ic% t%ey 'ul'il
t%eir res"ective 'unctions# ,%enever t%e &overn)ent o' a !tate %as occasion to address an individual or an
asse)bly o' individuals+ its lan&ua&e is clear and i)"erative6 and suc% is also t%e tone o' t%e 5ederal
9overn)ent in its intercourse *it% individuals+ but no sooner %as it anyt%in& to do *it% a !tate t%an it be&ins to
"arley+ to ex"lain its )otives and to 7usti'y its conduct+ to ar&ue+ to advise+ and+ in s%ort+ anyt%in& but to
co))and# I' doubts are raised as to t%e li)its o' t%e constitutional "o*ers o' eac% &overn)ent+ t%e "rovincial
&overn)ent "re'ers its clai) *it% boldness+ and taes "ro)"t and ener&etic ste"s to su""ort it# In t%e )ean *%ile
t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion reasons6 it a""eals to t%e interests+ to t%e &ood sense+ to t%e &lory o' t%e nation6 it
te)"ori-es+ it ne&otiates+ and does not consent to act until it is reduced to t%e last extre)ity# At 'irst si&%t it
)i&%t readily be i)a&ined t%at it is t%e "rovincial &overn)ent *%ic% is ar)ed *it% t%e aut%ority o' t%e nation+
and t%at Con&ress re"resents a sin&le !tate#
T%e 5ederal 9overn)ent is+ t%ere'ore+ not*it%standin& t%e "recautions o' t%ose *%o 'ounded it+ naturally so
*ea t%at it )ore "eculiarly requires t%e 'ree consent o' t%e &overned to enable it to subsist# It is easy to "erceive
t%at its ob7ect is to enable t%e !tates to reali-e *it% 'acility t%eir deter)ination o' re)ainin& united6 and+ as lon&
as t%is "reli)inary condition exists+ its aut%ority is &reat+ te)"erate+ and e''ective# T%e Constitution 'its t%e
9overn)ent to control individuals+ and easily to sur)ount suc% obstacles as t%ey )ay be inclined to o''er6 but it
*as by no )eans establis%ed *it% a vie* to t%e "ossible se"aration o' one or )ore o' t%e !tates 'ro) t%e (nion#
I' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion *ere to en&a&e in a stru&&le *it% t%at o' t%e !tates at t%e "resent day+ its de'eat
)ay be con'idently "redicted6 and it is not "robable t%at suc% a stru&&le *ould be seriously undertaen# As o'ten
as a steady resistance is o''ered to t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent it *ill be 'ound to yield# Ex"erience %as %it%erto
s%o*n t%at *%enever a !tate %as de)anded anyt%in& *it% "erseverance and resolution+ it %as invariably
succeeded6 and t%at i' a se"arate &overn)ent %as distinctly re'used to act+ it *as le't to do as it t%ou&%t 'it# K-
35ootnote -@ !ee t%e conduct o' t%e Nort%ern !tates in t%e *ar o' ./.A# 2Durin& t%at *ar+2 says $e''erson in a
letter to 9eneral 8a'ayette+ 2'our o' t%e Eastern !tates *ere only attac%ed to t%e (nion+ lie so )any inani)ate
bodies to livin& )en#24
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But even i' t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion %ad any stren&t% in%erent in itsel'+ t%e "%ysical situation o' t%e country
*ould render t%e exercise o' t%at stren&t% very di''icult# Ka T%e (nited !tates cover an i))ense territory6 t%ey
are se"arated 'ro) eac% ot%er by &reat distances6 and t%e "o"ulation is disse)inated over t%e sur'ace o' a country
*%ic% is still %al' a *ilderness# I' t%e (nion *ere to undertae to en'orce t%e alle&iance o' t%e con'ederate !tates
by )ilitary )eans+ it *ould be in a "osition very analo&ous to t%at o' En&land at t%e ti)e o' t%e ,ar o'
Inde"endence#
35ootnote a@ T%e "ro'ound "eace o' t%e (nion a''ords no "retext 'or a standin& ar)y6 and *it%out a standin&
ar)y a &overn)ent is not "re"ared to "ro'it by a 'avorable o""ortunity to conquer resistance+ and tae t%e
soverei&n "o*er by sur"rise# 3T%is note+ and t%e "ara&ra"% in t%e text *%ic% "recedes+ %ave been s%o*n by t%e
results o' t%e Civil ,ar to be a )isconce"tion o' t%e *riter#44
Ho*ever stron& a &overn)ent )ay be+ it cannot easily esca"e 'ro) t%e consequences o' a "rinci"le *%ic% it %as
once ad)itted as t%e 'oundation o' its constitution# T%e (nion *as 'or)ed by t%e voluntary a&ree)ent o' t%e
!tates6 and+ in unitin& to&et%er+ t%ey %ave not 'or'eited t%eir nationality+ nor %ave t%ey been reduced to t%e
condition o' one and t%e sa)e "eo"le# I' one o' t%e !tates c%ose to *it%dra* its na)e 'ro) t%e contract+ it *ould
be di''icult to dis"rove its ri&%t o' doin& so6 and t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *ould %ave no )eans o' )aintainin& its
clai)s directly+ eit%er by 'orce or by ri&%t# In order to enable t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent easily to conquer t%e
resistance *%ic% )ay be o''ered to it by any one o' its sub7ects+ it *ould be necessary t%at one or )ore o' t%e)
s%ould be s"ecially interested in t%e existence o' t%e (nion+ as %as 'requently been t%e case in t%e %istory o'
con'ederations#
I' it be su""osed t%at a)on&st t%e !tates *%ic% are united by t%e 'ederal tie t%ere are so)e *%ic% exclusively
en7oy t%e "rinci"al advanta&es o' union+ or *%ose "ros"erity de"ends on t%e duration o' t%at union+ it is
unquestionable t%at t%ey *ill al*ays be ready to su""ort t%e central 9overn)ent in en'orcin& t%e obedience o'
t%e ot%ers# But t%e 9overn)ent *ould t%en be exertin& a 'orce not derived 'ro) itsel'+ but 'ro) a "rinci"le
contrary to its nature# !tates 'or) con'ederations in order to derive equal advanta&es 'ro) t%eir union6 and in t%e
case 7ust alluded to+ t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *ould derive its "o*er 'ro) t%e unequal distribution o' t%ose
bene'its a)on&st t%e !tates#
I' one o' t%e con'ederate !tates %ave acquired a "re"onderance su''iciently &reat to enable it to tae exclusive
"ossession o' t%e central aut%ority+ it *ill consider t%e ot%er !tates as sub7ect "rovinces+ and it *ill cause its o*n
su"re)acy to be res"ected under t%e borro*ed na)e o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion# 9reat t%in&s )ay t%en be
done in t%e na)e o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent+ but in reality t%at 9overn)ent *ill %ave ceased to exist# Kb In bot%
t%ese cases+ t%e "o*er *%ic% acts in t%e na)e o' t%e con'ederation beco)es stron&er t%e )ore it abandons t%e
natural state and t%e acno*led&ed "rinci"les o' con'ederations#
35ootnote b@ T%us t%e "rovince o' Holland in t%e re"ublic o' t%e 8o* Countries+ and t%e E)"eror in t%e
9er)anic Con'ederation+ %ave so)eti)es "ut t%e)selves in t%e "lace o' t%e union+ and %ave e)"loyed t%e
'ederal aut%ority to t%eir o*n advanta&e#4
In A)erica t%e existin& (nion is advanta&eous to all t%e !tates+ but it is not indis"ensable to any one o' t%e)#
!everal o' t%e) )i&%t brea t%e 'ederal tie *it%out co)"ro)isin& t%e *el'are o' t%e ot%ers+ alt%ou&% t%eir o*n
"ros"erity *ould be lessened# As t%e existence and t%e %a""iness o' none o' t%e !tates are *%olly de"endent on
t%e "resent Constitution+ t%ey *ould none o' t%e) be dis"osed to )ae &reat "ersonal sacri'ices to )aintain it#
On t%e ot%er %and+ t%ere is no !tate *%ic% see)s %it%erto to %ave its a)bition )uc% interested in t%e )aintenance
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o' t%e existin& (nion# T%ey certainly do not all exercise t%e sa)e in'luence in t%e 'ederal councils+ but no one o'
t%e) can %o"e to do)ineer over t%e rest+ or to treat t%e) as its in'eriors or as its sub7ects#
It a""ears to )e unquestionable t%at i' any "ortion o' t%e (nion seriously desired to se"arate itsel' 'ro) t%e ot%er
!tates+ t%ey *ould not be able+ nor indeed *ould t%ey atte)"t+ to "revent it6 and t%at t%e "resent (nion *ill only
last as lon& as t%e !tates *%ic% co)"ose it c%oose to continue )e)bers o' t%e con'ederation# I' t%is "oint be
ad)itted+ t%e question beco)es less di''icult6 and our ob7ect is+ not to inquire *%et%er t%e !tates o' t%e existin&
(nion are ca"able o' se"aratin&+ but *%et%er t%ey *ill c%oose to re)ain united#
A)on&st t%e various reasons *%ic% tend to render t%e existin& (nion use'ul to t%e A)ericans+ t*o "rinci"al
causes are "eculiarly evident to t%e observer# Alt%ou&% t%e A)ericans are+ as it *ere+ alone u"on t%eir continent+
t%eir co))erce )aes t%e) t%e nei&%bors o' all t%e nations *it% *%ic% t%ey trade# Not*it%standin& t%eir
a""arent isolation+ t%e A)ericans require a certain de&ree o' stren&t%+ *%ic% t%ey cannot retain ot%er*ise t%an by
re)ainin& united to eac% ot%er# I' t%e !tates *ere to s"lit+ t%ey *ould not only di)inis% t%e stren&t% *%ic% t%ey
are no* able to dis"lay to*ards 'orei&n nations+ but t%ey *ould soon create 'orei&n "o*ers u"on t%eir o*n
territory# A syste) o' inland custo)1%ouses *ould t%en be establis%ed6 t%e valleys *ould be divided by
i)a&inary boundary lines6 t%e courses o' t%e rivers *ould be con'ined by territorial distinctions6 and a )ultitude
o' %indrances *ould "revent t%e A)ericans 'ro) ex"lorin& t%e *%ole o' t%at vast continent *%ic% :rovidence
%as allotted to t%e) 'or a do)inion# At "resent t%ey %ave no invasion to 'ear+ and consequently no standin&
ar)ies to )aintain+ no taxes to levy# I' t%e (nion *ere dissolved+ all t%ese burdenso)e )easures )i&%t ere lon&
be required# T%e A)ericans are t%en very "o*er'ully interested in t%e )aintenance o' t%eir (nion# On t%e ot%er
%and+ it is al)ost i)"ossible to discover any sort o' )aterial interest *%ic% )i&%t at "resent te)"t a "ortion o'
t%e (nion to se"arate 'ro) t%e ot%er !tates#
,%en *e cast our eyes u"on t%e )a" o' t%e (nited !tates+ *e "erceive t%e c%ain o' t%e Alle&%any Mountains+
runnin& 'ro) t%e nort%east to t%e sout%*est+ and crossin& nearly one t%ousand )iles o' country6 and *e are led
to i)a&ine t%at t%e desi&n o' :rovidence *as to raise bet*een t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i and t%e coast o' t%e
Atlantic Ocean one o' t%ose natural barriers *%ic% brea t%e )utual intercourse o' )en+ and 'or) t%e necessary
li)its o' di''erent !tates# But t%e avera&e %ei&%t o' t%e Alle&%anies does not exceed A+C<< 'eet6 t%eir &reatest
elevation is not above G+<<< 'eet6 t%eir rounded su))its+ and t%e s"acious valleys *%ic% t%ey conceal *it%in
t%eir "asses+ are o' easy access 'ro) several sides# Besides *%ic%+ t%e "rinci"al rivers *%ic% 'all into t%e Atlantic
Ocean11t%e Hudson+ t%e !usque%anna+ and t%e :oto)ac11tae t%eir rise beyond t%e Alle&%anies+ in an o"en
district+ *%ic% borders u"on t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i# T%ese strea)s quit t%is tract o' country+ )ae t%eir
*ay t%rou&% t%e barrier *%ic% *ould see) to turn t%e) *est*ard+ and as t%ey *ind t%rou&% t%e )ountains t%ey
o"en an easy and natural "assa&e to )an# No natural barrier exists in t%e re&ions *%ic% are no* in%abited by t%e
An&lo1A)ericans6 t%e Alle&%anies are so 'ar 'ro) servin& as a boundary to se"arate nations+ t%at t%ey do not
even serve as a 'rontier to t%e !tates# Ne* Yor+ :ennsylvania+ and Dir&inia co)"rise t%e) *it%in t%eir borders+
and t%ey extend as )uc% to t%e *est as to t%e east o' t%e line# T%e territory no* occu"ied by t%e t*enty1'our
!tates o' t%e (nion+ and t%e t%ree &reat districts *%ic% %ave not yet acquired t%e ran o' !tates+ alt%ou&% t%ey
already contain in%abitants+ covers a sur'ace o' .+<<A+;<< square )iles+ Kc *%ic% is about equal to 'ive ti)es t%e
extent o' 5rance# ,it%in t%ese li)its t%e qualities o' t%e soil+ t%e te)"erature+ and t%e "roduce o' t%e country+ are
extre)ely various# T%e vast extent o' territory occu"ied by t%e An&lo1A)erican re"ublics %as &iven rise to
doubts as to t%e )aintenance o' t%eir (nion# Here a distinction )ust be )ade6 contrary interests so)eti)es arise
in t%e di''erent "rovinces o' a vast e)"ire+ *%ic% o'ten ter)inate in o"en dissensions6 and t%e extent o' t%e
country is t%en )ost "re7udicial to t%e "o*er o' t%e !tate# But i' t%e in%abitants o' t%ese vast re&ions are not
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divided by contrary interests+ t%e extent o' t%e territory )ay be 'avorable to t%eir "ros"erity6 'or t%e unity o' t%e
&overn)ent "ro)otes t%e interc%an&e o' t%e di''erent "roductions o' t%e soil+ and increases t%eir value by
'acilitatin& t%eir consu)"tion#
35ootnote c@ !ee 2DarbyFs Die* o' t%e (nited !tates+2 "# G0C# 3In ./B< t%e nu)ber o' !tates and Territories %ad
increased to C.+ t%e "o"ulation to ;A+/0.+B<<+ and t%e area o' t%e !tates+ 0+;<A+BB< square )iles# T%is does not
include t%e :%ili""ine Islands+ Ha*aii+ or :orto Rico# A conservative esti)ate o' t%e "o"ulation o' t%e :%ili""ine
Islands is /+<<<+<<<6 t%at o' Ha*aii+ by t%e census o' ./B=+ *as &iven at .<B+<A<6 and t%e "resent esti)ated
"o"ulation o' :orto Rico is B<<+<<<# T%e area o' t%e :%ili""ine Islands is about .A<+<<< square )iles+ t%at o'
Ha*aii is ;+=G< square )iles+ and t%e area o' :orto Rico is about 0+;<< square )iles#44
It is indeed easy to discover di''erent interests in t%e di''erent "arts o' t%e (nion+ but I a) unacquainted *it% any
*%ic% are %ostile to eac% ot%er# T%e !out%ern !tates are al)ost exclusively a&ricultural# T%e Nort%ern !tates are
)ore "eculiarly co))ercial and )anu'acturin&# T%e !tates o' t%e ,est are at t%e sa)e ti)e a&ricultural and
)anu'acturin&# In t%e !out% t%e cro"s consist o' tobacco+ o' rice+ o' cotton+ and o' su&ar6 in t%e Nort% and t%e
,est+ o' *%eat and )ai-e# T%ese are di''erent sources o' *ealt%6 but union is t%e )eans by *%ic% t%ese sources
are o"ened to all+ and rendered equally advanta&eous to t%e several districts#
T%e Nort%+ *%ic% s%i"s t%e "roduce o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans to all "arts o' t%e *orld+ and brin&s bac t%e
"roduce o' t%e &lobe to t%e (nion+ is evidently interested in )aintainin& t%e con'ederation in its "resent
condition+ in order t%at t%e nu)ber o' A)erican "roducers and consu)ers )ay re)ain as lar&e as "ossible# T%e
Nort% is t%e )ost natural a&ent o' co))unication bet*een t%e !out% and t%e ,est o' t%e (nion on t%e one %and+
and t%e rest o' t%e *orld u"on t%e ot%er6 t%e Nort% is t%ere'ore interested in t%e union and "ros"erity o' t%e !out%
and t%e ,est+ in order t%at t%ey )ay continue to 'urnis% ra* )aterials 'or its )anu'actures+ and car&oes 'or its
s%i""in&#
T%e !out% and t%e ,est+ on t%eir side+ are still )ore directly interested in t%e "reservation o' t%e (nion+ and t%e
"ros"erity o' t%e Nort%# T%e "roduce o' t%e !out% is+ 'or t%e )ost "art+ ex"orted beyond seas6 t%e !out% and t%e
,est consequently stand in need o' t%e co))ercial resources o' t%e Nort%# T%ey are lie*ise interested in t%e
)aintenance o' a "o*er'ul 'leet by t%e (nion+ to "rotect t%e) e''icaciously# T%e !out% and t%e ,est %ave no
vessels+ but t%ey cannot re'use a *illin& subsidy to de'ray t%e ex"enses o' t%e navy6 'or i' t%e 'leets o' Euro"e
*ere to blocade t%e "orts o' t%e !out% and t%e delta o' t%e Mississi""i+ *%at *ould beco)e o' t%e rice o' t%e
Carolinas+ t%e tobacco o' Dir&inia+ and t%e su&ar and cotton *%ic% &ro* in t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""iI Every
"ortion o' t%e 'ederal bud&et does t%ere'ore contribute to t%e )aintenance o' )aterial interests *%ic% are
co))on to all t%e con'ederate !tates#
Inde"endently o' t%is co))ercial utility+ t%e !out% and t%e ,est o' t%e (nion derive &reat "olitical advanta&es
'ro) t%eir connection *it% t%e Nort%# T%e !out% contains an enor)ous slave "o"ulation6 a "o"ulation *%ic% is
already alar)in&+ and still )ore 'or)idable 'or t%e 'uture# T%e !tates o' t%e ,est lie in t%e re)otest "arts o' a
sin&le valley6 and all t%e rivers *%ic% intersect t%eir territory rise in t%e Rocy Mountains or in t%e Alle&%anies+
and 'all into t%e Mississi""i+ *%ic% bears t%e) on*ards to t%e 9ul' o' Mexico# T%e ,estern !tates are
consequently entirely cut o''+ by t%eir "osition+ 'ro) t%e traditions o' Euro"e and t%e civili-ation o' t%e Old
,orld# T%e in%abitants o' t%e !out%+ t%en+ are induced to su""ort t%e (nion in order to avail t%e)selves o' its
"rotection a&ainst t%e blacs6 and t%e in%abitants o' t%e ,est in order not to be excluded 'ro) a 'ree
co))unication *it% t%e rest o' t%e &lobe+ and s%ut u" in t%e *ilds o' central A)erica# T%e Nort% cannot but
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desire t%e )aintenance o' t%e (nion+ in order to re)ain+ as it no* is+ t%e connectin& lin bet*een t%at vast body
and t%e ot%er "arts o' t%e *orld#
T%e te)"oral interests o' all t%e several "arts o' t%e (nion are+ t%en+ inti)ately connected6 and t%e sa)e assertion
%olds true res"ectin& t%ose o"inions and senti)ents *%ic% )ay be ter)ed t%e i))aterial interests o' )en#
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art DII
T%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates tal a &reat deal o' t%eir attac%)ent to t%eir country6 but I con'ess t%at I do
not rely u"on t%at calculatin& "atriotis) *%ic% is 'ounded u"on interest+ and *%ic% a c%an&e in t%e interests at
stae )ay obliterate# Nor do I attac% )uc% i)"ortance to t%e lan&ua&e o' t%e A)ericans+ *%en t%ey )ani'est+ in
