ANALOG AND LINEAR ICS TOPIC: TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS SUBMITTED TO: Mr.

SHAKTI RAJ CHOPRA

SUBMITTED BY: ROHIT DADHAWAL ROLL NO.RD6802B57

REGD.NO.10810700 B.TECH (ECE) 4th TERM

I would like to thanks all those who have encouraged me to make a project. I am grateful to our lecturer SH. SHAKTI R CHOPRA, who acted as a source of inspiration for me. He encouraged me to make a project. I will never forget his support and word of wisdom. His immense help and suggestion for improving the content of the project are highly appreciable .Without his involvement this project would not have been possible. I am also thankful to my friends for their help and support.

CONTENTS:
1. 2. 3. 4.

INTRODUCTION FIGURES OF MERIT

Transistor amplifiers DESIGNING OF TRNSISTOR AMPLIFIERS EXAMPLES OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS REFFERENCES

5.

6.

7.

INTRODUCTION:
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is any device that changes, usually increases, the amplitude of a signal. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifierusually expressed as a function of the input frequencyis called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain. In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to make the human voice louder or play recorded music. Amplifiers may be classified according to the input (source) they are designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to perform with an electric guitar), the device they are intended to drive (such as a headphone amplifier), the frequency range of the signals (Audio, IF, RF, and VHF amplifiers, for example), whether they invert the signal (inverting amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers), or the type of device used in the amplification (valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers, etc.). A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to another (for example, a light signal in photons to a DC signal in amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor. However, none of these amplify power.

Figures of merit:
The quality of an amplifier can be characterized by a number of specifications, listed below. Gain The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output to input power or amplitude, and is usually measured in decibels. (When measured in decibels it is logarithmically related to the power ratio: G(dB)=10 log(Pout /(Pin)). RF amplifiers are often specified in terms of the maximum power gain obtainable, while the voltage gain of audio amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers will be more often specified (since the amplifier's input impedance will often be much higher than the source impedance, and the load impedance higher than the amplifier's output impedance). Example: an audio amplifier with a gain given as 20dB will have a voltage gain of ten (but a power gain of 100 would only occur in the unlikely event the input and output impedances were identical). Efficiency Efficiency is a measure of how much of the input power is usefully applied to the amplifier's output. Class A amplifiers are very inefficient, in the range of 1020% with a max efficiency of 25% for direct coupling of the output. Inductive coupling of the output can raise their efficiency to a maximum of 50%. Class B amplifiers have a very high efficiency but are impractical because of high levels of distortion (See: Crossover distortion). In practical design, the result of a tradeoff is the class AB design. Modern Class AB amplifiers are commonly between 3555% efficient with a theoretical maximum of 78.5%.

Commercially available Class D switching amplifiers have reported efficiencies as high as 90%. Amplifiers of Class C-F are usually known to be very high efficiency amplifiers. The efficiency of the amplifier limits the amount of total power output that is usefully available. Note that more efficient amplifiers run much cooler, and often do not need any cooling fans even in multi-kilowatt designs. The reason for this is that the loss of efficiency produces heat as a byproduct of the energy lost during the conversion of power. In more efficient amplifiers there is less loss of energy so in turn less heat. In RF Power Amplifiers, such as cellular base stations and broadcast transmitters, specialist design techniques are used to improve efficiency. Doherty designs, which use a second transistor, can lift efficiency from the typical 15% up to 30-35% in a narrow bandwidth. Envelope Tracking designs are able to achieve efficiencies of up to 60%, by modulating the supply voltage to the amplifier in line with the envelope of the signal. Noise This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the amplification process. Noise is an undesirable but inevitable product of the electronic devices and components. The metric for noise performance of a circuit is Noise Factor. Noise Factor is the ratio of input signal to that of the output signal. Output dynamic range Output dynamic range is the range, usually given in dB, between the smallest and largest useful output levels. The lowest useful level is limited by output noise, while the largest is limited most often by distortion. The ratio of these two is quoted as the amplifier dynamic range. More precisely, if S = maximal allowed signal power and N = noise power, the dynamic range DR is DR = (S + N ) /N. Slew rate Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output variable, usually quoted in volts per second (or microsecond). Many amplifiers are ultimately slew rate limited (typically by the impedance of a drive current having to overcome capacitive effects at some point in the circuit), which may limit the full power bandwidth to frequencies well below the amplifier's small-signal frequency response. Rise time

The rise time, tr, of an amplifier is the time taken for the output to change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step input. For a Gaussian response system (or a simple RC roll off), the rise time is approximated by: tr * BW = 0.35, where tr is rise time in seconds and BW is bandwidth in Hz.

