Notes for Thurs 8 Sept Calculus II Fall 2005

New York University

Instructor: Tyler Neylon
Scribe: Kelsey Williams
8.2 Integration by Parts
This section is primarily about the formula
_
u dv = uv
_
v du ()
which is essentially the integral version of the product rule.
Theorem 1 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (part of it, anyway))
_
b
a
f

(x)dx = f(b) f(a)

As a quick example, if f(0) = 0 then
_
y
0
f

(x)dx = f(y).
So now lets prove that integration by parts really works. Start with the
product rule:
(f g)

= f

g + fg

and apply
_
b
a
dx to both sides. We get
_
b
a
(fg)

dx =
_
b
a
(f

g + fg

)dx ()
The left-hand side is just
_
fg

b
a
, which is a special notation for f(b)g(b)
f(a)g(a). The right-hand side we can split into the sum of two integrals, as
_
b
a
f

g dx +
_
b
a
fg

dx. So really equation () is the same as

_
fg
_
b
a
=
_
b
a
f

g dx +
_
b
a
fg

dx
which, moving the terms around, is equivalent to
_
b
a
fg

dx =
_
fg
_
b
a

_
b
a
f

g dx,
which is just another form of the standard integration by parts formula () to
see this, just set u = f(x) and v = g(x), so that du = f

(x)dx and dv = g

(x)dx.
Example 1
Find
_
xe
x
dx. Let
u = x dv = e
x
dx
du = dx v = e
x
so that
_
xe
x
dx = xe
x

_
e
x
dx = xe
x
e
x
+ C.
1
Example 2
Find
_
x
2
e
x
dx. Let
u = x
2
dv = e
x
dx
du = 2x dx v = e
x
so that our integral becomes
x
2
e
x
+
_
2xe
x
dx.
Well, we cant just integrate the last bit directly, but it does look simpler than
it was before, so lets try ye olde integration by parts one more time:
u = 2x dv = e
x
dx
du = 2 dx v = e
x
and our expression for the original integral is now
= x
2
e
x
2xe
x
+
_
2e
x
dx
= x
2
e
x
2xe
x
2e
x
+ C.
Example 3
Find
_
x
5
cos(x
3
) dx. In this example, the trick is to pick a dv which is easy to
integrate. If we just pick dv = cos(x
3
), then how do we nd v? Its not easy.
But the following choice, made specically so that v is ndable, works well:
u = x
3
dv = x
2
cos(x
3
) dx
du = 3x
2
dx v =
1
3
sin(x
3
).
The integral is now
1
3
x
3
sin(x
3
)
_
x
2
sin(x
3
) dx.
Notice that the integrand looks much simpler. At this point we can nish o
by using a substitution:
u = x
3
du = 3x
2
dx.
Then we have
1
3
x
3
sin(x
3
)
1
3
_
sin(u) du =
1
3
_
x
3
sin(x
3
) + cos(x
3
)
_
+ C.
Example 4
Find
_
ln(x) dx. In this case, it might be tricky to see how to split up the
integrand since there isnt even a multiplication in there to split up! However,
theres nothing about integration by parts which says that u or dv must be
2
obvious parts of a product in the integrand. This is one example where we
have to do something that at rst might seem a little nonobvious, which is
setting dv = 1 dx. This is perfectly legal, since really ln(x) = ln(x) 1. In
general, we could have even chosen something crazy like dv = e
x
dx and then
said u = e
x
ln(x). Integration by parts still works! But that last crazy choice
of u and dv wouldnt help us solve the original integral it would just make
things more complex.
So well proceed with
u = ln(x) dv = dx
du = dx/x v = x.
From this we see that
_
ln(x) dx = xln(x)
_
x
1
x
dx = xln(x) x + C.
8.6 Rationalizing Substitutions (aka Dirty Tricks)
This section is all about turning some complicated-looking integrands into
what is called a rational function, for which there is a xed set of rules to
integrate.
A rational function is a function f(x) of the form
f(x) =
polynomial
polynomial
.
So x
5
/(1 x) is a rational function, but