t%eir daily conversations+ t%e intention o' )aintainin& t%e 'ederal syste) ado"ted by t%eir 'ore'at%ers# A
&overn)ent retains its s*ay over a &reat nu)ber o' citi-ens+ 'ar less by t%e voluntary and rational consent o' t%e
)ultitude+ t%an by t%at instinctive+ and to a certain extent involuntary a&ree)ent+ *%ic% results 'ro) si)ilarity o'
'eelin&s and rese)blances o' o"inion# I *ill never ad)it t%at )en constitute a social body+ si)"ly because t%ey
obey t%e sa)e %ead and t%e sa)e la*s# !ociety can only exist *%en a &reat nu)ber o' )en consider a &reat
nu)ber o' t%in&s in t%e sa)e "oint o' vie*6 *%en t%ey %old t%e sa)e o"inions u"on )any sub7ects+ and *%en t%e
sa)e occurrences su&&est t%e sa)e t%ou&%ts and i)"ressions to t%eir )inds#
T%e observer *%o exa)ines t%e "resent condition o' t%e (nited !tates u"on t%is "rinci"le+ *ill readily discover+
t%at alt%ou&% t%e citi-ens are divided into t*enty1'our distinct soverei&nties+ t%ey nevert%eless constitute a sin&le
"eo"le6 and %e )ay "er%a"s be led to t%in t%at t%e state o' t%e An&lo1A)erican (nion is )ore truly a state o'
society t%an t%at o' certain nations o' Euro"e *%ic% live under t%e sa)e le&islation and t%e sa)e "rince#
Alt%ou&% t%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave several reli&ious sects+ t%ey all re&ard reli&ion in t%e sa)e )anner# T%ey
are not al*ays a&reed u"on t%e )easures *%ic% are )ost conducive to &ood &overn)ent+ and t%ey vary u"on
so)e o' t%e 'or)s o' &overn)ent *%ic% it is ex"edient to ado"t6 but t%ey are unani)ous u"on t%e &eneral
"rinci"les *%ic% ou&%t to rule %u)an society# 5ro) Maine to t%e 5loridas+ and 'ro) t%e Missouri to t%e Atlantic
Ocean+ t%e "eo"le is %eld to be t%e le&iti)ate source o' all "o*er# T%e sa)e notions are entertained res"ectin&
liberty and equality+ t%e liberty o' t%e "ress+ t%e ri&%t o' association+ t%e 7ury+ and t%e res"onsibility o' t%e a&ents
o' 9overn)ent#
I' *e turn 'ro) t%eir "olitical and reli&ious o"inions to t%e )oral and "%iloso"%ical "rinci"les *%ic% re&ulate t%e
daily actions o' li'e and &overn t%eir conduct+ *e s%all still 'ind t%e sa)e uni'or)ity# T%e An&lo1A)ericans Kd
acno*led&e t%e absolute )oral aut%ority o' t%e reason o' t%e co))unity+ as t%ey acno*led&e t%e "olitical
aut%ority o' t%e )ass o' citi-ens6 and t%ey %old t%at "ublic o"inion is t%e surest arbiter o' *%at is la*'ul or
'orbidden+ true or 'alse# T%e )a7ority o' t%e) believe t%at a )an *ill be led to do *%at is 7ust and &ood by
'ollo*in& %is o*n interest ri&%tly understood# T%ey %old t%at every )an is born in "ossession o' t%e ri&%t o' sel'1
&overn)ent+ and t%at no one %as t%e ri&%t o' constrainin& %is 'ello*1creatures to be %a""y# T%ey %ave all a lively
'ait% in t%e "er'ectibility o' )an6 t%ey are o' o"inion t%at t%e e''ects o' t%e di''usion o' no*led&e )ust
necessarily be advanta&eous+ and t%e consequences o' i&norance 'atal6 t%ey all consider society as a body in a
state o' i)"rove)ent+ %u)anity as a c%an&in& scene+ in *%ic% not%in& is+ or ou&%t to be+ "er)anent6 and t%ey
ad)it t%at *%at a""ears to t%e) to be &ood to1day )ay be su"erseded by so)et%in& better1to1)orro*# I do not
&ive all t%ese o"inions as true+ but I quote t%e) as c%aracteristic o' t%e A)ericans#
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35ootnote d@ It is scarcely necessary 'or )e to observe t%at by t%e ex"ression An&lo1A)ericans+ I only )ean to
desi&nate t%e &reat )a7ority o' t%e nation6 'or a certain nu)ber o' isolated individuals are o' course to be )et
*it% %oldin& very di''erent o"inions#4
T%e An&lo1A)ericans are not only united to&et%er by t%ese co))on o"inions+ but t%ey are se"arated 'ro) all
ot%er nations by a co))on 'eelin& o' "ride# 5or t%e last 'i'ty years no "ains %ave been s"ared to convince t%e
in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates t%at t%ey constitute t%e only reli&ious+ enli&%tened+ and 'ree "eo"le# T%ey
"erceive t%at+ 'or t%e "resent+ t%eir o*n de)ocratic institutions succeed+ *%ilst t%ose o' ot%er countries 'ail6
%ence t%ey conceive an over*eenin& o"inion o' t%eir su"eriority+ and t%ey are not very re)ote 'ro) believin&
t%e)selves to belon& to a distinct race o' )anind#
T%e dan&ers *%ic% t%reaten t%e A)erican (nion do not ori&inate in t%e diversity o' interests or o' o"inions+ but
in t%e various c%aracters and "assions o' t%e A)ericans# T%e )en *%o in%abit t%e vast territory o' t%e (nited
!tates are al)ost all t%e issue o' a co))on stoc6 but t%e e''ects o' t%e cli)ate+ and )ore es"ecially o' slavery+
%ave &radually introduced very striin& di''erences bet*een t%e Britis% settler o' t%e !out%ern !tates and t%e
Britis% settler o' t%e Nort%# In Euro"e it is &enerally believed t%at slavery %as rendered t%e interests o' one "art o'
t%e (nion contrary to t%ose o' anot%er "art6 but I by no )eans re)ared t%is to be t%e case@ slavery %as not
created interests in t%e !out% contrary to t%ose o' t%e Nort%+ but it %as )odi'ied t%e c%aracter and c%an&ed t%e
%abits o' t%e natives o' t%e !out%#
I %ave already ex"lained t%e in'luence *%ic% slavery %as exercised u"on t%e co))ercial ability o' t%e A)ericans
in t%e !out%6 and t%is sa)e in'luence equally extends to t%eir )anners# T%e slave is a servant *%o never
re)onstrates+ and *%o sub)its to everyt%in& *it%out co)"laint# He )ay so)eti)es assassinate+ but %e never
*it%stands+ %is )aster# In t%e !out% t%ere are no 'a)ilies so "oor as not to %ave slaves# T%e citi-en o' t%e
!out%ern !tates o' t%e (nion is invested *it% a sort o' do)estic dictators%i"+ 'ro) %is earliest years6 t%e 'irst
notion %e acquires in li'e is t%at %e is born to co))and+ and t%e 'irst %abit *%ic% %e contracts is t%at o' bein&
obeyed *it%out resistance# His education tends+ t%en+ to &ive %i) t%e c%aracter o' a su"ercilious and a %asty )an6
irascible+ violent+ and ardent in %is desires+ i)"atient o' obstacles+ but easily discoura&ed i' %e cannot succeed
u"on %is 'irst atte)"t#
T%e A)erican o' t%e Nort%ern !tates is surrounded by no slaves in %is c%ild%ood6 %e is even unattended by 'ree
servants+ and is usually obli&ed to "rovide 'or %is o*n *ants# No sooner does %e enter t%e *orld t%an t%e idea o'
necessity assails %i) on every side@ %e soon learns to no* exactly t%e natural li)it o' %is aut%ority6 %e never
ex"ects to subdue t%ose *%o *it%stand %i)+ by 'orce6 and %e no*s t%at t%e surest )eans o' obtainin& t%e
su""ort o' %is 'ello*1creatures+ is to *in t%eir 'avor# He t%ere'ore beco)es "atient+ re'lectin&+ tolerant+ slo* to
act+ and "erseverin& in %is desi&ns#
In t%e !out%ern !tates t%e )ore i))ediate *ants o' li'e are al*ays su""lied6 t%e in%abitants o' t%ose "arts are
not busied in t%e )aterial cares o' li'e+ *%ic% are al*ays "rovided 'or by ot%ers6 and t%eir i)a&ination is diverted
to )ore ca"tivatin& and less de'inite ob7ects# T%e A)erican o' t%e !out% is 'ond o' &randeur+ luxury+ and
reno*n+ o' &ayety+ o' "leasure+ and above all o' idleness6 not%in& obli&es %i) to exert %i)sel' in order to subsist6
and as %e %as no necessary occu"ations+ %e &ives *ay to indolence+ and does not even atte)"t *%at *ould be
use'ul#
But t%e equality o' 'ortunes+ and t%e absence o' slavery in t%e Nort%+ "lun&e t%e in%abitants in t%ose sa)e cares
o' daily li'e *%ic% are disdained by t%e *%ite "o"ulation o' t%e !out%# T%ey are tau&%t 'ro) in'ancy to co)bat
*ant+ and to "lace co)'ort above all t%e "leasures o' t%e intellect or t%e %eart# T%e i)a&ination is extin&uis%ed
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by t%e trivial details o' li'e+ and t%e ideas beco)e less nu)erous and less &eneral+ but 'ar )ore "ractical and )ore
"recise# As "ros"erity is t%e sole ai) o' exertion+ it is excellently *ell attained6 nature and )anind are turned to
t%e best "ecuniary advanta&e+ and society is dexterously )ade to contribute to t%e *el'are o' eac% o' its
)e)bers+ *%ilst individual e&otis) is t%e source o' &eneral %a""iness#
T%e citi-en o' t%e Nort% %as not only ex"erience+ but no*led&e@ nevert%eless %e sets but little value u"on t%e
"leasures o' no*led&e6 %e estee)s it as t%e )eans o' attainin& a certain end+ and %e is only anxious to sei-e its
)ore lucrative a""lications# T%e citi-en o' t%e !out% is )ore &iven to act u"on i)"ulse6 %e is )ore clever+ )ore
'ran+ )ore &enerous+ )ore intellectual+ and )ore brilliant# T%e 'or)er+ *it% a &reater de&ree o' activity+ o'
co))on1sense+ o' in'or)ation+ and o' &eneral a"titude+ %as t%e c%aracteristic &ood and evil qualities o' t%e
)iddle classes# T%e latter %as t%e tastes+ t%e "re7udices+ t%e *eanesses+ and t%e )a&nani)ity o' all aristocracies#
I' t*o )en are united in society+ *%o %ave t%e sa)e interests+ and to a certain extent t%e sa)e o"inions+ but
di''erent c%aracters+ di''erent acquire)ents+ and a di''erent style o' civili-ation+ it is "robable t%at t%ese )en *ill
not a&ree# T%e sa)e re)ar is a""licable to a society o' nations# !lavery+ t%en+ does not attac t%e A)erican
(nion directly in its interests+ but indirectly in its )anners#
35ootnote e@ Census o' .=B<+ 0+BAB+0A/6 ./0<+ .A+/C;+.;C6 ./;<+ 0.+GG0+0A.6 ./=<+ 0/+CCC+B/06 ./B<+
;A+/0.+B<<#4
T%e !tates *%ic% &ave t%eir assent to t%e 'ederal contract in .=B< *ere t%irteen in nu)ber6 t%e (nion no*
consists o' t%irty1'our )e)bers# T%e "o"ulation+ *%ic% a)ounted to nearly G+<<<+<<< in .=B<+ %ad )ore t%an
tri"led in t%e s"ace o' 'orty years6 and in ./0< it a)ounted to nearly .0+<<<+<<<# Ke C%an&es o' suc% )a&nitude
cannot tae "lace *it%out so)e dan&er#
A society o' nations+ as *ell as a society o' individuals+ derives its "rinci"al c%ances o' duration 'ro) t%e
*isdo) o' its )e)bers+ t%eir individual *eaness+ and t%eir li)ited nu)ber# T%e A)ericans *%o quit t%e coasts
o' t%e Atlantic Ocean to "lun&e into t%e *estern *ilderness+ are adventurers i)"atient o' restraint+ &reedy o'
*ealt%+ and 'requently )en ex"elled 'ro) t%e !tates in *%ic% t%ey *ere born# ,%en t%ey arrive in t%e deserts
t%ey are unno*n to eac% ot%er+ and t%ey %ave neit%er traditions+ 'a)ily 'eelin&+ nor t%e 'orce o' exa)"le to
c%ec t%eir excesses# T%e e)"ire o' t%e la*s is 'eeble a)on&st t%e)6 t%at o' )orality is still )ore "o*erless# T%e
settlers *%o are constantly "eo"lin& t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i are+ t%en+ in every res"ect very in'erior to t%e
A)ericans *%o in%abit t%e older "arts o' t%e (nion# Nevert%eless+ t%ey already exercise a &reat in'luence in its
councils6 and t%ey arrive at t%e &overn)ent o' t%e co))on*ealt% be'ore t%ey %ave learnt to &overn t%e)selves#
K'
35ootnote '@ T%is indeed is only a te)"orary dan&er# I %ave no doubt t%at in ti)e society *ill assu)e as )uc%
stability and re&ularity in t%e ,est as it %as already done u"on t%e coast o' t%e Atlantic Ocean#4
T%e &reater t%e individual *eaness o' eac% o' t%e contractin& "arties+ t%e &reater are t%e c%ances o' t%e duration
o' t%e contract6 'or t%eir sa'ety is t%en de"endent u"on t%eir union# ,%en+ in .=B<+ t%e )ost "o"ulous o' t%e
A)erican re"ublics did not contain C<<+<<< in%abitants+ K& eac% o' t%e) 'elt its o*n insi&ni'icance as an
inde"endent "eo"le+ and t%is 'eelin& rendered co)"liance *it% t%e 'ederal aut%ority )ore easy# But *%en one o'
t%e con'ederate !tates recons+ lie t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor+ A+<<<+<<< o' in%abitants+ and covers an extent o'
territory equal in sur'ace to a quarter o' 5rance+ K% it 'eels its o*n stren&t%6 and alt%ou&% it )ay continue to
su""ort t%e (nion as advanta&eous to its "ros"erity+ it no lon&er re&ards t%at body as necessary to its existence+
and as it continues to belon& to t%e 'ederal co)"act+ it soon ai)s at "re"onderance in t%e 'ederal asse)blies# T%e
"robable unani)ity o' t%e !tates is di)inis%ed as t%eir nu)ber increases# At "resent t%e interests o' t%e di''erent
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"arts o' t%e (nion are not at variance6 but *%o is able to 'oresee t%e )ulti'arious c%an&es o' t%e 'uture+ in a
country in *%ic% to*ns are 'ounded 'ro) day to day+ and !tates al)ost 'ro) year to yearI
35ootnote &@ :ennsylvania contained G0.+0=0 in%abitants in .=B< 3and C+AC/+<.G in ./B<#44
35ootnote %@ T%e area o' t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor is GB+.=< square )iles# 3!ee (# !# census re"ort o' ./B<#44
!ince t%e 'irst settle)ent o' t%e Britis% colonies+ t%e nu)ber o' in%abitants %as about doubled every t*enty1t*o
years# I "erceive no causes *%ic% are liely to c%ec t%is "ro&ressive increase o' t%e An&lo1A)erican "o"ulation
'or t%e next %undred years6 and be'ore t%at s"ace o' ti)e %as ela"sed+ I believe t%at t%e territories and
de"endencies o' t%e (nited !tates *ill be covered by )ore t%an .<<+<<<+<<< o' in%abitants+ and divided into
'orty !tates# Ki I ad)it t%at t%ese .<<+<<<+<<< o' )en %ave no %ostile interests# I su""ose+ on t%e contrary+ t%at
t%ey are all equally interested in t%e )aintenance o' t%e (nion6 but I a) still o' o"inion t%at *%ere t%ere are
.<<+<<<+<<< o' )en+ and 'orty distinct nations+ unequally stron&+ t%e continuance o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent can
only be a 'ortunate accident#
35ootnote i@ I' t%e "o"ulation continues to double every t*enty1t*o years+ as it %as done 'or t%e last t*o %undred
years+ t%e nu)ber o' in%abitants in t%e (nited !tates in ./CA *ill be t*enty )illions6 in ./=G+ 'orty1ei&%t
)illions6 and in ./B;+ ninety1six )illions# T%is )ay still be t%e case even i' t%e lands on t%e *estern slo"e o' t%e
Rocy Mountains s%ould be 'ound to be un'it 'or cultivation# T%e territory *%ic% is already occu"ied can easily
contain t%is nu)ber o' in%abitants# One %undred )illions o' )en disse)inated over t%e sur'ace o' t%e t*enty1
'our !tates+ and t%e t%ree de"endencies+ *%ic% constitute t%e (nion+ *ould only &ive =;A in%abitants to t%e
square lea&ue6 t%is *ould be 'ar belo* t%e )ean "o"ulation o' 5rance+ *%ic% is .+<;0 to t%e square lea&ue6 or o'
En&land+ *%ic% is .+GC=6 and it *ould even be belo* t%e "o"ulation o' !*it-erland+ 'or t%at country+
not*it%standin& its laes and )ountains+ contains =/0 in%abitants to t%e square lea&ue# !ee 2Malte Brun+2 vol# vi#
"# BA#
3T%e actual result %as 'allen so)e*%at s%ort o' t%ese calculations+ in s"ite o' t%e vast territorial acquisitions o'
t%e (nited !tates@ but in ./BB t%e "o"ulation is "robably about ei&%ty1seven )illions+ includin& t%e "o"ulation o'
t%e :%ili""ines+ Ha*aii+ and :orto Rico#44
,%atever 'ait% I )ay %ave in t%e "er'ectibility o' )an+ until %u)an nature is altered+ and )en *%olly
trans'or)ed+ I s%all re'use to believe in t%e duration o' a &overn)ent *%ic% is called u"on to %old to&et%er 'orty
di''erent "eo"les+ disse)inated over a territory equal to one1%al' o' Euro"e in extent6 to avoid all rivalry+
a)bition+ and stru&&les bet*een t%e)+ and to direct t%eir inde"endent activity to t%e acco)"lis%)ent o' t%e sa)e
desi&ns#
But t%e &reatest "eril to *%ic% t%e (nion is ex"osed by its increase arises 'ro) t%e continual c%an&es *%ic% tae
"lace in t%e "osition o' its internal stren&t%# T%e distance 'ro) 8ae !u"erior to t%e 9ul' o' Mexico extends 'ro)
t%e G=t% to t%e 0<t% de&ree o' latitude+ a distance o' )ore t%an .+A<< )iles as t%e bird 'lies# T%e 'rontier o' t%e
(nited !tates *inds alon& t%e *%ole o' t%is i))ense line+ so)eti)es 'allin& *it%in its li)its+ but )ore
'requently extendin& 'ar beyond it+ into t%e *aste# It %as been calculated t%at t%e *%ites advance every year a
)ean distance o' seventeen )iles alon& t%e *%ole o' %is vast boundary# K7 Obstacles+ suc% as an un"roductive
district+ a lae or an Indian nation unex"ectedly encountered+ are so)eti)es )et *it%# T%e advancin& colu)n
t%en %alts 'or a *%ile6 its t*o extre)ities 'all bac u"on t%e)selves+ and as soon as t%ey are reunited t%ey
"roceed on*ards# T%is &radual and continuous "ro&ress o' t%e Euro"ean race to*ards t%e Rocy Mountains %as
t%e sole)nity o' a "rovidential event6 it is lie a delu&e o' )en risin& unabatedly+ and daily driven on*ards by
t%e %and o' 9od#
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35ootnote 7@ !ee 8e&islative Docu)ents+ A<t% Con&ress+ No# ..=+ "# .<C#4
,it%in t%is 'irst line o' conquerin& settlers to*ns are built+ and vast !tates 'ounded# In .=B< t%ere *ere only a
'e* t%ousand "ioneers s"rinled alon& t%e valleys o' t%e Mississi""i6 and at t%e "resent day t%ese valleys contain
as )any in%abitants as *ere to be 'ound in t%e *%ole (nion in .=B<# T%eir "o"ulation a)ounts to nearly
G+<<<+<<<# K T%e city o' ,as%in&ton *as 'ounded in ./<<+ in t%e very centre o' t%e (nion6 but suc% are t%e
c%an&es *%ic% %ave taen "lace+ t%at it no* stands at one o' t%e extre)ities6 and t%e dele&ates o' t%e )ost
re)ote ,estern !tates are already obli&ed to "er'or) a 7ourney as lon& as t%at 'ro) Dienna to :aris# Kl