Transistor amplifiers
The essential role of this active element is to magnify an input signal to yield a significantly larger output signal. The amount of magnification (the "forward gain") is determined by the external circuit design as well as the active device. Many common active devices in transistor amplifiers are bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). Applications are numerous, some common examples are audio amplifiers in a home stereo or PA system, RF high power generation for semiconductor equipment, to RF and Microwave applications such as radio transmitters. Transistor-based amplifier can be realized using various configurations: for example with a bipolar junction transistor we can realize common base, common collector or common emitter amplifier; using a MOSFET we can realize common gate, common source or common drain amplifier. Each configuration has different characteristic (gain, impedance...).

DESIGNING OF TRNSISTOR AMPLIFIERS:

From rule 1 we can now say that we want the base voltage, , to be around 56 volts. The two base resistors act as a sort of potential divider and we can choose their values to set the voltage we require. To do this we need to use Ohms Law and recognise that the current through through provides the base current and the current which goes on .

From rule 3 we can also say that we require since the currents in these resistors will be almost exactly the same and we want to have 5 volts across each of them (Ohm's Law). In the previous section you measured your transistor's value at a

particular point on its curves ( mA, V). So let's choose to try and set the amplifier up with a collector current of about 2mA. We therefore want the currents passing through and to be 2mA. You now know the current in each of these resistors and the voltage across each of them. Using Ohm's Law, what values do you calculate are required for and ? What is the closest E12 series value available in the lab? Use this value for the emitter and collector resistor in your circuit. Part of the current flowing through will continue on through . Using

and part will enter the transistor to provide its base current. Ohm's Law again we can say that

where we know that, for we can say that

to be 5 volts, we want

volts, so

This gives us two equations but we have three unknowns,

and . To proceed any further we have to choose a sensible value for one of these.

The best way to proceed is to choose a value for the current, , which passes through both resistors. In theory, we can choose any value we like. However, in practice it turns out to be a good idea to choose a value since this means that the voltages across the resistors . This means that any slight changes in

are largely determined by

won't mean we've got the wrong results. However, we don't want to be too big. The reason for this is that we would get a large current by using very low resistance values. These would make it difficult to apply an input ac voltage when using the amplifier. In practice the simplest convenient choice is to pick something like so I suggest you choose that. Note, however, that you could choose almost anything from up to and it would still probably be possible to make the amplifier work despite having chosen very different currents and resistor values! Note. Here I will assume you found that (rule 2). You can you

follow the argument I describe below, but substitute the measured to get the correct results for your transistor. A current gain of 400 means that at the transistor's base is we get

mA the current entering A. Multiplying this by 25

125 A. Putting this into the above equations we get

k and k . What values do you get for your transistor? What are the closest E12 series values available to use in your circuit?

You should now have values for , , ,

and . However, we now need to decide what to do with ...

is actually quite important as it turns out to control the voltage gain of the amplifier. To understand why this is true, have another look at figure 6 and consider what happens when we quickly waggle the input voltage up an down with an ac signal. In order to change the voltage across we also have to change the voltage across as they

are connected in parallel. To change the voltage across we have to move charge in or out of the capacitor. This takes time. So if we keep changing our mind and waggling the input voltage up and down quickly we dont give this a chance to happen. As a result, for quick variations effectively clamps the voltage

at the top of and wont allow it to change. The transistors baseemitter voltage remains about 06V. Hence the changes in input voltage mostly appear as changes in the voltage across An input ac voltage, variation in of .

, therefore tends to produce an ac current

Since

is relatively tiny (hundreds of times smaller than

or

) we

now expect the same current fluctuation to appear in . So the voltage across the collector resistor will vary by an amount

So it is the ratio of these two resistors that tends to control the voltage amplification factor (gain) of the circuit.

Now, provided we choose a value for

which reasonably small

compared to , we can leave the other resistor values alone and not worry that we have changed the DC levels very much. A small value will also mean a high gain.

APPLICATIONS: Build A One Transistor FM Radio Build this one transistor FM radio (my design)

or Build this one transistor FM radio (Designed by Patrick Cambre)

My Design
A printed circuit board for the original circuit is available through FAR Circuits. Ask them for "Andy Mitz's One transistor FM radio printed circuit board". The same circuit board can be modified for the improved one transistor radio.