x is not. Any polynomial still counts
as a rational function, since we could just think of the denominator as being
= 1 (and the number 1 by itself still counts as a polynomial).
Once weve used substitution to turn an integrand into a rational function,
here is the strategy to use:
1. If you see immediately how to solve it, do so; otherwise go on:
2. Perform long division on the fraction of polynomials
3. Find a partial fraction decomposition of the remaining fraction (if there
is one)
If you follow these steps correctly, you should be able to integrate any rational
function whatsoever. But if you follow them incorrectly... well, thats not as
good. For more about how to integrate rational functions, check out 8.5 in the
book.
Well see how to do this turning-into-a-rational-function by some illustra-
tive examples.
3
Example 5
Find
_
dx
1+

x
. In cases like this, it is often a good idea to make a substitution
of the form u
m
= x, where m is some common multiple of the level of roots in
the integrand. So in this case well use
u
2
= x u =

x 2u du = dx,
which turns the problem into
_
2u du
1 + u
= 2
_ _
1
1
1 + u
_
du.
We can arrive at that last equality by using long division. From here we can
nish:
= 2
_
1 du 2
_
du
1 + u
= 2u 2 ln|1 + u| + C = 2

x 2 ln|1 +

x| + C.
Example 6
Find
_
dx
3

x+

x
. In this case, we have a third root and a square (second) root,
so the least common multiple between these is six:
u
6
= x 6u
5
du = dx
gives us the new integral
_
6u
5
du
u
2
+ u
3
= 6
_
u
3
1 + u
du.
Now do some long division,
= 6
_ _
u
2
u + 1
1
1 + u
_
du
= 6
_
1
3
u
3

1
2
u
2
+ u ln|1 + u|
_
+ C.
Finally plug back in
6

x for u:
= 2

x 3
3

x + 6
6

x 6 ln|1 +
6

x| + C.
Now its time to explore the wonderful world of trigonometric functions and
the substitutions who help them.
Basically, theres only one substitution well study here. The really cool part
is that this single substitution can turn any function built out of sin, cos, tan,
and the 4 basic operators (+, , , /) into a rational function which we can then
integrate.
Lets do a running example to see how everything works out. Well try to
integrate
_
dx
3 sinx 4 cos x
4
The substitution itself is u = tan(x/2). Solve for x to see that x = 2 tan
1
(u)
so that dx = 2du/(1 + u
2
).
Ok, so far so good. But now we have something a little complex-looking
(and not very rational-function-looking):
_
2du
1+u
2
3 sin(2 tan
1
(u)) 4 cos(2 tan
1
(u))
Ick! It does not appear that this substitutuion was any good at all. But wait!
Actually, we can really simplify the sin and cos bits. Lets notice a few trig
equalities:
cos(x/2) =
1
sec(x/2)
=
1
_
tan
2
(x/2) + 1
=
1

1 + u
2
and
sin(x/2) = cos(x/2) tan(x/2) =
u

1 + u
2
.
From here we can use the double-angle formulae
sin(2) = 2 sin() cos() and cos(2) = cos
2
() sin
2
()
with = x/2 so see that
sin(x) =
2u
1 + u
2
and cos(x) =
1 u
2
1 + u
2
.
Now we are in a position to really simplify our integral:
_
dx
3 sinx 4 cos x
=
_ _
2
1 + u
2

1 + u
2
6u 4 + 4u
2
_
du
=
_
du
2u
2
+ 3u 2
=
_
du
(2u 1)(u + 2)
=
2
5
_
du
2u 1

1
5
_
du
u + 2
.
To nd that last expression, we used a partial fraction decomposition. Almost
done:
=
1
5
ln|2u 1|
1
5
ln|u + 2| + C
=
1
5
ln

2u 1
u + 2

+ C
=
1
5
ln

2 tan(x/2) 1
tan(x/2) + 2

+ C.
Good work!
5
As a summary of this type of substitution, here is a table of the important
equalities to remember:
u = tan
_
x
2
_
x = 2 tan
1
(u)
dx =
2du
1+u
2
sin(x) =
2u
1+u
2
cos(x) =
1u
2
1+u
2
6