35ootnote @ 0+;=A+0.=11Census o' ./0<#4
35ootnote l@ T%e distance 'ro) $e''erson+ t%e ca"ital o' t%e !tate o' Missouri+ to ,as%in&ton is .+<.B )iles#
>2A)erican Al)anac+2 ./0.+ "# G/#?4
All t%e !tates are borne on*ards at t%e sa)e ti)e in t%e "at% o' 'ortune+ but o' course t%ey do not all increase
and "ros"er in t%e sa)e "ro"ortion# To t%e Nort% o' t%e (nion t%e detac%ed branc%es o' t%e Alle&%any c%ain+
*%ic% extend as 'ar as t%e Atlantic Ocean+ 'or) s"acious roads and "orts+ *%ic% are constantly accessible to
vessels o' t%e &reatest burden# But 'ro) t%e :oto)ac to t%e )out% o' t%e Mississi""i t%e coast is sandy and 'lat#
In t%is "art o' t%e (nion t%e )out%s o' al)ost all t%e rivers are obstructed6 and t%e 'e* %arbors *%ic% exist
a)on&st t%ese la&oons a''ord )uc% s%allo*er *ater to vessels+ and )uc% 'e*er co))ercial advanta&es t%an
t%ose o' t%e Nort%#
T%is 'irst natural cause o' in'eriority is united to anot%er cause "roceedin& 'ro) t%e la*s# ,e %ave already seen
t%at slavery+ *%ic% is abolis%ed in t%e Nort%+ still exists in t%e !out%6 and I %ave "ointed out its 'atal
consequences u"on t%e "ros"erity o' t%e "lanter %i)sel'#
T%e Nort% is t%ere'ore su"erior to t%e !out% bot% in co))erce K) and )anu'acture6 t%e natural consequence o'
*%ic% is t%e )ore ra"id increase o' "o"ulation and o' *ealt% *it%in its borders# T%e !tates situate u"on t%e
s%ores o' t%e Atlantic Ocean are already %al'1"eo"led# Most o' t%e land is %eld by an o*ner6 and t%ese districts
cannot t%ere'ore receive so )any e)i&rants as t%e ,estern !tates+ *%ere a boundless 'ield is still o"en to t%eir
exertions# T%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i is 'ar )ore 'ertile t%an t%e coast o' t%e Atlantic Ocean# T%is reason+
added to all t%e ot%ers+ contributes to drive t%e Euro"eans *est*ard11a 'act *%ic% )ay be ri&orously
de)onstrated by 'i&ures# It is 'ound t%at t%e su) total o' t%e "o"ulation o' all t%e (nited !tates %as about tri"led
in t%e course o' 'orty years# But in t%e recent !tates ad7acent to t%e Mississi""i+ t%e "o"ulation %as increased
t%irty1one1'old+ *it%in t%e sa)e s"ace o' ti)e# Kn
35ootnote )@ T%e 'ollo*in& state)ents *ill su''ice to s%o* t%e di''erence *%ic% exists bet*een t%e co))erce o'
t%e !out% and t%at o' t%e Nort%@11
In ./AB t%e tonna&e o' all t%e )erc%ant vessels belon&in& to Dir&inia+ t%e t*o Carolinas+ and 9eor&ia >t%e 'our
&reat !out%ern !tates?+ a)ounted to only C+AG0 tons# In t%e sa)e year t%e tonna&e o' t%e vessels o' t%e !tate o'
Massac%usetts alone a)ounted to .=+0AA tons# >!ee 8e&islative Docu)ents+ A.st Con&ress+ Ad session+ No# .G<+
"# AGG#? T%us t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts %ad t%ree ti)es as )uc% s%i""in& as t%e 'our above1)entioned !tates#
Nevert%eless t%e area o' t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts is only =+00C square )iles+ and its "o"ulation a)ounts to
;.<+<.G in%abitants 3A+A0/+BG0 in ./B<46 *%ilst t%e area o' t%e 'our ot%er !tates I %ave quoted is A.<+<<< square
)iles+ and t%eir "o"ulation 0+<G=+=;=# T%us t%e area o' t%e !tate o' Massac%usetts 'or)s only one1t%irtiet% "art
o' t%e area o' t%e 'our !tates6 and its "o"ulation is 'ive ti)es s)aller t%an t%eirs# >!ee 2DarbyFs Die* o' t%e
(nited !tates#2? !lavery is "re7udicial to t%e co))ercial "ros"erity o' t%e !out% in several di''erent *ays6 by
di)inis%in& t%e s"irit o' enter"rise a)on&st t%e *%ites+ and by "reventin& t%e) 'ro) )eetin& *it% as nu)erous
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a class o' sailors as t%ey require# !ailors are usually taen 'ro) t%e lo*est rans o' t%e "o"ulation# But in t%e
!out%ern !tates t%ese lo*est rans are co)"osed o' slaves+ and it is very di''icult to e)"loy t%e) at sea# T%ey
are unable to serve as *ell as a *%ite cre*+ and a""re%ensions *ould al*ays be entertained o' t%eir )utinyin& in
t%e )iddle o' t%e ocean+ or o' t%eir esca"in& in t%e 'orei&n countries at *%ic% t%ey )i&%t touc%#4
35ootnote n@ 2DarbyFs Die* o' t%e (nited !tates+2 "# GGG#4
T%e relative "osition o' t%e central 'ederal "o*er is continually dis"laced# 5orty years a&o t%e )a7ority o' t%e
citi-ens o' t%e (nion *as establis%ed u"on t%e coast o' t%e Atlantic+ in t%e environs o' t%e s"ot u"on *%ic%
,as%in&ton no* stands6 but t%e &reat body o' t%e "eo"le is no* advancin& inland and to t%e nort%+ so t%at in
t*enty years t%e )a7ority *ill unquestionably be on t%e *estern side o' t%e Alle&%anies# I' t%e (nion &oes on to
subsist+ t%e basin o' t%e Mississi""i is evidently )ared out+ by its 'ertility and its extent+ as t%e 'uture centre o'
t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent# In t%irty or 'orty years+ t%at tract o' country *ill %ave assu)ed t%e ran *%ic% naturally
belon&s to it# It is easy to calculate t%at its "o"ulation+ co)"ared to t%at o' t%e coast o' t%e Atlantic+ *ill be+ in
round nu)bers+ as G< to ..# In a 'e* years t%e !tates *%ic% 'ounded t%e (nion *ill lose t%e direction o' its
"olicy+ and t%e "o"ulation o' t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i *ill "re"onderate in t%e 'ederal asse)blies#
T%is constant &ravitation o' t%e 'ederal "o*er and in'luence to*ards t%e nort%*est is s%o*n every ten years+
*%en a &eneral census o' t%e "o"ulation is )ade+ and t%e nu)ber o' dele&ates *%ic% eac% !tate sends to
Con&ress is settled a'res%# Ko In .=B< Dir&inia %ad nineteen re"resentatives in Con&ress# T%is nu)ber continued
to increase until t%e year ./.0+ *%en it reac%ed to t*enty1t%ree6 'ro) t%at ti)e it be&an to decrease+ and in ./00
Dir&inia elected only t*enty1one re"resentatives# K" Durin& t%e sa)e "eriod t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor "ro&ressed
in t%e contrary direction@ in .=B< it %ad ten re"resentatives in Con&ress6 in ./.0+ t*enty1seven6 in ./A0+ t%irty1
'our6 and in ./00+ 'orty# T%e !tate o' O%io %ad only one re"resentative in ./<0+ and in ./00 it %ad already
nineteen#
35ootnote o@ It )ay be seen t%at in t%e course o' t%e last ten years >./A<1./0<? t%e "o"ulation o' one district+ as+
'or instance+ t%e !tate o' Dela*are+ %as increased in t%e "ro"ortion o' 'ive "er cent#6 *%ilst t%at o' anot%er+ as t%e
territory o' Mic%i&an+ %as increased AC< "er cent# T%us t%e "o"ulation o' Dir&inia %ad au&)ented t%irteen "er
cent#+ and t%at o' t%e border !tate o' O%io sixty1one "er cent#+ in t%e sa)e s"ace o' ti)e# T%e &eneral table o'
t%ese c%an&es+ *%ic% is &iven in t%e 2National Calendar+2 dis"lays a striin& "icture o' t%e unequal 'ortunes o'
t%e di''erent !tates#4
35ootnote "@ It %as 7ust been said t%at in t%e course o' t%e last ter) t%e "o"ulation o' Dir&inia %as increased
t%irteen "er cent#6 and it is necessary to ex"lain %o* t%e nu)ber o' re"resentatives 'or a !tate )ay decrease+
*%en t%e "o"ulation o' t%at !tate+ 'ar 'ro) di)inis%in&+ is actually u"on t%e increase# I tae t%e !tate o' Dir&inia+
to *%ic% I %ave already alluded+ as )y ter) o' co)"arison# T%e nu)ber o' re"resentatives o' Dir&inia in ./A0
*as "ro"ortionate to t%e total nu)ber o' t%e re"resentatives o' t%e (nion+ and to t%e relation *%ic% t%e
"o"ulation bore to t%at o' t%e *%ole (nion@ in ./00 t%e nu)ber o' re"resentatives o' Dir&inia *as lie*ise
"ro"ortionate to t%e total nu)ber o' t%e re"resentatives o' t%e (nion+ and to t%e relation *%ic% its "o"ulation+
au&)ented in t%e course o' ten years+ bore to t%e au&)ented "o"ulation o' t%e (nion in t%e sa)e s"ace o' ti)e#
T%e ne* nu)ber o' Dir&inian re"resentatives *ill t%en be to t%e old nu)ver+ on t%e one %and+ as t%e ne* nu)ver
o' all t%e re"resentatives is to t%e old nu)ber6 and+ on t%e ot%er %and+ as t%e au&)entation o' t%e "o"ulation o'
Dir&inia is to t%at o' t%e *%ole "o"ulation o' t%e country# T%us+ i' t%e increase o' t%e "o"ulation o' t%e lesser
country be to t%at o' t%e &reater in an exact inverse ratio o' t%e "ro"ortion bet*een t%e ne* and t%e old nu)bers
o' all t%e re"resentatives+ t%e nu)ber o' t%e re"resentatives o' Dir&inia *ill re)ain stationary6 and i' t%e increase
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o' t%e Dir&inian "o"ulation be to t%at o' t%e *%ole (nion in a 'eeblerratio t%an t%e ne* nu)ber o' t%e
re"resentatives o' t%e (nion to t%e old nu)ber+ t%e nu)ber o' t%e re"resentatives o' Dir&inia )ust decrease#
3T%us+ to t%e C;t% Con&ress in ./BB+ Dir&inia and ,est Dir&inia send only 'ourteen re"resentatives#44
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art DIII
It is di''icult to i)a&ine a durable union o' a "eo"le *%ic% is ric% and stron& *it% one *%ic% is "oor and *ea+
even i' it *ere "roved t%at t%e stren&t% and *ealt% o' t%e one are not t%e causes o' t%e *eaness and "overty o'
t%e ot%er# But union is still )ore di''icult to )aintain at a ti)e at *%ic% one "arty is losin& stren&t%+ and t%e ot%er
is &ainin& it# T%is ra"id and dis"ro"ortionate increase o' certain !tates t%reatens t%e inde"endence o' t%e ot%ers#
Ne* Yor )i&%t "er%a"s succeed+ *it% its A+<<<+<<< o' in%abitants and its 'orty re"resentatives+ in dictatin& to
t%e ot%er !tates in Con&ress# But even i' t%e )ore "o*er'ul !tates )ae no atte)"t to bear do*n t%e lesser ones+
t%e dan&er still exists6 'or t%ere is al)ost as )uc% in t%e "ossibility o' t%e act as in t%e act itsel'# T%e *ea
&enerally )istrust t%e 7ustice and t%e reason o' t%e stron&# T%e !tates *%ic% increase less ra"idly t%an t%e ot%ers
loo u"on t%ose *%ic% are )ore 'avored by 'ortune *it% envy and sus"icion# Hence arise t%e dee"1seated
uneasiness and ill1de'ined a&itation *%ic% are observable in t%e !out%+ and *%ic% 'or) so striin& a contrast to
t%e con'idence and "ros"erity *%ic% are co))on to ot%er "arts o' t%e (nion# I a) inclined to t%in t%at t%e
%ostile )easures taen by t%e !out%ern "rovinces u"on a recent occasion are attributable to no ot%er cause# T%e
in%abitants o' t%e !out%ern !tates are+ o' all t%e A)ericans+ t%ose *%o are )ost interested in t%e )aintenance o'
t%e (nion6 t%ey *ould assuredly su''er )ost 'ro) bein& le't to t%e)selves6 and yet t%ey are t%e only citi-ens *%o
t%reaten to brea t%e tie o' con'ederation# But it is easy to "erceive t%at t%e !out%+ *%ic% %as &iven 'our
:residents+ ,as%in&ton+ $e''erson+ Madison+ and Monroe+ to t%e (nion+ *%ic% "erceives t%at it is losin& its
'ederal in'luence+ and t%at t%e nu)ber o' its re"resentatives in Con&ress is di)inis%in& 'ro) year to year+ *%ilst
t%ose o' t%e Nort%ern and ,estern !tates are increasin&6 t%e !out%+ *%ic% is "eo"led *it% ardent and irascible
bein&s+ is beco)in& )ore and )ore irritated and alar)ed# T%e citi-ens re'lect u"on t%eir "resent "osition and
re)e)ber t%eir "ast in'luence+ *it% t%e )elanc%oly uneasiness o' )en *%o sus"ect o""ression@ i' t%ey discover a
la* o' t%e (nion *%ic% is not unequivocally 'avorable to t%eir interests+ t%ey "rotest a&ainst it as an abuse o'
'orce6 and i' t%eir ardent re)onstrances are not listened to+ t%ey t%reaten to quit an association *%ic% loads t%e)
*it% burdens *%ilst it de"rives t%e) o' t%eir due "ro'its# 2T%e tari''+2 said t%e in%abitants o' Carolina in ./0A+
2enric%es t%e Nort%+ and ruins t%e !out%6 'or i' t%is *ere not t%e case+ to *%at can *e attribute t%e continually
increasin& "o*er and *ealt% o' t%e Nort%+ *it% its incle)ent sies and arid soil6 *%ilst t%e !out%+ *%ic% )ay be
styled t%e &arden o' A)erica+ is ra"idly declinin&I2 Kq
35ootnote q@ !ee t%e re"ort o' its co))ittee to t%e Convention *%ic% "roclai)ed t%e nulli'ication o' t%e tari'' in
!out% Carolina#4
I' t%e c%an&es *%ic% I %ave described *ere &radual+ so t%at eac% &eneration at least )i&%t %ave ti)e to disa""ear
*it% t%e order o' t%in&s under *%ic% it %ad lived+ t%e dan&er *ould be less6 but t%e "ro&ress o' society in
A)erica is "reci"itate+ and al)ost revolutionary# T%e sa)e citi-en )ay %ave lived to see %is !tate tae t%e lead
in t%e (nion+ and a'ter*ards beco)e "o*erless in t%e 'ederal asse)blies6 and an An&lo1A)erican re"ublic %as
been no*n to &ro* as ra"idly as a )an "assin& 'ro) birt% and in'ancy to )aturity in t%e course o' t%irty years#
It )ust not be i)a&ined+ %o*ever+ t%at t%e !tates *%ic% lose t%eir "re"onderance+ also lose t%eir "o"ulation or
t%eir ric%es@ no sto" is "ut to t%eir "ros"erity+ and t%ey even &o on to increase )ore ra"idly t%an any in&do) in
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Euro"e# Kr But t%ey believe t%e)selves to be i)"overis%ed because t%eir *ealt% does not au&)ent as ra"idly as
t%at o' t%eir nei&%bors6 any t%ey t%in t%at t%eir "o*er is lost+ because t%ey suddenly co)e into collision *it% a
"o*er &reater t%an t%eir o*n@ Ks t%us t%ey are )ore %urt in t%eir 'eelin&s and t%eir "assions t%an in t%eir interests#
But t%is is a)"ly su''icient to endan&er t%e )aintenance o' t%e (nion# I' in&s and "eo"les %ad only %ad t%eir
true interests in vie* ever since t%e be&innin& o' t%e *orld+ t%e na)e o' *ar *ould scarcely be no*n a)on&
)anind#
35ootnote r@ T%e "o"ulation o' a country assuredly constitutes t%e 'irst ele)ent o' its *ealt%# In t%e ten years
>./A<1./0<? durin& *%ic% Dir&inia lost t*o o' its re"resentatives in Con&ress+ its "o"ulation increased in t%e
"ro"ortion o' .0#= "er cent#6 t%at o' Carolina in t%e "ro"ortion o' 'i'teen "er cent#6 and t%at o' 9eor&ia+ .C#C "er
cent# >!ee t%e 2A)erican Al)anac+2 ./0A+ "# .;A? But t%e "o"ulation o' Russia+ *%ic% increases )ore ra"idly
t%an t%at o' any ot%er Euro"ean country+ only au&)ents in ten years at t%e rate o' B#C "er cent#6 in 5rance+ at t%e
rate o' seven "er cent#6 and in Euro"e in &eneral+ at t%e rate o' G#= "er cent# >!ee 2Malte Brun+2 vol# vi# "# BC?4
35ootnote s@ It )ust be ad)itted+ %o*ever+ t%at t%e de"reciation *%ic% %as taen "lace in t%e value o' tobacco+
durin& t%e last 'i'ty years+ %as notably di)inis%ed t%e o"ulence o' t%e !out%ern "lanters@ but t%is circu)stance is
as inde"endent o' t%e *ill o' t%eir Nort%ern bret%ren as it is o' t%eir o*n#4
T%us t%e "ros"erity o' t%e (nited !tates is t%e source o' t%e )ost serious dan&ers t%at t%reaten t%e)+ since it
tends to create in so)e o' t%e con'ederate !tates t%at over1excite)ent *%ic% acco)"anies a ra"id increase o'
'ortune6 and to a*aen in ot%ers t%ose 'eelin&s o' envy+ )istrust+ and re&ret *%ic% usually attend u"on t%e loss o'
it# T%e A)ericans conte)"late t%is extraordinary and %asty "ro&ress *it% exultation6 but t%ey *ould be *iser to
consider it *it% sorro* and alar)# T%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited !tates )ust inevitably beco)e one o' t%e
&reatest nations in t%e *orld6 t%eir o''set *ill cover al)ost t%e *%ole o' Nort% A)erica6 t%e continent *%ic% t%ey
in%abit is t%eir do)inion+ and it cannot esca"e t%e)# ,%at ur&es t%e) to tae "ossession o' it so soonI Ric%es+
"o*er+ and reno*n cannot 'ail to be t%eirs at so)e 'uture ti)e+ but t%ey rus% u"on t%eir 'ortune as i' but a
)o)ent re)ained 'or t%e) to )ae it t%eir o*n#
I t%in t%at I %ave de)onstrated t%at t%e existence o' t%e "resent con'ederation de"ends entirely on t%e continued
assent o' all t%e con'ederates6 and+ startin& 'ro) t%is "rinci"le+ I %ave inquired into t%e causes *%ic% )ay induce
t%e several !tates to se"arate 'ro) t%e ot%ers# T%e (nion )ay+ %o*ever+ "eris% in t*o di''erent *ays@ one o' t%e
con'ederate !tates )ay c%oose to retire 'ro) t%e co)"act+ and so 'orcibly to sever t%e 'ederal tie6 and it is to t%is
su""osition t%at )ost o' t%e re)ars t%at I %ave )ade a""ly@ or t%e aut%ority o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent )ay be
"ro&ressively entrenc%ed on by t%e si)ultaneous tendency o' t%e united re"ublics to resu)e t%eir inde"endence#
T%e central "o*er+ successively stri""ed o' all its "rero&atives+ and reduced to i)"otence by tacit consent+ *ould
beco)e inco)"etent to 'ul'il its "ur"ose6 and t%e second (nion *ould "eris%+ lie t%e 'irst+ by a sort o' senile
ina"titude# T%e &radual *eaenin& o' t%e 'ederal tie+ *%ic% )ay 'inally lead to t%e dissolution o' t%e (nion+ is a
distinct circu)stance+ t%at )ay "roduce a variety o' )inor consequences be'ore it o"erates so violent a c%an&e#
T%e con'ederation )i&%t still subsist+ alt%ou&% its 9overn)ent *ere reduced to suc% a de&ree o' inanition as to
"araly-e t%e nation+ to cause internal anarc%y+ and to c%ec t%e &eneral "ros"erity o' t%e country#
A'ter %avin& investi&ated t%e causes *%ic% )ay induce t%e An&lo1A)ericans to disunite+ it is i)"ortant to
inquire *%et%er+ i' t%e (nion continues to subsist+ t%eir 9overn)ent *ill extend or contract its s"%ere o' action+
and *%et%er it *ill beco)e )ore ener&etic or )ore *ea#
T%e A)ericans are evidently dis"osed to loo u"on t%eir 'uture condition *it% alar)# T%ey "erceive t%at in )ost
o' t%e nations o' t%e *orld t%e exercise o' t%e ri&%ts o' soverei&nty tends to 'all under t%e control o' a 'e*