Introduction
AM radio circuits and kits abound. Some work quite well. But, look around and you will find virtually no FM radio kits. Certainly, there are no simple FM radio kits. The simple FM radio circuit got lost during the transition from vacuum tubes to transistors. In the late

1950s and early 1960s there were several construction articles on building a simple superregenerative FM radio. After exhaustive research into the early articles and some key assistance from a modern day guru in regenerative circuit design, I have developed this simple radio kit. It is a remarkable circuit. It is sensitive, selective, and has enough audio drive for an earphone. Read more about theory behind this radio on the low-tech FM page.

Construction parts source

Except the the circuit board and battery, all parts are from Mouser Electronics. A complete parts list with stock numbers is listed below. The circuit board is available through FAR Circuits. The variable capacitor is available through Electronix Express.

layout
Because this is a superregenerative design, component layout can be very important. The tuning capacitor, C3, has three leads. Only the outer two leads are used; the middle lead of C3 is not connected. Arrange L1 fairly close to C3, but keep it away from where your hand will be. If your hand is too close to L1 while you tune the radio, it will make tuning very difficult.

winding L1
L1 sets the frequency of the radio, acts as the antenna, and is the primary adjustment for super-regeneration. Although it has many important jobs, it is easy to construct. Get any cylindrical object that is just under 1/2 inch (13 mm) in diameter. I used a thick pencil from my son's grade school class, but a magic marker or large drill bit work just fine. #20 bare solid wire works the best, but any wire that holds its shape will do. Wind 6 turns tightly, side-by-side, on the cylinder, then slip the wire off. Spread the windings apart from each other so the whole coil is just under an inch (2.5 cm) long. Find the midpoint and solder a small wire for C2 there. Mount the ends of the wire on your circuit board keeping some clearance between the coil and the circuit board.

a tuning knob for C3

C3 does not come with a knob and I have not found a source. A knob is important to keep your hand away from the capacitor and coil when you tune in stations. The solution is to use a #4 nylon screw. Twist the nylon screw into the threads of the C3 tuning handle. The #4 screw is the wrong thread pitch and will jam (bind) in the threads. This is what you want to happen. Tighten the screw just enough so it stays put as you tune the capacitor. The resulting arrangement works quite well.
Adjustment

If the radio is wired correctly, there are three possible things you can hear when you turn it on: 1) a radio station, 2) a rushing noise, 3) a squeal, and 4) nothing. If you got a radio station, you are in good shape. Use another FM radio to see where you are on the FM band. You can change the tuning range of C3 by squeezing L1 or change C1. If you hear a rushing noise, you will probably be able to tune in a station. Try the tuning control and see what you get. If you hear a squeal or hear nothing, then the circuit is oscillating too little or too much. Try spreading or compressing L1. Double check your connections. If you don't make any progress, then you need to change R4. Replace R4 with a 20K or larger potentiometer (up to 50K). A trimmer potentiometer is best. Adjust R4 until you can reliably tune in stations. Once the circuit is working, you can remove the potentiometer, measure its value, and replace it with a fixed resistor. Some people might want to build the set from the start with a trimmer potentiometer in place (e.g., Mouser 569-72PM-25K).

Substituting other components

Many of the parts are fairly common and might already be in your junk box. Only certain component values are critical. The RF choke should be in the range of 20 to 30 uh, although values from15 to 40 uh might work. The tuning capacitor value is not critical, but if you use values below 50 pf you should reduce or remove C1. The circuit is designed for the high impedance type earphone. Normal earphones can be used, but the battery drain is much greater and the circuit must be changed. To use normal earphones, change R3 to 180 ohms. Q1 can be replace with any high-frequency N-channel JFET transistor, but only the 2N4416, 2N4416A, and J310 have been tested. A

MPF102 probably will work. C2 is not too critical; any value from 18 to 27 pf will work. C7 is fairly critical. You can use a .005 or .0047 uf, but don't change it much more than that.

Improved design for more audio gain

Chris Iwata recommended some design changes that greatly improve the audio circuit, making it strong enough for regular earphones or even a small speaker. The same FAR printed circuit board can be used with some modifications. The circuit board is important to make sure the tuning end of the radio works properly, so the audio amplifier changes can be squeezed onto the circuit board without fear of wrecking radio operation. Look closely at the new schematic for the new components and some changed component values.

REFFERENCES:
C:\Users\LALIT-1\Desktop\The Transistor Amplifier - Page 3.mht BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WRTTEN BY r, J.B. GUPTA MODERNS ABC PHYSICS FOR TWELTH CLASS C:\Users\LALIT-1\Desktop\Amplifier Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.mht C:\Users\LALIT-1\Desktop\The Transistor Amplifier - Choosing Component Values.mht