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individuals+ and t%ey are dis)ayed by t%e idea t%at suc% *ill also be t%e case in t%eir o*n country# Even t%e
states)en 'eel+ or a''ect to 'eel+ t%ese 'ears6 'or+ in A)erica+ centrali-ation is by no )eans "o"ular+ and t%ere is
no surer )eans o' courtin& t%e )a7ority t%an by invei&%in& a&ainst t%e encroac%)ents o' t%e central "o*er# T%e
A)ericans do not "erceive t%at t%e countries in *%ic% t%is alar)in& tendency to centrali-ation exists are
in%abited by a sin&le "eo"le6 *%ilst t%e 'act o' t%e (nion bein& co)"osed o' di''erent con'ederate co))unities
is su''icient to ba''le all t%e in'erences *%ic% )i&%t be dra*n 'ro) analo&ous circu)stances# I con'ess t%at I a)
inclined to consider t%e 'ears o' a &reat nu)ber o' A)ericans as "urely i)a&inary6 and 'ar 'ro) "artici"atin& in
t%eir dread o' t%e consolidation o' "o*er in t%e %ands o' t%e (nion+ I t%in t%at t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent is
visibly losin& stren&t%#
To "rove t%is assertion I s%all not %ave recourse to any re)ote occurrences+ but to circu)stances *%ic% I %ave
)ysel' *itnessed+ and *%ic% belon& to our o*n ti)e#
An attentive exa)ination o' *%at is &oin& on in t%e (nited !tates *ill easily convince us t%at t*o o""osite
tendencies exist in t%at country+ lie t*o distinct currents 'lo*in& in contrary directions in t%e sa)e c%annel# T%e
(nion %as no* existed 'or 'orty1'ive years+ and in t%e course o' t%at ti)e a vast nu)ber o' "rovincial "re7udices+
*%ic% *ere at 'irst %ostile to its "o*er+ %ave died a*ay# T%e "atriotic 'eelin& *%ic% attac%ed eac% o' t%e
A)ericans to %is o*n native !tate is beco)e less exclusive6 and t%e di''erent "arts o' t%e (nion %ave beco)e
)ore inti)ately connected t%e better t%ey %ave beco)e acquainted *it% eac% ot%er# T%e "ost+ Kt t%at &reat
instru)ent o' intellectual intercourse+ no* reac%es into t%e bac*oods6 and stea)boats %ave establis%ed daily
)eans o' co))unication bet*een t%e di''erent "oints o' t%e coast# An inland navi&ation o' unexa)"led ra"idity
conveys co))odities u" and do*n t%e rivers o' t%e country# Ku And to t%ese 'acilities o' nature and art )ay be
added t%ose restless cravin&s+ t%at busy1)indedness+ and love o' "el'+ *%ic% are constantly ur&in& t%e A)erican
into active li'e+ and brin&in& %i) into contact *it% %is 'ello*1citi-ens# He crosses t%e country in every direction6
%e visits all t%e various "o"ulations o' t%e land6 and t%ere is not a "rovince in 5rance in *%ic% t%e natives are so
*ell no*n to eac% ot%er as t%e .0+<<<+<<< o' )en *%o cover t%e territory o' t%e (nited !tates#
35ootnote t@ In ./0A+ t%e district o' Mic%i&an+ *%ic% only contains 0.+;0B in%abitants+ and is still an al)ost
unex"lored *ilderness+ "ossessed BG< )iles o' )ail1roads# T%e territory o' Aransas+ *%ic% is still )ore
uncultivated+ *as already intersected by .+B0/ )iles o' )ail1roads# >!ee t%e re"ort o' t%e 9eneral :ost O''ice+
Nove)ber 0<+ ./00#? T%e "osta&e o' ne*s"a"ers alone in t%e *%ole (nion a)ounted to NACG+=B;#4
35ootnote u@ In t%e course o' ten years+ 'ro) ./A. to ./0.+ A=. stea)boats %ave been launc%ed u"on t%e rivers
*%ic% *ater t%e valley o' t%e Mississi""i alone# In ./AB ACB stea)boats existed in t%e (nited !tates# >!ee
8e&islative Docu)ents+ No# .G<+ "# A=G#?4
But *%ilst t%e A)ericans inter)in&le+ t%ey &ro* in rese)blance o' eac% ot%er6 t%e di''erences resultin& 'ro)
t%eir cli)ate+ t%eir ori&in+ and t%eir institutions+ di)inis%6 and t%ey all dra* nearer and nearer to t%e co))on
ty"e# Every year+ t%ousands o' )en leave t%e Nort% to settle in di''erent "arts o' t%e (nion@ t%ey brin& *it% t%e)
t%eir 'ait%+ t%eir o"inions+ and t%eir )anners6 and as t%ey are )ore enli&%t%ned t%an t%e )en a)on&st *%o) t%ey
are about to d*ell+ t%ey soon rise to t%e %ead o' a''airs+ and t%ey ada"t society to t%eir o*n advanta&e# T%is
continual e)i&ration o' t%e Nort% to t%e !out% is "eculiarly 'avorable to t%e 'usion o' all t%e di''erent "rovincial
c%aracters into one national c%aracter# T%e civili-ation o' t%e Nort% a""ears to be t%e co))on standard+ to *%ic%
t%e *%ole nation *ill one day be assi)ilated#
T%e co))ercial ties *%ic% unite t%e con'ederate !tates are stren&t%ened by t%e increasin& )anu'actures o' t%e
A)ericans6 and t%e union *%ic% be&an to exist in t%eir o"inions+ &radually 'or)s a "art o' t%eir %abits@ t%e course
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o' ti)e %as s*e"t a*ay t%e bu&bear t%ou&%ts *%ic% %aunted t%e i)a&inations o' t%e citi-ens in .=/B# T%e 'ederal
"o*er is not beco)e o""ressive6 it %as not destroyed t%e inde"endence o' t%e !tates6 it %as not sub7ected t%e
con'ederates to )onarc%ial institutions6 and t%e (nion %as not rendered t%e lesser !tates de"endent u"on t%e
lar&er ones6 but t%e con'ederation %as continued to increase in "o"ulation+ in *ealt%+ and in "o*er# I a) t%ere'ore
convinced t%at t%e natural obstacles to t%e continuance o' t%e A)erican (nion are not so "o*er'ul at t%e "resent
ti)e as t%ey *ere in .=/B6 and t%at t%e ene)ies o' t%e (nion are not so nu)erous#
Nevert%eless+ a care'ul exa)ination o' t%e %istory o' t%e (nited !tates 'or t%e last 'orty1'ive years *ill readily
convince us t%at t%e 'ederal "o*er is declinin&6 nor is it di''icult to ex"lain t%e causes o' t%is "%eno)enon# Kv
,%en t%e Constitution o' .=/B *as "ro)ul&ated+ t%e nation *as a "rey to anarc%y6 t%e (nion+ *%ic% succeeded
t%is con'usion+ excited )uc% dread and )uc% ani)osity6 but it *as *ar)ly su""orted because it satis'ied an
i)"erious *ant# T%us+ alt%ou&% it *as )ore attaced t%an it is no*+ t%e 'ederal "o*er soon reac%ed t%e
)axi)u) o' its aut%ority+ as is usually t%e case *it% a &overn)ent *%ic% triu)"%s a'ter %avin& braced its
stren&t% by t%e stru&&le# At t%at ti)e t%e inter"retation o' t%e Constitution see)ed to extend+ rat%er t%an to
re"ress+ t%e 'ederal soverei&nty6 and t%e (nion o''ered+ in several res"ects+ t%e a""earance o' a sin&le and
undivided "eo"le+ directed in its 'orei&n and internal "olicy by a sin&le 9overn)ent# But to attain t%is "oint t%e
"eo"le %ad risen+ to a certain extent+ above itsel'#
35ootnote v@ 3!ince ./;. t%e )ove)ent is certainly in t%e o""osite direction+ and t%e 'ederal "o*er %as lar&ely
increased+ and tends to 'urt%er increase#44
T%e Constitution %ad not destroyed t%e distinct soverei&nty o' t%e !tates6 and all co))unities+ o' *%atever
nature t%ey )ay be+ are i)"elled by a secret "ro"ensity to assert t%eir inde"endence# T%is "ro"ensity is still )ore
decided in a country lie A)erica+ in *%ic% every villa&e 'or)s a sort o' re"ublic accusto)ed to conduct its o*n
a''airs# It t%ere'ore cost t%e !tates an e''ort to sub)it to t%e 'ederal su"re)acy6 and all e''orts+ %o*ever
success'ul t%ey )ay be+ necessarily subside *it% t%e causes in *%ic% t%ey ori&inated#
As t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent consolidated its aut%ority+ A)erica resu)ed its ran a)on&st t%e nations+ "eace
returned to its 'rontiers+ and "ublic credit *as restored6 con'usion *as succeeded by a 'ixed state o' t%in&s+ *%ic%
*as 'avorable to t%e 'ull and 'ree exercise o' industrious enter"rise# It *as t%is very "ros"erity *%ic% )ade t%e
A)ericans 'or&et t%e cause to *%ic% it *as attributable6 and *%en once t%e dan&er *as "assed+ t%e ener&y and
t%e "atriotis) *%ic% %ad enabled t%e) to brave it disa""eared 'ro) a)on&st t%e)# No sooner *ere t%ey
delivered 'ro) t%e cares *%ic% o""ressed t%e)+ t%an t%ey easily returned to t%eir ordinary %abits+ and &ave
t%e)selves u" *it%out resistance to t%eir natural inclinations# ,%en a "o*er'ul 9overn)ent no lon&er a""eared
to be necessary+ t%ey once )ore be&an to t%in it irso)e# T%e (nion encoura&ed a &eneral "ros"erity+ and t%e
!tates *ere not inclined to abandon t%e (nion6 but t%ey desired to render t%e action o' t%e "o*er *%ic%
re"resented t%at body as li&%t as "ossible# T%e &eneral "rinci"le o' (nion *as ado"ted+ but in every )inor detail
t%ere *as an actual tendency to inde"endence# T%e "rinci"le o' con'ederation *as every day )ore easily
ad)itted+ and )ore rarely a""lied6 so t%at t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent brou&%t about its o*n decline+ *%ilst it *as
creatin& order and "eace#
As soon as t%is tendency o' "ublic o"inion be&an to be )ani'ested externally+ t%e leaders o' "arties+ *%o live by
t%e "assions o' t%e "eo"le+ be&an to *or it to t%eir o*n advanta&e# T%e "osition o' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent t%en
beca)e exceedin&ly critical# Its ene)ies *ere in "ossession o' t%e "o"ular 'avor6 and t%ey obtained t%e ri&%t o'
conductin& its "olicy by "led&in& t%e)selves to lessen its in'luence# 5ro) t%at ti)e 'or*ards t%e 9overn)ent o'
t%e (nion %as invariably been obli&ed to recede+ as o'ten as it %as atte)"ted to enter t%e lists *it% t%e
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&overn)ents o' t%e !tates# And *%enever an inter"retation o' t%e ter)s o' t%e 5ederal Constitution %as been
called 'or+ t%at inter"retation %as )ost 'requently been o""osed to t%e (nion+ and 'avorable to t%e !tates#
T%e Constitution invested t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent *it% t%e ri&%t o' "rovidin& 'or t%e interests o' t%e nation6 and
it %ad been %eld t%at no ot%er aut%ority *as so 'it to su"erintend t%e 2internal i)"rove)ents2 *%ic% a''ected t%e
"ros"erity o' t%e *%ole (nion6 suc%+ 'or instance+ as t%e cuttin& o' canals# But t%e !tates *ere alar)ed at a
"o*er+ distinct 'ro) t%eir o*n+ *%ic% could t%us dis"ose o' a "ortion o' t%eir territory6 and t%ey *ere a'raid t%at
t%e central 9overn)ent *ould+ by t%is )eans+ acquire a 'or)idable extent o' "atrona&e *it%in t%eir o*n
con'ines+ and exercise a de&ree o' in'luence *%ic% t%ey intended to reserve exclusively to t%eir o*n a&ents# T%e
De)ocratic "arty+ *%ic% %as constantly been o""osed to t%e increase o' t%e 'ederal aut%ority+ t%en accused t%e
Con&ress o' usur"ation+ and t%e C%ie' Ma&istrate o' a)bition# T%e central 9overn)ent *as inti)idated by t%e
o""osition6 and it soon acno*led&ed its error+ "ro)isin& exactly to con'ine its in'luence 'or t%e 'uture *it%in
t%e circle *%ic% *as "rescribed to it#
T%e Constitution con'ers u"on t%e (nion t%e ri&%t o' treatin& *it% 'orei&n nations# T%e Indian tribes+ *%ic%
border u"on t%e 'rontiers o' t%e (nited !tates+ %ad usually been re&arded in t%is li&%t# As lon& as t%ese sava&es
consented to retire be'ore t%e civili-ed settlers+ t%e 'ederal ri&%t *as not contested@ but as soon as an Indian tribe
atte)"ted to 'ix its d*ellin& u"on a &iven s"ot+ t%e ad7acent !tates clai)ed "ossession o' t%e lands and t%e ri&%ts
o' soverei&nty over t%e natives# T%e central 9overn)ent soon reco&ni-ed bot% t%ese clai)s6 and a'ter it %ad
concluded treaties *it% t%e Indians as inde"endent nations+ it &ave t%e) u" as sub7ects to t%e le&islative tyranny
o' t%e !tates# K*
35ootnote *@ !ee in t%e 8e&islative Docu)ents+ already quoted in s"eain& o' t%e Indians+ t%e letter o' t%e
:resident o' t%e (nited !tates to t%e C%eroees+ %is corres"ondence on t%is sub7ect *it% %is a&ents+ and %is
)essa&es to Con&ress#4
!o)e o' t%e !tates *%ic% %ad been 'ounded u"on t%e coast o' t%e Atlantic+ extended inde'initely to t%e ,est+ into
*ild re&ions *%ere no Euro"ean %ad ever "enetrated# T%e !tates *%ose con'ines *ere irrevocably 'ixed+ looed
*it% a 7ealous eye u"on t%e unbounded re&ions *%ic% t%e 'uture *ould enable t%eir nei&%bors to ex"lore# T%e
latter t%en a&reed+ *it% a vie* to conciliate t%e ot%ers+ and to 'acilitate t%e act o' union+ to lay do*n t%eir o*n
boundaries+ and to abandon all t%e territory *%ic% lay beyond t%ose li)its to t%e con'ederation at lar&e# Kx
T%ence'or*ard t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent beca)e t%e o*ner o' all t%e uncultivated lands *%ic% lie beyond t%e
borders o' t%e t%irteen !tates 'irst con'ederated# It *as invested *it% t%e ri&%t o' "arcellin& and sellin& t%e)+ and
t%e su)s derived 'ro) t%is source *ere exclusively reserved to t%e "ublic treasure o' t%e (nion+ in order to
'urnis% su""lies 'or "urc%asin& tracts o' country 'ro) t%e Indians+ 'or o"enin& roads to t%e re)ote settle)ents+
and 'or acceleratin& t%e increase o' civili-ation as )uc% as "ossible# Ne* !tates %ave+ %o*ever+ been 'or)ed in
t%e course o' ti)e+ in t%e )idst o' t%ose *ilds *%ic% *ere 'or)erly ceded by t%e in%abitants o' t%e s%ores o' t%e
Atlantic# Con&ress %as &one on to sell+ 'or t%e "ro'it o' t%e nation at lar&e+ t%e uncultivated lands *%ic% t%ose
ne* !tates contained# But t%e latter at len&t% asserted t%at+ as t%ey *ere no* 'ully constituted+ t%ey ou&%t to
en7oy t%e exclusive ri&%t o' convertin& t%e "roduce o' t%ese sales to t%eir o*n use# As t%eir re)onstrances
beca)e )ore and )ore t%reatenin&+ Con&ress t%ou&%t 'it to de"rive t%e (nion o' a "ortion o' t%e "rivile&es
*%ic% it %ad %it%erto en7oyed6 and at t%e end o' ./0A it "assed a la* by *%ic% t%e &reatest "art o' t%e revenue
derived 'ro) t%e sale o' lands *as )ade over to t%e ne* *estern re"ublics+ alt%ou&% t%e lands t%e)selves *ere
not ceded to t%e)# Ky
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35ootnote x@ T%e 'irst act o' session *as )ade by t%e !tate o' Ne* Yor in .=/<6 Dir&inia+ Massac%usetts+
Connecticut+ !out% and Nort% Carolina+ 'ollo*ed t%is exa)"le at di''erent ti)es+ and lastly+ t%e act o' cession o'
9eor&ia *as )ade as recently as ./<A#4
35ootnote y@ It is true t%at t%e :resident re'used %is assent to t%is la*6 but %e co)"letely ado"ted it in "rinci"le#
>!ee Messa&e o' Dece)ber /+ ./00#?4
T%e sli&%test observation in t%e (nited !tates enables one to a""reciate t%e advanta&es *%ic% t%e country derives
'ro) t%e ban# T%ese advanta&es are o' several inds+ but one o' t%e) is "eculiarly striin& to t%e stran&er# T%e
bannotes o' t%e (nited !tates are taen u"on t%e borders o' t%e desert 'or t%e sa)e value as at :%iladel"%ia+
*%ere t%e ban conducts its o"erations# K-
35ootnote -@ T%e "resent Ban o' t%e (nited !tates *as establis%ed in ./.;+ *it% a ca"ital o' N0C+<<<+<<<6 its
c%arter ex"ires in ./0;# 8ast year Con&ress "assed a la* to rene* it+ but t%e :resident "ut %is veto u"on t%e bill#
T%e stru&&le is still &oin& on *it% &reat violence on eit%er side+ and t%e s"eedy 'all o' t%e ban )ay easily be
'oreseen# 3It *as soon a'ter*ards extin&uis%ed by 9eneral $acson#44
T%e Ban o' t%e (nited !tates is nevert%eless t%e ob7ect o' &reat ani)osity# Its directors %ave "roclai)ed t%eir
%ostility to t%e :resident@ and t%ey are accused+ not *it%out so)e s%o* o' "robability+ o' %avin& abused t%eir
in'luence to t%*art %is election# T%e :resident t%ere'ore attacs t%e establis%)ent *%ic% t%ey re"resent *it% all
t%e *ar)t% o' "ersonal en)ity6 and %e is encoura&ed in t%e "ursuit o' %is reven&e by t%e conviction t%at %e is
su""orted by t%e secret "ro"ensities o' t%e )a7ority# T%e ban )ay be re&arded as t%e &reat )onetary tie o' t%e
(nion+ 7ust as Con&ress is t%e &reat le&islative tie6 and t%e sa)e "assions *%ic% tend to render t%e !tates
inde"endent o' t%e central "o*er+ contribute to t%e overt%ro* o' t%e ban#
T%e Ban o' t%e (nited !tates al*ays %olds a &reat nu)ber o' t%e notes issued by t%e "rovincial bans+ *%ic% it
can at any ti)e obli&e t%e) to convert into cas%# It %as itsel' not%in& to 'ear 'ro) a si)ilar de)and+ as t%e extent
o' its resources enables it to )eet all clai)s# But t%e existence o' t%e "rovincial bans is t%us t%reatened+ and
t%eir o"erations are restricted+ since t%ey are only able to issue a quantity o' notes duly "ro"ortioned to t%eir
ca"ital# T%ey sub)it *it% i)"atience to t%is salutary control# T%e ne*s"a"ers *%ic% t%ey %ave bou&%t over+ and
t%e :resident+ *%ose interest renders %i) t%eir instru)ent+ attac t%e ban *it% t%e &reatest ve%e)ence# T%ey
rouse t%e local "assions and t%e blind de)ocratic instinct o' t%e country to aid t%eir cause6 and t%ey assert t%at
t%e ban directors 'or) a "er)anent aristocratic body+ *%ose in'luence )ust ulti)ately be 'elt in t%e
9overn)ent+ and )ust a''ect t%ose "rinci"les o' equality u"on *%ic% society rests in A)erica#
T%e contest bet*een t%e ban and its o""onents is only an incident in t%e &reat stru&&le *%ic% is &oin& on in
A)erica bet*een t%e "rovinces and t%e central "o*er6 bet*een t%e s"irit o' de)ocratic inde"endence and t%e
s"irit o' &radation and subordination# I do not )ean t%at t%e ene)ies o' t%e ban are identically t%e sa)e
individuals *%o+ on ot%er "oints+ attac t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent6 but I assert t%at t%e attacs directed a&ainst t%e
ban o' t%e (nited !tates ori&inate in t%e sa)e "ro"ensities *%ic% )ilitate a&ainst t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent6 and
t%at t%e very nu)erous o""onents o' t%e 'or)er a''ord a de"lorable sy)"to) o' t%e decreasin& su""ort o' t%e
latter#
T%e (nion %as never dis"layed so )uc% *eaness as in t%e celebrated question o' t%e tari''# Ka T%e *ars o' t%e
5renc% Revolution and o' ./.A %ad created )anu'acturin& establis%)ents in t%e Nort% o' t%e (nion+ by cuttin&
o'' all 'ree co))unication bet*een A)erica and Euro"e# ,%en "eace *as concluded+ and t%e c%annel o'
intercourse reo"ened by *%ic% t%e "roduce o' Euro"e *as trans)itted to t%e Ne* ,orld+ t%e A)ericans t%ou&%t
'it to establis% a syste) o' i)"ort duties+ 'or t%e t*o'old "ur"ose o' "rotectin& t%eir inci"ient )anu'actures and
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o' "ayin& o'' t%e a)ount o' t%e debt contracted durin& t%e *ar# T%e !out%ern !tates+ *%ic% %ave no
)anu'actures to encoura&e+ and *%ic% are exclusively a&ricultural+ soon co)"lained o' t%is )easure# !uc% *ere
t%e si)"le 'acts+ and I do not "retend to exa)ine in t%is "lace *%et%er t%eir co)"laints *ere *ell 'ounded or
un7ust#
35ootnote a@ !ee "rinci"ally 'or t%e details o' t%is a''air+ t%e 8e&islative Docu)ents+ AAd Con&ress+ Ad !ession+
No# 0<#4
As early as t%e year ./A<+ !out% Carolina declared+ in a "etition to Con&ress+ t%at t%e tari'' *as
2unconstitutional+ o""ressive+ and un7ust#2 And t%e !tates o' 9eor&ia+ Dir&inia+ Nort% Carolina+ Alaba)a+ and
Mississi""i subsequently re)onstrated a&ainst it *it% )ore or less vi&or# But Con&ress+ 'ar 'ro) lendin& an ear
to t%ese co)"laints+ raised t%e scale o' tari'' duties in t%e years ./AG and ./A/+ and reco&ni-ed ane* t%e
"rinci"le on *%ic% it *as 'ounded# A doctrine *as t%en "roclai)ed+ or rat%er revived+ in t%e !out%+ *%ic% too
t%e na)e o' Nulli'ication#
I %ave s%o*n in t%e "ro"er "lace t%at t%e ob7ect o' t%e 5ederal Constitution *as not to 'or) a lea&ue+ but to
create a national &overn)ent# T%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited !tates 'or) a sole and undivided "eo"le+ in all t%e
cases *%ic% are s"eci'ied by t%at Constitution6 and u"on t%ese "oints t%e *ill o' t%e nation is ex"ressed+ as it is in
all constitutional nations+ by t%e voice o' t%e )a7ority# ,%en t%e )a7ority %as "ronounced its decision+ it is t%e
duty o' t%e )inority to sub)it# !uc% is t%e sound le&al doctrine+ and t%e only one *%ic% a&rees *it% t%e text o'
t%e Constitution+ and t%e no*n intention o' t%ose *%o 'ra)ed it#
T%e "artisans o' Nulli'ication in t%e !out% )aintain+ on t%e contrary+ t%at t%e intention o' t%e A)ericans in
unitin& *as not to reduce t%e)selves to t%e condition o' one and t%e sa)e "eo"le6 t%at t%ey )eant to constitute a
lea&ue o' inde"endent !tates6 and t%at eac% !tate+ consequently retains its entire soverei&nty+ i' not de 'acto+ at
least de 7ure6 and %as t%e ri&%t o' "uttin& its o*n construction u"on t%e la*s o' Con&ress+ and o' sus"endin& t%eir
execution *it%in t%e li)its o' its o*n territory+ i' t%ey are %eld to be unconstitutional and un7ust#
T%e entire doctrine o' Nulli'ication is co)"rised in a sentence uttered by Dice1:resident Cal%oun+ t%e %ead o'
t%at "arty in t%e !out%+ be'ore t%e !enate o' t%e (nited !tates+ in t%e year ./00@ could@ 2T%e Constitution is a
co)"act to *%ic% t%e !tates *ere "arties in t%eir soverei&n ca"acity6 no*+ *%enever a co)"act is entered into by
"arties *%ic% acno*led&e no tribunal above t%eir aut%ority to decide in t%e last resort+ eac% o' t%e) %as a ri&%t
to 7ud&e 'or itsel' in relation to t%e nature+ extent+ and obli&ations o' t%e instru)ent#2 It is evident t%at a si)ilar
doctrine destroys t%e very basis o' t%e 5ederal Constitution+ and brin&s bac all t%e evils o' t%e old con'ederation+
'ro) *%ic% t%e A)ericans *ere su""osed to %ave %ad a sa'e deliverance#
,%en !out% Carolina "erceived t%at Con&ress turned a dea' ear to its re)onstrances+ it t%reatened to a""ly t%e
doctrine o' nulli'ication to t%e 'ederal tari'' bill# Con&ress "ersisted in its 'or)er syste)6 and at len&t% t%e stor)
broe out# In t%e course o' ./0A t%e citi-ens o' !out% Carolina+ Kb na)ed a national Convention+ to consult u"on
t%e extraordinary )easures *%ic% t%ey *ere called u"on to tae6 and on Nove)ber AGt% o' t%e sa)e year t%is
Convention "ro)ul&ated a la*+ under t%e 'or) o' a decree+ *%ic% annulled t%e 'ederal la* o' t%e tari''+ 'orbade
t%e levy o' t%e i)"osts *%ic% t%at la* co))ands+ and re'used to reco&ni-e t%e a""eal *%ic% )i&%t be )ade to
t%e 'ederal courts o' la*# Kc T%is decree *as only to be "ut in execution in t%e ensuin& )ont% o' 5ebruary+ and it
*as inti)ated+ t%at i' Con&ress )odi'ied t%e tari'' be'ore t%at "eriod+ !out% Carolina )i&%t be induced to
"roceed no 'urt%er *it% %er )enaces6 and a va&ue desire *as a'ter*ards ex"ressed o' sub)ittin& t%e question to
an extraordinary asse)bly o' all t%e con'ederate !tates#
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35ootnote b@ T%at is to say+ t%e )a7ority o' t%e "eo"le6 'or t%e o""osite "arty+ called t%e (nion "arty+ al*ays
'or)ed a very stron& and active )inority# Carolina )ay contain about G=+<<< electors6 0<+<<< *ere in 'avor o'
nulli'ication+ and .=+<<< o""osed to it#4
35ootnote c@ T%is decree *as "receded by a re"ort o' t%e co))ittee by *%ic% it *as 'ra)ed+ containin& t%e
ex"lanation o' t%e )otives and ob7ect o' t%e la*# T%e 'ollo*in& "assa&e occurs in it+ "# 0G@112,%en t%e ri&%ts
reserved by t%e Constitution to t%e di''erent !tates are deliberately violated+ it is t%e duty and t%e ri&%t o' t%ose
!tates to inter'ere+ in order to c%ec t%e "ro&ress o' t%e evil6 to resist usur"ation+ and to )aintain+ *it%in t%eir
res"ective li)its+ t%ose "o*ers and "rivile&es *%ic% belon& to t%e) as inde"endent soverei&n !tates# I' t%ey
*ere destitute o' t%is ri&%t+ t%ey *ould not be soverei&n# !out% Carolina declares t%at s%e acno*led&es no
tribunal u"on eart% above %er aut%ority# !%e %as indeed entered into a sole)n co)"act o' union *it% t%e ot%er
!tates6 but s%e de)ands+ and *ill exercise+ t%e ri&%t o' "uttin& %er o*n construction u"on it6 and *%en t%is
co)"act is violated by %er sister !tates+ and by t%e 9overn)ent *%ic% t%ey %ave created+ s%e is deter)ined to
avail %ersel' o' t%e unquestionable ri&%t o' 7ud&in& *%at is t%e extent o' t%e in'raction+ and *%at are t%e )easures
best 'itted to obtain 7ustice#24
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art IH
In t%e )eanti)e !out% Carolina ar)ed %er )ilitia+ and "re"ared 'or *ar# But Con&ress+ *%ic% %ad sli&%ted its
su""liant sub7ects+ listened to t%eir co)"laints as soon as t%ey *ere 'ound to %ave taen u" ar)s# Kd A la* *as
"assed+ by *%ic% t%e tari'' duties *ere to be "ro&ressively reduced 'or ten years+ until t%ey *ere brou&%t so lo*
as not to exceed t%e a)ount o' su""lies necessary to t%e 9overn)ent# Ke T%us Con&ress co)"letely abandoned
t%e "rinci"le o' t%e tari''6 and substituted a )ere 'iscal i)"ost to a syste) o' "rotective duties# K' T%e
9overn)ent o' t%e (nion+ in order to conceal its de'eat+ %ad recourse to an ex"edient *%ic% is very )uc% in
vo&ue *it% 'eeble &overn)ents# It yielded t%e "oint de 'acto+ but it re)ained in'lexible u"on t%e "rinci"les in
question6 and *%ilst Con&ress *as alterin& t%e tari'' la*+ it "assed anot%er bill+ by *%ic% t%e :resident *as
invested *it% extraordinary "o*ers+ enablin& %i) to overco)e by 'orce a resistance *%ic% *as t%en no lon&er to
be a""re%ended#
35ootnote d@ Con&ress *as 'inally decided to tae t%is ste" by t%e conduct o' t%e "o*er'ul !tate o' Dir&inia+
*%ose le&islature o''ered to serve as )ediator bet*een t%e (nion and !out% Carolina# Hit%erto t%e latter !tate
%ad a""eared to be entirely abandoned+ even by t%e !tates *%ic% %ad 7oined in %er re)onstrances#4
35ootnote e@ T%is la* *as "assed on Marc% A+ ./00#4
35ootnote '@ T%is bill *as brou&%t in by Mr# Clay+ and it "assed in 'our days t%rou&% bot% Houses o' Con&ress by
an i))ense )a7ority#4
But !out% Carolina did not consent to leave t%e (nion in t%e en7oy)ent o' t%ese scanty tro"%ies o' success@ t%e
sa)e national Convention *%ic% %ad annulled t%e tari'' bill+ )et a&ain+ and acce"ted t%e "ro''ered concession6
but at t%e sa)e ti)e it declared it unabated "erseverance in t%e doctrine o' Nulli'ication@ and to "rove *%at it
said+ it annulled t%e la* investin& t%e :resident *it% extraordinary "o*ers+ alt%ou&% it *as very certain t%at t%e
clauses o' t%at la* *ould never be carried into e''ect#
Al)ost all t%e controversies o' *%ic% I %ave been s"eain& %ave taen "lace under t%e :residency o' 9eneral
$acson6 and it cannot be denied t%at in t%e question o' t%e tari'' %e %as su""orted t%e clai)s o' t%e (nion *it%
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vi&or and *it% sill# I a)+ %o*ever+ o' o"inion t%at t%e conduct o' t%e individual *%o no* re"resents t%e 5ederal
9overn)ent )ay be reconed as one o' t%e dan&ers *%ic% t%reaten its continuance#
!o)e "ersons in Euro"e %ave 'or)ed an o"inion o' t%e "ossible in'luence o' 9eneral $acson u"on t%e a''airs o'
%is country+ *%ic% a""ears %i&%ly extrava&ant to t%ose *%o %ave seen )ore o' t%e sub7ect# ,e %ave been told
t%at 9eneral $acson %as *on sundry battles+ t%at %e is an ener&etic )an+ "rone by nature and by %abit to t%e use
o' 'orce+ covetous o' "o*er+ and a des"ot by taste# All t%is )ay "er%a"s be true6 but t%e in'erences *%ic% %ave
been dra*n 'ro) t%ese trut%s are exceedin&ly erroneous# It %as been i)a&ined t%at 9eneral $acson is bent on
establis%in& a dictators%i" in A)erica+ on introducin& a )ilitary s"irit+ and on &ivin& a de&ree o' in'luence to t%e
central aut%ority *%ic% cannot but be dan&erous to "rovincial liberties# But in A)erica t%e ti)e 'or si)ilar
undertain&s+ and t%e a&e 'or )en o' t%is ind+ is not yet co)e@ i' 9eneral $acson %ad entertained a %o"e o'
exercisin& %is aut%ority in t%is )anner+ %e *ould in'allibly %ave 'or'eited %is "olitical station+ and co)"ro)ised
%is li'e6 accordin&ly %e %as not been so i)"rudent as to )ae any suc% atte)"t#
5ar 'ro) *is%in& to extend t%e 'ederal "o*er+ t%e :resident belon&s to t%e "arty *%ic% is desirous o' li)itin&
t%at "o*er to t%e bare and "recise letter o' t%e Constitution+ and *%ic% never "uts a construction u"on t%at act
'avorable to t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion6 'ar 'ro) standin& 'ort% as t%e c%a)"ion o' centrali-ation+ 9eneral
$acson is t%e a&ent o' all t%e 7ealousies o' t%e !tates6 and %e *as "laced in t%e lo'ty station %e occu"ies by t%e
"assions o' t%e "eo"le *%ic% are )ost o""osed to t%e central 9overn)ent# It is by "er"etually 'latterin& t%ese
"assions t%at %e )aintains %is station and %is "o"ularity# 9eneral $acson is t%e slave o' t%e )a7ority@ %e yields to
its *is%es+ its "ro"ensities+ and its de)ands6 say rat%er+ t%at %e antici"ates and 'orestalls t%e)#
,%enever t%e &overn)ents o' t%e !tates co)e into collision *it% t%at o' t%e (nion+ t%e :resident is &enerally t%e
'irst to question %is o*n ri&%ts@ %e al)ost al*ays outstri"s t%e le&islature6 and *%en t%e extent o' t%e 'ederal
"o*er is controverted+ %e taes "art+ as it *ere+ a&ainst %i)sel'6 %e conceals %is o''icial interests+ and
extin&uis%es %is o*n natural inclinations# Not indeed t%at %e is naturally *ea or %ostile to t%e (nion6 'or *%en
t%e )a7ority decided a&ainst t%e clai)s o' t%e "artisans o' nulli'ication+ %e "ut %i)sel' at its %ead+ asserted t%e
doctrines *%ic% t%e nation %eld distinctly and ener&etically+ and *as t%e 'irst to reco))end 'orcible )easures6
but 9eneral $acson a""ears to )e+ i' I )ay use t%e A)erican ex"ressions+ to be a 5ederalist by taste+ and a
Re"ublican by calculation#
9eneral $acson stoo"s to &ain t%e 'avor o' t%e )a7ority+ but *%en %e 'eels t%at %is "o"ularity is secure+ %e
overt%ro*s all obstacles in t%e "ursuit o' t%e ob7ects *%ic% t%e co))unity a""roves+ or o' t%ose *%ic% it does
not loo u"on *it% a 7ealous eye# He is su""orted by a "o*er *it% *%ic% %is "redecessors *ere unacquainted6
and %e tra)"les on %is "ersonal ene)ies *%enever t%ey cross %is "at% *it% a 'acility *%ic% no 'or)er :resident
ever en7oyed6 %e taes u"on %i)sel' t%e res"onsibility o' )easures *%ic% no one be'ore %i) *ould %ave
ventured to atte)"t@ %e even treats t%e national re"resentatives *it% disdain a""roac%in& to insult6 %e "uts %is
veto u"on t%e la*s o' Con&ress+ and 'requently ne&lects to re"ly to t%at "o*er'ul body# He is a 'avorite *%o
so)eti)es treats %is )aster rou&%ly# T%e "o*er o' 9eneral $acson "er"etually increases6 but t%at o' t%e
:resident declines6 in %is %ands t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent is stron&+ but it *ill "ass en'eebled into t%e %ands o' %is
successor#
I a) stran&ely )istaen i' t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent o' t%e (nited !tates be not constantly losin& stren&t%+ retirin&
&radually 'ro) "ublic a''airs+ and narro*in& its circle o' action )ore and )ore# It is naturally 'eeble+ but it no*
abandons even its "retensions to stren&t%# On t%e ot%er %and+ I t%ou&%t t%at I re)ared a )ore lively sense o'
inde"endence+ and a )ore decided attac%)ent to "rovincial &overn)ent in t%e !tates# T%e (nion is to subsist+
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but to subsist as a s%ado*6 it is to be stron& in certain cases+ and *ea in all ot%ers6 in ti)e o' *ar'are+ it is to be
able to concentrate all t%e 'orces o' t%e nation and all t%e resources o' t%e country in its %ands6 and in ti)e o'
"eace its existence is to be scarcely "erce"tible@ as i' t%is alternate debility and vi&or *ere natural or "ossible#
I do not 'oresee anyt%in& 'or t%e "resent *%ic% )ay be able to c%ec t%is &eneral i)"ulse o' "ublic o"inion6 t%e
causes in *%ic% it ori&inated do not cease to o"erate *it% t%e sa)e e''ect# T%e c%an&e *ill t%ere'ore &o on+ and it
)ay be "redicted t%at+ unless so)e extraordinary event occurs+ t%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nion *ill &ro* *eaer
and *eaer every day#
I t%in+ %o*ever+ t%at t%e "eriod is still re)ote at *%ic% t%e 'ederal "o*er *ill be entirely extin&uis%ed by its
inability to "rotect itsel' and to )aintain "eace in t%e country# T%e (nion is sanctioned by t%e )anners and
desires o' t%e "eo"le6 its results are "al"able+ its bene'its visible# ,%en it is "erceived t%at t%e *eaness o' t%e
5ederal 9overn)ent co)"ro)ises t%e existence o' t%e (nion+ I do not doubt t%at a reaction *ill tae "lace *it%
a vie* to increase its stren&t%#
T%e 9overn)ent o' t%e (nited !tates is+ o' all t%e 'ederal &overn)ents *%ic% %ave %it%erto been establis%ed+ t%e
one *%ic% is )ost naturally destined to act# As lon& as it is only indirectly assailed by t%e inter"retation o' its
la*s+ and as lon& as its substance is not seriously altered+ a c%an&e o' o"inion+ an internal crisis+ or a *ar+ )ay
restore all t%e vi&or *%ic% it requires# T%e "oint *%ic% I %ave been )ost anxious to "ut in a clear li&%t is si)"ly
t%is@ Many "eo"le+ es"ecially in 5rance+ i)a&ine t%at a c%an&e in o"inion is &oin& on in t%e (nited !tates+ *%ic%
is 'avorable to a centrali-ation o' "o*er in t%e %ands o' t%e :resident and t%e Con&ress# I %old t%at a contrary
tendency )ay distinctly be observed# !o 'ar is t%e 5ederal 9overn)ent 'ro) acquirin& stren&t%+ and 'ro)
t%reatenin& t%e soverei&nty o' t%e !tates+ as it &ro*s older+ t%at I )aintain it to be &ro*in& *eaer and *eaer+
and t%at t%e soverei&nty o' t%e (nion alone is in dan&er# !uc% are t%e 'acts *%ic% t%e "resent ti)e discloses# T%e
'uture conceals t%e 'inal result o' t%is tendency+ and t%e events *%ic% )ay c%ec+ retard+ or accelerate t%e
c%an&es I %ave described6 but I do not a''ect to be able to re)ove t%e veil *%ic% %ides t%e) 'ro) our si&%t#
O' T%e Re"ublican Institutions O' T%e (nited !tates+ And ,%at T%eir C%ances O' Duration Are
T%e (nion is accidental11T%e Re"ublican institutions %ave )ore "ros"ect o' "er)anence11A re"ublic 'or t%e
"resent t%e natural state o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans11Reason o' t%is11In order to destroy it+ all t%e la*s )ust be
c%an&ed at t%e sa)e ti)e+ and a &reat alteration tae "lace in )anners11Di''iculties ex"erienced by t%e
A)ericans in creatin& an aristocracy#
T%e dis)e)ber)ent o' t%e (nion+ by t%e introduction o' *ar into t%e %eart o' t%ose !tates *%ic% are no*
con'ederate+ *it% standin& ar)ies+ a dictators%i"+ and a %eavy taxation+ )i&%t+ eventually+ co)"ro)ise t%e 'ate o'
t%e re"ublican institutions# But *e ou&%t not to con'ound t%e 'uture "ros"ects o' t%e re"ublic *it% t%ose o' t%e
(nion# T%e (nion is an accident+ *%ic% *ill only last as lon& as circu)stances are 'avorable to its existence6 but
a re"ublican 'or) o' &overn)ent see)s to )e to be t%e natural state o' t%e A)ericans6 *%ic% not%in& but t%e
continued action o' %ostile causes+ al*ays actin& in t%e sa)e direction+ could c%an&e into a )onarc%y# T%e (nion
exists "rinci"ally in t%e la* *%ic% 'or)ed it6 one revolution+ one c%an&e in "ublic o"inion+ )i&%t destroy it
'orever6 but t%e re"ublic %as a )uc% dee"er 'oundation to rest u"on#
,%at is understood by a re"ublican &overn)ent in t%e (nited !tates is t%e slo* and quiet action o' society u"on
itsel'# It is a re&ular state o' t%in&s really 'ounded u"on t%e enli&%tened *ill o' t%e "eo"le# It is a conciliatory
&overn)ent under *%ic% resolutions are allo*ed ti)e to ri"en6 and in *%ic% t%ey are deliberately discussed+ and
executed *it% )ature 7ud&)ent# T%e re"ublicans in t%e (nited !tates set a %i&% value u"on )orality+ res"ect
reli&ious belie'+ and acno*led&e t%e existence o' ri&%ts# T%ey "ro'ess to t%in t%at a "eo"le ou&%t to be )oral+
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reli&ious+ and te)"erate+ in "ro"ortion as it is 'ree# ,%at is called t%e re"ublic in t%e (nited !tates+ is t%e tranquil
rule o' t%e )a7ority+ *%ic%+ a'ter %avin& %ad ti)e to exa)ine itsel'+ and to &ive "roo' o' its existence+ is t%e
co))on source o' all t%e "o*ers o' t%e !tate# But t%e "o*er o' t%e )a7ority is not o' itsel' unli)ited# In t%e
)oral *orld %u)anity+ 7ustice+ and reason en7oy an undis"uted su"re)acy6 in t%e "olitical *orld vested ri&%ts
are treated *it% no less de'erence# T%e )a7ority reco&ni-es t%ese t*o barriers6 and i' it no* and t%en overste"
t%e)+ it is because+ lie individuals+ it %as "assions+ and+ lie t%e)+ it is "rone to do *%at is *ron&+ *%ilst it
discerns *%at is ri&%t#
But t%e de)a&o&ues o' Euro"e %ave )ade stran&e discoveries# A re"ublic is not+ accordin& to t%e)+ t%e rule o'
t%e )a7ority+ as %as %it%erto been t%ou&%t+ but t%e rule o' t%ose *%o are strenuous "artisans o' t%e )a7ority# It is
not t%e "eo"le *%o "re"onderates in t%is ind o' &overn)ent+ but t%ose *%o are best versed in t%e &ood qualities
o' t%e "eo"le# A %a""y distinction+ *%ic% allo*s )en to act in t%e na)e o' nations *it%out consultin& t%e)+ and
to clai) t%eir &ratitude *%ilst t%eir ri&%ts are s"urned# A re"ublican &overn)ent+ )oreover+ is t%e only one
*%ic% clai)s t%e ri&%t o' doin& *%atever it c%ooses+ and des"isin& *%at )en %ave %it%erto res"ected+ 'ro) t%e
%i&%est )oral obli&ations to t%e vul&ar rules o' co))on1sense# It %ad been su""osed+ until our ti)e+ t%at
des"otis) *as odious+ under *%atever 'or) it a""eared# But it is a discovery o' )odern days t%at t%ere are suc%
t%in&s as le&iti)ate tyranny and %oly in7ustice+ "rovided t%ey are exercised in t%e na)e o' t%e "eo"le#
T%e ideas *%ic% t%e A)ericans %ave ado"ted res"ectin& t%e re"ublican 'or) o' &overn)ent+ render it easy 'or
t%e) to live under it+ and insure its duration# I'+ in t%eir country+ t%is 'or) be o'ten "ractically bad+ at least it is
t%eoretically &ood6 and+ in t%e end+ t%e "eo"le al*ays acts in con'or)ity to it#
It *as i)"ossible at t%e 'oundation o' t%e !tates+ and it *ould still be di''icult+ to establis% a central
ad)inistration in A)erica# T%e in%abitants are dis"ersed over too &reat a s"ace+ and se"arated by too )any
natural obstacles+ 'or one )an to undertae to direct t%e details o' t%eir existence# A)erica is t%ere'ore "re1
e)inently t%e country o' "rovincial and )unici"al &overn)ent# To t%is cause+ *%ic% *as "lainly 'elt by all t%e
Euro"eans o' t%e Ne* ,orld+ t%e An&lo1A)ericans added several ot%ers "eculiar to t%e)selves#
At t%e ti)e o' t%e settle)ent o' t%e Nort% A)erican colonies+ )unici"al liberty %ad already "enetrated into t%e
la*s as *ell as t%e )anners o' t%e En&lis%6 and t%e e)i&rants ado"ted it+ not only as a necessary t%in&+ but as a
bene'it *%ic% t%ey ne* %o* to a""reciate# ,e %ave already seen t%e )anner in *%ic% t%e colonies *ere
'ounded@ every "rovince+ and al)ost every district+ *as "eo"led se"arately by )en *%o *ere stran&ers to eac%
ot%er+ or *%o associated *it% very di''erent "ur"oses# T%e En&lis% settlers in t%e (nited !tates+ t%ere'ore+ early
"erceived t%at t%ey *ere divided into a &reat nu)ber o' s)all and distinct co))unities *%ic% belon&ed to no
co))on centre6 and t%at it *as need'ul 'or eac% o' t%ese little co))unities to tae care o' its o*n a''airs+ since
t%ere did not a""ear to be any central aut%ority *%ic% *as naturally bound and easily enabled to "rovide 'or
t%e)# T%us+ t%e nature o' t%e country+ t%e )anner in *%ic% t%e Britis% colonies *ere 'ounded+ t%e %abits o' t%e
'irst e)i&rants+ in s%ort everyt%in&+ united to "ro)ote+ in an extraordinary de&ree+ )unici"al and "rovincial
liberties#
In t%e (nited !tates+ t%ere'ore+ t%e )ass o' t%e institutions o' t%e country is essentially re"ublican6 and in order
"er)anently to destroy t%e la*s *%ic% 'or) t%e basis o' t%e re"ublic+ it *ould be necessary to abolis% all t%e
la*s at once# At t%e "resent day it *ould be even )ore di''icult 'or a "arty to succeed in 'oundin& a )onarc%y in
t%e (nited !tates t%an 'or a set o' )en to "roclai) t%at 5rance s%ould %ence'or*ard be a re"ublic# Royalty *ould
not 'ind a syste) o' le&islation "re"ared 'or it be'ore%and6 and a )onarc%y *ould t%en exist+ really surrounded
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by re"ublican institutions# T%e )onarc%ical "rinci"le *ould lie*ise %ave &reat di''iculty in "enetratin& into t%e
)anners o' t%e A)ericans#
In t%e (nited !tates+ t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le is not an isolated doctrine bearin& no relation to t%e "revailin&
)anners and ideas o' t%e "eo"le@ it )ay+ on t%e contrary+ be re&arded as t%e last lin o' a c%ain o' o"inions *%ic%
binds t%e *%ole An&lo1A)erican *orld# T%at :rovidence %as &iven to every %u)an bein& t%e de&ree o' reason
necessary to direct %i)sel' in t%e a''airs *%ic% interest %i) exclusively11suc% is t%e &rand )axi) u"on *%ic%
civil and "olitical society rests in t%e (nited !tates# T%e 'at%er o' a 'a)ily a""lies it to %is c%ildren6 t%e )aster to
%is servants6 t%e to*ns%i" to its o''icers6 t%e "rovince to its to*ns%i"s6 t%e !tate to its "rovinces6 t%e (nion to t%e
!tates6 and *%en extended to t%e nation+ it beco)es t%e doctrine o' t%e soverei&nty o' t%e "eo"le#
T%us+ in t%e (nited !tates+ t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"le o' t%e re"ublic is t%e sa)e *%ic% &overns t%e &reater "art o'
%u)an actions6 re"ublican notions insinuate t%e)selves into all t%e ideas+ o"inions+ and %abits o' t%e A)ericans+
*%ilst t%ey are 'or)erly reco&ni-ed by t%e le&islation@ and be'ore t%is le&islation can be altered t%e *%ole
co))unity )ust under&o very serious c%an&es# In t%e (nited !tates+ even t%e reli&ion o' )ost o' t%e citi-ens is
re"ublican+ since it sub)its t%e trut%s o' t%e ot%er *orld to "rivate 7ud&)ent@ as in "olitics t%e care o' its
te)"oral interests is abandoned to t%e &ood sense o' t%e "eo"le# T%us every )an is allo*ed 'reely to tae t%at
road *%ic% %e t%ins *ill lead %i) to %eaven6 7ust as t%e la* "er)its every citi-en to %ave t%e ri&%t o' c%oosin&
%is &overn)ent#
It is evident t%at not%in& but a lon& series o' events+ all %avin& t%e sa)e tendency+ can substitute 'or t%is
co)bination o' la*s+ o"inions+ and )anners+ a )ass o' o""osite o"inions+ )anners+ and la*s#
I' re"ublican "rinci"les are to "eris% in A)erica+ t%ey can only yield a'ter a laborious social "rocess+ o'ten
interru"ted+ and as o'ten resu)ed6 t%ey *ill %ave )any a""arent revivals+ and *ill not beco)e totally extinct
until an entirely ne* "eo"le s%all %ave succeeded to t%at *%ic% no* exists# No*+ it )ust be ad)itted t%at t%ere is
no sy)"to) or "resa&e o' t%e a""roac% o' suc% a revolution# T%ere is not%in& )ore striin& to a "erson ne*ly
arrived in t%e (nited !tates+ t%an t%e ind o' tu)ultuous a&itation in *%ic% %e 'inds "olitical society# T%e la*s
are incessantly c%an&in&+ and at 'irst si&%t it see)s i)"ossible t%at a "eo"le so variable in its desires s%ould
avoid ado"tin&+ *it%in a s%ort s"ace o' ti)e+ a co)"letely ne* 'or) o' &overn)ent# !uc% a""re%ensions are+
%o*ever+ "re)ature6 t%e instability *%ic% a''ects "olitical institutions is o' t*o inds+ *%ic% ou&%t not to be
con'ounded@ t%e 'irst+ *%ic% )odi'ies secondary la*s+ is not inco)"atible *it% a very settled state o' society6 t%e
ot%er s%aes t%e very 'oundations o' t%e Constitution+ and attacs t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"les o' le&islation6 t%is
s"ecies o' instability is al*ays 'ollo*ed by troubles and revolutions+ and t%e nation *%ic% su''ers under it is in a
state o' violent transition#
Ex"erience s%o*s t%at t%ese t*o inds o' le&islative instability %ave no necessary connection6 'or t%ey %ave been
'ound united or se"arate+ accordin& to ti)es and circu)stances# T%e 'irst is co))on in t%e (nited !tates+ but not
t%e second@ t%e A)ericans o'ten c%an&e t%eir la*s+ but t%e 'oundation o' t%e Constitution is res"ected#
In our days t%e re"ublican "rinci"le rules in A)erica+ as t%e )onarc%ical "rinci"le did in 5rance under 8ouis
HID# T%e 5renc% o' t%at "eriod *ere not only 'riends o' t%e )onarc%y+ but t%ey t%ou&%t it i)"ossible to "ut
anyt%in& in its "lace6 t%ey received it as *e receive t%e rays o' t%e sun and t%e return o' t%e seasons# A)on&st
t%e) t%e royal "o*er %ad neit%er advocates nor o""onents# In lie )anner does t%e re"ublican &overn)ent exist
in A)erica+ *it%out contention or o""osition6 *it%out "roo's and ar&u)ents+ by a tacit a&ree)ent+ a sort o'
consensus universalis# It is+ %o*ever+ )y o"inion t%at by c%an&in& t%eir ad)inistrative 'or)s as o'ten as t%ey do+
t%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates co)"ro)ise t%e 'uture stability o' t%eir &overn)ent#
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It )ay be a""re%ended t%at )en+ "er"etually t%*arted in t%eir desi&ns by t%e )utability o' t%e le&islation+ *ill
learn to loo u"on re"ublican institutions as an inconvenient 'or) o' society6 t%e evil resultin& 'ro) t%e
instability o' t%e secondary enact)ents )i&%t t%en raise a doubt as to t%e nature o' t%e 'unda)ental "rinci"les o'
t%e Constitution+ and indirectly brin& about a revolution6 but t%is e"oc% is still very re)ote#
It )ay+ %o*ever+ be 'oreseen even no*+ t%at *%en t%e A)ericans lose t%eir re"ublican institutions t%ey *ill
s"eedily arrive at a des"otic &overn)ent+ *it%out a lon& interval o' li)ited )onarc%y# Montesquieu re)ared+
t%at not%in& is )ore absolute t%an t%e aut%ority o' a "rince *%o i))ediately succeeds a re"ublic+ since t%e
"o*ers *%ic% %ad 'earlessly been intrusted to an elected )a&istrate are t%en trans'erred to a %ereditary soverei&n#
T%is is true in &eneral+ but it is )ore "eculiarly a""licable to a de)ocratic re"ublic# In t%e (nited !tates+ t%e
)a&istrates are not elected by a "articular class o' citi-ens+ but by t%e )a7ority o' t%e nation6 t%ey are t%e
i))ediate re"resentatives o' t%e "assions o' t%e )ultitude6 and as t%ey are *%olly de"endent u"on its "leasure+
t%ey excite neit%er %atred nor 'ear@ %ence+ as I %ave already s%o*n+ very little care %as been taen to li)it t%eir
in'luence+ and t%ey are le't in "ossession o' a vast deal o' arbitrary "o*er# T%is state o' t%in&s %as en&endered
%abits *%ic% *ould outlive itsel'6 t%e A)erican )a&istrate *ould retain %is "o*er+ but %e *ould cease to be
res"onsible 'or t%e exercise o' it6 and it is i)"ossible to say *%at bounds could t%en be set to tyranny#
!o)e o' our Euro"ean "oliticians ex"ect to see an aristocracy arise in A)erica+ and t%ey already "redict t%e
exact "eriod at *%ic% it *ill be able to assu)e t%e reins o' &overn)ent# I %ave "reviously observed+ and I re"eat
)y assertion+ t%at t%e "resent tendency o' A)erican society a""ears to )e to beco)e )ore and )ore de)ocratic#
Nevert%eless+ I do not assert t%at t%e A)ericans *ill not+ at so)e 'uture ti)e+ restrict t%e circle o' "olitical ri&%ts
in t%eir country+ or con'iscate t%ose ri&%ts to t%e advanta&e o' a sin&le individual6 but I cannot i)a&ine t%at t%ey
*ill ever besto* t%e exclusive exercise o' t%e) u"on a "rivile&ed class o' citi-ens+ or+ in ot%er *ords+ t%at t%ey
*ill ever 'ound an aristocracy#
An aristocratic body is co)"osed o' a certain nu)ber o' citi-ens *%o+ *it%out bein& very 'ar re)oved 'ro) t%e
)ass o' t%e "eo"le+ are+ nevert%eless+ "er)anently stationed above it@ a body *%ic% it is easy to touc% and
di''icult to strie6 *it% *%ic% t%e "eo"le are in daily contact+ but *it% *%ic% t%ey can never co)bine# Not%in&
can be i)a&ined )ore contrary to nature and to t%e secret "ro"ensities o' t%e %u)an %eart t%an a sub7ection o'
t%is ind6 and )en *%o are le't to 'ollo* t%eir o*n bent *ill al*ays "re'er t%e arbitrary "o*er o' a in& to t%e
re&ular ad)inistration o' an aristocracy# Aristocratic institutions cannot subsist *it%out layin& do*n t%e
inequality o' )en as a 'unda)ental "rinci"le+ as a "art and "arcel o' t%e le&islation+ a''ectin& t%e condition o' t%e
%u)an 'a)ily as )uc% as it a''ects t%at o' society6 but t%ese are t%in&s so re"u&nant to natural equity t%at t%ey
can only be extorted 'ro) )en by constraint#
I do not t%in a sin&le "eo"le can be quoted+ since %u)an society be&an to exist+ *%ic% %as+ by its o*n 'ree *ill
and by its o*n exertions+ created an aristocracy *it%in its o*n boso)# All t%e aristocracies o' t%e Middle A&es
*ere 'ounded by )ilitary conquest6 t%e conqueror *as t%e noble+ t%e vanquis%ed beca)e t%e ser'# Inequality *as
t%en i)"osed by 'orce6 and a'ter it %ad been introduced into t%e )anners o' t%e country it )aintained its o*n
aut%ority+ and *as sanctioned by t%e le&islation# Co))unities %ave existed *%ic% *ere aristocratic 'ro) t%eir
earliest ori&in+ o*in& to circu)stances anterior to t%at event+ and *%ic% beca)e )ore de)ocratic in eac%
succeedin& a&e# !uc% *as t%e destiny o' t%e Ro)ans+ and o' t%e barbarians a'ter t%e)# But a "eo"le+ %avin&
taen its rise in civili-ation and de)ocracy+ *%ic% s%ould &radually establis% an inequality o' conditions+ until it
arrived at inviolable "rivile&es and exclusive castes+ *ould be a novelty in t%e *orld6 and not%in& inti)ates t%at
A)erica is liely to 'urnis% so sin&ular an exa)"le#
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Re'lection On T%e Causes O' T%e Co))ercial :ros"erity O' T%e O' T%e (nited !tates
T%e A)ericans destined by Nature to be a &reat )ariti)e "eo"le11Extent o' t%eir coasts11De"t% o' t%eir "orts11
!i-e o' t%eir rivers11T%e co))ercial su"eriority o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans less attributable+ %o*ever+ to "%ysical
circu)stances t%an to )oral and intellectual causes11Reason o' t%is o"inion115uture destiny o' t%e An&lo1
A)ericans as a co))ercial nation11T%e dissolution o' t%e (nion *ould not c%ec t%e )ariti)e vi&or o' t%e
!tates11Reason o' t%is11An&lo1A)ericans *ill naturally su""ly t%e *ants o' t%e in%abitants o' !out% A)erica11
T%ey *ill beco)e+ lie t%e En&lis%+ t%e 'actors o' a &reat "ortion o' t%e *orld#
T%e coast o' t%e (nited !tates+ 'ro) t%e Bay o' 5undy to t%e !abine River in t%e 9ul' o' Mexico+ is )ore t%an
t*o t%ousand )iles in extent# T%ese s%ores 'or) an unbroen line+ and t%ey are all sub7ect to t%e sa)e
&overn)ent# No nation in t%e *orld "ossesses vaster+ dee"er+ or )ore secure "orts 'or s%i""in& t%an t%e
A)ericans#
T%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates constitute a &reat civili-ed "eo"le+ *%ic% 'ortune %as "laced in t%e )idst o'
an uncultivated country at a distance o' t%ree t%ousand )iles 'ro) t%e central "oint o' civili-ation# A)erica
consequently stands in daily need o' Euro"ean trade# T%e A)ericans *ill+ no doubt+ ulti)ately succeed in
"roducin& or )anu'acturin& at %o)e )ost o' t%e articles *%ic% t%ey require6 but t%e t*o continents can never be
inde"endent o' eac% ot%er+ so nu)erous are t%e natural ties *%ic% exist bet*een t%eir *ants+ t%eir ideas+ t%eir
%abits+ and t%eir )anners#
T%e (nion "roduces "eculiar co))odities *%ic% are no* beco)e necessary to us+ but *%ic% cannot be
cultivated+ or can only be raised at an enor)ous ex"ense+ u"on t%e soil o' Euro"e# T%e A)ericans only consu)e
a s)all "ortion o' t%is "roduce+ and t%ey are *illin& to sell us t%e rest# Euro"e is t%ere'ore t%e )aret o' A)erica+
as A)erica is t%e )aret o' Euro"e6 and )ariti)e co))erce is no less necessary to enable t%e in%abitants o' t%e
(nited !tates to trans"ort t%eir ra* )aterials to t%e "orts o' Euro"e+ t%an it is to enable us to su""ly t%e) *it%
our )anu'actured "roduce# T%e (nited !tates *ere t%ere'ore necessarily reduced to t%e alternative o' increasin&
t%e business o' ot%er )ariti)e nations to a &reat extent+ i' t%ey %ad t%e)selves declined to enter into co))erce+
as t%e !"aniards o' Mexico %ave %it%erto done6 or+ in t%e second "lace+ o' beco)in& one o' t%e 'irst tradin&
"o*ers o' t%e &lobe#
T%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave al*ays dis"layed a very decided taste 'or t%e sea# T%e Declaration o' Inde"endence
broe t%e co))ercial restrictions *%ic% united t%e) to En&land+ and &ave a 'res% and "o*er'ul sti)ulus to t%eir
)ariti)e &enius# Ever since t%at ti)e+ t%e s%i""in& o' t%e (nion %as increased in al)ost t%e sa)e ra"id
"ro"ortion as t%e nu)ber o' its in%abitants# T%e A)ericans t%e)selves no* trans"ort to t%eir o*n s%ores nine1
tent%s o' t%e Euro"ean "roduce *%ic% t%ey consu)e# K& And t%ey also brin& t%ree1quarters o' t%e ex"orts o' t%e
Ne* ,orld to t%e Euro"ean consu)er# K% T%e s%i"s o' t%e (nited !tates 'ill t%e docs o' Havre and o'
8iver"ool6 *%ilst t%e nu)ber o' En&lis% and 5renc% vessels *%ic% are to be seen at Ne* Yor is co)"aratively
s)all# Ki
35ootnote &@ T%e total value o' &oods i)"orted durin& t%e year *%ic% ended on !e"te)ber 0<+ ./0A+ *as
N.<.+.AB+A;;# T%e value o' t%e car&oes o' 'orei&n vessels did not a)ount to N.<+=0.+<0B+ or about one1tent% o'
t%e entire su)#4
35ootnote %@ T%e value o' &oods ex"orted durin& t%e sa)e year a)ounted to N/=+.=;+BG06 t%e value o' &oods
ex"orted by 'orei&n vessels a)ounted to NA.+<0;+./0+ or about one quarter o' t%e *%ole su)# >,illia)sFs
2Re&ister+2 ./00+ "# 0B/#?4
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35ootnote i@ T%e tonna&e o' t%e vessels *%ic% entered all t%e "orts o' t%e (nion in t%e years ./AB+ ./0<+ and
./0.+ a)ounted to 0+0<=+=.B tons+ o' *%ic% CGG+C=. tons *ere 'orei&n vessels6 t%ey stood+ t%ere'ore+ to t%e
A)erican vessels in a ratio o' about .; to .<<# >2National Calendar+2 ./00+ "# 0<G#? T%e tonna&e o' t%e En&lis%
vessels *%ic% entered t%e "orts o' 8ondon+ 8iver"ool+ and Hull+ in t%e years ./A<+ ./A;+ and ./0.+ a)ounted to
GG0+/<< tons# T%e 'orei&n vessels *%ic% entered t%e sa)e "orts durin& t%e sa)e years a)ounted to .CB+G0. tons#
T%e ratio bet*een t%e) *as+ t%ere'ore+ about 0; to .<<# >2Co)"anion to t%e Al)anac+2 ./0G+ "# .;B#? In t%e year
./0A t%e ratio bet*een t%e 'orei&n and Britis% s%i"s *%ic% entered t%e "orts o' 9reat Britain *as AB to .<<#
3T%ese state)ents relate to a condition o' a''airs *%ic% %as ceased to exist6 t%e Civil ,ar and t%e %eavy taxation
o' t%e (nited !tates entirely altered t%e trade and navi&ation o' t%e country#44
T%us+ not only does t%e A)erican )erc%ant 'ace t%e co)"etition o' %is o*n country)en+ but %e even su""orts
t%at o' 'orei&n nations in t%eir o*n "orts *it% success# T%is is readily ex"lained by t%e 'act t%at t%e vessels o' t%e
(nited !tates can cross t%e seas at a c%ea"er rate t%an any ot%er vessels in t%e *orld# As lon& as t%e )ercantile
s%i""in& o' t%e (nited !tates "reserves t%is su"eriority+ it *ill not only retain *%at it %as acquired+ but it *ill
constantly increase in "ros"erity#
Chapter XVIII
@ 5uture Condition O' T%ree Races11:art H
It is di''icult to say 'or *%at reason t%e A)ericans can trade at a lo*er rate t%an ot%er nations6 and one is at 'irst
led to attribute t%is circu)stance to t%e "%ysical or natural advanta&es *%ic% are *it%in t%eir reac%6 but t%is
su""osition is erroneous# T%e A)erican vessels cost al)ost as )uc% to build as our o*n6 K7 t%ey are not better
built+ and t%ey &enerally last 'or a s%orter ti)e# T%e "ay o' t%e A)erican sailor is )ore considerable t%an t%e "ay
on board Euro"ean s%i"s6 *%ic% is "roved by t%e &reat nu)ber o' Euro"eans *%o are to be )et *it% in t%e
)erc%ant vessels o' t%e (nited !tates# But I a) o' o"inion t%at t%e true cause o' t%eir su"eriority )ust not be
sou&%t 'or in "%ysical advanta&es+ but t%at it is *%olly attributable to t%eir )oral and intellectual qualities#
35ootnote 7@ Materials are+ &enerally s"eain&+ less ex"ensive in A)erica t%an in Euro"e+ but t%e "rice o' labor is
)uc% %i&%er#4
T%e 'ollo*in& co)"arison *ill illustrate )y )eanin&# Durin& t%e ca)"ai&ns o' t%e Revolution t%e 5renc%
introduced a ne* syste) o' tactics into t%e art o' *ar+ *%ic% "er"lexed t%e oldest &enerals+ and very nearly
destroyed t%e )ost ancient )onarc%ies in Euro"e# T%ey undertoo >*%at %ad never be'ore been atte)"ted? to
)ae s%i't *it%out a nu)ber o' t%in&s *%ic% %ad al*ays been %eld to be indis"ensable in *ar'are6 t%ey required
novel exertions on t%e "art o' t%eir troo"s *%ic% no civili-ed nations %ad ever t%ou&%t o'6 t%ey ac%ieved &reat
actions in an incredibly s%ort s"ace o' ti)e6 and t%ey rised %u)an li'e *it%out %esitation to obtain t%e ob7ect in
vie*# T%e 5renc% %ad less )oney and 'e*er )en t%an t%eir ene)ies6 t%eir resources *ere in'initely in'erior6
nevert%eless t%ey *ere constantly victorious+ until t%eir adversaries c%ose to i)itate t%eir exa)"le#
T%e A)ericans %ave introduced a si)ilar syste) into t%eir co))ercial s"eculations6 and t%ey do 'or c%ea"ness
*%at t%e 5renc% did 'or conquest# T%e Euro"ean sailor navi&ates *it% "rudence6 %e only sets sail *%en t%e
*eat%er is 'avorable6 i' an un'orseen accident be'alls %i)+ %e "uts into "ort6 at ni&%t %e 'urls a "ortion o' %is
canvas6 and *%en t%e *%itenin& billo*s inti)ate t%e vicinity o' land+ %e c%ecs %is *ay+ and taes an
observation o' t%e sun# But t%e A)erican ne&lects t%ese "recautions and braves t%ese dan&ers# He *ei&%s anc%or
in t%e )idst o' te)"estuous &ales6 by ni&%t and by day %e s"reads %is s%eets to t%e *ind6 %e re"airs as %e &oes
alon& suc% da)a&e as %is vessel )ay %ave sustained 'ro) t%e stor)6 and *%en %e at last a""roac%es t%e ter) o'
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%is voya&e+ %e darts on*ard to t%e s%ore as i' %e already descried a "ort# T%e A)ericans are o'ten s%i"*reced+
but no trader crosses t%e seas so ra"idly# And as t%ey "er'or) t%e sa)e distance in a s%orter ti)e+ t%ey can
"er'or) it at a c%ea"er rate#
T%e Euro"ean touc%es several ti)es at di''erent "orts in t%e course o' a lon& voya&e6 %e loses a &ood deal o'
"recious ti)e in )ain& t%e %arbor+ or in *aitin& 'or a 'avorable *ind to leave it6 and %e "ays daily dues to be
allo*ed to re)ain t%ere# T%e A)erican starts 'ro) Boston to &o to "urc%ase tea in C%ina6 %e arrives at Canton+
stays t%ere a 'e* days+ and t%en returns# In less t%an t*o years %e %as sailed as 'ar as t%e entire circu)'erence o'
t%e &lobe+ and %e %as seen land but once# It is true t%at durin& a voya&e o' ei&%t or ten )ont%s %e %as drun
bracis% *ater and lived u"on salt )eat6 t%at %e %as been in a continual contest *it% t%e sea+ *it% disease+ and
*it% a tedious existence6 but u"on %is return %e can sell a "ound o' %is tea 'or a %al'1"enny less t%an t%e En&lis%
)erc%ant+ and %is "ur"ose is acco)"lis%ed#
I cannot better ex"lain )y )eanin& t%an by sayin& t%at t%e A)ericans a''ect a sort o' %erois) in t%eir )anner o'
tradin&# But t%e Euro"ean )erc%ant *ill al*ays 'ind it very di''icult to i)itate %is A)erican co)"etitor+ *%o+ in
ado"tin& t%e syste) *%ic% I %ave 7ust described+ 'ollo*s not only a calculation o' %is &ain+ but an i)"ulse o' %is
nature#
T%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates are sub7ect to all t%e *ants and all t%e desires *%ic% result 'ro) an advanced
sta&e o' civili-ation6 but as t%ey are not surrounded by a co))unity ad)irably ada"ted+ lie t%at o' Euro"e+ to
satis'y t%eir *ants+ t%ey are o'ten obli&ed to "rocure 'or t%e)selves t%e various articles *%ic% education and
%abit %ave rendered necessaries# In A)erica it so)eti)es %a""ens t%at t%e sa)e individual tills %is 'ield+ builds
%is d*ellin&+ contrives %is tools+ )aes %is s%oes+ and *eaves t%e coarse stu'' o' *%ic% %is dress is co)"osed#
T%is circu)stance is "re7udicial to t%e excellence o' t%e *or6 but it "o*er'ully contributes to a*aen t%e
intelli&ence o' t%e *or)an# Not%in& tends to )ateriali-e )an+ and to de"rive %is *or o' t%e 'aintest trace o'
)ind+ )ore t%an extre)e division o' labor# In a country lie A)erica+ *%ere )en devoted to s"ecial occu"ations
are rare+ a lon& a""rentices%i" cannot be required 'ro) anyone *%o e)braces a "ro'ession# T%e A)ericans+
t%ere'ore+ c%an&e t%eir )eans o' &ainin& a liveli%ood very readily6 and t%ey suit t%eir occu"ations to t%e
exi&encies o' t%e )o)ent+ in t%e )anner )ost "ro'itable to t%e)selves# Men are to be )et *it% *%o %ave
successively been barristers+ 'ar)ers+ )erc%ants+ )inisters o' t%e &os"el+ and "%ysicians# I' t%e A)erican be less
"er'ect in eac% cra't t%an t%e Euro"ean+ at least t%ere is scarcely any trade *it% *%ic% %e is utterly unacquainted#
His ca"acity is )ore &eneral+ and t%e circle o' %is intelli&ence is enlar&ed#
T%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited !tates are never 'ettered by t%e axio)s o' t%eir "ro'ession6 t%ey esca"e 'ro) all t%e
"re7udices o' t%eir "resent station6 t%ey are not )ore attac%ed to one line o' o"eration t%an to anot%er6 t%ey are
not )ore "rone to e)"loy an old )et%od t%an a ne* one6 t%ey %ave no rooted %abits+ and t%ey easily s%ae o''
t%e in'luence *%ic% t%e %abits o' ot%er nations )i&%t exercise u"on t%eir )inds 'ro) a conviction t%at t%eir
country is unlie any ot%er+ and t%at its situation is *it%out a "recedent in t%e *orld# A)erica is a land o'
*onders+ in *%ic% everyt%in& is in constant )otion+ and every )ove)ent see)s an i)"rove)ent# T%e idea o'
novelty is t%ere indissolubly connected *it% t%e idea o' a)elioration# No natural boundary see)s to be set to t%e
e''orts o' )an6 and *%at is not yet done is only *%at %e %as not yet atte)"ted to do#
T%is "er"etual c%an&e *%ic% &oes on in t%e (nited !tates+ t%ese 'requent vicissitudes o' 'ortune+ acco)"anied by
suc% un'oreseen 'luctuations in "rivate and in "ublic *ealt%+ serve to ee" t%e )inds o' t%e citi-ens in a "er"etual
state o' 'everis% a&itation+ *%ic% ad)irably invi&orates t%eir exertions+ and ee"s t%e) in a state o' excite)ent
above t%e ordinary level o' )anind# T%e *%ole li'e o' an A)erican is "assed lie a &a)e o' c%ance+ a
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revolutionary crisis+ or a battle# As t%e sa)e causes are continually in o"eration t%rou&%out t%e country+ t%ey
ulti)ately i)"art an irresistible i)"ulse to t%e national c%aracter# T%e A)erican+ taen as a c%ance s"eci)en o'
%is country)en+ )ust t%en be a )an o' sin&ular *ar)t% in %is desires+ enter"risin&+ 'ond o' adventure+ and+
above all+ o' innovation# T%e sa)e bent is )ani'est in all t%at %e does6 %e introduces it into %is "olitical la*s+ %is
reli&ious doctrines+ %is t%eories o' social econo)y+ and %is do)estic occu"ations6 %e bears it *it% %i) in t%e
de"t%s o' t%e bac*oods+ as *ell as in t%e business o' t%e city# It is t%is sa)e "assion+ a""lied to )ariti)e
co))erce+ *%ic% )aes %i) t%e c%ea"est and t%e quicest trader in t%e *orld#
As lon& as t%e sailors o' t%e (nited !tates retain t%ese ins"iritin& advanta&es+ and t%e "ractical su"eriority *%ic%
t%ey derive 'ro) t%e)+ t%ey *ill not only continue to su""ly t%e *ants o' t%e "roducers and consu)ers o' t%eir
o*n country+ but t%ey *ill tend )ore and )ore to beco)e+ lie t%e En&lis%+ t%e 'actors o' all ot%er "eo"les# K
T%is "rediction %as already be&un to be reali-ed6 *e "erceive t%at t%e A)erican traders are introducin&
t%e)selves as inter)ediate a&ents in t%e co))erce o' several Euro"ean nations6 Kl and A)erica *ill o''er a still
*ider 'ield to t%eir enter"rise#
35ootnote @ It )ust not be su""osed t%at En&lis% vessels are exclusively e)"loyed in trans"ortin& 'orei&n
"roduce into En&land+ or Britis% "roduce to 'orei&n countries6 at t%e "resent day t%e )erc%ant s%i""in& o'
En&land )ay be re&arded in t%e li&%t o' a vast syste) o' "ublic conveyances+ ready to serve all t%e "roducers o'
t%e *orld+ and to o"en co))unications bet*een all "eo"les# T%e )ariti)e &enius o' t%e A)ericans "ro)"ts
t%e) to enter into co)"etition *it% t%e En&lis%#4
35ootnote l@ :art o' t%e co))erce o' t%e Mediterranean is already carried on by A)erican vessels#4
T%e &reat colonies *%ic% *ere 'ounded in !out% A)erica by t%e !"aniards and t%e :ortu&uese %ave since
beco)e e)"ires# Civil *ar and o""ression no* lay *aste t%ose extensive re&ions# :o"ulation does not increase+
and t%e t%inly scattered in%abitants are too )uc% absorbed in t%e cares o' sel'1de'ense even to atte)"t any
a)elioration o' t%eir condition# !uc%+ %o*ever+ *ill not al*ays be t%e case# Euro"e %as succeeded by %er o*n
e''orts in "iercin& t%e &loo) o' t%e Middle A&es6 !out% A)erica %as t%e sa)e C%ristian la*s and C%ristian
)anners as *e %ave6 s%e contains all t%e &er)s o' civili-ation *%ic% %ave &ro*n a)idst t%e nations o' Euro"e or
t%eir o''sets+ added to t%e advanta&es to be derived 'ro) our exa)"le@ *%y t%en s%ould s%e al*ays re)ain
uncivili-edI It is clear t%at t%e question is si)"ly one o' ti)e6 at so)e 'uture "eriod+ *%ic% )ay be )ore or less
re)ote+ t%e in%abitants o' !out% A)erica *ill constitute 'louris%in& and enli&%tened nations#
But *%en t%e !"aniards and :ortu&uese o' !out% A)erica be&in to 'eel t%e *ants co))on to all civili-ed
nations+ t%ey *ill still be unable to satis'y t%ose *ants 'or t%e)selves6 as t%e youn&est c%ildren o' civili-ation+
t%ey )ust "er'orce ad)it t%e su"eriority o' t%eir elder bret%ren# T%ey *ill be a&riculturists lon& be'ore t%ey
succeed in )anu'actures or co))erce+ and t%ey *ill require t%e )ediation o' stran&ers to exc%an&e t%eir "roduce
beyond seas 'or t%ose articles 'or *%ic% a de)and *ill be&in to be 'elt#
It is unquestionable t%at t%e A)ericans o' t%e Nort% *ill one day su""ly t%e *ants o' t%e A)ericans o' t%e
!out%# Nature %as "laced t%e) in conti&uity+ and %as 'urnis%ed t%e 'or)er *it% every )eans o' no*in& and
a""reciatin& t%ose de)ands+ o' establis%in& a "er)anent connection *it% t%ose !tates+ and o' &radually 'illin&
t%eir )arets# T%e )erc%ants o' t%e (nited !tates could only 'or'eit t%ese natural advanta&es i' %e *ere very
in'erior to t%e )erc%ant o' Euro"e6 to *%o) %e is+ on t%e contrary+ su"erior in several res"ects# T%e A)ericans
o' t%e (nited !tates already exercise a very considerable )oral in'luence u"on all t%e "eo"les o' t%e Ne* ,orld#
T%ey are t%e source o' intelli&ence+ and all t%e nations *%ic% in%abit t%e sa)e continent are already accusto)ed
to consider t%e) as t%e )ost enli&%tened+ t%e )ost "o*er'ul+ and t%e )ost *ealt%y )e)bers o' t%e &reat
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A)erican 'a)ily# All eyes are t%ere'ore turned to*ards t%e (nion6 and t%e !tates o' *%ic% t%at body is
co)"osed are t%e )odels *%ic% t%e ot%er co))unities try to i)itate to t%e best o' t%eir "o*er6 it is 'ro) t%e
(nited !tates t%at t%ey borro* t%eir "olitical "rinci"les and t%eir la*s#
T%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited !tates stand in "recisely t%e sa)e "osition *it% re&ard to t%e "eo"les o' !out%
A)erica as t%eir 'at%ers+ t%e En&lis%+ occu"y *it% re&ard to t%e Italians+ t%e !"aniards+ t%e :ortu&uese+ and all
t%ose nations o' Euro"e *%ic% receive t%eir articles o' daily consu)"tion 'ro) En&land+ because t%ey are less
advanced in civili-ation and trade# En&land is at t%is ti)e t%e natural e)"oriu) o' al)ost all t%e nations *%ic%
are *it%in its reac%6 t%e A)erican (nion *ill "er'or) t%e sa)e "art in t%e ot%er %e)is"%ere6 and every
co))unity *%ic% is 'ounded+ or *%ic% "ros"ers in t%e Ne* ,orld+ is 'ounded and "ros"ers to t%e advanta&e o'
t%e An&lo1A)ericans#
I' t%e (nion *ere to be dissolved+ t%e co))erce o' t%e !tates *%ic% no* co)"ose it *ould undoubtedly be
c%eced 'or a ti)e6 but t%is consequence *ould be less "erce"tible t%an is &enerally su""osed# It is evident t%at+
*%atever )ay %a""en+ t%e co))ercial !tates *ill re)ain united# T%ey are all conti&uous to eac% ot%er6 t%ey %ave
identically t%e sa)e o"inions+ interests+ and )anners6 and t%ey are alone co)"etent to 'or) a very &reat )ariti)e
"o*er# Even i' t%e !out% o' t%e (nion *ere to beco)e inde"endent o' t%e Nort%+ it *ould still require t%e
services o' t%ose !tates# I %ave already observed t%at t%e !out% is not a co))ercial country+ and not%in&
inti)ates t%at it is liely to beco)e so# T%e A)ericans o' t%e !out% o' t%e (nited !tates *ill t%ere'ore be
obli&ed+ 'or a lon& ti)e to co)e+ to %ave recourse to stran&ers to ex"ort t%eir "roduce+ and to su""ly t%e) *it%
t%e co))odities *%ic% are requisite to satis'y t%eir *ants# But t%e Nort%ern !tates are undoubtedly able to act as
t%eir inter)ediate a&ents c%ea"er t%an any ot%er )erc%ants# T%ey *ill t%ere'ore retain t%at e)"loy)ent+ 'or
c%ea"ness is t%e soverei&n la* o' co))erce# National clai)s and national "re7udices cannot resist t%e in'luence
o' c%ea"ness# Not%in& can be )ore virulent t%an t%e %atred *%ic% exists bet*een t%e A)ericans o' t%e (nited
!tates and t%e En&lis%# But not*it%standin& t%ese ini)ical 'eelin&s+ t%e A)ericans derive t%e &reater "art o' t%eir
)anu'actured co))odities 'ro) En&land+ because En&land su""lies t%e) at a c%ea"er rate t%an any ot%er
nation# T%us t%e increasin& "ros"erity o' A)erica turns+ not*it%standin& t%e &rud&es o' t%e A)ericans+ to t%e
advanta&e o' Britis% )anu'actures#
Reason s%o*s and ex"erience "roves t%at no co))ercial "ros"erity can be durable i' it cannot be united+ in case
o' need+ to naval 'orce# T%is trut% is as *ell understood in t%e (nited !tates as it can be any*%ere else@ t%e
A)ericans are already able to )ae t%eir 'la& res"ected6 in a 'e* years t%ey *ill be able to )ae it 'eared# I a)
convinced t%at t%e dis)e)ber)ent o' t%e (nion *ould not %ave t%e e''ect o' di)inis%in& t%e naval "o*er o' t%e
A)ericans+ but t%at it *ould "o*er'ully contribute to increase it# At t%e "resent ti)e t%e co))ercial !tates are
connected *it% ot%ers *%ic% %ave not t%e sa)e interests+ and *%ic% 'requently yield an un*illin& consent to t%e
increase o' a )ariti)e "o*er by *%ic% t%ey are only indirectly bene'ited# I'+ on t%e contrary+ t%e co))ercial
!tates o' t%e (nion 'or)ed one inde"endent nation+ co))erce *ould beco)e t%e 'ore)ost o' t%eir national
interests6 t%ey *ould consequently be *illin& to )ae very &reat sacri'ices to "rotect t%eir s%i""in&+ and not%in&
*ould "revent t%e) 'ro) "ursuin& t%eir desi&ns u"on t%is "oint#
Nations+ as *ell as )en+ al)ost al*ays betray t%e )ost "ro)inent 'eatures o' t%eir 'uture destiny in t%eir earliest
years# ,%en I conte)"late t%e ardor *it% *%ic% t%e An&lo1A)ericans "rosecute co))ercial enter"rise+ t%e
advanta&es *%ic% be'riend t%e)+ and t%e success o' t%eir undertain&s+ I cannot re'rain 'ro) believin& t%at t%ey
*ill one day beco)e t%e 'irst )ariti)e "o*er o' t%e &lobe# T%ey are born to rule t%e seas+ as t%e Ro)ans *ere to
conquer t%e *orld#
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Conclusion
I %ave no* nearly reac%ed t%e close o' )y inquiry6 %it%erto+ in s"eain& o' t%e 'uture destiny o' t%e (nited
!tates+ I %ave endeavored to divide )y sub7ect into distinct "ortions+ in order to study eac% o' t%e) *it% )ore
attention# My "resent ob7ect is to e)brace t%e *%ole 'ro) one sin&le "oint6 t%e re)ars I s%all )ae *ill be less
detailed+ but t%ey *ill be )ore sure# I s%all "erceive eac% ob7ect less distinctly+ but I s%all descry t%e "rinci"al
'acts *it% )ore certainty# A traveller *%o %as 7ust le't t%e *alls o' an i))ense city+ cli)bs t%e nei&%borin& %ill6
as %e &oes 'at%er o'' %e loses si&%t o' t%e )en *%o) %e %as so recently quitted6 t%eir d*ellin&s are con'used in a
dense )ass6 %e can no lon&er distin&uis% t%e "ublic squares+ and %e can scarcely trace out t%e &reat
t%orou&%'ares6 but %is eye %as less di''iculty in 'ollo*in& t%e boundaries o' t%e city+ and 'or t%e 'irst ti)e %e sees
t%e s%a"e o' t%e vast *%ole# !uc% is t%e 'uture destiny o' t%e Britis% race in Nort% A)erica to )y eye6 t%e details
o' t%e stu"endous "icture are over%un& *it% s%ade+ but I conceive a clear idea o' t%e entire sub7ect#
T%e territory no* occu"ied or "ossessed by t%e (nited !tates o' A)erica 'or)s about one1t*entiet% "art o' t%e
%abitable eart%# But extensive as t%ese con'ines are+ it )ust not be su""osed t%at t%e An&lo1A)erican race *ill
al*ays re)ain *it%in t%e)6 indeed+ it %as already 'ar overste""ed t%e)#
T%ere *as once a ti)e at *%ic% *e also )i&%t %ave created a &reat 5renc% nation in t%e A)erican *ilds+ to
counterbalance t%e in'luence o' t%e En&lis% u"on t%e destinies o' t%e Ne* ,orld# 5rance 'or)erly "ossessed a
territory in Nort% A)erica+ scarcely less extensive t%an t%e *%ole o' Euro"e# T%e t%ree &reatest rivers o' t%at
continent t%en 'lo*ed *it%in %er do)inions# T%e Indian tribes *%ic% d*elt bet*een t%e )out% o' t%e !t#
8a*rence and t%e delta o' t%e Mississi""i *ere unaccusto)ed to any ot%er ton&ue but ours6 and all t%e Euro"ean
settle)ents scattered over t%at i))ense re&ion recalled t%e traditions o' our country# 8ouisbour&+ Mont)orency+
Duquesne+ !t# 8ouis+ Dincennes+ Ne* Orleans >'or suc% *ere t%e na)es t%ey bore? are *ords dear to 5rance and
'a)iliar to our ears#
But a concourse o' circu)stances+ *%ic% it *ould be tedious to enu)erate+ K) %ave de"rived us o' t%is
)a&ni'icent in%eritance# ,%erever t%e 5renc% settlers *ere nu)erically *ea and "artially establis%ed+ t%ey %ave
disa""eared@ t%ose *%o re)ain are collected on a s)all extent o' country+ and are no* sub7ect to ot%er la*s# T%e
G<<+<<< 5renc% in%abitants o' 8o*er Canada constitute+ at t%e "resent ti)e+ t%e re)nant o' an old nation lost in
t%e )idst o' a ne* "eo"le# A 'orei&n "o"ulation is increasin& around t%e) unceasin&ly and on all sides+ *%ic%
already "enetrates a)on&st t%e ancient )asters o' t%e country+ "redo)inates in t%eir cities and corru"ts t%eir
lan&ua&e# T%is "o"ulation is identical *it% t%at o' t%e (nited !tates6 it is t%ere'ore *it% trut% t%at I asserted t%at
t%e Britis% race is not con'ined *it%in t%e 'rontiers o' t%e (nion+ since it already extends to t%e nort%east#
35ootnote )@ T%e 'ore)ost o' t%ese circu)stances is+ t%at nations *%ic% are accusto)ed to 'ree institutions and
)unici"al &overn)ent are better able t%an any ot%ers to 'ound "ros"erous colonies# T%e %abit o' t%inin& and
&overnin& 'or onesel' is indis"ensable in a ne* country+ *%ere success necessarily de"ends+ in a &reat )easure+
u"on t%e individual exertions o' t%e settlers#4
To t%e nort%*est not%in& is to be )et *it% but a 'e* insi&ni'icant Russian settle)ents6 but to t%e sout%*est+
Mexico "resents a barrier to t%e An&lo1A)ericans# T%us+ t%e !"aniards and t%e An&lo1A)ericans are+ "ro"erly
s"eain&+ t%e only t*o races *%ic% divide t%e "ossession o' t%e Ne* ,orld# T%e li)its o' se"aration bet*een
t%e) %ave been settled by a treaty6 but alt%ou&% t%e conditions o' t%at treaty are exceedin&ly 'avorable to t%e
An&lo1A)ericans+ I do not doubt t%at t%ey *ill s%ortly in'rin&e t%is arran&e)ent# Dast "rovinces+ extendin&
beyond t%e 'rontiers o' t%e (nion to*ards Mexico+ are still destitute o' in%abitants# T%e natives o' t%e (nited
!tates *ill 'orestall t%e ri&%t'ul occu"ants o' t%ese solitary re&ions# T%ey *ill tae "ossession o' t%e soil+ and
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establis% social institutions+ so t%at *%en t%e le&al o*ner arrives at len&t%+ %e *ill 'ind t%e *ilderness under
cultivation+ and stran&ers quietly settled in t%e )idst o' %is in%eritance# Kn
35ootnote n@ 3T%is *as s"eedily acco)"lis%ed+ and ere lon& bot% Texas and Cali'ornia 'or)ed "art o' t%e (nited
!tates# T%e Russian settle)ents *ere acquired by "urc%ase#44
T%e lands o' t%e Ne* ,orld belon& to t%e 'irst occu"ant+ and t%ey are t%e natural re*ard o' t%e s*i'test "ioneer#
Even t%e countries *%ic% are already "eo"led *ill %ave so)e di''iculty in securin& t%e)selves 'ro) t%is
invasion# I %ave already alluded to *%at is tain& "lace in t%e "rovince o' Texas# T%e in%abitants o' t%e (nited
!tates are "er"etually )i&ratin& to Texas+ *%ere t%ey "urc%ase land6 and alt%ou&% t%ey con'or) to t%e la*s o'
t%e country+ t%ey are &radually 'oundin& t%e e)"ire o' t%eir o*n lan&ua&e and t%eir o*n )anners# T%e "rovince
o' Texas is still "art o' t%e Mexican do)inions+ but it *ill soon contain no Mexicans6 t%e sa)e t%in& %as
occurred *%enever t%e An&lo1A)ericans %ave co)e into contact *it% "o"ulations o' a di''erent ori&in#
It cannot be denied t%at t%e Britis% race %as acquired an a)a-in& "re"onderance over all t%e ot%er Euro"ean races
in t%e Ne* ,orld6 and t%at it is very su"erior to t%e) in civili-ation+ in industry+ and in "o*er# As lon& as it is
only surrounded by desert or t%inly "eo"led countries+ as lon& as it encounters no dense "o"ulations u"on its
route+ t%rou&% *%ic% it cannot *or its *ay+ it *ill assuredly continue to s"read# T%e lines )ared out by treaties
*ill not sto" it6 but it *ill every*%ere trans&ress t%ese i)a&inary barriers#
T%e &eo&ra"%ical "osition o' t%e Britis% race in t%e Ne* ,orld is "eculiarly 'avorable to its ra"id increase#
Above its nort%ern 'rontiers t%e icy re&ions o' t%e :ole extend6 and a 'e* de&rees belo* its sout%ern con'ines lies
t%e burnin& cli)ate o' t%e Equator# T%e An&lo1A)ericans are+ t%ere'ore+ "laced in t%e )ost te)"erate and
%abitable -one o' t%e continent#
It is &enerally su""osed t%at t%e "rodi&ious increase o' "o"ulation in t%e (nited !tates is "osterior to t%eir
Declaration o' Inde"endence# But t%is is an error@ t%e "o"ulation increased as ra"idly under t%e colonial syste)
as it does at t%e "resent day6 t%at is to say+ it doubled in about t*enty1t*o years# But t%is "ro"ortion *%ic% is
no* a""lied to )illions+ *as t%en a""lied to t%ousands o' in%abitants6 and t%e sa)e 'act *%ic% *as scarcely
noticeable a century a&o+ is no* evident to every observer#
T%e Britis% sub7ects in Canada+ *%o are de"endent on a in&+ au&)ent and s"read al)ost as ra"idly as t%e Britis%
settlers o' t%e (nited !tates+ *%o live under a re"ublican &overn)ent# Durin& t%e *ar o' inde"endence+ *%ic%
lasted ei&%t years+ t%e "o"ulation continued to increase *it%out inter)ission in t%e sa)e ratio# Alt%ou&%
"o*er'ul Indian nations allied *it% t%e En&lis% existed at t%at ti)e u"on t%e *estern 'rontiers+ t%e e)i&ration
*est*ard *as never c%eced# ,%ilst t%e ene)y laid *aste t%e s%ores o' t%e Atlantic+ Lentucy+ t%e *estern "arts
o' :ennsylvania+ and t%e !tates o' Der)ont and o' Maine *ere 'illin& *it% in%abitants# Nor did t%e unsettled
state o' t%e Constitution+ *%ic% succeeded t%e *ar+ "revent t%e increase o' t%e "o"ulation+ or sto" its "ro&ress
across t%e *ilds# T%us+ t%e di''erence o' la*s+ t%e various conditions o' "eace and *ar+ o' order and o' anarc%y+
%ave exercised no "erce"tible in'luence u"on t%e &radual develo")ent o' t%e An&lo1A)ericans# T%is )ay be
readily understood6 'or t%e 'act is+ t%at no causes are su''iciently &eneral to exercise a si)ultaneous in'luence
over t%e *%ole o' so extensive a territory# One "ortion o' t%e country al*ays o''ers a sure retreat 'ro) t%e
cala)ities *%ic% a''lict anot%er "art6 and %o*ever &reat )ay be t%e evil+ t%e re)edy *%ic% is at %and is &reater
still#
It )ust not+ t%en+ be i)a&ined t%at t%e i)"ulse o' t%e Britis% race in t%e Ne* ,orld can be arrested# T%e
dis)e)ber)ent o' t%e (nion+ and t%e %ostilities *%ic% )i&%t ensure+ t%e abolition o' re"ublican institutions+ and
t%e tyrannical &overn)ent *%ic% )i&%t succeed it+ )ay retard t%is i)"ulse+ but t%ey cannot "revent it 'ro)
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ulti)ately 'ul'illin& t%e destinies to *%ic% t%at race is reserved# No "o*er u"on eart% can close u"on t%e
e)i&rants t%at 'ertile *ilderness *%ic% o''ers resources to all industry+ and a re'u&e 'ro) all *ant# 5uture events+
o' *%atever nature t%ey )ay be+ *ill not de"rive t%e A)ericans o' t%eir cli)ate or o' t%eir inland seas+ o' t%eir
&reat rivers or o' t%eir exuberant soil# Nor *ill bad la*s+ revolutions+ and anarc%y be able to obliterate t%at love
o' "ros"erity and t%at s"irit o' enter"rise *%ic% see) to be t%e distinctive c%aracteristics o' t%eir race+ or to
extin&uis% t%at no*led&e *%ic% &uides t%e) on t%eir *ay#
T%us+ in t%e )idst o' t%e uncertain 'uture+ one event at least is sure# At a "eriod *%ic% )ay be said to be near >'or
*e are s"eain& o' t%e li'e o' a nation?+ t%e An&lo1A)ericans *ill alone cover t%e i))ense s"ace contained
bet*een t%e "olar re&ions and t%e tro"ics+ extendin& 'ro) t%e coasts o' t%e Atlantic to t%e s%ores o' t%e :aci'ic
Ocean# T%e territory *%ic% *ill "robably be occu"ied by t%e An&lo1A)ericans at so)e 'uture ti)e+ )ay be
co)"uted to equal t%ree1quarters o' Euro"e in extent# Ko T%e cli)ate o' t%e (nion is u"on t%e *%ole "re'erable
to t%at o' Euro"e+ and its natural advanta&es are not less &reat6 it is t%ere'ore evident t%at its "o"ulation *ill at
so)e 'uture ti)e be "ro"ortionate to our o*n# Euro"e+ divided as it is bet*een so )any di''erent nations+ and
torn as it %as been by incessant *ars and t%e barbarous )anners o' t%e Middle A&es+ %as not*it%standin&
attained a "o"ulation o' G.< in%abitants to t%e square lea&ue# K" ,%at cause can "revent t%e (nited !tates 'ro)
%avin& as nu)erous a "o"ulation in ti)eI
35ootnote o@ T%e (nited !tates already extend over a territory equal to one1%al' o' Euro"e# T%e area o' Euro"e is
C<<+<<< square lea&ues+ and its "o"ulation A<C+<<<+<<< o' in%abitants# >2Malte Brun+2 liv# ..G# vol# vi# "# G#?
3T%is co)"utation is &iven in 5renc% lea&ues+ *%ic% *ere in use *%en t%e aut%or *rote# T*enty years later+ in
./C<+ t%e su"er'icial area o' t%e (nited !tates %ad been extended to 0+0<;+/;C square )iles o' territory+ *%ic% is
about t%e area o' Euro"e#44
35ootnote "@ !ee 2Malte Brun+2 liv# ..;+ vol# vi# "# BA#4
Many a&es )ust ela"se be'ore t%e divers o''sets o' t%e Britis% race in A)erica cease to "resent t%e sa)e
%o)o&eneous c%aracteristics@ and t%e ti)e cannot be 'oreseen at *%ic% a "er)anent inequality o' conditions *ill
be establis%ed in t%e Ne* ,orld# ,%atever di''erences )ay arise+ 'ro) "eace or 'ro) *ar+ 'ro) 'reedo) or
o""ression+ 'ro) "ros"erity or *ant+ bet*een t%e destinies o' t%e di''erent descendants o' t%e &reat An&lo1
A)erican 'a)ily+ t%ey *ill at least "reserve an analo&ous social condition+ and t%ey *ill %old in co))on t%e
custo)s and t%e o"inions to *%ic% t%at social condition %as &iven birt%#
In t%e Middle A&es+ t%e tie o' reli&ion *as su''iciently "o*er'ul to i)bue all t%e di''erent "o"ulations o' Euro"e
*it% t%e sa)e civili-ation# T%e Britis% o' t%e Ne* ,orld %ave a t%ousand ot%er reci"rocal ties6 and t%ey live at a
ti)e *%en t%e tendency to equality is &eneral a)on&st )anind# T%e Middle A&es *ere a "eriod *%en
everyt%in& *as broen u"6 *%en eac% "eo"le+ eac% "rovince+ eac% city+ and eac% 'a)ily+ %ad a stron& tendency to
)aintain its distinct individuality# At t%e "resent ti)e an o""osite tendency see)s to "revail+ and t%e nations
see) to be advancin& to unity# Our )eans o' intellectual intercourse unite t%e )ost re)ote "arts o' t%e eart%6 and
it is i)"ossible 'or )en to re)ain stran&ers to eac% ot%er+ or to be i&norant o' t%e events *%ic% are tain& "lace
in any corner o' t%e &lobe# T%e consequence is t%at t%ere is less di''erence+ at t%e "resent day+ bet*een t%e
Euro"eans and t%eir descendants in t%e Ne* ,orld+ t%an t%ere *as bet*een certain to*ns in t%e t%irteent%
century *%ic% *ere only se"arated by a river# I' t%is tendency to assi)ilation brin&s 'orei&n nations closer to
eac% ot%er+ it )ust a 'ortiori "revent t%e descendants o' t%e sa)e "eo"le 'ro) beco)in& aliens to eac% ot%er#
T%e ti)e *ill t%ere'ore co)e *%en one %undred and 'i'ty )illions o' )en *ill be livin& in Nort% A)erica+ Kq
equal in condition+ t%e "ro&eny o' one race+ o*in& t%eir ori&in to t%e sa)e cause+ and "reservin& t%e sa)e
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civili-ation+ t%e sa)e lan&ua&e+ t%e sa)e reli&ion+ t%e sa)e %abits+ t%e sa)e )anners+ and i)bued *it% t%e sa)e
o"inions+ "ro"a&ated under t%e sa)e 'or)s# T%e rest is uncertain+ but t%is is certain6 and it is a 'act ne* to t%e
*orld11a 'act 'rau&%t *it% suc% "ortentous consequences as to ba''le t%e e''orts even o' t%e i)a&ination#
35ootnote q@ T%is *ould be a "o"ulation "ro"ortionate to t%at o' Euro"e+ taen at a )ean rate o' G.< in%abitants
to t%e square lea&ue#4
T%ere are+ at t%e "resent ti)e+ t*o &reat nations in t%e *orld *%ic% see) to tend to*ards t%e sa)e end+ alt%ou&%
t%ey started 'ro) di''erent "oints@ I allude to t%e Russians and t%e A)ericans# Bot% o' t%e) %ave &ro*n u"
unnoticed6 and *%ilst t%e attention o' )anind *as directed else*%ere+ t%ey %ave suddenly assu)ed a )ost
"ro)inent "lace a)on&st t%e nations6 and t%e *orld learned t%eir existence and t%eir &reatness at al)ost t%e sa)e
ti)e#
All ot%er nations see) to %ave nearly reac%ed t%eir natural li)its+ and only to be c%ar&ed *it% t%e )aintenance o'
t%eir "o*er6 but t%ese are still in t%e act o' &ro*t%6 Kr all t%e ot%ers are sto""ed+ or continue to advance *it%
extre)e di''iculty6 t%ese are "roceedin& *it% ease and *it% celerity alon& a "at% to *%ic% t%e %u)an eye can
assi&n no ter)# T%e A)erican stru&&les a&ainst t%e natural obstacles *%ic% o""ose %i)6 t%e adversaries o' t%e
Russian are )en6 t%e 'or)er co)bats t%e *ilderness and sava&e li'e6 t%e latter+ civili-ation *it% all its *ea"ons
and its arts@ t%e conquests o' t%e one are t%ere'ore &ained by t%e "lou&%s%are6 t%ose o' t%e ot%er by t%e s*ord#
T%e An&lo1A)erican relies u"on "ersonal interest to acco)"lis% %is ends+ and &ives 'ree sco"e to t%e un&uided
exertions and co))on1sense o' t%e citi-ens6 t%e Russian centres all t%e aut%ority o' society in a sin&le ar)@ t%e
"rinci"al instru)ent o' t%e 'or)er is 'reedo)6 o' t%e latter servitude# T%eir startin&1"oint is di''erent+ and t%eir
courses are not t%e sa)e6 yet eac% o' t%e) see)s to be )ared out by t%e *ill o' Heaven to s*ay t%e destinies o'
%al' t%e &lobe#
35ootnote r@ Russia is t%e country in t%e Old ,orld in *%ic% "o"ulation increases )ost ra"idly in "ro"ortion#4
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